Japanese Railway History

Railwaysduring Sino-Japanese Conflict

Japan came into full-scale conflict withChina in 1937, but the two armies had
been skirmishing in northeast China andthe Shanghai area on and off since 1931.
In 1932, Japan established the Manchuko
puppet government, causing international
criticism. In the following year, Japan
withdrew from the League of Nations andbecame politically isolated from the restof the world. The government was unable
to control the military, and any criticism
was violently suppressed. Soon, the country fell under the control of ultranationalist fanatics.
Despite the political instability, Japan’s
economy recovered from the depression
in the mid-1930s and demand for transportation began to grow. There was significant technical progress and improvement in railway services, although thenarrow-gauge track caused limitations.
For many years, railway travellers inJapan had traveled first, second, or thirdclass, but in 1934, first class was discontinued except on the Tokaido and Sanyo
limited expresses (and a few other expressservices). This left a two-class system
while most of the private railways wereoperating a single-class system.
Roads were still undeveloped but motortransport began to play some role. However, in 1934, there were still only
109,000 automobiles in Japan, a sharp
contrast to the USA (23,827,000) andGermany (866,000). Car ownership (number of automobiles per head) in Japan wasless than 1% of that in the United States,and slightly higher than 10% of that inGermany. Most automobiles were buses
and taxis, and the growth of road transport businesses using these vehicles castlong shadows over short-distance railway
transportation.
The primary countermeasures taken by
railways included frequent operation ofshort trains by introducing gasoline rail-32Japan Railway & Transport Review • November 1996

Japanese Railway History 8

Wartime Railways andTransport Policies
Yasuo Wakuda
cars, and establishment of their own bus
services. Despite such efforts, many private rural lines were closed after losing
the competition with automobiles. The
total route length of private railways fell
from 9730 km in 1930 to 8907 km in
1940. On the other hand, the Government
Railways expanded their network from
14,575 km in 1930 to 18,400 km in 1940by opening new lines and nationalizing
some private railways.

Mobilizing for War
The Sino-Japanese war started in 1937 asan “incident,” not a declared war, but it
spread to many parts of China. As Japan’s
relations with other countries worsened,
she tried to seek a better position by joining the Nazi Germany and fascist Italy
Axis. Such behaviour destroyed relations
with the USA and the UK. In 1941, Japandeclared war against them, marking thebeginning of World War II in the Pacificarena.
The Japanese economy came under wartime controls; the introduction of the Na-

Kiha-41000 Gasoline Railcar

tional Mobilization Law in 1938 reorganized all industry for wartime production.
Transportation demand for the war efforts
increased and Government and private
railways had to increase their capacities
while suffering from shortage of materials. Rationing by coupon system was introduced in 1938 for petrol which wasnearly all imported. From 1941, petrol
could not be used for civilian motor vehicles, which had to depend on substitute fuels (charcoal, etc.). Bus routes running alongside railways were closed, andrailways also found it hard to operate internal-combustion railcars.
The competition of railways and automobiles, a serious problem in the mid-1930s,
was no longer pressing. However, theLand Transportation Coordination Law
was introduced in 1938 to prevent redundant and wasteful investment for urban
transport in metropolitan areas. In thegreater Tokyo area, buses and trams in thecentre came under the municipal government; the newly-established Teito Rapid
Transit Authority started to operate underground railways, and private railways andbuses in the suburbs were grouped into

(Transportation Museum)

Copyright © 1996 EJRCF. All rights reserved.

(Transportation Museum)Construction of Kanmon Undersea Tunnel

four companies by legislation. The law
failed to implement complete integrationof urban transport, overground and underground. The suburban EMU servicesof the Government Railways were left out.
Similar integration was implemented for
private railways and buses in several areas other than Tokyo.
An urgent need at that time was tostrengthen the transport link to the Asiancontinent. A decision was made in 1939
to build a new standard-gauge railway
called the “New Trunk Line” (shinkansen)from Tokyo to Shimonoseki at the western tip of Honshu island. Construction had
just started when the entire project wassuspended by the war. It was more than25 years later, in 1964, that JNR actuallystarted shinkansen services using someland purchased much earlier for the proposed “Bullet Train” right-of-way.

Railway Transportationin the War
Mainland Japan did not immediately become a battleground. However, after Pearl
Harbor, the country’s land transport systems were put under emergency controls.
In addition to the reinforcement of regulated transportation, a new policy wasintroduced by which coal and other

Copyright © 1996 EJRCF. All rights reserved.

(Transportation Museum)coastal cargo shipments were to be sentby rail. This became a reality when Japan’s
first undersea tunnel, the Kanmon Tunnel,
was completed connecting the islands ofHonshu and Kyushu. Until then, the twoislands were connected by ferry for bothpassengers and freight. But the ferry capacity had become saturated and construction of the undersea tunnel (twosingle lines) was started in 1936. One of
the two tunnels was completed in 1942and started serving freight trains in July,and passenger trains in November. The
new tunnel played an important role insending coal from Kyushu to Osaka andother industrial areas. The second tunnel
was completed in September 1944 andthe section became double-tracked.
Transportation between Honshu andHokkaido, another coal producing area,
had to rely on the ferry connecting Aomoriand Hakodate. Many new train ferries
were built for this route. At the same time,
improvement of trunk lines in northern
Honshu and Hokkaido, such as easementof gradients and installation of passing
loops on the single-track sections, wasurged.
New production of rolling stock centeredon freight locomotives and freight cars toincrease the country’s freight transportcapacity. The Government Railways’ stan-■ Kaichiro Nezu (1860-1940)
Kaichiro Nezu played a leading role in thefield of private railways after main-line companies were nationalized. He was thepresident of Tobu Railway in Tokyo and thechairman of Nankai Railway in Osaka. He
was called the “Railway King” because of
his connections with many railway companies throughout Japan. After the opening of Tobu Railway in 1899 using steam
locomotives, Nezu completed its network
connecting Tokyo with several cities about
100-km north of Tokyo and it was electrified in the 1920s. The new line opened in
1929 between Tokyo and Nikko, was a typical inter-urban route patronized by many
tourists, both domestic and foreign. After
his death, his son (Kaichiro Jr.) succeeded
as president in 1941 and is still with thecompany (as Chairman). At the time of thetransport coordination in the early 1940s,
Tobu consolidated several railway and bus
companies in the areas northeast of Tokyo. Today, the company plays a major rolein transporting commuters to Tokyo.

dard freight locomotive, the D51 class 28-2 tender, had been introduced in 1936.
This class continued to be built during thewar to a wartime austerity design using
substitute materials. A total of 1115 units
were built, marking the largest number ofsteam locomotives of a single class in Japan. A new and more powerful model,
the D52 class 2-8-2 tender, was introduced in 1943 based on an even more
austere design.

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Japanese Railway History 8

High-sided Six-wheel Open Toki-900 Wagon

Standard freight cars built in the wartime
were the high-sided six-wheel open
wagon of the Toki-900 type. It was designed to implement a bogie-class payload with minimum construction material
while reducing overall length. In addition,a special measure called “extra-tonnage”
was introduced for existing freight cars,
allowing temporary overloading of theoriginal payload.
While every effort was made to strengthen
the country’s freight transport capacity,passenger travel was suppressed by every
means. The number of passenger trains
was reduced in 1942 and ticket issuing
was restricted in 1944. On the other hand,the need to “evacuate” school children
from cities to the countryside grew. Lessbusy lines, government or private, wereclosed while some double-track sections
were made single-track; the surplus materials from them were used elsewhere athome or in Japanese-occupied areas.
Many private railways were purchased by
the Government Railways in 1943 and1944 for pure wartime needs. Some of thepurchased lines were located in coal-mining, cement-producing or other areas inhigh demand for military purposes. Somewere port railways located in ports of military significance. Shortcut lines were alsopurchased when they were needed to34

Japan Railway & Transport Review • November 1996

(Transportation Museum)supplement trunk-line networks. By 1945,the total route length of the Government
Railways had increased to 19,620 km,
while that of the private railways had
decreased to only 7522 km.
Transportation had been under the control of two ministries: The Ministry of Railways in charge of railway operation, andsupervision of private railways and landtransportation, and the Ministry of Com-

D52 Class Steam Locomotive (Wartime design)munications in charge of communications, shipping and civil aviation. In November 1943, the Ministry of Transportand Communications was established aspart of the wartime government aimed at
unification of land and sea transportation.
The Communication Agency of the newministry became independent in May
1945, after which the Ministry of Transport and Communications was reorganized as the Ministry of Transport. Although the name is the same as today’s
Ministry of Transport, the Ministry at thattime also operated the Government Railways directly. The General Railway Bureau of the Ministry served this specialrole.

From War to Defeat
Mainland Japan was first attacked by theAllies in April 1942. Tokyo, Nagoya, Kobe
and other cities were raided by B25 bombers from an aircraft carrier. By June 1944,
the northern part of Kyushu was bombedby B29s from continental China. Then, in(Transportation Museum)

Copyright © 1996 EJRCF. All rights reserved.

(Transportation Museum)■ Noritsugu Hayakawa (1881-1942)

Tokyo Station after Bombing

November 1944, B29s from the Marianas
began raiding various parts of the country. 1945 saw aerial strafing and naval
bombardment.
Large and medium-sized cities were worst
hit by air raids which caused severe damage to government and private suburbanlines and trams. The atomic bombs on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 almost
destroyed the government railway linesand trams in both cities. Ferries were hit
both by air raids and by torpedoes andmines. Both the Kanpu (ShimonosekiBusan) and the Seikan (Aomori-Hakodate)lines had been almost completely stopped
at the war’s end.
No ground battles were fought in any of
the four main islands, although Okinawa,a group of islands in southwest Japan, wasthe site of severe battles. There was a prefectural, 762-mm gauge railway on
Okinawa’s main island, but it was destroyed by air raids. The railway seems tohave been stopped when the US troops
landed in April 1945 and there is no railway in Okinawa today long after theisland’s return to Japan by the occupationforces.
The railways that survived the war were
badly damaged and almost totally
unmaintained due to material and manpower shortages. All the facilities were in

Copyright © 1996 EJRCF. All rights reserved.

(Transportation Museum)poor condition due to wartime abuse. Rail
accidents such as collisions and derailments were common between 1943 and1945. Many of the station employees andtrain crews were women substituting formen mobilized for military service ortransferred overseas.
Despite all adversities, many trains werekept running even on 15 August, 1945,
the day when Japan surrendered. In a way,
the continued train services were a signof hope for many people dispirited by thedefeat.

The first underground railway in Asia wasopened in Tokyo in 1927. The construction
project was envisaged by Noritsugu
Hayakawa, who first worked under KaichiroNezu. He was impressed by the development of underground railways during his
European tour in the 1910s. Upon returning
to Japan, he began persuading others about
the need for it in Tokyo and the technical feasibility. He made superhuman efforts to collect sufficient capital and to obtain a license
to build the first line. The first railway between
Asakusa and Shimbashi was completed in1934 by Tokyo Underground Railway Co.
where Hayakawa served as senior managing director. However, the extension from
Shimbashi to Shibuya was built by anothercompany, Tokyo Rapid Transit Co., whichcaused a conflict. Hayakawa later became
the president of Tokyo Underground RailwayCo., but was forced to resign in 1940 as theresult of disagreements and the death ofNezu, who always supported him. The twocompanies soon merged to become thepublicly-owned Teito Rapid Transit Authority
as the result of transport coordination, andthe entire section is called the Ginza Linetoday. Passengers can see a bust ofHayakawa, the pioneer of Japanese underground railways, at Ginza Station.

Yasuo Wakuda
Mr Wakuda graduated from the University of Tokyo, Faculty of Law, in 1957 and worked for theMinistry of Transport until 1984; he served as a board member of the Japan Non-Government Railways Association, and the Japan Railway Construction Public Corporation, and as president of theJapan Transport Economics Research Centre. He is currently the Executive Vice-chairman of JapanAir Charter Co. As a specialist in the history of railways, he is author of 100 Years of Japanese Private

Railways through Men and Events, Private Railways of Japan-Their Networks and Fleets, and otherworks.

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