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鹿児島大学多島圏研究センター

南太平洋海域調査研究報告

南太平洋海域調査研究報告 No．
４１（２００５年３月）
００
５）OCCASIONAL PAPERS No．
４１（March ２"Symbiosis" of Human being and Nature
in South Pacific Islands

Edited by KAWAI K. & NISHIMURA S.

鹿児島大学多島圏研究センター
KAGOSHIMA UNIVERSITY RESEARCH CENTER
FOR THE PACIFIC ISLANDSKAGOSHIMA UNIVERSITY RESEARCH CENTER
鹿児島大学多島圏研究センター
FOR THE PACIFIC ISLANDS ●OCCASIONAL PAPERS No.４１（２００５）
No.４１（２００５）

南太平洋海域調査研究報告

PUBLISHED BY
KAGOSHIMA UNIVERSITY RESEARCH CENTER
鹿児島大学多島圏研究センター
FOR THE PACIFIC ISLANDS
Korimoto １-２１-２４, Kagoshima ８９０-８５８０, Japan
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鹿
児
島
大
学
多
島
圏
研
究
セ
ン
タ
ー

衢

PREFACE
Traditional societies keep 
symbiosis of nature and the human being. Natural products are
consumed but remain in a sustainable state and the environment stays relatively unaffected.
However, modern societies have broken the balance between nature and mankind, which has
induced environmental pollution and decreased biodiversity in the natural environment.
The South Pacific Islands are surrounded by sea; therefore, marine tourism is a very important
industry for each country. For example, the Republic of Fiji Islands is one of the most famoussightseeing places. To make the marine tourism more attractive, many coastal sites weredeveloped. This development may have decreased the biodiversity in the coastal area. However,despite the increased development, many villages on the coast retain a self-sufficient society anda common land sharing system in Fiji Islands. This means that they keep their traditional social
systems. Therefore, the 
symbiosis of nature and the human beingis retained. On the other
hand, the South Pacific Island countries are characterized by their small size, close proximity,
and remoteness. These characteristics have kept industrial capitals from investing in the region.
Furthermore, frequent natural disasters such as cyclones lead to a relatively high transaction costfor the capitals. Hence, the region was not able to attract foreign capital fully which is opposite
to the Southeast Asian countries whose economic structures were greatly influenced by direct
foreign investment. The situation has left the local people the opportunity to control their own
economic and environmental structure. We believe that one can study the coexistence of man
and nature by examining the way of life in the region from an interdisciplinary approach.
To better understand how to achieve sustainable development, we should look at traditionalsociety in the South Pacific Islands and its affects on the environment. In order to do so we helda symposium: Symbiosisof Human being and Nature in the South Pacific Islands, which washeld on July 10th 2004. This is a report developed by the members of the symposium and also
includes the papers by both editors. We acknowledged Professors SHIGA Y., NAGASHIMA S.
and HIDAKA T. for their comments on the symposium. We are also grateful to the staff in the
Exchange and Planning Committee of RCPI for their help in this symposium.
by Editors KAWAI K. & NISHIMURA S.

衫CONTENTSPREFACE ………………………………………………………………………………………衢
Agriculture and the Economies of Pacific Islands: Trends, Issues and Challenges ……………１
REDDY Mahendra
Deep-sea Mineral Potential in the South Pacific Region−Review of the Japan/SOPAC Deep-sea Mineral Resources Study Programme− …………２
１
OKAMOTO Nobuyuki
Palau: Reflections of a Volunteer Entomologist ………………………………………………３１
TAKAHASHI Keiichi
Biodiversity in Replanted Mangrove Forest: A Study in the Southern Viti Levu Island Mangrove
Ecosystem in Fiji ………………………………………………………………………………３９
KAWAI Kei
Toward Genuine South Pacific Islands Study: Trend and Challenge in Japan…………………４
５
NISHIMURA Satoru

Agriculture
andtheEconomiesof Pacific Islands:Trends, Issues and Challenges
南太平洋海域調査研究報告
No．
４１
（２
００５年３月）OCCASIONAL PAPERS No．
４１（March ２
０
０
５）

１

Agriculture and the Economies of Pacific Islands:
Trends, Issues and Challenges
REDDY Mahendra

Abstract
This paper will provide an overview of the role played by the agriculture sector in the growthand development of Pacific Island economies. It will examine the key agricultural areas which
could provide sources of growth for the Pacific Island economies. While examining thesesources of growth, the challenges these islands countries will face with respect to harnessingthese sources of growth will also be examined. The eminent threat of globalization and therapidly changing global economy is also placing lot of pressure on these island nations to
respond with changes in domestic policies. Results from the research reveal that PICs have avery narrow resource base and thus could be vulnerable to external shocks. There are a numberof problems that are faced by the PICs which are similar in nature and could have major impact
on the performance of PICs agriculture sector. These problems are highlighted and policy
measures are suggested to turn these challenges into opportunities.

Introduction
The South Pacific islands are found in an area roughly bounded by the tropics and lying
between 1300E and 1250W. The islands within the Pacific are group into three cultural grouping,
namely Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. The Melanesian islands are all relatively large
archipelagos and include Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji and New
Caledonia. Polynesia includes American Samoa, the Cook Islands, French Polynesia, Niue,
Pitcairn, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Wallis and Futuna and Western Samoa while Micronesianislands lie mainly north of the equator and include the Federated States of Micronesia includes
Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, Kosrae , Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Marshall Islands, Nauru,
Palau, and Kiribati. A common bonding between these groupings is the reliance of a large
proportion of their populations livelihood on the agricultural sector.
While the stylised facts of growth for developing country states that they should grow at a
rate 7 to 8% in real terms, PICs growth rate has been far too low. The economies have beencharacterized by low to negative GDP growth, low levels of investment, in particular private
sector investment, low levels of savings, low foreign reserve, widening budget deficit andescalating public debt levels.
Visiting Associate Professor, Research Center for the Pacific Islands, Kagoshima University
Senior Lecturer in Development Economics, University of the South Pacific Suva, Fiji.

２

REDDY Mahendra

The poor growth performance and pressure from external forces led to PICs re-examining
their growth strategies. However, this still did not lead to a major growth surge in the island
economies. While at the global level, the era of state dominance in the areas of employment,
investment, provision of goods and services is gradually declining, in the PICs, the statecontinues to play an important and dominant role.
The primary reason for state to continue its dominant role is the peculiar problems theseisland nations face arising out of their size in particular. The smallness of the island nation
exposes them to a number of problems including: Terms of Trade; Economies of Scale; and,
 Domestic Market limitations.
The small size of the Pacific island countries renders the countries unable to influence theirown terms of trade. Therefore, they are virtually a price taker in the export and import market.
The size also has an effect on the ability of the industries in these countries to achieve scaleeconomies, indivisibilities, efficiency and competitiveness (Scitovsky, 1960) and scope
economies (Streeten, 1996). Inability to achieve the minimum critical mass of economic
activities has a direct bearing on the competitiveness of these countries. The small size ofdomestic market also results in domestic demand below the minimum required for efficient
production (Armstrong, 





1993).
Small island nations also generally tend to have narrow and limited resource base. Theselimited opportunities from resources which most of the developed nations have an edge on isquite serious and thus the most likely source of growth is investment in human capital (Table 1).
The lack of investment opportunities arising out of lack of non-labor resources is what Milner
and Westaway (1993) refer to as capital shallowing. The narrow resource base and the otherlimitations outlined above makes these small countries specialize in a limited number of export
goods. This makes them more vulnerable to natural disasters and price shocks. The case ofsmall states vulnerability has been discussed widely by Brigiglio (1995) who developed avulnerability index.
The narrow resource base and low levels of export have a significant effect on the country
sability to mobilise savings for investment and growth. The process of globalisation andresulting economic intergration could provide a means to bring in Foreign Direct Investment(FDI) to bridge the savings and investment gap. However, the move towards a more marketoriented growth is embedded in the notion of competition. Competition is the key pillar of
surplus creation, investment and rapid growth. Even if the Pacific island countries movetowards a more market oriented economy based on open market policies, they still cannot afford
to ignore the agriculture sector. The agriculture sector has played a very important role in thegrowth and development of the Pacific island nations and it will continue to do so in the near
future due its apparent lack of diseconomies of scale in the non-agr sector which makes it
difficult to compete in the open market. Therefore, in this paper, we will examine in detail theagriculture sector of the Pacific Island economies and identify the areas in which sources ofgrowth for PICs could be extracted.

Agriculture and the Economies of Pacific Islands:Trends, Issues and Challenges

３

Table 1 Basic Economic Indicators for Selected Pacific Island Countries

2.0
1.1
4.2
2.5

Growthrate of
Exports
19.4
-6.8
-6.8
2.0

Growthrate of
Imports
25.3
-11.2
-2.6
7.1

7.6
-1.2
-3.4
-0.5

14.9
15.6
9.3
12.0

9.1
7.3
-13.7
-23.7

-0.1
-7.0
-6.4
2.1

-2.7
-2.0
-3.6
-3.5

2.7
9.9
9.4
1.1

1999
2000
2001
2002

2.6
6.9
6.5
1.1

0.2
1.0
4.0
6.0

-2.3
-25.6
3.3
-10.3

20.8
-8.5
12.7
9.2

0.3
-0.7
-2.3
-2.0

-8.1
-5.0
-11.2
-12.3

Solomons

1999
2000
2001
2002

-1.4
-16.0
-13.0
3.0

8.3
4.8
1.8
11.0

3.8
-53.2
-31.9
6.5

-15.5
-14.8
-11.5
-15.3

-3.7
2.9
-8.0
-3.0

..
-18.1
-13.3
-6.8

Tonga

1999
2000
2001
2002

3.1
6.7
3.0
3.0

3.9
4.9
6.3
4.0

1.6
-9.5
9.5
76.9

-28.9
12.8
-1.6
18.6

-0.3
-0.4
-2.6
-4.0

-12.8
-10.8
-10.7
-9.7

CountryYear

VariableGDP

Inflation

Fiji

1999
2000
2001
2002

9.5
-3.2
4.3
4.4

Papua New Guinea

1999
2000
2001
2002

Samoa

BudgetDeficit as％ of GDP
-5.4
-6.6
-6.9
-6.9

CA
balance as％ of GDP
-4.5
-6.3
-3.6
-3.1

Vanuatu

1999
-2.5
2.2
-24.3
9.3
-3.1
-5.4
2000
3.7
2.7
6.0
-7.3
-7.4
2.1
2001
-0.5
3.2
-27.0
0.5
-4.0
0.8
2002
-0.4
2.5
5.6
-0.7
-3.0
1.7
Source： As cited in ESCAP 2003 report based on ADB, Key Indicators of Developing Asian and PacificCountries 2002, vol. XXXIII (ADB, 2002), Asian Development Outlook 2002 (Oxford University Press,
2002) and Asian Development Outlook 2002.

Agriculture and the Pacific Island Economies
The growth trend of PICs could be explained by using the contemporary 
modernization
theory introduced by Walter Rostow in 1960. Rostow, based upon his observations of theEuropean nations, postulated that countries proceed sequentially through five stages ofdevelopment (Fig. 1).
The first stage is characterized by a traditional society, an economy oriented aroundsubsistence activities. Family labour is used to produce for household consumption and any
excess produced is exchanged with others in the community. This has been typical descriptionof the traditional Pacific island societies. The second stage, preconditioning, comes about
when a society favours to move into the commercial erena. There are efforts made to makeinvestment. The third stage, 
take-off , is marked by increased investment and a move towards
a increased production and commercial activity. There is a shift in emphasis on activities which
are labour intensive. The fourth stage involves diversification of the countries production andexport base. There is emphasis on capital intensive industries and surplus extracted by

REDDY Mahendra

４

Fig. 1 Rostows Economic Stages of Growth

government is used raise welfare of the poor in the society. The benefits of economic growthstarts to spread to the entire economy. The last stage involves move away from manufacturing
towards service industries. High technology is used by consumer and producers and spending inpublic and privates sector escalates.
The PICs have small masses of land but are endowed with a large area of sea which provides
them with a range of marine products. The land area size ranges from 26 km2 for Tuvalu to462,243 km2 for PNG. PNG is the largest country with respect to land area. It has vast potential
for agricultural production. PNG also has a good source of mineral sources, in particular gold
and copper. However, the country has been torn apart due to two decades of civil war. The
smaller countries are severely limited not only because of a smaller land mass, but also due tonature of these islands. Countries like Tuvalu, Tokelau, Kiribati, Niue are all atoll countries andtherefore has very limited potential for agriculture. Instead, these countries have been heavily
relying on the sea for sources of growth. They also are recipients of large amounts of aid andremittances which tends to raise their consumption much beyond their capacity to produce.
Given the importance of the agriculture sector to Pacific Islands economy, the agriculturalcomponent in most of the PICs are very high, the highest is for FSM, 73% (Table 2).
Table 2 Key Socio-Economic Profile of Pacific Island Countries.
Country

Population

Fiji
Cook Islands
FSM
Kiribati
Marshalls
PNG
Samoa
Solomons
Tonga
TuvaluVanuatu

819,000
18,000107,000
87,00056,0005,500,000
177,700
490,000
101,000
10,880202,200

Source: ADB Statistics, 2004.

Sea Area (km2)
1290
1830
2978
3550
2131
3120
120
1340
700
900
680

Agriculture
as % of GDP
16
14
73.2
14.2
13.8
26.9
14.3
43.5
28.6
16.8
16.3

Land Area(km2)
18,272
237
701
810
181
462,243
2,935
27,556747
26
12,190Agriculture and the Economies of Pacific Islands:Trends, Issues and Challenges

５1)Trend in Agricultural Production
The FAO data base reveals that apart for Tonga, all the other agricultural production has
increased (Fig. 2). Samoa
s agricultural sector was declining in the 1980s but started toincrease again from 1990. Fiji and PNGs agriculture sector output has been increasing steadily
since 1960
s. Vanuatu also had a increasing trend but output started to decline since mid 1980
s.

160
140

Production Index

120
100
80
60
40
20
0

1961−65

1966−70

1971−75

1976−80

1981−85

1986−90

1991−95

1996−00

2001−03

Fiji

Kiribati

PNG

Samoa

Solomons

Tonga

Vanuatu

Source: FAO Statistics, 2004.
Fig. 2 Trend in Agricultural Production Index of PICs (1999-01 base year)

180
160

Group Production Index

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1961−65 1966−70 1971−75 1976−80 1981−85 1986−90 1991−95 1996−00 2001−03
FijiKiribati

Papua New Guinea

Samoa

Solomons

Tonga

Vanuatu

Source: FAO Statistics, 2004.
Fig. 3 Trend in Crop Production Index (1999-01 as the Base year)

REDDY Mahendra

６

140

Agricultural Production Index

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1961−65

1966−70

Fiji

Kiribati

1971−75

1976−80

Papua New Guinea

1981−85

1986−90

Samoa

1991−95

Solomons

1996−00

2001−03

Tonga

Vanuatu

Source: FAO Statistics, 2004.
Fig. 4 Trend in Livestock Production Index for PICs (199-01 as base year)

The trend in crop production is similar to the trend in overall agricultural production (Fig. 3).
Samoa
s crop production has declined along with that of Tonga. However, for the othercountries, crop production has increased over the years.
An examination of the livestock production index reveals that it has increased for all thecountries (Fig. 4). So what this implies is that the fall in agricultural output for Tonga andSamoa is primarily due to a fall in crop production and not in livestock production. Therefore, if
policy makers want to raise agricultural production in these two countries, then they must
examine the crop sector as the decline in agricultural output is due to a fall in crop production
and not livestock production.
2) Production of Agricultural Commodities by Country
Most of the crops produced across the Pacific island countries are similar. The main
agricultural products that Fiji produces are sugarcane, rice, copra and fish. However, due toopening up of the economies, rice production has declined over the years. Fiji is nearly self
sufficient in poultry products, even in a competitive market. However, Fijis agricultural sector
is affected by the issue of Land Tenure system. Over 90% of the land is leased out and leases
have began to expire since 1997. A large number of leases, which have expired, have beenpulled out of agriculture thus leading to a decline in total agricultural produce. Fiji has also
produced two mineral, Gold and Silver. Both of these have provided a steady source of revenue
for Fiji and have created employment.
The other large agricultural producer in the Pacific is PNG. PNG has a potential to produce
much more than what is being produced currently. However, due to civil war in the country forthe last two decades, PNG has lost a great deal of its resources. The major crops produced by

Agriculture and the Economies of Pacific Islands:Trends, Issues and Challenges

７

PNG is Coconut, Copra, Sweet Potatoes and coffee. PNG also is the second country to havelarge deposits of Copper and Gold. Solomons, apart from producing copra and otheragricultural crops listed in Table 3, produces a large volume of timber products. Tonga
produces copra, coconuts and bananas in large volumes. However, there are two commodities
that cuts across all island agricultural production and that is Copra and Fish. Copra is acommodity that is common to all Pacific island countries. It is produced and exported thus
serving as a source of foreign exchange. Fish is a commodity that Pacific island countries havea natural advantage given such large EEZs that they have.
Table 3 Production of Major Agricultural and Mineral Commodities by Pacific Island Countries (MetricTons 
000).
Commodities
1. Sugarcane d
2. Paddy rice
3. Fish4. Copra
5. Chicken
1. Gold, .
2. Silver, 
.
3. Sugar d
7. Coconut oil

1986-90

1991-95

1996-00

2-01

3674
29
12
16
4
3666
887
427
10

3758
22
15
12
7
3452
1286
446
7

3454
14
17
13
9
4214
1962
355
7

3188
15
15
17
8
3274
1635
305
7





1. Bananas
2. Cocoa
3. Coconut
4. Copra
5. Maize

10
2
317
35
1

12
2
263
29
1

13
1
313
34
1

13
1
190
27
1






1. Cocoa
2. Coconut oil
3. Copra
4. Fish5. Palm oil and kernels
6. Timber, '000 cu. m.

3
3
31
36
20
370

4
4
26
44
35
448

3
7
24
40
31
641

3
0
2
18
0
542




1. Coconut
2. Copra

164
20

118
9

130
6

140
0




1. Coconut
2. Copra
3. Bananas

40
4
3

35
2
1

52
3
1

58
4
1

Source: ADB Statistics, 2004.

REDDY Mahendra

８

Table 3 Table: Production of Major Agricultural and Mineral Commodities by Pacific Island Countries(Metric Tons 000)(Cont...)Commodity
1. Copra

1986-90

1991-95

1996-00

2001-02

7

10

10

0


1. Copra

1

1

1

1







1. Copra

8374

10390

8693

6322








Copra

5732

5375

4564


1. Coconuts
2. Sweet potatoes
3. Copra
4. Coffee
5. Cocoa
6. Rubber
7. Peanuts
8. Sorghum
9. Rice

864
474
139
59
37
4
1
1
1

731
467
110
58
33
5
1
2
1

955
466
148
75
38
7
1
3
1

637
490
172
63
42
7
1
4
1

1. Copper metal
2. Gold, m.t. e

204
34

199
59

117
57

154
64

Source: ADB Statistics, 2004.

3) Exports of Agricultural Commodities by Country

3.1) Value and Composition of Exports
The Pacific island countries export potential is very narrow and limited. Most of thecountries export primary agricultural products and some do transform these primary products
into secondary product. Fijis main primary agricultural products are sugar, gold, fish andcoconut oil. Fiji sugar industry has been receiving price which were three times higher then theworld free market price and thus, this higher price than the market price, has led to a major
expansion of the sugar industry. However, as world economies are changing and along with it
the trading rules, Fijis sugar producers will have to adjust their cost and productivity to remaincompetitive in a falling output price scenario. Cook islands has been exporting fresh fruits,
copra and pearls. Fiji has also ventured into pearl production, but to a limited extent. The FSM
has been exporting 4 major commodities, Fish and Shell meat and Banana and Copra. All theseproducts show a declining trend in exports.
Smaller atoll countries have very few export commodities and these include, copra and fishAgriculture and the Economies of Pacific Islands:Trends, Issues and Challenges

９

products for Marshalls, Copra and Handicrafts for Tuvalu. These narrow export based makes
the country vulnerable to shocks. The relatively larger countries like Vanuatau, has slightly
diverse export base and these include Beef, Cocoa, Copra and Timber. However, the export
value of all these has been fluctuating over the last two decades. PNG probably has the largest
range of products for export and these include Copper, Gold, Coffee, Cocoa, petroleum andpalm oil. All these provides a very strong economic base for PNG. Samoa and Solomon
s has
a limited range of products for exports, mostly agricultural products. However, Solomon
s has
timber exports which Samoa and most other PICs do not have at their disposal.
So in summary, apart from PNG, the other countries have a very narrow range of productsthat are exported. The smaller countries like Tuvalu, Marshalls, Kiribati all these have great
potential to harvest and export marine products in their EEZ. However, lack of technology,
capital and skills have prevented them from exploiting these resource.

3.2) Direction of Trade for Pacific Island Countries
Direction of Exports: Table 4 & 5 provides the five major trading partner countries where
PICs export their products. The five most important countries include Australia, USA, Japan,
and Germany for most of the country in PIs. Japan was the only country which appeared themost number of times in the top five lists. Japan is a major destination of export products from
Fiji, Cooks, FSM, Kiribati, PNG, Solomon
s, Tonga, and Vanuatu. USA and Australia follows
Japan in order of importance.
Table 4 Five Top Export Destination Countries for PICs (%).
Country
Australia
USA
UK
Japan
Samoa
New ZealandHong Kong
Marshalls
ThailandBangladesh
Korea
China
Germany
Indonesia
Philippines
Italy
Fiji
Belgium
Chile

Fiji
19.7
27.2
10.7
5.4
5.2

Cooks
26.3
11.6

FSM

Kiribati Marshalls

18.3

3.2

40.2

78.9

52.4

PNG
Samoa Solomons Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu
24.3
60.3
1.5
10.1
37.9
43.8
10.2
21.1
47.4
6.59

10.8
7.9

Source：ADB Statistics, 2004.

4.0
0.2
21.5
4.31
12.2

8.9
3.1
3.9
3.4

20.2
7.5
2.1
11.0

17.6

22.8
1.9

9.96
1.5

11.4
10.9
31.0
15.0

REDDY Mahendra

１０

Table 5 Five Top Export Destination Countries for PICs (USm)).
Country
Australia
USA
UK
Japan
Samoa
New ZealandHong Kong
Marshalls
ThailandBangladesh
Korea
TaiwanChina
Germany
Indonesia
Philippines
Italy
Fiji
Belgium
Chile

Fiji Cooks (NZ)
121.9
2.3
167.9
0.9
66.3
33.4
3.6
32.3
0.9
0.6

FSM

Kiribati Marshalls

1.9

1.1

8.2

18.4

PNG
Samoa Solomons Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu
645.9
47.4
0.4
7.9
9.2
0.5
270.9
17.1
11.5
5.3
0.9

0.02
7.6
1.5
4.3

7.1
81.7
105.3
90.7

16.1
5.9
1.6
8.7

0.2

18.2
1.6

7.7
0.4

0.1
0.1
24.7
12.0

Source: ADB Statistics, 2004.

Direction of Imports: In terms of imports for PICs, Australia appears in all countries top fiveimport countries list (Table 6 & 7). Japan is second with USA followed by New Zealand. The
close proximity of Australia and New Zealand gives them an edge over the other countries interms of transportation. Its quite interesting to see that Fiji is also a preferred import destination
for quite a large number of PICs. With the promulgation of free trade areas into the region,
there will be a rise in the flow of goods and services within the region.
Table 6 Five Top Import Source Countries for PICs (%).
Country
Australia
USA
Japan
New ZealandHong Kong
FranceThailand
China
Germany
Indonesia
Singapore
Fiji

Fiji Cooks (NZ)
40.6
6.5
1.8
4.0
1.2
15.9
76.9

FSM Kiribati Marshalls
3.5
30.4
2.8
72.1
7.8
82.2
12.0
7.6
6.9

PNG
Samoa Solomons Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu
50.3
14.2
30.4
12.5
5.1
19.1
2.2
18.8
4.7
11.2
2.2
4.4
11.1
10.9
23.3
4.2
19.9
5.0
32.2
8.3

2.6
18.6
4.4
4.4

1.8
0.9

6.2

3.0
12.5
8.8

Source: FAO Statistics, 2004.

15.6

15.7

19.2
4.2

11.8
21.8

20.8

Agriculture and the Economies of Pacific Islands:Trends, Issues and Challenges

１１

Table 7 Five Top Import Source Countries for PICs ($).
Country
Australia
USA
Japan
New ZealandHong Kong
FranceThailand
China
Germany
Indonesia
Singapore
Fiji

Fiji Cooks (NZ) FSM Kiribati Marshalls
322.9
6.9
2.9
20.7
1.4
1.9
60.6
5.3
41.8
31.6
1.3
10.1
5.1
3.5
126.7
82.1
1.3
12.6

PNG
Samoa Solomons Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu
581.6
31.9
32.3
9.9
2.4
28.3
25.1
42.4
5.1
8.8
1.0
50.5
24.9
5.1
34.6
48.8
44.8
5.4
25.4
12.3

3.5
35.1

0.9
0.4

9.2

34.9
99.0
9.4

10.6

35.4

20.5
4.4

17.6
17.2

9.7

Source: FAO Statistics, 2004.

Problems facing Pacific Islands Agriculture
The pacific island countries are facing a number of challenges that affect its performance.
These challenges include:1）Dependence on a narrow range of exports;
2）Smallness and remoteness;3）Susceptibility to Natural disasters.
4）Lack of Technology
1)Dependence on a Narrow Range of Exports
Small island nations tend to depend on a narrow range of exports. This high dependence ona narrow range of exports, coupled with a high degree of openness, renders the economies ofsmall islands very vulnerable to changes in external demand for these products. Interestingly,
while the theory of trade suggests that countries should specialize in goods and services inwhich they have a comparative advantage, in the case of small states such specialization
exacerbates their vulnerability to conditions outside its control.
2) Insularity and Remoteness
Cost of doing business are also affected by the high cost transportation arising from theremoteness feature of small island states. Furthermore, not only importation costs contributes tohigh production costs and thus its impact on the competitive edge of exports, the Pacific island
producers also face lack of available transport to freight produce to external markets. These
problems could remain for sometime as the feature of remoteness is one which cannot be
overcome by easily.
3) Susceptibility to Natural Disasters
The Pacific island economies, has been subjected to a range of natural disasters on a periodic

１２

REDDY Mahendra

basis. Natural disasters affects the economy in two ways, one by destroying a significant
proportion of the capital stock and secondly by its direct effect on output (Reddy, 2000). The
capital stock loss affects has an effect on the economy over a longer run period.
Between the periods 1961 to 1999, Fiji was subjected to 35 natural disasters (see Reddy,
2000, for detail description of these disasters). The three major types of natural disasters are
cyclones or hurricanes, flooding and droughts. The immediate cost of these natural disasters run
into millions of dollars with the highest one in 1993 incurring a loss of F$154m, approximately
18.8% of the total government expenditure (Reddy, 2000).
The narrow resources based
coupled with a limited number of primary export base could be crippled by natural disasters andthus lead to a collapse of the economy.

Self Inflicted Vulnerabilities
1) Political Instability and Role of Armed Forces
Some of the Pacific island countries have faced internal political unrest which has result inloss of property and life. It has also led to a fall in investor confidence and withdrawal ofinvestment. Some of these countries which has faced such problems are Fiji, PNG and
Solomons. Fiji has been experiencing political instability since 1987. One of the main causes ofsuch instability could be the relatively large size of its armed force, which total just over 5000.
The military has mixed allegiance, to the chiefs and to the Head of State.
In 1987, the military took over the government and abrogated the constitution. This led tomassive economic and social problems in the country. Economic growth was negative in thesame year and low in the following years. The country witnessed massive financial and humancapital loss during these years. In 2000, just when the economy rebounded with high growthrate, a unit within the forces took over the government again pushing the economy and thenation into another crisis.
2) Loss of Human Capital
Political unrest and instability followed by discrimination and marginalization has led to lossof significant human capital from the island nations. Fiji has been losing a significant
proportion of its human capital from the early days of independence. However, the number has
increased since 1987 following the military coups (Fig. 1). The two key human capital sectors
i.e. education and health have both been greatly affected due to the continued loss ofprofessionals. During 1987-1999, teachers were the single most dominant professional groupthat Fiji has been losing. Of the total professionals, teachers accounted for about 31% andarchitects, engineers and related technicians nearly 21%. An average of about 164 teachers left
Fiji every year during the same period. In addition, there has been a loss on an average of nearly
69 medical, dental, veterinary and related workers annually. More than 500 professionals left
Fiji annually during this time (see Table 5).

Agriculture and the Economies of Pacific Islands:Trends, Issues and Challenges

１３

Prior to the military coups in 1987, the only pull factor was the wage differential between Fijiand metropolitan countries. However, the military coups provided the push factors which
resulted in an exodus of migrants from Fiji. The expiry of land leases and the resulting evictionof farmers has further added to this push factor.
Loss of human capital affects agricultural growth in a number of ways. One is its direct
impact from lack of skilled personal which has arisen due to emigration. The second is the lossof personnel from other sections will lead to a rise of wage rates in this sector and will pull laborfrom agricultural sector into these sector. This will lead to a rise in wage rates in the agricultural
sector and thus make its product less competitive in the export market.
3) Land Tenure Issues
The Pacific island countries have at least one issue in common which could turn out to be theonly obstacle for a purely market based economy. This is with relations to land, which, inalmost all PICs, are communally owned (Table 8). Those land that is used by the communal
group, could end up in poor condition given the nature of commons, where all wants tomaximize its benefit, without any concern for the rest or the next generation. Those land which
are not required by the communal groups, it is leased out. However, the leasing conditions hasoften been not very conducive for major productivity enhancing investments. A current
example is the land tenure system in Fiji where most of the land in Fiji is communally owned
and is leased to tenants for agricultural or non agricultural use. The Land tenure system has
become more complex since a large number tenants are of Indo-Fijians which are embroiled ina political struggle with the ruling indigenous Fijian government. As the leases began to expire,
the Fijian leaders were reluctant to renew the leases and for those that they were willing to
renew, they wanted to renew it under a new legislation which would further safeguard theirinterest and raise the returns to land. However, the Indo-Fijian leaders has rejected the newTable 8 Communal Land in the Pacific.
Country
Solomons
Niue
Fiji
Tokelau
Tonga
VanuatuTuvaluKiribati
Nauru
Marshalls
Western Samoa
Papua New Guinea
Cooks% Land in Communal Ownership
83
100
89
100
74
92
100
89
--80
97
15

Source: As cited in ESCAP 2003 report based on ADB, Key Indicators of Developing Asian and PacificCountries 2002, vol. XXXIII (ADB, 2002), Asian Development Outlook 2002 (Oxford University Press,
2002) and Asian Development Outlook 2002.

１４

REDDY Mahendra

proposed legislation on grounds that it does not protect the interest of the tenants adequately andmay in fact exploit them. This battle has led to a large proportion of land, which was leased to
the Indo-Fijian farmers, reverting to the Native Land Trust Board (NLTB), the trustee of thelandowners, thus moving out of production. The fall in agricultural output, in particular,
sugarcane, has led rise to major social and economic problem in Fiji. Land will continue to playa central role in the growth and development of Fiji as it has done in the past and unless anappropriate legislation is adopted with the consensus of the stakeholders, it will continue toweaken the economy.
4) Bad Governance and Its Impact on Public Expenditure
The small island states of the Pacific are relying a lot on the state to provide back up support,
particularly in terms of marketing, infrastructural development and finance. However, badgovernance has led to loss of a significant proportion of the public sector resources which has
affected the ability of government to undertake such activities. As such, agriculturaldevelopment are affected.

Policy Measures to Address the Challenges
Given the inherent problems and challenges faced by the PICs needs to be turned into
opportunities. This could be done by: Improving competitiveness; Building sound macroeconomic environment; Strengthening the transport and communications infrastructure; Diversification of the economy;
 Improving the capacity of SIDS to manage their ocean resources; and,
 Improving governance.
1) Improving competitivenessThe conduct of business in the global market has changed markedly and developing countries
are gradually responding to these changes by adopting appropriate policies. The PICs has begun
the reform process, but much remains to be done to have a competitive market. The labormarket is heavily protected, most of the land is communally owned with property rights
governing its use under dispute. In addition, the financial market is very small and behaves
oligopolistically (in most countries) in terms of interest rates and lending. Unless theseanomalies are corrected, PICs will have difficulty in fostering a competitive environment topromote stable growth.
2) Building sound macroeconomic environment
A sound macroeconomic environment should deliver low inflation rates, low levels of budget
deficit, low levels of debt, improvements in trade and current account balances and stableexchange rate regime. If PICs can achieve and maintain this, then it will be in a strong position
to recover from any shock. While this objective is on PICs agenda, progress in this regard inAgriculture and the Economies of Pacific Islands:Trends, Issues and Challenges

１５

PICs has been slow.
3) Strengthening the transport and communications infrastructure
Transport and communications infrastructures are very important for PICs due to the fact thatthe countries are remotely located. Infrastructure development in PICs are lagging behind and isa major impediment to business development. PICs have to re-examine its budgetary
expenditure allocation to ensure that resource allocation for infrastructural development takes
priority. The PICs currently spend a large proportion of their annual resources on administrative
expenditure. The long-term strategy should be to cut operating budget, raise capital componentof the infrastructure budget and aim for 7-8% real growth of the economy on an annual basis.
Such growth should deliver increased revenues to government coffers and thus reduce the debt
burden over the longer run period, releasing funds for infrastructural development.
4) Diversification Possibilities
PICs have relied to a large extent on a narrow range of products for its export, which renders
it quite vulnerable to shocks to these industries. Furthermore, under the current growth strategy,
there is excessive reliance on tourism earnings, which are highly volatile. On the other hand,the agriculture sector has not received as much attention. In Fiji, this sector plays a very crucialrole in distribution of income to the rural dwellers and has a very strong multiplier effect.
Given the narrow resource base and small size, Fiji tends to import most of its industrial
supplies. While the theory of comparative advantage suggests that a country should produce
only that commodity in which it has a comparative advantage, there are other areas products that
could be developed with equally good efficiency to hedge against potential shocks that specificto products or product types. Fiji has potential in cash crop agriculture, which has market both
locally and externally (particularly New Zealand, Australia and Hawaii). There is also lot of
potential for export of marine resources from Fiji to Australia, New Zealand, Japan and USA.
More work needs to be done to explore the timber industries for export purposes. If Fijistrengthens these areas, then it could be better placed to withstand shocks in any particularindustry.
5) Improving the capacity of SIDS to manage their ocean resources
PICs enjoys jurisdiction over a 200 mile Exclusive Economic Zone. Ocean resources are
therefore major potential source of wealth for the country. Unfortunately, ocean resource
management is a serious problem in Fiji and the other Pacific Islands. This problem is found at
both commercial and subsistence levels. At the commercial level, there are concerns raised thatlicenses given to fishing vessels which has exceeded the maximum number allowable, thus
raising issue of unsustainability. At the semi-subsistence levels, there are also concerns that the
open access system of property rights can lead to depletion of Fish stock. Under this system,
fisherman pays a fixed amount fee to harvest unlimited amount of stock. There has to be somemeans of levying fee on stock, which would discourage fishing beyond a certain amount. Also
based on an estimate of the stock the number licenses should be limited unlike the current

１６

REDDY Mahendra

practices. At the commercial level, the maximum number of allowable vessels should be strictly
adhered to.
The University of the South Pacific s Marine studies program should re-examine its courses
and training in technologies that would lead to the sustainable use of the resources of the ocean.
The marine resources should be further explored for potential energy sources.
6) Improving governanceBad governance is leading to the unproductive use of a large proportion of public sector
resources. Most importantly it is leading to bad management of the islands resources. Cases ofbad governance are more evident during periods of political instability and lawlessness. Fiji,
Solomons and PNG has witnessed massive loss of state resources during periods of politicalcrisis and also years following the coups and political crisis. In order to curb such cases ofabuse of public sector resources, the Auditor Generals report must be taken seriously and those
implicated must be charged and punished according to law. This would send positive signals toothers as well. Furthermore, proper accounting procedures must be put in place and strictly
adhered to all times.
7) Improving the Land Tenure System
While land may continue to be under communal ownership, an appropriate legislation which
provide long term, secure leases to the tenant community while providing a market based rent to
the land owners may provide the required incentive for competitive growth.

Summary and Conclusion
This paper has examined challenges and opportunities for Pacific Island countries have topursue a agricultural sector led growth. These countries are at the cross roads, struggling toachieve rapid growth amid challenges from both the domestic and the external fronts. The
challenges need to be transformed into opportunities and to do so, major reforms needs to be
implemented. For these reforms to deliver the ultimate objective, certain fundamental
prerequisites needs to be in place.
These fundamentals include well-defined property rights, political stability, good governanceof public sector resources, macroeconomic stability and confidence in the country. At the
moment, all these requirements are lacking. Some governments have launched reforms tochange the economy into a more market oriented one. Unless the countries are adequately
prepared to meet the challenges of a free market, growth will not be promoted, andunemployment and poverty could increase. In addition, the economy will become more
vulnerable financially to external shocks. Therefore, the long-term strategy to make aneconomy more resilient is to ensure that the fundamentals required for a market-based ideology
are in place first before allowing market to allocate resources.

Agriculture and the Economies of Pacific Islands:Trends, Issues and Challenges

１７

PICs also have to examine ways in which it could partner with larger countries both within
the region and outside the region to gain access to capital and technology to assist them inharvesting their resources. The Pacific Island Forum could assist them in accessing the funds
and also provide a framework for forming partnership in resource extraction, production andexport. In this day and age, working in partnership with countries of similar interest will allow
for the pooling of resources, ideas and skills which could alleviate some of the major
constraints. Such pooling which would create supply will also create demand, much larger thenwhat would have been for a single country. So the longer term strategy for PICs would be forge
not only agreements in trading, but also in production and resource extraction.

References
Armstrong, H.W., G. Johnes, J. Johnes and A. MacBean (1993) 
The Role of Transport Costs asa Determinant of Price Level between the Isle of Man and the United Kingdom, 1989
,







  , 21(2):311-8.
Briguglio, L (1995) 
Small Island Developing States and Their Economic Vulnerabilities
,







  , 23(10):1615-32.
Milner, C. R. and T. Westaway (1993) Country Size and the Medium Term Growth Process:Some Cross Country Evidence
, 






  , 21(2):203-12.
Reddy, M (2000) 
Natural Disasters and the Island Economies: An examination of the
Economic Cost of Natural Disasters in Fiji
,





 


 , 21(1):33-43.
Scitovsky, T (1960) International Trade and Economic Integration as a Means of Overcoming
the Disadvantages of a Small Nation
, in E.A.G. Robinson (ed.), 


 








  
, (London: Macmillan), 282-90.
Streetan, P (1996) 
Why Small Countries Succeed, Paper presented at the Effects of Economic
Globalisation and Regional Integration on Small Countries Conference, Nicosia, 4-6
September, mimeo, pp15.

REDDY Mahendra

１８

Appendix 1 Value of Primary Commodity Exports from Pacific Island Countries.
Country

1986-90

1991-95

1996-00

2001-021213.5

851.0

368.8

133.4





  

2. Fruit - fresh and canned
3. Copra

87.4

1.3

0.0

0.0

4. Pearls

1607.22789.74310.96799.5

1. Sugar

109726.9

135795.1

142522.8129214.7

2. Gold

36501.533396.842770.2

46231.8

3. Molasses

5209.86730.07625.36189.4

4. Coconut oil

2352.02194.53812.32345.4

6. Fish20987.5

28147.7

34676.1

53229.1











1. Trochus shells/meat

420.0

294.4

115.0

2. Copra

393.2

239.2558.0

3. Fish595.8

32170.2

4815.04. Banana

68.6

404.4

55.0

1. Copra

1292.12732.73362.1











2. Fish1107.4

239.7

268.7

3. Seaweed

159.3

235.3

596.3

4. Shark fins

18.1

156.6

146.9

1. Crude coconut oil

1439.6

1954.8

1947.02. Chilled and frozen fish

226.8

9712

13169.0

3. Pet fish

78.75

444.2

294.0

4. Copra cake

73.0

131.8

789.0

5. Handicraft

15.0

10.4

4.0

6. Trochus shells

235.0

70.4

188.0

1. Copper

315.8

403.0

442.0

929.0

2. Gold

387.4

727.4

1243.02281.03. Coffee beans

140.2

131.3

341.0

220.0

92

318.3

332.0

316.0

46.6

35.3

78.0

159.0

662.4

1209.01660.0

83.12

261.0

352.0















4. Forest products
5. Cocoa
6. Crude petroleum
7. Palm oil

31.22

Agriculture and the Economies of Pacific Islands:Trends, Issues and Challenges

１９

Appendix 1 Value of Primary Commodity Exports from Pacific Island Countries (cont..).
Country

1986-90

1991-95

1996-00

2001-02

1. Banana

14

99.7

218.9

81.75

3. Cocoa

971.2

3.0

0

0

4. Coconut cream2047

2294.02137.01735.05. Copra

742.2

562.752484.7

390.0

0

125.0

9743.016257.5

8. Taro2396.42140.3

145.8

453.5

9. Timber

222.8

43.4

100.6

6.0

1. Cocoa

8546.614174.625234.016132.0

2. Copra

12754.620563.6

31718.01325.03. Fish (fresh, frozen,
smoked and canned)

62333.2

104366.6

14679354044

4. Palm oil and kernels

12203.838901.6

58745

119

5. Timber

40215.8

182377.2

269446222303

1. Squash

3410.510251.5

6274.03000.02. Fish1087.02494.03468.0250.0

3. Banana

736.6

265.0

4. Coconut oil

1195.4

325.0
150.0




6. Fresh fish









5. Desiccated coconut

419.5

6. Vanilla beans

1825.42628.6632.0

2. Copra

34.2

15.0

4.0

3. Handicrafts

4.8

391.0

217.0







1. Beef

254.8

402.4

2. Cocoa

188.4

185.8

175.0

104.0

3. Copra

682.2

811.4

1486.0249.0

4. Timber

134.4

210.8

434.0

266.0

Source: ADB Statistics, 2004.

Deep-sea
MineralPotential in the South Pacific Region
南太平洋海域調査研究報告 No．
４１（２００
５年３月）
OCCASIONAL PAPERS No．
４１（March ２
０
０
５）

２１

Deep-sea Mineral Potential in the South Pacific Region− Review of the Japan/SOPAC Deep-sea Mineral Resources Study Programme−

OKAMOTO Nobuyuki

Abstract
The Government of Japan and South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) havebeen conducting joint surveys of deep-sea mineral resources in the Exclusive Economy Zones(EEZs) of SOPAC member countries, since 1985. The various research and government
institutions that have been closely involved in this long-standing programme include: the Japan
International Co-operation Agency (JICA) and Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation(JOGMEC) which is the former Metal Mining Agency of Japan (MMAJ) and relevant ministriesof the participating Pacific Island government.
The survey programme is on-going using research vessel Hakurei-Maru No.2 which belongs
to JOGMEC.
This twenty year long, joint project initiative has been extremely successful in confirming theresource potential of the Pacific region through discovering valuable deep-sea mineral deposits
such as manganese nodules in the Cook Islands waters, cobalt-rich manganese crusts in the
Marshall Islands, Kiribati and Federated States of Micronesia, and polymetalic massive sulfides
in the Fiji waters.
Key words: cobalt-rich manganese crust, deep-sea mineral resources, manganese nodule,hydrothermal deposit

Introduction
Pacific Island countries consist of many small islands scattered over vast areas of ocean space(Fig.1). Therefore the ocean resources that occur within their exclusive economic zones (EEZs)
are and will continue to be critical importance for the sustainable development of thesecountrieseconomies, due to the paucity of available land and related resources.
Aside from the richness of the living resources base, such as the oceanic and coastal fisheries,of the Pacific Islands Ocean Region, it is believed that non-living resources, such as the deepsea mineral resources of manganese nodules, cobalt-rich manganese crusts and hydrothermal
Deep-sea Mineral Exploration & Technology Team, Metals Research & Development Group, Japan Oil, Gas and Metals
National Corporation 1310 Omiya-cho, Saiwai-ku, Kawasaki 212-8554 Japan(the former Offshore Geologist of SOPAC Secretariat)

２２

OKAMOTO Nobuyuki

deposits (polymetalic massive sulfides), will become importance to the economies of these large
ocean islands countries when deep-sea mining of sites for possible marine mining among the socalled Seven Seas. The results of current investigation on deep-sea mineral resources indicatethat a significant proportion of the world s known deep-sea mineral resources occuring in the
Pacific Ocean.
Although the numerous marine scientific researches were/are conducted by the Japan, France,
Germany, Korea and Australia in the South Pacific Region, continuous survey programme toassess the marine mineral potential in the South Pacific Region is only the Japan/SOPAC Cooperative Deep-sea Mineral Resources Study Programme.
The mineral potential in the South Pacific Region will be summarized through the results ofthe survey cruises as well as the outline of the Programme.

Fig.1 South Pacific Region Maritime Limits

Japan/SOPAC Deep-sea Mineral Resources Study Programme
The Government of Japan and South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) havebeen conducting joint surveys of deep-sea mineral resources in the EEZs of SOPAC member
countries since 1985 (Table 1). The various research and government institutions that have beenclosely involved in this long-standing programme include: the Japan International Co-operation
Agency (JICA), the Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC) which is theformer Metal Mining Agency of Japan (MMAJ), and relevant ministries of the participating
Pacific Island government.
The first stage of this programme comprised three five-year phases, with surveys conductedDeep-sea Mineral Potential in the South Pacific Region

２３

within the EEZs of the following eleven SOPAC member countries; Cook Islands, Federated
States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon
Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu. The primary objective of the first stage was to conduct a
preliminary assessment of the deep-sea mineral potential of these eleven countries.
The second stage of the programme commenced in the year 2000 with the phase 1 completed
in 2002 fiscal year. The focus of the second stage has been to conduct surveys within the EEZsof Cook Islands, Fiji and Marshall Islands to further evaluate the resource potential of marine
mineral in the more prospective areas identified during the first stage. Also, since 2000, theprogramme has started to acquire environment baseline data for use in environmental
assessments when marine mining activities commence. The phase 2 of the second stage of the
programme started in 2003. The phase will concentrate its survey efforts in the EEZs of Kiribati,Niue, Fiji and FSM.
Table 1 Areas and mineral resources surveyed within the selected SOPAC Member Countries
Stage Phase Year

1

2
I

SOPAC Country

Area Surveyed

Mineral Resource

1985

Cook Islands

North Penrhyn Basin

Manganese Nodules

1986

Cook Islands

South Penrhyn Basin

Manganese Nodules

1987

Kiribati

Phoenix Islands Group

Nodules and Crusts

1988

TuvaluEllice Islands and Ellice Basin

Nodules and Crusts

1989

KiribatiSouthern Line Islands

Nodules and Crusts

1990

Cook Islands

Southern Cook Islands

Manganese Nodules

Samoa

Samoan Islands

Nodules and Crusts

1991

Kiribati

Gilbert Islands Group

Nodules and Crusts

1992

Papua New Guinea

Manus Basin

Hydrothermal Deposits

1993

Solomon Islands

Woodlark Basin

Hydrothermal Deposits

1994

Vanuatu

Coriolis TroughHydrothermal Deposits

1995

Tonga

Tonga Rides

Hydrothermal Deposits

East Lau Basin
3

1
II
2

1996

Marshall Islands

Northern part

Cobalt-rich Crusts

1997

FSM

Whole area

Cobalt-rich Crusts

1998

Marshall Islands

Southern part

Cobalt-rich Crusts

FSM

Whole area

1999

Fiji

North Fiji Basin

Hydrothermal Deposits

2000

Cook Islands

South Penrhyn Basin

Manganese Nodules

2001

Fiji

North Fiji Basin

Hydrothermal Deposits

2002

Marshall Islands

Northern and southern part

Cobalt-rich Crusts

2003

Kiribati

Gilbert Islands Group

Cobalt-rich Crusts

Niue

Whole area

Manganese Nodules

2004

Fiji

North Fiji Basin

Hydrothermal Deposits

2005

FSM

Whole area

Cobalt-rich Crusts

２４

OKAMOTO Nobuyuki

Survey and Sampling Platform Tools
The programme has been conducting using research vessel Hakurei-Maru No.2 (Fig.2). It is
owned and operated by JOGMEC and is designed specifically for deep-sea mineral resources
prospecting. The vessel is equipped with a full range of specialized survey devices (Fig.3) anduses the Benthic Multi-coring System (BMS), a state-of-the-art drilling machine, to recover up
to 20m long cores (Fig.4).

Fig.2 Research Vessel 











Fig.3 Survey and Sampling Platform Tools of the 











Deep-sea Mineral Potential in the South Pacific Region

２５

Fig.4 Benthic Multi-coring System

Deep-sea Mineral Potential in the SOPAC Region confirmed by the Programme
Manganese Nodules
Nodules are small, very dark, potato-like balls of metals (Nickel, Copper, Cobalt,
Manganese and Iron) and other minerals that have accreted around a central core, over millionsof years. They vary in size and generally have a diameter of between 2 and 15cm. Nodules aremost abundant on area of the seafloor with low sedimentation rate. Therefore they tend to occur
far from major continental landmasses such as in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The nodule fields thathave been discovered areas of the seafloor, in water depths of between 4,000 and 6,000m.
During the programme, the survey to assess the potential of manganese nodules of the
programme were conducted in the EEZs of the four SOPAC member countries; Cook Islands,
Kiribati, Tuvalu and Samoa.
Sampling using free-fall grab, spade corer and/or the large diameter gravity corer wereconducted to confirm the distribution of manganese nodules in the EEZs of the selected four
SOPAC member countries.
Based on these survey results, promising area was selected at the central area within the EEZof the Cook Islands (Fig.5).

２６

OKAMOTO Nobuyuki

Fig.5 Manganese nodule abundance in the four SOPAC member countries

The survey revealed that the central area of the EEZ of the Cook Islands has the highest
concentration of manganese nodules, with an abundance of over 25kg/m2 covering
approximately 7,000km2 of the area (Fig.6). Seafloor photo is shown in Fig7.
Using the method of polygons developed by Kohpina and Usui (1996), the resource in theselected area is estimated to be about 55,000 metric tones of manganese nodules and 288,000
metric tones of cobalt (Table2).

Fig.6 Distribution of Manganese Nodules in the Cook Waters

Deep-sea Mineral Potential in the South Pacific Region

２７

Fig.7 Seafloor Photo taken at around Central Area of the EEZ of the Cook Islands

Fig.8 Resource Estimates of Manganese Nodules within the Central Area of the EEZ of the Cook Islands,
using the Method of Polygons Developed by Kohpina and Usui in 1996.

OKAMOTO Nobuyuki

２８Table 2 Nodule and cobalt resources in Area 1 located within the EEZ of the Cook Islands.
Station
No.
86410
86425
86429
86442
86445
00208
00211
00212
00216
00217
00221
00223
00225
00229
00231
00234
Total

Abundance Water Content Co Grade(kg/m2)
(%)
(%)
33.09
31.10
0.49
34.57
28.60
0.48
31.00
31.50
0.56
31.54
30.50
0.55
32.93
26.40
0.51
31.18
22.20
0.50
32.39
27.93
0.54
31.14
23.73
0.55
34.81
29.96
0.53
32.16
25.99
0.46
36.66
23.37
0.46
33.08
30.33
0.58
30.44
22.94
0.46
32.96
27.52
0.52
32.93
24.91
0.51
30.63
33.63
0.44

Area
(km2)
1,031
304
2,177
369
99
325
651
325
373
378
403
368
522
369
205
185
8,084

Nodule Resources(thousand metric ton)
23,506
7,504
46,229
8,089
2,399
7,884
15,197
7,719
9,094
8,997
11,321
8,481
12,245
8,815
5,069
3,761
186,309

Cobalt Resources(metric ton)
115,178
36,017
258,880
44,487
12,23739,41982,06242,454
48,19941,38652,07849,191
56,32545,83925,852
16,548966,153

Cobalt-rich Manganese Crusts
Cobalt-rich manganese crusts occur largely on the flanks of volcanic islands, on submerged
seamounts and on ridges and are recognized as a potential mineral resource reservoir for cobalt,
in the future. The richest cobalt deposits of up to one percent cobalt generally lie in water depthsof between 800 and 2,500m. Assessments suggest that crusts range from 2 to 15cm in thickness,
however, crusts as thick as 20cm have also been found.

Fig.8 Cobalt-rich crust thickness in SOPAC region studied by the present ProgrammeDeep-sea Mineral Potential in the South Pacific Region

２９The surveys to assess the potential of cobalt-rich manganese crusts were conducted in the
EEZs of the five SOPAC member countries; Kiribati, Tuvalu, Samoa, Marshall Islands andFederated States of Micronesia (Fig.8)
The surveys found thick crusts that were well developed in the western part of the EEZ of the
Marshall Islands and at some seamounts within the EEZs of the Federated States of Micronesia
and the Line Islands of Kiribati. Several seamounts in the Marshall Islands warrant further
investigation, based on their metal contents and the areas of manganese crust coverage.

Hydrothermal Deposits (Polymetalic massive sulfides)
The surveys to assess the potential of hydrothermal deposits were conducted in the EEZs of thefive SOPAC member countries; Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu.
The 2001 cruise of the programme was conducted around the triple junction in the North Fiji
Basin. The area had showed significant hydrothermal activities such as chimneys and mounds
during the 1999 cruise of the programme.
Of the twenty-two sampling stations drilled using the Benthic Multi-coring System (BMS),
polymetalic massive sulfides were recovered from eight of the twenty-two cores. This is the firsttime that the third dimension of a polymetalic massive sulfide deposits have been established in
the North Fiji Basin, as well as in the Pacific region.
Polymetalic massive sulfides of up to 7m thick were confirmed from one of the cores drilled(Fig.9). Assay results of fragments of chimney and sulfides ore formed on the surface of themound showed samples to be Zn-Au-Ag rich, with Cu4.04%, Zn3.17%, Au1.83g/t andAg71.20g/t. Cu-rich massive sulfides formed in the core of the mound showed Cu6.93%,

Fig.9 Distribution of the vertical dimension of massive sulfides around the Triple Junction in the Fiji EEZOKAMOTO Nobuyuki

３０

Zn0.61%, Au0.85% and Ag24.39%. Consequently, the inferred resource of a mound with lateraldimensions of 100m by 30m and vertical thickness of 7m was estimated to be 73,500t at thegrade of Cu6.93%, Zn0.61%, Au0.85% and Ag24.39%. Although the scale of the mound (orebody) may be small in comparison to its on-land analogues, the Cu grade is considerably higher.
The observation using deep-sea towed TV camera suggests that there are at least seven mounds
within the vicinity of the mound that was sampled. It is proffered that through more detailed
surveying within the area, further massive sulfide occurrences may be elucidated.
In addition to sampling using the BMS, an environmental baseline survey was also conductedwithin the survey site area. It is envisaged that this will be used in future environmental
assessments in the event of marine mining. The environmental baseline surveys collected
samples of water and sediments.

Conclusion
The survey cruises during the programme have identified numerous sites with potential
marine mineral resources such as manganese nodules in the Cook waters, cobalt-rich manganese
nodules in the Marshall Islands, FSM and Kiribati waters, and hydrothermal deposits in the Fijiwaters. South Pacific countries consist of many small islands. These countries have limited land
resources but have huge and rich EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone) waters. Their EEZ are rich in
not only living resources but also deep-sea mineral resources. The deep-sea mineral resources
have a large economic potential. It is very important for the South Pacific nations to study theiroffshore mineral resources.

References
Japan International Cooperation Agency and Metal Mining Agency of Japan, 2000, Report on the
Cooperative Study Project on the Deepsea Mineral Resources in Selected Offshore Areas of the
SOPAC Region, Sea area of the Republic of Fiji Islands (Volume 5).
Japan International Cooperation Agency, Metal Mining Agency of Japan 2001, Report on the Joint Basic
Study for the Development of Resources, Ocean Resources Investigation in the Sea Area of SOPAC,
Sea Area of the Cook Islands. Vol. 1
Japan International Cooperation Agency and Metal Mining Agency of Japan, 2002, Report on the
Cooperative Study Project on the Deepsea Mineral Resources in Selected Offshore Areas of the
SOPAC Region, Sea area of the Republic of Fiji Islands (Volume 2).
KOHPINA, P. and USUI, A. 1996, Estimation of Manganese Nodule Resource in the Northern Part of theCentral Pacific Basin. Bulletin of the Geological Survey of Japan, vol. 47, (5), p.255-p.271
OKAMOTO N. 2003, Summary Report on the Japan/SOPAC Deep-sea Cooperative Deep-sea Mineral
Resources Study Programme, R/V Hakurei-Maru No.2 Cruise for Polymetalic Manganese Nodules,
the EEZ of the Cook Islands, SOPAC Technical Report 359.
SOPAC/FFA 1995, South Pacific Region Maritime Limits Map
SOPAC 2003, Japan-SOPAC Co-operative Deep-sea Mineral Resources Study Programme 1985-2005(Broacher).

Palau:Reflections
南太平洋海域調査研究報告 No．
４１（２００５
年３月）of a Volunteer Entomologist
OCCASIONAL PAPERS No．
４１（March ２
０
０
５）

３１

Palau: Reflections of a Volunteer Entomologist
TAKAHASHI Keiichi

Abstract
This report examines the issues related to agricultural production in Palau and attempts toprovide a realistic assessment of the many problems which are limiting production and how
these problems can be overcome.
All agricultural production in Palau is for the local market and almost none of the farm
production is exported except minor ones. The staple food in Palau is taro. The soil ofBabeldaob Island, on which there are many farms, is very acid and lacking in nutrients. Soil
improvement is necessary to sustain agricultural production. Many insect pests, diseases andweeds have been introduced into Palau and these have a negative impact on agriculture. Thisinvasion is accelerating with the increased importation of products and the movement of people
to and from the islands. Measures to prevent the arrival of insects, diseases and weeds are
ineffectual and the control of them once established is very difficult. The diet is rapidly
Americanizing and in the supermarket of Koror there are many farm products and canned foods
imported from the USA and other countries. The change in diet along with a change from rural
to urban lifestyle is resulting in serious health problems including obesity and diabetes.
Many of the projects aimed at enhancing agriculture as well as other aspects of the economy
and lifestyle of Palau have been poorly conceived and have been of limited success or havefailed to achieve their aims. The predicted value of projects and the investment required to fundthem has frequently been poorly estimated. This major shortcoming needs to be addressed toensure that future projects will contribute to enhancing agricultural production in Palau.
Key words: Palau, agriculture

Geography
1. Location
The Republic of Palau is located in the North Pacific Ocean, south west of Philippines, northlatitude 2

to 8

and east longitude 131
to 135
. The total area is 488 km2. Palau belongs to thetropical maritime climate. The average temperature and humidity is 27.9襄 and 82 %, while theaverage total rain fall is 3,784 mm. Palau has more than 350 islands of which Babeldaob Islandis the biggest.
The Palau Islands arose on the circum-Pacific volcanic belt, where the Pacific plate slips
ex-consultant of the Bureau of Agriculture, Palau
Shimonemachi 1306-23, Ushiku, Ibaraki 300-1203, Japan

３２

TAKAHASHI Keiichi

under the Philippines plate. Although many of the islands are of volcanic origin there are no
active volcanoes in Palau. The soil of Babeldaob Island, which has many field crops, is very
acid. There are also many rocky coral islands. The islands of Palau are oceanic and have neverbeen connected to continents or big islands, a feature they have in common with the Galapagos
and Bonin Islands.
2. Fauna and flora of Palau
The fauna and flora of Oceanic islands have several features in common: adaptive radiation(the evolution of an ancestral species into many diverse species, each adapted to a different
habitat), founder effects (many species have a narrow gene pool having arisen from just a few
ancestral members) as well as a bottle neck effect (the population has experienced a nearly
extinction in the past). There are many closely related species, each of which is confined to justone or a small number of the Palau Islands. The ecosystems of the islands are very fragile andmany of the endemic species are endangered.
The fauna and flora of Palau has arisen following migration to the islands. This migration
followed by reproductive isolation and adaptation has resulted in a very high number of endemic
species.
Sea currents have played an important role in this migration. There are two currents that havean impact on Palau; the North Equatorial Current from east to west in the north of Palau, and theEquatorial Countercurrent from west to east in the south of Palau. Most of the ancestral species
came from the Philippines and PNG with the Equatorial Countercurrent. An important plant
species that arrived by being carried with ocean currents was the coconut palm.
Another method of migration has been by flying. Some of the plant species will have arrived
by this method, being carried by birds. In recent times however, the arrival of humans has
played a huge role in the development of the fauna and flora. All the many species of mammals
present on Palau, with the exception of some bats, were brought by humans. Most of the many
insect pests, diseases and weeds have arrived through the movement of people. The number ofpests, diseases and weeds is rapidly increasing with the increase of transportation arriving in the
country.
3. Terrestrial fauna
The biggest group of the terrestrial fauna is insects. Some 700-900 species of insects arepresent in Palau, a low number compared with that present on continental islands. The mainorder of the insects of Palau is Coleoptera with around 350 species being recognized. The Palau
Islands are rich with members of the Curculionidae which spread to these islands in logs carriedby currents. There are 3 species of snakes and 10 species of lizards in Palau. Only one of these
reptiles is endemic, the lizard 






  


. The presence of an endemic frog,







  , in Palau is of particular interest as endemic frogs are rare on oceanicislands. Many mammals are established in Palau, including rats, cats and dogs where once
mammals were represented only by bats.

Palau: Reflections of a Volunteer Entomologist

３３

4. Oceanic life
Although there are many species in the ocean, especially in coral reefs, the number ofendemic species is low as is the concentration of marine life.

A short history of Palau
The Mongolian ancestors of the indigenous Palauan people came from Indonesia around 1000
BC. They arrived in outrigger canoes along with taro, dogs, pigs, chickens and earthenware
utensils. The natural environment suffered severe damage following the arrival of man. Bird
populations were severely reduced. Slash-and-burn farming along with tree felling reduced theforest cover resulting in the inland regions of large islands becoming barren. The soil that hadcovered the surface of the cleared areas moved down to the lowlands, which then became
productive for taro cultivation. Over time, many plant and animal species were introduced into
Palau. Contact with the western world began with the arrival of Captain Draig in 1579, andtrade between western countries and Palau started in the late 18th century.
In the late 19th Century Palau become ruled by a succession of foreign powers. From 1885 to1899 Palau was under Spanish rule. Missionaries during this time converted much of the
population to Christianity. In 1899 Palau passed in the control of Germany following being soldby Spain. Mining of phosphate ore began on Angaur Island in 1909. The phosphate ore was themain export from Palau until the end of the First World War. In 1914 to the end of the Second
World War Palau was under Japan rule. The central government office of the Japanese south
pacific territory was in Koror. Many industries were encouraged and the Palauan people
received a Japanese style education. Many Japanese moved to Palau during this period andcomprised three times the population of the indigenous Palauan people. The Japanese were
employed in the mining of phosphate and bauxite ore, agriculture and fishery.
The end of the Second World War saw Palau move under the rule of the USA. The USA
government strengthened the education and medical systems. However, during this period little
was done to strengthen the local economy, develop self sufficiency and move the economy awayfrom a hand-out dependency. On October 1, 1994, Palau became a constitutional government infree association with the USA. The development of Babeldaob Island, funded by USA aid,
commenced followed the arrival of self government.

Politics
Palau has a presidential constitutional government in free association with the USA. There
are no political parties. The president and the deputy president are elected by direct election.
The Parliament consists of the Senate (nine members) and the House of Delegates (sixteen
seats). There are eight ministries. The tribal chiefs still have big powers. There are sixteen
states in Palau and they have their own governors, state constitutions and state legislatures.
There are no regular military forces, the defense of Palau being the responsibility of the USA.
There is a large Government administration. This has been possible by the size of the grants
from the USA, but with the size of the grants now reducing, there is a problem with the funding

３４

TAKAHASHI Keiichi

of this large infrastructure. As many government agencies are involved with policy
development and administration, this can result in problems relating to decision making.

Society
The population of Palau is around 20,000 of which approximately one third are foreigners.
Many of these are Filipino, Chinese and Bangladeshi. Eighty percent of the population lives in
the Koror State and the surrounding district. The average life expectancy of men is 64 years old
and 67 years for women. Eighty percent of the total population is Christian. Palau has amatriarchal society and the mutual aid system provided within families is strong. The chieftain
system is still strong and has much authority.
Education, based on the US 8-4 system, is compulsory for twelve years. There is acommunity college but the students who wish to attend university have to go abroad. The healthsystem is established around health clinics in rural districts, with a national and a private
hospital in Koror. There are three newspaper publishing companies, a radio station and a TV
station. The official languages are Palauan and English, except in the south west islands where
the languages are Sonsoralese, Tobi and English.
The proportion of the population engaged in farming is decreasing. People are leaving therural areas and the traditional way of life and have moved into an urban life style. This change
in life style is contributing to many social problems present in Palau. There is an increasing gap
in the income of people, with the gap between people in Koror and in the rural areas being large.
Many homes have Filipino room maids. The use of drugs is a problem and there are many
people with an addiction problem. There is a custom to chew beetle nuts and also tobacco.
Marijuana use is widespread.
Due to a move away from traditional to American type food much of the population is
overweight and many are obese. Lifestyle related diseases such as diabetes have become aserious problem.

EconomyThe economy of Palau is based around tourism, subsistence agriculture and fishing. At
present production of primary products plays a small part in the economy and although copra
was exported during the period of Japanese rule, there are now almost no exports of farm or
horticultural products from Palau except minor ones. Mining and other land based industries
largely ceased following the end of the Second World War. Forestry plays little part in theeconomy, although it does supply some wood for housing. Fishing is an earner of foreign
currency mainly from the sale of concessions to foreign countries to fish, mainly for tuna, in
territorial waters. The manufacture of goods is of small scale and consumer goods including
most foods are imported.
The country receives much aid, a large part from the USA and Taiwan. A contributing factor
for the supplying of aid money to Palau appears to be the bargaining power it has by having avote in the United Nations. The aid money that Palau receives is an important source ofPalau: Reflections of a Volunteer Entomologist

３５

revenue. However, the financial aid that Palau receives from the USA is due to end in 2009.
Japan has also contributed much aid and outcomes of this are a major bridge, an airport and theelectricity network. Palau has resisted the temptation to raise money by selling off assets andforeign companies and people are prevented from buying land and property.
The principal energy source in Palau is imported petroleum fuel. This is a big cost to theeconomy as now most families in Koror have cars and there are also families that have boats.
In recent years the economy has become increasingly dependant on experienced Filipino
workers including in the professions. However, policies in place give indigenous Palauans
economic advantages and a high proportion of the officials are Palauan.
In rural areas the lifestyle is still traditional but increasingly in Palau people are moving to thecapital Koror and the gap in the lifestyle and living standards of people is rapidly widening. In
the statistics of 2000, the average annual earnings per family is 12,845 US dollars. The annual
income per resident is 3,726 dollars. The unemployment rate is 2.3 %. Many people, 27.7 %,are employed as officials in government positions.

Agriculture
1. Overview
Taro has been the staple food and is grown in all regions of Palau. The cultivation of cassava(tapioca) and cooking bananas is also common. Mango, star fruit and mountain apple areplanted around houses for the occupants
own consumption. Around Koror are farms producing
crops for small local markets. Almost none of the products grown in Palau are exported. The
soil of Babeldaob Island, the location of many farms, is very acid and is lacking in nutrients.
The application of lime and fertilizer is essential to overcome the soil acidity and nutrient
deficiencies.
2. Insect pests, diseases and weeds
There are few endemic insect pests on Oceanic islands. With the frequent arrival of ships andplanes now occurring many insect pests including the fruit fly 










, havebecome established in Palau. With few exceptions, such as a scale insect that has effective
natural enemies, control of the introduced insects is difficult. Once a new pest reaches Palau it
is very difficult to control. The spread of pest insects, diseases and weeds usually starts on
Koror State, the site of an international port. Quarantine measures are poorly funded and havenot been effective in stopping the arrival and spread of these threats to agricultural production
and which also can harm native fauna and flora.
3. Change of diet
Many farm products and canned foods imported from the USA and other countries are now
widely consumed, resulting in a rapidly Americanizing diet. Much of the population is
overweight and many are obese. Lifestyle related diseases such as diabetes have become aserious problem.
Much of the food consumed in Palau is now imported with the supermarket in Koror selling

３６

TAKAHASHI Keiichi

farm products including canned food obtained from the USA and other countries. The diet isAmericanizing and adult diet-related diseases are becoming a big problem.
4. Structure of the agricultural bureaucracy
The Bureau of Agriculture of Palau consists of four sections: forestry, quarantine, horticulture
and livestock. Around twenty officers work in this Bureau. The budget is largely spent on staff
salaries and money is frequently not available for the purchase of essentials such as fuel or thedelivery of mail.

The future outlook
1. Environment
In their efforts to survive on the islands of Palau, people cleared the original forests and sonow, with the exception of some small rocky islands, all of the forest is secondary modified
growth. The term natural habitat now refers to what has regenerated after the destruction causedby the early settlers. Thus, any sense of belonging of the people with the native flora and faunaof the Islands has been lost. There is now almost no consideration given to the preservation of
the endemic land fauna and flora of Palau, unlike what happens in the Galapagos and Bonin
Islands. Environmental concerns have received a low priority in the budgets. An example ofthis is the big problem now being caused by the disposal of waste including sewerage.
With rapid development set to continue there is an urgent need for scientific surveys tomonitor the effects that the developments will have on the environment. It is certain thatextinction of some of the endemic fauna and flora will continue in Palau. However, measures topreserve the environment will be hard to develop and enforce as the measures will be viewed as
stopping progress and which will be perceived as resulting in hardship for people.
2. Problems facing Palau
The way of life and the way of thinking is very different in Palau from developed countries.
There is a sense that the tide of globalization will soon go away. The people fail to understandthe severity of the problems faced by the Islands and the urgent need for action. At times finewords are spoken about the need for action but these fail to result in appropriate meaningfulaction. When plans that may be of benefit in overcoming environmental problems are madethey invariably fail. The economic aid provided from other countries is too poorly directed toundertake effective action. Corruption is common and aid money is frequently diverted.
Measures to improve the economy are not seriously considered apart from the issue of obtaining
additional aid money from donor countries.
The sense of 
problemdoes not seem to exist in Palau. An example of this is the prevailing
attitude on self-sufficiency. Rather than being seen as being dependant on aid the local people
think of themselves as being self sufficient, and benefiting from aid obtained by targeted use of
the UN voting right is seen as evidence of this self sufficiency. Efforts to make theadministration strive to become truly self-sufficient are unlikely to succeed. Many reports anddeclarations are prepared, but these typically do not lead to effective action to overcome

Palau: Reflections of a Volunteer Entomologist

３７

problems.
One can get the feeling that the only problem that is perceived is how to get aid money fromother countries.
A serious problem being faced relates to the projects being funded by aid schemes. Many
projects including ones involving agriculture have been carried out in Palau. Most of theseprojects have been poorly conceived, and although perhaps well intentioned they have failed toshow an understanding of the situation that prevails in this island country. For projects tosucceed they need to be better planned and take a realistic view of the likelihood of a successful
outcome. Unless this is done further large amounts of money will be wasted and the situation of
the people will not improve. An additional outcome will be the loss of morale of thosecompetent people sent in to work on projects that are doomed to fail and an increase of cynicism
in local people and a reinforcement of the attitude of some local people that the projects are justa source of income.
The justification for aid projects being carried out in Palau can be placed into three
categories. The first is those with political aims. The main aim of these projects is purely
political, to show that a country is providing aid. The outcome of these projects is not importantand typically there is no follow-up once a project is finished. The second aim is to enhance theeconomy of Palau. Due to the lack of natural resources it is difficult to plan and successfully
carry out such projects. The third aim is the benevolent aim of making a difference. This
includes projects run by often highly motivated and idealistic individuals or groups of people,
often volunteers. Those doing these types of projects often gain much satisfaction but the realoutcome is typically very poor.

Conclusion
The problems involved in enhancing agricultural/primary production in Palau areconsiderable. Soil fertility is one serious issue as is the continuing establishment of many insect
pests, diseases and weeds. The fragile nature of the ecosystems needs to be considered and there
will be difficulties achieving a balance between maintaining the already degraded flora andfauna and enhancing economic and agricultural development. Poor planning of aid projects toovercome problems facing Palau has frequently lead to poor outcomes. Unless future aid
projects are realistically reviewed and there is a change in attitude of officials as to the purposeof aid, it is unlikely that agricultural productivity can be enhanced.

Acknowledgement
I sincerely thank Dr. Michael J. Christensen of AgResearch of New Zealand for reviewing themanuscript.

Main reference books
Intoh, M. 2002. Oceania: Archaeology of daily life. 252pp. Asahi Shinbun, Tokyo

３８

TAKAHASHI Keiichi

Mie high school liaison society. 1998. Conservation of the nature of Palau. 156 pp.
Ono, M. 1994. Animals and plants of isolated islands. 239 pp., Iwanami Shinsho, Tokyo

Biodiversity
in Replanted Mangrove Forests
南太平洋海域調査研究報告 No．
４１（
２００５年３月）
OCCASIONAL PAPERS No．
４１（March ２
０
０
５）

３９

Biodiversity in Replanted Mangrove Forests:
A Study in the Southern Viti Levu Island Mangrove Ecosystem in Fiji
KAWAI Kei

Abstract
The biodiversity level of mollusks and environmental conditions in replanted as well as
natural mangrove forests were investigated to determine the restoration level in replanted
mangroves. This study was performed in 2 replanted and 2 natural mangrove forests in 2003 and2004 in Viti Levu Island, Fiji. The ages of the trees in each replanted mangrove were 1-3 and 7
years old. The main mangrove tree species replanted in both areas was 







 
. The
mangrove trees in the natural forest were between 5 m and 20 m in height. However, those in
the forests replanted 1-3- and 7 years previously were from 1 m to 1.5 m and from 3 m to 4 m
in height, respectively. Trees near the landside were taller than those on the seaside in all of themangrove forests examined. Salinity in the regions of the replanted mangroves was about 3%
but that in natural mangrove forests was from 0.2 to 3%. The older mangrove forests had neutral
pH but younger forests were alkaline. About 10 mollusks were counted in natural forests but the
replanted mangrove forests contained only 2 to 3 mollusks. Each quadrate showed a different
frequency of observed mollusks. 







 
was the dominant species in the 1-3-year-old
mangrove forest. 





 


and 







 
were the dominant species near thelandside but only 







 
were dominant near sea side in the 7-year-old replanted
mangrove. Environmental conditions and biodiversity levels in replanted mangrove forests weredifferent from those in natural mangrove forests. However, the 7-year-old mangrove forest
showed a slightly higher biodiversity level than 1-3-year-old forest and environmental
conditions similar to those of the natural forest.
Key words: biodiversity, Fiji, mollusks, replanted mangrove, Viti Levu Island

Introduction
Biodiversity is very high in mangrove forests and coastal reefs. Mangrove forests provide
protection from predators and habitat for juveniles. Accumulation of detritus and leaf material inmangroves might also provide an enhanced food source for macrofauna, , detritus feeders
and filter feeders. Although the mangroves provide a complex habitat that provides spaces forjuveniles to escape from predators, these forests are also good environments for predators
because of the presence of many small and juvenile animals. Moreover, there are many
Research Center for the Pacific Islands, Kagoshima University, Korimoto 1−21−24, Kagoshima Japan

４０

KAWAI Kei

industrially important species in these forests.
Mangroves formerly occupied about 75% of tropical coasts and inlets (Farnsworth & Ellison,1997). However, more than 50% of the world s mangroves have been lost (World Resources
Institute, 1996) due to population pressure, wood extraction, conversion to agriculture and salt
production, tin mining, coastal industrialization and urbanization, and conversion to coastal
aquaculture (Ong, 1995; Macintosh, 1996). These mangrove losses have resulted in a reduction
in biodiversity and a decrease in the number of industrially important macrofauna.
Habitat rehabilitation has increased in importance over the last two decades and mangroves
have been replanted around the world (Field, 1998). Field (1999) suggested that there are 4 main
reasons for rehabilitating mangroves: conservation, landscaping, sustainable production, andcoastal protection.
The dominant macrofauna in terms of number and species are the crustaceans and mollusks(Sasekumar, 1974; Jones, 1984). Although there have been several studies of mangrove fauna,little information is available regarding the effects of replanted mangroves on the faunal
community.
The present study was performed to monitor the biodiversity and environmental conditions in
replanted mangroves in comparison with those of natural mangrove forests.

Materials and Methods
This study was carried out in 1 natural (Naikawanqa) and 2 replanted (Korotogo andNamboutini) mangrove forests from August to September 2003 and in 1 natural mangrove forest(Laucala Island) in February 2004 in Viti Levu Island, Republic of Fiji Islands (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Map of research area in Viti Levu Island, Fiji.

Biodiversity in Replanted Mangrove Forests

４１

Mangrove forests in Korotogo and Namboutini were replanted in 2000-2002 and 1997, andtherefore the ages of the trees were 1-3 and 7 years old, respectively. The sizes of the replantedareas from landside to seaside were about 40 x 100 m2 and 100 x 50 m2, respectively. The
replanted mangrove trees in both areas were mainly 







 
. Naikawanqa and
Laucala Island were rural and city natural forest and the lengths from landside and seaside were
150 m and 250 m, respectively.
One line transect were placed from seaside to landside in each mangrove forest. The linetransect was divided equally into 5 intervals and two 2×2 m quadrates were placed at random
in each divided area. We monitored the total numbers of snails and bivalves on the trees and on
the ground surface in each quadrate. Each species was recorded and the total numbers of eachspecies were counted.
The ground was dug to a depth of 50 cm in each quadrate and the salinity and pH of theseawater exuded from the ground were measured. The heights of the mangrove trees in eachquadrate were also measured.

Results and Discussion
The heights of the highest mangrove tree in each quadrate in each mangrove forest are shownin Fig. 2. In the natural forest, the mangrove trees ranged in height from 5 m to 20 m. However,Fig. 2 Height of highest mangrove tree in each quadrate in each mangrove forest.

in the 1-3- and 7-year-old replanted mangroves the trees ranged in height from 1 m to 1.5 m andfrom 3 m to 4 m, respectively. Trees near the landside were taller than those on the seaside in all
mangrove forests.
Both replanted mangrove forests showed salinity of about 3% continuously from seaside to４２

KAWAI Keilandside. However, in both natural mangrove forests the salinity decline from seaside tolandside, and this trend was more marked in Naikawanqa than in Laucala Island (Fig. 3). The
older mangrove forests had neutral pH, while the younger forests were alkaline (Fig. 4).

Fig. 3 Salinity level in each quadrate in each mangrove forest.

Fig. 4 pH in each quadrate in each mangrove forest.

The salinity in the 1-3-year-old replanted forest was similar to that of the 7-year-old forest.
However, the latter had taller trees and lower pH than the former. These observations indicatedthat by 7 years after replanting the conditions had begun to return to those in the natural forest.
Ten mollusks were observed in the natural forest but only 2 to 3 were observed in theBiodiversity in Replanted Mangrove Forests

４３

replanted mangrove forests (Table 1).
Table 1 Observed mollusks species in each mangrove forest.







sp.





 



















 





 


sp.




sp.



sp.








 










Korotogo
1-3 year old

Namboutini
7 year old

Naikawaqa
Natural

○

○

○

○

○
○
○

○

○
○
○
○
○

LaucalaNatural
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○

Each quadrate showed a different frequency of observed mollusks. 







 


was thedominant species in the 1-3-year-old mangrove forest (Fig. 5). 





 


and 









Fig. 5 Frequency of observed mollusk species in each quadrate in each mangrove forest.






were dominant near the landside but only 







 
was dominant near sea side in
the 7-year-old replanted mangrove. 







 
was dominant in both replanted mangroves
indicating that 







 
was the first species recruited to the newly made habitats inmangrove forests.
The animals beneath the ground were not monitored. The 7-year-old replanted mangrove
showed a cline of pH beneath the ground from landside to seaside, although it was not sufficient
to recover to the natural conditions. The values of dissolved oxygen, temperature, and pH wereclosely related to the distributions of the gastropods (Blanco and Cantera, 1999), suggesting thatthe incline in pH contributed to the complexity of the habitat. Biodiversity in replanted

４４

KAWAI Keimangrove increased with complexity of habitat conditions, such as pH. The results of thepresent study revealed both the number and species of mollusks in these forests. However, thedominant animals in mangrove forests are usually crustaceans and mollusks. Local people
reported that the numbers of both individuals and species of crustaceans increased in replanted
mangroves after 7 years.
This study suggested that both biodiversity and habitat complexity were increased inmangrove forests 7 years after replanting, although they did not show recovery to the natural
conditions. Further studies are required to continuously monitor the dynamics of community
structure and environmental changes in these forests over time. Moreover, it is also necessary tomonitor biodiversity at the DNA level in replanted mangrove forests as well as otherenvironmental factors, such as dissolved oxygen level, temperature, .

Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the people of Korotogo, Namboutini, Naikawanqa, and Laucala Island,
and the Japanese NGO Oiska Fiji for their help during this research. We are grateful to Batili
Thaman, Jone Maiwelagi, Sunia Lavaki and other staff of the Marine Study Program andInstitute of Applied Sciences in USP for their kind assistance in this study. This research was
supported in part by a research grant from RCPI Kagoshima University and in part by the 2004
Zaigaikenkyu.

References
Blanco, J.F. and Cantera, J.R. 1999 The vertical distribution of mangrove gastropods andenvironmental factors relative to tidal level at Buenaventura Bay, pacific coast ofColombia. Bulletin of Marine Science, 65, 617-630.
Farnsworth, E.J. and Ellison, A.M. 1997 The global conservation status of mangroves.
Ambio. 26, 328-334.
Field C.D. 1998 Rehabilitation of coastal ecosystems. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 37,
371-372.
Field 1999 Rehabilitation of mangrove ecosystems: an overview. Marine pollution
Bulletin. 37, 383-392.
Jones, D.A. 1984 Crabs of the mangal ecosystem. In Hydrobiology of the mangal (Por,
F.D. and Dor I. eds). Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague, pp.89-109.
Macintosh, D.J. 1996 Mangroves and coastal aquaculture: doing something positive forthe environment. Aquaculture Asia. 1, 3-8.
Ong, J.E. 1995 The ecology of mangrove conservation and management. Hydrobiologia.
295, 343-351.
Sasekumar, A. 1974 The distribution of macrofauna on a Malayan mangrove shore.
Journal of Animal Ecology. 43, 51-69.
World Resouces Institute 1996 World Resouces 1996-1997. The World Resources
Institute, UNEP, UNDP, World Bank. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 365.

Toward No．
GenuineSouth
Pacific Islands Study: Trend and Challenge in Japan
南太平洋海域調査研究報告
４１（２００５年３月）OCCASIONAL PAPERS No．
４１（March ２
０
０
５）

４５

Toward Genuine South Pacific Islands Study:
Trend and Challenge in JapanNISHIMURA Satoru 1

Abstract
First, this paper overlooks the trend of South Pacific Island Studies in Japan briefly byintroducing the associations or institutions which specialize in the area. It shows that theanthropology is more popular, and the interests in the area are less than those in other areas suchas Southeast Asian Countries. It concludes that it is necessary to study the area from the view
points of sustainable development, which is characterized by environmental preservation andcoexistence of different identities.
Key Words: South Pacific Island Courtiers, sustainability, trend in Japan

Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to take a glance at the trend of South Pacific Island Countries(SPICs) study in Japan in order to clarify what is the center of the interests of the Japanesescholars especially in social science. South Pacific Island Countries cover the islands countries
in Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia2. First, we show the outline of the South Pacific Studyin Japan. Then we examine the characteristics of academic areas of Japanese scholars, whose
fields are South Pacific Countries. We use the data of an academic association of Ocean
courtiers, or 




 



 
 



 and the 

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
  

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








 by 



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

 




 







, an independent administrative institution.
Then we take the series of studies initiated by the 








  















5







 


, or JCAS , as an example of the contemporary South Pacific Studies fromthe view points of social science. Finally we seek for the approaches that the Japanese social
scientists can contribute in the discussion of the cotemporary issues confronting the areas.

1 Faculty of Law, Economics, and the Humanities, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan.
2 About the definition and the problems of grouping the countries, refer the web page (in Japanese):
http://www.yashinomi.to/semi/yashidail̲11.html.
3 The web page of the association is http://wwwsoc.nii.ac.jp/jsos.
4 See details at http://www.jsps.go.jp/j-grantsinaid/index.html.
5 See details at http://www.minpaku.ac.jp/jcas/english/index.html.

NISHIMURA Satoru

４６

Nothern
Marianas
Guam

180゜Midway Is.
Wake Is.

HawaiiJohnston

Marshall Is.

Palau
PalmyraMicronesia
Howland/Baker Is.
Papua
New Guinea

Kiribati

Nauru
Solomon Is.

TokelauW.Sam Am.
Samoa
Samca
Walls Is.

Jarvis0゜TuvaluCoral
Sea Is. Vanuatu

Australia

New
Caledonia

Fiji

Cook Is.

Tonga Niue

French Polynesia
Pitcairn→

N
New
Zealand1600km1px=21km

Fig. 1 Map of South Pacific Island Countries

The South Pacific Study in Japan
Outlook of Study
Here we introduce some academic associations or institutions in Japan, which lead andcontribute to the development of the SPICs studies. We take a short survey of them relating to
the aims and publications.







 

 

 

is one of the few academic communities, which
specializes in the area. It aims to understand the people, society, and culture of Oceanic
countries in order for Japan to establish deeper and more appropriate relationship with Oceanic






  









annually.
countries in the 21st century. It publishes 









 publishes 







 







twice a year. It was founded in
1978, aiming to make efforts in research and preservation of the culture in the pacific region inorder to contribute to establish deeper friendships and develop the region by exchanging theknowledge and information6.









  (JAIPAS) publishes 







twice a year7. The articles
are not necessarily for the experts but for the ordinary readers. However, the articles discuss thepolitical and economic problems of the region in rather simple terms and contribute to the
6 http://www.osaka-gu.ac.jp/society/taihei/index.html (in Japanese)
7 http://www.jaipas.or.jp/ (in Japanese)Toward Genuine South Pacific Islands Study: Trend and Challenge in Japan

４７

deeper understanding of the region. The institute was established as a corporate juridical person,
named 








 



in 1974 under the Ministry Foreign Affairs of Japan. The
business community and those who used to live there initiated to establish the institute fordeeper friendship with Micronesia, which was used to be mandated by Japan. After the areas ofinterest and activity related to it expanded to the South Pacific Islands, it changed the name to









 





 
.
An non profit foundation, 















(SPF) is also making an effort to
8









 




(SPINF) recognizing the needdevelop the region . It established for development in the region in 1988. It bases the programs on a respect for the native cultures
and traditional social systems of the island nations. It publishes a news letter, or 



annually. SPF also has a project of 






  
, which aims to promote theunderstanding of the region by way of internet and public lectures9.






  




 


 








is one of the few university research
institutes which specializes the South Pacific Islands. It is an interdisciplinary research center,
which set five major topics or Interrelationship between Man and Nature, Natural Geography,
Transfiguration of Society/Culture/Nature, Socio-medical Environment, and the Role of Islands
Nations in International Community. It issues 





 


 twice a year10. The purely
academic journal has contributions of both social science and natural science from Japan andabroad.
There are not so much books, which deal with the socio-economical topics of the region as awhole. Among the few, Kobayashi (1994) elaborated a book discussing those issues asinternational relations, economic structure and aid11. Hata (1993) edited a book, which focusedon the topic and law and society12. 







 


published








 , namely
13
14











 



(1993) and 



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










 
 





(1993) , 





 
(1993)15.

The Areas of Interests
Here we see the details of the academic areas of interests of the Japanese scholars. 
















 
 






is taken up here in order to understand the trend of interest of thescholars who specialize in the area study.

8 http://www.spf.org/spinf/index.html
9 http://www.yashinomi.to/aisatsu/aisatsu.html
10 http://cpi.kagoshima-u.ac.jp/index.html
11 Kobayashi, I, 1994. Studies for Pacific Island Countries (in Japanese).Toshindo, Tokyo.
12 Hata, H. (ed.) 1992. Law and Society of South Pacific Island States (in Japanese). Yushindo-Kobunsya, Tokyo.
13 Ishikawa, E. (ed.) 1993. Adapting to an Ocean Environmet (Series Oceania) (in Japanese). University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo.
14 Ishikawa, E. (ed.) 1993. Surviving in Intact Cultures (Series Oceania) (in Japanese). University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo.
15 Ishikawa, E. (ed.) 1993. Struggling with Modernity (Series Oceania) (in Japanese). University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo.
16 A separate volume of Newsletter, no. 76, 2003, tThe Japan Society of Oceanic Studies.

NISHIMURA Satoru

４８

According to the list of the membership as of July, 2003, there are 245 members16. Eachmember specifies the academic fields and the geographic area of his study. The geographic areasin the list are eleven, or Melanesia, Polynesia, Micronesia, Australia, New Zealand, Indonesia,
Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, Oceania in General, and Others. The academic fields are
categorized into 13 groups, or anthropology, ecology, medicine, music, geography, sociology,
archeology, history, linguistics, international relations, economics and others.
Table 1 Geographic Areas of Study for the Members of the Japanese Society for Oceanic Study
Geographic Areas of Study

No. of Members

Oceanic Countries
in general

63

Melanesia

67

Polinesia

38

Micronesia

18

Indonesia

27

Philippines

11

Australia

9

Taiwan4

New Zealand
Malaysia
Others
Total

3
1
4
245

Geographic Areas of Study
General
Gen/Mic
Gen/Pol
Gen/OthMelanesia
Mel/Pol
Mel/Ind
Mel/Aus
Mel/Mic/Ind
Mel/Pol/Mal
Mel/Twn
Mel/Ind/Mal
Mel/Ind/Phi
Mel/Mal/Aus
Mel/Mal/Pol
Mel/Mic
Mel/Mic/Aus
Mel/Oth
Mel/Pol/Aus
Mel/Pol/Ind
Mel/Pol/Mal/Ind
Mel/Pol/NZD
Mel/Pol/Mic
Polinesia
Pol/NZD
Pol/Mic
Pol/Aus/Mic
Pol/Twn
Pol/Gen
Pol/Ind
Pol/Mel/twn
Pol/Mic/Mel/NZD
Pol/OthMicronesia
Mic/Ind/Mal
Mic/PhilIndonesia
Ind/Mal
Ind/Mal/Phi
Ind/Gen/Oth
Ind/PhiInd/Mic
Ind/OthPhilippines
Phi/Twn/Gen
Phi/MalAustralia
Aus/Ind
Aus/OthTaiwanTaiwan/Oth
Taiwan/Gen
New Zealand
Malaysia
Oth

Source: The Japan Society of Oceanic Studies, 2003 July.

No. of Members
55
4
2
2
36
7
5
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
26
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
16
1
1
16
4
3
1
1
1
1
8
2
1
6
2
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
245

Toward Genuine South Pacific Islands Study: Trend and Challenge in Japan

４９

As table 1 shows, about one fourth of the members study on Oceanic courtiers in general. By
deducting the number of the members specializing in advanced countries such as Australia (9)and New Zealand (3), and the Southeast Asian Countries such as Indonesia (27) and thePhilippines (11), the number of the scholars of the developing SPICs, or Melanesia (67),
Polynesia (38), and Micronesia remain. Among the developing areas of SPIc, Melanesia is morepaid attention, and Micronesia the least.
Table 2 shows the academic field of the 191 members, who listed developing SPICs as theirfirst, second or third specialty. Among them, ethnology ranks the top as 95 members,
Table 2 Acedemic Fields of the Members of the Japan Society of Oceanic Studies

Ethnology

No. ofMembers95

Archology
Ecology
Linguistics

16
12
12

International Relatic

6

Sociology

5Music
Medicine
Economics
History
Others432212Academic Fields

Academic Fields
Ethnology
Ethnology/Archiology
Ethnology/Geographhy
OthersArchology
Ecology
Linguistics
Linguistics/Others
Int'l Relations
Int'l Relations/Economics
Sociology
Sociology/History/Others
Music
Medicine
Economics
History
Other
Other/Music

Total
191
Source: The Japan Society of Oceanic Studies, 2003 July.
Table 3 No. of Final Reports of 








  











, 1994-2003
Coutry  













No. of ReportsIndonesia
VietnamPhilippines
Australia
New Zealand

45
27
26
21
8

Source: Internet Search Result of National Diet Library.

No. ofMembers
81
5
3
6
16
12
11
1
2
2
2
1
4
3
2
2
11
1
191

５０

NISHIMURA Satoru

archeology, ecology, and linguistics come next. Interestingly, economics is not so popularamong the members. International Relations is also less popular area of study. One can conclude
that this academic society is dominated by ethnologist, not by encomiast or political scientists.
SPICs seem to be are still the object of cultural study.
Table 3 shows the numbers of the final reports of the studies, which were funded the 













 

 














 









 (JSPS) from 1994 to
2003. Because JSPS, established by way of a national law for the purpose of contributing to theadvancement of science in all fields of the natural and social sciences and the humanities
support the scholars in nation wide more than any other institutions. By examining the grant
distributed to the scholars, one can understand the academic trend somehow. The data was
acquired through the internet search engine of 






 
  















17





or NDL-OPAC . When searched by the key words by courtiers in the SPICs, the results
show that only very few reports were presented. The reports, which include Papua New Guinea
in the titles, are only five, which is the biggest number in the region. Two for Vanuatu and one
for Micronesia. The numbers are far fewer than those of Southeast Asian courtiers such as
Indonesia (45), Vietnam (27) and the Philippines (26). The other oceanic countries such as
Australia (21) and New Zealand (8) are even more.

The Research Trend in Social Science: An Inter-institutional Research Project of
JCAS
JCAS has series of inter-institutional research projects about area studies by establishing
networks with other academic institutions of area studies. The projects enable the scholars
specializing in the areas which are less popular in Japan to exchange information and broaden
their perspectives. The results of their research are published by JCAS as 
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. The publications of JCAS help us to understand the themes of the Japanesescholars in the specific areas of study.
About the researches on SPICs, there are such projects as 
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introduce some of the studies from the two reports. By examining their topics and approaches,
one can comprehend some aspects of the interests of the Japanese scholars specializing in the
area.

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is divided into four parts; Democratic Policy andTraditional Policy for Part 1, Sustainable Management of the Resources and Economic
Development for Part 2, Creating Their Own Culture and Representation of Tradition for Part 3,
and Modernization of Disease Pattern for Part 4. By just viewing the titles of each part, one canrefer that some key words seem to be tradition, modernization and sustainability. One can guess
17 The web site is http://opac.ndl.go.jp/index̲e.html.
18 
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, JCAS, National Museum of Ethnicity, 2000 (in Japanese).
19 
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, JCAS, National Museum of Ethnicity, 2003 (in Japanese).

Toward Genuine South Pacific Islands Study: Trend and Challenge in Japan

５１

that the writers have the image that the people in the areas as those who are in the transient
process from tradition to modernity, and they are facing the problems of sustainability. Relating
democracy, the main theme is the conflict of political system between tribal chief dominant one
and democracy integrated into national wide. Eedo emphasizes that the so-called traditional
power is linked with modern systems20. Hashimoto describes the political situation in Fiji, where
there are two major ethnic groups or Fijians and Indo-Fijian21. He points out the trend of theparticipation of Fijians in the political party shows the degree of national unity. As forsustainable development, Sekine takes up the concept of eco-tourism in the Solomon Islands,
which he says is opposite to developing forests products such as timbers and logs22. He
concludes that eco-tourism can foster participation of the local people in the process ofdevelopment and lead to environmental sustainability. Takahashi compares the SPICs with
Caribbean Island Countries. He stresses that the SPICc can not rely on tourism industry too
much, for their neighbor courtiers such as Australia and New Zealand are relatively small in
population unlike U.S.A. and Canada, where the majority of tourists to Caribbean Island
Countries come from23.

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is divided into five parts; Ethnicity and National
Integration for Part 1, Indigenous Peoples and National Integration for Part 2, National
Integration after the Coup for Part 3, Conflict/Disaster and National Integration for Part 4, andNationalism, Localism and Regionalism for Part 5. The main theme of this report is how the
SPICs with diversity in ethnicity and culture are challenging in order to realize national unity.
The key words are identity, localism and regionalism, which are the important factors fornational integration. As for identity, Edo points out that the notion of identity emerged after thepeople encountered with modern concepts of ethnicity and nation24. Regarding regionalism,
Ogashiwa explains that the Pacific Islands Forum (PIF), a kind of regionalism has good grounds
for existence25. She disputes that the nature of the forum remains the defensive system againstthe 
externalpressure, or global trade liberalization more precisely, despite the frequentinternalconflicts among the nations such as Fiji and Solomon Islands.

20 Endo, Hisashi, 2000, 
The End of the Politics of Negotiation and Consensus:From the Diachronical Study of Powerin Palau From 1947 to 1994

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, JCAS, National Museum of Ethnicity (inJapanese).
21 Hashimoto, Kazuya, 2000, Consitution of Republic of the Fiji Islands and Way to the National Unity


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, JCAS, National Museum of Ethnicity (in Japanese).
22 Sekine, Hisao, 2000, Pacific Islands and the Participatory Development: Case of Eco-tourism in the Solomon
Islands


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, JCAS, National Museum of Ethnicity (in Japanese).
23 Takahashi, Yasuaki, 2000, Comparative Studies for Self-reliance of Small Island Countries: the Pacific Island
Countries and Caribbean Island Countries


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, JCAS, National Museum ofEthnicity (in Japanese).
24 Edo, Junko, 2003, 
New Caledonia: Kanak Identity Seen through the Narrative of Community


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, JCAS, National Museum of Ethnicity (in Japanese).
25 Ogashiwa, 2003, 
Yoko Region, Srate and Ethnicity: Responses of the Pacific Islands Forum to Regional Conflicts
Community


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, JCAS, National Museum of Ethnicity (in Japanese).

NISHIMURA Satoru

５２

Toward Genuine South Pacific Islands Study
Here we discuss the way to understand the SPICs and make some suggestions for genuine
development, which is characterized by sustainability of environment and coexistence ofdifferent identical/ethnic groups. The points can be summarized to the following:
1. The study has to focus more on local people, for the people in the area arevarious in identities such as ethnicity, which leads to difficulty in national unity.
Without national unity, the government can not provide services and chances sothat the people can enjoy more welfare.
2. The factors which determine the welfare of the people have to be specified inboth socio-economic and scientific terms.

SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT

Coexsistence of the People
with Nature/Diversity of ldentities

Localism

TRADITION

Unity/Identity

Nationalism

Regionalism
Resources/Disaster

Free Trade/Aid/
Protective measures
Globalism

NatureFig. 2 Sustainable Development in SPICs

MODERNITYToward Genuine South Pacific Islands Study: Trend and Challenge in Japan

５３

3. Series of interdisciplinary fields researches have be conducted on various
groups of people and in different ecological places. Only accumulations of thedata gathered from the viewpoints of social and natural science can outline thecharacteristics of the multi-ethnic courtiers.
4. National and global level factors need to be put in consideration in order tounderstand the socio-economic and environmental structure of the locality. The
government law and democratic system could both benefit and harm the people
in general or specific identical groups. Regionalism, represented by South
Pacific Forum in the area is important factor to facilitate the member courtiers
to enjoy the benefit from the global factors. It also plays a role as a buffer forthe courtiers to protect the courtiers from some negative impacts of global
factors such as environmental destruction and too much dependence on external
economy, which makes the domestic economy more unstable.
5. If some indicators are created so that the socio-economic and environmental
factors could be measured and analyzed in the same context, they could help
greatly the area study. The figure 2 shows the concept illustrating the discussion
above.

References
Edo, J. 2003. 
New Caledonia: Kanak Identity Seen through the Narrative of CommunityIN JCAS Area
Studies Research Report 2, JCAS, National Museum of Ethnicity (in Japanese).
Endo, H. 2000. 
The End of the Politics of Negotiation and Consensus: From the Diachronical Study ofPower in Palau From 1947 to 1994IN JCAS Area Studies Research Report 2, JCAS, National
Museum of Ethnicity (in Japanese).
Hashimoto, K. 2000. 
Constitution of Republic of the Fiji Islands and Way to the National UnityIN JCAS
Area Studies Research Report 2, JCAS, National Museum of Ethnicity (in Japanese).
Hata, H. (ed.) 1992. Law and Society of South Pacific Island States (in Japanese). Yushindo-Kobunsya,
Tokyo.
Ishikawa, E. (ed.) 1993. Adapting to an Ocean Environmet (Series Oceania) (in Japanese). University ofTokyo Press, Tokyo.
Ishikawa, E. (ed.) 1993. Struggling with Modernity (Series Oceania) (in Japanese). University of Tokyo
Press, Tokyo.
Ishikawa, E. (ed.) 1993. Surviving in Intact Cultures (Series Oceania) (in Japanese). University of Tokyo
Press, Tokyo.
Kobayashi, I. 1994. Studies for Pacific Island Countries (in Japanese). Toshindo, Tokyo.
Ogashiwa, Y. 2003. Region, State and Ethnicity: Responses of the Pacific Islands Forum to Regional
Conflicts CommunityIN 
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
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, JCAS, National Museum ofEthnicity (in Japanese).
Sekine, H. 2000. 
Pacific Islands and the Participatory Development: Case of Eco-tourism in the Solomon
IslandsIN JCAS Area Studies Research Report 2, JCAS, National Museum of Ethnicity (inJapanese).

NISHIMURA Satoru

５４

Takahashi, Y. 2000. Comparative Studies for Self-reliance of Small Island Countries: the Pacific Island
Countries and Caribbean Island CountriesIN JCAS Area Studies Research Report 2, JCAS, National
Museum of Ethnicity (in Japanese).
http://cpi.kagoshima-u.ac.jp/index.html
http://opac.ndl.go.jp/index̲e.html
http://www.jaipas.or.jp/ (in Japanese)
http://www.jsps.go.jp/j-grantsinaid/index.html
http://www.minpaku.ac.jp/jcas/english/index.html
http://www.osaka-gu.ac.jp/society/taihei/index.html (in Japanese)
http://www.spf.org/spinf/index.html
http://www.yashinomi.to/aisatsu/aisatsu.html
http://www.yashinomi.to/semi/yashidai1̲11.html
http://wwwsoc.nii.ac.jp/jsosTitle:表紙.ec6 Page:2 Date: 2005/04/27 Wed 18:59:18

KAGOSHIMA UNIVERSITY RESEARCH CENTER
鹿児島大学多島圏研究センター
FOR THE PACIFIC ISLANDS ●OCCASIONAL PAPERS（BACK NUMBER）（バックナンバー）

南太平洋海域調査研究報告

No. 1 Studies on 
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and Its AssociatedFauna from Taon Strait, the Philipines.
No. 2 Ecological Biology and Promotion of TropicalPrimary Industry in Indonesia [Report of Kagoshima
University Scientific Survey to Indonesia, 1981].
No. 3 Papua New Guinean Life and Nutrition. (inJapanese)

No.22

No.23 The Progress Report of the 1991 Survey of the
Research Project Man and the Environment in Papua New
Guinea.
No.24 People s Lives and History in the South PacificRegion. (in Japanese)
No.25

No. 4 Marine Ecological Studies on the Habitat of
Nautilus pompilius in the Environs of Viti Levu, Fiji.

Islam in Southeast Asia. (in Japanese)

Decompression Sickness in Divers.

No.26 The Progress Report of the 1994 Survey of the
Research Project. Man and the Environment in Micronesia .

No. 5 Scientific Survey of the South Pacific, 1981-1983:
Fiji, Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea.

No.27

Studies of Nautilus belauensis in Palau.

No. 6

No.28

Tropical Fisheries. (in Japanese)

Liver Diseases in the Tropical Area. (in Japanese)

No. 7 A Selected Bibliography on Fisheries and Related
Issues in the South Pacific and Southeast Asia.

No.29 Modern Japan s Nanpo Kan yo
towards the South). (in Japanese)

No. 8

No.30 The Progress Report of the 1995 Survey of the
Research Project, Man and the Environment in Micronesia .

Algae (in Japanese)

No. 9 Distribution and Exploration for Germplasm ofCrops in Tropical Area. (in Japanese)
No.10 Studies on Distribution and Ecotypic
Differentiations of Wild and Cultivated Rice Species inAfrica [Report of Kagoshima University Scientific Survey toAfrica in 1984 and in 1985].

(Participation

No.31 Invitation to the South Pacific: Selected Lecture
Notes from the Kagoshima University Research Center for
the South Pacific Lecture Series 1994-1997. (in Japanese)
No.32 Foraminifera as Indicators of Marine Environments
inthe Present and Past.

No.11 Paleo-geothermal and Active Geothermal
Systems. (in Japanese)

No.33 Islands and Information Society. (in Japanese andEnglish)No.12 Future of Southern Fisheries in the Pacific. (inJapanese)
Fisheries and Marine Resources in the South Pacific.

No.34 The Progress Report of the 1999 Survey of the
Research Project Social Homeostasis of Small Islands in an
Island-zone :Yap Proper, Micronesia and Islands inSouthern Japan.

No.14 A Research on the Process of Earlier Recovery of
Tropical Rain Forest after a Large Scale Fire in Kalimantan
Timur, Indonesia.

No.35 The Power of Place of the Areas at the Boundary
between Land and Sea the Viewpoint from Southen Kyushu
and the Southerly Islands.

No.15 Marine Ecological Study on the Habitat of Nautilus
pompilius in Fiji (the Second Operation).

No.36

No.13

No.16 Diversity and Plant-Animal
Equatorial Rain Forests.
No.17

InteractioninReligon and Society in the Philippines (in Japanese)

No.18 Distribution and Ecotypic Differentiations of Wild
and Cultivated Rice Species in Africa.
No.19 Exploration of Genetic Resources and Growing of
Subtropical and Temperate Fruit Crops. (in Japanese)
No.20 The Progress Report of the 1989 Survey of the
Research Project, Man and the Environment in Papua New
Guinea.
No.21 The Progress Report of the 1990 Survey of the
Research Project. Man and the Environment in Papua New
Guinea.

Health and Medical Issues in Island Areas.

No.37 Researching Eruption Clouds of Volcanic Island
Chains.
No.38 The Progress Report of the 2000 and 2001 Surveyof the Research Project
Social Homeostasis of Small
Islands in an Island-zone : Islands in Southern Japan. (inJapanese)
No.39 The Progress Report of the 2000 and 2001 Surveyof the Research Project
Social Homeostasis of Small
Islands in an Island-zone : Yap Proper and Ulithi Atoll,
Micronesia.
No. 40 Institution in the Making : An Interdisciplinary
Study on Social Life and Economy of the Philippine Local.

Title:表紙.ec6 Page:1 Date: 2005/04/27 Wed 18:59:18

ISSN 1345-0441

OCCASIONAL PAPERS No．
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１（２
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No．４１（２００５）

鹿児島大学多島圏研究センター

南太平洋海域調査研究報告

南太平洋海域調査研究報告 No．
４１（２００５年３月）
００
５）OCCASIONAL PAPERS No．
４１（March ２"Symbiosis" of Human being and Nature
in South Pacific Islands

Edited by KAWAI K. & NISHIMURA S.

鹿児島大学多島圏研究センター
KAGOSHIMA UNIVERSITY RESEARCH CENTER
FOR THE PACIFIC ISLANDSKAGOSHIMA UNIVERSITY RESEARCH CENTER
鹿児島大学多島圏研究センター
FOR THE PACIFIC ISLANDS ●OCCASIONAL PAPERS No.４１（２００５）
No.４１（２００５）

南太平洋海域調査研究報告

PUBLISHED BY
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