COMMEMORATIVE BOOKLETACCSM+3

INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM“THE FUTURE OF CIVIL SERVICE”
2023

NATIONAL PERSONNEL AUTHORITY OF JAPAN1

TABLE OF CONTENTSFOREWORD

Foreword�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������3
01 The History of Japanese National Public Service and its Challenges ������������������������������������������������������������4
Mika Nishimura
Professor, Faculty of Law, Seikei University, JapanOn Wednesday, September 27, 2023, the National Personnel Authority (NPA) of
Japan hosted an international symposium titled “The Future of Civil Service” in Tokyo.

02 Development of Human Resources toward Long-term Sustainability ���������������������������������������������������������24

This symposium gathered senior officials engaged in national public service personnel

Dr. Noor Maya Salleh

management from 13 countries, including ASEAN Member States, the People’s Republic

Director, Institut Perkhidmatan Awam (IPA), Prime Minister’s Office,of China, the Republic of Korea, and Australia. The event provided a platform to discuss

Brunei Darussalam
03 Cambodia’s Civil Service, Reform and Challenges ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������38
THUN Bunthoeun
Royal School of Administration, Cambodia
04 Transforming Government Personnel Administration in Indonesia:

Navigating Challenges in Bureaucratic Reform ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������58
Azmi Listya Anisah, Diana Ma’rifah, Mardyanto Wahyu Tryatmoko
The National Research and Innovation Agency, Republic of Indonesia
05 Civil Service Management of Lao PDR 2012-2022 �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������82
Nanthaphon LYVATHANA

Yonemura Takeshi
Director-General forthe challenges confronted by the national public service in each nation, strategies toaddress these challenges, and the vision each country holds for the future of their national
public service.

Secretariat’s Policy Matters
National Personnel Authority, Japan

This commemorative booklet is a compilation of papers contributed by researchers fromASEAN Member States and Japan, who were asked to write academic papers on thenational public service personnel management system of the relevant country, discussing
the history of the system, the issues to be addressed in the future, and the approach tosolving them, in order to embody tangible results of the international symposium andmake them widely used.

Director of Civil Service Planning & Cooperation Division,

The NPA has been conducting surveys on the national public service systems of other

Civil Service Management Department, Ministry of Home Affairs, Lao PDR

countries, but this is the first time that it has compiled a comprehensive digest of thenational public service systems in ASEAN Member States. The booklet provides a wealth

06 Talent Management in Malaysian Public Sector:

Preparing the Workforce in a Context of Uncertainty ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������98
Norasyikin Shaikh Ibrahim & Bathmavathy Dalayga
National Institute of Public Administration, Bukit Kiara Campus, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
07 Leadership Development in the Singapore Public Sector:

Evolution towards Citizen-Centric and Future-Ready Public Service Leaders ������������������������������������������� 122
Dr. LEE Celia
Nanyang Centre for Public Administration, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
08 Senior Executive Service in the Thai Public Sector ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 142

of descriptions of the historical and cultural backgrounds of each country’s system, which
not only allows the reader to deepen their understanding of the national public service
system in each country, but also provides a variety of problem-solving approaches that canbe used as a reference for many countries.
The NPA has also established the Advisory Council on Personnel Administration, andis working firsthand on a grand design for the ideal image of public servants, codes ofconduct, and human resource management in order to realize a world of public service
befitting the new era. The final report is scheduled to be submitted by the end of 2024,
and we hope to share the results with the ASEAN Member States.

Dr. Sunisa Chorkaew
Associate Professor, Faculty of Political Science, Thammasat University, Thailand
09 Attracting and Using Talent in Vietnam’s Public Sector����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 156
Nguyen Thu Huyen, MSc
Institute of State Organizational Sciences, Ministry of Home Affairs of Vietnam
10 Modernizing the Philippine Civil Service through Digitalization ��������������������������������������������������������������� 174

The NPA is committed to actively collaborating with ACCSM+3 Countries to advancetheir personnel administration initiatives. Furthermore, we plan to leverage the outcomesof this symposium for workshops and further exchanges.
In closing, I extend my sincere gratitude to the dedicated researchers from ASEAN
Member States and Japan who have written valuable papers for this booklet.

Zita Concepcion P. Calugay
Assistant Professor, University of the Philippines Diliman
2

3

JAPANCONTENTS
Abstract���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������6
Table and Figure������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7

The History of Japanese
National Public Service
and its Challenges

1. Establishment of the Public Service System through Postwar Reform�������������������������������������������������������8(1) Postwar Reform by GHQ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������8(2) Early days of the NPA�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������8
2. Characteristics of the National Public Service up to the 1980s������������������������������������������������������������������10(1) Autonomous personnel management by each ministry and agency����������������������������������������������������10(2) Severe Restrictions on Basic labor rights�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10(3) Principle of Balancing Working Conditions with those in the Private Sector������������������������������������11(4) Strict control of personnel expenses���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������11(5) Entrance sorting of Careers and Non-Careers and side-by-side promotion based on year of
employment�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������12(6) Tendency to favor law graduates as all-rounders and Academic Cliques�������������������������������������������13(7) Re-employment called “Amakudari”����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������13
3. Reform of the National Public Service System since the 1990s������������������������������������������������������������������14(1) Enactment of the National Public Service Ethics Act�����������������������������������������������������������������������������14(2) Consideration of Reforms in the Public Service System Study Council����������������������������������������������14(3) Opposition to the Outline for Reforming the Public Service System���������������������������������������������������15(4) Diversification of appointments�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������15(5) Total personnel expenses reform��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������16
4. 2007 Revision of the National Public Service Act�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������16(1) Establishing a Personnel Evaluation System to Ensure a Merit-Based System���������������������������������16(2) Revision of Re-employment Regulations�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������16
5. Reforms under the Basic Act on the Reform of the National Public Service System������������������������������17(1) Until the enactment of the Basic Act on the Reform of the National Public Service System�����������17(2) Review of basic labor rights under the DPJ government�����������������������������������������������������������������������18(3) Establishment of the Cabinet Bureau of Personnel Affairs and the centralized management ofexecutive officials���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18(4) Fostering Courses for Executive Candidates�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18
6. Remaining challenges ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������19(1) Work style reform����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������19(2) Promotion of Women’s Activities in the public service�������������������������������������������������������������������������20

Mika Nishimura
Professor, Faculty of Law,

(3) Raising the mandatory retirement age�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������20(4) Declining popularity of public service������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������21
Reference�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������23

Seikei University
45

Abstract

Table and Figure

In Japan, postwar reforms by GHQ created the framework for the new public service system and the National Personnel
Authority, a highly independent third-party organization that has played a role in ensuring fairness in personnel management

Table1 Current Situation of Basic Labor Rights....................................................................................................................................10and protecting employees’ interests. Personnel management of the postwar Japanese National Public Service has the following
characteristics: (1)autonomous personnel management by each ministry and agency, (2)severe restrictions on basic labor rights,

Figure1 Change in personnel expenses for national public employees................................................................................................12(3)the principle of balancing working conditions with those in the private sector, (4)strict control of personnel expenses, (5)entrance screening of cadets and seniority-based personnel management by year of employment, (6)academic cliques, and (7)reemployment mediated by ministries and agencies. These were critically examined in the reforms that began in the 1990s. As
a result, several reforms were implemented: (1)clarification of ethical standards under the National Public Service Ethics Act,
(2)containment of personnel expenses, (3)opening of the closed career system through a diversification of appointments, (4)reinforcement of an ability and performance based system through new personnel evaluations, (5)revision of reemployment
regulations, (6)abolition of entrance screening of cadets and introduction of fostering courses for executive candidates, and (7)thecentralized management of executive officials in accordance with political leadership. Recently, reforms in work styles, women’s
promotion, and the raising of the retirement age have also been proceeded, with the aim of creating a public service system inwhich employees of all ages and genders can play an active role. However, the popularity of the public service as a career is on
the decline, and we are faced with the challenge of deciding what kind of public service system should be put in place to ensure
excellent human resources.
Keywords: National Public Service, National Personnel Authority, personnel management, basic labor rights, personnel
expenses, closed career system, re-employment, ability and performance, seniority, executive officials, political leadership

67

1. Establishment of the Public Service System through Postwar Reform
The postwar Japanese public service system was formed under the GHQ (General Headquarters, the Supreme Commander for
the Allied Powers.)1 occupation, but since the end of the occupation, Japan has developed its own personnel management.

(1) Postwar Reform by GHQ
Before the end of World War II, the government employee system was based on a status system in which the public officials
were loyal to the Emperor (Tenno). The GHQ considered them responsible for the war, but continued to employ them for the
purpose of indirect rule, except for some public officials who were expelled in October 1945.
Then the prewar personnel system was transformed into a new system in accordance with the new constitution. However,GHQ did not have a concrete vision for the new public service system at the beginning of the occupation, and democratization
through the trade union movement, promoted by the GHQ/ESS Labor Division, took precedence in the public sector. Many
public employees were granted the same basic labor rights as private workers, and although the right to strike was soon
restricted, salary determination through labor negotiations became the principle.

training programs, establish standards for appointment and dismissal that ensure fairness in personnel management, makerecommendations to the Diet and the Cabinet on remuneration and other working conditions for national public employees
to compensate for the restriction of basic labor rights, study domestic and international personnel management systems, andimplement personnel management measures that are able to meet the needs of the times.
In its pioneering years, the NPA faced a great deal of opposition from both inside and outside the Japanese government.
There were several reasons for this. One reason was its heterogeneity as an organization. Unlike other ministries and agencies,
the NPA is an independent administrative commission with three commissioners (one of whom represents the NPA as president)
appointed with the approval of the Diet3. This independence is also unique. The NPA is not subject to the National Government
Organization Act and can manage its own internal organization. Its budget cannot be freely modified by the Cabinet, andalthough it is under the jurisdiction of the Cabinet, it is not under Cabinet control and supervision. Furthermore, Hoover disliked
the academic cliques of Tokyo Imperial University, which had produced many of the prewar public officials, and stipulated in the
National Public Service Act that no two of the three commissioners could be members of the same political party or graduatesof the same department of the same university. He selected a constitutional scholar from Keio University as the first presidentof the NPA. Since many of the executive officials in other ministries were graduates of Tokyo Imperial University, they had anantipathy to the NPA, which was hostile to academic cliques.

Basic labor rights were not respected in the prewar public sector because public officials were paid to maintain dignity as
servants of the Emperor, not to receive compensation for their work. The formation of labor unions and negotiations under the
direction of GHQ was a new experience for many public employees. However, labor negotiations were difficult due to austerity
budgets, and salary increases could not keep pace with hyperinflation. The unionization movement among public employees
became more militant, with the support of left-wing activists such as the Communist Party and the Socialist Party, which had
been suppressed before the war. A general strike was planned for February 1, 1947, but was called off by the order of General
Douglas MacArthur.
In parallel with these movements, the United States Personnel Advisory Mission, headed by Blain Hoover2 arrived in Japanin November 1946, and began a study on the creation of a new public service system. In June 1947, the mission recommended
a draft for a “National Public Servants Law” to the Japanese government, and a new Civil Service Division was establishedwithin GHQ/GS, with Hoover as its first chief. He aimed not only to introduce scientific personnel management in the public

The second reason was the concern that the NPA would encroach on the personnel authority of each ministry and agency.
To establish scientific personnel management, the NPA began to create a job classification system as a basis for this. The jobclassification system was designed to determine remunerations and appointments according to duties, and was incompatible
with prewar personnel management, which assigned status and duties to individual officials without a strict classification ofduties. Ministries and agencies were reluctant to cooperate in job classification and were uncomfortable with the new personnel
management through the job classification system.
Ultimately, the NPA decided in the mid-1950s not to implement a job classification system. This was because the detailed
American-style job classification did not fit Japan’s fluid job assignment to a work unit known as the “large room principle(obeyashugi)”. The NPA then decided to use the salary grades as a substitute for the job classification system to fit Japanesepersonnel management.

sector, but also to calm the public sector union movement, which had become radicalized under the influence of communism.
His draft would have prohibited labor negotiation to determine salaries and created a National Personnel Authority, but theJapanese government enacted the National Public Service Act, leaving its contents ambiguous. As a result, labor-management
disputes among public employees did not stop even after the enactment of the National Public Service Act. Within GHQ, the
ESS Labor Division, which advocated guarantee, and the GS Civil Service Division, which advocated restriction, were at odds

The third reason was the remuneration recommendations, which were unpopular with both labor and government. The laborside preferred to set remunerations through collective bargaining rather than recommendation, while the government side foundit burdensome to implement a recommendation each year that did not take into account the financial situation. In fact, it took 22
years for remuneration recommendations to be fully implemented in 1970.

over the basic labor rights of public employees. Finally, General MacArthur decided to restrict the collective bargaining and theright to strike, issuing the MacArthur Letter in July 1948. At the end of July, the Japanese government issued Cabinet Order No.
201 in response to this Letter. Labor negotiations by public employees were suspended and all existing collective agreements
were nullified. The National Public Service Act was revised in November to implement the Cabinet Order. Based on the revised
National Public Service Act, the National Personnel Authority (NPA) was established in December as an independent central
personnel agency.

Due to this backlash, the NPA was in danger of being abolished after the GHQ occupation ended. The debate over the
NPA focused on its independence, the scope of its authority, and the issue of basic labor rights. Some scholars questioned
the constitutionality of the NPA, arguing that its independence had no constitutional basis, and others challenged the validityof the NPA’ s rules regulating the political conduct of public employees. Since the NPA served as a compensatory measurefor the restriction of basic labor rights, the abolition or downsizing of the NPA was also discussed in terms of basic laborrights. Opposition parties such as the Socialist Party and the Communist Party (LDP), together with the public sector unions,demanded full guarantees of basic labor rights, but the conservative Liberal Democratic Party, which had been in power for a(2) Early days of the NPA

long time, opposed them. In the end, the NPA remained as a compensatory measure for restricting basic labor rights.

The NPA is responsible for ensuring fairness in personnel management and protecting the benefits of national public
employees under the National Public Service Act. Its main functions are to conduct recruitment examinations and1

After the defeat in World War Ⅱ , the Japanese government was placed under the occupation rule of GHQ until the Treaty ofPeace with Japan came into effect on April 28, 1952.
2

He had served as head of the Civil Service Assembly of the United States and Canada.

8

Beginning in the late 1950s, the ratification of ILO Convention No. 87, along with discussions on employee organizations (public
sector unions), led to a proposal to reorganize the NPA, which had nothing to do with the Convention. Eventually, in 1965, theNational Public Service Act was amended to clarify the government’s responsibility as an employer, and the Prime Minister3

Appointment and dismissal of Commissioners are attested by the Emperor.
9was positioned as the central personnel management authority responsible for certain matters relating to efficiency, welfare,

Source: National Personnel Authority, Introduction to National Public Service System in Japan, 2023, p.21

and service discipline, as well as the coordination and integration necessary to maintain uniformity in personnel management.
The Personnel Bureau was established as a secretariat in the Prime Minister’s Office. The role of the NPA was not significantly

The constitutionality of the restrictions on basic labor rights in the National Public Service Act has long been disputedchanged by this amendment. Despite various difficulties, the NPA has taken root as a result of its efforts to realize a neutral andin court, but the Supreme Court’s 1973 decision declaring the restrictions constitutional is now the prevailing view. According

fair public service system based on the characteristics of Japanese personnel management.

to the ruling, public employees are guaranteed basic labor rights under Article 28 of the Constitution, but the restrictions arenecessary and unavoidable because of their special status, the public nature of their services, the principles of determining
working conditions by law, the absence of market restrictions in the public sector, and the existence of NPA recommendations

2. Characteristics of the National Public Service up to the 1980s
The postwar public service system, which was formed alongside the establishment of the NPA, had the following

as compensatory measures.

characteristics.

(3) Principle of Balancing Working Conditions with those in the Private Sector
Due to restrictions on basic labor rights, public servants are unable to conclude collective agreements on working(1) Autonomous personnel management by each ministry and agency
The system, in which both the NPA and the Prime Minister as the central personnel management agencies administer uniform
rules, appears to be centralized, but each ministry and agency has a high degree of autonomy in its operation. For example,
the NPA conducts common recruitment examinations, but each ministry and agency interviews and decides who will be hiredfrom the list of successful candidates. In addition, although bound by the fixed number of employees per salary grade, eachministry and agency has the autonomy to appoint its employees4. The “family system (Ikkasyugi)” in which each ministry handles

conditions through collective bargaining. To compensate, the NPA issues recommendations based on the principle ofequalizing working conditions with those in the private sector. The NPA conducts a survey of remuneration in the public
and private sectors, and then compares remuneration between the public and private sectors among people of the same rank,
location, education, age, etc., in accordance with the principles of compensation based on duties and responsibilities, rather
than simply comparing averages.

everything from recruitment to reemployment after retirement, has often been criticized as fostering sectionalism.

This principle of balance has been considered a reasonable method to attract human resources in the labor market,

Personnel management in ministries and agencies is also independent of politics. The Japanese public service is based ona merit system, from the position of clerk to vice-minister of administration, and is required to be politically neutral. Politicalbecause if working conditions were far worse than in the private sector, people would not become public employees. This has
also been important for gaining public understanding and acceptance of the working conditions of national public employees.

activities of personnel have been limited, and interference in personnel matters by politicians has been suppressed. Of course,
good relationships with politicians have been an important factor in promotion to senior positions, but even the minister, as theappointing authority, avoids direct intervention in personnel matters regarding public employees.

In general, the NPA submits a recommendation and a report to both the Cabinet and the Diet every August. The Cabinet
considers whether these recommendations should be implemented in consideration of the financial situation and other factors,
and if so, prepares an implementation bill. The Diet deliberates and decides whether to pass this bill. In short, being set bylaw, the working conditions and personnel expenses for public employees are subject to democratic control, and therefore
public acceptance and understanding are essential.

(2) Severe Restrictions on Basic labor rights
GHQ’ s postwar reforms resulted in greater restrictions on basic labor rights than in other countries. The restrictions are listed
in Table 1.

This is in sharp contrast to the prewar period, when the working conditions of government officials were set by Imperial
Order, an order of the Emperor, without the participation of the people. Although postwar public employees do not enjoy
the high remunerations and privileges of prewar public officials, it is no less significant that they are guaranteed by law the＜ Table 1 Current Situation of Basic Labor Rights ＞

same level of working conditions as those in the private sector. Moreover, it should not be underestimated that the public
service system has been placed under democratic principles, which guarantees basic human rights to public employees as well.

Right of Collective Bargaining
Category

Employees under the Remuneration Act
Police officers
Coast Guard officials
Penal institution
employees

National
publicemployees

Employees of agencies engaged
in administrative execution

Right to Conclude
Collective
Agreements

Right to organize◯△ ( ※ 2)×

Postwar public employees are no longer required to serve the Emperor faithfully and indefinitely as prewar officials were.
Right to Strike(4) Strict control of personnel expenses

×

Since the postwar public service system emphasized public understanding and acceptance, personnel expenses have been
kept under strict control by the government and public opinion. As shown in Figure 1, personnel expenses for national public

×

×

×

×

employees reached 10 trillion yen in FY2000, but have since been halved by FY2023 due to the incorporation of national
universities, the privatization of Japan Post, and the total personnel cost reforms described below. The net value of the general

◯

◯

◯

×

and special accounts has increased about 18 times in the 53 years since FY1970, while personnel expenses have increased
about 3.5 times.5※ 1 ◯ indicates a right recognized; △ indicates a right partially denied; and × indicates a right denied.
※ 2 Labor-manegement negotiations can be carried out.
4

The NPA used to determine the fixed number for each salary grade, but since 2014, the newly established Cabinet Bureauof Personnel Affairs has been making this decision, and the National Personnel Authority gives its opinion on the number of

5classified positions.

Finance Act. The net total was ¥14,382 billion in 1970, ¥253,643 billion in 2023.

10

The data of general and special accounts are referred from Budget Reference Documents according to Article 28 of the Fiscal
11

Figure 1 Change in personnel expenses for national public employees (initial budgets)
12,000training over several decades. This closed career system is characterized by entrance sorting of Careers and Non-Careers(Iriguchisenbetsu).

(billion yen)

10,346.7 billion yen (FY2000)
10,000Public employees who pass the most difficult recruitment exams were called “Careers” and were promoted at a fasterrate than Non-Careers, moving every year or two and being coached to become excellent ‘generalists’through experience in avariety of positions under the direction of the minister’s secretariat. Personnel management placed great emphasis on the year

8,000

5,258.3 billion yen (FY2023)

of entry into the ministry, and contemporary Careers were promoted side by side in friendly competition until they reached
the position of division director in their 40s. Due to the limited number of positions available at the division director level

6,000

and above, those who could not be promoted were forced to retire early and moved into the private sector, etc. This personnel
practice is called “up or out”. When an administrative vice minister, the ultimate winner of the competition, was promoted,

4,000

the rest of their contemporaries (and their predecessor, if they remained) retired from their positions.

2,000

Non-Careers, on the other hand, were often recruited locally and spent more time moving within a narrower range than
0

74
76
14
16
78
82
06
08
10
12
18 2020 221970 72
80
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98 2000 02
04
71
75
77
11
17
15
73
07
09
21
19
23 (FY)
79
81
83
85
87
89
91
93
95
97
99
01
03
05
13

Careers to become “specialists” in their respective fields. Their promotions were slow, and even the most successful rose only
to the level of division director in the main ministry, with none becoming an administrative vice minister.

Source: Ministry of Finance Budget Bureau, Personnel Expenses for Public Employees FY 2023, p.2
https://www.mof.go.jp/policy/budget/budger_workflow/budget/fy2023/seifuan2023/21.pdf
Note 1. Personnel expenses include basic salaries, allowances, and overtime pay, retirement allowances and contributions to the National Public Servants
Mutual Aid Association.
Note 2. General and special accounts combined.

The disparity in promotion between Careers and Non-Careers had often been criticized as unfair and a remnant of prewar status discrimination between the Emperor’s officials and other employees, since it was based on a one-time selection at
the time of recruitment rather than on an evaluation of their abilities and performance as public employees.

Note 3. The decrease in FY2003 due to the conversion to a postal public corporation, and in FY2004, due to the incorporation of a national university, etc.

(6) Tendency to favor law graduates as all-rounders and Academic Cliques

Regarding remuneration, the NPA recommendations were not fully implemented until 1970, and public opinion was
sympathetic to public employees’ low remuneration. However, once the full implementation of recommendations took hold,public opinion turned harshly against increased remuneration for public employees, and reduction of this remuneration becamea political issue during each administrative reform. A prime example is the failure to implement the NPA recommendation in
1982, under the strong influence of the Second Ad Hoc Commission on Administrative Reform.
The number of public employees has also been strictly limited. After a large-scale reduction in the 1950s, the number
gradually increased, but the Total Public Service Capacity Law was enacted in 1969 to set a ceiling on the total number ofAnother inequality that has been pointed out since the prewar period is the difference in personnel management between
administrative (Jimu-kan) and technical (Gi-kan) employees. Administrative employees tend to have liberal arts backgrounds(law, economics, etc.), while technical employees tend to have scientific backgrounds. Criticism has persisted that technicalemployees are at a disadvantage in terms of promotion compared to administrative employees. There are few management
positions available for technical employees, and the number of administrative vice-ministerial level positions for them has been
limited to ministries such as the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, the Ministry of Health, Labor andWelfare, and the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology.

full-time national public employees. Under the law, uniform capacity reduction plans were implemented, and the reduced
capacity was reallocated due to new administrative needs. Even during periods of high economic growth when administrativeneeds were expanding, there was almost no increase in the number of full-time employees covered by the Law. After theadministrative reforms in the 1980s, the number of employees gradually decreased. Since it is difficult to disregard the NPA
recommendations as a compensatory measure for restrictions on basic labor rights, capacity reduction has always been theleading option for reducing personnel expenses.
Such capacity reductions were easily justified by the “large room principle” in the Japanese public service. As mentioned

Underlying this inequality is the legal universalism associated with academic cliques. Since the prewar days of theEmperor’s officials, the cadets and executive officials known as the “Kobun Gumi” 6 were predominantly graduates of the Tokyo
Imperial University Law School. Although the Tokyo Imperial University Law School was originally established as a training
school for bureaucrats and was exempt from examinations in the early years, even after the war, many of the successful
Careers officials were graduates of the University of Tokyo, Faculty of Law. It should be noted that the University of Tokyo has
always ranked first in terms of the number of students passing the career track examination, both before and after World War
II, and that the legal category still has the largest number of recruits in the career track examination for university graduates.

above, since a job classification system could not be implemented, duties are assigned on a division basis, which is called the“large room principle” . The assignation of duties among individual employees is fluid, and even when capacity is reduced, the(7) Re-employment called “Amakudari”

division is required to perform the same or more duties than before by increasing the number of duties per employee in thename of “efficiency”. As a result, the number of public employees in Japan has become one of the lowest in the world in termsof the ratio of public employees to population.

The Amakudari (literally “descent from heaven” – in other words, “golden parachute” ) is a practice in which the ministries
and agencies take care of the re-employment of retiring public employees. It has long been criticized for several reasons.
One is that the salary and retirement benefits are higher and more favorable than private sector re-employment. The more
successful a public employee, the better the conditions of their re-employment. Moreover, there were cases of retirees earning(5) Entrance sorting of Careers and Non-Careers and side-by-side promotion based on year of employment
If a U.S.-style job classification system had been in place, Japan might have adopted a position system in which open
recruitment was used whenever a vacancy occurred. However, by abandoning the introduction of a job classification
system, Japan became a closed career system in which new graduates were hired in batches and trained through on-the-job
12

6

Koubun Gumi is derived from the name of a recruitment examination for the cadets called Koto Bunkan Shiken, which washeld until 1948.
13

several hundred million yen after retirement because they repeatedly re-employed themselves at different corporations withIn 1996, the government of Ryutaro Hashimoto established the Administrative Reform Council to study the reorganization

severance pay every few years. The second reason is that corporations that accept retired public employees may receiveof central ministries and agencies. This was followed in 1997 by the establishment of the Public Service System Study Council

discretionary contracts for government work, which could become a hotbed of collusion between the public and private sectors.

as an advisory body to the prime minister, which began studying fundamental reform of the public service system.

The third reason was that in some cases, corporations with little necessity were created to accept retired public employees,
and government money flowed to them, wasting taxpayer money.

In 1999, the Council’s report recommended that the public service system be transformed into a flexible and efficientmanagement system to deal with increasingly complex and demanding administrative issues and changes in the employment

On the other hand, Amakudari had benefits within both the public and private sectors. The public service system did
not have a mandatory retirement system until 1985 , and it was necessary to maintain organizational renewal by combining
7

environment, and to restore public confidence by strengthening its capacity. It also identified “openness” , “diversity andflexibility” , “transparency” , “emphasis on ability and perfprmance” , and “emphasis on autonomy” as perspectives for reform.

early recommended retirement with re-employment. Even after the mandatory retirement age of 60 was introduced, there
was still a need to provide for the re-employment of Careers who lost the competition for promotion and retired at around
50. For talented Non-Careers who were dissatisfied with their promotions, Amakudari had some effect in alleviating their

Although the direction of the report was carried over into subsequent reforms, the report as a whole tended to call for
improvements in operations that were not systemic and did not meet expectations for drastic institutional reform.

dissatisfaction by helping them find new jobs with favorable conditions. Moreover, even though they were paid less as public
employees, the fact that they could earn more after being re-employed was a plus for attracting the best talent in the labormarket. In the private sector, the benefits of accepting retired public employees as a pipeline to regulatory agencies were notsmall.
The Amakudari was not completely free, and prior approval from the NPA was required for re-employment within two
years of retirement in a corporation closely related to the duties performed during the five years prior to retirement. Therefore,
it was common for retirees to work for the first two years in a semi-private corporation, which did not require prior approval
from the NPA, and then move to a private corporation. The ministries and agencies took care of and coordinated the reemployment of retired alumni, a process that was repeated after their retirement.
Despite strong criticism, a total ban was not possible because public employees also have the freedom to choose theirprofessions under the constitution. Since 1979, successive cabinets have made cabinet decisions to try and curb Amakudari,
but to no avail.

3. Reform of the National Public Service System since the 1990s
The national public service system, created by post-war reforms, has continued without major change for more than half a(3) Opposition to the Outline for Reforming the Public Service System
Ryutaro Hashimoto, even after he stepped down as prime minister, was keen on reforming the public service systemalong with the reorganization of central ministries and agencies. In the Mori administration he personally stepped forward as
the minister in charge of administrative reform and proposed a new personnel system, which was approved by the Cabinet in
December 2001 as “the Outline for reforming the public service system” .
The Outline attracted much attention, including a revision of the recruitment examination system, the promotionof private sector personnel, the establishment of a National Strategic Staff to assist the prime minister in planning andformulating major Cabinet policies, the reduction of the authority of the NPA, and the introduction of a competency grade
system.
However, the Outline was also strongly criticized for being pushed through the Cabinet without sufficient coordination
among the parties concerned; for transferring the authority for prior approval of re-employment from the NPA to the
Ministers of each ministry, effectively facilitating Amakudari, which was opposed by public opinion; and for the unchanged
restriction of basic labor rights, which was opposed by the labor unions. As the result, the revision of the National PublicService Act based on the Outline was abandoned.

century. Since the 1990s, however, several reforms have been implemented in response to the need to reform the public service
system to make it more responsive to the changing times.

(1) Enactment of the National Public Service Ethics Act(4) Diversification of appointments
Drastic reform of the national public service system did not proceed, but some reforms were implemented. One such
reform was the diversification of appointments.

In postwar Japan, public trust in the public service was relatively high, and the public service was a popular profession.
In the 1990s, when the Ministry of Finance, which was considered the most powerful ministry, was exposed for excessive

In 1999, the Public-Private Personnel Exchange Law was enacted, which in principle allows personnel exchange of up tobusiness entertainment, distrust of public officials increased dramatically. This issue led to the enactment of the National

three years between the national government and private enterprises through the NPA. The exchange consists of dispatches

Public Service Ethics Act in 1999, which prohibits the acceptance of entertainment or gifts of money or goods from interested

from the national government to private enterprises and appointments from private enterprises to the national government.

companies and requires compliance with standards of ethical conduct that do not raise public suspicions about the fairness of

While the main purpose of the exchange is to develop human resources, it also aims to utilize the efficient and flexible

public administration.

business operations of private enterprises within administrative management and to promote mutual understanding between
the public and private sectors. Several institutional changes have been made to activate an adequate exchange by 2023, but the(2) Consideration of Reforms in the Public Service System Study Council
Around the time a series of scandals were uncovered, it was widely recognized that the entire public administration was
suffering from institutional fatigue due to its inability to adapt to new socioeconomic conditions.

imbalance between dispatch and appointment is a major challenge. The number of dispatched personnel has been low, in part
because of staffing cuts, and in 2022, represented only one-tenth of the appointed personnel from the private sector8.
In 2000, the Fixed Term Appointment Law was enacted, which allows highly specialized personnel, such as lawyers andcertified accountants, to be paid a higher salary level commensurate with their expertise and experience, for a period not toexceed five years. Fixed-term appointments are also used to replace employees on childcare leave. In 2007, the childcare leavesystem was extended to include the parallel appointment of two childcare part-time employees to the same position, and7

GHQ did not recognize a mandatory retirement system as discriminatory based on age.

14

childcare part-time ability to reduce working hours until a child enters elementary school was introduced to promote greater15flexibility in appointments.

allow them to be re-employed soon after retirement with such companies. Re-employed former public employees are generally
prohibited for two years from lobbying their home ministries on matters they were responsible for during the five years prior(5) Total personnel expenses reform
When public service reform was stalled, the Junichiro Koizumi administration undertook total personnel expenses reform
as a pillar of the integrated expenditure and revenue reform to restore fiscal soundness. This reform aimed to reduce total
personnel expenses by focusing on a net reduction in the number of national and local government employees and reforming
the salary structure over a five-year period starting in 2006. In terms of downsizing, a net reduction target of at least 5% wasset for national public employees, and this target was achieved with a reduction of 5.3%. In addition, the number of public
employees was also drastically reduced by the incorporation of all national universities in 2004 and the privatization of Japan
Post in 2007, both of which were to create a “small government” .
The reform of the remuneration structure reduced the average salary level by 4.8% and introduced a new regional
allowance of 3-18% (currently 20%) to better reflect regional private sector wages. Moreover, starting with the NPA
recommendations in 2006, the size of the private enterprises surveyed was changed from 100 or more to 50 or more employees,
and salary levels were more restrained than in the past. The salary schedules were also revised to flatten the seniority-basedsalary increase curve, strengthen the character of salaries for duties and abilities, and reflect performance in salary increases

to retirement, and are prohibited for life from lobbying for contracts, etc., that they have decided on and that pertain to
their new employer. Former executive officials were required to notify the Cabinet of their re-employment for two years after
retirement, and this information would be made public by the Cabinet.
A third-party organization, the Reemployment Surveillance Commission, was also established in the Cabinet Office tomonitor violations of the new regulation. The commission, which initially could not appoint commissioners due to opposition
from the then opposition Democratic Party, began its work in 2012 and has found several violations of the re-employment
regulations.
Some have argued that the new regulation has made it more difficult for public employees to find new jobs than before,
but on the other hand, alumni now provide re-employment assistance on behalf of ministries and agencies, and public
employees can be reemployed by interested companies without waiting two years. Some point out that re-employment is still
more advantageous than in the private sector.

and bonuses. Several changes were made, including the creation of a new Headquarters Duty Adjustment Allowance for busy

5. Reforms under the Basic Act on the Reform of the National Public Service System

HQ employees.

Consideration of fundamental reform of the public service system led to the enactment of the Basic Act on the Reform of
the National Public Service System in 2008, and reforms based on the Basic Act have continued since then.

4. 2007 Revision of the National Public Service Act
With the reform of the public service system at a standstill, the National Public Service Act was revised in 2007 to
introduce a personnel evaluation system and to revise regulations on re-employment, based on the policy of “implementing
reforms as soon as possible” .

(1) Until the enactment of the Basic Act on the Reform of the National Public Service System
Although relations between the government and the public sector unions, which were dissatisfied with the Outline for
Reforming the Public Service System, had been poor for some time, the government and RENGO (the Japanese Trade Union
Confederation) agreed to study the issue of basic labor rights in detail, and in 2006 an expert committee was established by(1) Establishing a Personnel Evaluation System to Ensure a Merit-Based System
The thorough implementation of the merit system has always been a central issue in the reform discussions of the 1990s.
Following the trend of performance-based evaluation in the private sector, it was thought that the public service system should
also manage appointments and salaries based on strict personnel evaluation and limit seniority-based personnel cost increases.
Then, the old performance evaluation system, which had become a formality, was abolished, and a new personnel
evaluation system was introduced in 2009, consisting of a performance evaluation twice a year and a competency evaluation
once a year. The previous practices of regular salary increases and bonuses based on the length of service was abolished andreplaced by a system of salary increases and bonuses based on the results of evaluations. The results of personnel evaluations
were to be used not only in salaries, but also in promotions, other appointments, and human resource developments etc. With
the introduction of the personnel evaluation system, the National Public Service Act officially abolished the job classification
system, which had been prescribed but not implemented.

(2) Revision of Re-employment Regulations
Under the revised National Public Service Act, the NPA’s prior approval was abolished and re-employment mediation byindividual ministries and agencies was prohibited. Instead, the Center for Personnel Interchanges between the Government
and Private Entities was established within the Cabinet Office to provide outplacement services. The new rules prohibit public
employees at the assistant director level and above from seeking re-employment with interested companies while in office, but
8

the Administrative Reform Promotion Headquarters.
Since the 1990s, the guarantee of basic labor rights for public employees had gained support not only from traditionalinnovative political parties and unions, but also from some conservative politicians who believed that collective bargaining wasmore likely to reduce remunerations in times of financial difficulties. The minister in charge of reforming the public service
system at the time was also in favor of collective bargaining for public employees, and in 2007 the expert committee issued areport that included reforms to a system in which labor and management would decide working conditions autonomously andthe right to conclude collective agreements for some public employees.
In the same year, the Advisory Council on the Comprehensive Reform of the Public Service System was established at
the request of the Prime Minister to comprehensively examine issues related to the entire public service personnel system ingeneral, except for basic labor rights. In 2008, the Council issued a report with proposals, which led to the Basic Act on the
Reform the National Public Service System being enacted that same year 9.
The Basic Act is a program law that lays out the basic policy for comprehensive reform of the national public service
system. Its main objectives were to reform the public service system to make it more responsive to political leadership and tocorrect sectionalism, and it included the abolition of the career system and the introduction of centralized management ofexecutive officials. After the Basic Act was passed, attempts were made to revise the National Public Service Act and otherlaws to implement its contents.

National Personnel Authority, Annual Report 2022 Digest version. There were 37 new dispatches and 378 new appointments in

FY2022. https://www.jinji.go.jp/kisya/2303/R4kanmin.html
1617

(2) Review of basic labor rights under the DPJ government
The Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) government, which came to power in 2009 with labor unions as its support base,actively worked to restore the basic labor rights of public employees on the basis of the Basic Act.

was reformed in 2012 to abolish the Career/Non-Career entrance sorting, this course will select executive candidates at any
time by each Minister from among officials who have had work experience for a certain period (3 to 10 years after initial
appointment), based on their wishes and personnel evaluation, regardless of the category of the recruitment examination. The
program is designed to develop candidates comprehensively and systematically for executive positions.

However, the bill to amend the National Public Service Act, which would abolish the NPA and create a new system fordetermining the remuneration of public employees through collective bargaining, was not passed. The amendment bill was
submitted to the Diet in combination with a special measures bill to cut salaries by an average of 7.8% for two years startingin FY2012 under the guise of “for reconstruction from the Great East Japan Earthquake of March 2011” , but only the salary

Although many of the executive candidates are those who have passed the Comprehensive Service examination, whichis considered to be for cadets, there are also those who have passed other types of examinations, and the Career/Non-Career
entrance sorting has become a formality.

cut bill was enacted.

Since 1999, there had been a system for selecting outstanding Non-Careers and promoting them to the level of division

The reasons were: the communist-affiliated labor unions strongly opposed the attempt to restore basic labor rights incombination with the salary cut; some people, such as municipal mayors, opposed the abolition of the NPA recommendations,which would make collective bargaining much tougher; and the general public had little interest in the basic labor rights ofdirector or higher through training and on-the-job training, and the number of Non-Careers promoted to managerial positions
continues to increase under this new course. In 2020, a Non-Career employee was promoted to an administrative vice ministerlevel position in the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology.

public employees; the management of the Diet became more difficult as the popularity of the DPJ government declined.

6. Remaining challenges

Later, when the LDP government returned in 2012, the revision of basic labor rights was no longer the main theme ofreform, and the remunerations recommendation system has continued to this day.

In 2015, the government began promoting the “Dynamic Engagement of All Citizens (Ichioku Soukatsuyaku Shakai)”
which aims to maintain the population at 100 million even in an era of declining birthrates and an aging society, and to create
an all-participating society in which everyone can play an active role at home, at work, and in the community. To achieve this(3) Establishment of the Cabinet Bureau of Personnel Affairs and the centralized management of executive officials
Since 2012, the second Abe administration has focused on restructuring the public service system for political leadership:society, the Abe administration accelerated efforts to reform work styles, promote women, and raise the mandatory retirement
age in the public service.

in 2014, the National Public Service Act was revised to institutionalize the Cabinet Bureau of Personnel Affairs, which serves(1) Work style reformas the strategic center for the personnel management of national public employees, and the centralized management ofexecutive officials. This was truly a reform that changed the relationship between politicians and public employees.

The main pillars of work style reform for national public employees are (1) realizing diverse and flexible work styles, (2)improving long working hours, and (3) supporting work-life balance.

The centralized management of executive officials is intended to correct the adverse effects of sectionalism caused bydecentralized personnel management at the ministry level and to ensure political leadership centered on the Prime Minister’s

Regarding (1), there are several systems that allow greater flexibility in managing working hours: a system that allows

Office by managing all executive officials at the deputy director general level and above under the leadership of the Chief

employees to set earlier (later) than normal working hours, a flextime system with a minimum of 2-4 hours per day within

Cabinet Secretary.

38 hours and 45 minutes per week, and special leave for various reasons such as infertility treatment and volunteer work. In
March 2023, an expert panel of the NPA proposed a three-day workweek, an 11-hour interval system between offices, andSpecifically, (i) the Chief Cabinet Secretary conducts an aptitude screening on candidates recommended by ministers

teleworking if it does not interfere with work duties. Further reforms are also expected in the future.

based on their personnel evaluations to determine whether or not they are capable of performing the standard duties ofexecutive officials; (ii) those who pass the screening are placed on a list of candidates for senior positions; and (iii) the Prime

Regarding (2), this has been a long-standing problem in the national public service, but improvements have not progressed

Minister, the Chief Cabinet Secretary and a Minister who is the appointer, shall consult with each other and decide on thewell. Various causes have been identified, such as the need to respond to the Diet, the ever-increasing number of new policies

appointment and dismissal of executive officials by selecting suitable candidates from the list.

and sudden policy changes, the need to respond to disasters and emergencies, the shortage of manpower, the old-fashioned
mindset that takes long working hours for granted, and the delay in the digitalization of administrative procedures. Overtime

This system is unique in that it allows the Prime Minister’s Office to be directly involved in the appointment of executive

for public employees is generally limited to 45 hours per month or 360 hours per year, or less than 100 hours per month orofficials who are not political appointees . The criteria used by the Chief Cabinet Secretary to determine eligibility are

720 hours per year for employees in departments with a high proportion of heteronomous work. However, the head of each

abstract and lacked specificity . As the second Abe administration became a long-term government, public employees haveministry or agency may order public employees responding to major disasters or performing highly important or urgent work

been criticized for fearing the Prime Minister’s Office and trying to cater to its wishes.

to exceed the maximum limit. Responding to the recent COVID-19 and major disasters has put a heavy physical and mental

10

11

strain on public employees and led to the departure of younger employees.
(4) Fostering Courses for Executive Candidates
Another centerpiece of the 2014 revision of the National Public Service Act is the establishment of a new fosteringcourse for executive candidates, which will replace the existing career system. While the recruitment examination system
9

The opposition Democratic Party of Japan objected to the regulation of contact between politicians and public officials, but anagreement was reached in the form of disclosure of information on contact, and the basic Act was passed.
18

10

The Cabinet Personnel Review Council, established in 1997 by the Chief Cabinet Secretary and three Deputy Chief Cabinet

Secretaries, has conducted preliminary reviews of appointments at the director-general level and above, but has generally
approved proposals submitted by each ministry and agency.
11

The Cabinet Order pertaining to the aptitude screening and the list of candidates is to be established after hearing the opinionof the National Personnel Authority.
19

payments, but most reappointments so far have been short time works for supplementary duties and cannot fully utilize theRegarding (3), public employees involved in childbirth, childcare, and even nursing care can take advantage of a variety

abilities and experiences of public employees over 60 on a full-time basis. As a result, the National Public Service Act wasof programs for both men and women, ranging from shorter hours to three-year leaves. More recently, public employees haverevised in 2021 to gradually raise the mandatory retirement age from 60 to 65 over an eight-year period starting in 2023 to

been able to split their leave into two or three installments and take leave in 30-minute increments, allowing them to takepromote the employment of elder public employees for the realization of “the Dynamic Engagement of All Citizens15” .

leave as needed. They are also exempt from night work (10 p.m. to 5 a.m.), and overtime is limited to 24 hours per month and
150 hours per year, except in the case of a disaster. In a survey conducted in FY2021, the percentage of male public employees

However, the increase in mandatory retirement age is subject to the following conditions: stepping-down from managerial

taking childcare leave was 62.8%, and the percentage taking at least five days of combined leave for spouse childbirth andto non-managerial positions at age 60, and a salary cut by 30% for those over 60. Although these conditions can’ t be fully

childcare participation increased to 87.1% . The number of public employees taking childcare leave also increased for both

explained from the perspective of ability and performance for each position or duty, they are unavoidably imposed to balancefull-time and part-time employees.

the private sector trend of lowering salaries for those over 60. Both the public and private sectors still have seniority-based

12

personnel systems, so raising the retirement age could lead to a shortage of managerial positions and an increase in personnel
As described above, the work styles reform has made some progress, but improving long working hours remains animportant issue to be addressed in the future.

expenses. To move to personnel management system based purely on ability and performance without regard to age, it isnecessary to properly continue to conduct job analysis and personnel evaluations and to gain public understanding of thenecessary personnel expenses.

(2) Promotion of Women’s Activities in the public service(4) Declining popularity of public service

Even after the enactment of the Equal Employment Opportunity Act in 1985, women’s participation in society in Japan
has not advanced as much as in other countries. The main reasons are a strong gender-role consciousness that women should

The most serious problem today is the decline in the popularity of public service as a career. The number of successful

ideally retire and stay at home after marriage and childbirth, and a reluctance to appoint women as managers or candidates

applicants from the University of Tokyo, once considered an academic clique, has dropped by half over the past 10 years16, andfor management positions on the grounds that women cannot be entrusted with responsible jobs. Women also avoided longthe number of employees who retire after less than 10 years has continued to rise. In recent years, the number of applicants

working hours, job transfers and a male-dominated workplace culture, and were not motivated to develop their own careers.

for the National Public Service examination has declined, making it difficult to recruit top talent. While a number of thosesurveyed by the NPA cited the difficulty of studying for the exam as a reason, three underlying problems have been frequently

To improve this situation, in 2015, the Act on the Promotion of Women’s Active Engagement in Professional Life was

identified.

enacted, requiring the national government, local governments, and corporations to monitor the status of women’s activities,
analyze problems, set numerical targets, and formulate and disclose action plans.

The first is poor working conditions. Although work style reform is being promoted, long working hours have been
exacerbated by COVID-19. Many criticize the high remunerations of public employees, but in reality, the remunerations based

According to statistics for FY2022, the percentage of women in the national public service is around 40%, but thepercentage is 28.3% for positions equivalent to unit chief, 14.1% for assistant director, 6.9% for division director, and 5.0% foron the NPA recommendations are not high at all in urban areas, and working conditions are not as good as in large privatecompanies.

higher positions (Designated Service）in the Headquarters . Although the Prime Minister’s Office has taken the initiative to
13

The second reason is the declining attractiveness and satisfaction of the public service profession itself.

appoint women as vice-ministers of administration and heads of offices, the number of women in managerial positions has
not reached the target set by the Council for Gender Equality for 2025 . This is largely due to the fact that the percentage of14

women recruited in the most difficult examinations for cadets was low, but this percentage has been gradually increasing inrecent years, reaching 34.5% of those who passed the Comprehensive Service examination and were appointed in FY2022.

In the prewar and early postwar years, public officials were the elite of the nation, and their authority was high. Until
the 1960s, public employees, especially Careers, had a sense of mission and were sometimes willing to go toe-to-toe withIn order to increase the proportion of female executive officials in the future, it is important to continue to increase thepoliticians for the future of the nation. In the 1970-1980s, public employees were involved in interest coordination andproportion of female recruits, correct inequities based on gender, create an environment in which women can actively take onpolicymaking, working closely with politicians under the long-term LDP government. However, with the emergence of the

new challenges by reforming work styles, and ensure a fair merit-based system that does not simply give preferential treatment

non-LDP coalition government in 1993 and the end of the LDP rule since 1955, people’s attitudes toward the relationshipto women.

between politicians and public officials gradually changed. A series of scandals undermined confidence in the public service
system, and when the DPJ government came to power in 2009 with the goal of “De-Bureaucratic Politics” , Ministers, Vice-(3) Raising the mandatory retirement age

Ministers, and parliamentary secretaries began to play a central role in policymaking within their respective ministries andAs Japan’s aging population and declining birthrate have led to a serious labor shortage, and as the starting age forpension benefits was raised, the need for continued employment of older people with a strong work ethic has increased in boththe public and private sectors.

14

are for Headquarters positions.
15

Since 2001, reappointment has been used to guarantee income during the gap between retirement and the start of pension

ibid. The targets are 30%(Unit Chief), 17%(Assistant director),10%(Division director), 8%(Designated Service). Target figures
In 2021, the Revised Law on Stable Employment of Older Persons took effect, requiring the private sector to make efforts tocontinue employment until the age of 70 or to abolish the mandatory retirement age to ensure job opportunities for workers aged
65 to 70. However, private companies rarely raise their retirement age and often re-employ them. Raising the retirement age of

12

National Personnel Authority, Annual Report, 2022, p.169 & p.171.

13

Cabinet Bureau of Personnel Affairs, Follow-up on the status of promotion of female national public servants, 6 Dec 2022.

https://www.cas.go.jp/jp/gaiyou/jimu/jinjikyoku/pdf/20221206_siryou7.pdf
20

civil servants is a reform to lead the private sector.
16

According to data released by the NPA, the number of successful applicants from the University of Tokyo in theComprehensive Service Exam (Spring) was 454 in 2013 and 193 in 2023
21

agencies, and the role of public officials declined.
Subsequently, the long-term Abe administration since 2012 has further strengthened political leadership, which, combinedwith reforms such as the centralized management of executive officials, has led to a definitive dominance of the Prime
Minister’s Office. The passive role of public officials lost its appeal, especially among the younger generation.
The third reason is dissatisfaction with personnel management. Although there has been a shift to a merit system basedon personnel evaluations, the seniority system based on the year of entry into the ministry still prevails for promotions, andthere are few internal job openings. Young public employees are often given support jobs and are unable to take on major
challenges. There are also concerns that the career system, which has been replaced by a new Fostering Courses for Executive
Candidates and centralized management of executive officials, has made it difficult to see what the future holds in terms ofReference•

Kiyoaki Tsuji, Komuinsei no Kenkyu (Study of Public Service System),1991,Tokyo University Press•

Takashi Nishio, Komuinsei (The Civil Service System in Japan), 2018, Tokyo University Press•

Masaru Mabuchi, Gyoseigaku(Public Administration 2nd edition), 2020, Yuhikaku•

Masaru Nishio, Gyoseigaku(Public Administration 2nd edition), 2001, Yuhikaku•

Michio Muramatsu, Bureaucracy in postwar Japan, 1981, Toyo Keizai Shinpo sha Publishing Co.

•

Hiroaki Inatsugu, Nihon no Kanryo Jinji Shisutemu(Japanese Bureaucratic Personnel System), 1996, Toyo Keizai Shinpo sha
Publishing Co.

•

National Personnel Authority, Introduction to National Public Service System in Japan
https://www.jinji.go.jp/eng/publications/pamph.html

career prospects 20 or 30 years from now. The needs of young people who want to grow through work, determine their own
careers, and develop their own prospects are not being adequately met, resulting in a loss of human resources to privatecompanies such as consulting firms.
In order to eliminate the above-mentioned causes, we should reevaluate the administrative system on the basis ofprofessionalism and political neutrality, and guarantee proper working conditions in line with the role of “servants of all
citizens” . Excellent human resources are indispensable for a fair and impartial public administration based on a high levelof expertise. The issue of securing human resources in the national public service has reached a critical juncture, as it will
determine the future of public administration.

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BRUNEI DARUSSALAMCONTENTS
Abstract�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������26
1.0: Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������27

Development of Human

2.0: Literature Review ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������27

Resources toward Long-

2.3: Strategic Management in the Public Sector��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������29

term Sustainability

2.1: National Economic Development and Human Resource Development����������������������������������������27
2.2: Strategic Human Resource Development������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������28
2.4: Competencies in Strategic HRD and the Public Sector ������������������������������������������������������������������29
2.4.1: Definition of Competencies����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������29
2.4.2: Competencies in the public sector ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������30
3.0: Initiatives Towards Human Capital Development: Brunei Case��������������������������������������������������������31
3.1: Phases of Training Institution Development through Strategic Management Process���������������31
3.2: Development of Public Service Capability Framework.������������������������������������������������������������������33
4.0: Case Analysis: Challenges and Opportunities���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������34
5.0: Conclusion�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������35
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������37

Dr. Noor Maya Salleh
Director, Institut Perkhidmatan Awam (IPA)
Prime Minister’s Office
Negara Brunei Darussalam
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Abstract

1.0: Introduction

This paper aims to examine the significance of combining strategic HRD and strategic management processes in changeWith emerging technology, the explosion of information, and globalization, the external organizational environment has

initiatives in order to achieve organizational stability and effectiveness. The notion stems from the challenges faced by public

become more complex, rapidly changing, and uncertain. Stakeholders and clients become increasingly segmented, literate, andsectors which have been impacted by the external organizational environment. Public sector organizations increasingly comedemanding. At the same time, internally, the organization also faces employees with diverse demographic and educational

under constant pressure to deliver quality public services and improve efficiencies. At the same time, strategic HRD becomes anbackgrounds, with various expectations. The issue of quality of service is becoming increasingly important in public service.

essential function of an organization’s planning process in anticipation of growth and change. In addition, competencies continue

As a result, public sector organizations increasingly come under constant pressure to deliver quality public services andto become a popular phenomenon in human resource management and HRD discourses in the public sector. With competencies,

improve (Ramseook-Munhurrun, Lukea-Bhiwajee and Naidoo, 2010). The inadequate competencies among public servants andhuman resources are said to be more capable and work more effectively, hence contributing to the success of their organization.

the lack of a systematic system supporting the successful implementation of organizations’intended initiatives and programs

For this purpose, IPA Brunei is used as the case study to identify the impact of the collaboration process between the strategic

could be among the contributing factors. These could have impacted and further influenced how organizations make decisions

HRD and strategic management practices. The historical development of training institutions in Brunei and the development

in managing and developing human resources geared toward competitive advantage. Hence, reinforced the significance ofof a public service capability framework as part of the strategic HRD and learning needs analysis to support organizational

developing human resources which allows organizations to cultivate talented groups, and define the skills and competencies

development will be included. This will be followed by the case analysis to discuss the strength of the systems supporting therequired for their future business strategies.

successful implementation and the progression of strategic initiatives. It is found that the convergence of strategic HRD andstrategic management not only improves and enhances the practice of HRD in organizations but also advances the field of HRD

No doubt researchers and practitioners consider human resource development (HRD) as an improvement strategy in an

knowledge. Finally, challenges to change initiatives and the way forward to overcome future issues are also briefly presented.

organization’s development. HRD is a relatively young academic discipline but an old and well-established field of practice(Swanson, 2022). There have been evolving definitions of HRD found in the literature. Among them include a definition by

Keywords: Strategic HRD, Strategic Management, Competency, Public Sector.

Wang et al (2017), that refers to HRD as a mechanism of shaping individual and group values and beliefs and skilling throughlearning-related activities to support the desired performance of the host institutional system. It has also been agreed that
HRD is oriented to solutions to solving problems. While others defined HR as the process of developing and unleashingexpertise aimed to improve individual performance, team performance, work processes, and organizational systems.
The substantial impact of developing human capital on the long-term sustainability of an organization and an economy led tothe contribution of this article. Thus, to contextualize this paper, the significance of strategic HRD and strategic management
processes in change initiatives toward achieving organization and economic sustainability will be discussed first. A distinctionin priorities between the public sector and private sectors will also be highlighted to some extent. A Brunei case is alsopresented for closer collaboration between HRD scholars and HRD practitioners as a means to achieve an understandingof the application of strategic HRD and strategic management process to the transformation objective. The convergence of
HRD scholars and HRD practitioners will also help to create research-informed HRD interventions that not only improve andenhance the practice of HRD in organizations but also advance the field of HRD knowledge.

2.0: Literature Review
2.1: National Economic Development and Human Resource Development
There is considerable evidence linking the provision of education and training to the economic well-being of a country.
Since the 1980s, interest at national and international levels in the area of HRD and its impact on economic performance
has continued to increase. This interest and concern have been predominantly driven by globalization and the increase ininternational trade; unemployment levels; national budget deficits; international comparisons of the level of education andtraining; and the development of new technologies. There has also been a recognition that the education of individuals has
been a source of personal advancement and growth, and this rationale has been expanded to apply to the intellectual resourcesof a nation.
The desire to encourage policies that promote economic growth is central to the work of the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD). An increased level of involvement by governmental agencies has been directed at
the coordination of strategies and the improvement of standards by encouraging investment in adult learning. Furthermore,human development has also been considered by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP,1996) with the Human
Development Index being based on a number of factors including gross domestic product per person, educational achievement,
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life expectancy, and level of literacy.

2.3: Strategic Management in the Public Sector

Despite the considerable evidence linking the provision of education and training to the economic well-being of a country,

Strategic management is a continuous process of setting organizational objectives, drawing up a strategy, and implementing

there remains paucity in the evidence of direct causal links (Keep and Meyhew, 1999), between skill formation and economic
performance (Ashton and Green, 1996). Factors such as weak infrastructure, poor design, and short-term requirements ofreturns on the investment were found to have significant effects on the success or otherwise of an economy. Hence, regardlessof the irrefutable evidence on the link between education and training and national performance, education and training
constitute the single greatest long-term leverage point available to all levels of government in upgrading industry (Porter,1990).

it to derive results using business resources. It is an ongoing process because the process of strategic management is highly
affected by the changes in the environment. Another understanding of strategic management is that it is the conscious
selection of policies, development of capacity, and interpretation of the environment by managers to focus organizational
efforts toward the achievement of preset objectives. Briefly, strategic management is a longer-term, dynamic process andholistic approach. It focused on imagined futures where preparation for the future is to be done today rather than expending
all their energy reacting to current demands. Hence strategic management is necessary for an organization to grow parallel tocomplex and chaotic circumstances since strategic management is the instrument to ensure the organization survives in the
short term and builds for a long-term future. This process also helps an organization to re-balance its political priorities to2.2: Strategic Human Resource Development
The term ‘Human Resource Development’was first defined by Nadler and Nadler in 1970 due to the increasing interest in the
HRD field among practitioners. The recognition resulted in the explosion of definitions of HRD from various perspectives ofdevelopment, learning, theory of change, and improved individual and organizational performance. Simply, HRD encompasses
activities and processes that are intended to have an impact on organizational and individual learning (Stewart and
McGoldrick, 1996). Chalofsky (1992) defined HRD as the study and practice of increasing the learning capacity of individuals,
groups, collectives, and organizations through the development and application of learning-based interventions for the purposeof optimizing human organizational growth and effectiveness. Both definitions will be used as guidance in understanding thestrategy to develop human resources in this paper.

give greater emphasis to one kind of activity, or one dimension of value over another or choose to respond.
Despite many distinctions that have been highlighted in previous research between public sector and private sector
organizations including in terms of their priorities set, the process of strategic management is still the same. While thepublic sector considers more issues such as legal and political environment, and jurisdictional competence, the private sector’ s
intention is profit-making through competitive advantage. Adopting the approach of strategic management is therefore crucial
in the public sector. One of the reasons is due to a more complex and uncertain environment. The environment in which
the public operates in modern society is constantly changing, and strategic management enables an excellent strategic fit
between the public sector and the environment. The public sector can align its internal structures and grow with its strategic

Over the years the role of HRD has gradually changed ever since management and decision-makers acknowledge the criticalrole that this function plays in developing strategy and long-term planning for human resources development, hence this iscalled strategic HRD. Strategic HRD is an essential function of an organization’s planning process in anticipation of growth,change, or planned or unplanned events whereby the competencies and skills of the people play a critical role in successful
and productive implementation and bring about desired results.

choices while matching the organization’s capabilities to the requirements of the environment. Secondly, the trends in theinternationalization of the world have led to increasingly complex governmental governance while accelerating the pace ofsocial change and making competition between countries more competitive. The public sector needs to take a longer-term viewand think strategically to improve its own national competitiveness to cope with the stresses of internationalization. Thirdly,
due to the increasing challenge of the public interest. Being said to be the representative of the public interest requires the
public sector to balance the interests of the whole with the interests of the present. Thus, requires public managers to have

The Strategic HRD framework is the process for HRD that follows four stages that are needs assessment, design,
implementation, and evaluation, in order to help an organization identify the training and development needs of theiremployees and to design and implement programs to meet those needs. At the needs assessment stage or analysis, learningor training needs analysis is required to assess what knowledge, skills, behaviors, and competencies are necessary to perform
effectively in a job role. The analysis will help to find gaps in performance, as aligned with business needs, and map thosegaps to the right training. Gaps in the competencies are identified and initiatives are proposed to fill up the gaps. This is thedesign or strategy formulation stage. At the implementation stage, initiatives are implemented to improve human resource
capability and finally post-training is done in order to identify the impact of training. This is the evaluation stage. The
framework can be seen in Figure 1 (b, c, d and e).

a holistic and long-term view and build a long-term local development strategy to maintain sustainable prosperity, hence
strategic management is worthwhile to be adopted.
Among the characteristics of strategic management is foresight. This is a strategy that defines an organization’s future
directions and objectives or future orientation. Secondly is systematic, such that it involves four stages that are, strategic
design, selection, implementation, and evaluation. Strategic design is the prerequisite foundation, strategy implementation isthe core key, and strategy evaluation is an important guarantee. Strategic management in the public sector is also dynamic
where it seeks development opportunities and identifies threats in the public sector. The government and organizations needto pay close attention to internal and external environmental changes and make targeted adjustments. Fourthly, while thepublic sector is relatively stable, having a strategy guides behavior over time, and changing it frequently will significantly
impact public sector management. From this perspective, government strategic management must be relatively stable to adapt

Analysis

Strategy

Performancequickly to changes in all aspects of the situation. Nonetheless, despite the differences in objectives, the process of strategic
management and HRD framework is apparently similar between the two sectors.

Goal Settinga

Analysisb

Strategy
Formulationc
Strategy
Implementationd

Evaluatione

2.4: Competencies in Strategic HRD and the Public Sector
2.4.1: Definition of Competencies
Towards developing human resources, the need for identifying and selecting competencies becomes more prominent. The
first era of the existence of competencies began when Harvard Psychologist Robert White triggered the requirement toobserve individual competencies for performance in 1959. Then followed by the second phase which involved the creation

Figure 1: Strategic Management Process and Strategic HRD
28

and management of competency models in organizations (Mansfield, 1996). The third phase was the identification of core29

competencies needed to gain a competitive advantage.

environment exhibiting complexity and uncertainty, and conflicting public interest faced by the public sector, while the private

Competencies continue to become a popular phenomenon in human resource management and HRD discourses. There has

sector focuses on monetary returns. Darling and Cunningham (2016) suggested that competencies for the public sector may

been increasing interest in the development of competencies of human resources in the public sector. With competencies,

include communicating in a political environment, impact assessment in decision-making, managing competing interests,

human resources are more capable and work more effectively, hence contributing to the success of their organization.

interpersonal motivational skills, and adding value for the communities. Whereas private sector competencies can range from

Moreover, having employees with competencies, allows an organization to distinguish average performers from above-averagebusiness and market acumen, visionary leadership, marketing communication, interpersonal communication, client service, andperformers. Earlier, McClelland (1973), produced a provocative study on employees’ performance at work. His study foundtimely and opportunistic decision-making. It is also understood that the private sector competencies reflect its environmentsthat personal competencies or individual traits and characteristics, were recognized as significant predictors of employee

where goals need to be specifically defined and implemented in a timely manner while public sector competencies are

performance and success, and are more important in predicting occupational success than traditional psychometrics suchdriven by environments exhibiting more complex and unresolvable problems and the need to respond to conflicting public

as IQ and aptitude tests. Boyatzis (1982) supported the notion that competency in a job represented great ability andinterest. Regardless of these distinctions, both the public sector and private sectors have increasingly experienced similar

high performance. Such competency is an underlying characteristic of a person that results in effective and/or superior

environmental turbulence and its impact on their organization, which is possible for adaptation of competencies from any

performance in a job. Competency is also argued to be essential to performing work effectively and needs to be demonstrated

sector.

in performing a job (Lucia and Lepsinger, 1999). Homer (2001) supported that employee competency is the most important
foundation for a successful organizational process and profit.

In order to measure and observe performance standards, the competency model has been found useful. The model has also
been widely used in many areas of HRD including recruiting officials, remuneration process, design training, and development

However, there has been confusion on the terminology between competencies and capabilities resulting in many authors andprograms. The competency model in an organization is considered as guidance for identifying individual employees’

practitioners’tendency to define and use both terms interchangeably. Thus, many researchers have highlighted the need for a

performance and future set skills. As a key tool, this framework helps in assessing the employees, career planning, and talent

clear distinction between capabilities and competencies to help practitioners provide a clear framework of competencies andmanagement by grouping the identified core competencies. As such, the competency model describes a specific combination

make better use of them. Briefly, organizations that employ capable employees experience a competitive advantage. The moreof knowledge, skills, and other personality characteristics that are necessary for effective performance of duties in thecapable an organization’s employees are, the more likely the organization is to experience improved quality and productivity.

organization.

Capable employees often feel more confident in their roles and are more motivated to complete their tasks successfully. Thiscan lead to increased morale and positively impact their overall output and productivity. Furthermore, when employees arecapable in several areas within the workplace, this provides an organization the ability to serve their clients efficiently and3.0: Initiatives Towards Human Capital Development: Brunei Case

effectively.

Building a pathway for sustainability and economic prosperity, Brunei Darussalam continues to be committed to achieving

Therefore, while capabilities require the ability to perform a task, competencies refer to the skills, talent, knowledge, andquality of life; and a dynamic and sustainable economy. One of the impactful and crucial factors to achieve this is developing

personal attributes, that an employee possesses, which positively impact their ability to perform their tasks. Blanchard andThacker defined competency as a cluster of related knowledge, skills, and attitudes that differentiate high performers fromaverage performers (Junaidah, 2008). Others stated that an employee who is knowledgeable is a competent person whose

its national vision, Wawasan 2035 through its goals of having an educated, highly skilled, and accomplished people; a highits nation through strategic human capital development. This section will be structured according to two sections that are thedevelopment of training institutions using a strategic management process and secondly, the development of a public service
capability framework as part of the strategic HRD and learning needs analysis to support organizational development.

attributes can be valued and measured internally and externally in several tangible aspects such as productivity (Jabar et al.,2010). Woodruffe (1992) defined competencies as a set of behavior patterns that the incumbent needs to bring to a positionin order to perform his or her tasks and functions with competence. This implied how an employee’s behaviors are critical toaccomplishing work effectively and efficiently. Parry (1998) defines competencies as a cluster of related knowledge, attitudes,
and skills that affect a major part of one’s job, that correlate with performance on the job, that can be measured against wellaccepted standards, and that can be improved via training and development.
With respect to employee competency, much literature indicates that competency requirement varies according to positions,jobs, and organizations (Puteh, Kaliannan, and Alam, 2016). As a result, many organizations have defined their respective
scope of competencies differently and identified at least four core competencies required, that is administrative, leadership,business sense, and lastly managing people competency (Snell & Bohlander, 2013). Puteh, Kaliannan, and Alam (2016)
conducted research on identifying and developing core competencies and concluded that regardless of different positions,tasks, and nature of service-based businesses, core competencies play a salient role in organizational excellent performance.
Woodruffe (1992) referred to core competencies as generic competencies and suggested that regardless of the different typesof organizations (either large or small) and positions (either lower, middle, or upper level), the generic competencies list helps
organizations to determine the dimensions of competency expected from their employees.
2.4.2: Competencies in the public sector
An array of competencies between the public sector and the private sector is further argued to be different. Existing researchfound some distinctions between the public sector and the private sector due to the nature of business and the external30

3.1: Phases of Training Institution Development through Strategic Management Process
Towards transformation and sustainability, this section will be divided into three phases. The first phase will focus on theestablishment of a training unit in Brunei. The second phase will be on the upgrading of the training unit, and the third
phase will focus on the vision of becoming the center of excellence.

Phase 1: Establishment of a Training Unit
The development history of the civil service institute in Brunei goes back to the proposal forwarded by a public service
consultant from the United Nations in 1962 which suggested the setup of a training unit. This marked the beginning of staff
development focused in a formal setting and this was enhanced by the appointment of an officer to be the training officer in
1975. Further support to the proposal, the Brunei government has engaged an advisor from the United Nations for guidance
specifically on training needs and the development of a training unit in 1976. In January 1977, the Training Unit was officiallyestablished under the Establishment Office in an effort to continuously enhance and strengthen the capacity, attitude, andmotivation of government servants in the discharge of their routine duties and responsibilities. The role of the Training Unit
was also emphasized to plan, organize, coordinate, and administer in-service training activities for all levels of government
servants in administration and management training both for training locally and abroad. Governance, structure, andprocesses were designed and developed, including the requirement of training needs analysis by the respective department as
part of a training development plan. Prior to this strategy formulation, a research survey and analysis were conducted and the31report supported the establishment of a training unit to provide training in the management and administration area for all

institutes and is actively involved in the ASEAN Cooperation on Civil Service Matters (ACCSM+3) work plan, a platform forlevels of officers and staff in the government sector toward achieving leadership excellence.

collaboration with ASEAN Member States to exchange information, for innovations, best practices in civil service management

In 1978, the Training Unit began to organize and conduct short courses and local programs according to training needs atand development, and future set skills.

the Training Centre located at the Establishment Department. Essential programs offered at that time included receptionist/
telephone operator, and basic skills courses for clerks and junior officers who just graduated. Since then, the Training Unit

Basically, to achieve its transformation goals since its establishment and to be a centre of excellence, all initiatives, programs,

continue to grow and is active in offering and conducting quality programs.

and activities conducted and initiated replicate the process of strategic management approach and HRD framework whichis as illustrated in Figure 1. Such that the vision and mission guided IPA to set its priorities and goals through its five-year

In 1989, the Brunei government collaborated with a consultant from the Harvard Institute of International Development

strategic plan (refer to goal setting stage a). Analyses of the external environment and internal organization are required

to conduct a study on the role of the Training Unit in training provision. The study also considered input from permanent(refer to stage b) to avoid misalignment with the organization’ s set goals. At this stage, the strength of its internal capabilities

secretaries at that time. The outcome of the study proposed the establishment of a national training institute that focuses on

including physical resources (such as straining venues, learning equipment, and facilities) and intangible resources (such asadministration, management and supervisory courses for both government civil servants and local businesses.

work processes, systems, and trainers’ competencies) was analyzed and assessed. Despite being a government entity, IPA is
also impacted by VUCA external environment including the COVID-19 pandemic, changes in government directions, and/Phase 2: Upgrading Training Unit
By the consent of His Majesty the Sultan of Brunei, the training unit was upgraded to a civil service institute, named
Institut Perkhidmatan Awam according to His Majesty’s titah in 1993. With the increasing number of training participants
and the growth of Institut Perkhidmatan Awam (IPA), a new permanent building was constructed and IPA was reallocatedat Kampung Rimba in 1997. The historical move marked the significant existence role and responsibility of IPA in humanresource development. This gave more opportunity to IPA to stride forward by offering diverse courses suitable for public
service as a strategy to prepare the participants to be competent workforce and future leaders. Courses include administrative
courses, character building, and an induction program for the new graduates.

or ministries and departments’goals, all demand urgency in changes in the human resources capabilities. The performance ofother RTOs or training agencies and institutions is also benchmarked against IPA’ s performance requiring IPA to be moreagile and resilient.
To adapt to the changing situation, the next stage is the formulation of strategies or options to implement its strategy andinitiatives (refer to strategy formulation stage c). This is where several strategies or potential solutions, programs, and actions
are identified and developed. This is followed by the implementation staged where planned strategies are implemented. To
ensure implementation is successful and effective, the availability of resources, clear organizational structure, favorable work
climate, learning organization work culture, systematic work process, sufficient budget, competent employees, and good
leadership practices are in place.

Phase 3: Towards Centre of Excellence
IPA’s existence continues to be relevant for the development of civil service. In 2016, the Prime Minister’s Office structured
the civil service framework and one of its strategic initiatives is to prepare a framework for capability development for public
service. This was a big leap in the development of human capital in the public sector strategy. IPA was given the trust tocoordinate, develop, and revise the framework. Furthermore, with the new era of globalization, advanced technology, andinformation technology, IPA has to be more resilient, robust, and proactive and take immediate action to meet the needsof individual workforces and public sector organizations to prepare these workforces to be ready and fit for the future. IPA

At the final stage (refer to performance), initiatives, actions, and programs offered require monitoring and evaluation to
identify the success and level of performance of IPA and its clients. The post-training evaluation was conducted to identify
trainers’ quality, course, and content relevancy. An impact study was also conducted to observe participants’ standard
performance through improved capabilities which eventually improved their organization’ s performance. Nevertheless,throughout the process, analysis, decision-making, and action happen at all stages. This gave flexibility to IPA to adapt to the
dynamic and complexity of the environment.

crafted its strategic plan with the vision to be the center of excellence and with the mission to equip civil servants with therequired skills and competencies to achieve organizational excellence and service delivery. The strategic plan has guided IPA
to be conscious of its external environment and be ready for challenges ahead that have an impact on its core business. At
the same time, IPA also ensures its trainers have quality and are equipped with professional certification, new skills, and new
knowledge, and provides conducive learning facilities.
IPA continues to design and offer relevant planner programs and flagship programs based on learning needs analysis andalignment with Brunei Wawasan 2023; Prime Minister’s Office’s five-year strategic plan and strategic initiative on public
service transformation; Digital Economy Masterplan 2025 towards having a smart nation through digital transformation;
Manpower Blueprint; Economic Blueprint for Brunei Darussalam towards a dynamic and sustainable economy and otherrelevant new strategies.
Stronger support from local agencies is required to provide strategic input and identify competencies and learning needs oftheir respective ministry including the suggestion for improvement for IPA and courses offered. A strategic liaison committee(SLC) was established as part of the Whole of Government Approach (WOGA). Another strategy was maintaining strong
collaboration with universities and other training institutions both local and international for quality trainers.
At the same time, IPA also broadened its domain through collaboration with regional and international public service training
32

3.2: Development of Public Service Capability Framework.
Developing professional competencies is a critical activity in an organization in order to achieve excellent competitive
advantage. Improvement of employee competencies has also been found to produce significant organizational performance,
namely organizational profits, productivity, and an increase in employee engagement as well as career development. Employees’
performance requires strategic attention which otherwise will lead to misalignment in the human resource management.
Under the Prime Minister’ s Office’s Civil Service Framework, one of its strategic initiatives toward public service excellence
was the development of a capability development framework and its measurement for civil servants, known as the PublicService Capability Development Framework (PSCDF). IPA has been tasked to design and develop this framework for civil
servants focusing on core competencies. The objective was to enable organizations to measure the capabilities of theirworkforces in implementing strategies and initiatives of their respective organizations. This framework will also identify the
workforce’ s level of competencies and prepare individual development plans through a designed measurement for individual
performance evaluation.
Figure 2 shows the three levels of competencies: core competency, functional competency, and leadership competency. The
core competency is the set of competencies that are adaptable to all staff and officers in all departments and ministries.
Functional competency is the competencies specific to the task of the individual in departments or units. This is preparedby their respective department in their ministries. Leadership Competency is designed for officers identified for leadership33

succession plans. This leadership competency is identified by the Public Service Department (PSD) under the Prime

accomplished through formal education and lifelong learning to achieve its aspiration in order to be a developed country. To

Minister’s Office (PMO).

realise the aspiration, therefore, requires holistic transformation, alignment, and support from all government agencies andrelevant stakeholders.

The PSCDF comprises 11 core competencies under four capabilities. This includes Strategic Direction; People Engagement;
Performance culture; and Organization capability. Each of these capabilities has generic competencies that are relevant to all

Secondly, the constant change in the environment is one of the primary push forces for organizational change. Public constantdepartments in all ministries. The core competencies are as below:

demand and high expectations, internationalization, explosion of data, and advanced technology push public service to deliver⁄ Strategic Direction Capability: Champion Vision and Values; Drive Change; Business Acumen; Business Development;a high standard of performance. Delivering quality service is considered an essential strategy for success in the public sector,
hence requires the provision and upgrading of skills, knowledge, and competencies to support change in work processes andand Knowledge Capital

initiatives.

⁄ People Engagement Capability: Communicate with Influence; and Collaborate and Engage⁄ Performance Culture Capability: Outcome-Oriented Results; and Continuous Improvement

The existence of continuous professional development policies such as 100 hours of training policy and the implementation⁄ Organization Capability: Organizational Development; and Building Capability

process of PSCDF are another strength and successful factor of the HRD strategy formulation in Brunei civil service. Human
capital development initiatives will be stronger and supported if implemented in tandem. Other factors supporting human
Figure 2: Types of Competencies adopted and departmental responsibilities

capital development initiatives include civil servants’ readiness to adapt to change and awareness of the need for change.
Organizational transformation will be easier if all civil servants understand the requirement for change both for their career

Responsibility
Leadership
Competency
Functional
Competency
Core Competency

Implementation Stage

progression and organizational performance.
Last but not least is IPA’ s prominent role in developing human capital and its persistence to progress, to ensure its mission

Implemented

PSD, PMO

is achieved and alignment with national objectives, further contributing to the success of the HRD initiatives. The adoptionof a strategic management process guided IPA to implement its initiatives and activities systematically. Throughout thedevelopment and improvement process, IPA consistently monitors the structure of the development model to support its

Ministries/
Department

In the process

IPA, PMO

In the process

HR initiatives and use of competencies across the human resource functions. This is also insisted by previous research thatorganizations should ensure that the competence of organizational members is assessed, maintained, demonstrated, andcontinually improved (Rabiah et al. 2007; Smith & Robertson 1992).

5.0: Conclusion
The service industry increasingly plays a significant role in the economies of many countries. In many well-developed
Throughout the process of development, PSCDF went through the testing phases by conducting several initial workshops
to pilot the measurement to various levels of users and make revisions for improvement. Buying-in to get support for the
initiative was conducted to all ministries, and at the same time to align with their new strategic objective. After revision,
training for HR officers and departmental assessors in all ministries was conducted. The objective of the training wasto impart the objective of PSCDF and to guide users on the assessment method before the implementation stage. These
processes are crucial to ensure this framework can be implemented successfully and effectively.

4.0: Case Analysis: Challenges and Opportunities

countries, the service sectors generate economic growth by exporting expertise and knowledge-based services. Developing
public servants is no doubt very crucial because their capability can contribute to the sound economic expansion of theeconomy. More attention is increasingly given to developing new capabilities for public servants and transforming work
culture to improve the high standard of delivery services. More organizations are also increasingly attuned not only to focus
on monetary gains but also on developing and strengthening their intangibles or human assets. To stay competitive in today’ s
rapidly changing business environment, organizations must be willing and able to constantly adapt and evolve their businessstrategy. In practice, civil servants are supposed to demonstrate integrity in delivery services, and thus they are expected to becapable and proficient in providing public services.

This section will analyse the strength of factors and systems supporting the successful implementation and the progression

However, challenges in implementing change initiatives in the area of HRD are inevitable. The COVID-19 pandemic is aof strategic initiatives. Firstly, is the government’ s strategic objective and initiative. The consistent progression in theperfect example of how quickly the world can change and how quickly businesses need to and can respond. The education

development of the training unit over the last four decades is the essence and the starting point for the development ofsector was heavily affected causing most planned programs to be aborted and instant solutions demanded. Organizations, likehuman capital in Brunei civil service. Understanding future needs resulted in developing strategies for the most valuable

people, are often highly resistant to change, even when they know it is necessary. Successfully adopting a new strategy withasset which is the people. It is also noted that the significant missions of the civil service are not only providing vitala change initiative, regardless of how incremental or radical, is usually difficult and often messy. And the consequences of apublic services to its people, but also driving national and social development, administering public resources responsibly,

poorly managed organizational transformation can be devastating.

anticipating future changes, and managing the evolving relationship between the government and the people. The strong
support from the government along with its strategic intervention, is the ultimate ingredient to the successful implementation

Thus, as the way forward, understanding some of the most common reasons why strategies for change fail can help to preventof any organization. In this case, the Brunei Government and the Prime Minister’s Office have a strong emphasis on the

an organizational disaster and lead to a successful change initiative. More than ever, firstly, organizations need leaders with

development of the economy through the development and strengthening of the capability of human capital. Brunei Wawasan

the knowledge and skills to plan and manage change successfully. Secondly, having a systematic approach to change through2035 has made very clear its first goal which is the virtue of investing in its nation to be educated, highly skilled, anda sound strategic management approach is also critical. For example, the initiatives for HRD such as implementing PSCDF

34

35

should be an organizational strategy to enhance and support talent acquisition, development, and retention. Policy on theimplementation of this framework should be made compulsory. Thirdly, a reward system should be seen as one of the key
predictors of performance management in a service organization. Existing research found that rewards prove to be a tool toincrease performance and change behaviors in dissatisfied employees. A reward system is not just about monetary incentives
but also includes awards and recognition, reassignments, promotions, and other reward programs. Fourthly, for sustainable
impact, IPA should also maintain strategic collaboration with its strategic partners for future set skills preparation, as wellas have close relationships with potential clients to gather learning needs and gaps in their abilities to perform. In short,regardless of the constant challenges, developing the skills of civil servants is important for continuous improvement which
eventually leads to a high standard of organizational performance and promotes economic growth.

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Publishing.

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Bohlander, G., og Snell, S.(2013). Principles of human resource management, 16.

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Boyatzis, R. (2008). Competencies in the 21st century. Journal of Management Development. Emerald Group Publishing
Limited.

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Chalofsky, N. (1992) A Unifying Definition for The Human Resource Development Profession. Human Resource
Development Quarterly. Wiley Online Library.

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Darling, S.D. and Cunningham, J.B. (2016), “Underlying values and competencies of public and private sector managers”,
Asian Education and Development Studies, Vol. 5 No. 4, pp. 371-387 Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

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30 Tahun Kecemerlangan Melalui Pembangunan Insan (1997-2007). Institut Perkhidmatan Awam Publication.

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Homer, M. (2001). Skills and competency management. Industrial and Commercial Training. Emerald Group Publishing
Limited.

•Jabar, M; Sidi, F; and Selamat, M. (2010). Tacit Knowledge Codification. Journal of Computer Science, Vol 6. Issues 10.
Science Publications.

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Junaidah, H. (2008). Competencies acquisition through self-directed learning among Malaysian managers. Journal of
Workplace Learning, 20(4), 259–271.

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Keep, E. and Mayhew, K. (1999). Evaluating the assumptions that underlie training policy. Education, Training and the
Future of Work I, Edition 1. Imprint Routledge.

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Lucia, D. and Lepsinger, L. (1999). A review of The Art and Science of Competency Models. Jossey-Bass, Pfeiffer, San
Francisco.

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Mansfield, R. (1996). Building competency models: Approaches for HR professionals. Human Resource ManagementAdvancing Human Resource Research and Practice. Wiley.

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McClelland, D. (1998). Identifying Competencies with Behavioral-Event Interviews, Vol.9, Issue 5. Sage Journal.

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OECD Public Governance Reviews. Engaging Public Employees for a High-Performing Civil Service. November 2016.

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Parry, S. B. (1998). Just What is Competency? (And Why Should You Care?). Training, 35(6), 58–64.

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Porter, M. (1990). The Competitive Advantage of Nations. Harvard Business Review. March-April.

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Puteh, F; Kaliannan, M; and Alam, N. (2016). Employee Core Competencies and Organisational Excellence: An
Interpretative Analysis Australian Journal of Business and Economic Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, March•

Rabiah, W., Masturah, A., Siti Mariam, A. A., & Zaini, A. (Eds.). (2007). Transforming The Management of Human
Capital -The Current Issues: A Roundtable Dialogue. Shah Alam, Selangor Malaysia: University Publication Centre(UPENA) UiTM.

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Ramseook-Munhurrun, P; Lukea-Bhiwajee, S; and Naidoo, P. (2010). Service Quality in the Public Service. International
Journal of Management and Marketing Research, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 37-50.

•

Smith, M., & Robertson, I. (1992). Assessing Competencies. In B. Rosemary & P. Sparrow (Eds.), Designing andAchieving Competency: A Competency-Based Approach to Developing People and Organisations (pp. 50–76). Berkshire,
England: McGraw-Hill.

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Snell, S. A., & Bohlander, G. W. (2013). Principles of Human Resource Management: International Edition (16th Ed.).
South Western: Cengage Learning.

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Swanson, R. (2021). Foundation of Human Resource Development. Third edition. Berrett- Koehler Publishers.

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Stewart, J.; McGoldrick, S. (1996). Understanding Human Resource Development: A Research-based Approach. Routledge.
London•Wang, G; Werner, J; Judy Y. Sun, J; Gilley, A and W. Gilley, J. (2022). Means vs ends: theorizing a definition of humanresource development. Personnel Review, Vol. 46 No. 6•

Woodruffe, C. (1993), “What Is Meant by a Competency?”, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 14 No. 1,
pp. 29-36.

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CAMBODIACONTENTS
Abstract�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������40
Table and Figure����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������41

Cambodia’s Civil Service,

Acronyms�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������42
Introduction to Cambodia’ s civil service�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������43
Cambodia’ s Personnel Administration��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������43
Table 1: Categories, Grades and Steps of Civil Servants������������������������������������������������������������������������������44

Reform and Challenges

Figure 1: Career progress in Cambodia’ s civil service���������������������������������������������������������������������������������45
Table 2: Category and Position Opportunity�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������45
Figure 2: Civil Servants by Categories in 2016����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������46
Figure 2.1: Civil Servants by Categories in 2021�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������46
Figure 3: Total Civil Servants at National and Subnational Levels in 2016����������������������������������������������47
Figure 3.1: Total Civil Servants at National and Subnational Levels in 2021�������������������������������������������47
Key reforms�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������47.

Table 3: Key Achievements of Public Administrative Reform (1993-2018)�����������������������������������������48
Civil Service Pay reform������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������49
Figure 4: Minimum salary increase for civil servants and armed forces������������������������������������������������51
Performance Management��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������51
Figure 5: Cambodia’ s PM cycle�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������52

Challenges/issues���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������53
Challenges of pay reform:���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������53
Figure 6: How importance is salary reform?����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������53
Figure 7: How current salary levels satisfy work performance?�������������������������������������������������������������54
Figure 8: How current salary levels impact on performance?�����������������������������������������������������������������54
Challenges of performance management:������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������55
Table 4: Summary of review report on HR practice in Cambodia’ s civil service in 2015������������������55
Conclusion���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������56

THUN Bunthoeun1
Royal School of Administration,
1

Mr. THUN Bunthoeun is currently Director of the Department of Research and International Relations

Contact: Email: bunthoeun_thun@yahoo.com; Telegram: (855) 12 660114
38

39

Abstract

Table and Figure

This paper is trying to explore the development of Cambodia’ s civil service, its reform, and challenges across the periods,

Table 1: Categories, Grades and Steps of Civil Servants��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������44

especially from the 1990s to the present. There are milestones of key reforms during the 1990s and 2000s, such as peace

Table 2: Category and Position Opportunity���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������45

reconciliation and administrative unification, the development of civil service legal framework and institution, the developmentof civil service database and classification system, which provides foundation for civil service management. From 2013, with
the new leadership of MCS, civil service categories and promotion processes have been reviewed and shortened for effective
implementation and management and with the aim of increasing civil servants’ motivation. At the same time, salary reform

Table 3: Key Achievements of Public Administrative Reform (1993-2018)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������48
Table 4: Summary of review report on HR practice in Cambodia’ s civil service in 2015����������������������������������������������������������������55

has been introduced through the banking system to provide accessible and efficient wage for civil servants; and performance

Figure 1: Career progress in Cambodia’s civil service�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������45

management is also revisited for implementation. Such development provides clear structure, professionalism, and effectiveness

Figure 2: Civil Servants by Categories in 2016�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������46

for civil service management. However, there are also various challenges which need to have further review and provide
appropriate interventions to have effective and productive civil service management and performance.
Keywords: Civil Service, Public Administrative Reform, Performance Management

Figure 2.1: Civil Servants by Categories in 2021����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������46
Figure 3: Total Civil Servants at National and Subnational Levels in 2016��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������47
Figure 3.1: Total Civil Servants at National and Subnational Levels in 2021�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������47
Figure 4: Minimum salary increase for civil servants and armed forces��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������51
Figure 5: Cambodia’s PM cycle�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������52
Figure 6: How importance is salary reform?����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������53
Figure 7: How current salary levels satisfy work performance?����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������54
Figure 8: How current salary levels impact on performance?�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������5440

41

Acronyms

Introduction to Cambodia’s civil service

ATM – Automated Teller Machines

Cambodia’s civil service is seen to have been changed across the periods of time due to the consequences of regime changes

CAR – Council for Administrative Reformand civil war. During the French colonization (1863-1953), Cambodia’s civil service had become modernized2 with the structure

CDC –Council for the Development of Cambodia

of career system, appropriate wage and professional training as adopted from the French rule, which is believed to provide

D&D – Decentralization and Deconcentration

supportive system for the colonial establishment and purposes. In the following years after gaining independence from the

HR – Human Resource

French, Cambodia’s civil service system was still seen to be largely influenced by the French legal system until 1975 (before theHRM – Human Resource Management

Khmer Rouge regime). (see Clayton 1995; Chandler 2008; and other sources on history of Cambodia).

HRMIS – Human Resource Management through Information System
ID – Identity Document

During the Khmer Rouge regime (1975-1979), the whole system had been destroyed and civil servants of the previous regime

MBPI – Merit Based Performance Incentives

became the target of torture, imprisonment, and extermination. Only after the complete collapse of the Khmer Rouge regime

MCS – Ministry of Civil Service

and its organizational management during the late 1990s through the government’s win-win strategy, Cambodia has started to

MEF – Ministry of Economy and Financeembark on various fundamental reforms to achieve its governance agenda, economic growth performance as well as rebuilding its

MoU – Memorandum of Understanding

civil service system from scratch.

NCDD – National Committee for Decentralization and Deconcentration
NPAR – National Program for Administrative Reform

It can be noted that though peace being restored in the early 1990s, but the Khmer Rouge fraction was only defeated in late

NPM – New Public Management

1990s, which led to subsequent reform of public administrative system to comply with the 1994 civil service law (Law on the

OWS – One Window Service

Common Statute of Civil Servants)3. The 1994 civil service law was administered by the 1996-established State Secretariat ofPAR –Public Administrative Reform

Civil Service (SSCS), but due to reform movement, the Council for Administrative Reform (CAR) was established in 1999 to

PFM – Public Financial Management

handle the National Program for Public Administrative Reform (NPAR) and work in parallel with SSCS. In such regard, various

PFMRP – Public Financial Management Reform Program

civil service-related regulations have been adopted to lead and manage Cambodia’s civil service including the administrative

PM – Performance Management

unification, civil service classification system, remuneration and payroll system and so on (see table 3).

PMAS – Performance Management and Accountability System
PMG – Priority Mission Groups

However, during such post-conflict situation, Cambodia’civil service system was seen to be poorly equipped with low pay, and

POC – Priority Operational Costs

it was criticised as failing to provide a living wage and encouraging various corrupt behaviours in public service such as the

RGC – Royal Government of Cambodia

seeking of second jobs, rent-seeking and poor public service delivery (World Bank 2013). Such remuneration challenges caused

RSA – Royal School for Administrationdifficulty in attracting and motivating high skilled employees and encouraged the practices of various salary supplements such as

SOA – Special Operating Agencies

performance-based pay / incentives in various donor-financed projects without clear policy guidance or oversight.

SSCS – State Secretariate of Civil Service
UNPAN – United Nations Public Administration Network

In response, the government enunciated certain principles for guiding salary reform such as defining uniformity and equity ofsalary throughout the public service, introducing basic salary through folding from the different aspects of allowances and otheradditions, and ensuring fiscal sustainability of wage bill and so on. However, the challenges persisted regarding insufficientacross-the-board increase in basic salary, lack of differentiating salary for different jobs, and lack of performance accountability
focus (World Bank 2013).

Cambodia’s Personnel Administration
Cambodia’s personnel administration is governed by certain laws and regulations. The key civil service law that is still relevant
and has impact on Cambodia’s civil service is the 1994 Common Statute of Civil Servants which stipulate the key components
and processes of personnel administration in Cambodia ranging from recruitment to retirement and leave (RGC 1994).
In managing and developing Cambodia’s civil service, especially the personnel administration, Ministry of Civil Service

2

There seems limited availability of research and study on the Cambodia’ s civil service before and during the Frenchcolonization.
3

RGC (1994) Royal Kram 06/NS/94, dated 30 October 1994, on the Promulgation of the Law on the Common Statute of Civil

Servants
42

43

(MCS) has played the key role. MCS has just been established in 2013 through the trend of public administrative reform bysimilarly, category B is subdivided into B1 (B1.1-B1.6), B2 (B2.1-B2.4), and B3 (B3.1-B3.4) respectively. In each category, grade

amalgamating the three institutions such as the Council for Administrative Reform (CAR), the State Secretariat for Civil Service

1 and step 1 (example, A1.1) is regarded as the highest ranking, which the new entrants are required to start from the lowest(SSCS), and the Royal School of Administration (RSA). There are two key missions of MCS (RGC 2014a) which include (1) tograde and step of each category (example, A3.4) (see figure 1). To move from each step of each grade, there are two possible

lead, manage, and develop the civil service in Cambodia in response to the needs of national and regional development but inways. The first one is done through the seniority of spending two years in civil service. This means every two-year, civil servant

line with international standard; and (2) to make the public administration become a more responsive, effective, efficient, andcan apply for step promotion. Another way is done through the higher degree of education that civil servants obtain during theirreliable public service provider.

service, which is higher than the minimum education requirement for their category. In special circumstance but it is also specialcase, civil servants who are recognized as exceptional qualities or outstanding performance, promotion can be done disregard of

Before and after the establishment of MCS, there are also other supporting regulations that provide specific details and processes

seniority.

for Cambodia’ s personnel administration . However, the implementation of civil service law and its relevant regulations seems to
4

Figure 1: Career progress in Cambodia’s civil service

have limited monitoring and evaluation which may reflect the effectiveness of its enforcement.
Cambodia’ s civil service is seen to adopt career system as influenced by the French legal system, but through the trend of public
administrative reform from 2000s, there seems to include some components of employment system (which will be discussed in
the next section on public administrative reform). Civil servants in Cambodia are grouped into different civil service bodies basedon their level of education, which are ruled by their particular statutes, such as the administrators, diplomats, teachers, doctors
and technicians and so on.
Table 1: Categories, Grades and Steps of Civil Servants
Category

A

Grade

4

3

2

1

Step

Step

Step

3

2

1

4

Salary Index
345

B

4

345

3

364

308

2

1

6

5

379

394

410

426

4

3

443

461

479

496

2

1

Step

Step

Step

2

1

4

318

3

2

1

6

5

Salary Index
331

2

1

513

531

550

3

2

1

Salary Index

3

Salary Index
300

3

Salary Index

4

Salary Index

344

358

369

380

393

407

421

436

453

470

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

335

352

370

390

C

Salary Index
265

274

284

295

307

321

Source: (RGC 2014b)

Also, each category has opportunity to be appointed for specific positions (see table 2). For instance, civil servants in category A1
have opportunity to be appointed in the top managerial positions such as Director General, Secretary General, and Municipal/

According to the 2014 General Principle of Civil Service Organization (RGC 2014b), each body of civil servants is ranked

Provincial Governor. Category A2 has opportunity to be appointed in middle managerial positions such Deputy Director General

into three categories (A, B and C) and in compliance with the minimum education requirement for each respective body. For

and Director; while category A3 has opportunity to be appointed as Deputy Director, Head of Provincial Departments andinstance, category A requires minimum education of bachelor degree, category B requires minimum education of associate

District Governor. In such regard, civil servants in category A and category B are regarded as high ranking and middle ranking

degree, and for category C, the minimum education requirement is high school. Also, each category is subdivided into grades,

officials respectively, and category C is regarded as low-ranking officials.

and each grade is subdivided into steps, except for category C, there is no grade but consists of 10 steps (see table 1).
Table 2: Category and Position Opportunity
To be specific, category A is subdivided into three grades such as A1 (A1.1-A1.6), A2 (A2.1-A2.4), and A3 (A3.1-A3.4); and4

For instance,

CategoryA

Opportunity(Position)
Directir General, Inspector

Deputy Director General, Deputy Inspector, Director-

Royal Kram 06/NS/94, dated 30 October 1994, on the Promulgation of the Law on the Common Statute of Civil Servants-

Royal Decree NS/RKT/1014/1175 dated 2 Oct 2014 on the General Principles of the Organization of the State Civil Service;

Deputy Director, Head of Provincial Department-

Royal decree NS/RKT/0416/373 dated 04 Apr 2016 on particular statute for sub national administration civil servant;Chief of Office, Sub-Head of Provincial Department-

Sub-Decree No.116/ANKR.BK dated 19 Oct 1995 on the Legal Framework of Leave without Pay;-

Sub-Decree No.114/ANKR.BK dated 7 Sept 2015 on determination structural management and positions within structural
management of sub-national and national ministries/institutions;44

Sub-decree no.56/ANKR.BK dated 01 Apr 2016 on attendance management of civil servants and contractual staff;

B
C

Vice-Chief of Office, Chief of Office at Provincial Department
Vice-Chief of Office at Provincial Department
Adminnistrative work
45

Figure 3: Total Civil Servants at National and Subnational Levels in 2016

It is also noted that over the last ten years from 2003 to 2016, the number of civil servants had slightly increased which isbelieved to be the result of rigid control over the recruited number of new civil servants. For instance, according to the Ministryof Civil Service’s payroll (MCS 2016b), the number of Cambodia’s civil servants was totalled around 184,609 in 2016 (see figure 2)
which is seen to have slightly increased from 166,872 in 2003 (Taliercio 2004). In such figure, the increasing rate was less than 10
percent over the last ten years.
However, if we look at the figure of total civil servants in 2021, there are total of 214,038 civil servants across categories (A,B, C) at both national and subnational level (MCS 2021) (see figure 2.1), which shows dramatic increase around 16 percent injust only over the last 5 years (from 2016 to 2021). By January 2023, the total number of civil servants is around 218,046, which
include 42,418 of national and 175,628 of subnational. For 2023, the number of civil servants in category C remains high at totalof 76,207, and followed by category B (74,047) and category A (67,792). (MCS 2023a)
Figure 2: Civil Servants by Categories in 2016

Source: MCS(2016b)
Figure 3.1: Total Civil Servants at National and Subnational Levels in 2021

Source: MCS(2016b)
Figure 2.1: Civil Servants by Categories in 2021

Source: MCS(2021)

Key reforms
Among the key reform agenda, public administration reform has been regarded as one of the cornerstones in achieving good
governance as well as improving the livelihood of civil servants across the country. Public administration reform (PAR) is
mainly interconnected with three reform programs such as National Program for Administrative Reform (NPAR) (under thesupervision of the Council for Administrative Reform, and after 2013, under the supervision of Ministry of Civil Service and
PAR Committee), Public Financial Management Reform Program (PFMRP) (under the supervision of Ministry of Economy and
Finance and PFM Committee), and National Program for Decentralization and Deconcentration (D&D) (under the supervisionof Ministry of Interior and National Committee for Decentralization and Deconcentration - NCDD). However, such PAR’ ssynergies among the three reform programs are closely cooperated only after 2013, especially after the new MCS has been
Source: MCS(2021)
Within the total figure of civil servants, the number of teachers in education sector is seen to account for more than 60 percent,and the number of civil servants who are working at the sub-national level accounts for more than 80 percent (see figure 3 and 3.1).
Even though, the total number of civil servants in 2021 and 2023 has increased, the percentage of civil servants who are working
at the sub-national level remains high at more than 80 percent (MCS 2021; MCS 2023a).
46

established.
If we look back at the progress of previous public administrative reform (PAR) from 1993 to 2018, according to the National
Program for Administrative Reform 2015-2018 (NPAR) (RGC 2015) and the World Bank (2020), Cambodia is seen to haveachieved incremental progress across the period of reform. These key achievements include the national reconciliation andunification among the conflicting political fractions from 1993-1998, the strengthening foundation for civil service management
47

from 1999-2003, the deepening reform from 2004-2008, the further deepening reform from 2008-2012, and the continuance ofChinese government assistance), and producing new ID card for civil servants functioning as both civil servant ID and ATM

further deepening reform for effectiveness from 2013-2018, and so on. (See details in table 3).

purposes. At the same time, he also proposed some actions for enforcing further public administration reform such as reviewing
to amend the 1994 Common Statute of Civil Servants, and preparing the new Sub Decree on national entrance examination for

Table 3: Key Achievements of Public Administrative Reform (1993-2018)
Periods

National reconciliation and-unification (1993-1998):

Summary of Key Achievements

All political factions who were signatories to the Paris Peace Agreement and 25,000
students were integrated into one unified system of public administration, which aimed atending the civil war and at the same offering jobs for overseas graduates.

-

During this period, various legal and institutional frameworks have been developed
to ensure stable civil service management such as civil service law, organization andfunctioning of ministries and institutions, civil servant management procedures and generalprinciples and so on.

-

Due to the integration of civil servants from various political factions, a one-day
nationwide headcount of civil servants was conducted to confirm the actual number, andthe result showed that 17,685 irregular and ghost civil servants were removed from the pay
list, which contributed to substantial savings of national budget.

Strengthening the foundation -During this period, the Council for Administrative Reform (CAR) was established to leadfor civil service management

the process of administrative reform which aimed at ensuring operational efficiency and(1999-2003):

effectiveness of public administration.
-

At this period (in 2000), another nationwide census of civil servants was conducted and10,000 irregular and ghost civil servants were removed from payrolls.

-

Other key achievements included the development of civil servant database, newremuneration system, new classification system of civil servant categories, computerized

civil servants (Phnom Penh Post 2023).
However, from 2019 to 2023, the vision and directions of public administrative reform seem undecided due to the pending
approval of the new NPAR (2019-2030) and the restructuring of MCS, PAR committee, PAR sub-committees and PAR
secretariat. PAR committee is a kind of inter-ministerial committee to lead and support the overall PAR which includes key
relevant ministries such as MCS (head), Office of Council of Ministers (deputy), Ministry of Interior (deputy), Ministry of
Economy and Finance (deputy), and other 25 ministries-institutions (RGC 2021a).
PAR sub-committees and secretariat are internally established by MCS to support and coordinate the overall PAR and PAR
committees. There are 4 PAR sub-committees which are led by MCS secretary of state (head) with support of other relevant
General Departments and staff, while the PAR secretariat is led by an under-secretary of state (head) and other supporting units
and staff, all of whom are selected and appointed by MCS minister (see RGC 2021b).
If we look at the new draft of NPAR (2019-2030), it is designed for 10-year implementation from 2019 to 2030 and divided
into 3 phases. Phase 1 (2019-2023) focuses on improving performance in public administration; Phase 2 (2023-2027) focuseson monitoring and evaluation on performance in public administration; and Phase 3 (2027-2030) focuses on performanceaccountability for public service (RGC 2019). But until now, it is still pending for approval.
In understanding the specific progress and challenges of Cambodia’s public administrative reform, the civil service pay reformand performance management reform will be further discussed in the next section.

payroll system, and establishment of Priority Mission Groups (PMGs).
Deepening reform (2004-2008): -Within this period, the main objective of public administrative reform focused on “serving
people better” .

-The key achievements include policy and compendium development on public service
delivery, the expansion of Priority Mission Groups (PMGs), regulation development
on Merit Based Performance Incentives (MBPI) system, and establishment of Special
Operating Agencies (SOAs).

Fur the r de ep e n i n g re f orm -The main objective of public administrative reform was broadened to include “serving(2008-2012):

people better for the wellbeing of the citizens and prosperity of the nation” .
-The key progress includes Priority Operational Costs (POC) system (POC was incentive
for officials who worked in a development partner-financed scheme that replaced MBPIin 2010 and lasted until 2012), One Window Service (OWS), and policy development on

Continuance of further-

human resource in public administration.

The main objective of public administrative reform during this period was focused on

deepening reform for

improving institutional prerequisites for better service delivery through delivering threeeffectiveness (2013-2018):

pillars of reform such as pay and remuneration reform (raising liveable wage level), humanresource management and development reform (computerization, pilot implementationof performance management system, training programs for civil servants), and public
service delivery reform (e-governance and institutional reforms of rationalization andrestructuring).

Civil Service Pay reform
It is noted that during the 1990s and early 2000s, Cambodia’s civil service system was seen to be poorly paid which led toencourage various corrupt behaviors. It is believed that such condition contributed to the difficulty in attracting and motivatinghigh skilled civil servants across the civil service (World Bank 2013). From the mid-2000s, Cambodia’s civil service system is seen
to go through various key reforms such as the New Career Path System and New Remuneration System which the number ofcivil servants has been classified into different categories based on their education levels (CDC 2002; MCS 2016a).
To understand the concept of civil servant’s salary reform, the evolution of NPAR will be examined due to its 2015-2018 third
goal focuses on improving pay system to ensure equity, consistency, productivity, and budget affordability, which is believed tofundamentally support other two goals of NPAR such as human resource improvement and quality of public service delivery(RGC 2015). NPAR is seen to have been introduced since the late 1990s which provided the first foundation for the subsequent
phases of reform programs (see table 3). Within the first foundation reform, the focus was on building mechanism to manage
and motivate civil servants, certain key reform activities were achieved such as the implementation of civil service census, thedevelopment of a New Career Path System and Remuneration System, and the Computerization of Payroll System. Such Public
Administration Reform including pay reform is seen to be initiated and announced by HE Sok An, Senior Minister, during thedevelopment partner Consultative Group Meeting on 19-21 June 2002, which included a new pay and remuneration system tocover not only the base salary but also other allowances. The average pay was seen to have increased from USD 19.5 per monthin 2001 to USD 28 in 2002 and to over USD 51 per month in 2006, and with the support of computerization of payroll systemand database of HRMIS (Human Resource Management through the Information System) to reduce human errors and cost (CDC
2002; UNPAN 2004; MCS 2016a).

From 2019 to 2023, according to the new minister of MCS, His Excellency Prum Sokha, addressed during MCS 5-year review
meeting on 21 March 2023, there are some achievements on civil service management such as restructuring and redefining
function and role of some units of MCS and PAR, receiving new hardware for civil service data management (support from the48

Though there was some increase in civil servant salary during the early 2000s, various problems still challenged the reform efforts
such as the delay in payment due to the manual process (such as delayed payment from one to two months), inaccurate amount49

of payment (not in right amount), security-related and risky taking for cash carrying (particularly in sub-national level and rural

have been increased from around 402,800 riels (USD 95.90) and 360,000 riels (USD 85.71) respectively in 2013 to 800,500 riels

areas), and waste of times and resources (such as people took long queue to get their salary, needed many cashiers to check each

(USD 190.59) equally in 2016. While the minimum pay of the general administrative civil servants, police and military have beenname and amount) (Youk Bunna 2019).

increased from 344,000 riels (USD 81.90), 379,930 riels (USD 90.45) and 315,990 riels (USD 75.23) in 2013 to 700,500 riels (USD
166.78), 784,730 riels (USD 186.84), and 733,730 riels (USD 174.69)5 accordingly in 2016. (See figure 4).

In responding such problems, the RGC announced the implementation of salary payment through the banking system in
Figure 4: Minimum salary increase for civil servants and armed forces

December 2008 to release the burden of cash flow, reduce the chance of corruption (ghost employees, informal fee charges) andensure timely payment. To implement such electronic payment, MEF has selected some private financial institutions such as
Acleda Bank, Canadia Bank, and Wing to sign Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with MEF to deposit salaries and provide
payroll service for government officials from early 2014 onward (Acleda 2013; Phnom Penh Post 2013; The Cambodia Daily
2013).
The rolling out of salary payment through banking system is seen to be started as pilot phase with some priority ministries
at both national and sub-national levels such as the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, Ministry of Health, Ministry of
Economy and Finance, Ministry of Interior and Ministry of Defence, but excluding police and military. This is because theseministries represent about 84% of the total civil servants in the country. Such reform is believed to make salary payment moreaccessible (due to the availability of 24-hour basis ATMs), in efficient and timely manner. (The Cambodia Daily 2013; MEF
2014).
To deal with the salary payment through the banking system and to have comprehensive coverage of the payment (within
all government’s ministries and institutions), an inter-ministerial working group was created in late 2013 through the RGC’s
Decision No. 46 (dated 13th November 2013) which is known as the Pay Reform Taskforce or Taskforce for Reforming theSalary System. The Taskforce is seen to be under the new leadership and management of the newly established Ministry of Civil

Source: MCS(2016a)

Service (MCS) and with representatives from five ministries such as (RGC 2013a):-Secretary of State, Ministry of Civil Service (Chair)-Representative of Ministry of Economy and Finance (Deputy Chair)

If we continue to look at the minimum salaries of civil servants in 2023, the figures also show dramatic increase. For instance, the-Representative of Ministry of National Defense (member)minimum salaries for civil servants in education and health sectors have been increased to around 1,400,000 riels (USD 333.33)-

Representative of Ministry of Interior (member)equally, while minimum salaries for the general administrative civil servants, police and military have also been increased to-Representative of Ministry of Social Affairs, Veterans and Youth Rehabilitation (member)around 1,300,000 riels (USD 309.52), 1,384,477 riels (USD 329.63), and 1,309,477 riels (USD 311.78) respectively (MCS 2023b).

The taskforce was positioned in MCS and used seal, means and resources of MCS to perform key functions as following:-

Review the whole system of government pay system (national and subnational civil servants including retired and disabledcivil servants, military, and police,)-

Propose the package of pay reform (policy and strategy) for 2014-2018 to MCS, MEF and to get approval from the RGC.

In this regard, it is also noted that the chair of the taskforce was given some authorities in inviting and consulting with seniorand professional staff of relevant ministries, local and international consultants/advisors as well as establishing sub-taskforces to

Performance Management
Over the years, Cambodia is seen to have good performance in restoring peace and strong economic growth. Since early 2000s,
public-sector reform in Cambodia has been initiated with support of various development partners including the World Bank andits allies. In this regard, various components of New Public Management (NPM) have been deployed across reform agenda suchas public administrative reform, local government decentralization, financial management, semi-autonomous public enterprise,anticorruption, etc., as demonstrated in the government political agenda. In such regard, Performance Management (PM) has

study and review on specific cases of pay reform.

also emerged in the form of pay-based performance such as Priority Mission Groups (PMGs), and Merit-Based PerformanceWith the establishment of the taskforce and the new leadership, there are some expected benefits of the pay reform such as

management of Council for Administrative Reform (CAR), and MBPI was under control of Ministry of Economy and Financeefficient and effective management of civil servant (reduced ghost employees, corruption), budget saving from the eliminationof irregular civil servants, cash flow management in the banking system, risk reduction in cash-related issues, timely payment(within the 4th week of each month), accurate and accessible payment. Then, in late 2018 with the smooth and effective
payment through the banking system, the government has further reformed the payment to be made in every fortnight for all

Incentives (MBPI) (see table 3). In practice, there were separated institutions of responsibilities such as PMGs was under(MEF). The key objective of introducing such pay-based performance was in response to the low remuneration of civil servants
through providing performance-based monetary support.
The motive of pay-based performance was mostly driven by development partners to support public servants who worked for thecivil servants (RGC 2018).

donor-related projects in various key sectors especially in health and education sectors. It was believed that monetary incentive

According to MCS’s 2016 progress report (MCS 2016a), the minimum salary of civil servants from 2013 to 2016 is seen to have

intrinsic and extrinsic factors, where the former is more sustainable than the latter (Jacobsen and Andersen 2014). Verbeeten (2008)(extrinsic factor) could boost performance motivation. However, performance motivation is seen to be influenced by both

double increase, and the high increase is seen in education and health sectors, while the military and police have been aligned
and harmonized with the general administration sector. For instance, the minimum salaries for education and health civil servants
50

5

The USD calculation is based on USD 1 = 4200 riels

51also criticizes that the use of pay incentive for performance may not work to promote long-term effort such as innovation whencharacterized as Weberian bureaucracy model. The main characteristics of Weberian model include clear separation of power

there is ambiguity in defining goals and difficulty in measuring performance.

between elected politician and civil servants, rule-based administration, merit-based recruitment and appointment, and so on,which believe to centralize bureaucracy with input focus (efficient management of resource) rather than output and outcome

The management process of pay-based performance in Cambodia’s civil service was supposed to be carried out throughfocus. However, the Weberian rule, according to McCourt (2013), tends to be undermined by patronage system which mostlytransparent and fair recruitment and selection of qualified public servants based on position descriptions to implement the agreed

occurs in developing democracy to secure electoral loyalty and support.

workplan with periodic appraisal as stipulated in the 2009 guideline on Performance Management and Accountability System(PMAS) which was under supervision of CAR (RGC 2009a). However, a few months later, on December 2009, the government
decided to terminate such pay-based performance (RGC 2009b). Such termination is believed due to the unfair and ambiguous
process of selection and recruitment and to be driven by political motivation.

Since 1993, Cambodia’s civil service is seen to have positive progress and achievement regarding building peace and national
reconciliation, building foundation and legal framework for civil service management, improving public service delivery,reforming remuneration and incentives for civil servants, and adopting performance management system in civil service andFigure 5: Cambodia’s PM cycle

so on (see table 3). However, the reforms still face some challenges, and in this section, the discussion will focus only on the

Ministries
Annual Work
Plan
Performance
Evaluation

Challenges/issues

challenges of pay reform and performance management.

Challenges of pay reform:

Departments
Annual Work
Plan

Civil servants’salary reform in Cambodia is seen not only to be delivered through an efficient banking system, but also increasing
in its amount due to the strong RGC’s reform commitment as well as the leadership of the Pay Reform Taskforce. Though suchachievement of pay reform, some challenges still exist regarding the improvement of human resources such as the control ofabsence and performance, as well as the quality of public service delivery (RSA 2019a, 2019b).
According to the interview with the beneficiary civil servants and the banking partners of salary reform during the workshop at
the Royal School of Administration on the 8th February 2019, there seem to be happy and confident among civil servants on
the salary reform through the banking system. This is because the salary through banking system has provided various benefits

Performance
Report andReview

Position
Description

for civil servants such as more safety and efficiency compared to the manual and cash payment which was often long delayed
and with inaccurate amount of payment. It is believed that the increase and payment of salary through the banking system
may contribute to the increase in civil servants’performance; however, it depends much on the management capacity and job
flexibility among different organizations (RSA 2019a).
Figure 6: How importance is salary reform?

AttendanceControl

Term ofReference
Source: MCS(2016d)

In 2013, the government with request from CAR adopted the policy on Human Resource in Public Administration where theconcept of HRM has become modernized with the coordinating role of CAR, and PM has been incorporated (RGC 2013b).
However, CAR has been dissolved a few months later and a new Ministry of Civil Service (MCS) (by amalgamating CAR, SSCS,
and RSA) has been established. With new leadership and restructuring, in late 2016 a new PM guideline has been revisited anddeveloped after comprehensive consultation, which is believed to become a tool for result-based management to manage staff
performance through participatory and capacity development approach, and PM has been regarded as the integrated componentof HR process (MCS 2016d). (See Figure 5)
However, the 2016 PM guideline is much more voluntary compliance rather than legal binding enforcement as the core legal
foundation of civil service management has not been amended since 1994 where the concept of personnel management is stillembedded. The 1994 civil service law has provided comprehensive direction for Cambodia’s civil service management such as
recruitment, appointment, promotion, personnel evaluation, remuneration, retirement, and exit (RGC 1994), which are much
52

Source: RSA(2019b)
53

Likewise, among the participants of the workshop who are the beneficiaries of salary reform, there are more than 90% of
respondents (see figure 6) believe that salary reform is important which requires government attention, and more than half ofthem satisfy with the current salary levels. However, there are one third of respondents that seem to less satisfy with the current
salary levels (see figure 7) even government keeps increasing the minimum salary to more than 200 percent between 2013 to2016. Though there is less satisfaction among respondents on the current salary levels, more than 80 per cent of respondents
seem to believe that the current salary levels have impact on their performance (see figure 8) (MCS 2016a; RSA 2019b).

Challenges of performance management:
In early 2015, a team of MCS with technical support from German Cooperation (GIZ) had conducted a review on the HR
practices in seven ministries to understand the actual HR practices, and the key results show that the culture and system of PM
are not in place, resources (finance and capacity) are limited for skill enhancement, and HR departments are dysfunctional tosupport HR practices (see table 4).
Table 4: Summary of review report on HR practice in Cambodia’ s civil service in 2015

It is also noted that with the significant increase in salary and payment through the banking system, some challenges still persist
such as the limited capacity of civil servants in using the banking system and ATMs and the insufficient number of ATMs (inrural areas) and amount of cash in ATMs especially during the payment days, which need further improvement. Regarding
collaboration between the government and the bank partners, there are still some recommendations and suggestions regarding
the speed-up process of salary payment and collaboration among the relevant stakeholders especially at the provincial levels suchas the provincial-municipal departments of MEF, treasury, and MCS. Also, the pay increase seems to be not fully responding
to the inflation rate and the market price, and such increase is not yet responding to the specific skills and workplace demands
across ministries/institutions where high skilled and talent people are needed. Importantly, the improvement and increase in civil
servants’salary should be linked to performance and productivity of civil servants (RSA 2019a; RSA 2019b).

o

HR departments do not function properly and professionally to support each ministry.

o

Ministries do not have position descriptions.

oLack of appropriate and committed HR planning due to approval of new recruits is the discretionary power of MEF
with coordinated role of MCS. As result, recruitment does not respond to skill or position requirement.

oAppointment and promotion are not based on performance and mostly at the discretionary power of head ofministry.

oNo annual workplan for the staffo

PM practice is experienced in some ministries but mostly driven by pay-based performance of donor-related
projects.

Figure 7: How current salary levels satisfy work performance?

oLack of capacity development plan (due to limited resources, lack of need assessment, supply-side training, lack ofskill database management)(Source: adapted from MCS 2016c)

Public-sector organizations in Cambodia are seen as lacking experience of cascading organizational objectives into staff workplan
as revealed in the HR review report (MCS 2016c), which can be explained that their objectives may be ambiguous as the meansof political control. According to Verbeeten (2008), the ambiguous objectives can be driven by some factors such as increasing
political benefits and reducing politicians’accountability for underperformance by referring overperformance in other areas.
The limited ability of cascading and defining organizational objectives is believed to be affected by the limited capacity of public
servants in general, as well as leadership and commitment of line managers in specific due to the lack of resources and skill
management. Many studies have found that inadequate competence and leadership of public managers tend to cause difficulties
in defining targets of performance measurement and communication of trust with their staff and other public institutions andstakeholders (Fryer et al 2009).
Though the 2015 HR review report (MCS 2016c) shows that ministries do not have position descriptions, later on especially

Figure 8: How current salary levels impact on performance?

after the published PM guideline being consulted and introduced (MCS 2016d), the preparation of job descriptions has started
and convinced 26 out of 39 ministries and agencies to provide clear role and responsibilities, and sufficient skills and experienceneeded for the recruited positions.
The development of job descriptions is believed to provide clear purposes, duties, and responsibilities of each position androle, to identify the required skills and experience for applicants and also to assess the performance of employees in performing
their role. However, only 9 ministries have successfully completed the assignments (such as Ministry of Commerce; Ministryof Culture and Fine Arts; Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport; Ministry of Land Management, Urban Planning, andConstruction; Ministry of Justice; Ministry of Tourism; Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology; Ministry of Women’ s
Affairs; Secretariat of Civil Aviation), which results in delaying the process of HR reforms as well as the implementation of PMsuch as the recruitment of civil servants based on skills and experience needed for specific jobs and performance assessment
based on the requirements for the recruited positions (World Bank 2020).
Source: RSA(2019b)

54

Moreover, civil service reform in Cambodia is seen to be challenged by not only limited resources, but also “the lack55

of competitive salary structure, continuing weak capacity, absence of performance culture, patronage structure and lackof community trust”(Turner 2013, p.34). Such challenges are believed to be associated with weak governance and weak
enforcement of civil service rules, which lead to political intervention in appointments and promotion, mismatching between job
requirement and job skills, and eventually weakening and corrupting merit-based process, as Berman (2015, p.118) calls ‘HRM
maladministration’which refers to less care on staffing requests and ineffective appraisal system, and consequently cause patronclient relations in bureaucracy. In that sense, the Independent Evaluation Group of the World Bank (IEG 2008) also finds thatthe failure of civil service reform in most developing countries is due to the lack of coherent strategy for reform and unclear
diagnostic tools for addressing the issues.
It is also noted that Cambodian culture is seen to be “nonconfrontational with an emphasis on collective action, which has
influenced the current practices and approach to performance appraisal”(World Bank 2020, p.18). This means that there is lackof strong and decisive action on the poor performance such as dismissal or pay cut and so on, which may limit the impact ofreforms including salary reform and performance management reform.

Conclusion
Cambodia’ s civil service has come along the period of change and evolution in order to improve its performance. Early
modernized civil service system in Cambodia was seen to start during the French colonization through establishing clear structureof career system and professionalism as influenced by the French legal system. However, the whole system of Cambodia’ s civil
service was destroyed during the Khmer Rouge. Yet, the development of Cambodia’s civil service during the French colonizationand during the Khmer Rouge seems to have limited sources and need further study.
The key reform movement in Cambodia’ s civil service is seen to have commenced from early 1990s by focusing on building
peace and legal framework for civil service management which give foundation for the subsequent phases of reforms. The public
administrative reform (which is influenced by the NPM movement) has started to introduce in early 2000s by establishing
CAR, developing civil servant database and new classification system of civil servant categories, introducing salary reform andperformance management and so on.
The key milestone of reform is seen to become synergized only in 2013 when the new MCS is established to further deepening
reform, where the key achievements include: the organization of civil service categories become reviewed and shortened the steps
and grades for promotion and appointment; the civil service salary reform has been dramatically increased to more than 200
percent compared to the period before 2013 especially in health and education sectors and through the use of banking system tomake salary payment more accessible and efficient; At the meantime, performance management reform has also been revisitedfor implementation.
Though various key reforms have been achieved, there are still various challenges needed to be further reviewed and haveappropriate responses such as-

The new NPAR should be reviewed and get approval as soon as possible to provide clear vision and direction for reform,-

Salary reform should be linked to civil servant performance and productivity,-

Salary increase should respond to inflation rate and market price to provide liveable wage for civil servants,-

Leadership and management capacity of public manager need further develop to manage reform and staff performance,-

Performance management should be binding by law and integrated into HR processes,-

Performance appraisal needs to be used as basis for promotion, rewards and punishment,-

Civil service rule and related regulations need to be reviewed and effectively enforced,-

Reform strategies need to be reviewed and diagnosed for coherence and sustainability and with monitoring mechanism toaddress the key issues.

56

57

INDONESIACONTENTS
Abstract�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 60
Table and Figure����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 61

Transforming Government
Personnel Administrationin Indonesia:

Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 62
The History of State Civil Apparatus Management System in Indonesia����������������������������������������������������� 62
Managing State Apparatus under Bureaucratic Reform��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 64
Merit System������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 65
Moratorium�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 67
Recruitment and Selection�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 68
Downsizing Bureaucracy����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 69
Managing Regional ASN���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 72
Possible approach to address the problem������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 74

Navigating Challenges inConclusion��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 76
References���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 78

Bureaucratic Reform

Azmi Listya Anisah1 Diana Ma’rifah2Mardyanto Wahyu Tryatmoko3

The National Research and

The National Research and

The National Research andInnovation Agency,

Innovation Agency,

Innovation Agency,

Republic of Indonesia

Republic of Indonesia

Republic of Indonesia

Email: 1 azmilistyaanisah@gmail.com, 2 dianamarifah12@gmail.com, 3 mardyanto@gmail.com
58

59

Abstract
Indonesia has been facing challenges in managing state personnel which has currently reached to 4.2 million. Since preindependence, the government has made some changes in policy in response to demand to have professional state bureaucracy.
This includes the past decade when government has worked on so called bureaucratic reform in their attempt to enhance
the quality of state bureaucracy. This paper highlights some strategies that had been employed by the government andTable and Figure
List of Table
Table 1. Areas of Change and Expected Outcomes�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������65
Table 2. Simplified and Maintained Tasks and Functions of Administrative Position���������������������������������������������������������������������71

some challenges arising from the institutionalization of bureaucratic reform. First, in implementing the merit system, thisstrategy is challenged by low understanding of state apparatus, budget constraints, and strong political pressures. Second, themoratorium strategy on recruiting civil servants has received criticism for limiting job opportunities. Third, the digitalization

List of Figureof the recruitment and selection process for state personnel faces issues related to standardizing quåestions and technicalFigure 1. Aspects of Implementing the Merit System in the Management of the State Civil Apparatus���������������������������������������66

implementation. Fourth, the downsizing of the bureaucracy, in practice, has given rise to other issues in the form of limited

Figure 2. Types and Levels of State Civil Apparatus��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������70

abilities possessed by employees, which affect their effectiveness in carrying out their duties. Fifth, decentralization, in fact,
remains problematic as it leads to the emergence of local burdens in managing salaries and benefits for state civil servants at the

Figure 3. Equalization of Administrative Officer Position into Functional Position�������������������������������������������������������������������������71

local level.
Keywords: civil servants, personnel management, bureaucratic reform

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Introduction
Government personnel management plays a crucial role in ensuring the productivity and performance of the statebureaucracy in executing public policy, serving the people, and enhancing national cohesion. The management includes avariety of key elements such as recruitment, training, performance management, and other strategies for developing a skilled,negeri” ) are defined as individuals who have fulfilled specific requirements and are subsequently appointed, salaried andemployed in a position by an authorized state official. This Law, in greater detail, regulates: 1) the system of recruitment,
appointment, and termination of employees; 2) employee obligations; 3) employee rights; 4) disciplinary measures for
positions; and 5) the implementation of personnel descriptions.

motivated, and various personnel capable of meeting the needs of the public. Every country has their own challenges andopportunities in developing the system of government personnel management. Particularly in ASEAN, each member state
exhibits varying patterns and levels of achievement in administrative reform (Quah, 1985), with differing impacts on policy
implementation (Quah, 2016).
This paper focuses on elaborating the case of Indonesia in dealing with how the state enhances the quality of its

Entering the New Order era under President Soeharto’s administration, the government began to classify state employees
into several categories. Through the Law No. 8 of 1974 on the Civil Service Principles, the government distinguished between
government employees (referred to in the Law as “Pegawai Negeri Sipil” ) and members of the Indonesian National Army. The
law also categorized employees into central and regional employees. Furthermore, this law addressed the establishment ofcivil servants, a matter that had not been specifically regulated in the previous law.

bureaucracy. Indonesia is an interesting case of study because, after a 78-year journey of state-building, this country has
persistently encountered complex challenges in the realm of state personnel management. With 4.2 million state employees outof a total population of 275.77 million (as of December 2022), Indonesia continues to face issues related to bureaucracy, both
institutional and attitudinal.
This paper analyzes the current major efforts made by the government to enhance state personnel management under
the umbrella of bureaucratic reform. The analysis reveals that, amid the optimism and strategies aimed at establishing a

In 1997, Indonesia experienced an economic crisis, and political turmoil ensued in 1998. The Indonesian government
capitalized on this momentum by implementing several significant changes, which marked the milestone of the reform era in
the realms of politics, law, economy, and bureaucracy, known as the first wave of reform (Presidential Regulation No. 81 of2010 on the Grand Design of Bureaucratic Reform 2010-2025). These changes also extended to the management of government
employees (Pegawai Negeri Sipil), aimed at optimizing the performance of the state apparatus in delivering services to thepeople.

professional bureaucracy, the government’s existing limitations have presented them with various challenges.
This paper’s discussion covers three parts. The first section, which follows the introduction, provides a brief history of
personnel management in Indonesia. The second section captures the current system of personnel administration in Indonesia
under bureaucratic reform, while also highlighting some management issues. In the final section, before concluding this paper,
we provide a short analysis of possible strategies to address the issues in operationalizing the current system of personnel
management.

The reform era has brought Indonesia to a new phase of personnel management with more systematic changes. The changebegan in 1999 when the national government enacted the Law number 43 of 1999 on the amendments to Law Number 8 of1974 on the Civil Service Principles. Under this law, the management of civil servants1 is specifically redefined. Furthermore,
the law exerted that members of the Indonesian National Police are acquired as government employee. This adds previous
provision that determines the division of government employees, which includes civil servants at both national and regional,
and members of the Indonesian National Army.
An analysis of the first round of reforms’ implementation revealed that administrative reforms trailed behind those in the

The History of State Civil Apparatus Management System in Indonesia
Government personnel in Indonesia have been subject to administration since the pre-independence era. In 1943, thegovernment started regulating the salaries and recruitment of government employees, known as “Pegawai Negeri”at the time,political, economic, and legal sectors. Therefore, in 2004, national government reemphasized the importance of implementing
the concepts of good governance and clean government, which are considered the best principles for providing the best
services to society. Starting from that time, the government fostered bureaucratic reform (well known as Reformasi Birokrasi).

in the Java region. Through Government Regulation No. 21 of 1948, which was issued three years after the proclamation of
independence, the government revised the employee salary policy. Following these changes, the government amended therules governing appointment and termination rights for employees of the Republic of Indonesia Union through Emergency
Laws No. 25 and No. 34 of 1950.
In the early years of independence, the government endeavored to establish a structured hierarchy within the civil service.
On September 25, 1945, Mr. Kasman Singodimedjo, serving as the Chairman of the Central Indonesian National Committee,
conveyed the Presidential decree concerning the reassignment of Indonesian personnel from various positions and echelons tothe status of government employees. However, a few years later, the government appeared to struggle in its effort to establish
a structured national bureaucracy. This challenge arose due to the fragmentation of state employees along different ideologies
lines and their exposure to volatile political upheavals (Ministry of State Administration and Bureaucratic Reform, 2013).
Despite the challenges, there were opportunities to organize government employees in the following years. One of thepositive initiatives is the establishment of the Office of Employee Affairs in 1948. Under the Government Regulation No. 11 of1948, this office is responsible for managing and overseeing the staffing and salary of government employees.

In implementing bureaucratic reform, the government established the primary program as the development of state
apparatus. This decision was driven by several significant issues pertaining to the bureaucracy, including: 1) governmentorganizations not yet functioning at their proper size and capacity; 2) the presence of overlapping, inconsistent, unclear, andopen to multiple interpretations of laws and regulations in the field of state apparatus, which have not been adapted to theevolving dynamics of governance and societal demands; and 3) suboptimal implementation of human resource management
within the apparatus to enhance professionalism, employee performance, and organizational effectiveness. The main
challenges in the human resources of the state apparatus include imbalances in terms of quantity, quality, and geographicaldistribution of civil servants as well as persistently low levels of civil servant productivity; 4) ongoing irregularities andinstances of authority abuse in the governance process, coupled with unstable performance accountability of government
agencies; 5) Public services that have not yet accommodated the diverse interests of all societal strata and have not fully
realized the fundamental rights of citizens; 6) The mindset and work culture (organizational culture) among bureaucratsthat have not wholeheartedly supported the ideals of an efficient, effective, productive, and professional bureaucracy. With
the implementation of this program, it was anticipated that by 2011, all ministries and other national agencies would haveembarked on the process of bureaucratic reform (Presidential Regulation No. 81 of 2010 on the Grand Design of Bureaucratic
1

Efforts to organize government employees appeared to be more comprehensive after the government issued Law Number
18 of 1961 on the Main Provisions of Civil Service. In this Law, government employees (referred to in the Law as “pegawai
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Civil servant management is defined as an overall effort to improve efficiency, effectiveness and professionalism in theimplementation of personnel duties, functions and obligations, which includes planning, procurement, quality development,
placement, promotion, payroll, welfare and termination.
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Reform 2010-2025).
Table 1. Areas of Change and Expected Outcomes

The implementation of bureaucratic reform appeared to run smoothly after 2014. The government enacted Law Number
5 of 2014 on the State Civil Apparatus (Aparatur Sipil Negara/ASN) to support the implementation of bureaucratic reform.
This law explains that State Civil Apparatus (ASN) is divided into civil servants (Pegawai Negeri Sipil/PNS) and government
employees with work agreements (Pegawai Pemerintah dengan Perjanjian Kerja/PPPK). The difference is that civil servants
are appointed permanently to occupy government positions. In contrast, to perform government tasks, PPPKs are appointed

Areas of Change
Organizational
Structuring

Expected Outcomes
Right function and right sizing organization

based on work agreements for a specific time period. In this legislation, the functions and duties of ASN are more emphasized.
In addition, the term echelon, which previously explained the structural level of employment, has been abolished. Threetypes of positions are regulated in the ASN Law: high leadership, administrative, and functional. This law also encompasseschanges in the civil service system, including employee planning and procurement, career development, and the determinationof the retirement age limit. These modifications are supported by a merit-based system that gives the following values toppriority: professionalism, competence, qualifications, performance, transparency, objectivity, and independence from politicalintervention and corruption (Korupsi, Kolusi, Nepotisme/KKN). The main goal of the ASN Law is to realize a bureaucracy

Management

Clear, efficient, effective, measurable systems, processes, and work procedures that align to the

Arrangement

principles of good governanceHarmonization ofLegislation

Regulations that are less chaotic, non-overlapping, and beneficial

that is professional, competent, has integrity, and provides the best service to the people (Ministry of Defense, 2014).
In order to ensure the effective operation of both civil servants and PPPK, the national government has enacted a seriesof government regulations. The regulations play a pivotal role in governing the management of civil servants and PPPK
(government employees with work agreements). Specifically, civil servant management is addressed in Government Regulation

Structuring Human

Human resources for apparatus with integrity,

Resource Management

nonintervention, competence, capability, professionalism,

System Apparatus

high performance, and well-being

Supervision

improved governance that is clean and free from corruption

Accountability

Enhanced capacity and accountability for bureaucratic performance

Public Service

Excellent service that meets the requirements and expectations of the community

No. 17 of 2020, which amends Government Regulation No. 11 of 2017. Conversely, PPPK management is governed byGovernment Regulation No. 49 of 2018, which deals with the management of government employees with work agreements.
These regulations highlight several key distinctions between civil servant and PPPK management. These distinctions
encompass various aspects, such as rank and position, career development, career progression, promotions, transfers, andpension and old-age insurance. Notably, civil servants, once they transition from candidates to permanent civil servants,
follow a structured career path characterized by evolving ranks and classes. This allows them to occupy both structural andfunctional positions simultaneously. On the other hand, PPPK typically occupy functional positions and lack a defined career
path due to their status as employees with predetermined service periods. Consequently, PPPK are ineligible for pensions andold-age pensions, in contrast to civil servants(BKD Central Sulawesi Province, 2022).

The division between civil servants and PPPK is only a small part of bureaucratic reform. The following section discusses
the dimensions and strategies of bureaucratic reform in more detail.

Managing State Apparatus under Bureaucratic Reform
Discussion in the previous section shows that the history of ASN structuring reveals an increasingly complex management
arrangement. This section specifically reviews the direction of ASN management in Indonesia over the past decade,particularly under bureaucratic reform. According to the Grand Design of Bureaucratic Reform, the primary objective of
bureaucratic reform is to build a professional government bureaucracy characterized by adaptability, unwavering integrity,
exceptional performance, immunity from corruption, collusion, and nepotism, effective public service, neutrality, dedication,
prosperity, and a commitment to upholding the code of ethics and core values of the state apparatus. All aspects ofgovernment management are covered by the areas of change that serve as the goals of bureaucratic reform, as shown in Table 1.

Mindset and Work
CultureGreat-performing bureaucracy with strong integrity

Source: Presidential Regulation No. 81 of 2010 on the Grand Design of Bureaucratic Reform 2010-2025
To improve and achieve the objectives of bureaucratic reform, the national government has implemented several strategies.
These strategies include the merit system, moratorium, recruitment and selection, downsizing the bureaucracy, and ASN
management in the region. Each of these strategies will be elaborated upon in this section. Despite offering opportunities,
apparently, these efforts and strategies are closely tied to various challenges, some of which we will also discuss in this section.

Merit System
In the bureaucratic reform agenda to create a neutral bureaucracy free from corruption, collusion, and nepotism, thegovernment implemented a merit system. This system is one of the solutions to rampant nepotism and primordialism in thebureaucracy (Abheseka, 2022). The majority of the work to improve the human resource quality through this system started in
2014. The government issued Law No. 5 of 2014 on the State Civil Apparatus for its implementation. This law establishes the
merit system as an ASN management policy. It is founded on qualifications, competencies, and performance, and it is applied
fairly and without discrimination. Through this approach, the state ensures that every employee has an equal opportunity.
This means that prospective promotions are awarded to individuals who are both qualified and meet the job requirements.
The merit system aims to ensure that government positions are filled by competent professionals who can execute tasks in6465

alignment with fundamental values, an ethics code, and the ASN code of conduct (Dwiputrianti et al., 2019). In Indonesia,

management.

the implementation of the merit system is regulated by the State Civil Apparatus Commission (Komisi Aparatur Sipil Negara/

The lack of competency standards for managerial, sociocultural, and technical positions arises from the challenges faced

KASN), a non-structural agency. KASN has developed an instrument to assess and map the implementation of the meritby HR managers in developing these standards. As a result, these managers are less effective in planning employee career

system within government agencies, focusing on the following eight aspects:

development and tend to confine their roles to administrative tasks.
2)

The agency lacks budgetary allocations and necessary facilities.

Limited budgets and facilities have an impact on the assessment process, which is currently confined to filling high leadership
positions (Jabatan Pimpinan Tinggi/JPT) through open selection or mutations within JPT. This system has not been extended
to employee placement, thereby preventing staffing managers from effectively mapping competency gaps among employees.
3)

Political influence on civil service oversight.

In regional governance, civil service oversight is primarily carried out by the regent or mayor. However, political officials may
face challenges in avoiding conflicts of interest when making policies that could potentially contradict the principles of themerit system. Issues such as the trading of positions, discriminatory employee placement, and dismissals that do not adhere toestablished regulations continue to pose challenges in the implementation of the merit system.
In 2021, the findings of the merit system assessment revealed that the procurement aspect received the highest score (73.9%),
closely followed by the needs planning aspect (73.2%). This suggests that the procurement process for state civil apparatus
candidates is more transparent and objective, partially owing to the application of computer-assisted tests (CAT) in theselection process, which adds a high level of accountability. However, the lowest scores were observed in the aspects of careerdevelopment (31%) and promotion and transfers (41.5%). To maintain and enhance the quality of human resources, successful
recruitment outcomes should be complemented by effective coaching and development programs. These results warrant
attention, as they may indicate opportunities for nepotistic practices. Position appointments should align with the requisite
qualifications, competencies, and employee performance, with consideration of career trajectories (Abheseka, 2022).

Moratorium
Continuing with the bureaucratic reform agenda, in 2011, the government decided to undertake organizational and employee
restructuring (rightsizing) to optimize human resource performance and enhance personnel expenditure efficiency. Prior tothis, the number of central and regional civil servants had been consistently increasing annually. According to data from the
National Civil Service Agency (Badan Kepegawaian Negara/BKN), there was an approximately 30% growth in civil servant
personnel between 2003 and 2011. This surge in civil servants can be attributed, in part, to the expansion of regions from2001 to 2009, resulting in the creation of seven new provinces and 154 districts or cities. By 2011, there were 916,493 central
government civil servants and 3,791,837 local civil servants, accounting for 1.98% of the entire population (Detik, 2011). The
substantial increase in civil servants led to personnel expenditure exceeding capital expenditure in the state budget. In 2012,
the budget saw an 18% increase (Kompas, 2011).
Figure 1. Aspects of Implementing the Merit System in the Management of theState Civil Apparatus (State Civil Apparatus Commission, 2019)
The method employed in assessing the merit system is self-assessment conducted through the Merit System Implementation
Self-Assessment Information System. This instrument is objective and standardized as per State Civil Apparatus Commission
Regulation No. 9 of 2019, outlining the procedures for self-assessment of merit system implementation in ASN management
within government agencies. The evaluation results yield information regarding the level of merit system implementation ineach government agency and provide recommendations for improving ASN management in alignment with merit principles.
In 2019, KASN conducted a mapping of the results from self-assessments of merit system implementation in local
governments (Dwiputrianti, 2019). The findings revealed that approximately 83.5% of all district and city governments that
underwent merit system assessments received ratings in the ‘poor’and ‘inadequate’categories. Factors contributing to the low
implementation of the merit system include:
1)
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The ASN (State Civil Apparatus) has a limited understanding of how to apply the merit system to ASN policy and

The rightsizing policy is implemented in alignment with the Grand Design policy and the Bureaucratic Reform Road
Map. In the execution of rightsizing, for optimal organizational and employee structuring, the government temporarily
postponed the determination of formations for accepting prospective civil servants (moratorium). A moratorium implies ahalt in recruitment; however, exceptions are made for specific requirements in agencies requiring employees in roles such as
educators, doctors, nurses, or other special and urgent positions. During this postponement period, the correct number of civil
servants is calculated based on position and workload analysis. Heads of both central and regional agencies will redistribute
employees according to their respective competencies, guided by the results of the arrangement already conducted, andthey will also prepare projections for employee needs over the next five years. Through the postponement of recruitment,
recalculation, and employee redistribution, it is anticipated that agencies will achieve an ideal employee profile.
In 2011–2012, the government initiated its first moratorium. This action was based on Joint Regulations issued by the
Minister of State Administration and Bureaucratic Reform, the Minister of Home Affairs, and the Minister of Finance,
numbered 02/SPB/M.PAN-RB/8/2011,800-632/2011, and 141/PMK.01/2011, which pertained to the Temporary Postponement67

of Civil Servant Candidates. From September 1, 2011, until December 31, 2012, the moratorium was in place. Agencies that

The implementation of the selection of candidates for the state civil apparatus is carried out simultaneously with thefailed to calculate their employee needs in a timely manner or omitted to do so were subjected to penalties, including the loss

formation of central agencies and regional agencies over a certain period. This results in the number of applicants reachingof the right to request additional employee candidate positions and restrictions on organizational development or expansion.

millions of people for hundreds of thousands of formations. In 2021, 570 agencies opened job vacancies, and 3.7 million people

The civil servant moratorium policy was estimated to save up to 30 percent of the state budget (Maharani, 2014).

sent application files (Annur, 2021). The selection exam is held over several days, and the exam locations are spread acrossalmost all regions of Indonesia. This aims to facilitate examinees from various regions. In implementing the 2021 selection

During President Joko Widodo’s administration in 2015, the moratorium was reintroduced following the issuance oftest, the government provided 450 test location points (National Civil Service Agency, 2021). Several things have implications

the Minister of State Administration and Bureaucratic Reform’s letter, numbered B/2163/M.PAN/06/2015, concerning thefor the current ASN candidate selection system:

Postponement of the Addition of ASN Employees in 2015. This decision was based on several considerations:1.

a.

which indirectly affects their performance;

Some ministries, institutions, and local governments have not completed their obligations in establishing organizational
structures and position maps; determining employee needs based on the results of workload analysis calculations;

Civil servants involved or assigned to the selection team must temporarily leave their duties and work in the main unit,

2.

facilities with specific standards are required, such as stable electricity and internet networks, a large number of personal

providing accurate information on the number of civil sevant; submitting estimates of civil servants who will quit due tocomputers with certain specifications, and security and confidentiality guarantees that require high commitment fromreaching the retirement age limit, moving agencies, as well as death and quitting (early retirement); and submitting excess

many parties. Problems such as power outages, unstable internet networks, leaks, and hacking still occur even thoughor shortage of employees based on positions.

they have been anticipated.
3.

The participants questioned the standard weighting of the questions. There were around 20,000 questions available inb.

Several government regulations on implementing the State Civil Apparatus Law have yet to be finalized.

c.

Implementation of new employees: The government must provide a budget for the preparation of question papers, thethe question bank, and each participant almost got a different question with the same weight. Different questions were

cost of uploading question papers into the computer-assisted test system, and the cost of selection and testing.

perceived to have different levels of difficulty by participants, which then gave rise to jealousy and a sense of unfairness.
4.

The passing grade is differentiated for general and special formations (cum laude, disability, diaspora, and sons andInitially, the moratorium on the recruitment of state civil apparatus candidates was planned to be implemented fordaughters of Papua. In 2018, the difficulty level of the basic competency selection questions was higher than the previous

five years. However, in 2017, the government opened the recruitment for state civil apparatus candidates with specificyear, resulting in a limited number of participants passing the 2018 civil servant candidate selection. In addition, there wasqualifications. Three things caused this: First, this recruitment was carried out to support President Jokowi’s Nawacita

a disparity in graduation results between regions, so it had the potential not to fulfill the needs or information that had

program. Second, some fields have been considered urgent needs, for example, the Meteorological, Climatological, andbeen determined. The government then stipulated Minister of State Administration and Bureaucratic Reform Regulation

Geophysical Agency, which requires meteorological and geophysical observers. Third, looking at minus growth, many people

No. 61 of 2018 on the optimizing the fulfillment of civil servant needs and formation in selecting 2018 civil servant

are retiring, so it is necessary to add new employees so that public services are unrestricted (Abdulsalam, 2017).

candidates. In the regulation, the government provides a solution by determining the requirements for participants who
can proceed to the Field Competency Selection stage, namely: 1) participants who meet the threshold value specified in

The moratorium policy set by the government is one of the policies that has received pros and cons in the community. This

the regulation; and 2) Basic Competency Selection (Seleksi Kompetensi Dasar (SKD) participants who do not meet thepolicy is considered to kill job opportunities in the government sector because civil servants are one of the professions that are

threshold value but have the best ranking of the cumulative Basic Competency Selection by the rules in the Minister ofstill so attractive to the Indonesian people. Civil servants are guaranteed jobs with income stability and pension guarantees

State Administration and Bureaucratic Reform Regulation No. 61 of 2018. Learning from the 2018 selection process, thein old age. On the other hand, the moratorium is considered a way to control the number of civil servants in the hope ofgovernment adjusted the threshold value and composition of questions in each state civil apparatus selection period until

reorganizing the organization and staffing system in Indonesia and saving the government’ s personnel budget.

2021.

Recruitment and Selection
One of the next reform agenda items is to improve ASN recruitment selection. To reduce fraud, collusion, and nepotism in
ASN recruitment selection, the government introduced a computer-based test in 2013 that replaced the paper-based test. In
this new system, all agencies carry out the registration process on one portal. The standard for passing the test has also been
determined, making it easier for test takers to know directly whether they pass to the next stage or fail.
In 2014, the computer-assisted test designed and controlled by the National Civil Service Agency began to be used inselecting prospective civil servants. Test takers are given a sequence of random questions to respond in a set amount oftime. Test results will be known immediately after the test time ends, unlike the previous selection system, where test takers
had to wait for test results for months. The computer-assisted test selection system can save up to 60 percent of the budget
compared to paper-based tests, so public services are expected to be of higher quality (The ASEAN Secretariat, 2021). The

The ASN candidate selection system using computer-assisted test (CAT) is an innovation that contributes to thetransformation of the ASN selection system in Indonesia. The CAT system has succeeded in increasing public trust because
implementing CAT-based ASN candidate selection can provide transparency and accountability. Additionally, the CAT system
supports the implementation of the merit system in ASN management because the selected participants are participants whomeet the minimum standards of competence, not because of entrustment or someone who has close ties with officials, andalso not based on the background of participants such as race, ethnicity, religion, or disability conditions.
It is necessary to continuously enhance how ASN candidates are selected. The implementation of selection is not only to getparticipants who meet the qualifications but also to pay attention to effectiveness and efficiency in terms of resources spent.

Downsizing Bureaucracy

computer-assisted test-based selection system received the ASEAN Public Sector Organization of the Year award in 2014 andThe passing of Law No. 5 of 2014 on the State Civil Apparatus marked the beginning of the reform of the government

is considered by the World Bank to have made a significant contribution to the public sector in promoting accountability as

bureaucracy in Indonesia. This law carries the principles of new public management. It begins to abandon the old principles

well as transparency in the selection of candidates for civil servant positions, as well as being an example in Asian countries

carried by Law Number 43 of 1999 concerning amendments to Law Number 8 of 1974 concerning civil service principles

that have similar characteristics of applicants and bureaucracy in conducting similar selection processes (Center for Selection(Bramantyo & Mardjoeki, 2020). Administrative positions, functional positions (expertise and skills), and high leadership

System Development, 2023).

positions have replaced the structural and functional positions for civil servants under Law No.5 of 2014. However, there aregovernment employees with work agreements (Pegawai Pemerintah dengan Perjanjian Kerja/PPPK) who are different with

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civil service positions.

Table 2. Simplified and Maintained Tasks and Functions of Administrative Positions

Each of these civil servant positions has different functions and duties. Administration of public services, government, anddevelopment are among the responsibilities of administrative positions; Functional positions have responsibilities and tasks
connected to functional services based on specific abilities and expertise; and high leadership positions have the functionof leading and motivating each ASN employee through pioneering in the field (professional expertise, policy analysis, andrecommendations, management leadership), fostering collaboration with other agencies, exemplifying the ASN core values, andapplying the code of ethics ASN and code of conduct. The types and levels of ASN positions can be seen in Chart 1.

Simplified Tasks and Functions

Retained Tasks and FunctionsoAnalysis and Policy and/or Material Preparation•

Authorization Authority is AttributeoCoordination, Monitoring, and Policy Evaluation•

Units with Regional Based AuthoritiesoImplementation of Some Technical Duties in Managing •Independent Technical Execution Work Unit

Government

Goods/Services Procurement Work Unito•

Implementation of tasks compatible with the functional
departmentoFunctional technical services
Source: Minister of State Administration and Bureaucratic Reform Regulation Number 25 of 2021
concerning the Simplification of Organizational Structure in Government Agencies for Bureaucratic Simplification
Administrators, supervisors, and executive officials who are echelon V are equalized without regard for the rank level andspace class associated to them. Suppose administrators, supervisors, and executive officials in echelon V equalized have a rankor space class below or above the highest rank or space class. In that case, they will still be equalized in functional positions
according to the provisions. (Regulation of the Minister of State Administration and Bureaucratic Reform Number 17 of 2021).

Figure 2. Types and Levels of State Civil Apparatus
Source: Law Number 5 of 2014 concerning the State Civil Apparatus Management
Figure 3. Equalization of Administrative Officer Position into Functional Position

Formulating administrative positions consisting of administrators, supervisors, and executors is increasingly receiving

Source: Regulation of the Minister of State Administration and Bureaucratic Reform Number 17 of 2021

ineffective assessments because the bureaucratic span is too long. This affects the decision-making process, which takes toolong. A bureaucratic structure that is too fat with a long span causes miscommunication and miscoordination. Bureaucratic
work becomes slow and inflexible. In addition, there are indications of a corruptive culture that utilizes and abuses positions.
President Joko Widodo directed the simplification of the bureaucracy to two echelon levels in his inaugural speech as
President of the Republic of Indonesia 2019-2024. The president substituted Functional Positions (Jabatan Fungsional/JF),
which emphasize expertise and competence, for Administrator (Echelon III) and Supervisor (Echelon IV) positions (Bramantyo& Mardjoeki, 2020).

In implementing position equalization, each government agency needs to pay attention to the following steps:: 1) identifying
existing administrative positions in each work unit; 2) mapping administrative positions and officials affected by simplifying
the organizational structure; 3) mapping functional positions that can be occupied by officials affected by simplifying theorganizational structure; and 4) mapping and comparing the income of affected officials between before and after equalizationfrom administrative positions to functional positions. (Regulation of the Minister of State Administration and Bureaucratic
Reform Number 17 of 2021).

As a result, the government issued Minister of State Administration and Bureaucratic Reform Regulation Number 25
of 2021 concerning the simplification of organizational structure in government agencies for bureaucratic simplification
through the Minister of Administrative Reform and Bureaucratic Reform. In both central and local agencies, simplification isaccomplished through streamlining organizational structures, equating positions, and adjusting work processes. By taking into
account the requirements for simplified and retained administrative positions in organizational units, the echelon III, echelon
IV, and echelon V structural positions are eliminated, simplifying the organizational structure. In order to equalize roles,
administrative officials are appointed into functional positions by making adjustments to equivalent functional positions.

The Minister of State Administration and Bureaucratic Reform Regulation Number 17 of 2021 concerning the Equalizationof Administrative Positions into Functional Positions regulates and explains specific matters in equalizing administrative
positions into functional positions. However, in its implementation, there are several problems in equalizing administrative
positions into functional positions, namely (Rakhmawanto, 2021):
1.

The Limited scope of duties of functional positions in work units that replace structural positions (administrators andsupervisors)

2.

There is still an understanding that ASN career development is only in structural positions (Supervisor, Administrator,
JFT).

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3.

There are still disparities in the welfare of functional officials (position class, position allowances, and other facilities).

4.

The process of transferring positions through equalization of positions with the arrangement of organizational structures
and work procedures still needs to be aligned.

Since decentralization was established in the Indonesian government system in 1999, the way the state apparatus is managed
in the various regions has changed. Implementing civil servant management in local governments combines integrated andseparate systems, which means that some management functions are under the central government’ s authority, and local

Streamlining the bureaucracy by restructuring organizations and equalizing positions also has a significant impact on thegovernments manage others (Sleman Regency Civil Service Training Agency, 2019). This is in accordance with the explanation

implementation of ASN management, including (Rakhmawanto, 2021):

in State Civil Apparatus Law Number 5 of 2014 local governments carry out civil servant management in the regions by

1.

applicable laws and regulations.

Merit principles in qualifications, competence, performance, fairness, and transparency should be fully utilized to equalize
administrator and supervisor positions into functional positions.

Decentralization, which has long been practiced in Indonesia, make local governments to better understand the community

2.

The transfer or equalization of positions is not based on inventory or the mapping of positions.

3.

The mismatch between the organization’ s task load and the number of employee needs is caused by the transfer andneeds and implement the policies to meet those needs. Implementing decentralization also changes human resource

equalization of positions that are not based on the results of job analysis, employee needs analysis, and employee position

management at the bureaucratic level in local governments (Tjiptoherijanto, 2014). Some authorities related to managing civil

formation.

servants in the regions include determining civil servant needs, appointing candidates and servants, determining promotions

Some classes and benefits of functional positions occupied by structural administrator and supervisor officials are

and employee rotations, and dismissing civil servants (Lindawati, Suryana, & Suwatin, 2019).

4.

inappropriate. This causes the transfer of positions to consider the class of position and the greater benefits of thefunctional position.

Local governments can also implement a more attractive compensation system for public servants as a form of effort to
reduce the level of corruption and reward performance (Tjiptoherijanto, 2014). Compensation for civil servants in the form

The process of equalization and subsequent abolition of echelon can give the impression of eliminating administrativeof salaries and allowances (performance and luxury allowances) has been regulated in Law Number 5 of 2014 concerning

duties and functions within the bureaucracy. However, in practice, bureaucratic work still requires a hierarchical structure to

the State Civil Apparatus. Articles 79 and 80 explain that the salaries and benefits of civil servants working for the central

monitor and evaluate performance in stages. As a result, this arrangement creates a situation where administrative officials

government are charged to the state revenue and s expenditure budget. In contrast, the salaries and benefits of civil servants

who are equated to functional officials are faced with overlapping responsibilities.

working for local governments are charged to the regional revenue and expenditure budget. In line with this, Government
Regulation No. 12 of 2019 concerning Regional Financial Management regulates additional income that can be given by

In this context, these officials are burdened with additional roles as coordinators and sub-coordinators. These roles require

the regional government to ASN while taking into account the regional financial capacity and obtaining approval from thethem to simultaneously fulfill administrative obligations, such as task management and procedural oversight, in addition to

Regional People’s Representative Council. ASN receives additional compensation while taking into consideration the workload,

their core duties as functional officers. This dual role places significant demands on their time, expertise and capacity to carrysite of duty, working conditions, professional scarcity, performance at work, and/or other objective considerations.

out administrative tasks and fulfill their functional responsibilities (Rahmat, 2023).
The burden of salaries and benefits for the state civil apparatus in the regions in the regional revenue and expenditure
The positive things obtained from equalizing positions are the clarity of employee careers, promotion and classificationbudgets becomes an issue every year. Data from the Ministry of Finance (https://djpk.kemenkeu.go.id/portal/data/apbd)

can be faster than in structural positions, and the retirement age limit also increases. This, of course, must be accompanied

as of May 2023 shows that personnel expenditure is still the highest component in the realization of regional revenue andby consistency in carrying out the job description items in a structured manner (Miranda, 2022). On the other hand, theexpenditure budgets, with a total of 141.08 trillion out of a total expenditure of 305.62 trillion. The large number of regional

process of equalizing and shifting administrative officials to functional officers has major implications for the evolution ofcivil servants certainly influences the amount of personnel expenditure. In addition, some regional non-exempt or honorarium

work culture, especially in the context of task completion. In connection with these changes, functional officials are required

employees are non-ASN employees whose income is financed from the regional revenue and expenditure budget.

to improve their competence, with particular emphasis on efforts to keep abreast of digitalization developments. This isbecoming increasingly important given the increasingly widespread application of flexible work arrangements among civil
servants.

Honorarium workers are a problem that is still being resolved today. The region’s non-exempt workers currently amount to77% (around 1.8 million) of the total central and regional non-exempt workers (Kencana, 2022). The resolution of the nonexempt personnel problem has been underway since 2005. Applicants for teachers, health professionals, agricultural extension

Improving the competency of functional officials is an ongoing imperative that is the responsibility of each agency where

workers, fisheries and livestock workers, and other technical personnel required by the government are given priority forthese functional officials are placed (Murni, 2022; Miranda, 2022). This collective effort is important to facilitate the smoothappointment as non-exempt civil servants. The appointment then raises other problems, namely the unrecognized number ofadaptation of officials to their evolving roles and responsibilities in an era characterized by technological advances andnon-exempt workers who have worked before 2005, so they are not included in the non-exempt workers who were appointed asparadigm shifts towards flexible work arrangements.

Civil Servant Candidates (Calon Pegawai Negeri Sipil/CPNS).

Managing Regional ASN
One of the reform agendas that has also received special attention is the management of ASN in the regions. The
composition of the number of state apparatus in central and regional agencies as of June 2022 is 23% and 77%, respectively(National Civil Service Agency, 2022). Although there is no standard for the ideal composition of the number of state
apparatus in the central and regional agencies, the apparatus in the central agency is 10% of the total number of state
apparatus, considering that the main task of public services is in regional agencies (Center for Administrative Reform Studies,2018).
72

The appointment of non-exempt staff to CPNS was carried out again in 2013 based on Government Regulation No. 56
of 2012 as a follow-up to the problems of data collection and the appointment of non-exempt staff to CPNS in 2005. The
appointment is carried out with several requirements that must be met by non-exempt personnel, so only those who meet therequirements can be appointed as CPNS. Since 2014, after the enactment of Law Number 5 of 2014, non-exempt workers havebeen required to select candidates for state civil apparatus to become government employees with work agreements. Then, theprohibition of accepting non-civil servants or non-PPPK personnel is stated in Government Regulation 49 of 2018, while noncivil servants and non-PPPK personnel who had worked since before the regulation was enacted can still carry out a maximumof 5 years.
73

In connection with Government Regulation No. 49 of 2018, in 2022, the Ministry of State Administration and Bureaucratic

be based on the perceived excess number of civil servants nationwide. Moratoriums can be selectively applied to positions

Reform issued circular letter number B/185/M.SM.02.03/2022, which contains the elimination of types of employmentthat may no longer be needed in the future. Additionally, moratoriums can be alternately enforced in areas where the number

other than civil servants and PPPK in government agencies and a ban on the recruitment of non-ASN employees. Civil

of civil servants is deemed sufficient both in terms of quantity and field of expertise. This way, applicants can fill vacancies

service officials are tasked with creating a strategy of action to deal with non-ASN workers who must fulfill the criteria andin areas that require state civil with diverse fields of expertise. To ensure commitment, state civil apparatus filling positions

successfully pass the ASN candidate selection.

in remote areas are requested to provide a statement confirming their willingness to stay for a specified period. This step is
expected to further balance the distribution of state civil apparatus across the country.

Possible approach to address the problem
This section delves into actionable strategies aimed at addressing the problems outlined in the preceding section. Numerous
agencies have put forth a variety of solutions to tackle institutional issues pertaining to state personnel management. However,the solutions sound idealistic rather than practical. Consequently, the realization of enhanced management falls considerably
short of government expectations. The subsequent portion of this section will explore the proposed solutions and assess their
viability.
In a matter of addressing issues in merit system, as elaborated in the previous section, the Ministry of State Administration
and Bureaucratic Reform and the State Civil Apparatus Commission provides recommendations for steps that can betaken in implementing the merit system (State Civil Apparatus Commission, 2019; Ministry of State Administration and
Bureaucratic Reform, 2021). There are five points of recommendations. First, to enhance the planning of employee needs
and procurement, several steps can be considered. These steps include the potential transfer of civil servants from otheragencies and the utilization of the Government Employee with Work Agreement route. The second, it is essential to develop
competency standards and measurement instruments while simultaneously bolstering employee capacity and competence
through various avenues, such as training, education, coaching, counseling programs, and improved work practices. Thirdly,
achieving transparency and objectivity in performance measurement starts with the establishment of employee performancetargets derived directly from unit and agency performance targets. Fourth, providing feedback on employee performanceappraisal results should be facilitated through open dialogues between superiors and subordinates. Lastly, to further support
the effective implementation of state civil apparatus management, the adoption of an integrated information system is crucial,
aimed at providing services that streamline processes for employees. The National Civil Service Agency has initiated thiseffort by developing a digital-based integrated state civil apparatus management service system known as Sistem Informasi
Aparatur Sipil Negara (SIASN) (Aulia, 2022). SIASN is designed to consolidate state civil apparatus data into a single, efficient
database, enabling quick and accurate access (Ministry of State Administration and Bureaucratic Reform, 2021).
Based on the recommendations provided by the Ministry of State Administration and Bureaucratic Reform, it appears
that fulfilling needs through the transfer of civil servants from other agencies is possible. However, certain factors need tobe considered, including competency suitability, equality of positions, and income. These factors are closely related to thelong-term motivation of transferred employees. Furthermore, implementing coaching and counseling programs to enhance
employees’ competency capacities requires careful attention and effort. Coaching and counseling necessitate employees withspecific expertise and excellent communication skills to effectively convey channeled competencies. Regarding the integrated
information system being developed by the National Civil Service Agency, it has the potential to become a comprehensive
database for the State Civil Apparatus through cooperation with all relevant parties. The National Civil Service Agency has
mandated that all state civil apparatuses carry out independent data updates in 2021. This ongoing task is the responsibility ofthe entire Human Resources Bureau in each agency and each employee to ensure that the stored data remains up to date.
In response to the issues surrounding the moratorium, the recruitment of state civil apparatus candidates should be
conducted while considering the need for expertise in specific fields in each region. This should also involve calculating therequirements based on the results of workload analysis and factors such as employees reaching retirement age, passing away,
transferring to other agencies, or opting for early retirement. This approach addresses the challenge of the uneven distributionof state civil apparatus (Aparatur Sipil Negara/ASN) across regions, particularly outside of Java and remote areas (Republika,
2022). Therefore, if a moratorium on accepting candidates for state civil apparatus is to be implemented, it should not solely
74

In the context of the recruitment system, the State Personnel Agency, responsible for the development and organizationof the selection of state civil apparatus candidates using computer-assisted tests (CAT), has undertaken improvements toenhance the recruitment system. One effective measure to minimize the existing deficiencies in the selection process is theimplementation of an independent selection system. This self-selection system can be adopted by incorporating the TOEFL
implementation system.
As the agency responsible for developing CAT, the National Civil Service Agency (Badan Kepegawaian negara/BKN) can
issue licenses to institutions or agencies that meet specific requirements, enabling them to conduct CAT examinations.
Subsequently, candidates can register and take the CAT exams at these licensed institutions, following the designated test
schedules for each institution. Participants who have successfully completed the CAT exams receive a CAT score certificate,
which they can use when applying to various government agencies with job openings. It is expected that CAT organizing
institutions can spread throughout Indonesia and be closer to participants’locations.
Government agencies that have job vacancies will typically establish minimum CAT score requirements, and candidates’
eligibility for employment will be determined based on their CAT scores, with priority given to those with the highest
scores. Each agency that opens a vacancy must utilize BKN’ s State Civil Apparatus Candidate Selection System portal toachieve an equitable distribution of vacancy information. Participants wishing to register must use the portal and can only
register for one vacancy during a single registration period. Therefore, if multiple agencies have vacancies in the same period,
participants can only register with one agency. Participants can only register with other agencies after they have been declaredunsuccessful in the selection process at the agency they initially applied to, preventing vacancies from remaining unfilled.
This system is expected to minimize cheating because participants can choose the test schedule and prepare themselves
before taking it. The conditions and situation of the test implementation with fewer participants also have a psychologicaleffect on participants, making them feel calmer when facing the test. Additionally, technical problems in the field, such as
power failures, inadequate internet networks, and uncomfortable test locations, can be minimized by establishing BKN’s
requirements for granting CAT licenses to institutions that wish to become official CAT organizers. Civil servant canconcentrate more on performing their tasks and functions in accordance with their roles by reducing the involvement of themin CAT implementation.
A more extensive question bank is required to maintain result quality. BKN also serves as the sole agency authorized to issue
CAT score certificates to prevent the falsification of score certificates. Participants can check their real-time scores, but theofficial certificate will only be available to participants a few days after the test.
The last issue to discuss is bureaucratic downsizing. The equalization of positions, which is one form of bureaucratic
downsizing, causes a mismatch in educational qualifications and competencies. For this reason, the functional position
fostering agency needs to play a big role in overcoming the problem of inappropriate education and competence by actively
fostering functional officials from equalizing positions. Functional position coaching can be in the form of education andtraining, and functional officials can be structured through competency testing and certification (Deputy for Mutation of the
National Civil Service Agency, Aris Windiyanto, in his interview with Simpul Perencana magazine, April 2022). Functional
position fostering agencies also need to prepare instruments related to the requirements and competencies of functional
positions. In contrast, the agencies where civil servants are located must improve the competence of employees by the field of
duties, needs, and job requirements so that employee placement is not arbitrary (Murni, 2022).
75

In addition, organizational leaders must be open, socialize, and build communication with employees so that they know andlandscape in the years to come.

understand their functional duties. This openness will allow employees to express their problems without hesitation (Murni,2022). Functional position-fostering agencies can also conduct mapping within the national scope of functional positions under
their guidance. The mapping is carried out by looking at each functional official’ s education, competence, and performance.
From the mapping results, it will be known how many officials are eligible to continue, how big the competency gap is, andeven the arrangement or placement plan. The mapping results become the basis for mutation or transfer policies to otherfunctional positions, competency development, and placement mutations. (Deputy for Mutation of the National Civil Service
Agency, Aris Windiyanto, in his interview with Simpul Perencana magazine, April 2022).
In light of the government’ s decision to eliminate non-exempt workers beginning in November 2023, there is a concurrent
plan to amend the State Civil Apparatus Law. The draft law will contain Government Employees with Part-Time Work
Agreements, and a new formation of the State Civil Apparatus, which is planned to be a solution to the elimination of nonexempt workers. Eliminating non-exempt workers, which amounted to around 2.3 million people, certainly raises pros andcons. The government does not plan to conduct mass layoffs of non-exempt workers whose status is not contained in thelaw. Therefore, this part-time PPPK is a solution so non-exempt workers retain their jobs and income. The government also
benefits because it does not increase the budget for employee spending. This is because the part-time PK salary will not begreater than that of the non-exempt workers, who will be abolished as of November 28, 2023. This part-time PPPK does notwork full-time like previous civil servants and PPPKs. The agreement determines the working time (Yesidora, 2023).

Conclusion
The discussion of this paper has shed light on the evolving complexity of personnel structuring and management inIndonesia, particularly under the umbrella of bureaucratic reform. Over the past decade, Indonesia has embarked on a journey
to reform its civil servant to create a professional and adaptive government bureaucracy. The Grand Design of Bureaucratic
Reform sets ambitious goals for various aspects of government management, ranging from organizational structuring to
public service excellence. To achieve these objectives, the national government has implemented several strategies, eachwith its unique focus and challenges. First, the introduction of the merit system marked a significant step toward creatinga corruption-free, competent bureaucracy. However, challenges like limited understanding among civil servants and budget
constraints have hindered its full implementation. The second, while the moratorium of civil servant recruitment is aimed tosave costs and streamline the workforce, it faced criticism for limiting job opportunities, especially in a country where civil
service jobs are highly sought after. Third, the transition from paper-based tests to computer-assisted tests has improved
transparency, efficiency, and accountability in civil servant recruitment system. However, challenges like power outages andquestion standardization have emerged, emphasizing the need for continuous improvement. Fourthly, to streamline operations
and decision-making, the government simplified its bureaucratic structure by eliminating some hierarchical positions andfocusing on functional positions that value expertise and competence. This shift aims to reduce corruption and improve
efficiency within the civil service. However, it should be remembered that structural officers, when equated to functional
officers, do not necessarily have the ability to carry out their duties effectively. These limitations are caused by changes intheir work patterns and a lack of understanding of the responsibilities attached to their new role as functional officers. This
problem requires immediate attention and improvement, the responsibility not only lies with the institution where the civil
servant employee works but also the institution that develops the functional position. The fifth, decentralization in Indonesia
has led to differences in civil servant management between central and regional governments. While local governments cantailor policies to better meet community needs, managing personnel expenditure and addressing issues like honorarium
workers remain ongoing challenges.
In summary, Indonesia’s journey to reform its civil service is multifaceted and ongoing. It involves addressing numerous
challenges, from limited resources to resistance to change. However, the commitment to built a professional, transparent,
and accountable bureaucracy remains at the core of these reform efforts, with the ultimate goal of better serving the needs
and expectations of the Indonesian people. The success of these reforms will continue to shape the country’ s administrative
76

77

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National Civil Service Agency [Badan Kepegawaian Negara]. (2021). Dimulai Hari Ini, SKD CPNS & Seleksi Kompetensi
PPPK Non-Guru Berlangsung Di 450 Titik Lokasi [Starting Today, Basic Competency Selection for Candidates for Civil
Servants & Competency Selection for Non-Permanent Government Workers Non-Teachers Take Place in 450 Location Points].
Available at: https://www.bkn.go.id/dimulai-hari-ini-skd-cpns-seleksi-kompetensi-pppk-non-guru-berlangsung-di-450-titiklokasi/
National Civil Service Agency [Badan Kepegawaian Negara]. (2022). Statistik ASN Tahun 2021: Jumlah PNS Turun Sebesar
4,1% [State Civil Apparatus Statistics for 2021: The Number of Civil Servants Decreased by 4.1%]. Siaran Pers Badan
Kepegawaian Negara Nomor: 003/RILIS/BKN/III/2022. Available at: https://www.bkn.go.id/statistik-asn-tahun-2021-jumlahpns-turun-sebesar-4-koma-1-persen/
Presidential Regulation No. 81 of 2010 on the Grand Design of Bureaucratic Reform 2010-2025 [Peraturan Presiden Republik
Indonesia Nomor 81 Tahun 2010 tentang Grand Design reformasi Birokrasi 2010-2025]
Quah, J. S. T. (1985). Bureaucracy and Administrative Reform in the ASEAN Countries : A Comparative Analysis. Indian
Journal of Public Administration, 31(3), 987–1015. https://doi.org/10.1177/0019556119850339
Quah, J. (2016). The role of the public bureaucracy in policy implementation in five ASEAN countries: A comparative
overview. In J. Quah (Ed.), The Role of the Public Bureaucracy in Policy Implementation in Five ASEAN Countries (Integration
through Law: The Role of Law and the Rule of Law in ASEAN Integration, pp. 1-97). Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781316340653.003
Rahmat, M. (2023). Arah baru karir ASN Pasca Peralihan Jabatan dari struktural ke fungsional [A new career direction for
ASN Post Position Transition from structural to functional]. Retrieve from https://bkd.su
ltengprov.go.id/index.php/2023/05/08/arah-baru-karir-asn-pasca-peralihan-jabatan-dari-struktural-ke-fungsional/)
Rakhmawanto, A. (2021). Analisis Dampak Perampingan Birokrasi Terhadap Penyetaraan Jabatan Administrator dan Pengawas[Analysis of the Impact of Streamlining Bureaucracy on the Equalization of Administrator and Supervisory Positions]. Civil
Service, Vol. 15(2), 11-24.
Republika. (2022). BKN: Jumlah PNS akan berkurang drastis, PPPK Lebih Banyak [National Civil Service Agency: The
number of civil servants will be drastically reduced, more non-permanent government workers]. Available at: Available at:https://news.republika.co.id/berita/rff4w2436/bkn-jumlah-pns-akan-berkurang-drastis-pppk-lebih-banyak
Sleman Regency Civil Service Training Agency [Badan Diklat Kepegawaian Kabupaten Sleman]. (2019). Panduan Kepegawaian
Pegawai Negeri Sipil [Civil Servant Employment Guidelines]. Sleman: Badan Diklat Kepegawaian Kabupaten Sleman.
State Civil Apparatus Commission [Komisi Aparatur Sipil Negara]. (2019). Tantangan Penerapan Sistem Merit dalam
Manajemen ASN di Pemerintah Kabupaten dan Kota [Challenges of Implementing a Merit System in State Civil Apparatus
Management at the Municipal and City Government Levels]. Policy Brief, Vol 2(1).
State Civil Apparatus Commission Regulation No. 9 of 2019 concerning Procedures for Self-Assessment of Merit System
Implementation in ASN Management Within Government Agencies [Peraturan Komisi Aparatur Sipil Negara Nomor 9
Tahun 2019 tentang Tata Cara Penilaian Mandiri Penerapan Sistem Merit dalam Manajemen ASN di lingkungan instansi
pemerintah]
The ASEAN Secretariat. (2021). Assessment Report on Public Service Delivery Systems in the ASEAN Member States.
Jakarta: The ASEAN Secretariat
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81LAO PDRCONTENTSABSTRACT������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 84
LIST OF FIGURES������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 85

Civil Service Managementof Lao PDR 2012-2022

CHAPTER 01: Overview of Lao PDR and Government Structure����������������������������������������������������������� 86
Overview of Lao PDR���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 86
Structure of Government���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 86
CHAPTER 02: Civil Service Management in Lao PDR������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 87
CHAPTER 03: Overview of Civil Service Management System in Lao PDR������������������������������������������ 90
3.1 Roles and responsibilities of Central Committee for Organization and Personnel��������������������� 91
3.2 Role and Functions of Ministry of Home Affairs:���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 91
3.3 Roles and responsibilities of Personnel and Organization Department of the line ministries
and Ministry-equivalent organizations�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 92
CHAPTER 04: Civil Service Management Reform in Lao PDR���������������������������������������������������������������� 92
CHAPTER 05: Development of Civil Service Management���������������������������������������������������������������������� 94
CHAPTER 06: Challenges and Opportunities ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 95
CHAPTER 07: Future of Civil Service Management���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 96

Nanthaphon LYVATHANA
Director of Civil Service Planning & Cooperation Division.
Civil Service Management Department.
Ministry of Home Affairs.
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ABSTRACTLIST OF FIGURESThe need for the accountable, effective, transparent and responsive civil service management is well recognized by theGovernment of Lao PDR. The success of the 9th National Socio-Economic Development Plan (NSEDP) 2021-2025 is largely

Figure 01: Structure of Government of Lao PDR�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������87

depending on continued progress and improvement of the enabling public policies and strengthened government institutions.

Figure 02: Statistic of Population of Lao PDR, National Statistical Bureau, Ministry of Planning and Investment��������������������88

This is echoed by the 09 Work plans of the Strategy on Civil Service Management to 2030 which emphasized on❶

Formulation and amendment of legislation on civil service management; ❷ Effective Workforce Planning; ❸ Improve anddevelop the performance management system; ❹ Improve civil service training and development system; ❺ Improve civil
service remuneration system and other incentives; ❻ The Information communication technology (ICT) and Digitalization in

Figure 03: Comparison of Civil Service to population of Lao PDR���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������89
Figure 04: Ratio of Civil Servants of Lao PDR in 2022����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������89
Figure 05: Comparison of New Recruited Civil Service of Lao PDR 2012-2022������������������������������������������������������������������������������89
Figure 06: Comparison of Total Civil Servants of Lao PDR 2021-2022������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 90

civil service management; ❼ Promote and provide more opportunities in developing capacity of female, ethnic and vulnerable
civil servants; ❽ Promotion of establishing good environment and safety for civil servants ❾ Promote the cooperation atregional and international level on civil servant matters.
The Lao Government has taken a step to simplify and rationalize its organizational machinery to enable them to improve
civil service management and public service delivery. The Central Committee for Organization and Personnel (CCOP) andThe Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA) as the two national Civil Service Management organizations have given an increased
mandate to lead the ongoing public administration reform and civil service management agenda other than those Personnel
and organization department in the line ministries. Those two organizations are responsible for policy development, legislationand oversee the civil Service management and public service nationwide.
While the government of Lao PDR is promoting decentralization, the public services and civil service management reform
also had been introduced as an improvement of the productive performance of the public service and the enhancement of thepersonal development of their government officials through the establishment and operation of effective training programs.
This process has been accepted as national policies.
Even though the government of Laos has emphasized the training and capacity development of its civil servants and digitaltransformation as their priority tasks, but the insufficient resources and capacity is still a major constraint on its current public
administration reform and socio-economy development.
In summary, this empirical research has comprehensively revealed. In order to take an in-depth understanding of the civil
service management in Lao PDR, this research has also comparatively analyzed the comparison of statistics, the structure of
the organizations as well as the human resource management system.
Finally, the author strongly believes that the future of civil service management holds great potential for the development
and progress of the country. By ensuring transparency, professionalism, modernization and efficiency, the civil service
can effectively serve the needs of its citizens and contribute to the achievement of national socio-economic development
goals as well as the national agenda on economic recovery in post COVID-19 era. With the right reforms, investments, andpartnerships, Lao PDR can build a modern and effective civil service that is capable of meeting the challenges of the future.

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CHAPTER 01: Overview of Lao PDR and Government Structure
Overview of Lao PDR
Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR), commonly known as Laos, is a country located in Southeast Asia. It sharesborders with Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the southeast, Thailand to the west, Myanmar (Burma) to the northwest, andChina to the north. The Mekong River also forms a significant part of Laos’western boundary with Thailand. With an area ofapproximately 236,800 square kilometers, Lao PDR has a population of around 7.4 million people (as of 2022). Vientiane is thecapital and largest city of the country.
Lao PDR has a diverse ethnic makeup with 50 ethnic groups across the countries. The majority of population is Lao ethnic
which accounts for 55 percent of the whole population. About 11 percent are Khmou, 8 percent Hmong, and the rest are otherethnic groups including Akha, Singsil, Lue, Lamed, Tai, Katu, Triang and Harak, Oy and Brao (Laos population census 2022,
National Statistics Bureau of Lao PDR).
The economy is predominantly based on agriculture, with the majority of the population engaged in subsistence farming.
Agriculture contributes to the country’s export earnings, with key crops including rice, coffee, tea, and rubber. Additionally,hydropower generation, mining, and tourism are significant contributors to the economy.
The country is known for its rich natural beauty and cultural heritage. The country is home to several UNESCO World
Heritage Sites, including the town of Luang Prabang, Vat Phou and associated ancient settlements, and the Plain of Jars.
Tourists visit Lao PDR to explore its lush landscapes, historic temples, and experience its unique local traditions and festivals.
However, Lao PDR still faces various challenges, including limited infrastructure development, poverty, and inadequate accessto healthcare and education services in rural areas. The government is working towards addressing these issues through ongoingdevelopment initiatives and economic reforms.
The government’s policies prioritize poverty reduction, sustainable development, and social welfare. While there have been
efforts to promote economic liberalization and attract foreign investment, the government maintains control over key sectors of
the economy.

Structure of Government
The structure of Government of Lao PDR consists of the Prime Minister, Deputy Prime Ministers, Ministers and Chairmenof the ministry-equivalent organizations. The structure of the Government of Lao PDR at the moment consists of 15 ministries
and 02 Ministry-equivalent organizations.

Figure 01: Structure of Government of Lao PDR.

CHAPTER 02: Civil Service Management in Lao PDR
Overview of Civil Service Management System
Civil service management in Lao PDR is an essential aspect of ensuring the effective socio - economic development of thenation. It encompasses various strategies and practices to recruit, train/development, motivate, and retain talented individuals
in the public sector. Effective civil service management is crucial for promoting good governance, enhancing public service
delivery and achieving the national socio-economic development goals.
Under the National Constitution and Strategy of Civil Service Management to 2030, The civil service management of Lao
PDR is implemented under law on civil service and several decrees as ❶ Decree on Administrative Position of Civil Servantsof Lao PDR, No 203/GOVL ❷ Decree on Technical Position of Civil Servants of Lao PDR, No 202/GOVL. ❸ Decree on
Training and Development of Civil Servants, No 294/GOVL. ❹ Decree on Performance Appraisal of Civil Service of Lao PDR,
No 300/GOVL. ❺ Decree on Eligibilities and Criteria of Administrative Position of Civil Service of Lao PDR, No 461/GOVL❻ Ministry of Home Affairs Instruction on Civil Service Examination, No 11/MOH and etc.
Recruitment is a fundamental step in civil service management. Lao PDR has adopted a merit-based approach to ensurethat individuals are selected based on their knowledge, skills, and abilities rather than nepotism or bribery. The Civil Service
Law provides a framework for fair and transparent recruitment processes. These processes involve competitive exams andinterviews, promoting equal opportunities for all citizens to serve their country.
Training and development programs play a crucial role in building the capacity of civil servants in Lao PDR. The Lao
Civil Service Institute (LCSI) is the key institution responsible for providing training and development programs to enhance

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the skills and knowledge of civil servants. These programs focus on a wide range of areas, including public administration,
leadership, management, and specialized technical skills. Developing competent and skilled civil servants ensures efficient andeffective service delivery to the people.
Motivating civil servants is another important aspect of civil service management. In Lao PDR, the government has
implemented policies and practices to promote motivation and job satisfaction among civil servants. These policies include
performance-based incentives, career development opportunities, and a fair and transparent performance appraisal system.
By rewarding good performance and providing opportunities for growth, civil servants are encouraged to work diligently andcontribute to the overall development of the country.
Retention of skilled civil servants is crucial for the continuity and stability of government institutions. Lao PDR has
recognized the importance of retaining talent and has implemented strategies to retain experienced and dedicated civil servants.
These strategies include competitive salaries, benefits, and a positive work environment. The government strives to create an
attractive and supportive workplace that recognizes the contributions of civil servants and provides opportunities for careeradvancement.
Civil service management in Lao PDR plays a vital role in ensuring the effective functioning of government institutions.

Figure 03: Comparison of Civil Service to population of Lao PDR

Through merit-based recruitment, training and development programs, motivation, and retention strategies, the government
aims to build a competent and dedicated civil service. By doing so, Lao PDR can enhance governance, improve public service
delivery, and achieve its socio-economic development goals. The effective civil service management is a cornerstone of a
successful and prosperous nation.
Statistic/Ratio of Civil Servants

Fiscal year

New Quotas

Total
Civil Servants

Total Population

Percentage per

New Recruitment
Quotas for

population

Teachers

2012-2013

12,550156,527

6,521,998

2.40

4,674

2013-2014

16,500171,710

6,644,000

2.57

4,830

2014-2015

5,000

177,826

6,809,000

2.62

1,775

2015-2016

5,000

182,473

6,492,400

2.81

1,843

2017

5,000

183.680

6,492,400

2.82

1,861

2018

3,000

184,671

6,492,400

2.84

1,850

2019

1,500

182,169

6,492,400

2.81

879

2020

2,000

178,8217,231,210

2.47

1,040

2021

1,600

176.151

7,337,777

2.40

530

2022

1,300

175.058

7.489.515

2.34

340

Total

53.450Figure 04: Ratio of Civil Servants of Lao PDR in 2022

19.622(Figure 02: Statistic of Population of Lao PDR, National Statistical Bureau, Ministry of Planning and Investment)
The total numbers of civil servants had been increased from 156,527 (2012) to 175,058 (2022), while the new quotas had been
decreased from 12,550 (2012) to 1,300 (2022) due to the national agenda on the economic recovery, the government of Lao
PDR formulated the right-sizing policy and government re-structure in late 2018.
Figure 05: Comparison of New Recruited Civil Service of Lao PDR 2012-2022
8889

3.1 Roles and responsibilities of Central Committee for Organization and Personnel
The Central Committee for Organization and Personnel holds the following rights and duties:
1.

Study policies, guidelines, strategic plans, laws and regulations on the management of civil servants from the level of
director general of department, heads of government agencies holding equal rank to department and above for submission
to higher authorities’consideration;2.

Propagate, disseminate policies, guidelines, strategic plans, laws and regulations on the management of civil servants
from the level of department directors and heads of government agencies holding equal rank to departments and above
countrywide;

3.

Define the standards and criteria for appointing or transferring civil servants from the level of director general of
department and heads of government agencies holding equal rank to departments and above;

4.

Study and develop capacity building programs, training and development plans for civil servants from the level of director
general of department, heads of government agencies holding equal rank to departments and above, including civil servants

Figure 06: Total Civil Servants of Lao PDR 2021-2022
This figure illustrates that number of civil servants has been dramatically increasing in the past decade. However, there
remains a real challenge at district and provincial levels in terms of ensuring that sufficient capacity is in place to meet
implementation challenges. In addition, many central agencies state that they have insufficient staff to meet their needs. The
challenge of insufficient workforce is further compounded by relatively low skill levels in personnel planning in many publicorganizations.
Total number of civil servants of Lao PDR in 2022 is 175,058 including 83,066 females; it is about 2.34% of population.

CHAPTER 03: Overview of Civil Service Management System in Lao PDR

holding PhD degrees in politics and administration;
5.

Conduct the civil servant performance assessment from the level of director general of department and heads ofgovernment agencies holding equal rank to departments and above;

6.

Study and propose higher authorities consider applying remuneration towards high-level official in accordance withregulations;

7.

Follow up on the management of civil servants countrywide;

8.

Collect of statistics and management of files on civil servants from the level of director general of department, heads ofgovernment agencies holding equal rank to departments and above;

9.

Coordinate the management of civil servants with central and local public organizations, the Lao Front for National
Construction and mass organizations;

10. Maintain external, regional and international relations and cooperation on the management of civil servants;
11. Regularly summarize and report its activities to higher authorities;
12. Exercise other rights and perform other duties as stipulated by laws and regulations.

Since the promulgation of the Constitution in 1991, the Government of the Laos has adopted a number of regulations
and laws with the view to ensure the improvement of the administrative system from the central to the local levels, and topromote and enhance people’s democracy on the principle as stipulated in Article 2 of the Constitution: “All powers belong
to the people, by the people and for the interests of the multi-ethnic people of all social strata with the workers, farmers andintelligentsia as key components” . In order to translate the Constitution into a concrete action plan, especially in the area ofCivil Service Management, the Lao Government approved the law on Law on Civil Service and several legislatives. Under thelaw on Civil Service, the key civil service management agencies have been defined to clarify its mandate and functional system
to ensure transparency and conformity of management.
There are three main agencies to operate the civil service management in Lao PDR as:
1.	 Central Committee for Organization and Personnel (CCOP), that is responsible for high executive officials from thedirector general level and above in term of statistics, promotions, transfer, remuneration and compensation, allowance,
training and development and etc.
2.	 Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA) that is responsible for making a common policy, regulations, strategies, procedure andprocess for management of civil servants at the level of Deputy Director General down to technical official and supporting

3.2 Role and Functions of Ministry of Home Affairs:
Ministry of Home Affairs is a state organization at central level within the organizational structure of the Government. Amongits contributions to governance and public administration reform; As a main secretariat for the government in charge of civil
service management. Specifically, the functions of MoHA covers a number of broader dimensions of public service, and havebeen defined as follows;1.

functions, and responsibility for submission to concerned organizations for approval and promulgation;
2.

for the statistics, promotions, transfer, remuneration and compensation, allowance, training and development of the civil

3.

To analyze and propose the improvement of government structure; including the establishment, dissolution, or merger ofministries, equivalent organizations, and state organizations at provincial level;

4.

To advise on proposed changes regarding the roles, functions, and organization structures of ministries, equivalentorganizations, close collaboration with ministries and organizations concerned to define the structures and activities of local
vertical departments;

5.

To assist the government in developing draft regulations for the establishment of civil society organizations, and provide
advice to ministries, equivalent organizations, and local administrations on the establishment and management of activities

servants in their own organization.

of those organizations;6.

90

To formulate strategic plans, policies, and development/work plans, programs and projects in order to improve public
administration regulations, organizational structures and civil service management;

employees throughout the nation.
3.	 Personnel and Organization Department of the line ministries and Ministry-equivalent organizations responsible

To study and draft laws and regulations on public administration and civil service management in accordance with its roles,

To study and propose the establishment, division, merger or definition of boundaries of provinces, cities, districts, and91

7.

municipalities for Government’s consideration, and to coordinate with relevant local administrations to consider thecomprehensive civil service reform to promote good governance, improve public service delivery, and strengthen administrative

resolution of boundary-related conflicts or to refer for conflict resolution to relevant higher authorities;

capacity. This study provides an overview of the civil service reform efforts in Lao PDR, highlighting key challenges andTo provide advice to local administration on procedures and methods for the election and appointment of village chiefs,

initiatives undertaken by the government to address them.

the establishment of development communities in accordance with the Law on Local Administration;
8.
9.

To formulate mechanisms, regulations, and recommendations for the management of civil servants; and to develop and

Lao PDR has undergone significant political and economic transformations since its establishment as People Democratic andeffectively implement guidelines/procedures relating to these regulations;

Republic regime in 1975. With a central planning system that controlled all aspects of the economy and public administration,

To manage civil servants, collect statistics, information, and curriculum vitae of all civil servants; determine the civil service

the civil service in Lao PDR faced various challenges such as insufficient of law and regulation, unsystematic workforce

quota and submit to the Government for approval; encourage and supervise ministries, agencies, and local administration

planning (in remote area), low salary and wages, inappropriate performance evaluation system, insufficient of regular training

on HRM related issues such as job descriptions, staff deployment and transfer, recruitment processes, and updating gradesand professional/ skill development, lack of ICT and high technology/facilities.

and levels of civil servants;
10. To settle or refer to high authorities, any conflicts, complaints or proposals of civil servants related to restructuring,
staffing, appointment, transfer, remuneration or disciplinary actions taken against them;
11. To monitor and evaluate the implementation of improvements of organization structures, civil service management reform

Key Challenges:
Limited Institutional Capacity: Lao PDR’s civil service institutions have historically faced challenges due to limited humanresources, weak organizational structures, and inadequate training and development programs.

and other issues in ministries, equivalent organizations and local administrations;
12. To plan and manage citizen in term of settlement, birth registration, married, population movement and others; andInadequate Compensation and Incentives: Low salaries and inadequate benefits have resulted in difficulties attracting and

13. To cooperate and coordinate with international organizations on public administration and civil service matters.

retaining qualified and motivated civil servants.

3.3 Roles and responsibilities of Personnel and Organization Department of the line ministries and Ministry-equivalentorganizations
Personnel and Organization Department of the line ministries and Ministry-equivalent organizations have the following
rights and duties:
1.

Research and develop strategic plans for the management of civil servants under their purview based on the government’s
strategic and overall plans;

2.

Research and develop master plans and plans for training and development of civil servants in their sectors on technicalmatters and junior executive officers on governance from time to time;3.

Research and set standards for administrative and technical positions and terms of reference for civil servants in theirsectors;

4.

Manage the number and quality of civil servants, apply policies to and disciplinary sanctions against civil servants inaccordance with the laws and regulations;5.

Summarize civil servants management activities and annual recruitment requirements for report to the Ministry of Home
Affairs in accordance with the regulations;

6.

Organize examinations for new recruitments, promotion, upgrading, appointment, transfer, dismissal and assessment of
performance by civil servants in their sectors;

7.

Utilize a modern civil servants information management system that may be linked to other sectors and the Ministry ofHome Affairs;

8.

Consider and resolve plaints and petitions from civil servants within the scope of their responsibilities;

9.

Maintain external, regional and international relations and cooperation in the management of civil servants;

10. Regularly summarize and report their activities to higher authorities and the Ministry of Home Affairs;
11. Exercise other rights and perform other duties as stipulated by laws and regulations.

Lack of Performance Management Systems: The absence of robust performance management systems hinders monitoringand evaluation of civil servants, which affects accountability and productivity.
Government Initiatives:
Recognizing the need for civil service reform, the government has taken several initiatives to address the challenges andimprove the efficiency and professionalism of the civil service.
Legal and Institutional Framework:
The government enacted the Civil Service Law in 2015, providing the legal basis for civil service management and formulated
several policies, strategy of civil service management and relevant regulations as well as promoting the decentralization of civil
service management national.
Capacity Building and Training/Development:
The government has prioritized capacity building and training programs to enhance the skills and competencies of civil
servants. The National Academy of Politics and Public Administration (NAPPA) and Public Administration Research andTraining Institute (PARTI) of Ministry of Home Affairs are the main training providers that to implement the training andprofessional development opportunities across various sectors.
Recruitment and Merit-Based Systems:
Efforts have been made to strengthen the recruitment process and promote merit-based appointments, enabling qualified
individuals to join the civil service. The Ministry of Home Affairs Instruction on the Recruitment and Civil Service Examination
had been formulated in order standardized recruitment and selection procedures. The Merit-Based Examination System (E-Civil
Service) is being studied and defined as one of the significant goals of the Civil Service Management Strategy to 2023.
Performance Management:

CHAPTER 04: Civil Service Management Reform in Lao PDR

The government has introduced performance evaluation systems, such as the Performance Appraisal System (PAS), to assess

Civil service management reform in Lao PDR was implemented periodically in accordance to the national socio-economic

career progression.

development plan and national strategies. The main purpose of the reform is a critical aspect of modernizing and enhancing
the efficiency and effectiveness of government institutions. In Lao PDR, the government has recognized the need for92

and improve the performance of civil servants. This system links performance evaluation to professional development andCompensation and Benefits:
In recent years, the government has made efforts to increase civil servant salaries and provide additional benefits to attract and93retain talent. The introduction of a new salary structure and allowances has aimed to improve living conditions and motivate

civil service management tasks to those local authorities in order to alleviate poverty and enable Laos to graduate from thecivil servants.

United Nations’list of least developed countries in 2026.

Anti-Corruption Measures:

Despite these efforts, challenges still remain in the development of civil service in Lao PDR. These include the need for further

The Lao government has prioritized anti-corruption measures within the civil service. The establishment of the State Audit

capacity building, addressing issues unsystematic performance appraisal regime, information management and civil service

Authority and Lao National Committee for Anti-Corruption (NACC) has strengthened efforts to combat corruption throughdigital transformation and improving the attractiveness of public service careers to attract and retain talented individuals.

investigation, prevention, and awareness-raising campaigns.
Overall, the development of civil service in Lao PDR is an ongoing process, and the government continues to work
Modernize the Civil Service Management System (PIMS):

towards establishing a professional, efficient, and accountable civil service to support the country’s national socio- economic

Personnel Information Management System (PIMS) is the current information system that is being utilized in all central

development goals.

government organizations and province. The Ministry of Home Affairs is in charge of the system management and recently put
their effort to roll-out the system to district level. However, the functions of the system are limited not covered all dimensionsof the civil service management.

CHAPTER 06: Challenges and Opportunities

Civil service reform in Lao PDR is an ongoing process aimed at improving the efficiency, transparency, and accountability

The challenges and opportunities of civil service management in Lao PDR are critical factors that shape the country’s abilityof the public administration. The government’s initiatives to address the challenges faced by the civil service reflect its
commitment to promoting good governance and enhancing public service delivery. While progress has been made, sustained
efforts are needed to ensure the successful implementation and institutionalization of civil service reforms, thereby transforming
the civil service into a professional, merit-based, and efficient institution that serves the needs of the Lao people.

CHAPTER 05: Development of Civil Service Management

for effective and efficient governance. Lao PDR is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia with a communist government, andthe role of civil service management is crucial in implementing policies that drive socio-economic development.
One of the key challenges faced in civil service management in Lao PDR is the lack of qualified and skilled civil servants. The
country’s education system has been historically limited in providing quality education and skill development opportunities.
This has resulted in a scarcity of professionals with the requisite knowledge and expertise to effectively carry out their roles
within the civil service. Without a highly skilled and efficient civil service, it becomes challenging to implement policies andprograms that address the needs of the people and improve service delivery.

The development of civil service in Lao PDR has been an ongoing process since 1991. Over the years, the Lao government has
taken steps to establish a professional and efficient civil service to effectively implement its policies and programs.

Furthermore, decentralization efforts in Lao PDR have presented both challenges and opportunities for civil service
management. Decentralization aims to empower local governments and enhance public service delivery at the grassroots level.

One of the key milestones in the development of civil service in Lao PDR was the enactment of the Law on Civil Servants in

However, the successful implementation of decentralization requires capacity building, as local governments may lack the2015. This law provided the legal framework for the recruitment, appointment, promotion, and discipline of civil servants. It

necessary skills and resources to effectively manage public services. Strengthening the capacity of local civil servants throughalso aimed to ensure the integrity, professionalism, and impartiality of civil servants in serving the public interest.

training and support can help overcome these challenges.

In the early years, the civil service in Lao PDR faced various challenges, including limited human and financial resources, lack

Despite the challenges, there are also several opportunities for civil service management in Lao PDR. The country has a youngof specialized skills and expertise, unsystematic performance appraisal regime, information management and civil service digitaland growing population, which presents a demographic dividend. By investing in education and skill development programs,

transformation. However, the government has made efforts to address these challenges through various reform initiatives.

the government can harness the potential of its youth population to meet the demands of the civil service. This can include
strengthening educational institutions, promoting research and development, and providing scholarships and opportunities for

To enhance the capacity and professionalism of civil servants, the Lao government has introduced training and capacity-

further study abroad.

building programs. These programs aim to equip civil servants with the necessary knowledge, skills, and competencies toeffectively perform their duties. Those public service training institutes provide comprehensive training and development

Moreover, advancements in technology offer opportunities for improving civil service management in Lao PDR. Digitalization

opportunities for civil servants. The curriculums mainly focus on the leadership skill, legislations, public administration, project

can streamline administrative processes, enhance transparency, and improve service delivery. Implementing e-governancemanagement for the senior manager, middle managers to supporting employees.

systems, such as online service portals and digital payment platforms, can simplify procedures and reduce corruption risks.
Utilizing data analytics can also provide valuable insights for evidence-based policymaking and decision-making.

Efforts have also been made to improve transparency and accountability in the civil service. The government has implemented
policies and mechanisms to prevent corruption, such as the establishment of anti-corruption agencies and the introduction ofAnother opportunity lies in fostering international cooperation and sharing best practices in civil service management. Lao PDR

asset declaration requirements for civil servants prior to the promotion and retirement.

can benefit from partnerships with other countries that have successfully managed their civil service systems and overcome
similar challenges. Collaborative initiatives, exchange programs, and technical assistance can help enhance the capacity andIn recent years, the Lao government has placed increased emphasis on merit-based recruitment and promotion in the civil

knowledge of civil servants in Lao PDR.

service. It has introduced competitive examination systems to ensure fair and transparent recruitment and promotion processes.
The government is also working towards decentralizing the civil service system to ensure efficient service delivery at the local

Civil service management in Lao PDR faces several challenges, including a lack of skilled personnel, human and financial

level by implementing the 3 builds policy (Samsang Policy) to empower the local authorities, particularly, the allocation of someresources, lack of specialized skills and expertise, unsystematic performance appraisal regime, information management and9495

civil service digital transformation and the need for capacity building in decentralization efforts. However, there are also

framework, resilient, workforce planning and promoting diversity and inclusion, modernization and international cooperation toopportunities for improvement, such as investing in education and skill development, leveraging technology for digitalization,

ensure the consistency, transparency, accountability and fairness in civil service management in the future. The nine prioritizedand promoting international cooperation. Effectively addressing these challenges and capitalizing on the opportunities will beWork Plans are defined as follow:

essential for Lao PDR to strengthen its civil service and achieve sustainable development for its people.

CHAPTER 07: Future of Civil Service Management
The future of civil service management in Lao PDR is crucial for the development and progress of the country. As Laos
continues to grow and emerge on the global stage, it is essential that its civil service is well-equipped and capable of effectively
serving the needs of its citizens.
In recent years, the Lao government has recognized the importance of improving civil service management and has taken steps
to modernize and reform its systems. This includes implementing new recruitment processes, promoting meritocracy, andenhancing training and capacity building programs and launching the Personnel Information Management System (PIMS).
These efforts have yielded positive results, but there is still much work to be done.
One key aspect that needs attention is ensuring the transparency and accountability of the civil service. Unsystematic
Performance Appraisal has been a long-standing issue in Laos, and it is imperative that measures are put in place to preventand combat this problem. This can be achieved through establishing robust mechanisms, and promoting a culture of integrity
within the civil service.
Furthermore, the future of civil service management in Lao PDR must also focus on enhancing the professionalism andefficiency of its workforce. This can be achieved through effective human resource management practices, such as performanceappraisal, career development programs, and appropriate reward systems. By incentivizing high performance and providing
opportunities for growth and advancement, the civil service can attract and retain talented individuals who can contribute to1.

Work Plan 01: Formulation and amendment of legislation on civil service management;

2.

Work Plan 02: Effective Workforce Planning;

3.

Work Plan 03: Improve and develop the performance management system;

4.

Work Plan 04: Improve civil service training and development system;

5.

Work Plan 05: Improve civil service remuneration system and other incentives;

6.

Work Plan 06: The Information communication technology (ICT) and Digitalization in civil service management;

7.

Work Plan 07: Promote and provide more opportunities in developing capacity of female, ethnic and vulnerable civil
servants;

8.

Work Plan 08: Promotion of establishing good environment and safety for civil servants;

9.

Work Plan 09: Promote the cooperation at regional and international level on civil servant matters.

These programs will be implemented in both the central and local governments throughout the country in order to improve thecivil service management systems, to enhance the capacity of civil management organizations and to successfully achieve thepublic administration reform.
The future of civil service management holds great potential for the development and progress of the country. By ensuringtransparency, professionalism, modernization and efficiency, the civil service can effectively serve the needs of its citizens
and contribute to the achievement of national socio-economic development goals as well as the national agenda on economic
recovery in post COVID-19 era. With the right reforms, investments, and partnerships, Lao PDR can build a modern andeffective civil service that is capable of meeting the challenges of the future.

the country’s development.
Another important aspect to consider is the use of technology in civil service management. Digitalization and automation
have the potential to significantly improve efficiency and transparency in government processes. Electronic data management
systems, online recruitment platforms, and digital service delivery mechanisms can streamline operations and make interactions
with the civil service more convenient for citizens. Therefore, investing in digital infrastructure and promoting the ofE-government initiatives is crucial for the future of civil service management in Lao PDR. Additionally, The government of Lao
PDR is currently upgrading the current Personnel Information Management System (PIMS) to the better and more effective
system by formulate the policies on HR technology and digitalization, develop the current PIMS to HRMIS which is more
effective and sustainable, develop communication tools or platform that is more secured and advanced in the public sectors,
synchronize all HR system of the line ministries to PIMS (HRMIS) and roll-out PIMS (HRMIS) to all public organizations
nationwide.
As Lao PDR continues to integrate into the global economy, the civil service must also be prepared to meet the challenges ofglobalization and digitalization. This includes improving language skills, cultural understanding, ICT skill and knowledge ofinternational best practices. By equipping civil servants with the necessary skills and competencies, they can better engage withinternational partners, attract foreign investment, and effectively navigate global issues.
In order to achieve these goals, collaboration and cooperation between the government, civil society, and development
partners is essential. A multi-stakeholder approach can ensure that the future of civil service management in Lao PDR
is inclusive, participatory, and responsive to the needs of the population. This can be achieved through regular dialogue,
consultative processes, and joint initiatives. To set the future directions to enhance the civil service management in Lao PDR,
the government adopted the Strategy of Civil Service Management of Lao PDR to 2030 which aims to improve the legal
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MALAYSIACONTENTSABSTRACT���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 100
INTRODUCTION������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������101

Talent Management in
Malaysian Public Sector:
Preparing the Workforce
in a Context ofUncertainty

LITERATURE REVIEW�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������102
TALENT MANAGEMENT�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������102
TALENT MANAGEMENT IN MALAYSIAN PUBLIC SECTOR�������������������������������������������������������������102
TALENT DEVELOPMENT����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������104
TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������105
CAREER DEVELOPMENT����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������105
TALENT ENGAGEMENT������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������105
EMPLOYER BRANDING�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������106
ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������107
RESOURCE BASED THEORY����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������107
SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������108
HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������108
TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE�������������������������108
CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE����������������������������������������109
TALENT ENGAGEMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE������������������������������������������109
EMPLOYER BRANDING AS MODERATOR������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������110
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������112
METHODOLOGY������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������112
RESEARCH DESIGN���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������112
SAMPLING�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������113
FINDINGS�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������113
Demography������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������113
Measurement model����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������113
Structural Model and Hypotheses Testing��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������115
DISCUSSION��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������116
RECOMMENDATION����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������117
MANAGERIAL IMPLICATION AND WAY FORWARD���������������������������������������������������������������������������117
CONCLUSION������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������118
REFERENCES������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������119

Norasyikin Shaikh Ibrahim

Bathmavathy Dalayga

National Institute of Public Administration,

National Institute of Public Administration,

Bukit Kiara Campus, Kuala Lumpur

Bukit Kiara Campus, Kuala Lumpur

Email: syikinibrahim@intanbk.intan.my

Email: bathmavathy@intanbk.intan.my

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ABSTRACTINTRODUCTION

Public sectors around the world are increasingly adopting Talent Management practices in order to provide the public with

Talent management is seen to have created the interest of many academics and practitioners both within the public service andbetter services and to improve organisational performance. As a result, academic research on talent management continues,

private sectors globally. It started off with the term ‘Talent War”that was introduced by McKinsey in the late of 1990s which wasand talent development is drawing attention as a new strategy to deal with problems these organisations are facing. In

popularised since then. However, in the recent two years, it has become more complicated and though there has been many

explaining this phenomenon, there have been also consistent calls to investigate talent engagement as well across different

research done in the perspective of talent management, yet there is still no consensus of proper definition of talent management,settings to further explore organisational performances. Therefore, this study attempts to address least explored constituents

theoretical backgrounds and scope (Gallardo-gallardo et al., 2013).

in explaining organisational performances and its influencing factors such as talent development, career development andemployee engagement. A quantitative study will be conducted employing a cross-sectional survey to collect data from public

Even though, talent management reached matured stage in Western countries, however in ASEAN countries it is still at infant

sector departments in Malaysia. Structural equation modelling will be used to analyse the data. The results will be discussed

stage (Yusuf Sidani & Akram Al Ariss, 2014). Knowing its growing importance, Malaysian Civil Service has started to embracein terms of evolutionary findings in the realm of theory and practice of talent development. It is envisaged that the findings

talent management strategies as many ministries started to develop their strategic planning in line with their talent management

will be an incremental contribution to existing literature and also of great importance to organisational behaviour scholars,

requirement. The functions of human resource planning include determining the public service roles, government service size andhuman resource experts, and workplace policy regulators.

structure, remuneration package, pension matters, developing strategic alliances and networking. Human resource development
functions include the implementation of policies, such as in organisation development, career development, succession planning,training, and management of human resource management in the public service. Human resource management functions include

KEY WORDS: Talent Development, Training and Development, Career Development, Talent Engagement and Organisational

the process of recruitment, positioning, promotions, pensions benefit, service matters, employer-employee relationship, training,

Performancepolicies monitoring, and evaluation management (Public Service Department, 2020).
In the literature review, all variables will be explained including talent management (TM). TM can be described as the activities
and processes that involve the systematic attraction, identification, development, engagement, retention, and deployment of
those talents which are of particular value to an organisation to create strategic sustainable success (Collings & Mellahi, 2009;
Gefen et al., 2000; Scullion et al., 2010). It will be followed by the development of talent management policy in Malaysia withthe circulation of in-service policy on succession planning and talent development, the policy on Subject Matter Experts (SME)and the latest is the development of talent management /development in ministries and agencies. Hypotheses will then be tested
as follows: Talent development and public service performance, Talent engagement and public service performance, Employer
branding and public service performance, and talent engagement, talent development and public service performance moderated
by employer branding.
Talent war, as coined by McKinsey (Datar, 2022) is not something new as it has been an on-going issue for the past ten years,
which has drawn interest of many researchers (Thunnissen et al., 2013). In Malaysian civil service, talent management has
started to be taken seriously in developing human resource and many ministries started to develop their strategic planning in linewith their talent management requirement. There are two theories /approaches that will be used in the article. Resource Based
View is a managerial framework used to determine the strategic resources a firm can exploit to achieve sustainable competitive
advantage (Barney, 1991). The talent is the only resource which may help in gaining and maintain the competitive advantage,
and therefore organisations must put a focus on attracting and maintaining the talented work force. Social Exchange theory
revolves on two main dimensions: productivity expectation and mutual trust (Blau, 1968). In order to remain competitive, thetalent in an organization should be developed and in order for them to remain loyal, organization must be able to reciprocatewith talent needs such as career development, rewards, etc. Thus, the rationale of using these theories as there are holistic andinclusive of many concepts in talent management.
The main research objective of this study is to examine the influence of talent management practices such as training anddevelopment, career development and talent engagement on organizational performance in the Malaysian public sector, given
employer branding as a moderating variable.
The sub-research objectives are as follows:i.

To examine the relationship between training and development and organizational performance in the Malaysian public
sector.

ii.
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To examine the relationship between career development and organizational performance in the Malaysian public sector.
101

iii. To examine the relationship between talent engagement and organizational performance in the Malaysian public sector

Table 1.1: Service circular of career development in the public service

iv. To examine the moderating effect of employer branding on the relationship between the training and development andorganizational performance among in the Malaysian public sector.
v.

To examine the moderating effect of employer branding on the relationship between the career development andorganizational performance among in the Malaysian public sector.

vi. To examine the moderating effect of employer branding on the relationship between the talent engagement andorganizational performance among in the Malaysian public sector.

LITERATURE REVIEWTALENT MANAGEMENTThe Malaysian government issued Service Circular No. 3, 2006, The Guidelines for Setting Up Search Committee, andTalent management is a buzzing terminology that is becoming critically significant for an organisation to grow from the bottom
line to future success. The year 1997 marks the differentiation in talent landscape, when the report by McKinsey on “global
war for talent” recommended that more priority should be given to employees; because talent is the critical success factor of anorganization which will determine the rise and down of a company (Nilsson & Ellström, 2012; Sa’ ari et al., 2016). Furthermore,
the general idea of talent management is to identify, cultivate, develop, compensate, and retaining the employees who aid thegrowth of organisational sustainability. From a human resource management point of view, employees focus on hiring the best
candidates, trainers look at it as practicing the best development methods and the reward experts link it with performance
management (Carroll et al., 1999; Hendry & Jenkins, 1997). Apart from these benefits, the most important one is in criticallyanalysing the linkage between the demand for talent need and the supply level of talents (Iles et al., 2010; Thunnissen et al.,Succession Planning Implementation Process outlining the principles to establish search committee and succession planning
implementation in the public sector. The importance of setting up search committee and 77 the implementation of succession
planning is to ensure that only competent officers fill the strategic positions in public organisation to meet the requirement ofpublic organisation and stakeholders. Long-term organisational goals, human capital development needs, trends and predictions
in human capital management increase transparency in the recruitment and selection process, successors, and job placement
as the decisions are made collectively by the designated committee. Besides, setting up search committees and implementationof succession planning is to strengthen the organisational structure of ministries and agencies, at the same time to ensurethat public service is still relevant to the public and nation. The succession planning process consists of five execution stages:
identification, assessment, development, implementation, effectiveness and improvement study. The first stage in the succession2013).

planning process is identification. In this process, public agencies should perform a thorough study, including determining

Talent management disproves the old ways by emphasising the role of management to ensure that the strategic functions ofservice plan, and the service tenure of the officers. The organisation direction is then identified, such as (i) department goals andhuman resource management, especially talent management, involves participation from each department in the organisation toestablish the necessary parameters which ensure that the organisation has the right person with the right skills in the right job at
the right time to attain all strategic goals (Khatri et al., 2010)(Khatri et al., 2010).

department demographic factors such as the available promotion positions, a list of officers by grade and seniority, a relevant
missions, (ii) future competencies and skills required, and (iii) established talent requirements and critical roles.
During the assessment stage, ministries and agencies should strengthen the process of identifying high performers by developinga strong approach and evaluation tools, performance management and a fair selection procedure. Aside from that, the skill set
belongs to the public employees should be assessed together with the comparison between skill set needed now and the skill set
needed in the future. Following that, the department should be prepared to develop officers by identifying high performers and

TALENT MANAGEMENT IN MALAYSIAN PUBLIC SECTOR

low performers, a list of critical positions, promotion and career development, an emphasis on the top potential officers, and thereadiness of officers to fill the position based on the gap between officers’skills and abilities and the skillset required in the future.

Talent management is crucial for the developing countries to become a developed country (Vaiman et al., 2012). Therefore,

To develop future officers, ministries and agencies should identify the officers’educational level and provide appropriate training,

public organisations greatly emphasise on their human resource development (Tymon et al., 2010; Vaiman et al., 2012).

mentor system, job rotation, employment experience, project execution possibilities, and opportunities for self-development.

Poocharoen and Lee (2013) conducted a comparison study of talent management practices between Malaysia, Singapore,
and Thailand public services. The authors found that each country illustrates a varying degree of an exclusive strategy using
the milestones of development opportunities, exposure to high-profile projects, or mentorship offered to a selected group of

To implement succession planning into action, the management team should identify the best method to communicate with

employees. Singapore is identified to practise the most exclusive talent management, followed by Malaysia, while Thailand is thepotential candidates. The implementation of succession planning should involve selection and recruitment methods based onleast. In recent years, Malaysian public service has given more attention to the practice of talent management. The effort shown

the skills and competencies required for the position, performance management that focuses on the competencies to fulfil thethrough the release of service circulars related to talent management practices is presented in Table 1.1.

requirements of the position, training and development to fulfil the requirements and competencies required by the department,
better perks, compensation, emolument and benefits. Departments should also consider potential candidates from outside
the organisation. Next, to assess the effectiveness of the succession planning that has been developed and implemented, thesearch committee should collect data, analyse the data, and draw conclusions based on the findings to assess the effectivenessof communication of succession planning and the succession planning development implementation. The research should be
conducted on a regular basis or as required.
In 2016, the Malaysian public service introduced career path development for fast-track officers and subject matter experts (SME)

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to acknowledge and retain high potential officers with great leadership skills and expertise in the civil service. This initiative

management.

is aligned with the public service aspiration to provide a national leadership track in the civil service (MAMPU, 2020). The
fast track and subject matter expert officers were identified through a series of leadership assessment programmes wherein thesessions and participants will be evaluated based on their thinking, leadership, and communication skills. Other requirements arelanguage proficiency, psychometrics, and fitness test. The requirements should be met for one to be recognised as a fast-track
and subject matter expert officer. There are additional requirements for subject matter experts, such as significant contributions
to the organisation, academic writing, publication, conference and seminar participation. Leadership Assessment Programme(LEAP) is conducted to identify fast-track officers in the public service. The selection process for fast track in the leadershipevaluation programme framework is shown in Figure 1.1.

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
Patrick (2000) defines training and development as efficient progress of the knowledge, proficiency, and skills that should
possess by an employee to do the duties effectively. While, as per by Armstrong-Stassen (2006) training and development “isthe use of systematic and planned instruction activities to promote learning” . It is vital to note that this definition refers to theformal processes of conducting training and development, and therefore it is crucial to not only provide an avenue for employees
to access training to enhance their skills but also the identification of the nature and level of training which is needed. Therefore,
the development, as well as knowledge dissemination, is crucial to be covered although training generally covers practicalskills, the new technique or processes of implementation in the universities or other knowledge-intensive companies’ contexts.
Next, Noe (2009) refers to training and development as a planned activity by organisations to aid learning on the job-relatedcompetencies, skills, knowledge, and attitudes of workers. Training and development will create progress and success throughemployee’s lifelong learning which boosts their motivation and shapes a positive attitude (Schmidt, 2007).
As stated by Devins and Gold (2014),“For those not receiving training, a vicious circle arises where those who need the most training to develop, receive the least
training and subsequently lose their motivation to learn as the pay and career gaps with their peer groups widen . . . and thislack of sustainable development can be devastating for individuals, localities, employers, labour markets and entire sectors of theeconomy” . (p. 522)

CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Career development gains its popularity through various research platforms in developing and creating career growth
opportunities for employees to stay in the organisation. Career development becomes an important determinant in humandevelopment processes to manage job challenges such as retention, recruitment, training, promotion, succession planning andso on. Weng et al., (2010) expanded on career development and advancement with a suggestion that an employee organisational
career growth can be attained using four factors: career goal progress, promotion speed, professional ability development, andremuneration growth. This multi-dimensional conceptualization reveals that organisational career development is a person’s
Figure 1.2: Leadership evaluation programme framework. Source: PSD Circulareffort to advance their career goals. It also dabbles around the acquisition of professional skills within the organisation and thecompany’s effort to carry out activities in line with that, via promotion and salary increment. Davis (2015) advocates for careerdevelopment management beginning at recruitment with available career options and specific career development offerings being

TALENT DEVELOPMENT
Apart from talent retention and talent recruitment, talent development is widely acknowledged as a crucial component of talentmanagement (Thunnissen et al., 2013). Yet in the studies on this subject, talent development has not received enough attention.
Despite the paucity of prior research on this subject (Hedayati Mehdiabadi & Li, 2016), the performance of many companies inmanaging talent shows the significance of talent development (Garavan et al., 2012).
Garavan et al. (2012), also emphasised that the programmes that fall under talent management are primarily to cater to “zerotalent outages” and to come up with a solid succession plan path rather than just talent replacement. By doing so, this method
safeguards the talent pool in a company and positions them as a talent magnet. Despite the fact that there are few publishedstudies, the importance of talent development is clearly shown in his study on both a global and local level. In addition, Kim
and McLean (2012) concurred that one of the key sub-practices of talent management that requires more attention is talentdevelopment. This suggests that talent development should be researched independently rather than as a component of talent104

promoted in advertisements to attract top talent.

TALENT ENGAGEMENT
The definition of work engagement as stated by Kahn (1990, p. 694) is “the harnessing of organisation members’ selves totheir work roles; in engagement, people employ and express themselves physically, cognitively and emotionally during role
performances” . Work engagement has gained the attention of researchers as a relatively new construct due to its contribution
in enhancing firm performance and attaining sustainable competitive advantage (Blazej, 2018). Those who are engaged in theirwork would work harder and would be most likely to return a result that meets the customer and the company’s needs since
they have high energy and self-efficacy. It is also found that they utilize their skills when carrying out their job and find that theirwork is challenging and stimulating and that their work provides them with a sense of personal accomplishment.
Talent engagement is an ongoing process, and it is important to continually assess and improve your efforts. By taking the time105

to engage your talent, you can create a more productive, innovative, and profitable workforce. The key differences between talentprivate organisations in India (Monteiro, Santos, Reis, Sousa, Sousa & Oliveira, 2020). These practices include well-articulated

management and talent engagement:

organisational policies, competitive pay, a positive work-life balance, bigger work teams, flexible scheduling, chances for jobs
abroad, commendation for deeds done, and employment that is stable and can be used as a reference for future employment.

Talent management

Talent engagement

Process of acquiring, developing, and retaining talent. It is Process of creating a culture where employees feel valued,

ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE

about ensuring that the right people are in the right roles, respected, and motivated to do their best work and building
and that they have the skills and knowledge they need to be relationships with employees in creating an environment where
successful.

they feel like they can make a difference.

Both talent management and talent engagement are important, but they are different things. Talent management is about the big
picture, while talent engagement is about the day-to-day interactions between employees and the organisation.
Here are some examples of talent engagement exercises:•

Employee surveys: Employee surveys are a great way to get feedback from employees about their engagement levels. This
feedback can be used to identify areas where the organization can improve its engagement efforts.

•

Town hall meetings: Town hall meetings are a great way to communicate with employees and answer their questions. They
can also be used to celebrate employee achievements and recognize their contributions.

•an organization’s capacity to carry out a particular strategy. It was also considered to be the end outcome of all of the workers’
efforts (Berberoglu, 2018). One of the longest-lasting management issues is OP (Pinto, 2019). According to El-Borsaly andHassan (2020), it is evaluated using a variety of metrics, including financial performance, market performance, internal process
performance, growth, and learning performance.
Public sector organisational performance is an important issue because it has a direct impact on the quality of life of citizens andbusinesses. Effective public sector organizations can provide high-quality services, at a reasonable cost, and be accountable totheir stakeholders. This can help to improve the overall performance of the economy and society.

Team-building activities: Team-building activities are a great way to foster collaboration and communication among
employees. They can also help to build trust and relationships between employees.

•

There are many ways to describe organizational performance (OP). According to El-Borsaly and Hassan (2020), OP describes

Lunch-and-learns: Lunch-and-learns are a great way to provide employees with opportunities for professional development.
They can also be used to share information about the organization’s goals and strategies.

These are just a few examples of talent engagement exercises. The best way to engage talent is to find what works for yourorganization and your employees.

RESOURCE BASED THEORY
The practice of employer branding builds on the notion that human capital brings value to the organization. Furthermore,an organization’s performance can be enhanced through investment in the human capital to produce skilled employees. The
Resource-based view (RBV) supports this, where the typical features of an organization’ s resources can assist in competitive
advantage (Barney, 1991). He argued that the ownership of resources that are valuable and difficult to imitate will allow an

EMPLOYER BRANDING

organization to grow ahead of its competitors. For example, a cutting edge facility and technology can be an advantage with

Employer branding is built on a resource-based strategy that acknowledges the importance of human capital to an organization’sSouthwest Airlines is an organization that had created an element that competitors find difficult to emulate. The organization

overall business operations. This serves as the cornerstone for employer branding (Gilani & Cunningham, 2017). The skill
gap that has existed in the past, is still present, and will continue to exist in the future is largely due to a lack of a better
understanding of the idea and its implementation (Reis, Sousa, & Dionsio, 2021). According to Wahba and Elmanadily (2015),
when there is a limited talent pool, organisations would actively seek out candidates (using employer branding) rather than
the reverse. In the past, a talent shortage was brought on by the concurrently low unemployment rates that have place during
periods of economic boom. On the other hand, there are other possible explanations for the present skill shortage (Gilani& Cunningham, 2017). The skill gap that exists now and will continue to exist in the near future is mostly caused by two
fundamental elements, namely demographic and societal developments, which are highlighted by the present information
economy. The population is ageing, and society norms are changing, among other things. According to demographic data, more
and more employees are approaching retirement age, and the generations who will take their place are significantly younger thanthe ones that they will be replacing (Reis, Sousa, & Dionsio, 2021).

highly skilled workforce to use them (Boxall, 1998).
creates an excellent workplace culture (Stamler, 2001). This distinctive, even unique workforce, however, can be a source ofcompetition only if it is stable. If the source of competitive advantage is not sustainable, neither is the advantage (Barney, 1991).
They sustain their advantage by strengthening the quality of employment and contributing to employee readiness to stay withthe organization by using their brand.
The psychological contract theory provides a second foundation for employer branding. The notion is the effect on the employeeorganizational relationship. In previous studies, the concept of the psychological contract was discussed as employees pledged
loyalty to the organization in return for job security (Hendry & Jenkins, 1997). However, the contemporary trend towards
downsizing, outsourcing, and flexibility on the part of the employer has forced a new kind of psychological contract. It means
employers provide employees with marketable skills through training and development in return for determination and flexibility(Baruch, 2004). Some organizations use employer branding to advertise the benefits they still offer, including training, career
opportunities, personal growth and development.
The concept of brand equity complements the theoretical part of understanding employer branding. Brand equity is “a setof brand assets and liabilities linked to a brand that adds to or minus from the value provided by a product or service to an

The research done by Backhaus and Tikoo (2004) using SEARS as an example clearly shown how improving the employer brandenhances employees’work attitudes and customers’satisfaction, thus increasing the company’s sales. Many firms make being thebest employer a key component of their employer strategy (Wahba & Elmanadily, 2015; Graham & Cascio, 2018). The employeesof top employers are very involved in their work and have a deeper commitment to them because they trust their employers.
They will perform better as a consequence and advertise their businesses favourably (Yaqub & Khan, 2011). The relationshipbetween bosses and employees may improve the way the company runs. Being the finest employer, providing a nice working
environment and a decent humanistic atmosphere to the public, and doing so in order to attract and retain employees, is ahigh levels of success tool. The benefits of more efficient people management techniques are felt by the employees of branded
106

organization and to that organization’s customers” (Aaker, 1991). Customer-based brand equity relates to the effect of brandknowledge on consumer response to product marketing. Regarding employer branding, brand equity applies to the effect ofbrand knowledge on potential and existing employees of the organization to stay with and support the company.
Employer brand equity is the desired result of employer branding activities. In other words, potential or existing employees willreact differently to similar recruitment, selection, and retention efforts from different organizations because of the underlying
employer brand equity associated with these organizations. “Pret A Manger” , a specialty fast food company based in UK,
conducted a campaign that has produced strong employer brand equity. The company was able to come out with an employer
brand package with the intention to introduce the concept of “passion” for food for customers and workers. “Pret A Manger’s”
107

campaign influenced the rate of applications received and the increment of employees’retention (O’ Halloran, 2003).

Continuous implementation of training and development practices is essential, where organizations are encouraged to have newprocedures to achieve their tasks, provide new technologies, and have up-to-date skills and knowledge. These can be used to

SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORYThe Social Exchange Theory has been widely used in explaining an organisation member’s relationship. This theory relates tothe understanding of workplace behaviour and the way employees and employers interact with one another (Biron & Boon,
2013; Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005; Smith, 2005). A knowledgeable and skillful worker’s intention to whether remain or leavean organization can be explained by the Human Capital Theory (Becker, 1962) and the Social Exchange Theory (Blau, 1964;
Homans, 1958). These two theories complement each other. The Human Capital Theory has been utilized in many studies
researching the connections between Human Resource Management (HRM) practices and key organizational outcomes. This
theory postulates that a decision to invest resources is impacted by economic incentives and costs verses benefits comparison.
For example, from an organization’s point of view, skills can either be acquired or developed. Therefore, an organization will
only invest in training if they ascertain that the advantage is higher than acquisition (Youndt, Snell, Dean & Lepak, 1996).
For better understanding on the links between talent management and talent engagement, it is necessary to use a theory basedon a two-dimensional exchange process. The Social Exchange Theory can provide a big contribution (Homans, 1958). Like the
Human Capital Theory, the Social Exchange Theory is based on a cost-benefit analysis and the evaluation of options. However,it shows that there is a two-way connection between the organization and its employees. The idea of social exchange (see Blau,
1964; Homans, 1958) broadens the exchange concept between an organization and its employees established by Becker (1962).
While the Human Capital Theory considers the employee and the organization as two actors operated by the external market,
the Social Exchange Theory, in contrast, perceives the employee and his/her employer as part of a broader context and is more
dynamic internally. Social exchange revolves on two main dimensions: productivity expectation and mutual trust.
Under the Social Exchange Theory, the organisation and its human resources are intertwined in a voluntary action, driven by
the anticipation of productivity but each party expects more. Thus, on the one hand, the organization seeks to retain an expert
because he/she represents human capital, from whom a return on investment is expected. The form of return investment could

assess the ability of an organization to adapt in a changing environment, to have a sustainable competitive advantage, and tosuccessfully compete with other rivals (AlQershi et al., 2022). For this purpose, organisations should first identify employees
who have deficiencies in qualifications and then, identify the level and time needed to execute the process of learning anddevelopment. Owing to the distinct traits that exist within each generation, Phillips and Roper (2009) suggested that strategies
formulation should be tailored specifically for each generation in order to engage them. This corroborates the position of Gostickand Elton, who stated that employees will remain in a firm where there is a “quality relationship with his or her manager” ,“an opportunity for personal growth and professional development” , “work–life balance” , “a feeling of making a difference;
meaningful work” , and “adequate training” .
Training and development are considered to be the basis of organizational success, in which improving performance is said
to be difficult without learning, the objective of which is to decrease leadership deficiencies at the higher levels. According toPhillips and Roper (2009), employees at all job levels appreciates learning; but there is an indication that the employees of small
companies appreciate learning more than those in large firms, and those people that work above 50 hours per week exhibit
above-average preference for learning. Wagner and Harter (2006) concluded in their study that “it’s better for an organization
over the long haul to have employees trained and have supervisors and mentors dedicated to talking to employees about theirperformance”. Tracy Bowers thus suggested the development of “multi-generational teams”(Phillips & Roper, 2009). Tracy statedfurther that “we have found the older generation enjoys working with the younger ones. The younger ones bring the energy,
and the younger generation likes to work with experienced older generation” (Phillips & Roper, 2009). The research undertaken
by Myrvang (2022) and Purwanti and Octavia (2023) proposed that talent development has a positive impact on organizational
performance. It also has a positive effect in sustaining the organizational competitive advantage Kaleem (2019). Considering theabove, the following hypothesis was proposed:

Hypothesis 1 (H1). Training and development will positively influence organisational
performance.

be forthcoming profit, the creation of knowledge that is useful, technological innovations, products or processes, an increase in
their customer portfolio, customer satisfaction and increase in sales. If this expectation is not achieved, the organization may notretain this particular expert.
However, the expert invests in the organisation by being focused at work and portraying loyalty. The expert expects immediate
or deferred monetary and non-monetary recognition in return for his or her efforts. If the expert’s expectations are not met, thisindividual may reduce his or her loyalty to the exchange by finding other jobs or have less job involvement (loss of interest). In

CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE
Career development involves collecting information illustrating the “interests, norms, strengths and weaknesses of a skill,indicating career objectives, and integrating in career strategies that aim at increasing the prospect of career goals to be attained”(Lei Wang & Ying Chen, 2022). Career development consists of formal and informal activities, such as job rotation, employee
seminars, and career development, as well as providing practices for self-improvement (Lyria et al., 2017). The study conductedshort, organizations must ensure that they consolidate social exchange in order to thwart the volatility of experts.

by Lyria et al., (2017) about career development concluded that there exists a positive effect of career management on increasing

Furthermore, social exchange is based on the norm of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960). According to this norm, when anal. (2017) highlighted the significant relationship between career management and organizational performance in companies

organization treats an employee in a positive way, the employee in return feels the need to treat the organization in a similar way

both organizational performance and employee commitment. Furthermore, the findings of the study undertaken by Lyria etoperating in Nairobi. Considering the above arguments, Hypothesis 2 (H2) was proposed:(e.g. by deciding to invest more effort in the job). This exercise could result in additional recognition by the organisation which,in turn, could renew the employee’s desire to give back. In the case of experts, this implies that an organization which treats thiscategory of workers well will create in them a desire to return the same treatment, which will lead to higher commitment andconsequently, increased employee retention (Eisenberger, Armeli, Rexwinkel, Lynch, & Rhoades, 2001).

Hypothesis 2 (H2). Career development will positively influence organisational performance.
TALENT ENGAGEMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE
Talent engagement is the degree to which employees are actively involved in and enthusiastic about their work and their

HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT

organization. It is a key factor in organizational performance, as engaged employees are more likely to be productive, creative,
and innovative (Kravariti et al., 2023). They are also more likely to stay with their organizations, which can save businesses

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE
108

money on recruitment and training costs.

109

There is a significant body of research that supports the link between talent engagement and organizational performance. For

can play a significant role in moderating the effect of training and development on organizational performance. By creating

example, a study by Gallup found that engaged employees are 21% more productive than disengaged employees. They are

a positive image of the organization as an employer, organizations can attract and retain top talent, create a positive work

also more likely to have higher customer satisfaction ratings and lower turnover rates. The impact of talent engagement onenvironment, and promote customer focus. These factors can all contribute to increased productivity, innovation, and customer

organizational performance can be seen in a number of areas, including:satisfaction, which can lead to improved organizational performance. Considering the above arguments, Hypothesis 4 (H4) was
proposed:Engaged employees are more likely to be productive and efficient in their work. They are also more likely to go the extra mile
and take on new challenges; They are also more likely to share their ideas with others and help to drive innovation within theorganization.; In terms of customer satisfaction, engaged employees are more likely to provide excellent customer service. They
are also more likely to be knowledgeable about the organization’s products or services and be able to answer customer questions
effectively. Overall, talent engagement is a key factor in organizational performance. By creating a workplace where employees
are engaged and motivated, organizations can improve their productivity, innovation, customer satisfaction, and bottom line
(Kravariti et al., 2023). Considering the above arguments, Hypothesis 3 (H3) was proposed:

Hypothesis 3(H3). Talent engagement will positively influence organisational performance.
EMPLOYER BRANDING AS MODERATOR
i.	

Training and development, employer branding and organisational performance

Hypothesis 4 (H4): Employer branding moderated the relationship of talent development andorganisational performance.
ii.	 Career development, employer branding and organisational performance
When employees have a positive perception of their employer, they are more likely to be engaged in their work and to stay withthe organization. This can lead to increased productivity, innovation, and customer satisfaction.
Career growth can also help to improve employee engagement and retention. When employees are given opportunities toadvance their careers, they are more likely to feel valued and appreciated. This can lead to increased job satisfaction and a lower
turnover rate. In addition, career growth can help to improve organizational performance by Increasing employee productivity,
improving employee morale, reducing employee turnover, enhancing employee skills and knowledge, promoting innovation andcreativity and improving customer service. The effect of career growth on organizational performance can be moderated by

Employer branding is the process of creating a positive image of an organization as an employer. It includes factors such as theemployer branding. When employees have a positive perception of their employer, they are more likely to be motivated to seekorganization’s reputation, its values, and its commitment to employee development. Training and development are the process

out career growth opportunities. They are also more likely to see the value of career growth and to believe that it will help themof providing employees with the skills and knowledge they need to perform their jobs effectively. It can include formal training

to achieve their personal and professional goals.

programs, on-the-job training, and mentoring. When employees have a positive perception of their employer, they are more likely
to be engaged in their work and to stay with the organization. This can lead to increased productivity, innovation, and customer

As a result, organizations with strong employer branding are more likely to see a positive return on their investment in career

satisfaction.

growth opportunities. The career growth opportunities will be more effective in motivating employees and in helping them toachieve their goals. This, in turn, will lead to improved organizational performance.

Training and development can also help to improve employee engagement and retention. When employees are given
opportunities to learn new skills and develop their careers, they are more likely to feel valued and appreciated. This can lead toHere are some examples of how employer branding can moderate the effect of career growth on organizational performance: An

increased job satisfaction and a lower turnover rate. In addition, training and development can help to improve organizationalorganization with a strong employer brand is more likely to attract and retain top talent. This means that the organization will

performance by increasing employee productivity, improving employee morale, reducing employee turnover, enhancing

have a workforce that is more motivated to seek out career growth opportunities. An organization with a strong employer brandemployee skills and knowledge, promoting innovation and creativity and Improving customer service. The effect of training

is more likely to have a positive work environment. This means that employees are more likely to be engaged in their work andand development on organizational performance can be moderated by employer branding. When employees have a positive

to be motivated to achieve their goals. Considering the above arguments, Hypothesis 5 (H5) was proposed:

perception of their employer, they are more likely to be motivated to participate in training and development programs. They
are also more likely to see the value of training and development and to believe that it will help them to improve their skills andknowledge.
As a result, organisations with strong employer branding are more likely to see a positive return on their investment in
training and development. The training and development programs will be more effective in improving employee skills andknowledge, which will lead to increased productivity, innovation, and customer satisfaction. This, in turn, will lead to improved
organisational performance.

Hypothesis 5 (H5): Employer branding moderated the relationship of career development andorganizational performance.
iii.	 Talent engagement, employer branding and organisational performance
The effect of talent engagement on organizational performance can be moderated by employer branding. When employees
have a positive perception of their employer, they are more likely to be motivated to stay engaged in their work. They arealso more likely to see the value of talent engagement and to believe that it will help them to achieve their personal andAn organisation with a strong employer brand is more likely to attract and retain top talent. This means that the organization
will have a workforce that is more skilled and knowledgeable, which can lead to increased productivity. An organization witha strong employer brand is more likely to have a positive work environment. This means that employees are more likely to
be engaged in their work and to be motivated to learn new skills. This can lead to increased innovation and creativity. An
organization with a strong employer brand is more likely to be customer-focused. This means that employees are more likely to
be motivated to provide excellent customer service. This can lead to increased customer satisfaction. Overall, employer branding
110

professional goals.

As a result, organizations with strong employer branding are more likely to see a positive return on their investment in talentengagement initiatives. The talent engagement initiatives will be more effective in motivating employees and in helping themto achieve their goals. This, in turn, will lead to improved organizational performance.
•

An organization with a strong employer brand is more likely to attract and retain top talent. This means that the
111

•
•

organization will have a workforce that is more engaged in their work.

An organization with a strong employer brand is more likely to have a positive work environment. This means that
employees are more likely to be engaged in their work and to be motivated to achieve their goals.

An organization with a strong employer brand is more likely to be customer-focused. This means that employees are more
likely to be engaged in their work and to be motivated to provide excellent customer service.

finalize the usability of the questionnaire (Hunt et al., 1982).

SAMPLING
Purposive sampling technique was adopted to distribute questionnaire to civil servants of Malaysia with grades 41 and above

Overall, employer branding can play a significant role in moderating the effect of talent engagement on organizational(management and professionals). In all, 1,000 copies were distributed, and 561 completed and usable copies were collected increate a positive work environment, and promote customer focus. These factors can all contribute to increased productivity,

imported to Smart PLS to perform latent variable analysis (Ringle et al., 2015). The latter software utilizes structural equation

performance. By creating a positive image of the organization as an employer, organizations can attract and retain top talent,innovation, and customer satisfaction, which can lead to improved organizational performance. Considering the above
arguments, Hypothesis 6 (H6) was proposed:

Hypothesis 6 (H6): Employer branding moderated the relationship of talent engagement andorganisational performance.

two weeks in June 2023, indicating that non-response bias was not a major issue. The data were then keyed in into SPSS andmodelling of partial least squares (PLS-SEM) approach to enhance predictive relevance by maximizing the variance of key
target variables by different explanatory variables (Hair et al., 2014; Henseler et al., 2009).

FINDINGS
Demography

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKThe conceptual framework of the study is shown in Figure 1. There will be three independent variables which are training

and development, career development and talent engagement and one dependent variable namely intention to stay. This
relationship is further moderated by employer branding.

Most of the respondents were aged between 40 to 54 (56.4%, n = 316), which is expected for a work and study sample. At anage between 40-54, respondents were said to be more enthusiastic about meaningful careers. There are slightly more males(50.4%, n = 282) than females in the sample. As for the race distribution, most of the respondents were Malays (81.4%, n =456), followed by Others (4.1%, n = 41) and Malaysian-Chinese (6.1%, n = 34). In view that the sample were skewed towards
matured workers (40-54 years of age), it was not surprising that most of them were matured in service (11 – 25 years (75.1%,
n = 415), all demographics variables were included as control variables in the analyses (Table 4).

Talent Management
TalentDevelopment:

Measurement model

Organisational
Performance

Training anddevelopment

Before assessing structural models, it is vital to ensure that there are no full collinearity issues in the model. According toKock and Lynn (2012), even if the criteria of discriminant validity (vertical collinearity) is met, lateral collinearity issues(e.g. predictor-criterion collinearity) may sometimes subtly mislead the findings as it is capable of weakening the strongcausal effects demonstrated in the model. Table 2 presents the outcome of the full collinearity test. The VIF scores for each

Careerdevelopment

individual construct were below the threshold value of 5 (Hair, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2011), thus implying that there are noissues on collinearity (Kock & Lynn, 2012) and common method bias in this study (Kock, 2015).
Table 3: VIF scores

TalentEngagement

COLLINEARITY STATS (VIF) INNER MODEL
CG -> OP

3.48

EB -> OP

3.059

TD -> OP

2.609

TE -> OP

2.9

EB x TE -> OP

2.855

EB x CG -> OP

5.535

statements, as this would afford greater degrees of freedom when partitioning the data into groups. It would also allow for

EB x TD -> OP

4.338

also organized in sections without randomization based on the common objectives and contexts of the statements (Burns

In order to assess the moderating effect of a construct in PLS-SEM, interaction terms between the moderator and the

Employer Branding

Figure 1.2: The Conceptual Framework (authors’model) with adjustment from Thunnissen et al., (2013).

METHODOLOGYRESEARCH DESIGNA quantitative approach using self-administered questionnaire was adopted. All key variables were measured by multiple
adjustment of measurement error, thus increasing their reliability and predictive validity (Hair et al., 2014). Statements wereand Bush, 2005). A post hoc Harman single-factor analysis was also performed after data collection to ensure the variance inthe data was not explained by one single factor, thus addressing the common method bias (Chang et al., 2010; Podsakoff etal., 2003). Except for demographic information, a five-point Likert scale where 1 indicating strongly disagree to 5 indicatingstrongly agree was adopted to measure the statements. Besides, a pretest was also conducted using the target respondents to112

predicting variables were created using the product indicator approach suggested in Chin et al. (2003), to examine its effect on
the endogenous variable. Table 5 and Figure 2 reports the moderating effect of employer branding on the relationship of talentdevelopment, career development and talent engagement. The results indicate that three hypothesised moderation effects of

employer branding were supported (H4 to H6). Specifically, the results indicated six significant interaction terms – – Talent113

Development*EB ( β =.007, t-value = 2.906, p < .01), Career Development*EB ( β = − .194, t-value = − 2.156, p <.05), andTalent Engagement*Grade ( β = − .175, t-value = 1.923, p <.05).

Items

Items

N

%

GenderFemale

278

49.6%

Male

282

50.4%

Age
25 years old and below

Table 2: Assessment of Measurement Model on Loading, CR and AVE
Loading

CG1

0.75

CG2

0.744

CG3

0.802

CG4

0.863

CG5

0.84

EB1

0.807

EB10

0.833

2

0.4%

EB11

0.766

26 to 39 years old

224

40.0%

EB2

0.797

40 to 54 years old

316

56.4%

EB3

0.547

55 years old and above

18

3.2%

EB4

0.737

EB5

0.822

EB6

0.753

EB7

0.537

EB8

0.759

EB9

0.731

OP1

0.595

OP2

0.872

OP3

0.89

OP4

0.86

Education level
PhD

22

3.9%

Master Degree

186

33.2%

Bachelor Degree

320

57.1%

Diploma18

3.3%

Certificate

1

0.6%

SPM/STPM

11

2.0%

Ethnicity
Chinese

34

6.1%

OP5

0.785

Indian

29

5.2%

TD1

0.854

Malay

456

81.4%

TD2

0.846

Others

41

7.3%

TD3

0.508

TD4

0.806

Junior Manager/ Officer (41 – 44)

299

53.4%

TD5

0.752

Middle Manager/ Officer (48 - 52)

197

35.2%

TD6

0.784

Senior Officer (54 - 56)

35

6.3%

TE2

0.716

Support staff 1 (11 - 22)

13

2.3%

TE3

0.858

Support staff 2 (24 - 40)

15

2.7%

TE4

0.841

TE5

0.839

Top level Officer (JUSA and above)

1

0.2%

Note: Item TE1 was deleted due to low loading.

Structural Model and Hypotheses Testing

Service Grade

CA

CR

AVE

0.86

0.864

0.552

0.916

0.928

0.506

0.861

0.878

0.572

0.854

0.872

0.513

0.834

0.858

0.56

Total Service Years in the public service
11 - 15 years

172

30.7%

16 - 20 years

136

24.3%

6 - 10 years

82

14.6%

5 years and below

63

11.3%

More than 20 years

107

19.1%

After validation of the measurement model, path analysis was performed to test the proposed hypotheses in this study.

In line with the suggestion by Hair Jr et al. (2017), this study reported the inner VIF values, the path-coefficient results,
coefficient of determination (R2), effect sizes (f2), predictive relevance of both Q2 and PLS predict. Subsequently, thebootstrapping method with a resampling of 5000 was used to estimate the significance of the path coefficient (Streukens

and Leroi-Werelds 2016). Table 6 results showed that TD has a significant relationship with OP ( β = 0.095, t = 1.272,
p > 0.05, f 2 = 0.011), which support H1. CD was found to have a significant positive relationship with OP ( β = 0.462, t= 8.569, p < 0.01, f 2 = 0.253) and TE was found to have a significant positive relationship with OP ( β = 0.331, t = 4.502,
p < 0.01, f 2 = 0.123).

114

115

of a unique performance. The traditional role of human resources management is beginning to wane, replaced by a new

Table 6: The Relationship of Dependent and Independent Variable, with Moderators

version which incorporates human talent management. Through human talents, management is looking to reserve a major
seat at the strategic planning table to achieve competitive advantage, and to provide the necessary learning and knowledge

Original

SampleStandard

T statistics

P

samplemean

deviation(|O/STDEV|)

values(O)(M)(STDEV)CD -> OP

0.106

0.106

0.061

1.733

p<.05

Supported

EB -> OP

0.528

0.523

0.065

8.073

p<.01

Supported

In addition to the talent management literature, our work contributes to the literature of public sector organizational

TD -> CD

0.767

0.768

0.024

32.247

p<.01

Supporteda relatively unexplored area in a health sector and especially in Southeast Asia including Malaysia. Our model results show a

TE -> OP

0.019

0.022

0.053

0.354

p <.05

Supported

EB x TD -> OP 0.007

0.005

0.05

0.146

p<.01

Supported

EB x CD -> OP 0.115

0.11

0.057

1.997

p <.05

Supported

EB x TE -> OP

-0.06

0.05

1.312

p<.01

Supported-0.066for practitioners in today’s world. Thus, the gradual emergence of human talent management over recent decades has
Decision

Note: **p <.01, *p <.05

reformulated the relationship between human factors and management. Our work provides insights into talent management
mindset and strategy, a unique contribution to the management field, where a research gap exists in the context of the public
sector worldwide.

performance by focusing on what talent initiatives have been taken in a hospital setting to improve sustainable performance,
direct effect of on CD and OP (b = 0.115, t = 1.997, p < 0.01) (b = 0.106, t = 1.733, p < 0.05), respectively, and this result
is in line with resource based theory (Collings, 2014; Collings and Mellahi, 2013), which explains that talent is the secret of

success, and all employees must be treated as having talents; it is necessary to know the real talents of staff and to refine anddevelop their skills (Eisenberger et al., 1986), leading to sustainability performance (Al Aina and Atan, 2020).

The moderating effect in the relationship between Organisational Performance and Talent Development, Employer Branding
and Career Development; and Employer Branding with Talent engagement that H6 is supported. As talent management has

become the backbone of organization, they should make the most of their unique human capital, nevertheless, while existing
resources include talent, the continual economy changes will threaten future economic growth and business performanceunless they change their strategies to meet the future challenges Malaysian hospital managers need to pay more attention

and interest to TM by utilising human capital in line with the current scientific revolution, and the move from the industrial
economy to the knowledge economy.

RECOMMENDATIONMANAGERIAL IMPLICATION AND WAY FORWARD
There are several ideas by which concerned by talents in Malaysian Public Sector. Amongst others are to focus on wish list
officer and develop talent through proper planning and placement. As for now, there is no proper development program orroadmap for officers to develop themselves before and after going to the LEAPs assessment to close the TLSA (Think, Learn,
Speak, Act) gap. Superiors to pick talent bench strength rather than assigned. The placement of personnel in the organisation
should match with their background and area of expertise (put the right people at the right place). Talent development isless focused in the management planning though it is very important in the succession planning and also way forward of anorganisation. Employee should be empowered and provided with proper training in order to develop niche technical skill andknowledge.

Grooming candidates for top-level posts is a must, as well as the organisation also need implement a systematic ‘Succession
Plan’to provide cladding to officers of strategic positions who are retiring or promoted. What kind of talent that management

need to identify before planning for development in public sector is crucial for assessment. Public sector promotion is limited
and subject to post availability. Thus, an organization need to have clear direction for talent management and development.
Figure 3: Structural model for the relationship of talent management (training and development, career development andtalent engagement) and organizational performance.

DISCUSSION

Skills needed for leadership talent not only in learning classes but also through practical, interactive and experience learning.
For example, job rotation for all types of work to expose all types of work, training and individual mentoring for guidance,

support and knowledge sharing, group coaching and strong networking. In addition to that, action-based learning is also vitalto face real projects or issues (short or long term) and do some reflection. Simulation, whereby a leader is able to learn skills
and emulate the competencies as if in the real projects and to increase digitalization, they are able to do e-learning by which

Talent management issues have begun to appear in many areas of our lives (political, economic, business, social and even

they can choose their own flexible time and learning pace accordingly. A leader should take responsibility and play importantof a wide range of styles. Despite the pivotal role of talent in contributing to high performance, only a limited number ofenvironment.

sport), with increased interest in its effects through human capital on the sustainability of performance through the applicationrole to actually develop new competency for themselves and organization and adjust the environment for a better learningorganizations and nations are fully aware of the basic mechanisms through which talent management affects the delivery
116

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A clearer career path and skills required will be useful for employee to get required training. This will also improve employee

motivation. It is crucial to manage our talent to increase productivity of our daily routine work. To increase organisational

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SINGAPORECONTENTS
Abstract����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������124
Table and Figure�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 125

Leadership Development in
the Singapore Public Sector:
Evolution towards CitizenCent r ic a nd Fut u re-Ready
Public Service Leaders

Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 126
The Singapore Public Service���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 126
Reform of the Singapore Public Service: From Silo Pragmatism to Whole-of Government CitizenCentricity��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������128
Early Days of Independence: Elite-Centric and Expertise-based Policy Making����������������������������� 128
Increasing Levels of Innovation and Change to Promote Economic Growth and Productivity
through Whole-of-Government Approach������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 129
Shift to Policy Advocacy through Public Consultation and Engagement������������������������������������������ 131
Talent Management Strategies to Attract, Develop and Retain the ‘Best and Brightest’Public Service
Leaders������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 131
Leadership as the Key to Successful Reforms and Public Sector Transformation��������������������������� 132
Pre-service Scholarship Scheme�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 132
Administrative Service (AS)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 133
Public Service Leadership Programme (PSLP)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 135
Mid-Career Leaders Track (MCLT)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 135
Digital Ready Public Service in a Smart Nation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 136
Shifting towards Collective Skills and Competency-based Leadership Development in the Post
Pandemic Era������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 137
Conclusion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 138
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 139

Dr. LEE Celia
Nanyang Centre for Public Administration,
Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore
122

123

ABSTRACT

Table and Figure

The success of Singapore lies largely in its efficient and effective public sector which had formulated policies that spurred

Tableseconomic growth and improved standards of living and public services over the past 58 years. Singapore has undergone a

1: Ministries and their respective statutory boards�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������127

remarkable transformation through a combination of strong public service leadership, good governance and pragmatic policies.

2: Six key sectors of the Singapore Public Service and the scope��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������135

To stay ahead and remain relevant in the operating milieu, the public sector must ensure effective talent management strategy
and consider leadership developments for the competent employees with most potential for succession planning. Successful
talent management and leadership development is achieved by balancing knowledge-exchange, action, reflection and alignment.
For the public service to be staffed by the best talented leaders, the Singapore government has intervened by establishing avariety of talent programmes or schemes. These leadership development schemes targeted at selected individuals being identified

3: Talent schemes targeting different levels for digital transformation in the government���������������������������������������������������136
Figure1: Range of learning experiences to support the development of AOs������������������������������������������������������������������������������������134

at an early stage of their career and are developed further through scholarships, trainings, job rotations, mentorships, projects
etc. to become future leaders. This chapter examines how over the years, as the Singapore public service embarked on reforms
at different stages of the country’ s development, these schemes have also adjusted and refined, gradually shifting away froman exclusive qualifications-based approach to a more inclusive skills-based approach, especially towards attracting mid-careerswitchers with diverse experiences outside the service to be groomed as leaders.
Keywords: Public Sector, Leadership Development, Singapore, Citizen-centric, Future-ready

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Introduction
The success of Singapore lies largely in its efficient and effective public sector which had formulated policies that spurred
economic growth and improved standards of living and public services over the past 50-plus years. Singapore premised its rapidtransformation from a third-world country post-independence to a developed country largely to the state’s intervention to theperformance of the economy and the well-being of the citizens (Tan, 2015).

but they have more autonomy to decide their own recruitment and human resource management practices as they are legallydistinct employers from the Civil Service.
Ministry
Ministry of Communications and Information (MCI)The COVID-19 pandemic that has crippled the whole world is one good reminder that a responsive government that havea diverse pool of talents is critical to quickly to come out with policies and initiatives to contain the pandemic and revive theaffected social and economy aspects (Liu, Lee & Lee., 2020; Liu, Lee & Goh, 2023). Singapore was a successful example that

Ministry of Culture, Community and Youth (MCCY)

managed to contain the pandemic and revive its ailing economy after a short setback that led to partial lockdown for about 2
months. Its rapid and progressive responses in accordance with the fast evolving situation, was achieved through a coordinatedWhole of government approach and a cocktail of digital solutions that augment government’s efforts (Lee, 2020; Lee, Lee & Liu,

Ministry of Defence (MINDEF)

2021).
The aspirations of citizens will evolve to contend with the rapidly changing global post-COVID environment. The newmillennium marks a new era, in which the employment landscape is filled with the new generation that has gradually shiftedfrom academic pursuers to employees, and, eventually, main players of the job market. This will require public services to focus
on more inclusive talent management approaches and leadership development at all levels across their organisations, not just on

Ministry of Education (MOE)

specific individuals or groups. Given, the increasing emphasis on community empowerment, it will be vital that those working
in the front-line are developed, supported and empowered to work in different ways to support individuals and communities
that they are serving. It will also require public services to work with and resource individuals and communities to develop andcontribute their capacity and talents to achieving better outcomes. All these post-NPM approach to governance and delivery of
public services entails more group effort and cooperation.
The Singapore public sector has always been taking a more exclusive approach to talent management and leadership

Ministry of Finance (MOF)

development of a selected group of individuals, i.e., scholars who are strong academically which aligns with its meritocratic
principles. It is noted that in the recent years, there has been a shift from its elitist approach towards a more inclusive approachthat recognises the potential of in-service individuals as well as other mid-career candidates from other sectors. This indeed
the Singapore government need to shift away from its bureaucratic roots inherited from the colonisation and consider talentinequalities, increased integration, increased collaboration, shared leadership, effective approaches to joint resourcing andMinistry of Health (MOH)community empowerment especially towards resolving immediate and challenging issues. All these will require new skills andattributes of talents they require across their organisations to deliver against the ambitions of the reform agenda and to improve
the lives of the communities they serve, as well as to identify the skills gaps and how they will address these. In line with the
Smart Nation vision to harness technology to effect transformation in health, transport, urban living, government services andbusinesses, it is also imperative for the public service to build strategic capabilities in data and digitalisation to work and engage
with citizens in a digital era, and re-engineering it to be more data-driven in all aspects.

The Singapore Public Service

Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA)

Ministry of Law (MINLAW)

Currently, the Singapore Public Service employs about 150,000 public officers working in 16 Ministries and more than 50
Statutory Boards (see Table 1). Within the Public Service is the Civil Service, comprising about 86,000 officers working in the
Ministries. They work in various schemes of service, including the Administrative Service, legal, education, police, civil defence
and accounting schemes (Careers@Gov, 2023). Although the Statutory boards are under the purview of the respective ministries,
126•

Info-communications Media Developments Authority•

National Library Board•

Majlis Ugama Islam Singapura•

National Heritage Board•

Sport Singapore•

National Arts Council•

People’s Association•

Defence Science and Technology Agency•

SkillsFuture Singapore•

Ngee Ann Polytechnic•

Singapore Polytechnic•

Nanyang Polytechnic•

Temasek Polytechnic•

Republic Polytechnic•

ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute•Science Centre Board•

Institute of Technical Education•

Singapore Examinations and Assessments Board•

Inland Revenue Authority of Singapore•

Accounting and Corporate Regulatory Authority•

Tote Board•

Health Promotion Board•

Singapore Dental Council•

Health Science Authority•

Singapore Medical Council•

Singapore Nursing Board•

Singapore Pharmacy Council•

Traditional Chinese Medicine Practitioners Board•

Home Team Science and Technology Agency•

Yellow Ribbon Singapore•

Gambling Regulatory Authority of Singapore•

Intellectual Property Office of Singapore•

Land Surveyors Board•

Singapore Land Authority•

Workforce Singapore•

Central Provident Fund Board•

Singapore Labour Foundation

Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA)

signifies in the war for talent whereby the public sector is not the “preferred employer of the day”to attract the millennials, thatmanagement within the context of the current reform landscape. The context which requires an increased focus on tackling

Statutory Board

Ministry of Manpower (MOM)

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Ministry of National Development (MND)

Ministry of Social and Family Development (MSF)•

Board of Architects•

Building and Construction Authority•

Council for Estate Agencies•

Housing and Development Board•

National Parks Board•

Professional Engineers Board, Singapore•

Urban Redevelopment Authority•

National Council of Social Service•

PUB, Singapore National Water Agency

Ministry of Sustainability and The Environment (MSE) •Ministry of Trade and Industry (MTI)

Ministry of Transport (MOT)

Prime Minister’s Office (PMO)

National Environment Agency•

Singapore Food Agency•

Enterprise Singapore•

Agency for Science, Technology and Research•Competition and Consumer Commission of Singapore•

Economic Development Board•

Energy Market Authority•

Hotels Licensing Board•

JTC Corporation•

Singapore Tourism Board•

Sentosa Development Corporation•

Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore•

Land Transport Authority•

Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore•

Public Transport Council•

Civil Service College•

Government Technology Agency•

Monetary Authority of Singapore

Table 1: Ministries and their respective statutory boards

Reform of the Singapore Public Service: From Silo Pragmatism to Whole-of Government
Citizen-Centricity
Early Days of Independence: Elite-Centric and Expertise-based Policy Making
The Singapore Public Service has its origins in the bureaucracy set up by the British when they colonised Singapore in 1819.
When Singapore became a self-governing state in 1959, the bureaucracy was localised and reoriented itself towards nationbuilding (Low, 2018). When it was abruptly forced out of the Federation of Malaysia in 1965, Singapore was then fraught withapproach towards managing economic and social problems in order to urgently create jobs and meet the housing, education andinfrastructure needs of the people.
Policies implemented in the 1960s had a heavy emphasis on nation-building. The Housing and Development Act introduced
a five-year plan to build as much low-cost housing as possible. The Home Ownership Scheme was passed in 1964 to encourage
Singaporeans to own their homes, which was further supplemented in 1968 when the government started allowing people touse their Central Provident Fund (CPF) money to pay for the down-payments on their housing (Sim et al., 2003). Nurturing
people’s talents through education is central to the country’s economic growth, productivity and development, being beneficial toboth its people and society in general (Gopinathan, 2012). In order to quickly raise the educational qualifications of its citizens,
educational policies focused on enabling every child to have an opportunity to be schooled to achieve basic levels of literacy andnumeracy (Tan and Dimmock, 2014). The curriculum was also handled in a top-down fashion, and the Ministry of Education(MOE) introduced a teacher-proof curriculum, with common syllabuses and attainment standards, to ensure that all students
were educated in the same way.
At the beginning of self-government, the Public Service had to reform itself when the new local government found that seniorcivil servants were disconnected with the public after many years of colonial rule while Rank-and-file officers were rent-seeking.
The Public Service had to reform itself to fit the new nation-building agenda (Low, 2018). A combination of socialisation andanti-corruption measures, driven by strong political will, reoriented the bureaucracy towards the tasks of nation-building. When
Singapore embarked on rapid state-led development, senior public officers quickly equipped themselves with the management
skills, becoming an “economic general staff” to manage the emerging capitalist developmental state as it required highly
centralized, pragmatic, rational and legalistic policy making (Johnson, 1999; Neo and Chen, 2007). As a ‘top-down, commandand control’ system of governance (Tan and Dimmock, 2014: 8), the ruling party was keen to emphasize that Singapore isadministered not by politicians, but by bureaucrats in a meritocracy (Sharpe and Gopinathan, 2002). As such, a pragmatic
approach characterized by elite-centric and expertise-based policy making was prevailing in Singapore.
At the heart of the civil service, the spirit of meritocracy sets the main basis for the talent management approach to counter
patronage especially at the recruitment stage whereby the ‘best and brightest’assessed based on academic achievements are hired(Poocharoen & Lee, 2013; Lee, 2021). This is based on Singapore’s founding father and first prime minister, Lee Kuan Yew’s
belief that “If you want Singapore to succeed…you must have a system that enables the best man and the most suitable to go
into the job that needs them…”(Quah 2010). Meritocracy offers a fair system, which provides talented and hard-working people
from all walks of life with a means of advancement and the opportunity to contribute to the wellbeing of the larger society. It canbe a powerful vehicle for social mobility and incentivize people to do their best and reach their fullest potential. By the 1990s,
the Singapore Public Service had become well regarded for its “competence, efficiency and integrity”(Jones, 1997).

Increasing Levels of Innovation and Change to Promote Economic Growth and Productivity through Whole-ofGovernment Approach
As the economy progressed, the policy focus switched from structural problems to economic growth and productivity.
Subsequently in 1995, the Public Service for the 21st Century (PS21) reform movement was launched by Mr Lim Siong Guan
(Former Head of Civil Service) to promote increasing levels of innovation and positive change in public services and enhanced
their efficiency and responsiveness (Centre for Public Impact, 2018). The three key parameters of PS21 are as follow:
1.

assume the role of regulator, facilitator and enabler allowing others (especially private sector) to determine the direction of

economic and social challenges in the early days of independence. In the early stages of achieving self-governance in 1959,
policy planning was done with the aim of ‘survival’in mind. Following the messy trajectory towards independence, Singapore wasafflicted with social disorder, high levels of unemployment among its largely unskilled population, and a shortage of affordable
housing (Lee, Ma and Zhou, 2017). Faced with capital flight, labour strife, communist insurgency, ethnic tensions and highunemployment rate of over 10% (Ngiam and Tay, 2006), the People’s Action Party (PAP) government had to adopt a pragmatic
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Government and the public sector would need to move away from direct management of the economy and society andthe economy.

2.

Government and the public sector must be themselves the source of innovative policies and approaches to public service,otherwise known as dynamic governance (Neo & Chen, 2007).

3.

The public sector needs to move away from an administrative and control mind-set and adopt a ‘service’culture and attitude129

towards citizens.
With the launch of the PS21, policies were introduced aimed at addressing the rapid economic and population growth inSingapore, as well as ameliorating the effects of urbanization and congestion. The government converted various departments
into autonomous agencies such as the Inland Revenue Authority of Singapore (IRA), the Public Works Department (PWD) andthe Land Transport Authority (LTA) (Haque, 2009). These AAs enjoy substantial discretion in prioritizing their programmes,
apportioning financial and other resources, and delivering services (Sarker, 2006). This gave the departments the managerial
authority and operational flexibility to test out new policies and innovative solutions without being encumbered by overwhelming

Shift to Policy Advocacy through Public Consultation and Engagement
In the attempt to win back votes from those who felt left out and rebuild legitimacy of its regime, the PAP government for the
first time shifted away from the pragmatic approach, to consult and engage the public to promote co-creation and coproductionin policy design and service delivery, making policy making change from top-down mandate to bottom-up collaboration (Lee, Ma
and Zhou 2017). Post-NPM approaches, such as “joined-up government”and “whole-of-government”programmes, have also been
adopted to build collaborative ICT environments in government by hierarchical strengthening of the center (Klievink & Janssen,
2009; Ojo et. al., 2011). This prompted a mindset change in the government and consequently in its leadership development

bureaucracy.

strategy in the public sector to move away from its elitist exclusive approach.

It was also recognized that agencies can no longer work in silos and need to embark on different inter-organisational

In conjunction with the move, In August 2012, the Public Service unveiled the Public Sector Transformation initiative. The

arrangements to implement effective initiatives and deliver quality services. Through the rapid containment of the 2003 severe
acute respiratory syndrome ( “SARS” ) outbreak, Singapore learnt the value of inter-organisational collaborations (Lee, 2018).
The SARS crisis was a showcase of Singapore multi-agencies’ collaborative efforts in the efficient and effective control of thedisease in the “areas of information communication technology, epidemic monitoring and track, epidemic resource recruitment
and allocation and community empowerment” (Lai & Tan, 2012; Lai, 2012). The SARS crisis was a black swan for Singapore
and had severely disrupted the Singapore economy, leading to a contraction and quarter-long recession in 2003 (Ho,2012; Taleb,2007). The government recognized that other black swans might surprise Singapore again and a single agency may no longer
be adequate or able to implement the needed policies or programs on its own as the issues faced by the country has become
more complex and multi-faceted (Neo & Chen, 2007). Complexity also gives rise to wicked problems that have no immediate or
obvious solutions (Ho, 2012; O’ Toole L. J., 1997). Consequently, “New structures and processes are required for synergizing
across many agencies to achieve integrated policy outcomes, therefore “different configurations of agencies are needed dependingon the nature and complexity of the policy concerns” (Neo & Chen 2007:413). More horizontal structures such as inter-ministrycommittees or cross-agency teams have been formed to address these wicked problems which include climate change, aging
society, population growth, counter-terrorism efforts and various social issues (Ho, 2012).
Singapore’s rapid transformation from being a poor third world country in 1959 to a first world nation in 2000 has attracted
a great deal of attention universally. Since independence, Singapore has undergone a remarkable transformation through a
combination of strong leadership, good governance and pragmatic policies (Lee, Ma and Zhou, 2017). As the country reached alevel of prosperity, stable economic growth and its income per head being one of the highest in the world and achieving worldclass standard of health care, education, housing and infrastructure, there is recognition that its commitment to meritocracy
should be integrated with broader social values such as compassion, humility, and regard for the poor. The meritocratic approach
has often been criticised as a system that breeds elitism due to its over emphasis on individual effort which can engender ahyper-competitive and individualistic mindset (Young 1958; Tan 2008). Especially after the results from the 2011 general election(GE), which revealed a growing voice of the public, wanting their needs to be addressed that led to the incumbent PAP receiving
the lowest-ever electoral results, facing an unprecedented outpouring of discontentment towards rising housing prices and influxof migrants (Guo & Phua 2014; Lee, Ma & Zhou 2017). Although they won the election, the PAP came to realize that they had
neglected an intimate understanding of the needs of the customers from their point of view. At the swearing-in ceremony of the

Public Service Division (PSD), the personnel arm of the bureaucracy, announced the Public Service’s aspiration to be the“One Trusted Public Service with Citizens at the Centre” (PSD, 2018). In pursuit of that vision, the Public Service would“design citizen-centric policies, services, and partner the community” . A month later, the government launched Our Singapore
Conversation or OSC. This was described as “a national conversation among Singaporeans … to engage Singaporeans on their
desired future for the nation and to establish broad consensus on the key issues that should be addressed”(Khoo and Yee, 2014).
For the Public Service, the resources required to staff OSC were substantial. officers from 10 agencies were drawn together to
set up a OSC Secretariat. The skills needed to facilitate small group dialogues were not the usual competencies found among
public officers. The Public Service was also eager to explore fresh insights into policies and processes, especially integrating
design thinking into policy formulation. A group of civil servants from diverse backgrounds were hence sent to the Policy Lab
in the UK and MindLab in Denmark to learn and study the design approach in policy formulation. Design thinking challenges
traditional public policy formulation and decision making, and it requires specific skills such as ethnography, behaviouralsciences, communication and design and architecture, as well as the breaking down of organizational and procedural silos,
contesting hierarchies and bureaucracies. Over a period of one year, the Public Service conducted 660 OSC sessions involving a
total of 47,000 Singaporeans (Low, 2018).
Subsequently, the design thinking approach was to be infused into the policy-making process. The Human Experience Lab(THE Lab) was set up as a new unit in 2012 under the Public Service Division (PSD) of the Prime Minister’s Office (PMO)
to adopt Design Thinking to help agencies design and develop public policies, services and experiences that are more citizencentric (Lee and Ma, 2019). As the Innovation Lab works to help the public sector transform, it has itself changed. Since 2016,
the Lab has provided consultancy and coaching to grow public officers’ skills and mindsets in three areas for public service
innovation: empathy, collaboration and experimentation (PSD Challenge, 2019). In 2017, with a new role to boost public sectortransformation, the unit was officially renamed Innovation Lab to coach public service officers to do the projects themselves. As a
hub and incubator to generate and circulate policy evidence and ideas across government, the lab also fuelled the whole-of-nation
approach that brought in the Public, Private and People sectors together. To inject new modes of policy decision-making, thepublic service is enthusiastic about engaging citizens and other stakeholders, as well as collaboration within and across sectors.
These endeavours are helpful in consolidating their policy coalitions and has also led to spin-offs of other innovation labs in andbeyond the public service.

GE2011 cabinet, Prime Minister Lee announced,“The Government will engage all segments of society—young and old, students, workers and retirees. We will reach out online
and in the real world. We will listen carefully to different voices, understand the day-to-day difficulties and strains facing
Singaporeans, address their concerns and be open to inputs on what Government can do better. Realistically, we cannot fulfill
every request, or accept every suggestion. But by engaging Singaporeans in an inclusive dialogue on making policies andgoverning Singapore, we can solve our problems better, and shape our new Singapore together.”(Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong at the GE2011 Swearing-in Ceremony)

Talent Management Strategies to Attract, Develop and Retain the ‘Best and Brightest’PublicService Leaders
Reforms in the Public Service are changes in government processes or structures that help to achieve economic developments
and address key public policy challenges. Some processes are directly linked to citizens with regards to the mode of service
delivery, while others are less visible to citizens but are no less salient to those working ‘on the inside’of government (Lee, 2021).
As the public sector is responsible for designing and monitoring policies practices, decisions made by the public sector will
have an impact on the people and credibility of the government (Taylor and Wright, 2004). Therefore, it is important to attract,

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develop and retain key potential talented public service leaders to successfully bring the country through the reforms and smooth

mainly by the PSC. Upon completion of their studies, scholars will serve a four- to six-year bond through one of three careertransformations of the economies. Confronted with a chronic shortage of talented people within the current global landscapepaths: Public Administration, Professional Service or Uniformed Services (PSC, 2023).

of skills shortages, changing demographics, increasing austerity and uncertainties, public sectors around the world are facing
intensified competition for talents. To stay ahead of the competition, the public sector must ensure effective talent management

In line with the strategic developments of the state, the PSC scholarships had also been changed to offer more specialised

strategy and consider leadership developments for the competent employees with most potential for succession planning.

domains in 2017 such as in engineering and medicine and dentistry in partnership with the Ministry of Health. However there

Successful talent management and leadership development is achieved by balancing knowledge-exchange, action, reflection andhave been concerns with regards to the inclusivity and diversity of scholars as the main criteria is based on academic results,alignment.

hence the scholarship awards have been dominated by candidates from elite schools (Singapore Policy Journal, 2020). Attendeesof ‘elite’schools are accorded a higher social status by themselves and others. Therefore, their homogenous socio-economic status

Leadership as the Key to Successful Reforms and Public Sector Transformation
The Public Sector Transformation is but a continuation of the constant reforms by the Singapore Public Service to remain
relevant in its operating environment (Low, 2018). Inter-sectoral collaborations/ Whole of government networks require
new leadership, management and governance structures that distribute power, authority and responsibility across the group,
foster shared commitments, resolve conflicts, facilitate lasting relationships and stimulate effective action (Milward & Provan,
2006; Provan & Lemaire, 2012; Ospina & Saz-Carranza, 2010). A facilitative leadership model to “facilitate a collective visionand strategies” is required to solve complex issues and build trust in a collaborative context (Lee, 2017). In the move to instil
innovation-driven culture in the public service, leaders must also shift from the bureaucratic top-down transactional leadership totransformational leadership stimulate idea generation and promote team innovation. Such leadership empowers employees withautonomy and freedom to take risk and make individuals feel safe in being proactive (Al-Ahmad and Easa, 2021).
The aim of talent management within the public sector is to provide pools of public servants with outstanding characteristics
to serve public, stakeholder and sustain competitive advantage in the long run (Lee, 2021). Talent management schemes in
the Singapore public sector have been shaped by the reforms, experiences and cross-country knowledge transfers. Of which
many of the concepts and theories are borrowed from the western nations influenced by the New Public Management (Hood,
1991) movement. Talent management practices are largely informed by the hegemony of human resource management models
developed in the private sector, contextualised to fit into the Singapore public sector context. However, in the early days, theborrowed western models as well as the externally imposed socialist structures have created exclusive elitist talent schemes thatevoked tensions between inclusiveness and exclusiveness of Talent management practices based on social isolationism which led
to breeding of public service leaders that had lose touch with the ground and coming out with top-down driven policies that did
not consider the needs of the society. When governments cannot recruit and retain capable individuals who are able to engage
the public, it adds to the vicious cycle of weak governance (Poochareon and Lee, 2013). For the public service to be staffed by
the best talented people, the Singapore government has intervened by establishing a variety of talent programmes or schemes.
These leadership development schemes targeted at selected individuals being identified at an early stage of their career and aredeveloped further through scholarships, trainings, job rotations, mentorships, projects etc. to become future leaders (Dries, 2013;
Poocharoen and Lee, 2013; McNulty and Kaveri, 2019; Lee, 2021). Over the years, as the government embarked on reforms

would have adverse effects on policymaking since they might not be able to understand the needs of the citizens. PSC therefore
piloted the Game-Based Assessment (GBA) as part of the evaluation process to assess attributes such as perseverance andlearning orientation (Public Service Commission, 2018). In the commitment to seeking diversity at all levels, PSC expanded its
award criteria beyond academic performance and in 2019, out of the 93 PSC scholars who were awarded, 17 were from institutes
and 9 from polytechnics (Public Service Commission, 2019).
PSC scholarship holders are also given opportunities to participate in curated development programmes i.e. the Preparatory
course before the scholarship holders embark on their studies; and PSC Scholarship Holders Mid-Course Programme (PSMP)
which takes place at the second year of their studies, to acquire critical knowledge, skills and experiences to enable them tobetter serve Singapore and Singaporeans. Upon completion of their studies, the scholarship holders may participate in the Gap
Year programme whereby they will be attached to an organisation in the people or private sector, either locally or overseas,
for a duration of six months to a year. These attachments will allow them to learn about the company’s ethos, business andchallenges on the ground, and bring this knowledge into the public service. Previously if these returning scholars passed arigorous and selective interview, they were directly recruited to the administrative service. Subsequently the returnees had to be
deployed throughout the service through a four-year Management Associate Programme (MAP) before they are considered forthe administrative service (Poocharoen & Lee, 2013; Lee & Rezaei 2019). With the introduction of the Public Sector Leadership
Programme (PSLP) in 2017, recipients are mostly (except under the uniform or medical track) emplaced on the Public Service
Leadership Programme (PSLP) upon return and groomed as leaders in generalist or specialist tracks, with an outsize influence
on policymaking, and therefore the lives of Singaporeans more generally. Besides the PSC scholarships, respective agencies alsooffer scholarships based on their criteria and organizational needs. Recipients will also be bonded to the agencies for about two
to five years upon their return.
There are two distinctive career development schemes for the scholarship returnees to be groomed and developed systematicallyleadership talent for senior leadership job roles across the Public Service. They are namely the Administrative Service (AS) and
the Public Sector Leadership Programme (PSLP).

at different stages of the country’s development, these schemes have also adjusted and refined, gradually shifting away from

Administrative Service (AS)an exclusive qualifications-based approach to a more inclusive skills-based approach, especially towards attracting mid-career

The AS scheme marks the cream of the crop of Singapore’s civil servants – there are only about 200-300 in the scheme (McNulty

switchers with diverse experiences outside the service to be groomed as leaders.

and Kaveri, 2019). Previously, the majority of Administrative Officers (AO) are scholars centrally appointed by PSC. The
deployment of AOs designations, career paths and postings in different sectors of the Public Service, namely Infrastructure &Pre-service Scholarship Scheme
The Pre-service Public Service Commission (PSC) scholarship scheme is the main talent attraction strategy as the government
believes that offering pre-service scholarships is the best way to attract the ‘best and brightest’young men and women to serve
the government (Quah, 2010). The PSC scholarships are targeted at recruitment for critical high-level public service functions (Neoand Chen 2007). There are a diverse range of courses and universities for sponsored study. Candidates must be Singaporean
citizen or Permanent Resident who are keen to take up Singapore citizenship and are assessed primarily based on their highEnvironment, Economy Building, Social, Security, Information and Communications Technology & Smart Systems, and Central
Administration, are managed by the Public Service Division. AOs are officers who are experts in the business of government. As
leaders and managers in the public sector, AOs play a key role in the development and implementation of national policies. AOs
prepare ahead for the future, anticipate and analyse problems, and contribute to the survival, security and success of Singapore.
The multi-sectoral developmental track will equip leaders with domain depth in 2-3 sectors when designing and implementing
policies within and across sectors (PSD, 2023).

school academic results and Co-Curricular Activities (CCA) records; leadership potential and the desire to serve the public(Poocharoen & Lee 2013). The candidates must go through a few rounds of interviews and psychometric tests administered
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Public Service Leadership Programme (PSLP)PSLP is a talent development programme that develops talented and capable individuals for key leadership positions within
the Public Service. PSLP replaced the Management Associates Programme (MAP). Recognising the need to develop a broader
base of leaders beyond the Administrative Service and responding to the need for grooming leaders who have deep expertisein key domains such as education, health care, urban planning, communications or foreign policy, the PSLP was set up in
2015, administered by PSD to create multiple job structures and career pathways, so that officers can rise up in professionalroles and reach apex positions in their own fields, and not just go through the Administrative Service route (Speech by Prime
Minister Lee Hsien Loong at the 2020 Annual Public Service Leadership Dinner, 17 January 2020). The apex positions include
Director of Medical Services, or the Director-General of Education, or the Chief Planner, the Accountant-General, or Chief ofGovernment Communications. These officers can then partner and complement the AOs, as part of the larger collective public
sector leadership to make up for a more balanced and resilient system.
Figure 1: Range of learning experiences to support the development of AOs (Reproduced from PSD, 2023)
AOs could be posted to private sector companies to better understand businesses and markets, or to the various statutory
boards and government-linked Companies. They could also work in other non-Civil Service organizations such as internationalorganisations, and non-profit organisations, or even abroad. Subject to performance, they may also be appointed as directors
on the boards of government-linked companies and statutory boards (PSD, 2023). As the AOs are responsible for developing
and implementing national policies in consultation with the political leadership, there have been criticisms that they do nothave sufficient knowledge on the ground. Therefore, AOs are invited to participate in the Community Attachment Programme(CAP) as part of their milestone training programmes to allow them to appreciate the issues on the ground and needs of thecitizens, as well as the role of the grassroots organisations in engaging the residents on their well-being and concerns. AOs will
also be required to attend milestone training programmes at the Civil Service College (CSC), the main training institute of
the public sector at key stages of their career to equip them with skills and knowledge on policy implementation so that they
can take on higher-level appointments. In addition, through the training, they will also be able to network with their peersfrom other agencies and with key public sector leaders. In addition to local training, they are also sent for study visits abroad
to gain exposure and understanding of the political, economic and social developments in the region and the world and learn
from leaders from other countries. Each AO will be mentored by a more experienced officer who will guide their personal
and professional development in the Administrative Service. They will also be supported by expert coaching to facilitate theirprofessional development. Directors of the departments in Singapore are relatively young in their mid-30s. The top-performing
AOs will take up permanent secretary positions in the end. By their mid-30s, if the AOs’estimated potential is less than deputy
secretary of the ministry, he or she would usually be asked to leave the service (Neo & Chen, 2007). A clear benefit of the AS isthat AOs’remuneration sits in a different, higher pay scale, and is not tied to any ministry, hence facilitating a tight network ofhigh-calibre talented officers enabling effective inter-ministry and inter-agency coordination (McNulty and Kaveri, 2019).
With the increasing adoption of the whole-of-government approach, AOs are also involved in inter-Agency Project Teams tocollaborate with and learn from senior leaders and peers across the Public Service through inter-agency project teams such as
in whole of government collaborations like the Singapore Youth Olympic Games and Climate Change Network and whole-ofgovernment (WOG) networks such as the Multi-ministry Taskforce on Covid-19 (Lee, 2017; Lee, 2020). By involving in these
networks, AOs will be able to provide WOG / strategic perspectives, with the ability to “connect the dots” , and synergise andintegrate work across different sectors, by leveraging cross-agency networks and experience.
Previously only returning PSC scholars who had completed the 4-year Management Associates Programme and assessment
will be considered and appointed as AOs. In recent years, to navigate a more complex and fast-changing environment, thePublic Service needs a diversity of strengths and perspectives in the leadership ranks. Therefore, it has opened applications toApplications are opened to in-service, mid-career switchers as well as fresh graduates (must be Singapore citizens) who wish
to start work in the Public Service after graduation. There are two phases of the PSLP namely the general phase and the sectoralphase. The general phase is created for those with little or no work experience and they will be posted to two agencies across two
sectors, for a minimum of two years each to develop them in core public governance capabilities. The rotations will also allow
them the opportunity to explore and gain experience in at least two different sectors of the Public Service. Under the generalphase, there is a structured leadership development opportunity which includes rotations, attachments, milestone programmes,
inter-agency projects, and coaching and mentoring. Upon completion of the general phase, the officers may be considered for the
Sectoral Phase to gain deep domain expertise and knowledge in a chosen sector; or for the AS to remain as a generalist. The six
sectors that officers can choose are namely the Infrastructure & Environment, Economy Building, Social, Security, Information
and Communications Technology & Smart Systems, and Central Administration (Table 2).
6 key sectors of Public Service

Scope

Economy Building

development, robust infrastructure and good connectivity.
Contribute to Singapore’s growth, macro-economic stability, industry regulation and a

Socialconducive business environment.
Shape the ‘heartware’ of Singapore – cultivating a more cohesive, resilient, caring and

Security

inclusive society.
Keep Singapore safe and secure through robust enforcement capabilities and soundInformation and Communications

security policies.
Enable better use of data and harnessing of new technologies by the Government to build

Technology & Smart Systems
Central Administrationa digital economy and digital society, in support of Smart Nation.
Ensure effective and efficient use of resources and help develop a consultative andInfrastructure & Environment

Contribute to making Singapore a vibrant, clean, liveable city with sustainable

customer-centric Public Service.
Table 2: Six key sectors of the Singapore Public Service and the scope (PSD, 2023)
Officers are given the developmental opportunities and critical experiences to build deep competencies in a specific sector
through rotations to different agencies in a chosen sector as well as provided with training programmes to expose officers to
key developments and cross-cutting issues within the sector to be developed as a specialist leader. Mid-career switchers withseveral years of experience may be considered for the PSLP Sectoral Phase (SP) where they will be supported in deepening theircompetencies within a sector. Their past work experiences will be considered when curating relevant postings and developmental
opportunities, and in the consideration for more senior leadership appointments. In-service officers could also be considered for
the PSLP via the annual ‘In-Service Nomination Exercise’ as nominated by their reporting officers through assessment of theirperformance and potential.

Singaporeans (in-service and mid-career switchers) who have an outstanding career history, a proven track record of leadership
qualities and the desire to contribute to the nation.
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Mid-Career Leaders Track (MCLT)The “Mid-Career Leaders Track” (MCLT), a central gateway will also be introduced for mid-career entrants with valuable

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experience and the potential and aspiration to serve in Public Service leadership. Candidates may be considered for the PSLP (SP)continuity and keep the workforce safe during the pandemic. The SafeEntry registration, a national digital check-in system wasor the Administrative Service (AS) or apply without needing to choose to join the AS/PSLP or any specific government agencies.

developed to log visits by individuals to venues providing essential services, as well the employees in those venues (SafeEntry,

Successful candidates will be placed onto the appropriate leadership programme, based on their past work experiences, calibre,2020). During the Circuit Breaker, most essential businesses, such as supermarkets, clinics, and retail outlets, adopted thereadiness and seniority. There will be structured job placement and onboarding support to support mid-career officers transition

SafeEntry system. To ensure smooth implementation, relevant ministries worked with operators of premises to deploy theto the Public Service as they do not have any prior experience working in the public service. For their first one or two postings,

SafeEntry system in wider communities including schools, workplaces, healthcare facilities, shopping malls and hotels (Lee, Lee

officers will select from a list of curated jobs that provides developmental exposure in job roles such as policy-operations as welland Liu, 2021). The officers as developers of the apps were able to engage and educate businesses to troubleshoot and adopt

as stakeholder mobilisation and engagement, which will tap on their knowledge, skills and perspectives. This allows them tothe apps within the very short timeframe. In addition, a suite of technology solutions under the “‘Stay Healthy, Go Digital!”leverage their expertise and experiences in making substantive contributions, while supporting their learning and transition into

programme developed by the Infocomm Media Development Authority (IMDA), along with Enterprise Singapore (ESG), enable

the Public Service.

SMEs and businesses to quickly set up remote working, visitor management, bill and pay online, and sell online. SGTech, a
trade association in the tech industry, also rallied companies in the industry to put together a Digital Solutions Directory forbusinesses. SMEs can access online courses and webinars to upgrade their workers’skills and receive cost-free digital consultancy

Digital Ready Public Service in a Smart Nation
In the 2021 Smart City Index published by the Swiss business school Institute for Management Development, which ranks

from experts on best practices for crisis management (Lee, Lee and Liu, 2021).

118 cities by how “smart” they are, considering input from the cities’ residents of how technology had improved their lives(IMD, 2021). Singapore came up top. Singapore’s smart nation journey started in 2014 when Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loongoutlined plans to turn Singapore into the world’s first Smart Nation and launched the Smart Nation Programme Office to drive
the national effort to transform Singapore into a Smart Nation. Smart Nation is integral to Singapore’s next phase of nationbuilding. Technology disruption is a global force and developments in digital technology present opportunities for Singapore toenhance strengths, overcome national challenges and physical limits to build new sources of comparative advantage. Singapore
has laid out mutually reinforcing plans to build a Digital Economy, Digital Government and Digital Society which are the three

Efforts to build up the public sector’s digital capabilities and digital services had paid off during the pandemic as Singapore
was able to contain the spread by enabling remote work and study. Being one of the countries with the lowest fatality rate in
the world, at less than 0.1 per cent, compared with the average of about 1 per cent worldwide, Singapore has demonstrated
resilience, strategic agility, and entrepreneurship in the context of the fight against COVID-19 (Teo, 2023; Liu et. al., 2020).

Shifting towards Collective Skills and Competency-based Leadership Development in the Post Pandemic Era

pillars of Smart Nation. This widespread transformation is exemplified building strong digital infrastructure and service delivery,
and involving the public, private and people sectors. In 2016, the Government Technology Agency (GovTech) was formed to

The Covid-19 pandemic has brought significant changes to workplaces around the world - and accelerated many trends,

be responsible for the delivery of government digital services to the public, and the development of infrastructure to support

particularly around technology. The pandemic has accelerated the levels of digitisation in workplaces across all sectors including

the Smart Nation initiative. Building digital infrastructure is necessary to accelerate the digital drive of the government, but it

the public sector to meet stricter health rules and reduce physical interactions. The changing technologies and new ways ofcan’ t sustain that momentum by itself, it will require a pool of tech talents in the government (Ethos, 2019). Particularly during

working were disrupting jobs and the skillsets required. Due to digital acceleration, customer demands are also changing.

the Covid-19 pandemic, the success of the deployment of digitally driven measurements was not only dependent on Singapore’s
readiness, i.e. resilient broadband and internet networks infrastructure which are capable of accommodating to the increased

For industries to stay competitive and figuring how to introduce technologies into the workplace, they will need to upskill

data traffic, but having public sector staff with the digital skills to create content and applications on demand (Lee, Lee and Liu,and reskill their employees with digital skills and capabilities to achieve the company’s goals. Skill-based development increases2021).

efficiency and makes the workforce more agile to adapt to evolving Singapore market trends. Recognising the need for the public
sector leaders to dialogue and work closely with industry leaders to transform their workforce, the GovTech Digital Academy

In 2017, the Smart Nation & Digital Government Office (SNDGO) was formed, directly under the purview of the Prime

was also launched in 2021 to deepen ICT skills and groom future-ready digital leaders and public officers to be well-versed

Minister’s Office. SNDGO drives digital transformation and builds long-term capabilities for the public sector and promotes

in the current and future technology landscape to lead digital transformation in their respective agencies and better support

adoption and participation from the public and industry. Through the different talent schemes targeting different levels, theindustries in digitisation (Digital Academy, 2022). Equipping C-suite public sector leaders with deeper ICT skills will also enable

government to attract and recruit tech talent to transform the way the government provides services (Table 3).

consolidation of resources from different departments within an organisation to drive digital transformation.

••

The Smart Nation ScholarshipTechnology Associate Programme

P r e - Un i v e r s i t y a n d Un i v e r s i t y •Fresh graduates

students

Two-year exclusive leadership-traineeengineers from academia and industry

Groom and develop young talents orprogramme across different techin Singapore and overseas

various ICT leadership roles in thedomains: application development, •3 to 6 months assignment or part-

public sector

cyber security, sensors & IOT, datatime consultancy across tech domains

science & AI and ICT infrastructurefrom artificial intelligence, blockchain,•

Smart Nation Fellowship•

Data scientists, technologists andcloud, data science, app development,
cybersecurity to sensors & IoT.

The pandemic has hastened industry transformation and demand soars for digital skills in all sectors. Digital technologies
like artificial intelligence (AI), the internet of things (IoT) and cloud computing are bringing about a massive shift in the worldof work (World Economic Forum, 2022). With more emphasis on digital skills and experiences, paper qualifications which areused to gauge a candidate’s ability might no longer carries high weightage in the selection process. It might also be time for theSingapore public service to consider shifting towards skills-based recruitment criteria to encompass a diverse and inclusive poolof talents. Mid-career switchers who wished to join the leadership schemes in the public service, without degree qualifications
but with extensive working experience and skillsets that match the requirements of the organisations should also be highly
considered. Employability skills will be beyond ‘soft skills’such as communication, collaboration, critical thinking and emotional
intelligence and increasingly centred around using digital technologies at work.

Table 3: Talent schemes targeting different levels for digital transformation in the government (Lee, 2023)
One key lesson that was derived from the pandemic was the importance of the workforce being agile and equipped with

With the ready pool of public sector staff with digital skills, the government was able to create content and applications on
demand and implement several digital platforms in-house such as the TraceTogether app and SafeEntry Registration platform.
These platforms were instrumental to complement its efforts in surveillance, enforcement, and engagement to ensure business
136

1

AIM: A for analytical and intellectual capacity, I for influence and collaboration and M motivation for excellence.
137

skillsets that are transferrable within the sector or even across sectors. Beyond technical skills, the Singapore public service
should identify and groom leaders who are agile, resilient, and adaptable to changes including change in roles. Ability to connect,
to build relationships with diverse group of colleagues, peers and customers remotely is going to be critical as virtual meetingsand interactions will remain a core mode of collaboration. This is all compounded by the fact that the very concept of work is
evolving which will have implications for the acquiring and retention of specific skillsets.
Focusing on appraisal qualities based on competencies instead on the AIM framework1 was also a key shift to competencybased leadership development. Recognising that competencies are demonstrable behaviours which can be developed throughdeliberate effort. The framework also alerts leaders not just on what competencies they need to build and exercise, but also what
are the red flag behaviours that reduce our leadership effectiveness (Leo, 2022). These competencies are tiered according to thelevel of leadership i.e. at Permanent Secretary, Deputy Secretary, CEO, director, and middle manager levels. The framework
also provides clarity for young leaders who just started out in the service to know what competencies they need to build, whatto grow in and what to apply. The institutionalisation of the 360-degree feedback exercise for leaders also help the leaders toaddress the gaps in the competencies that they are expected to demonstrate.
Two initiatives namely, Leadership Xchange Directory and enhanced Leadership Discourse, are also developed in 2022
for the public service leadership community to learn experiences from one another. The Leadership Xchange Directory is an
informal support network for leaders to offer advice and share their leadership experiences with others. Leaders will submit a
profile of themselves on this exchange and they list areas that they would like to share about, and anyone be it young officers or
established leaders, can reach out to them to ask for advice and support. The Leadership Discourse is about encouraging leaders
to actively share their leadership stories, their best practices and the learning points that they’ ve collected over the years. These
initiatives will infuse stronger collective sense to help support one another’s leadership development.

Conclusion

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THAILANDCONTENTS
Abstract���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 144
Table���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 145

Senior Executive Service in theThai Public Sector

SES concept in the Thai Public Sector������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 146
SES as a Management System in the Thai Public Sector������������������������������������������������������������������������� 147
Senior Executive Qualifications������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 148
SES Recruitment and Appointment������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 150
Senior Executive Development�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 151
SES Pre-Service Training Programs������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 151
SES Post-Service Training Programs����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 152
SES Performance Management������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 152
Conclusion and Policy Recommendations�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 153
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 155

Dr. Sunisa Chorkaew
Associate Professor,
Faculty of Political Science,
Thammasat University
142

143

Abstract

Table

This paper aims to review the senior executive service (SES) in the Thai public sector. It is found that SES in the Thai public

Table 1: Position Classification of the Thai Civil Servants������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 146

sector is centralized system in which the Office of the Civil Service Commission (OCSC) plays an important role in terms ofcontrol, supervision, administration, and operation, while the government agencies must comply with the rules set forth. This
causes a promotion of merit-based system and a balance of power in the bureaucratic system itself since the SES is a careerbased system. The OCSC, however, tries to counterbalance the system by scoping the roles to lay down criteria for determining
qualifications in the selection, competency development, performance management and compensation processes. But inconsidering those who are suitable for development to enter the senior executive service remains the authority of the government
agencies in which the decision process is based on the form of a committee. Some suggestions for the development of SES in theThai public sector are the government agencies should be more decentralized to operate some processes of SES and the OCSC
is expected to concentrate on their policy advocacy’s roles.

Keywords: senior executive service, senior executive system, public personnel management

144

145

towards the ability of a highly competent executives to achieve organizational goals, but also it is to achieve Thailand’s

SES concept in the Thai Public Sector
According to the section 45 of the 2008 Thai Civil Service Regulations Act1, there are 4 types of civil service position which
are executive position, director position, academic position, and general position. Each type of civil servant comprises of different
levels of positions according to section 46 of the 2008 Civil Service Act, which could be summarized in the following table.

Elements

PositionsExecutive Positions

categorized into 3 models:4
The first model is separating SES in which selection and development processes are operated by government personnel
agencies. The tools for selection and development processes in this model are to enhance leadership capabilities and theefficiency of the government. This model is applied in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.

Table 1 Position Classification of the Thai Civil Servants
Civil Service

competitiveness and adaptability to globalization. As for the initiative and development of senior executive service, it could be

Levels

These include positions of heads of government agencies -Primary Leveland deputy heads of government agencies at ministry and -Higher Level

The second model is a high-potential SES. This model concentrates on the development process for high-potential civil
servants and professional executives. Executive training programs and job rotations are the key tools for this model. It is appliedin the United Kingdom, Japan, and France.

department levels, and other positions designated by the

The third model is a career-based SES in which executives normally climb through the ranks in the bureaucratic system. There

Office of the Civil Service Commission (OCSC) as executive

is no development and preparation for high potential executives to advance into management positions.

positions.
Managerial Positions

These include positions of heads of government agencies -Primary Level

below department level and other positions designated by -Higher Level

the OCSC as managerial positions
Knowledge Worker Positions

General Positions

These include positions that require graduates with a degree -Practitioner Levelas specified by the OCSC to perform the duties of that -Professional Level

position.

-

Senior Professional Level-

Expert Level

These include non-management, director, and other -Advisory Level
Operational Level

positions, as specified by the OCSC.

-

Experienced Level-

Senior Level-

Highly Skilled Level

According to the Civil Service Regulations Act 2008, Section 572, the structure of the SES could be classified into 3 groups asfollows.
Group 1, SES band 1 or primary level of senior executives (position level 9) includes the position of deputy head ofgovernment departments appointed by the permanent secretary or the head of a departmental government agency under thesupervision of, or responsible for the performance of official functions directly accountable to the Prime Minister or to the
Minister.
Group 2, SES band 2 or senior executives (position level 10) namely: (1) deputy head of government agencies at ministry level(2) head of government agencies at department level (3) deputy head of government agencies at department level under thesupervision of or responsible for the performance of official duties directly accountable to the Prime Minister or to the Minister.
Group 3, SES band 3 or highest senior executives (position level 11) namely: (1) head of a government agency at the ministry

For Thai public sector, the concept of SES is based on the first and the second models. The form of SES is an integrated
model between a separate management system and the development programs for high-potential civil servants to prepare theexecutive pool for senior executive positions.

SES as a Management System in the Thai Public Sector
Perspective on the senior executive system adopted by the OCSC6 can be classified into 2 cases: (1) open recruitment policythat allows opportuni ties for best fit persons, from both inside and outside public sector, who have knowledge and abilities forsuch positions, and (2) closed recruitment policy that provides opportunities for civil servants who are qualified with specificexperience and expertise. But in reality, it has been found that nature of promotion to a senior executive position in the Thai
public sector is still a ladder from a low level to a high level. It could be said that the senior executive service in the Thai public
sector is a career-based system with a closed recruitment policy.
SES Management in the Thai public sector is centralized system in which the OCSC plays an important role in terms of control,
supervision, administration, and operation, while the government agencies must comply with the rules set forth. This causes a
promotion of merit-based system and a balance of power in the bureaucratic system itself since the SES is a career-based system.
In other words, the OCSC has the power to determine the criteria for determining qualifications, selection process, competency
development, performance management and initial remuneration, but the authority to nominate the senior executive is based ona decision of the committee appointed in each government agency.
AS aforementioned SES management is mainly based on the operation of the OCSC; the units responsible for SES
management system are:level (2) head of a government agency at the departmental level under the supervision directly to the Prime Minister or to the
Minister.
Although perspectives on SES have not been clearly defined, according to the memo of the OCSC submitted to the Cabinet
in the year 20013, the fundamental principle in initiating a senior executive system is to focus on the competency of highly
competent executives who can work efficiently, dare to make decisions, and take responsibility. Not only is the expectation
1

Thailand - Civil Service Act B.E. 2551. (2008). Royal Thai Government Gazette (January 25, 2008).

2

Thailand - Civil Service Act B.E. 2551. (2008). Royal Thai Government Gazette (January 25, 2008).

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4

Lafuente, M., Manning, N., and Watkins, J. (2012). International Experiences with Senior Executive Service Cadres. Available

at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTGOVANTICORR/Resources/3035863-1285601351606/GET_Note_Recently_Asked_
Questions_Senior_Executive_Services.pdf
5Kuperus, H. and Rode, A. (2008). Top Public Managers in Europe: Management and Working Conditions of the Senior Civil

Servants in the European Union Member States (Study Commissioned by the French EU-Presidency), Maastricht, European
Institute of Public Administration.
6

According to section 56 of the Civil Service Regulations Act in 2008, it provides opportunities for specification and appointment

of senior executives who come from both open and closed systems.
147

1.

Group 1) People Management Competencies. The senior executives are expected to have people management competencies

The SES Center is responsible for the SES development program. The purposes of SES center are to carry out studies,
analyses, systems’ development, and proposals for strategies of quality workforce and senior executive system; to develop

which consist of three competencies as follows:models and measures to attract quality workforce to civil service; to develop tools, implement and extend results of the1.

demands of works or organizations as well as being able to understand and listen to opinions from different perspectives;

management competency assessment, as well as to set up database and manage talents and senior executive inventories; toprovide advice and suggestions related to the talent inventory system and the senior executive system for senior executives;
2.

adaptability and flexibility to adapt or change the way of working to suit all situations, individuals or groups, dealing with2.

communication skills to recognize and grasp the issues from listening and reading as well as the skills to convince listeners

to follow up, evaluate, and report the utilization of the talent inventory system and the senior executive system.

and readers by speaking, writing and presenting the ideas in order to achieve desired goals and gain supports fromThe Recruitment and Selection Center is a responsible unit that supports the agencies to develop and set up policies,

stakeholders; andsystems and models of personnel recruitment and selection for being civil servants; provide advice and suggestions regarding3.

collaboration by inspiring people to be conducive to working with the organization, building mutual agreement and goodworking relationships among the people inside and outside the organization.

to the implementation of personnel recruitment and selection into the civil service for government agencies; to construct andto develop recruitment and testing tools, to serve as coordination center of personnel recruitment for government agencies

3.

and public enterprises; to carry out duties related to allocation of government scholarships; to set up standards, criteria,Group 2) Management Competencies consist of:guidelines for accreditation of credentials for the purposes of instatement and appointment of persons, including SES.

1.

achieve its vision and support others in the organization to implement initiatives that impact to the success of organization;

The Civil Service Training Institute has main responsibilities to carry out studies, analyses, and research relating to humanresource development and training in the public sector, development of training courses and media, provision services of2.

customer service orientation to provide public services that build and maintain relationships with customers by focusing on
the needs of the targets; andtraining media or technologies; carry out studies and research relating to policies, systems or guidelines for civil servants
development, following up and evaluation of human resource development in the civil service; and organize development

managing change to act as a leader who initiates changes that are beneficial to their organization so that the organization can

3.

strategic planning to create an operational plan with specific goals, objectives, strategies, and operational guidelines in orderprograms for civil servants. The role of the Civil Service Training Institute related to the senior executive service is toto achieve the expected results under the conditions of time, resources, urgency and anticipation of possible problems anddevelop and prepare those who have potential to enter senior service positions by organizing training programs for senior

opportunities.

executives and additional training programs for senior executive courses.
4.

The Bureau of Position Classification and Compensation Development has authority to carry out studies, research andGroup 3) Resulted-Based Management Competencies consist of:development of remuneration system and fringe benefits; to carry out studies on policies, systems, or standards of the1.

given to others, and ready to be inspected and be responsible for the results of their actions and decisions;development of position classification in the civil service; analyze and relating to criteria, methods or practical guidelinesof manpower planning and the position classification in the civil service and evaluation. The Bureau of Development of2.

result-based management by promoting achievement motivation through organization, enhancing results according to plans
and goals, and corresponding to the expectations of stakeholders efficiently and effectively; andPosition Classification and Compensation System is also responsible for identifying the SES placement, salary structure, and3.

other benefits for senior executive positions.

accountability to be aware of their roles, commitment, and determination to perform their duties, follow the affirmations

managing resources both inside and outside the organization which includes personnel, information, technology, time andother resources appropriately in order to achieve the goals of the organization and government agenda.

In addition, the OCSC has other internal units that drive the mission of managing SES, e.g., the Bureau of Manpower
and Position Audit, the Bureau of Disciplinary Standard, the Anti-Corruption Operation Center, and the Ethics Promotion

Group 4) Professionally Administrative Competencies consist of:Center. These agencies are considered as central units for the OCSC which are responsible for promoting education, research,

1.

best decision in that situation at the right time;development of the system, as well as conducting rules and supervising public personnel management under the moral system2.

and the good governance framework.

decision making by considering information, opportunities, problems, and evaluating alternatives and results to make thestrategic thinking by showing the potential of the executive to identify and analyze the problems and situations by using
rationale and experiences to drive the success though practices and solutions; and3.

Senior Executive Qualificationsorganization. According to this competency, the executives are expected to announce their organization’s vision, convinceothers to accept and move towards the vision of the organization, support others in terms of giving advice, and empower

SES management system includes the heads of government agencies and deputy heads of government agencies at ministerial

their employees to grow professionally by focusing on development at the individual, team, and organization level.

and departmental levels, and other positions, e.g., the government agencies under the Office of the Prime Minister. However,the SES management system does not include the governing executives in the Ministry of the Interior and Diplomatic Service
Executive in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs since these two ministries have their own SES management system that is separated
from the system operated by the OCSC.

in accordance with the laws, government policies, and the country’s economic and social development plans. Moreover, they
are expected to advise and provide opinions for the ministries, the cabinet, or relevant committees on various issues relating togovernment affairs in their duties and responsibilities.7 From these expectations, the OCSC has announced the competencies ofpublic sector executives. Senior executive recruitment, selection and appointment processes are based on the competency model.

148

There are two important criteria of SES. First criterion is training qualification. In other words, passing the SES training
program by the OCSC or other programs equivalent to the SES training program (i.e., certified by the OCSC only) is a crucial
qualification of those who want to be promoted as the SES in the Thai public sector. Another criterion is that the candidates

Generally, job description of the senior executives is related to setting policies, strategies, and government’s administrative plans

The model divides competencies into 4 groups (12 competencies).

leadership development which is defined as the executive roles to build up the next generation of leaders and talents in the8must pass the competencies assessment for public sector executives. Then they must apply to the SES selection process to bepromoted to SES band 1 or primary level of senior executives (position level 9). It is noted that the account of those who passed
the assessment will be valid for no more than two years to make sure that the competencies of the SES fit in with the changing
7

The Office of the Civil Service Commission. (2017). Job Specification for the Senior Civil Service. Available at http://www.ocsc.

go.th/sites/default/files/attachment/job_specification/1_1_001_1_new
8

The Office of the Civil Service Commission. (2001). Core Competency for the Senior Civil Service. Available at http://www.

ocsc.go.th/sites/default/files/attachment/article/07_phaakhphnwk_ch_smrrthnathaangkaarbrihaar.pdf
149

environment and the challenging of the public sector.

nominate an appropriate person.

But for SES band 2 or senior executives (position level 10) and SES band 3 or highest senior executives (position level 11),

It could be noted that the committee-based selection is only employed for the SES in level 9 and level 10 selection process. For

there is flexibility in considering qualification criteria before taking on a senior executive position. These positions are open for

the SES in level 11, the highest senior executives which includes head of a government agency at the ministry level and head ofthose who have never completed the training course. They are allowed to attend the training within one year from the date ofa government agency at the departmental level under the supervision directly to the Prime Minister or to the minister, is directly

appointment.

selected by the permanent secretary or by the minister. To maintain the principle of political neutrality in the SES recruitment
and selection process is still questioning for the Thai public sector.

SES Recruitment and Appointment
SES recruitment and appointment processes could be classified into 2 types. The first type is an open recruitment policy in

Senior Executive Development

which a form of recruitment allows qualified candidates from the public and other sectors to equally apply for such positions.

Senior executives are a group of civil servants who play a vital role in driving government policies and strategies to achieve

This nomination policy is rather focused on a recognition of experiences and expertise of the person. The second type is a closed

practical results. Therefore, the development of senior executives is focusing on enhancing the executives to have competencies

recruitment policy in which a senior position is available for civil servants who climb from the early stage of their career to thethat fit with the current context and to keep up with future changes. There are two models for senior executive development

highest level.

which are pre-service training and post-service training11.

According to section 52 and 56 of the Civil Service Act in 20089 stipulates that “civil service recruitment process and to
appointment must be in accordance with the merit system and take into account the ethical behavior of such individuals.”SES asa part of civil service recruitment must comply with the merit system. The system consists of 4 main components: 1) the abilityof candidates that must be qualified with the criteria of SES position; 2) the principle of equality that considers the principleof equal rights of persons with educational qualifications and work experiences; 3) the principle of security to guarantee career
security for personnel at all levels in the organization; and 4) the principle of political neutrality that all of civil servants must

SES Pre-Service Training Programs
The OCSC establishes a higher level of training curriculum standards for executives in 2007. The standard framework has
been conducted for preparing high-level executive training courses. Passing the training course conducted by the OCSC orother comparable courses is one of the important qualifications of senior executives. There are two models for SES Pre-Service
Training Programs.

remain their politically neutral behavior.
Although the recruitment and appointment policy of SES is a policy that comes from both open and closed in the situation,it has been found that the nature of ascending to a senior executive position is still a ladder from a low level to a high level. It
could be said that the recruitment and appointment policy for the SES focuses on a closed recruitment policy.
The OCSC prescribes criteria, methods, and selection procedures for promoting civil servants to SES positions 10 according
to the OCSC Letter No. 0708.1/Wor22. dated September 30, 1997, with the essence requiring each ministry to appoint the
SES selection committee. In this regard, the committee must determine criteria for evaluating persons who are suitable forthe position to be appointed by considering knowledge, competence, behavior, and service history, including other appropriatequalifications. Then the committee will select and propose three suitable candidates and submit their name to the Permanent

Model 1: Senior executive development course conducted by the OCSC namely the Senior Executive Development
Program (Nor Bor Sor): Leaders with Vision and Morality. This program has two main objectives. The first objective is toprepare candidates for managerial or equivalent positions to be able to perform their duties in such position effectively byorganizing learning in various forms to encourage their skills in terms of self and people management skills, visioning and change
management, and results- based management. The second one is to develop leadership skills for life and work in a changing
environment by focusing on decision making, communication, coordination, adaptability, flexibility, service mind and resource
management. The development process could be divided into 4 phases: 1) orientation and personality assessment, including
thinking process development, planning for group study reports and self-development planning practice, and development ofleadership and executive networks; 2) main modules training period, focusing on extending the executive competencies fromleaning, experiences and practices; 3) a study visit in the country and foreign countries; and 4) closing and farewell session.

Secretary for consideration. If a person has been promoted to a position in level 10, his or her name will be submitted to theminister to present to the cabinet for consideration and approval. As for those who are promoted to be appointed to a positionin level 11, the permanent secretary shall nominate the name to the minister for submission to the cabinet for further approval.
In general, the selection committee would assess the candidates with the suitability of core administrative competencies, jobrelated competencies, and performance in terms of management goals, vision, and other behaviors and attributes necessary to
perform the job. In the first round, only 3-5 people per position may be considered for further evaluation. After that, no morethan 3 people are selected for the position to be appointed per position, along with specifying the reasons for suitability in each

Model 2: Senior executive development course operated by other government agencies. Developing high-level executives
with maximum efficiency, the Office of the Civil Service Commission is not the only agency that develops high-level executives
before entering a managerial position. Other government agencies are able to arrange courses for senior executive development.
According to the letter of the OCSC 1013.1/253 on 7 December 2016 regarding to the standard framework for a high-level
executive course (2016 edition), the OCSC has a resolution for government agencies to adopt the standard framework fortraining courses which provides a guideline for the agencies to organize high-level executive training courses with the concept of‘leaders with vision and morality’ .

position.
According to the letter of the OCSC 1003/Wor9 dated 26 August 2005, there is still room for political officials to exercise
discretion and interfere in the selection process. The minister has the power to exercise discretion in the SES selection process
in the case that the permanent secretary does not nominate an appropriate person to the minister, then he/she has the right to7

Thailand - Civil Service Act B.E. 2551. (2008). Royal Thai Government Gazette (January 25, 2008).

10

The Office of the Civil Service Commission. (2023). Senior Executive System. Available at https://www.ocsc.go.th/ses#gsc.

tab=0
150

However, in accrediting the course, the OCSC consider 11 elements of the curriculum including the name of the course,
philosophy and concept, objectives, qualifications of civil servants who are eligible to apply for the high-level executive training
program, course management, expected results, operating budget, course content, duration of training program, extracurriculardevelopment programs, and training completion criteria. The duration of the training throughout the course will be considered

11

The Office of the Civil Service Commission. (2023). Senior Executive System.

Available at https://www.ocsc.go.th/ses#gsc.tab=0151

in the first place. If the proposed course has a period that cannot be completed, other elements will not be considered. The

According to the Cabinet meeting held on April 5, 2016, senior executive performance management has been approved.

curriculum certification has been validated in a certain period, requiring that the agencies have to ask the OCSC to approve theirHeads of government agencies are required to prepare performance reports that respond to the orders of the Prime Minister,curriculum every 3 years.

which has additional instructions on operations to support the national strategy and national reform, consisting of: (1) visionary
administration (i.e., able to think outside the box without violating government rules and regulations) (4) alleviating poverty;

SES Post-Service Training Programs
According to the letter of the OCSC 1013/27 on 27 August 2010, civil servants including senior executives are obligated to(5) developing human resources and creating learning within government agencies; and (6) creating transparency and clarity ingovernment operations and budget spending.

develop their efficiency, morality, ethics, and morale in performing official duties to achieve the state’s missions. From thisreason, SES post-service training programs are compulsory. There are two models for SES post-service training.
Model 1: SES Post-Service Training Programs conducted by central agencies. The first program is the Senior Executive
Development Program: Government Executives (Nor Bor Sor. 2) conducted by the OCSC. The second program is theLeadership Workshop Program: Leaders for Change (Por Yor Por) operated by the OCSC and the Office of the Public Sector
Development Commission (OPDC).
The first program (Nor Bor Sor 2) purposes to enhance, accelerate, and maintain the potential and competency of theadministration so that the deputy head of government agencies can perform their duties to their full potential and be ready forhigher level operations as well as strengthening the administrative networks in the government so that the executives as deputy
heads of government agencies can bring about changes and drive the country efficiently. As for the course structure, it consists ofa variety of forms and methods of training; classroom training, meeting, discussing, and exchanging experiences through seniorconsultation (experts), building knowledge and experiences by executive networking, academic seminars by national experts,
and field visits to agencies in the country and abroad (focusing on agencies in the ASEAN member countries and Eastern Asian
countries such as China, Japan, and South Korea).
The second program (Por Yor Por) is a program in accordance with the Prime Minister’s order at the Cabinet meeting on

The objective of senior executive performance management is to evaluate and promote the executive potential. The SecretaryGeneral of the Civil Service Commission will act as a center for collecting performance reports, including information fromrelevant agencies to be presented as information for consideration to assessors. The assessors consist of: (1) the Prime Minister,
Deputy Prime Minister or Minister who is assigned or authorized to supervise and monitor the performance of civil service inthe regional inspectorate area; (2) Minister or Deputy Minister (only in the case that the Minister is absent or unable to performofficial duties). The details of the senior executive performance evaluation can be considered from the components in thefollowing details. 14
1.

or work according to the duties, main responsibilities, work according to the law, rules, or government policies.
2.
3.

training program must follow the framework conducted by the OCSC . The framework of the curriculum consists of 1) corecompetencies, development guidelines and assignment handbook; 2) successful qualified professional experiences using corecompetencies, i.e., achievement-oriented, and accumulating professional expertise. and teamwork; 3) case studies to develop

Area based evaluation: efficiency in performing tasks according to the mission area/local, region, province, provincial groups
or the integration of operations in multiple areas or agencies.

4.

Competency based evaluation: efficiency in performing duties based on knowledge, competence, skills, and competencies
used in performing duties as specified by the OCSC.

5.

Potential based evaluation: potential as an administrator for the development of the country in accordance with the national
strategy and government master plans for developing countries in various areas.

agencies in organizing a short-term training course focusing on brainstorming activities and providing recommendations for

Model 2: SES Post-Service Training Programs operated by other government agencies. As for this model, theAgenda based evaluation: efficiency in performance according to the government reform guidelines, urgent policy, or a
specially assigned mission.

January 31, 2017, which assigned the Deputy Prime Minister in collaboration with the OCSC and the OPDC and other relevant
solving obstacles in the implementation of the important policies of the government.

Functional based evaluation: efficiency in performance according to the basic mission principles, routine tasks, normal tasks

Based on the above-mentioned five components, the assessor will assess at least three components. In each component, theassessors will consider knowledge, ability, skill and performance, dedication of time to government service, efficiency in providing
services and facilitating people, target budget disbursement, creating awareness and understanding among the people, proactive
action to keep up with the situation, integrity, and the satisfaction scores from the people who receive the service.

Conclusion and Policy Recommendations

competencies in adhering to morale and ethics; 4) site visits and experience sharing from public or private organizations, focusing

From reviewing the current context of SES in the Thai public sector, it reflects the view towards the system which focuseson services to respond to service users and stakeholders of the organization; and 5) lessons-learned session for the senior civil

on a hierarchical career growth (career-based pattern). As it was mentioned by the OCSC that the system empathizes theservice executives.

standardized development programs for the high-potential civil service by which the OCSC plays the key roles in controlling,supervising, administering, and operation, while various government agencies have limited powers by which they have to comply

SES Performance Management
According to the Civil Service Regulations Act, 2008, the principles relating to the performance of civil service are to achieve
the mission of the state efficiently, with Section 76 stipulating that the supervisors are responsible for evaluating the performanceof their subordinates. In addition, the OCSC had developed a performance management system to be used as a tool for effective
and efficient performance management.

with the rules set forth. The OCSC, however, tries to counterbalance the system by scoping the roles to lay down criteria for
determining qualifications in the selection, competency development, performance management and compensation processes.
But in considering those who are suitable for development to enter the senior executive service remains the authority of thegovernment agencies in which the decision process is based on the form of a committee.
From the context of the Thai government agencies, there are some suggestions for the development of SES in the Thai public
sector which can be classified into two models as follows:15
Model 1. Decentralized SES Policy, this model can be classified into two types which decentralize all processes and

12

The Office of the Civil Service Commission. (2012). Compensation Guidelines for the Civil Servant. Bangkok. The Office of

the Civil Service Commission.
13

The Office of the Civil Service Commission. (2009). Performance Evaluation Guidelines for the Public Sector: Performance

Management and Performance Appraisal. Nonthaburi: P.A. Living.
152

14

The Office of the Civil Service Commission. (2009). Performance Evaluation Guidelines for the Public Sector: Performance

Management and Performance Appraisal. Nonthaburi: P.A. Living.
153

delegate some processes to other government agencies.
		Model 1.1 Full decentralization Policy by allowing the government agencies to operate all processes of SES:

The model of top executives depends on the future context and the form of the department, such as digital work that can
accept qualified leaders from outside agencies. In the case that there is a tendency for senior executives from a position-based
perspective, the OCSC should put effort in amending the laws and regulations.
		

Model 1.2 Partial decentralization Policy by allowing the government agencies to operate some processes of

SES: The OCSC as a central agency should support and provide a central-SES database for government agencies, e.g., providing
a list of senior executives who will enter the position through the central basket. Decentralizing in SES will be the first important
step for the Thai public personnel to transform passive HR functions to a smart HR policy that means the HR functions andprocesses could preemptively respond to changing environment and challenges of the Thai public sector.
Model 2. SES -One Stop Service Model. There should be a central unit that are responsible for a one-stop SES.
According to the structure of the OCSC, the SES Center should be a central unit where the two key roles must be taken. For
the first role, the SES is expected to concentrate on their policy advocacy’s roles in which SES’s policy recommendations will
be driven from a tank of nationwide data and information collection. For the second role, the SES Center can play their role asa consultant for the government agencies, focusing on developing, analyzing the system, and recommending strategies related
to the SES. As for the level of management, the SES Center should decrease their roles in SES operation and enhance the HR
capabilities to the government agencies. This recommendation is not only for the SES development, but also new S-curve for theThai public personnel.

References
Chorkaew, S. (2019). Ten-Year Trends in the Thai Senior Executive Service (from 2018 to 2027). Journal of HR Intelligence.
14(2): 27-47 (in Thai).
Kuperus, H. and Rode, A. (2008). Top Public Managers in Europe: Management and Working Conditions of the Senior Civil
Servants in the European Union Member States (Study Commissioned by the French EU-Presidency), Maastricht, European
Institute of Public Administration.
Lafuente, M., Manning, N., and Watkins, J. (2012). International Experiences with Senior Executive Service Cadres. Available
at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTGOVANTICORR/Resources/3035863-1285601351606/GET_Note_Recently_Asked_
Questions_Senior_Executive_Services.pdf
Thailand - Civil Service Act B.E. 2551. (2008). Royal Thai Government Gazette (January 25, 2008).
The Office of the Civil Service Commission. (2023). Senior Executive System. Available at https://www.ocsc.go.th/ses#gsc.tab=0
The Office of the Civil Service Commission. (2017). Job Specification for the Senior Civil Service. Available at http://www.ocsc.
go.th/sites/default/files/attachment/job_specification/1_1_001_1_new
The Office of the Civil Service Commission. (2012). Compensation Guidelines for the Civil Servant. Bangkok. The Office of the
Civil Service Commission.
The Office of the Civil Service Commission. (2009). Performance Evaluation Guidelines for the Public Sector: Performance
Management and Performance Appraisal. Nonthaburi: P.A. Living.
The Office of the Civil Service Commission. (2001). Core Competency for the Senior Civil Service. Available at http://www.
ocsc.go.th/sites/default/files/attachment/article/07_phaakhphnwk_ch_smrrthnathaangkaarbrihaar.pdf
The Office of the Civil Service Commission. (2001). The Memo to the Cabinet: Senior Executive System. Available at http://
www.ocsc.go.th/ses

15

Chorkaew, S. (2019). Ten-Year Trends in the Thai Senior Executive Service (from 2018 to 2027). Journal of HR Intelligence.

14(2): 27-47 (in Thai).
The development of recommendations for SES in the Thai public sector is based on the mentioned above research in which the
Ethnographic Delphi Future Research (EDFR) techniques were employed to find the future solutions. The research employedinterview forms and opinion questionnaires from 18 experts consisting of political officials, senior executives in the public sector,
and academics. Two rounds of data were collected. The first round was an open-ended and unguided interview with experts,
focusing on the future that should be. The second round was conducted by using questionnaires to obtain expert opinions toconfirm the most-likely scenario and recommendations.
154

155

VIETNAM

CONTENTS
Abstract�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������158
1.Concept of talent�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������159

Attracting and Using
Talent in Vietnam’s
Public Sector

2.Talent management in the public sector�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������160
2.1.Perception of talent in the public sector������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������160
2.2.The role of talent in the public sector�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������161
2.3.Talent management in the public sector������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������162
2.4.Some issues facing talent management and development in the public sector�������������������������������162
3.Current status of attracting and using talent�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������163
3.1.Results of implementing policies to attract and use talents���������������������������������������������������������������164
3.2.Some existences and limitations�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������166
3.3.Causes of limitations and existences������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������167
4.Solutions to improve the efficiency of attracting and employing talents in the public sector�������������168
REFERENCE��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������170
ANNEX������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������171
1.The provisions of the law�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������171
2.Resolutions and Decrees of the Government�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������171

Nguyen Thu Huyen, MSc
Institute of State Organizational Sciences
Ministry of Home Affairs of Vietnam
156

157

Abstract

1.Concept of talent
The term “talent” can be interpreted in various ways. Academically, it refers to a shift in how people are managed in

Attracting, managing, and using talent is a crucial issue in the current period. This is especially important in the context

organizations. Rather than seeing employees as a cost, they are regarded as the most important resource. Under this approach,of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, which presents both opportunities and challenges for countries worldwide, including

every member of the organization is considered talented and has unique strengths that can add value. Therefore, every

Vietnam, to achieve rapid and sustainable development. Therefore, attracting and using talent in the public sector will create aindividual has the potential to contribute to achieving the organization’s goals.

team of civil servants and public employees who meet the requirements and tasks at hand. This will help build a professional,
The narrow approach defines talents as the top performers or high-potential individuals within an organization or group.

responsible, dynamic, and effective administration, thereby contributing to the development of the country.

They are considered special and not everyone within the organization is considered a talent. Talents make a significant
contribution to the organization’ s performance, either immediately or in the long term by demonstrating the highest potential.
These individuals are often seen as high achievers or “the best.”
Currently, there are various interpretations of what constitutes talent, but the overall agreement is that talented individuals
possess exceptional abilities and consistently produce outstanding work that surpass expectations. Achieving this requires
more than just innate talent - talent must be nurtured, trained, and applied to yield practical, positive outcomes for society.
Talent is not an abstract concept, but rather a specific skill set associated with a particular job or profession that contributes
to society and the nation. This means that talented individuals must embody moral qualities such as honesty, responsibility,
tolerance, humility, politeness, and hard work, while also possessing high qualifications, skills, and professional expertise to
excel in their respective fields.
Looking at it from a different angle, talent can be defined as an individual or a group of people who possess exceptional
abilities in a particular area of expertise, have extensive knowledge, and have the capability of assuming leadership positions,acting as experts, consultants, or solving problems that ordinary individuals cannot. The Vietnam Encyclopedia defines talent
as “the most complete combination of certain abilities for a certain activity, helping people to achieve outstanding, new, andsocially meaningful achievements”. To achieve remarkable accomplishments, innate factors alone are not enough. Talented
individuals must train themselves, accumulate social knowledge, and emotional intelligence, and spread positive values within
their community. Professor Dave Ulrich, from the University of Michigan, USA, has developed the 3C talent theory, in which
he believes that Talent = Competence * Commitment * Contribution. Employees are considered competent if they have therelevant knowledge, skills, and values required for their current and future job positions. Good competence relies on threerights: the right skills, the right position, and the right job. In addition to capacity, commitment is essential, meaning that
employees are willing to stick with, accompany, and devote themselves to the organization’s success. Some individuals may beskilled, intelligent, and proficient in their work, but without putting in the effort or doing their best, it is challenging to create
value or make a meaningful and impactful contribution.
During the process of human development and growth, there are three factors that can influence the formation andmaturation of talents. These factors include the genetics of the family, the natural and social environment, and theindividual’s personal qualities such as effort, adaptability, dynamism, and creativity. All three factors are interrelated andplay a vital role in the development of a person’s intellectual and practical abilities, as well as their ethical values. However, toidentify and recognize talent, a system must be in place that takes into account these factors:-

An individual’s intellectual capacity is measured by their intelligence, thinking ability, and generalization skills. They
should possess the ability to judge events, make foresightful decisions, react quickly, remember things for a long time,and be flexible. Creativity is a crucial quality that should be displayed as well. It is a product of talented people who are
sensitive, always seeking new knowledge, and can master new skills. To evaluate intellectual capacity, IQ measurement
tools can be used.

-

Practical capacity is another quality that should be considered alongside intellectual capacity. It involves mental
capacity, willpower, social activities, communication skills, and the ability to complete tasks. Good communication skills,
selecting valuable information, expressing problems concisely, and fact-finding skills are some of the essential practicalcompetencies. Emotional quotient (EQ) measurement tools can be used to evaluate practical capacity. The individual’s

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status, achievements, and work results recognized by society are also crucial factors.
In the public sector, talented individuals must possess both innate qualities and abilities learned through training to excel
Intellectual capacity and practical ability are essential for developing talent, but they alone are not enough. To truly excel

in their assigned duties. When evaluating talent, it is important to consider both high potential and high performance.

and make a meaningful contribution, a person must also possess strong moral character. Talents are most effective when

However, this approach can lead to two different methods of discovering and appreciating talents. One approach is to focus

they are used to pursue noble goals for the benefit of the community. A person with ambition, willpower, energy, courage,

on individuals who have already demonstrated excellent results in their current role, while the other approach is to identify

responsibility, enthusiasm, passion, and a dedicated mindset can achieve great things and stay focused on their goals andindividuals with high potential for future contributions based on qualities such as outstanding academic achievements.

ideals throughout their life. In short, true talent requires not only skill but also virtuous qualities, without which it cannot

Regardless of the approach, all talented individuals in the public sector should be respected and appreciated for their uniquetruly shine.

abilities and contributions.

2.Talent management in the public sector
Talent management is a relatively new topic for the public sector. Many countries around the world consider attracting,retaining, and promoting talents in the public sector as a strategy for public sector reform in particular and in national
construction and development in general.

2.1.Perception of talent in the public sector
Identifying talent in the public sector follows the same principles as in organizations in general. However, the public
sector differs from the private sector in several ways. It places greater importance on broader norms and values, has higher
expectations for civic responsibility, and demands transparency, impartiality, and equal treatment in operations. Additionally,
the public sector doesn’ t operate in a competitive market and is more politically influenced. As a result, many experts suggest
a more specialized approach to talent management in the public sector, where individuals possess not only specific skills but
also a conscious spirit and values that align with the sector’s values.
Governments worldwide are striving to create a national “elite” to lead and develop their countries. While this is a positive
strategy, it is essential to have an elite group of individuals who exhibit ethical behavior, empathy, responsibility towards thecommunity, and respect for public values. They should possess a spirit of public management, appreciate emotional values,
and uphold the values of the community. Failure to do so could lead to a dictatorial or dogmatic elite.
Although developing a talent development strategy and focusing on the country’s elite is a new trend in human resource
management, most countries approach it in a limited way. Individuals in the public sector who possess competencies,
knowledge, and values that reflect the core principles of the public sector are considered public sector talent. They are able touse their unique abilities to serve the public for the common good.
Identifying talented individuals in the public sector and state agencies is a complex issue with various opinions. First andforemost, it must be affirmed that talented people in public sector agencies (civil servants) must meet the conditions andstandards prescribed by law. These include nationality, age, diplomas, certificates, health, and quality standards. In terms ofprofessional capacity, training and retraining are also crucial. High-quality human resources in the public sector are those whoare healthy, have high education and professional qualifications, possess good working abilities, and have ethical public service
or professional ethics. They always actively seek to improve their professional qualifications, take the initiative in integrating
to improve themselves, and contribute to improving the operational efficiency of agencies and organizations.
In the past, the evaluation of talented individuals only considered their abilities and commitment to work. However, intoday’ s workforce, talented individuals must also be able to contribute and receive recognition. Hiring talented individuals
benefits organizations in many ways, including increased productivity, a better reputation, and greater brand recognition.
Talented individuals also need to be dedicated, constantly seeking new ways to think creatively and gain experience, while
also creating material wealth. By using their intelligence to serve their community, country, and beyond, they can bring about
positive changes in their region and the world.
160

To excel in the public sector, individuals must possess exceptional task performance and high potential. They should havethe ability to complete complex tasks and contribute to the agency’s development. “High potential” is a crucial factor in
identifying talented individuals, but it must be accompanied by excellent results in task performance to be recognized andrewarded. Moreover, moral qualities and abilities are interconnected and essential for promoting personal growth in talented
individuals working in public sector agencies.

2.2.The role of talent in the public sector
First, talented individuals play a crucial role in enhancing the quality of human resources in the public sector. Their
exceptional qualities and capabilities create a positive outlook on civil servants and promote traits like responsibility, ethics,
and civil service culture. Talented individuals in public sector agencies possess the vision, capacity, and creativity to drive
development changes. As civil servants represent the State to the people, the presence of talented individuals in the public
sector reinforces public trust in their ability to perform their duties effectively.
Second, in addition, skilled individuals working in public sector agencies and units play a crucial role in enhancing theeffectiveness of tackling ever-increasingly intricate tasks. The advancement of globalization and international integration
presents opportunities, as well as challenges, for every nation. Opportunities arise and disappear rapidly in the global arena,
while development obstacles grow more varied and complicated. To take advantage of opportunities and overcome challenges,
public sector agencies and organizations must adopt truly original and imaginative strategies for addressing problems andfinding solutions. This necessitates the involvement and input of talented individuals
Third, in today’s age of rapid scientific and technological advancements, particularly the Fourth Industrial Revolution, thequality of a country’s human resources is crucial for its rapid and sustainable development. The traditional factors for socioeconomic development are becoming less significant. Competition between countries is no longer just about resources andcheap labor, but also about knowledge, creativity, adaptability, and the ability to make breakthroughs. The creativity of acountry depends on various factors, including the quality of its human resources, particularly high-quality human resourcesin the public sector. These individuals are responsible for formulating and implementing policies and laws to develop social
human resources, which ultimately promotes the overall development of the country.
Fourth, in the public sector, talented individuals are highly regarded and acknowledged for their contributions to thedevelopment of capacity and talent in society. This helps promote them as role models to others. As President Ho Chi
Minh once stated, “A good example is better than a hundred speeches”. Talented individuals in public service activities
and provision serve as an inspiration for their colleagues to learn from and strive to follow. This also motivates the team toconstantly improve their capacity, quality, ethics, and overall culture of civil service.
Fifth, as national governance innovation and state administrative reform continue, it is inevitable that government
agencies will need to streamline their operations and staffing. This means that employees in the public sector must possess
higher levels of capability. Attracting and valuing talented individuals is essential to ensuring that government agencies andorganizations within the political system operate with effectiveness and efficiency. This approach also leads to higher quality
and more efficient public services for individuals and organizations, while serving as a catalyst for the state administrative161

reform process.

private sector’s competition for talent is also a concern for the public sector. The concept of work has changed, and many
workers, particularly the skilled ones, no longer view the state as their only option. Furthermore, the public sector’s image,

2.3.Talent management in the public sector
Talent management and development is a relatively new focus for public sector organizations. The term “TalentManagement” gained popularity after 1998 when Steven Hankin and his colleagues introduced the term “War for Talent”. In
today’ s highly competitive labor market, identifying the right talent, and developing and retaining it has become a top priority
for all organizations.
Talent management is a process that varies depending on the strategy, culture, and goals of each organization. There are
two main approaches to talent management that are commonly used in organizations. The first approach emphasizes talented
employees, who are considered “high-ranked”. This approach believes that an organization is only as strong as its talented
people. Talent management is about attracting and effectively utilizing talent to serve the organization’s goals. According toSilzer & Dowell, “Talent management is a set of processes, programs, and cultural norms within an organization designed andimplemented to attract, deploy, and retain talent to achieve strategic goals and meet the needs of the organization both now
and in the future.”
The second approach believes that talent management is similar to the concept of human resource management. This
activity also includes content such as recruitment, leadership development, and human resource planning. Therefore, talentmanagement is not fundamentally different from human resource management. Both are about finding the right job for theright person and managing the supply, demand, and flow of people through the organization.
Scholars have offered various perspectives on talent management in the public sector. In a narrow sense, it refers to theprocess of systematically recruiting, retaining and developing talent in both the short and long term. In a broader sense, it
is a strategy that ensures public sector employees possess not only knowledge and competencies but also core values that aresuitable for the public sector context.
The approach to talent management in the public sector varies from country to country. Some countries view talent as being
elite individuals and have talent management strategies aimed at this special group. For example, the Singapore civil service
has adopted three guiding principles to manage talent: “attract the best people, assign them challenging work, and pay themwell”. Singapore’ s public sector talent management policy focuses only on individuals identified as potential and outstanding
performers. It uses special policies such as pre-service scholarships, high salaries, and creating career paths for top talent in
the civil service to prepare them for future leadership roles.
Different countries adopt different approaches to talent management within the public sector. While some countries choose
a more holistic approach that considers everyone in the public sector system as talented, others opt for a combination oftalent management methods. This involves focusing on the group of elite individuals while also providing opportunities andinvestments to the remaining groups of civil servants in the industry.
For instance, some organizations in the UK civil service have adopted comprehensive talent management. This approachprovides equal development opportunities for both mid-career and senior civil servants. However, in many specific stages,
the talent group in the narrow sense - the elite, superior group - is respected and given focused attention to ensure theirdevelopment needs are met.

2.4.Some issues facing talent management and development in the public sector
First, the public sector is experiencing competition when it comes to attracting talent. One reason is the increased pressureon efficiency and effectiveness in responding and adapting to the new context’ s objective requirements. Additionally, the162

environment, and working conditions are not as appealing as those of external organizations. As a result, the job market for
talent has become more competitive than ever before, making it challenging to attract talent to work in the public sector.
Second, the recruitment process can be a challenge when trying to attract talented individuals to work in the public
sector in many countries. To comply with legal regulations, there are often multi-step and complex procedures involved in
the recruitment process. For instance, in countries like France, England, Belgium, and the Netherlands, entrance exams aremandatory for all candidates, which can be both costly and time-consuming. As a result, talented individuals often opt for theprivate sector where the requirements are lesser and the selection procedures are less complicated.
Third, many countries are experiencing a loss of highly skilled workers, particularly in their public sectors. This trend
is particularly noticeable in developing nations. The causes of this “brain drain” include downsizing, an unappealing work
environment for younger generations, and competition from the private sector which offers more attractive salaries, betterworking conditions, training, and promotion opportunities. Compared to the private sector, the public sector working
environment is less dynamic and creative, and the salary policies are not competitive enough. If this issue is not addressed
promptly, it will be challenging to attract and retain the most talented individuals in the public sector.
Fourth, the demand for top-notch human resources in the public service system has been rising, along with the need forincreased responsiveness. Recently, many countries have been striving to reduce the number of public sector jobs as part ofcost-cutting measures. This makes it imperative to develop a more skilled workforce to serve in the public sector. That’ s why
strategic talent management is a key priority for many nations globally. Governments must grapple with the complex challengeof attracting and retaining the most qualified individuals for public service, especially in the current “war for talent.”
Fifth, the “war for talent” is fueled by technology and globalization trends that blur the boundaries between organizations
and countries. With the rise of personal computers at work and home, the spread of the internet, open database systems,
and customizable web browsers, employers can advertise job opportunities quickly and easily connect with potential
workers. These changes, along with shifts in the employer-employee relationship, mean that highly skilled individuals are
no longer confined to searching for job opportunities within their own country or region. They can now access and work fororganizations located anywhere in the world.
The public sector aims to be innovative and keep up with the Fourth Industrial Revolution to meet global development
requirements. To achieve this, talented individuals must be recruited to improve leadership and management capacity.
Retaining these individuals is also crucial to prevent brain drain. The public sector struggles with attracting and keeping
talented individuals due to inflexible policies, inadequate compensation, and negative power dynamics. Despite efforts fromvarious ministries and localities to attract talent, success has been limited.
Recruiting skilled individuals across all industries is an essential task that significantly impacts the quality of humanresources and the prosperous growth of a nation, particularly in the public sector. President Ho Chi Minh once stated that“talented and virtuous individuals can accomplish tasks that benefit the country and its people”, emphasizing the crucialrole of talent in nation-building. Article 61 of the 2013 Vietnamese Constitution confirms that educational development is
the foremost national policy to enhance people’s knowledge, develop human resources, and nurture talent. As such, the stateprioritizes the utilization and advancement of talented individuals.

3.Current status of attracting and using talent
As of December 31, 2021, Vietnam has 247,722 civil servants (106,890 in central ministries and branches, 140,832 in
localities); 1,789,585 public officials (119,475 in central ministries and branches, 1,670,110 in localities). Between 2020 and June163

considered.

2022, 39,552 civil servants and public employees quit their jobs across Vietnam. This number accounted for nearly 2% of thetotal number of long-term staff at these agencies. Among them, more than 16,000 worked in the education sector and 12,000+

On the other hand, at the local level, many provinces and centrally-run cities have issued specific policies based on thein healthcare. The number of people who quit their jobs is mainly under the age of 50, nearly half of them have university

provisions of laws (Laws and decrees) to attract and employ talented and capable individuals with high professional

degrees, and 16% have master’s degrees. At the same time, more than 14,240 civil servants and public employees have been

qualifications. The focus is on prioritizing spearheading industries and fields that suit the locality’ s advantages andrecruited to promptly replace the number of those who resigned from 2020 to mid-2022.

development needs.
-

Regarding the focus of attraction:

As of 2020, 3,128 people were recruited as part of the policy to attract and value talented and high-quality human resources

Recently, many localities have taken into account their specific circumstances and local development needs to determine

in three ministries and 21 localities. Among them, 2,903 people remain employed, accounting for 92.8%, while 225 individuals

which fields are most important to attract talented individuals to their area. By following future local development trends, they

have left their positions, accounting for 7.2%.

have adjusted their criteria for each subject to meet practical requirements. The main sectors and fields that communities aretargeting include health, education, social services, science and technology, law, administration, and information technology.

-

Regarding professional qualifications for attraction, there are 68 people with doctoral degrees (2.41%), 853 people with

The process of implementing attraction policies at the local or central government level is based on specific job positions,master’ s degrees (30.25%), and 1,899 people with university degrees (67.34%).

standards, and professional qualifications as prescribed.

Regarding the age demographics during recruitment, there were three surveyed groups: “20 to under 25 years old”
comprising 42.5% (1,180 individuals); “25 to under 30 years old” comprising 40.1% (1,115 individuals); and “over 30 yearsb.

Many provinces and cities have established regulations to attract and utilize talented individuals and cultivate high-qualityold”comprising the lowest proportion with only 17.4% (484 individuals).
-Specific remuneration policies for talented people

Regarding the fields and occupations that were trained and fostered after being attracted, healthcare has the highest

human resources, in line with the Party’s policies and legal regulations. However, due to variations in economic, cultural, andnumber of people at 842, making up 30.97% of the total. Following closely behind is the engineering-technology industry

social development among localities, the subjects, scope, regimes, and remuneration policies differ.

with 363 people (13.35%), economics with 231 people (8.5%), and finance with 219 people (8.05%). Other fields make up a
Examples of these policies include commending and honoring exceptional graduates from local universities, direct

significant portion with 1,064 people, accounting for 39.13% of the total.
-

Regarding the current positions of the attracted people: it appears that the majority, which is 90.13% or 2,375 people,

recruitment without entrance exams, preferential policies for housing, land allocation, transportation, and job prioritization for

hold positions as experts or equivalent. There is only one person, accounting for 0.04%, who is a leader in the Provincial

spouses, and initial allowances for those with significant work experience and professional qualifications.

People’ s Committee or a similar position. Department leaders or those with equivalent roles make up a very small
One of the most commonly implemented preferential policies is a competitive salary package, along with additional

percentage of 1.37% or 36 people, while those in division leadership or equivalent positions account for 8.46% or 223-

people.

incentives and a favorable work environment. In particular, Ho Chi Minh City offers a relatively high level of remuneration to

Regarding the current rank structure: The current rank structure of those interested mainly consists of expert ranks or

attract talented professionals to work in the city.

their equivalents, which totals 2,534 people, accounting for 91.88%. The remaining ranks have a low representation, such
The industries of healthcare, engineering-technology, economics, and finance have shown a high rate of trained and fosteredas 200 principal experts or equivalent (7.89%), and only 5 senior experts (0.11%). The officers and their equivalents makeup 21 people (0.76%).

talents after being attracted to work. Healthcare reached 30.97%, engineering-technology reached 13.35%, economics reached8.5%, and finance reached 8.05%. The recent talent attraction policy in localities is considered necessary and timely, as it

3.1.Results of implementing policies to attract and use talents
The State’s policies on attracting and using talented individuals have been well-received by ministries, branches, andlocalities. They have taken an active and decisive approach in leading, directing, and organizing the implementation of thesepolicies and laws. As a result, there has been significant progress in attracting and utilizing talented individuals across thecountry. This progress is evident in the following areas:a.

Identification of target audiences and focus areas for talent attraction policies:-

The ministries, branches, and localities have focused on attracting the following groups:+

Excellent graduates+

Persons with academic titles, master’ s and doctoral degrees+

Science and technology experts in various fields such as economics, finance, health, education, engineering, andtechnology.

+

The result from 2018 to 2022: 135 excellent graduates and 123 young scientists were attracted and recruited to work in
38/47 central state agencies and organizations, and 58/63 localities.

-

Attracting talent in the central government is different from local government:+

Attracting talented people at the central level requires mainly recruiting excellent graduates and young scientists working
at Party agencies, government institutions, Vietnam Fatherland Front, and socio-political organizations at central to
district levels. Additionally, public non-business units of the Party, State, and armed forces as prescribed in Decree
No. 140/2017/ND-CP, Decree No. 40/2014/ND-CP, Decree No. 87/2014/ ND-CP, Decree No. 27/2020/ND-CP are also164

helps to attract highly qualified people to work in a number of industries and fields, meeting the urgent requirements of thecountry. Attention has been paid to training and retraining of talents.
c.

Attracting foreign and overseas Vietnamese talents to work in Vietnam
The government of Vietnam values and encourages the contribution of Vietnamese intellectuals and scientists living

overseas to their homeland. They promote patriotism among these intellectuals and encourage them to work and research in
Vietnam.
In recent times, many overseas Vietnamese have returned to Vietnam to start businesses, work, and collaborate with theirfellow intellectuals. The government has implemented various policies and programs to facilitate this cooperation.
Some popular forms of cooperation include introducing relationships abroad, participating in email and internet-based
discussion groups, providing consultation and criticism for scientific research, teaching on a full-time or part-time basis,
supporting Vietnamese students studying in the country, and participating in domestic scientific research and investment
activities.
-

For policies to attract highly qualified foreign human resources to participate in science, technology and innovation
activities. On May 11, 2022, the Prime Minister signed Decision No. 569/QD-TTg promulgating the Strategy fordeveloping science, technology and innovation until 2030, the goal of which is science and technology. Technology andinnovation play an important role in developing key industries, with a focus on processing and manufacturing industries,
165making an important contribution to restructuring the economy towards modernity, making our country become acountry with modern industries by 2030; Actively and effectively participate and take advantage of commercial advantages
and opportunities of the Fourth Industrial Revolution.

3.3.Causes of limitations and existences
1.

Improvement in innovation, regulation, and talent acquisition has been slow due to limited awareness. Specifically, theimportance of attracting and utilizing talent to enhance the quality of civil servants and public employees has not beenclearly defined. There is a misconception that diplomas and degrees are the only indicators of talent, whereas these

3.2.Some existences and limitations

qualifications only reflect an individual’s level of training in a particular field. The criterion of creative capacity and

The regulations for attracting and valuing new talent are principled and are found in separate documents that govern the

dedication shown in results, innovation, progress, and beneficial effects for the field, local area, community, and society is

management of civil servants and public employees in general. However, the content of these regulations is not reasonable, as

often ignored. The identification of talent is restricted to inconsistent criteria such as quality, ethics, knowledge, capacity,

they only prioritize and incentivize people with high qualifications and skills. There are other important aspects that have notresults, merits, and achievements. Ministries, branches, and localities primarily focus on academic qualifications andbeen addressed, such as how to utilize the talents of those who have been attracted, providing a suitable work environment,

age when selecting talent, while practical capacity and work achievements are disregarded. The mechanism of selecting,promoting career growth, and ensuring fair compensation. Additionally, the policies for attracting talent have not been

recommending, and self-nominating talents has not been innovated and is concretized in numerous fields.

implemented consistently across all ministries and local branches, as they vary depending on individual capabilities and2.

available resources.

Some organizations may not fully understand the crucial role that talent plays in building and developing their field,
region, locality, or country in the current situation. There may also be a lack of awareness regarding policies, conditions,and environments that attract and make use of talented individuals. This can be due to a lack of emphasis and direction

When it comes to building a talented team, it’s important to start with the recruitment process. However, current practices

from leadership when it comes to implementing policies that support and encourage talented individuals.

still heavily emphasize qualifications. Localities, agencies, and units have policies in place to attract talented individuals, but

Proper attention has not been given to the dissemination of guidelines and policies that attract and utilize talented

the main criteria are often academic qualifications, such as graduating from a good or excellent university, holding a master’ s

individuals. Additionally, there may be slow progress in terms of innovation in awareness, thinking, working style,or doctorate degree, or having a title such as a professor or associate professor. Surveys show that many localities requireleadership, and management skills. Without proper fostering and training, this can lead to many limitations andeven directly recruited excellent graduates and young scientists to pass an exam. Unfortunately, the exam’s content, question

inadequacies in the way that talent is arranged, utilized, and appreciated.

format, and structure aren’ t always appropriate or formal. They often focus too heavily on theory and don’ t adequately test3.

the candidate’s capacity and skills for the job they’ re being recruited for.

There is a lack of comprehensive policies to motivate, appreciate, and support talented individuals in various areas such as
employment, respect, evaluation, fostering, training, salary, and rewards. The creation and implementation of preferential
treatment mechanisms and policies for talented individuals must adhere to legal provisions. However, if the law does not

In terms of task assignments, it is important to ensure that civil servants are given responsibilities that match their title,

have policy provisions or regulations, difficulties may arise. Moreover, there is still a lack of coordination between different

position, and rank, while public employees should be given tasks that align with their professional title, management position,levels, sectors, agencies, and organizations. This results in the development and issuance of incentive mechanisms andand job requirements. However, some agencies and departments do not follow a scientific approach to assigning roles andpolicies that lack synchronization and unity, failing to create a synergistic effect to attract and utilize talents

may not place the right people in the right positions. This can result in individuals being unable to work independently,

4.

It’s difficult for Vietnamese talents living abroad to stay informed about opportunities for career advancement andlacking decision-making abilities, and struggling to adapt to new tasks. Additionally, it is common for talented professionals

development in Vietnam. Issues related to transparency, fairness, and cumbersome administrative procedures, as well

to be promoted to managerial roles without considering whether they have the necessary skills for leadership positions. It is

as comparisons between old and new employees who receive different incentives, inconsistent interest groups, working

important to recognize that not all skilled professionals make effective managers and that some may prefer to remain in their

methods, and culture make it challenging to find common ground. Despite calls for Vietnamese talents to return homearea of expertise rather than pursue administrative roles. It is necessary to provide appropriate compensation and recognitionand contribute to the development of the country, there is still a lack of strong connectivity. Unfortunately, many leadersfor professionals who excel in their field.

and managers are not yet ready to take advantage of talent, and their thinking and working practices are slowly evolving.
Some of these leaders and managers have reputations that are lacking, and their capacity and quality are not up to par

Regarding salary, it is important to note that salaries for civil servants and public employees are still on the general pay
scale and payroll system. While there have been improvements in wages and benefits, they still fall short of meeting thewith their tasks. As a result, talented people do not respect their ability or reputation.
5.

New graduates often encounter difficulties when trying to secure positions in state agencies due to a variety of objective

demands of modern social life. Additionally, public sector salaries remain lower than those in the private sector, meaning theyfactors. The slow pace of innovation in training programs and methods, combined with the complex nature of state

often fail to provide adequate support for the needs of civil servants and public employees. The current payroll system is also

management, means that it takes time to gain experience and expertise. As a result, some areas such as health, education,

average and fails to motivate workers to improve their efficiency. Low wages make it difficult to make ends meet, especially

technology, culture, arts, and sports may not be operating at their full potential. Furthermore, new employees may not

for those living in large cities like Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. As a result, many people have recently left their jobs due toreceive adequate support, encouragement, or guidance from their colleagues and superiors during the initial stages of

insufficient pay. This indicates that the current salary and compensation system does not accurately reflect the true value of

their employment. Additionally, low salaries and insufficient compensation, unattractive working and living environments,

the workforce, leading many talented people, especially young people, to seek employment in other companies and enterprises

and poor working conditions can act as barriers to retaining talented individuals. This has resulted in a shortage of skilled

outside of the public sector.

personnel in state agencies, which struggle to retain staff for extended periods.
6.

The system for recruiting, employing, and managing civil servants and public employees based on job positions is still

The working environment is an important factor that greatly affects the attraction, utilization, and treatment of talented

incomplete and has been unable to move away from the previous career-based model. There has been no innovation inpeople. If the working conditions do not meet the requirements for research, creativity, and application, it can be difficult

decentralization, decentralization, and recruitment methods based on job positions. As a result, the policy of attracting

to attract talented individuals. Additionally, the conditions of time and working space also have an impact, particularly forand valuing talented individuals has not been effectively promoted. Many agencies and local authorities have not been

research and creative work where a flexible approach to time management is necessary.

successful in evaluating and classifying quality based on task performance results, which can create motivation andencourage talents to feel secure, dedicated, and promote their abilities. In many places, staff streamlining has not been
done properly, fully, and strongly, and has not been able to remove those who are not qualified for the job, leading to

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ranking these entities on an annual basis.

difficulties in staffing and job positions, and making it challenging to attract and recruit talented individuals.
7.

The country’s economic situation is currently affected by a recession, and there are limited policies in place to regulate

6.

To ensure the proper recruitment, employment, and management of civil servants and public employees, it is important tosalaries and incentives for talented individuals. The current salary system for talented individuals is based on aincrease inspections, examinations, and supervision of legal regulations. This should include overseeing the recruitment

hierarchical structure used by government agencies and organizations within the political system, which is unappealingof employees from higher agencies and promoting a mechanism of “self-monitoring, evaluation, and inspection” withinto potential talent. The differences in salary between ranks and grades do not accurately reflect the qualifications andorganizations. By enforcing recruitment regulations, we can effectively build and sustain our human resources, meetingjob requirements of different positions. Salary increases are mainly based on seniority rather than job position and work

the demands of modernization and industrialization. Through testing, we can identify strengths, weaknesses, andefficiency of the individual in charge. Therefore, it is essential to implement salary reform that considers job position,

inadequacies and offer solutions and recommendations to improve recruitment practices. Additionally, we must review andincluding a separate mechanism and salary policy for talented individuals that is attractive and competitive. Such reform

clarify responsibilities, and take strict action against individuals or groups that fail to comply with legal provisions.

can help retain talent, ensure dynamism and attractiveness, and differentiate it from the salaries of civil servants and7.

Our main priority is to implement the National Strategy for attracting and valuing talented individuals in a coherent andunified manner. This will help to enhance the quality and quantity of skilled civil servants and public employees in State

public employees in general.

agencies and non-business organizations at all levels. To achieve this, we aim to develop policies and laws that identify
and attract talented individuals and establish criteria for recognizing and appreciating their abilities based on the unique

4.Solutions to improve the efficiency of attracting and employing talents in the public sector
1.

It is important to increase awareness about the role and significance of talents, and the necessity of implementing
policies to attract and utilize them in public sector agencies and organizations. This requires competent agencies to
employ various methods to ensure that the entire society understands that attracting and valuing talents in the public
sector is not solely the responsibility of State agencies, but also the responsibility of the society as a whole. To achievethis, there should be extensive propaganda and information dissemination about this policy, so that every individual anddemands of each sector and field.
8.

Our goal is to develop effective financial policies and mechanisms that can mobilize a wide range of financial resources
to support policy implementation. One such policy involves creating a fund to promote talent development in the public
sector. This service is designed to identify, train, nurture, reward, and recognize talented individuals who are dedicated to
public service activities.

organization, particularly management agencies, heads of agencies, and each civil servant, can better comprehend theneed and their responsibility to attract and retain talented individuals.
2.

Develop the job description and competency framework for the job position. A job position refers to a specific role, title,
and rank of a civil servant that determines their salary and placement within an agency or organization. The purpose ofdetermining job positions is to clearly define the number of positions needed within an agency or organization and to
identify the number of personnel required to complete the tasks of the agency. Developing a job position system helps
agencies and organizations review their organizational structure and personnel, and identify the functions and tasks
associated with each position within the organization. This work also helps identify any overlaps in job functions andtasks, avoids predetermined personnel assignments, and assists with creating and assigning jobs to avoid overlap. This
process assists in arranging and rearranging teams of talent, officials, civil servants, and public employees based on job
positions, and helps overcome situations where there may be an excess or shortage of human resources.

3.

To enhance the management of civil servants and public employees, it is essential to innovate and improve institutions.
The recruitment and allocation of talent should be based on the nature, content, and performance of work. Quality
should be evaluated according to output results. It is necessary to create a competitive environment among agencies
and organizations to attract and retain talent, thus generating a “demand” for talent. An agency should be established toassist the Government in managing talent policies in work activities. This agency will be responsible for advising andformulating policies to attract and respect talented individuals.

4.

It is important to establish and implement effective policies regarding the salaries and treatment of human resourcesin the public sector, particularly for talented individuals. Salaries should be based on their duties, responsibilities, anddedication as civil servants, and serve as motivation to increase productivity and work performance, as well as improve
professional qualifications. It is also crucial to create a separate ladder and payroll system for talented individuals, where
high-quality workers are compensated accordingly in order to foster creativity. Laws and policies should be put in place toenhance the working conditions and environment for public agencies and organizations. To retain and encourage talented
individuals to reach their full potential, a democratic and friendly working environment must be established, built on
mutual respect and trust. This environment should also prioritize fairness and professionalism, creating a competitive
arena for all.

5.

It is important to establish clear responsibilities for agencies, organizations, and individuals involved in creating andimplementing policies for talent recruitment and treatment. The leaders of these agencies and organizations have theresponsibility to direct and coordinate the implementation of solutions to achieve the goals and requirements of thesepolicies and laws. The effectiveness of implementing such policies and laws will be used as a factor in evaluating and

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REFERENCES
1.

Armstrong, M., Baron, A. (2007). Human Capital Management – Achieving Value through People, Kohan Page, London.

2.

Buckingham, M., & Vosburgh, R. M. (2001). The 21st century human resources function: It’s the talent, stupid! Human

3.

ANNEX
1.The provisions of the law
In Vietnam, institutionalizing the Party’s policy on attracting and using talent, the Law on Cadres and Civil servants, andResource Planning.

the current Law on Public Employees all mention talents in public service activities and in professional activities. Accordingly,

Chambers, E.G., Foulon, M., Handfield-Jones, H., Hankin, S.M. and Michaels III, E.G., (1998). The war for talent. The

stipulates a policy framework to favor and reward talented people in public service activities; responsibilities of the head

the State has a policy of detecting, attracting, appreciating, and giving fair treatment to talented people; The Government

McKinsey Quarterly.

of the agency in deciding the regime of honor and treatment for talented people in public service activities in the agency,

4.

Dinh Dung Sy (2021), Innovating thinking in valuing and attracting talents, Journal of Legislative Studies, No. 16, August.

servants and public employees...).

5.

Garrow, V. and Hirsh, W. (2008). Talent management: issues of focus and fit. Public Personnel Management.

6.

Ho Chi Minh (2002), Complete Works, volume 4. National Politics Publishing House, Hanoi.

regulates policies for talented people.” In the 2010 Law on Public Employees: Article 6. Principles of Public Employee

7.

Lewis, R. E., & Heckman, R. J. (2006). Talent management: A critical review. Human Resource Management Review.

minorities, with meritorious service to the revolution, officials working in mountainous areas, border areas, islands, remote8.

Neo, B. S. and Chen, G. (2007). Dynamic Governance: Embedding Culture, Capabilities and Change in Singapore, World

public employees”. Article 10. Policy on building and developing Public Service Organizations and Public Employees: “The9.

organization or unit under their management; principle of prioritizing the selection of talented people in recruiting civil

Accordingly, in Article 6, Law on Cadres and Civil Servants 2008: Policy for Talented People: “The State has policies todiscover, attract, foster, utilize and give worthy treatment to talented people.” talented person. The government specificallyManagement: “Implementing gender equality, the State’s preferential policies for public employees who are talented, ethnic
areas, ethnic minority areas, areas with particularly difficult socio-economic conditions and other preferential policies for

Scientific Publishing, Singapore.

State has a policy of building and developing public employees with professional ethics, qualifications, and capacity expertise

Nguyen Minh Phuong, Dao Thi Lanh (2023). Complete policies to attract, utilize and treat talented people in the publictalented people to improve the quality of service to the people”.

to meet the increasing demands of the public service provision sector; discover, attract, foster, utilize and adequately reward

sector in Vietnam today. State Organizational Journal online. Ministry of Home Affairs.
10. Nguyen Thi Hong Hai, Hoang Vinh Giang (2021). Managing talents in the public sector and the issues facing Vietnam.
State Management Review online. National Academy of Public Administration.
11. Silzer, R., & Dowell, B. E. (Eds.). (2010). Strategy-driven talent management: A leadership imperative. John Wiley & Sons,
San Francisco.

In the Law amending and supplementing several articles of the Law on Cadres and Civil Servants and the Law on Public
Employees in 2019: Clause 2, Article 1 has amended and supplemented Article 6 of the Law on Cadres and Civil Servants in2008 as follows:“Article 6. Policies for talented people in public service activities”
1.

The State has a policy of detecting, attracting, appreciating, and giving fair treatment to talented people.

2.

The Government stipulates a policy framework to favor and reward talented people in public service activities.

3.

Based on the Government’s regulations, the heads of agencies specified in Points a, b, c, and d, Clause 1, Article 39of this Law shall decide on the meritocracy and preferential treatment for talented people in agencies, public service

12. Silzer, R. F., & Church, A. H. (2010). Identifying and assessing high-potential talent. Current organizational practices. In R.

organizations ad unit under their management; The Provincial People’s Council regulates policies to favor and reward

F. Silzer, & B. E. Dowell (Eds.), Strategy-driven talent management: A leadership imperative. JosseyBass, San Francisco.

talented people in public service activities in agencies, organizations, and units managed by the province.”

13. Tansley, C., Turner, P., Carley, F., Harris, L., Sempik, A., Stewart, J., et al. (2007). Talent: Strategy, management,
measurement. Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD), London.
14. Trieu Van Cuong, Nguyen Minh Phuong (2016). Policy to attract high-quality human resources in the public sector in ourcountry today. Labor - Social Publishing House, Hanoi.
15. Vietnam Encyclopedia (2005), volume 4, Encyclopedia Publishing House, Hanoi.

2.Resolutions and Decrees of the Government
The Law on Cadres, Civil Servants and the Law on Public Employees mentioned above only institutionalize the Party’s
policies on talent issues, the content is principled, laying the foundation and basic legal basis for talent. According to theprovisions of the Law on Cadres and Civil Servants, the Law on Public Employees and the Law amending and supplementing
several articles of the Law on Cadres and Civil Servants and the Law on Public Employees in 2019, the Government has
issued regulations on attracting and using talent as follows:-

Decree No. 40/2014/ND-CP dated May 12, 2014, regulating the use and appreciation of individuals in scientific andtechnological activities;-

Decree No. 87/2014/ND-CP dated September 22, 2014, regulating the attraction of individuals engaged in science andtechnology activities who are overseas Vietnamese and foreign experts to participate in scientific and technologicalactivities in Vietnam;-

Decree No. 27/2020/ND-CP dated March 1, 2020, amending and supplementing several articles of Decree No. 40/2014/
ND-CP; which regulates many mechanisms and policies for training, fostering, and incentives for scientific and

170

171

-

+

technological talents;

on technical human resources, technology management human resources, business management and administration

Decree No. 140/2017/ND-CP dated December 5, 2017; which stipulates policies to attract and create cadres from excellent

human resources; human resources to manage society and organize life and take care of people. Continue to innovate

graduates and young scientists working at agencies of the Party, State, Vietnam Fatherland Front, and socio-political

the regime of recruiting, using and appreciating talents in management, state administration, science, technology, andorganizations from central to district level; public service organizations of the Party, State and armed forces. That is:innovation. Develop a national strategy to attract and utilize talents.

Excellent university graduates from domestic or foreign higher education institutions and meet one of the following-

standards:*

Won an individual prize in one of the competitions to select excellent students at the provincial, national, or international**

utilizing talented people to 2030, with a vision to 2050. Objectives of the Strategy for 2025 are:+leadership and management; economy; science and technology; education and training; medical; culture and arts; social(literature, history, geography, foreign languages) during high school education;science; sports; military, defense and national security; information and communication..., contributing to implementing

Won an individual prize at national or international science and technology competitions while studying at the highstrategic breakthroughs in developing high-quality human resources, promoting rapid and sustainable development inschool or university level;

science, technology and innovation; create a healthy social and cultural environment, ensuring the preservation and

Won an individual prize at an Olympic competition in one of the subjects: mathematics, physics, chemistry, mechanics,

promotion of national cultural values and social ethics.
+

People with master’s degrees, 1st-level specialist doctors, resident doctors, and 1st-level specialist pharmacists specializing+

By 2025, attracting talents to work in state agencies, organizations and units is about 10% of the total number of new
recruits.

in medicine or pharmacy (graduated from a university with good grades or higher and have a post-graduate major in the+

In addition, goals for 2030, orientation to 2050:

same field of training at the undergraduate level).

+

Maintain the rate of talent attracted to work in the State’ s agencies, organizations and units not less than 20% of the total

People with doctorate degrees, 2nd-level specialist doctors, 2nd-level specialist pharmacists specializing in medicine or
pharmacy.

+

Develop and improve legal regulations and promulgate a policy framework to attract and utilize talents in the fields oflevel in one of the natural sciences (math, physics, chemistry, biology, information technology) and social sciences

information technology, or other majors during university studies.
+

Decision No. 899/QD-TTg dated July 31, 2023, of the Prime Minister approving the National Strategy on attracting andnumber of new recruitment every year.
+

Striving for 100% of talents (recognized) to continue to work after 5 years of being attracted and valued to work at

Graduates with excellent performance are appointed to civil servants or equivalent positions with a salary grade ofagencies, organizations and units of the State; The rate of trained and fostered talents in the field of science and1/9. Young scientific officers with a master’s degree, 1st-level specialist doctors, resident doctors, and 1st-level specialist

technology will reach 30% by 2025; reaching 60% by 2030 to reach 100% by 2050.

pharmacists are appointed to the rank of specialist or equivalent, with a salary grade of 2/9. Young scientific officers with+The Global Talent Competitiveness Index (GTCI) from 2031 onwards has always improved, striving to increase graduallya doctoral degree, 2nd-level specialist doctors, and 2nd-level specialist pharmacists are appointed to the rank of specialist

compared to the previous year; The indicators of “attracting talent” and “retaining talent” rank high among high-middle-

or equivalent, with a salary grade of 3/9.

income countries.
+

Create breakthroughs in promoting innovation networks and connecting talents. Establishing a global network of

In addition to their salary, they receive an extra allowance equal to 100% of their salary based on the current salaryVietnamese talents, a global network of Vietnamese experts and scientists, including leading scientists of internationalcoefficient. They are also entitled to other salary allowances according to applicable laws in specific regions, industries, andstature in basic sciences, high technology, and spearhead economy; talented leaders and managers, including many

fields.

strategic-level officials; talented businessmen, including many regional businessmen; leading experts, young talents andtalented prospects in the fields of politics, economics, science-technology, culture - society and other fields.

They are considered for taking exams to higher ranks and professional titles. They are also given priority for training anddevelopment to enhance their professional qualifications, skills, and foreign language proficiency to meet the requirements of

In localities, based on the Resolution of the Provincial People’s Council, the Provincial People’s Committee has developed

their tasks and public affairs.

and promulgated many regulations on policies to attract talent. Although there are differences in the objects, scope of-Decree No. 138/2020/ND-CP dated December 1, 2020, has regulations on civil servant recruitment for excellent graduates

regulation, and policies on attraction among localities, it has also shown the interest of government at all levels and sectors inand talented young scientists; policies applicable to talented people in public service activities;

developing and promulgating policies of attraction talent in the public sector.

-

Decree No. 115/2020/ND-CP dated September 29, 2020, has regulations on admitting to work as public employees forpeople with special talents and aptitudes suitable for job positions in various fields such as culture, arts, sports, traditional---------------------------

professions;-

Resolution No. 50/NQ-CP dated April 17, 2020, of the Government, promulgating the Government’s Action Program to
implement Resolution No. 52-NQ/TW dated September 27, 2019, of the Politburo on several Guidelines and policies toproactively participate in the Fourth Industrial Revolution have identified 10 main tasks, including the tasks of developing
high-quality human resources, attracting and appreciating talents, ... meet the requirements of the Fourth Industrial
Revolution and suit Vietnam’s conditions. That is:+“Promote the development of high-quality science and technology human resources, focusing on developing a team ofexperts, leading scientists, and effective research groups to meet the requirements of the Fourth Industrial Revolution
and suitable to Vietnamese conditions”;+“Promoting international integration and cooperation in science, technology and innovation, actively attracting
participation and contributions from the community of Vietnamese scientists abroad”;+“Promote the development of human resources, especially high-quality human resources, to meet the requirements of the
Fourth Industrial Revolution and international integration. Developing a team of leading experts and scientists; focusing

172

173

THE PHILIPPINESCONTENTS
Abstract���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 176
Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 177

Modernizing the Philippine
Civil Service throughDigitalization

Brief Profile of the Civil Service������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 177
Brief Overview of Digitalization����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 179
The Development of Digitalization Roadmap in the Civil Service��������������������������������������������������������� 179
The Marcos and Aquino Administrations��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 180
The Ramos Administration���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 180
The Estrada Administration�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 180
The Arroyo Administration��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 181
The Aquino Administration��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 181
The Duterte Administration�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 182
The Marcos Administration��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 182
Current Initiatives on Digitalization by Select Government Agencies�������������������������������������������������� 183
The Supreme Court (SC) in the Philippines ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 183
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)������������������������������������������������������������ 184
Department of Finance (DOF)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 184
Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 184
Bureau of Customs (BOC)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 184
LandBank (DOF-managed bank)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 184
Department of Education������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 185
Challenges in Digitalization������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 185
Low level of development of most government websites���������������������������������������������������������������������� 185
Inadequate database management system��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 185
Human resource constraints�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 186
Physical resource constraints������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 186
Funding Constraints��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 186
Legal and regulatory change�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 186
Cybersecurity risks and citizen’ s privacy concerns����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 186
Concluding Note�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 187
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 188

Zita Concepcion P. Calugay
Assistant Professor, University of thePhilippines Diliman

174

175

Abstract

I.	 Introduction

The development of digitalization of government systems and procedures has started way back in the 1970s with the

The Philippine Civil Service Commission (CSC) is celebrating a milestone, its 123rd founding year anniversary. Establishedcreation of the National Computer Center. Since then, each administration has formulated its own digitalization roadmap,

on September 19, 1900 through Act No. 5, the Civil Service Board as it was known then was mandated to administerwith the scope and content expanding with each new roadmap. The focus of the digitalization roadmaps has evolved throughcompetitive examination as a measure of merit and fitness to applicants wanting to build a career in the civil service. Throughsuccessive roadmaps including providing the different sectors with access to information and communication technology (ICT),the years, the CSC has adopted various modern human resource techniques aimed at developing the competencies of civiltransforming the core government processes from analog to digital, promoting an inclusive, people- and development-oriented

servants, whom CSC Chairperson Karlo A. B. Nograles referred to as the “nuts and bolts that make the government machinery

environment, linking digitalization with governance, economic development, integrity and poverty alleviation, creating One

work”.

Digitized Government that cuts across sectoral themes and coordinative undertakings by different offices. The adoption of
One Digitized Government anchored on whole-of-government approach proved to be crucial at the height of the COVID-19

Currently, there are 2.8 million civil servants where 1.8 million or 62 percent are classified as career and occupying plantillapandemic especially after it was observed that the government had inadequate database that resulted in delayed distribution

positions. These are the civil servants who will carry out the digitalization roadmap laid out by each successive administration.

of urgently needed ayuda (assistance) and limited contact tracing of people who may have been exposed to COVID patients.

The digitalization roadmap in the country has evolved in terms of content and scope through time as each administration,

Government agencies which have adopted digitalization program were also found to be in different levels of progress.

building upon the previous roadmap, came out with its own expanded version. However, the onslaught of the COVID-19

Constraints like financial, human resources, physical, and regulatory affect the implementation of the digitalization roadmap

pandemic has made it perfectly clear that the lack or inadequacy of comprehensive database system causes delay, inefficiency

and until the government act upon them, our progress towards digitalization will be further delayed and leave us lagging

and ineffectiveness of government’ s response. Moreover, the increasing influence of digitalization in the global economy andbehind our more advanced neighbors in Asia.

society has put pressure on the government to hasten the adoption of digitalization roadmap.

Key Terms:digitalization, roadmap, digital transformation, One Digitized Government, whole-of-government approach

The paper is divided into parts. The first part is a brief overview of the concept and practice of digitalization. The second
part is a brief overview of civil service in the country. The third part traces the development of digitalization roadmap in thecivil service. The fourth part presents the digitalization measures/technologies adopted by select government agencies. The
fifth part discusses the challenges affecting the implementation of the digitalization roadmap.

II.	 Brief Profile of the Civil Service
Based on the official website of the Civil Service Commission (CSC), there are 2.8 million civil servants employedthroughout the country as of June 30, 2023. Of the total positions, close to two-thirds (1.8 million or 62 percent) are occupied
by career civil servants whose entry into the civil service was based on merit and fitness determined via competitive
examination or high technical qualifications. Career civil servants are appointed to plantilla/regular positions and enjoy
security of tenure (see Table 1). The remaining 38 percent of the positions are distributed between non-career positions
numbering 221,325 or eight percent, and job order/contact of service with 832,812 personnel or 30 percent. Non-career civil
servants enter the civil service based on factors other than competitive examination, for instance, being elected into office andappointment to cabinet positions. Job order refers to intermittent or emergency work not exceeding six months while contractof service refers to employment requiring special or technical skills or competencies not exceeding one year.
Table 1. Inventory of Government Human Resource by Position*
Classification of Positions*

Number

Percent Share (%)

Career

1,751,975

62.43

Non-Career

221,325

7.89

Job Order (JO)/Contract of Service (CO) 832,812

29.68

Total

100.002,806,112

As of June 30,2023

Source:Civil Service Commission(CSC)official website

176

177

A little over three-fourths of the career civil servants are assigned at the national government agencies (1.3 million or 72.95(percent) and government owned and controlled corporation (70,195 or 4.0 percent) compared with 19.48 percent or 341,213

III.	Brief Overview of Digitalization

personnel at the local government units (see Table 2).

Digitalization refers to enabling or improving processes by leveraging digital technologies and digitized data (Gupta, 2020).

Table 2. Inventory of Government Human Resource by Major Subdivision*
Major Subdivision
National Government Agency (NGA)

Percent Share (%)

analog data into digitized format including storage and transfer of digitized data (Gupta, 2020). Simply put, it transforms theold ways of doing things, for instance, using spreadsheets to prepare reports, into digital processes like automation or using
computer software to prepare reports.

1,262,336

72.05

70,195

4.01

Digitalization of processes offers certain benefits such as streamlining of processes which in turn improves efficiency andState Universities and Colleges (SUC)

60,7703.47

and generate good impression on the company. Unlike analog data, digital information can be easily stored and transferred

Local Water District (LWD)

17,461

1.00

Local Government Unit (LGU)

341,213

19.48

Total

1,751,975

100.00Government Owned and Controlled
Corporation (GOCC)*

NumberIt entails the transformation of analog processes into digital processes, thus it “presumes digitization” or the transformation of

productivity in the workplace. Efficiently streamlined processes enhance customer satisfaction, increase profit to the company
and does not a large space for storage which enables the company to save on cost.
Governments introduce digital technologies in service delivery to achieve the following:•

Better online user experiences for citizens.

•

Improved internal efficiency and productivity.

•

Increased public participation.

•

As of June 30,2023

Less burden on IT (when delivered with cloud-based technologies).

•

Source:Civil Service Commission(CSC)official website

Better collaboration among departments.

•

A large majority of the career civil servants are appointed to the 2nd level positions numbering 1.3 million or 73.48 percent

Reduced labor costs.

•

More innovation (https://granicus.com/dictionary/digital-government-services/)

while the 1st level positions are occupied by 464,691 personnel representing 26.52 of the total. The first level shall include
clerical, trades, crafts, and custodial service positions and requires sub-professional eligibility while the second level shall
include professional, technical, and scientific positions and requires professional eligibility (www.csc.gov.ph)
Table 3. Inventory of Government Human Resource by Level of Position*
Level of Position

Number

Percent Share (%)

1st Level464,691

26.52

2nd Level

1,287,284

73.48

Total

1,751,975

100.00IV.	The Development of Digitalization Roadmap in the Civil Service
The adoption of a new program or project that is introduced in an organization follows a certain gestation period totake root, develop and mature. However, the onslaught of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) globally at its peak in 20202021 undoubtedly compelled the concerned governments around the world to fast-track the adoption and implementation ofdigital transformation of their systems and processes. When affected governments imposed lockdowns to prevent the spreadof the COVID-19 virus, they needed to transition immediately from face-to-face to online platforms to hold meetings among
policymakers, implementers and partners and continue with service delivery especially those that were designed to address thehealth issues posed by the pandemic. The significant contribution of digital technology especially during the pandemic was*

not lost to civil servants who when discussing civil service reforms will certainly “will be more open to adopting technologies

As of June 30,2023

Source:Civil Service Commission(CSC)official website

to support civil service modernization activities (Kerr and Khatiwada, 2021: 3).

Almost all of the career civil servants are holding permanent positions reaching as much as 1.7 million or 98.74 percent andvery few possess temporary appointment with 21,926 or 1.25 percent of the total.

by the 21st century, the Philippines has started the digitalization program from way back in 1970 according to the Philippine

Table 4. Inventory of Government Human Resource by Status of Appointment*
Status of Appointment*

Number

Percent Share (%)

Permanent

1,729,902

98.74

Temporary

21,926

1.25

Total

1,751,975

100.00

As of June 30,2023

Source:Civil Service Commission(CSC)official website

178

Embracing the opportunities and challenges on decision- and policy-making, service delivery, customer satisfaction posed
Digital Justice System, but for Treceñe, it began in 1992. Both the Philippine Digital Justice System and Treceñe mapped out
in their respective papers the development of digitalization in the civil service through successive terms of the Philippine
Presidents. Treceñe reviewed and analyzed six strategic, namely: a) National Information Technology Plan for the 21stCentury (1997) 1992 – 1998, b) e-Philippines Strategy Government Information Systems Plan (2000) 1998 – 2001, c) Philippine
ICT roadmap 2006 – 2010, d) Philippine Digital Strategy of 2011-2016, e) Philippine e-Government Master plan of 2012, andthe current f) Philippine digital transformation strategy 2022 (2021: 1) (see Figure 1). The strategic plans focused on the
Information and Communications Technology (ICT) infrastructure development, transforming the government’ s operations
and policies online, direct digital engagement among citizens, ICT policies and laws, and bridging digital gaps (Treceñe, 2021:
1).

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This section will use both papers as references and will try to come up with a cohesive or unified discussion on thesignificant developments in the journey of digitization in the public sector.

ten years, an objective that the Plan explained was intended to strengthen the practice of good governance and transparency
in government transactions and operations. A former local chief executive himself, President Estrada made sure that the Plan
recognized the important role of the local government units in broadening the adoption of information technology to bolster
revenue collection, service delivery and entrepreneurship. Moreover, to strengthen the implementation of the Plan, the Estrada
administration was able to pass the E-Commerce Act of 2000 and establish the Information Technology and e-Commerce
Council (ITECC).
The Arroyo Administration
The ten-year administration (2001-2010) of President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo continued the government’ s journey towards
digitalization as shown by the creation of third plan referred to as the Philippine ICT roadmap 2006-2010 by the Commission
on Information and Communications Technology (CICT), the agency that replaced the ITECC. The Plan envisioned toincrease public awareness of and appreciation for ICT, encourage the private sector and various stakeholders to support
the Plan by investing in and producing ICT-related products in the short- to medium-terms, for government to lay downsustainable strategies for further developments in ICT way into the future, and increase coordination among stakeholders in
the implementation of ICT programs and projects.
To implement the roadmap, Treceñe (2021: 4-5) enumerated what he described as inclusive, people-centered andSource: UNESCAP and APCiCT, 2019:4
The Marcos and Aquino Administrations
The Philippine Digital Justice Initiative stated that the development of the digitalization program started way back during
the time of President Ferdinand Marcos, Sr. when he established the National Computer Center in 1971 and mandated it tospearhead the automation of government works. However, the formulation and implementation of policies, plans, roadmaps,
strategies started during the administration of President Corazon Aquino in 1986-1992 and continued in the succeedingadministrations. To underscore the importance of communication information and technology in the civil service, a pertinent
provision on the subject matter was included in the 1987 Philippine Constitution which states that, “The State recognizes thevital role of communication and information in nation-building” (Section 24, Article 2).
The Ramos Administration
The first national plan to map out the digital transformation in the country was called the National Information Technology
Plan for the 21st Century (1997) 1992-1998 which was formulated during the administration of President Fidel Ramos. The
Plan had two major objectives, namely, “(1) to provide access to Information Technology (IT) to every business, government
agency, school, and residences in the Philippines by the year 2000 and (2) for the Philippines to become the Knowledge
Centre of Asia by 2010” (National Information Technology Council (NITC, 1997 in Philippine Digital Justice System, 2021: 9).
The other objectives of the Plan included streamlining of government work processes and promotion of a strong economy. To
achieve these goals, the government needed to set up a nationwide information infrastructure highway to boost the internet
connectivity, create a conducive policy environment by passing national laws and issuance of national policies as necessary,
introduce institutional reforms, develop IT-savvy manpower, and encourage the business sector to produce IT related products.
The Estrada Administration
The second national plan called the e-Philippines Strategy Government Information Systems Plan (2000) 1998 – 2001) was
prepared by the National Information Technology Council (NITC) during the administration of President Joseh Estrada.
According to the Plan, the government envisioned to transform the core government processes from analog to digital in five to180development-oriented ICT programs and projects as follows: (1) Community e-Center Program (CeC) designed to increase
community access to online services and provide training to key implementors to sustain the management and operation of
the program; (2) Internet in Schools (iSchools) intended to distribute to internet-capable computers to public high schools,
conduct of educator’ s training, and provide technical, monitoring and evaluation support during its implementation; (3)eCare centers meant to provide training and online access to Persons with Disabilities (PWDs); (4) eLGU CeCs conceived toboost ICT education of the youth and in turn spur regional development; press improve online access and promote efficient
service delivery at the local level; (5) Regional ICT Centers devised to push for regional development; and (6) National
Broadband Plan to boost bandwidth capacity to develop ICT. Moreover, the Arroyo administration used the proliferation of
the ICT platform to encourage and develop the Business Process Outsourcing.
In addition to ICT programs and projects, the plan identified key pieces of legislation requiring Congressional approval
as follows: (1) creation of the Department of Information and Communications Technology (DICT), (2) transforming the
National Telecommunication Commission (NTC) into a politically independent regulatory body, (3) passing a Republic Act on
privacy and data protection, cybercrime bill, and the freedom of information law (Treceñe (2021: 5).
The Aquino Administration
The fourth plan called the Philippine Digital Strategy (PDS) for 2011 to 2016 was drawn up again by the CICT during
the administration of President Benigno Aquino III (2010-2016). Compared with the three previous plans, this was morecomprehensive in scope largely due to the fact that ICT through the years had increasingly influenced almost if not all aspectsof the economy and society. Specifically, the Plan envisioned to apply ICT in key areas of governance, economy, people
empowerment, anti-corruption measures, and poverty alleviation with the end in view of transforming the Philippine economy
as a competitive force in the global digital arena in 2016.
The PDS, also dubbed as the E-government Master Plan, was implemented by select government agencies headed by
the Department of Science and Technology, and participated in by the National Economic and Development Authority,
Department of Information and Communication Technology, and Department of Budget and Management. Still, under thesame Plan, the flagship project under the DOST named Integrated Government Philippines (iGovPhil) (was formed) to betterinterconnect government agencies to improve online coordination and government services, thus revamping the quality of
governance and citizen participation (DICT & DOST, n.d in Philippine Digital Justice System, 2021: 10).
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Complementing the Philippine Digital Strategy (PDS) for 2011 to 2016 was the Philippine e-Government Master Plan of

The realization of the vision of Ambisyon Natin 2040 rests to a large extent on the efficiency, effectiveness, competence

2012 which was implemented during the remaining four years of the Aquino administration. The main objective of the Masterand integrity of the civil service and digital transformation of government systems and procedures, service delivery, financing

Plan was to formulate and implement e-Government policies in 15 identified projects as follows: “strengthening e-Governmentand budgeting. The Philippine Development Plan 2023-2028 devoted a section on “accelerating digital transformation insecurity, development of an electronic document and archiving system, government portal, enhancement of government

government” and it states that (p. 344):

information network, establishing the e-Community center, national disaster, and safety management system, automation ofbusiness activities, IT governance development, creation of government integrated data center, construction of the national

To accelerate digital transformation, the government will strengthen its legal and institutional framework;

database, government for the foreign system, the WORK NET, government e-Procurement Services, electronic agriculture

adopt paperless, cashless, and data-empowered transactions at all levels; and develop civil service capacity

systems, and the government enterprise architecture (Treceñe, 2021: 6).

for implementation. To this end, the government will pass an e-Governance law to establish an integrated,interconnected, and interoperable information, resource sharing, and communications network to deliver public

The Duterte Administration

services. Building up to the legislative reform, the government will ensure the effective implementation ofpolicies and programs such as the adoption of digital payments for government disbursements and collections,

The sixth plan called the Philippine Digital Transformation Strategy 2022 (PDS 2022) or E-Government Master Plan 2022

DICT’ s E-Government Masterplan 2022 on digitalization of frontline government transactions and administrative(2016-2022) (EGMP 2022) was prepared by the then newly created Department of the Information and Communication (DICT)

functions, DBM’ s Budget and Treasury Management System, the Philippine Business Hub, DICT’s Integrated

in 2016 during the administration of President Rodrigo Duterte. The PDTS 2022 It envisioned to promote One DigitizedBusiness Permits and Licensing System with LGUs, and the integration of government services into the Philippine

Government anchored on the adoption of whole-of-government approach for services that cut across themes and needed to be

Identification System.

performed in simultaneous and coordinated manner by different government agencies and which was made possible throughthe application of digital technology.

The presentation of Civil Service Commissioner Aileen Lourdes Lizada on The Future of Civil Service: The Philippine
Country Paper Presentation during the 2023 ACCSM+3 International Symposium with the theme “The Future of Civil

The Plan was based on the 2015 ASEAN ICT Master Plan of 2015 (AIM 2015) where it is anchored on the three pillars

Service” in Tokyo, Japan on 27 September 2023 gave us a preview on the implementation strategies on digital transformationand foundations, namely the economic transformation, people engagement, and innovation, and the foundations arebeing adopted right in the Civil Service Commission (CSC). This section summarized the key points discussed in theinfrastructures development, human capital development, bridging the digital divide (Treceñe (2021: 6). Specifically for thepresentation of Commission Lizada.

country, the planned digitalization or otherwise dubbed as e-government aimed to promote “transparency and accountability
in governance, efficiency, dexterity in the operations, direct citizen engagement, and a platform for innovation” (Treceñe (2021:

As the primary personnel agency in the public sector, the CSC has the mandate to increase capability and upgrade

6). Moreover, the Plan identified the different platforms by which digital transformation would be applied such as the “social

competency of civil servants. However, the COVID-19 pandemic brought about profound changes and challenges in theweb, user-generated content, the delivery and use of open data, and network effects through more user engagement” (Boughzala,

workplace that the CSC had to introduce several alternative work strategies including “flexible working arrangements, hybrid

Janssen & Assar, 2015 as cited by DICT, 2019 in (Treceñe (2021: 6).

work, virtual communication, learning and development interventions, and delivery of services” . The CSC, in particular,
has adopted four priority digitalization programs, namely, “online examinations, appointment processing, learning andComplementing the PDS 2022 or EGMP 2022 was the E-Commerce 5-Year Roadmap 2016- 2020 which according to thedevelopment, and administrative and quasi-judicial system”. In this year’ s civil service eligibility examination, it was evident

Philippine Digital Justice System focused on selected sectors of the service industry, namely,” wholesale and retail trade,that the examinees still preferred to take the pen-and-paper test (PPT) who numbered 650,000 compared with 12,000 who

accommodation and food services, and education” (2021: 8). A group of government agencies composed of the Department

took the Computer Examination (COMEX) showing a ratio of 1 COMEX examinee to 65 PPT examinee. Certainly, theof Trade and Industry (DTI) as designated head and participated in by the Department of Science and Technology (DOST)

conduct of PPT poses some challenges such as the need for a large number of testing venues, limited number of examination

and Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) was assigned to develop the digitalization roadmap of the wholesale and retail trade,

proctors and administrators, examination processes and limitations in resources and infrastructures. Given the lopsided ratio,

accommodation and food services sector specifically in the key areas of “infrastructure, investment, innovation, intellectual

the CSC is planning to review the policies and practices related to the conduct of examinations in the near future.

capital, information flows, and integration” (Philippine Digital Justice System, 2021: 8). On other hand, the development of
the digitalization roadmap of the education sector also known as the ICT Information System Roadmap was spearheaded by
the Department of Education in 2018-2020. The digitalization roadmap in the education sector focused in the key areas of“teaching and learning, communication, governance planning, and decision-making, and process and operations” (Abanil, n.d.
in Philippine Digital Justice System, 2021: 8) with one anticipated output among others, that is, the gamification of education
to help the teachers/educators. improve their pedagogy.
The Marcos Administration
The digital transformation framework of the administration of President Ferdinand Marcos, Jr. as anchored on the vision ofAmbisyon Natin 2040, a 25-year development plan spanning four administrations. The vision of Ambisyon Natin 2040 states
that:
By 2040, the Philippines is a prosperous middle class society where no one is poor. People live long and healthy

lives and are smart and innovative. The country is a high-trust society where families thrive in vibrant, culturally
diverse, and resilient communities.
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V.	 Current Initiatives on Digitalization by Select Government Agencies
This section discusses in brief the current initiatives undertaken by select government agencies on digitalization.
The Supreme Court (SC) in the Philippines
The Supreme Court’ s digital transformation strategy basically aims to enable the clients to gain equal access to the justicesystem by promoting efficient court services, decreased processing and resolution period, and increased collaboration injustice administration. Towards this end, the SC has adopted various information and communication strategies including
the “use of artificial intelligence for legal research and other court activities, creation of a judiciary e-library, development
and deployment of ecourt system version 2.0, and Development of an online learning platform for the Philippine judiciary”(Linkedin, 2022). The implementation of the digitized programs would require rational, stable and systematic guidance which
would be provided through the creation of the documents as shown below (Linkedin, 2022).
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•

Create the Framework for Judiciary Enterprise ICT Governance;

trustworthy data to enhance decision-making processes. Some of its digitized processes include the Digital OnBoarding•

Create a 5-Year ICT Strategic Plan;

System (DOBS) which allows opening of savings account as well as combining and automating multiple accounts via online,•

Create a manual for judicial MIS operations; andand maintaining online payment platforms. Its future plans include transforming its subsidiary bank, the Overseas Filipino•

Create Judiciary Network Infrastructure

Bank, into a paperless and branchless bank that will serve the interests of the overseas Filipino workers and their families.

Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)

Department of Education

The Department of Environment and Natural Resources is currently transitioning from paper-based government transaction

In 2022, the Department of Education announced that it would implement the Digital Rise Program the following year.

systems and procedures to digital format to improve interconnectivity of data and information between the central and

The Program is “an educational framework focusing on infrastructure, software, and the capacity building of learners andregional offices, enhance service delivery and decision-making processes, and facilitate data collection needed for inspection,

instructors in technology” (Linkedin, 2022). It has three components as shown below.

tracking, monitoring and recording.
•
Department of Finance (DOF)

Digital Literacy curricula intends to incorporate productivity tools for Grades 4-6 students, fundamental programmingskills for Grade 7 students, multimedia concepts, video editing and graphics design to Grades 8-10 students, andoccupational computer skills to senior high school students;

Even before the pandemic, the Department of Finance has already embarked on the digitalization program. Considered•

as having one of the most aggressive digital transformation initiatives among government agencies, the DOF’ s efforts has
already borne favorable results such as increased revenue collection, improved service delivery, for instance, in online trading
and approving tax exemptions, modernized governance strategies, decreased corruption, and strengthened oversight andICT Assisted Teaching intends to give instructors equipment, software material, and abilities for everyday classroom
instruction;•

ICT Assisted Learning intends to provide access and adaptation using the DepEd Learning Management System (DLMS)
and synchronous blended learning (Linkedin, 2022).

policymaking procedures.
To complement the DepEd’ s initiatives, the Senate is trying to fast-track the passage of two bills. One is Republic Act
Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR)

No. 10929 or the "Free Internet Access in Public Places Act," Another is Senate Bill No. 1565 or the Education in the New
Normal Act which supports the creation of a Safe Schools Reopening Plan or the immediate shift from face-to-face to distance

The Bureau of Internal Revenue is an attached agency of the DOF. Earlier it has embarked on a 10-year Digitallearning during emergencies.

Transformation (10X) Roadmap consisting of "improving the taxpayer experience and innovating BIR service processes,
improving administration and the BIR's support services, aligning policies to a BIR digital workplace, and enabling the digitalbackbone of the Bureau” . As of 2021, 19 out of 49 initiatives have already been implemented and one of the notable results
was the significant increase in the e-submission of tax documents and e-collection of tax payments. Other digitalization
initiatives are already in the pipeline as follows:•

E-Appointment•

Tax Clearance for Bidding Purposes (TCBP) and Tax Compliance Verification Certificate (TCVC) Online Applications•

Online Survey Feedback System•

Special Types of Registration•

The TIN Verifier Mobile Application (TIN)•

Asset Information Management Program (AIMP) Phase 2•

Electronic One-Time Transaction System (eONETT System) (Linkedin, 2022).

Bureau of Customs (BOC)
The Bureau of Customs is another government agency attached to the DOF. It claims to have digitized 155 out of 170
processes with a rating of 91 percent. The results were enhanced trade facilitation and transparent service delivery. A recipientof loan assistance from the World Bank, the BOC is planning to digitize the remaining nine percent of its processes by next
year. It has recently completed the national action plan to conduct borderless trading purely online and is set to implement it
next year.
LandBank (DOF-managed bank)
Landbank’ s digital transformation objectives include streamlining the processes in the grant of financial aid and generating
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VI.	Challenges in Digitalization
Low level of development of most government websites
The government agency’ s official website provides a basic platform by which it can adopt ICT initiatives to serve its public
efficiently, effectively and responsively. Likewise, the information and services it offers serves as a link with fellow government
agencies, development, business and industry partners, and constituents/public. However, a study conducted by Khalid andLavilles (2019) and cited by the Philippine Digital Justice System showed that majority of government websites in the country
were classified as either in Stage 1 and 2 based on the Four-Stage model developed by the United Nations. According to thematurity level used by the research, the first stage is when the government website is capable of providing basic government
information and direct users to other websites, while the second stage refers to websites that can provide one-way or two-way
simple communication for citizens--such as downloading forms or applications-- and has a multiple language feature on its
integrated media (Khalid and Lavilles 2019 in Philippine Digital Justice System, 2021: 22). The low level of development of agovernment website implies that the transacting public needs to visit physically concerned government agencies for most of its
transactions. This further implies that the transacting public may endure long hours in the government office if the volume oftransactions is quite heavy, or repeated visits if the transaction cannot be completed in one day. When the transacting public
feels too much inconvenience, it may resort to fixing thus making the entire process vulnerable to corruption.
Inadequate database management system
The repercussion of inadequate database management system was made painfully clear during the height of the pandemic
when the Listahan consisting of a list of poor families receiving monthly financial assistance through the Pilipinong Pamilya
Pantawid Program (4Ps or Conditional Cash Transfer) was found inadequate to fully account the actual and much larger
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number of poor families in the barangays or communities. As a result, the distribution of urgently needed financial assistancestaff to access, process and analyze the data prior to making policy decisions, but on the other hand, renders them vulnerable

to families not included in the Listahan was delayed and the government received so much flak for it. Even until Octoberto hacking and cybersecurity theft unless adequate protection measures are in place. The hacking of the official websites ofof 2020, some recipients amounting to 1,260,119 were unable to receive the 2nd half of the cash assistance under the Social

three government agencies such as the Philippine Health Insurance Corporation (PhilHealth), Philippine Statistics Authority

Amelioration Program (SAP) (Luci-Atienza, 2020 in Philippine Digital Justice System, 2021: 22). Another example cited by(PSA) and Philippine Houe of Representatives in September and October 2023 raised doubt on the capacity of government

the Philippine Digital Justice System was the inability of most local government units to conduct effective contact tracing ofagencies in general to protect the data stored in their respective databases. This calls for government to invest in potent

people who may have been exposed to covid patients. As of July 30, 2020, only 0.68 out of 600 local government units surveyedcybersecurity programs to protect the integrity of digitized data and maintain the trust of the people. On the other hand,

had a “relatively good” contact tracing system, with an average of eight contacts per patient being able to be traced by thecybersecurity programs are expensive and may compete with other development priorities of government.

local contact tracing team (Gonzales, 2020 in Philippine Digital Justice System, 2021: 23).
The Organization of Economic Cooperation Countries (OECD) identified a number of constraints to digitization including
human resource, physical, funding, and other challenges such as legal and regulatory change, cybersecurity risks, and citizen’ s
privacy concerns (https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/822c0d6e-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/822c0d6e-en).
Human resource constraints
Scarcity in relevant ICT competencies, skills and talents may lead to agencies not having strategic digitalization plans,concentration of experts in the urban areas where pay is better to the detriment of rural or low income local government,
limited ICT training especially to non-experts in the organization due to high cost of training, and non-readiness of the
public to access services online. When the latter happens, the OECD cautions government agencies to adapt the digitization
program to the level of readiness of the public so as not to ease them out further access to services.

VII.	 Concluding Note
The implementation of the digitalization roadmap in the country has gone for more than four decades. Various laws andnational policies have been issued providing an enabling environment for the digitalization to push through. The occurrenceof the COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent enforcement of lockdowns have compelled government agencies to transition
immediately from face-to-face to purely online to continue the delivery of services. They have also enhanced their ICTs not
only to widen their online services but also to improve seamless and efficient delivery of online services and in turn increasecustomer satisfaction. On the other hand, the observation that most government websites which serves as a link between
the government and clients, remains at Stage 2 and coupled with other challenges related to human resource, physical,
funding resources, among others, limit the extent by which the clients can avail of online services. The civil service has madesignificant headways in the digitalization of government services but a lot more has yet to be accomplished.

Physical resource constraints
Lack of physical resources in digitalization program refers to the lack of ICT infrastructure highway through which theinternet connectivity may be provided. A related issue is the prevalence of inadequate, unreliable and intermittent internet
connectivity which disrupts office work, business meetings, classroom teaching, research, training, and the like. In thesouthern pat of the country, the lack or inadequate internet connectivity is exacerbated by intermittent and at time long hoursof lack of power supply.
Funding Constraints
Generating funding support for digitalization in a low middle income country like the Philippines is always a challenge
as the required resource will compete with other development priorities for approval and allocation. The political leadershipmust be convinced that the cost required for the establishment, maintenance, upgrading of software program and training ofconcerned staff may be more than recovered by the benefits.
Legal and regulatory change
Effective and successful implementation of digitization requires a conducive enabling environment provided by the passage
of appropriate laws and/or amendments of obsolete or unresponsive laws by Congress. However, just like in seeking funding
support, generating the legislative support is like competing for approval vis-à-vis legislative priorities of the members of thelegislative body.
Cybersecurity risks and citizen’ s privacy concerns
Cybersecurity risk is a serious threat to digitization program and if not addressed by government adequately may fuelapprehension and dissipate support and trust of the public. Even economically advanced countries are not exempt fromhacking and cybersecurity theft. Generating and storing data in one platform makes it easy for policymakers and technical
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