The Winnersof the Blue
1996

PlanetPrize

1996Blue

PlanetDr. Wallace S. Broecker(U.S.A.)
NewberryProfessor

University,

Lamont-Dohertyof Geology

at Columbia

Prize
The M.S. Swaminathan
Research Foundation (MSSRF)(Established in India)

Earth Observatory

Excerpts from a book of stories and pictures by children from around the world
formed the basis of the 1996 awards
ceremony slide presentation. The issuesof humankind
versus nature and of civilization coming to terms with environmental
problems
were put in clear

focus by the messages from the children to adults about
how they want the
Earth to be left for
future generations.

205

Professor
KenichiFukui,
Nobel laureate and a councillor of the Asahi GlassFoundation,
gets the party
started with a toast.

The awards
ceremonyisopened by Jiro Furumoto,chairman of the Asahi GlassFoundation.

His Highness
Prince Akishinoand HerHighness Princess Kiko congratulatethelaureates.

Dr. Swaminathan
participatesina follow-up
discussion
after
delivering his lecture on sustainable development.
Prior to the awards ceremony, the award recipients areinterviewed by members of the press. From right to left:
Dr. Swaminathan;Dr. Broecker;
Jiro Furumoto;
and
Osamu

Shiragami.

Walter F. Mondale (left), ambassador of the UnitedStates of America to Japan, and Kuldip Sandev,
ambassador of India to Japan, address the audienceat the awards ceremony.

206

During his
lectures,Dr. Broecker
explains his
theory of theocean's
circulation
system.

Profile

Dr. Wallace
NewberryProfessor

Educationof Geology

and Academic

andS. Broecker

at Columbia

University,

Professional

Activities

Lamont-Doherty

Earth

Observatory

1996

Received B.A. from Columbia College of Columbia University
Earned doctorate degree from Columbia University
Became assistant professor at Columbia University
Became associate professor at Columbia University
Became full professor at Columbia University
Named the Newberry Professor of Geology, Columbia University
Elected to the National Academy of Sciences (U.S.A.); Elected chairman of the
Geochemical Society (U.S.A.)
Maurice W. Ewing Medal of the American Geophysical Union
Alexander Agassiz Medal of the National Academy of Sciences;
Urey Medal of the European Geophysical Union;
U.M. Goldschmidt Award, Geochemical Society
Vetlesen Prize, G. Unger Vetlesen Foundation
Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society of London
Roger Revelle Medal of the American Geophysical Union
National Medal of Science

Through

his systematic

1953
1958
1959
1961
1964
1977
1979

1986

1987
1990
1995

contributed

the importanceextendingcalledof the "greatfrom the North

Broecker'sof measurements

deep watersof the ocean

circulatebelt,"

a global

and circulating
the importanceIn addition,and its isotopes,in the oceans.
oceanthroughcurrenthowcycle.

chemicalmethods

the atmosphereand the ocean,

Broeckera methodallowing

and isotopic

the first to recognizeof analyzing

the rate of mixingthat envelops
and Pacificof this phenomenon
he clarified

Oftenclimatewatersto determine

the rate of gas

the rate of fossilof the global
water

the Earth,oceans.

to the Earth's

permittingof oceanhas

the surface

the significancesamplesDr. Broecker

In the 1980s, he elucidated

the Indianin a millennia-duration

Among

devisedBelt,of carbon

cyclesalso pioneered

to be calculated.

surements,

conveyor

by Dr. Broecker.

Dr. Broecker
betweenof chemical

Atlantic

Conveyor

was first recognizedexchange

analysisto the understandingby usingof fossil fuel CO2 into the bodyand thefuel CO2 uptake
carboncycle,

radiocarbon

Dr.
mea-

of the ocean

to be ana-

has offered

his ideas

lyzed.
In his capacities
and guidanceas teacher

to hundreds

and pioneeringof scientists

greenhousegases as "playing
Russiansound the alarm on global warming.

aroundroulette

researcher,
the world.

Dr. Broecker

Describingwith the climate,"humankind's

emissionof

he was among

the first

to207

EssayOur

Burdenof Responsibility

Dr. Wallace
April

S. Broecker
1997

Our Blue Planet is entering what promises to be its most critical century. So far, our planet has
been largely in the grip of natural forces which have governed for 4.5 billion years. Ready ornot, management of the planet is falling into our own hands and, unfortunately, we are more
prone to be plunderers than stewards. Further, we have yet to stem the alarming population
increases which threaten to outstrip the planet's capacity for food production.
Were our galaxy endowed with Eternal Observers, their attention would certainly befocused on our beautiful Blue Planet. Having witnessed newly emerged intelligent beings takethe reins on other planets, these Observers would debate whether or not we could pull off thiscritical transition with only minimal damage. Or, like so many others in the galactic past,would we botch the job. Would scores of species vanish? Would radioactive contamination
threaten those which survived? Would the lands be scarred, the oceans polluted, and thesmoothly running geochemical cycles upset? Past observationsby the Observers revealed that
only in rare cases were the inhabitants able to put aside their tribalism; control their burgeoning numbers; and establish a harmonious relationship with fellow organisms. Our hypothetical Observers would note that this poor success record was directly attributable to rapidly
accelerating population growth. In order to keep pace with the exponential increase in their
numbers, attention would have been riveted on satisfying their immediately needs. Long-termplanning would fall victim to expedience, dogma, and greed.
It appears that our Blue Planet is proving no exception to this dire scenario. We haveachieved the ability to eliminate other mammals with whom we once competed for survival.
We've learned to annihilate our enemies with nuclear bombs; despoil our forests; harness ourmost awesomerivers; and squander the planet's once vastreserves of fuel, minerals, and water.
As a consequence of these ravages, our atmosphereis being loaded with greenhouse gases andour soils with poisons. Even though aware of the lasting damage our activities can cause ourplanet, as push comes to shove, we allow more immediate problems to divert our attention.
Unfortunately, the long-term solutions prove to be in direct conflict with short-term needs.
I consider population growth to be by far the most important issue confronting us.
Whether the threat is compromised climate due to excess atmospheric CO2 or a global social
order severely strainedby hunger and overcrowding,the situationescalates exponentially with
the number of people on the planet. At present, the "good life" requires enormous energy consumption.Nearly all this energy is currentlyderived from fossil fuels. Roughly half of the CO2
we generate over the next century by burning these fuels will remain in the atmosphere. Since
numerous uncertainties still plague our climate models, we cannot adequately predict the con-208

sequences of adding this CO2 to the atmosphere. While I am expert only in the area of climatology, my layman's knowledge of the problems created by hunger and overcrowding tells methat their consequences could easily dwarf even those created by climate change.
I usually consider myself a bubbling optimist, but when it comes to assessing our Blue
Planet's future, pessimism sets in. Much like doctors opting to treat serious illnesses with
Band-Aids and sugar pills, we are proposing solutions which fail to address the root cause of
the problem. It is futile to point fingers of blame for we all share responsibility for painting ourselves into a very small corner. Attaining and preserving human dignity should be foremost in
the minds of all people and, ironically, it is this same exemplary objective which inhibits theability to stem population growth, energy use, and the exploitation of natural habitats. Indeed,
it propels us toward even more growth in every sector.
While the burden of guilt must be shared by all, in some areas charges can be leveled at
extreme offenders. The United States, for example, uses far more energy than necessary. We
acknowledge this, but our political leaders are afraid to implement the sizable energy tax
required to bring the usage under control. The Vatican hierarchy doggedly maintains its archaic
position on birth control. Japan looks aside while its companies buy wood and hence destroy
forests around the world. China allows military hardware to be exported to warring nations.
And there is the fear that profiteering Russians engage in the sale of plutonium to terrorist organizations.
A perfect example of our Band-Aid and sugar pill approach is the 1991 Rio Accord on
CO2 emissions. Even if implemented and rigorously adhered to, it constitutes only a 20%
solution. Without this agreement, the CO2 content of the atmosphere would reach perhaps 700
ppm by the year 2100. With it, the rise would be held to about 560 ppm (i.e., 20% lower).
While this reduction would ease the threat to climate, it would by no stretch of the imagination solve the problem. Further, were the Clinton administration to propose adherence to the
Rio plan, Congress would surely balk. And if it were implemented, the American people
would likely express their heated discontent at the ballot box.
No, I am afraid that our ever more democratic world is incapable of exerting the strict
discipline necessary if we are to move with sufficient speed to quell the dangerous spiral ofgrowth. Further, even if a benevolent global planning authority were created, its chances of survival would be slim indeed.
What will happen? Likely we will keep our heads in the sand hoping that the transition
will be accomplished with only minor damage and pain. Surely there is a fair possibility thatsuch a scenario will come to pass. But we indulge in a dangerous game. In the United States
we call it Russian Roulette. It could go very wrong.
What would it take to reduce the extent of my pessimism? The answer is, a series ofincredible actions by powerful people. For example, what if the Pope were to announce that
he had received a clear directive from on high that immediate measures be put into placedesigned to reduce the global birthrate. Or, were Albert Gore to become President of theUnited States and declare that his administration would enact very tough policies directed
toward remedying the dire environmental problems outlined in his book, Earth in the Balance.
Or were Microsoft's Bill Gates to allocate 95% of his enormous income to help educate

209Africa's

poor?

try would

Or were a future

pay developing

prime

ministerof Japanto announce

that henceforthcountries

more

to save their trees than they would

as we are being

forcedto take the reins

receive

his counby sellingthem.
Put simply,
ourselves
brink

210

to turn to. The Blue Planet's

and we mustnow

take the helm,

message
acceptingof our planet's

future,we have only

to us is unequivocal:

we are forcing

the sacrifices

to insurerequiredit to theits future.

Lecture

Will

Our

Ride

into

the Greenhousea SmoothDr. Wallace

FutureBe

One?
S. Broecker(As submitted to GSA TODAY)
Revised February 1997

Abstract
The climate record kept in ice and in sediment reveals that since the invention of agriculturesome 8,000 years ago, climate has remained remarkably stable. By contrast, during the preceding 100,000 years, climate underwent frequent, very large and often extremely abrupt
shifts. Furthermore, these shifts occurred in lock step across the globe. They seem to be telling
us that the Earth's climate system has several distinct and quite different modes of operationand that it can jump from one of these modes to another in a matter of a decade or two. So far,
we know of only one element of the climate system which has multiple modes of operation,
namely,the oceans' thermohaline circulation.Numerous model simulationsreveal that this circulation is quite sensitive to the fresh water budget in the high latitude regions where deep
waters form. Perhaps the mode shifts revealed in the climate record were initiated in the sea.
This discovery complicates predictions of the consequences of the ongoing buildup of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. If the major climate changes of glacial time came as theresult of mode shifts, can we be certain that the warming will proceed smoothly? Or is it possible that 100 or so years from now, when our ancestors struggle to feed the 15 or so billion
Earth inhabitants, that climate will jump to another of its states. It is difficult to comprehend
the misery which would follow on the heels of such an event!
The debate regarding the eventual consequences of the ongoing buildup of greenhousegases in the atmosphereconcerns the magnitude of the coming changes. Most atmospheric scientists agree that the warming during the coming century will be sufficientlylarge to pose serious difficulties.But, because to date the warming has been smaller than predicted by most general circulation models, a vocal minority pooh-pooh this supposed threat. On the other hand,little debate has occurred regarding the shape of the path climate will follow as CO2and otherinfrared-absorbinggases build up in our atmosphere. Whether large or small, nearly everyone
assumes that the warming will be a smooth climb with climate keeping pace with the everincreasing strength of the greenhouse blanket. But will it? Certainly the Earth's climate system
has proven beyond any doubt that it is capable of undergoing abrupt jumps from one state ofoperation to another.Can we be sure that it won't respond to our push by lurching into anotherof its operational modes?

211

Figure 1 Oxygen isotope ratio record in ice from a three-kilometer-long core taken by the European GRIP groupat the Summit site in central Greenland (Dansgaard et al., 1993). This ratio is related to air temperature; the greater
the depletion in the heavy isotope the colder the temperature. Based on the measurements of temperature in the borehole, it has been possible to demonstrate that the mean air temperature in Greenland must have been 16 °C colder
during glacial time than during the present interglacial (Cuffeyet al., 1995). The time scale was obtained by counting annual couplets in the ice (Meese et al., 1994). Note that only during the last 10,000years has Greenland's air
temperature remained nearly constant. By contrast during the last ice age and during the latter portion of the lastinterglacial,large and rapid shifts occurred. Greenland's air temperatures never paused at a single value for morethan 1,000 years.
The electrical conductivity of Greenland ice is set by the amount of acid present. Measurements made on the GISP
ice core (a duplication of the GRIP core 40 kilometers away) reveals that during the very cold intervals the electrical conductivity fell to near zero values (Tayloret al., 1993). The reason is that the rain of CaCO3 contained in thewind-blown dust exceeded the amount required to neutralize the acid fallout. Because electrical conductivity canbe measured continuously by scratching the ice with a pair of sharp electrodes, a very detailed record was obtained.
As shown here, this record reveals that the transitions between climate states were extremely abrupt, being completed in a few decades. Furthermore during this brief transition period, the input of dust (and presumably also
global climate) flickeredon the time scale of just a few years.
The rapidly accumulating (1 m/103 years) sediments in the Santa Barbara basin record each of the so-called
Dansgaard-Oeschger events seen in the Greenland ice core record. Behl and Kennett (1996) established this basedon the alternation between sections with and without annual laminations. The laminated sections represent times
when the pore waters in the sediment were anaerobic, preventing burrowing by bottom dwelling worms. The
absence of laminations in the intervening sections reflects times when the pore waters were oxygenated, allowing
burrowers to thoroughly stir the sediment.The alternations match almost perfectly the alternations in Greenland airtemperature. During very cold intervals, such as the Younger Dryas, waters rich in 02 must have descended into theNorth Pacific's thermocline. As today's surface waters of the northern Pacific are too low in salt content to permit
direct ventilation of deeper portions of the thermocline, these alternationssuggest major changes in the salinity distribution in this region of our planet.

A Message from Greenland
A clear demonstrationthat the climate system can jump from one state to another comes froma record kept in Greenland ice (see Fig. 1). European and American teams have drilled throughthe entire thickness of the Greenland ice cap. The most recent and best documented of theserecords is a pair of three-kilometer-long ice cores from right on the summit of Greenland.
These cores provide not only a record of climate in Greenland but also implications regarding
climate in other places on the globe that extend back 110,000 years before the present. As precise counting of individual couplets of winter and summer snow extends back to at least 45,000
years, little question exists regarding the chronology of this ice core (Meese et al., 1994).
The isotopiccomposition of this ice is related to the air temperature over Greenland. For
the last 10,000 years, Greenland has enjoyed, at least compared to the previous 100,000 years,
a very stable climate. There was one cold blip 8,000 years ago; but other than that its climate
has remained pretty much unchanged. But prior to 10,000 years ago, the climate leaped backand forth between states of intermediatecold and extreme cold.The median temperature at thissite during the ice age has now been well established through thermal profiles in the ice itself
to have been on the average 16 °C colder than during the last 10,000 years (Cuffey et al.,1995).
Further, during the last five years, evidence from a variety of investigationshas clearly
demonstrated that these changes were not confined to Greenland; rather, they were global!
Before reviewing the evidence for these far-reaching impacts, let us consider the rapidity ofthese changes. This is best done by focusing on the last warming, i.e., that which ushered in
the present interglacial. Shown in Fig. 1 are blow-ups of measurements of the electrical con-

212

8

GREENLANDTEMPERATURESANTA BARBARA
BASIN 02

COLDER WARMER

LOWER HIGHER

ELEC.
CURRENTELEC.
CURRENT

HEAVY

LIGHT

11,600

H2O

H2O
20 °C

IN ICE

11,620
UI
cc

10

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20

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11,640,v) 2040

w

11,660

LAST
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cc)

11,680

CoCO3DUST
O.!

CoCO3

80

0cn 40YRS AGOACID
DUSTh""';;:::;;'„Ve11:;:aLAST
INTERGL

100

50

Y.D.= YOUNGER DRYASCOLD PERIOD•ne

COLDERVg'ff!ai ip

WARMER

,

60
SANTA
WATER
WARMER

FigureBARBARATEMP.
COLDER

1

Figure 2 The great ocean conveyor carries warm water to the region around
Iceland where cooling by cold Canadian
air masses densifies the water, allowing it
to sink to the bottom forming a southward-moving water mass. The flux ofwater (20 million cubic meters per second) matches that of 100 Amazon rivers
and is equal to the flux of global rainfall.
So immense is the heat released to theatmosphere that it maintains northern
Europe 5°C to 10°C warmer than it
would be were the conveyor to shut
down.

6-*

II,

SeAir
Transfer

Figure 3 The highest mountains at all8000
latitudes along the cordilleraof theTODAY'SNSSNOWLINE
Americas are currently capped by glaci6000
ers. At elevations
above the 0°C
isotherm, more snow accumulates thanF.4000F.
melts (or evaporates).
The solid line
shows how the elevation marking thew 2000lower boundary of net accumulation
GLACIAL•varies with latitude. Reconstructions
SNOWLINE
0based on geomorphic
evidence (see
90°
60°
30°
0°
30°
60°
90°
dashed line) show that during times of
LATITUDE
peak glacial cooling the snowline onthese mountains descended almost one
kilometer. Combined with oxygen isotope composition of glacial age ice recovered by Thompson et al. (1995)
from 6 km elevation on the tropical Andean mountain, Huascaran, this lowering suggests not only colder, butalso drier conditions in the tropics during glacial time.

213

Figure 4 A possible causal chain leading
to the global climate change is as follows.
A sizable reduction in the strength of theAtlantic's
conveyor
had repercussions
throughout
the ocean.
Includedwerechanges in operation of the upper ocean asrecorded in the Santa Barbara basin. One
impact of these changes may well havebeen an increasein the strengthofupwellingin the east equatorial
Pacific.
We know from studies of the El Nifio periods that changes in upwelling have wide
repercussions
in the tropical atmosphere.
I

SANTA
BARBARA P
BASIN
THERMOCLINEVENTILATIONN,CONVEYORSTRENGTH

TROPICAL ATM
CONVECTIONUPW ELIHUASCARAN
GLACIER=dr'
SOUIHERNOCEANRESPONSE

proposethat,
somehow,
the ocean
upwelling change led to a reduction in the rate of delivery by tropical convection of water vapor to the atmosph ere.
As water vapor is the Earth's dominant greenhouse gas, this reduction would cool the Earth.

15

15
CONTINUEDGROWTH AT
I.75%/YR

z
0
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POPULATION

DE JANEIRO

5

Figure 5 Population is currently increasing at the rate of 1.75% per year. While
this rate is projected
to gradually
decrease, by the middle of the next century population will reach somewhere
between 10 and 15 billion. Despite adesire to hold CO2 production from fossil fuel burning to the 1990 level, thedemand for energy is bound to rise as thenumber of people rises. It will likely
reach at least 7.5 gigatons of carbon peryear by the mid-21st century.

a)

TARGET
0

WORLD

f

TODAY
0

0
1950

2000

2050

CALENDAR

2100

YEAR

700

700
GLACIAL
TIME

Iw
I-

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TIME
600

600
z°
0- 0

0-- 02 500

500

INSTRUMENTAL
RECORD

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400

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RECONSTRUCTEDFROMICE CORES

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FUTURE

300

300

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200

200
18,000YRS AGO

214

A

200
YRS AGO

1900

1950
2000
CALENDAR

2050
YEAR

2100

Figure 6 During the last glacial period,
the CO2 content of our atmospherewasonly 200 ppm. Upon deglaciation
it roseto about 280 ppm and has hovered about
this value until the onset of the industrial
revolution.
Due mainly to fossil fuelburning, it has risen over the last 100
years to its current level of 365 ppm. This
rise will continue,
reaching
double its
pre-industrial
century.

value by the end of the next

ductivity record for one of the Greenland ice cores (Tayloret al., 1993). This property of theice was measured in great detail by scratching a fresh surface of the ice with a pair of electrodes. This record provides a measure of the ratio of the fallout of acids to that of calcium carbonate-bearing dust. During the Younger Dryas cold event (YD), the rate of CaCO3-bearing
dust infall was so high that it totally neutralized the acid. Therefore the electrical conductivity
was very low. And then at the onset of the present warm period, the dust input dropped way
back, allowing the acids to dominate. As the protons from the acid sustain the electrical conductivity in ice, the conductivity is high. So we see that it was not only Greenland's air temperature which changed but also the dustiness of the air masses reaching Greenland. The isotopic fingerprintof this dust is consistent with an origin in the Gobi Desert (Biscaye et al., inpress). If so, Asian climates must also have undergone abrupt changes.
In the blow-up on the extreme right of Fig. 1, are shown the calendar ages defined byannual layer counting. This allows the duration of the transition interval to be well documented. Clearly, the onset of this warming was abrupt. The initial change took place in only
two or three years, but then the climate flickered,the dust came back in spurts before the situation stabilized in the low dust state. The entire transition took place in less than three decades(Tayloret al., 1993).
Ice cores also tell us something about tropical climates. They do so because air bubbles
trapped in the ice contain methane, a gas which is currently produced in rice paddies and cow
pastures. But, prior to the invention of agriculture, the major source of methane was swamps.
Currently,many of these swamps are located in the temperate latitudes of the northern hemisphere. During glacial time when the planet was very cold, all these northern swamps were
either covered by ice sheets or frozen into tundra. Hence they could not have been methane
producers. So, during the Younger Dryas, most methane must have been produced in the tropics. In concert with the big warming at the end of this last cold event, the methane content of
the Earth's atmosphere jumped from slightly below 500 up to about 750 parts per billion. I
think that this rise was driven, at least in part, by a wetting of the tropics, i.e., to an increase in
the size and number of methane-producing swamps and soils. It's therefore interesting to
explore the relationship between the timing of this methane jump and the abrupt warming inGreenland. A former graduate student of mine, Jeffrey Severinghaus, working in the laboratory of Michael Bender at the University of Rhode Island, made a major discovery when hefound a means by which in these same air bubbles he could obtain a measure of air temperature change in Greenland. He used these measurements to show that Greenland's warming
began no more than a decade or so before the onset of the increase in methane. Somehow,
when Greenland suddenly got much warmer, the tropics suddenly got wetter. So the impactsof this mode change extended, from Greenland at least, down into the tropics.
Climate Change: Global as well as Large and Abrupt
A friend of mine, George Denton of the University of Maine, working with a colleague, Chris
Hendy, studied a very interesting moraine left behind by a major advance of New Zealand's
Franz Josef Glacier. The expansion of interest extended down the steep valley toward theTasman Sea and created at its outer limit the Waiho Loop moraine . The rock rubble making

215

up this moraine is underlain by lots of wood. Denton and Hendy (1994) postulate that as theglacier advanced, it moved through a forest, tearing out trees and bulldozing them to its terminus. They obtained25 radiocarbon measurementson separate pieces of this wood and determined the age of this basal wood deposit to be 11,150 plus or minus about 50 14Cyears. Thisis very close to the radiocarbon age that's been obtained in the northern hemisphere for the
onset of the Younger Dryas cold interval (Hajdas et al., 1995). So, Denton would say that thesouthern hemisphere knew about this event; the mountain glaciers responded to a substantial
lowering of the zero degree isotherm. To achieve this descent required a substantial southernhemispherecooling.
Quite recently, a spectacular set of results from sediments in a basin just off Santa
Barbara, California, verifies that this phenomenon was widespread and strong, not only during the Younger Dryas, but also for the entire series of so-called Dansgaard-Oeschger (i.e., DO) events. These events, named in honor of two of the heroes of ice core research, punctuatedthe period between about 65,000 and 25,000 years ago. Previously it had been impossible toduplicate this ice record only in ocean sediments from the northern Atlantic (Bond and Lotti,
1995).The reason is that for the most part they accumulate so slowly that the stirring by worms
obliterates millennial duration events. After much begging, Jim Kennett, of the University ofCalifornia at Santa Barbara, convinced the deep-sea drilling program to spend one day drilling
two shallow holes in the Santa Barbara basin. This brief effort produced a gold mine of information. As these sediments accumulated at a rate of about 1 meter per 1,000 years, they haveadequate resolution to fully preserve the Dansgaard-Oeschger events.And indeed they did. As
shown by Behl and Kennett (1996), during each of the warm phases, the sediment shows
annual banding while during each of the cold phases stirring by bottom dwelling organisms
homogenized the sediment. This suggests that during the warm phase of each D-0 cycle the02 content of the water filling the Santa Barbara basin was sufficientlylow and the rain rate oforganic matter sufficiently high that the sediments were anoxic. Thus, burrowing organisms
were excluded. By contrast, during each of the cold phases (includingthe YD), the pore waters
in the upper sediments must have been oxygenated. To me this suggests that during the cold
phases conditions in the northern Pacific were quite different than now. The low salinity surface waters which currentlycap this region and thereby prevent direct ventilation of the main
thermocline must have been replaced with saltier water allowing the northern Pacific to operate much as the northern Atlantic does today. And what Behl and Kennett (1996) found is that
16 of the 17 D-0 events in Greenland ice core are clearly present in the Santa Barbara record.
So, what does this tell us? To me this supplies an extraordinarilyimportant piece in the
puzzle. The ventilationof the North Pacific's thermocline (by this I mean, the sinking of watersfrom temperate latitudesto intermediate depths) increased greatly during the cold phases of theD-0 events (i.e., the intervals during which laminations disappear). So the cold spells inGreenland are matched in the North Pacific Ocean by what must have been a radical change
in the style of upper ocean circulation.
To summarize, I've recapped what I consider to be the highlights of evidence for the
global extent, large magnitude, and abruptness of these D-0 events. Now let's move along to
the consideration of what might have triggered these amazing changes.

216

Causes: The Oceanic Conveyor Belt
The basic idea came to me in 1984 while I was listening to a lecture given by my longtime
friend, Hans Oeschger, at the University of Bern in Switzerland. He pointed out that theGreenland ice core record suggests that the Earth's climate was jumping back and forth fromone state of operation to another, staying in one for a millennium or so, and then jumping tothe other. I was captivated by Hans' thought and began to ponder what these states might be.
It soon dawned on me that they could be related to a change in a major feature of the ocean's
thermohaline circulation system which I subsequently termed its conveyor belt. Now that it's
famous,people referto it as Broecker's ConveyorBelt. But it's only fair to say that I have a colleague, Arnold Gordon, who thinks it's his conveyor belt rather than mine. But, it doesn't
really matter.We both agree that it's an extremely important feature of the Earth's climate system.
My idea can be summarized as follows. As shown in Fig. 2, one of the most prominent
features of today's ocean circulation is the strong northward movement of upper waters in the
Atlantic. When these waters reach the vicinity of Iceland, they are cooled by the cold winterair that streams off Canada and Greenland. These waters, which arrive at 12 to 13°C, arecooled to 2-4°C. As the Atlantic is a particularly salty ocean, this cooling increases the densityof the surface waters to the point where they can sink all the way to the bottom. The majorityof this water flows southward and much of it rounds Africa joining the Southern Ocean's circumpolar current.
The importance of this current to climate is the enormous amount of heat it carries. The
conveyor's flow is equal to that of 100 Amazon Rivers! It's similar in magnitude to all theplanet's rainfall. So if you have three pipes, one carrying North Atlantic deep water, one carrying all the rain falling on the Earth, and one carrying 100 Amazon Rivers, the outflow fromthese pipes would be about the same. The amount of heat carried by the conveyor's northwardflowing upper limb and released to the atmosphere is equal to about 25% of the solar energy
reaching the surface of the Atlantic north of the Straits of Gibraltar.
I had known about this because my career has had a dual aspect. One part of it involved
a study of the ocean's deep circulation using radiocarbon and other tracers. The focus was totry to understand how rapidly fossil fuel CO2 would be absorbed into the ocean. The other
involved studies of paleoclimate. I was captivated by the observation that each of the major
100,000-yearduration glacial cycles that have hounded us during the last million years cameto a catastrophic close. So in 1984, I realized that I could merge these two studies and ask thequestion, "What would happen if this major current were to be shut off or tumed down?" Anysuch modificationwould certainly make a major change in the climate of the northern Atlantic
region. At my prodding, modelers launched computer simulations of this phenomenon andquickly showed that were the input of warm water to the northern Atlantic to be cut, the meanannual temperature of the lands around the North Atlantic basin would drop by 5° to 10°C.
These climate changes would be felt in Newfoundland and Greenland and would penetratewell into northern Europe. However, the models suggested that this cooling would not extend
across Americato the Santa Barbara basin nor would it extend toThetropics. It certainly would
not impact New Zealand.

217

In addition, ocean modelers followed up on the early work of Henry Stommel (1962)
who first demonstrated from a theoretical point of view that the ocean must have several distinct modes of operation. Employing a variety of simulations, they demonstrated that becauseof the very great sensitivityof deep-waterformation to the input of fresh water in polar regions,the ocean could circulate in quite different ways. As rain water contains no salt, its addition
lowers the density of surface waters. Further, at high latitudes rainfall and continental runoff
exceed evaporation.Because of this, the distributionof places where deep waters can and cannot be generated is sensitive to the pattern of fresh water delivery.So this new class of models
verified what Stommel had predicted; indeed their model oceans could make dramatic jumps
from one way of operating to another. And in so doing, the amount of heat delivered to thenorthern Atlantic region greatly changed. But while changes in the conveyor provide a likely
explanation for the Greenland ice core record, in no case does any joint ocean-atmospheremodel produce the far-field impacts displayed in the paleoclimate record.
Causes: Is Water Vapor up to the Task?
Now we must turn to a more speculative realm because explaining the global extent of thesechanges is something that we're a long way from accomplishing. An important piece of information in this regard is the state of the Earth's system during the extreme cold millennia ofglacial times. At these times, all of Canada and a major portion of the northeastern and midwestern U.S. was covered by a huge ice sheet. Mountains everywhere on Earth experienced asnowline descent of about one kilometer. Geomorphologists have traversed the globe comparing the elevation of the present-day mountain snowlines with those for the last glaciation(reconstructed from geomorphic features). Figure 3 shows the results of such investigations
along the American Cordillera. Everywhere from 40°S to 40°N, snowlines descended about
one kilometer! Because of this, the southern Andes and New Zealand's South Island, which
now have very small glaciers, had quite large ones.
What this tells us is that somehow the Earth got itself into a much colder condition during glacial periods. To my way of thinking, no one has adequately explained how the Earthcould ever have accomplished this. We now have new evidence from glacial-age corals(Guilderson et al., 1994) and from glacial-age ground waters (Stute et al., 1995) that the tropics may have been as much as 5°C colder during glacial times. How could the Earth havechanged its climate so much in the absence of any strong external forcing?
When I consider the mountain glacier record together with the isotope record obtainedfor glacial-age ice from six kilometers' elevation on Andean Huascaran (Thompson et al.,1995), I'm forced to the conclusion that the water vapor content of our atmosphere must havebeen much lower during glacial time. Hence, either the processes which deliver or those whichremove water vapor from our atmosphere must have been different during glacial time. But thisreduction is something that no model of the atmosphere has yet to accomplish. In fact, thesemodels are powerless to produce the large global changes that the paleo records prove to havetaken place. You might ask why water vapor. The answer is that water vapor is the atmosphere's most powerful greenhouse gas. If you wanted to cool the planet by 5°C and could bymagic alter the water vapor content of the atmosphere, a 30% decrease would do the job. In

218

fact, the major debate that rages among atmospheric scientists regarding the magnitude of thecoming greenhouse warming hinges on what's referred to as the water vapor feedback. If thewater vapor in the atmosphere were to remain exactly the same as it is now,then a doubling of
CO2would heat the planet only about 1.2°C.However, when CO2 is doubled in these models,
their atmosphere holds more water vapor, enhancing the warming to 3.5°C ± 1.5°C. A 3.5°C
warming would certainly cause major problems for agriculture, especially where conducted incontinental interiors. The debate concerns whether the models change the water vapor in thesame way that it will change as CO2 rises in the real world.
My speculation (see Fig. 4) is that despite the fact that the primary climate impacts ofthe change in the deep ocean circulation are restricted to the northern Atlantic basin, somehow,
as a result, the water vapor budget for the atmosphere must have been altered. Water vapor is
supplied to the atmosphere primarily in the tropics by plumes of air which ascend to the upper
troposphere along the inter-tropical convergence zone. So if one is to invoke a change in theatmosphere's water vapor inventory,one has got to look to the tropics, and, in particular, to thewestern tropical Pacific. It is here where convective activity feeds a major portion of water
vapor into the air.
If so, the change in the deep circulation must have repercussions throughout the upper
ocean. As evidence that this is the case, we have the Santa Barbara basin record, which indicates that, at least in the North Pacific, there must have been a major change in the style ofupper ocean ventilation. This is important because the energy budget of the tropical atmosphere is influenced by the upwelling along the equator of cold ocean water. This cold water is
fed in from the thermoclines to the North and South Pacific. The now famous El Niflo cycle
involves a turning on and off of this upwelling. This cycle has a strong impact on today's
global climate. So I think that somehow the change in the vigor of upper ocean circulationmust have altered the strength of upwelling into the equatorial region and, in turn, the deliveryof water vapor into the atmosphere.
This aspect of my argument is particularly speculative, because we don't know how it
could happen. But to produce large and abrupt changes in global climate that are symmetricalaround the equator,it seems to me that only atmosphere's water vapor is up to the task. If water
vapor were the villain,then we must look to the equatorial systemsfor the key. My guess is thatchanges in the fresh-water budget of the surface North Atlantic threw the ocean's deep circulation into chaos. If it reformed in another mode of operation, in so doing, it triggered changes
in other parts of the ocean and in turn in the delivery of water vapor to the tropical atmosphere.
As this source maintains the atmosphere's water vapor inventory all the way out to 35 degrees
either side of the equator, the impact would be global. This way of looking at it suggests that
we might be able to find in the paleo climatic record a causal chain from northern Atlantic toequatorial Pacific and hence to the atmosphere. But I doubt it. The links likely act so fast that ,within the accuracy of even the most precise of our dating tools, all the changes occurred at one
time. We have already seen that Greenland air temperature, Asian dust production and global
methane production changed together. Some of the impacts may take longer than others toreach a new steady state but all were likely initiated during a time interval of no more than afew decades.

219

Our Future
So the question naturally arises as to whether this finding about past climates has any implications for the future. First, in this connection, let's review some things that most of you
already know about. Human population is rising at a rate of 1.75% each year. If continued, by
the middle of the next century, population would reach the staggering level of 14 billion.
Fortunately,most predictions suggest that declining birth rates will ease somewhat this potentially desperate situation. But regardless, we're headed for an excess of 10 billion people (seeFig. 5). At just the time we expect sizable greenhouse warming impacts, we're going to haveat least five billion more people to feed than we do now. That is an enormous challenge, evenin the absence of a climate change.
The amount of CO2we produce depends on two things. How many people there are andhow much energy they use. Keep in mind that the poorer people on the Earth are going to seeka better standard of living and that's going to require more energy. Almost all of our energy
now comes from burning fossil fuels, and hence involves adding CO2 to the atmosphere. The
hope at the Rio Conferencewas that the production rate of CO2could be held to its 1990 level,
but the production rate has already risen well above that level. Some politicians believethat thisRio goal is achievable,but I don't. So I suspect that we are going to generate seven or moregigatons of carbon as CO2every year.At this rate, the CO2 content of the atmosphere will riseat the rate of about two parts per million (ppm) per year (see Fig. 6).
So the CO2 content of the atmospherewill continue to go up. How far depends on a lotof things. Maybe there will be a miracle and we'll find some alternate energy source which issocially acceptable and economically fundable. But, there's little doubt in my mind that late in
the next century,the CO2content of our atmosphere will reach twice its pre-industrial value of
280 ppm (i.e., 560 ppm). And before we're free from our dependence on fossil fuels, we'll
probably drive the CO2 content up to 700 ppm or more.
For this rise in CO2, models yield a range of global warmings. The reason is that theydiffer in the extents of water vapor feedback. As already stated, were there no such feedback,the warming would only be about 1.2°C and would not produce much difficulty. But if theextent of warming for doubled CO2 were 3, 4, or 5°C, as some models predict, then I think
everybody would agree there is going to be big trouble.
What I've injected into this already complicated situation is the realization that in thepast climate changes haven't come gradually. Whateverpushed the Earth's climate didn't leadto smooth changes, but rather to jumps from one state of operation to another. So the question
naturally arises, what is the probability that through adding CO2we will cause the climate system to jump to one of its alternate modes of operation? I contend that since we can't yet reproduce any of these jumps in computer simulations, we don't really know how many modes ofoperations the Earth has, and we certainly don't have any idea what it might take to push thesystem from one mode to another. We do know, however, that a substantial warming would
surely reduce the density of polar surfacewater and thereby tend to cut off deep ventilation. So
we're entering dangerous territory. It seems to me that we're provoking an ornery beast. Our
climate system has proven that it can do very strange things. And since we've only recently
become aware of this capability, there's nothing concrete that we can say as far as the impli-

220cations of this capability

to the future. But this discovery

certainly gives us even more reason

to be prudent about what we do. We must prepare for the future by learning more about our
wicked climate systerri and we must create the wherewithalmate changes

to respond if the CO2-induced

are large or worse yet if they come abruptly, changing

agriculturalcli-

conditions

across the entire planet. We have to think all this through. Even if there is only a 1% probability that such a change might occur during the next 100 years, its impact would be sufficiently
catastrophic

that it warrants

In conclusion,a lot of preparation.

my lifetime

study of the Earth's climate

convinced that we have greatly underestimatedof obscure phenomena

the complexity

system has humbled

me. I'mof this system. The importance

ranging from those which control the size of raindrops

to those which

control the amount of water pouring into the deep sea from the shelves of the Antarctic
nent make reliable

modelingvery difficult, if not impossible.

future, we have to achieve a much greater understanding
add together to generate big-scaleconti-

If we're going to predict theof these small-scale

processes

which

effects.

References
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Kyr."Nature, 379 (1996), 243-246.
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Zealand,"Science, 264 (1994), 1434-1437.
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for the Last Glacial Maximum," Science, 263 (1994), 663-665.
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Holocene," Science, 266 (1994), 1680-1682.
Stommel, H. "On the Smallness of the Sinking Regions in the Ocean," Proceedings of the National Academy of
Science, USA,48 (1962), 766-772.
Stute, M., M. Forster, H. Frischkorn, A. Serejo, J.F. Clark, P. Schlosser, W.S. Broecker, and G. Bonani. "Coolingof Tropical Brazil (5°C) during the Last Glacial Maximum," Science, 269 (1995), 379-383.
Taylor, K.C., G.W. Lamorey, G.A. Doyle, R.B. Alley, P.M. Grootes, P.A. Mayewski, J.W.C. White, and L.K.
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Thompson, L.G., E. Mosley-Thompson,M.E. Davis, P.-N. Lin, K.A. Henderson, J. Cole-Dai, J.F. Bolzan, and K.B. Liu. "Late Glacial Stage and Holocene Tropical Ice Core Records from Huascaran, Peru," Science, 269(1995), 46-50.

221

Major Publications
Dr. Wallace S. Broecker
Books
Broecker, W.S., and V. Oversby. Chemical Equilibria in the Earth. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1971.
Broecker, W.S. Chemical Oceanography. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1974.
Broecker, W.S., and T.H. Peng. Tracers in the Sea. Palisades, New York: Eldigio Press, 1982.
Broecker, W.S. How to Build a Habitable Planet. Palisades, New York: Eldigio Press, 1985.
(Japanese, German translations, 1993.).
Broecker, W.S. The Glacial World According to Wally. New York: Eldigio Press, 1992.
Broecker, W.S., and T.H. Peng. Greenhouse Puzzles. New York: Eldigio Press, 1994.
ArticlesKulp, J.L., W.S. Broecker, and W.R. Eckelmann. Nucleonics, 11 (1953), 191-121.
Grosse, A.V., A.D. Kirshenbaum, J.L. Kulp, and W.S. Broecker. Physical Res., 93 (1954),
250.
Broecker, W.S., and J.L. Kulp. Amer. Antiquity, 22 (1956) 1-11.
Broecker, W.S., J.L. Kulp, and C.S. Tucek. Science, 124 (1956), 154-165.
Ericson, D.B., W.S. Broecker, J.L. Kulp, and G. Wollin. Science, 124 (1956), 3855-3859.
Carr, Donald R., W.S. Broecker, P. Damon, and J.L. Kulp. In Nuclear Sci. Ser. Rep., No. 19,
Natl. Acad. Sci., Natl. Research Council Pub. (1956), 109-113.
Giletti, B., and W.S. Broecker. YaleSci. Mag., May (1957).
Broecker, W.S., and J.L. Kulp. Science, 126/3287 (1957), 1324-1334.
Olson, Edwin A., and W.S. Broecker. New YorkAcad. Sci. Trans., ser. 2 20, No. 7, May (1958),
593-604.
Broecker, W.S., K. Turekian, and B.C. Heezen. American Journal of Science, 256/7 (1958),
503-517.
Broecker, W.S., and P.C. Orr. Geol. Soc. America Bull., 69/8 (1958), 1009-1032.
Broecker, W.S., C.S. Tucek, and E.A. Olson. Intern. J. Appl. Radiation Isotopes, 7 (1959), 18.
Broecker, W.S., E.A. Olson, and J. Bird. Nature, 183 (1959), 1582.
Heezen, Bruce C., W.S. Broecker, M. Ewing, and R.J. Menzies. Int. Oceanog. Cong., 1st
Preprints, (1959), 99-102.
Broecker, W.S., E. Olson. Natl. Speleol. Soc. Bull., 21/1 (1959), 43.
Broecker, W.S., and A.F. Walton. Geochimica et Cosmochemica Acta, Nos. 1-3, 15-38, 200,
May (1959).
— . Geol. Soc. America Bull., 70/5 (1959), 601-618.
Olson, Edwin A., and W.S. Broecker. Am. J. Sci., 257/6 (1959), 464.
Broecker, W.S., A. Schulert, and E.A. Olson. Science, 130/3371 (1959), 331-332.
Broecker, W.S., E.A. Olson, and P.C. Orr. Nature, 185 (1960), 933-994.

222

Broecker, W.S.,M. Ewing, and B.C. Heezen. Am. J. Sci., 258 (1960), 429-448.
Eckelmann, W.R., W.S. Broecker, and J.L. Kulp. Physical Res., 118 (1960), 698-701.
Broecker,W.S.,R. Gerard, M. Ewing, and B.C. Heezen. Journal of Geophysical Research, 65(1960), 2903-2931.
Broecker,W.S., and E.A. Olson. Science. 132 (1960), 712-721.
Broecker,W.S.Am. Geophys. Union Trans., 41/2 (1960) 259-260.
Olson, E.A., and W.S. Broecker.Radiocarbon, 3 (1961), 141-175.
— .Radiocarbon, 3 (1961), 176-204.
Broecker,W.S.,R.D. Gerard, M. Ewing, and B.C. Heezen. Oceanography,AAAS(1961), 301322.
Broecker,W.S. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 72 (1961), 159-162.
—.Nuc. Sci. Ser. Rep. No. 33, Natl. Acad. Sci., Natl. Research Council Pub. No. 845 (1961),
96-101.
—.J. Geophys.Res., 67 (1962), 4837-4842.
Skok, J., W. Chorney, and W.S. Broecker. The Botanical Gazette, 124 (1962), 118-120.
Eckelmann,Walter R., J.R. Allsup, W.S. Broecker,and D.W.Whitlock. Am.Assoc. Petroleum
Geol., 46/5 (1962), 699-704.
Broecker,W.S. The Sea, II, Ch. 4, (1963), 88-108.
—.The Polar Record, 11 (1963), 472-473.
Giffin, C., A Kaufman,W.S. Broecker.J. Geophys.Res., 68 (1963) 1749-1757.
Broecker,W.S. J. Geophys.Res., 68 (1963) 2817-2834.
—.Bull. Geol. Soc.Am., 74 (1963), 7955-8002.
Rocco, G.G., and W. S. Broecker.J. Geophys.Res., 68 (1963), 4501-4512.
Richards, H.G., and W.S. Broecker. Science, 141 (1963), 1044-1045.
Broecker,W.S. Natl. Acad. Sci., Nat Res. Council Pub. No. 1075 (1963), 138-149.
—.Science, 143 (1964), 596-597.
Broecker,W.S., and A Kaufman. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am.,76 (1965), 537-566.
Broecker,W.S., and D.L. Thurber. Science, 149 (1965), 58-60.
Thurber, D.L., W.S. Broecker, R.L. Blanchard, and H.A. Potratz. Science, 149 (1965), 55-68.
Broecker,W.S. Quaternary of the U.S.,Re VIII INQUA Congress,Boulder, Col. (1965), 737753.
Kaufman, A., and W.S. Broecker. Journal of Geophysical Research, 70 (1965), 4039-4054.
Broecker,W.S. Quaternary of the U.S. (1965), 737-753.
—.Lamont Geol. Observatory of Columbia Uni., (1965), 116-145.
—.Science, 151 (1966), 299-304.
Ku, T.L., and W.S. Broecker. Science, 151 (1966), 448-450.
Broecker,W.S. J. Geophys. Res., 71 (1966), 4777-4783.
Broecker,W.S., and T. Takahashi.J. Geophys.Res., 71 (1966), 1575-1602.
Broecker, W.S., E.R. Bonebakker, and G.G. Rocco. J. Geophys Res., 71 (1966), 1999-2003.
Broecker,W.S., G.G. Rocco, and H.L. Volchok. Science, 152 (1966), 639-640.
Broecker,W.S. J .Geophys. Res., 71 (1966), 5827-5836.
Bender, M.L., T.L. Ku, and W.S. Broecker. Science, 151/3708 (1966), 325-328.

223

Broecker, W.S., and D.L. Thurber. Geol. Soc. America Spec., 87 (1966), 18-19.
Ku, T.L., and W.S. Broecker. In Progress in Oceanography, Oxford, and New York: Pergamon
Press, 1967, Ch. 4, 95-104.
Broecker, W.S., Y.H. Li, and J. Cromwell. Science, 158 (1967), 1307-1310.
Taddeucci, A., W.S. Broecker, and D.L. Thurber. Earth, and Planetary Science Letters, 3(1967), 338-342.
Ku, T.L., and W.S. Broecker. Earth, and Planetary Science Letters, 2/4 (1967), 317-321.
Broecker, W.S. Meteorological Monographs, 8 (1968), 1339-1411.
Broecker, W.S., D.L. Thurber, J. Goddard, T.L. Ku, R.L. Matthews, and K.J. Mesolella.
Science, 159 (1968), 297-300.
Ku, T.L., W.S. Broecker, and N. Opdyke. Earth, and Planetary Science Letters, 4 (1968), 116.
Takahashi, T., W.S. Broecker, Y.H. Li, and D.L. Thurber. Limnology, and Oceanography, 13(1968), 272-292.
Broecker, W.S., J. Cromwell, and Y.H. Li. Earth, and Planetary Science Letters, 5/2 (1968),
101-105.
Mesolella, K.J., R.K. Matthews, W.S. Broecker, and D.L. Thurber. J. Geol., 77 (1969), 250274.
Ku, T.L., and W.S. Broecker. Deep Sea Res., 16 (1969), 625-637.
Li, T.Y., T. Takahashi, and W.S. Broecker. J. Geophys. Res., 74(1969), 5507-5525.
Broecker, W.S., and T.L. Ku. Science, 166 (1969), 404-406.
Broecker, W.S., and R.D. Gerard. Limnology, and Oceanography, 14 (1969), 883-888.
Broecker, W.S., and J. van Donk. Res. of Geophys. & Space Physics, 8 (1970), 169-198.
Broecker, W.S., and K. Wolgemuth. Earth, and Planetary Science Letters, 8 (1970), 372-378.
Broecker, W.S., and Y.H. Li. J. Geophys. Res., 75 (1970), 3545-3552.
Broecker, W.S. J. Geophys. Res., 75 (1970), 3553-3557.
Bender, M., T.L. Ku, and W.S. Broecker. Earth, and Planetary Science Letters, 8 (1970), 143148.
Broecker, W.S. Science, 168 (1970), 1537-1538.
Broecker, W.S., A. Kaufman, T.L. Ku, Y.C. Chung, and H. Craig. J. Geophys. Res., 75 (1970),
7682-7685.
Broecker, W.S., and A. Kaufman. J. Geophys. Res., 75, No. 36 (1970), 7679-7681.
Thurber, D.L., and W.S. Broecker. 12th Nobel Symposium, Uppsala 1969 (1970), 379-398.
Discussions 398-400.
Broecker, W.S., A. Kaufman, and T.L. Ku. EOS, 51/4 (1970), 324.
Crittenden, M.D., Jr., W.S. Broecker, and A.L. Bloom, Can . J. Earth Sci., 7/2 (1970), 727-733.
Volchok, H.L., M. Feiner, H.J. Simpson, W.S. Broecker, V.E. Noshkin, V.T. Bowen, and E.
Willis. J. Geophys. Res., 75/6 (1970), 1084-1091.
Thurber, D.L., and W.S. Broecker. In Nobel Symposium 12, Radiocarbon Variations, andAbsolute Chronology, edited by I.U. Wilson. New York: John Wiley, and Sons, 1971, 379400.
Broecker, W.S. In The Late Cenozoic Glacial Ages, edited by K.K. Turekian. New Haven: Yale

224

University Press, 1971.
— .Quaternary Research, 1 (1971), 188-207.
Broecker, W.S., and T.H. Peng. Earth, and Planetary Science Letters, 11 (1971), 99-108.
Broecker,W.S.,Y.H.Li, and T.H. Peng. In Impingementof Man on the Oceans, edited by D.W.
Hood. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1971, 287-324.
Kaufman,A., W.S. Broecker,T.L. Ku, and D.L. Thurber. Geochimica et CosmochemicaActa,
35 (1971), 1155-1183.
Broecker,W.S.,B. Schwartz, N. Sloan, and P. Ancona. In Street Salting Urban WaterQuality
Workshop,State University College of Forestry, Syracuse, New York, July (1971), 22-38.
Bender, Michael, W.S. Broecker, V. Gornitz, U. Middel, R. Kay, S.S. Sun, and P. Biscaye.
Earth, and Planetary Science Letters, 12/4 (1971), 425-433.
Broecker,W.S., and M. Bender. "Age Determination on Marine Strandlines." In Calibrationof Homiloid Evolution, edited by W.S. Bishop, and J.A. Miller. New York: The WennerGren Foundationfor Anthropological Research, 1972, 19-35.
Trier,R.M., W.S.Broecker, and H. W. Feely. Earth, and Planetary Science Letters, 16 (1972),
141-145.
Schindler, D.W., G.J. Brunskill, S. Emerson, W.S. Broecker, and T.H. Peng. Science, 177(1972), 1192-1194.
Gieskes, J.M., and W.S. Broecker. Caribb. Geol. Conf., Trans., 6 (1972), 493.
Simpson, H. James, and W.S. Broecker. Limnology,and Oceanography, 18 (1973), 426-440.
Broecker,W.S.,A. Kaufman, and R.M. Trier.Earth, and Planetary Science Letters, 20 (1973),
35-44.
Anderson, T.T.,M. Bender, and W.S. Broecker.J. Sediment.Petrol., 42 (1973), 471-477.
Kaufman, A., R.M. Trier, and W.S. Broecker. J. Geophys.Res., 78 (1973), 8827-8848.
Broecker, W.S. In Oceanography; The Last Frontier. New York: Basic Books, 1973, 56-66.
Broecker,W.S. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, 15 (1973), 1069-1073.
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233

Profile

Swaminathan

M.S.
Chairman:

Dr. M.S.

Research Foundation(MSSRF)

Swaminathan

History
1988

MSSRF

was established

1990

MSSRF

established

Development

by M.S.

the Centre

Swaminathan,for Research

the Chairman
on Sustainableof MSSRF
Agricultural

and Rural

as its core organization

The M.S. Swaminathan Research.Foundation was founded in 1988 with the goal of promoting research and activism devoted to furthering rural and agricultural development by environmentally sustainable and socially equitable means. The founder and chairman of the organization is Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, the recipient of the 1986 Albert Einstein World ScienceAward and the firstWorld Food Prize, in 1987.
One of the research foundation's major achievementshas been the study and conservation of coastal ecosystems, particularly mangrove wetlands. Based on its research into vegetation, soil salinity,and other aspects of mangrove habitats, the research foundation has taken
steps to restore degraded wetlands while promoting sustainable agroforestry and aquaculture.
The M.S. SwaminathanResearch Foundation conducts a community biodiversity program to rescue endangered plant species from extinction. Furthermore, it engages in a wide
variety of research projects, including one aimed at identifying microorganisms that serve as
bioindicators of ecosystem health, and another concerned with conserving the genetic diversity of plant species.
Anotherprogram of the Foundation is the creation of an economic stake in conservation
by linking conservation and commercialization in a symbiotic manner. The Foundation has
established a Technical Resource Centre for the implementation of the equity provisions of theConvention on Biological Diversity. The Foundation is also the coordinating center for the
Asian Technology Network sponsored by UNESCO.
In addition,the research foundation promotes the bio-village model of sustainableruraldevelopment in India, the People's Republic of China, and Southeast Asia. By helping to conserve the natural environment of developing countries while supporting the economic viability of rural communities, the M.S. SwaminathanResearch Foundation is playing an importantrole in the search for solutions to global environmental problems.

234

EssaySustainable

Development

Five Years

after

Rio

Dr. M. S. Swaminathan
Chairman,February

MSSRF
1997

The UN Conference on Environment Development (UNCED) held at Rio de Janeiro in June
1992 was designed to bring about a global transition from unsustainable to sustainable development.The conferencewas not an exercisein empty rhetoric. On the contrary,it came to grips
with the most serious challenges facing humankind in restoring harmony between economic
developmentand conservation of nature and natural resources, and in ensuring opportunities
for sustainable food and livelihood security for generations yet to be born . Agenda 21, theglobal conventions on climate and biodiversity and the forestry principles adopted at UNCED
provide a blueprint for sustainabledevelopment.Five years after Rio, we have to admit that theenthusiasm witnessed there in adopting these commitmentshas yet to be translated in an adequate measure into political and public action.
The change in course recommended by business and industry at Rio for making goodbusiness and good ecology two sides of the same coin has also yet to take place on a significant scale. There has, however,been great progress in the greening of the media andjudiciary.
Leading organizations, like the Asian Productivity Organization, are doing their best to promote green productivity movements. The Blue Planet Prize instituted by the Asahi GlassFoundation on the occasion of UNCED and similar initiatives have helped to keep environmental issues high in the public mind and political agenda.
Japanese institutions and individualshave been at the forefront of human effortsin promoting the coexistence of the Earth, economy, and humankind. The Tokyo Declaration,
adopted on February 20, 1997, at a symposium organized on the occasion of the Mainichi
newspaper's 125th anniversary, articulates current concerns and enunciates a global plan ofaction, including the establishment of a Council on the Earth's Environment by the United
Nations to perform functions in the area of ecological security—similar to that of the Security
Council in the field of peace among nations. Japanese scientists and technologists have also
shown ways of achieving very considerable reductions in CO2 and SO2 emissions. Scientificwork is responding to societal concerns. The Japanese example needs to be replicated worldwide speedily.
The conventions on biological diversity and climate adopted at Rio and ratified subsequently by most member nations of the United Nations are slowly being given operational content at the meetings of the Conference on Parties (COP). COP-3, which relates to the
FrameworkConvention on Climate Change and is scheduled to take place in Kyoto, Japan, in

235

December 1997, should establish clear numerical goals to reduce emissions of greenhousegases. Developing countries have to be helped in meeting their energy needs through environmentally benign technologies.
We are now in the second age of massive species extinction. The Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) shows the way for the conservation of biodiversity and its sustainable and equitable utilization. Today, the primary conservers of the Earth, mostly rural andtribal women in developing countries, are poor, while those who utilize the genetic material
conserved and enhanced by them, through biotechnology and breeding enterprises, are rich.
We should end this sad irony soon by implementing the equity provisions of the CBD in bothletter and spirit. At our Foundation in Madras, India, we have established the TechnicalResource Centre for the implementation of the equity provisions of the CBD and we will behappy to assist all committed to recognizing and rewarding the invaluable contributions of the
primary conservers of the Earth. Such a step will help to create an economic stake in conservation.
Conservation and commercialization can become mutually reinforcing and not remain
antagonistic as at present if principles of ecology, equity, and ethics are integrated with thoseof economics in the exploitation of natural resources. Business and industry should work
together with nongovernmental organizations engaged in such a mission. The Iwokrama
International Rainforest Center, established in Guyana in about 400,000 ha. (about a million
acres) of prime forest land—generously made available by the government and people of
Guyana for developing and demonstrating methods of sustainable management of tropicalrain forests—is currently engaged in developing ground rules for the involvement of the private sector in equity-based bioprospecting and sustainable forest management. There is anurgent need for adequate international donor support for this unique adventure in harmonizing
the goals of conservation and commercialization in the management of rain forests. Tropicalrain forests provide the home for over 60% of the world's species and saving them is a priority task for humankind.
The term green revolution, coined by Dr. William Gaud of the United States in 1968,
has come to be associated not only with higher production through enhanced productivity, butalso with several negative ecological and social consequences. There is also frequent reference
to the fatigue of the green revolution, which relates to stagnation in yield levels and the everincreasing requirements for nutrients to produce the same yields as in the early 1970s. Experts
like Lester Brown have been warning about an impending food crisis for several reasons:• increasing population;• increasing purchasing power, leading to the consumption of more animal products;• increasing damage to the ecological foundations of agriculture;• declining per capita availability of land and water;• the absence of technologies that can further enhance the yield potential of major crops.
Should we therefore assume that as we enter a new millennium, we will not have the benefit
of new technologies that can help our farmers to produce more food and other agriculturalcommodities from less land and water?
I believe we are now in a position to launch an "evergreen revolution" that will help to236

increase yield, income, and livelihood per unit of land and water—if we bring about a paradigm shift in our agricultural research and development strategies. The green revolution was
triggered by the genetic manipulation of yield in crops like rice, wheat, and maize. The evergreen revolution will be triggered by farming systems that can help to produce more from theavailable land, water, and labor resources without either ecological or social harm. Thus,
progress can be achieved if we shift our mind-set from a commodity-centered approach to one
based on entire cropping or farming systems. This does not mean that we should decelerate ourefforts in the area of crop improvement research. But such research should be tailored toenhancing the performance and productivity of an entire production system. The transition
from the fatigue of the green revolution to an evergreen revolution involves a shift from acrop-centered to a systems-based approach to technological development and dissemination.
Scientists now have unique opportunities for designing farming systems that willachieve the triple goals of more food, more income, and more livelihood per hectare of land,
provided we harness the tools of ecotechnologies: biotechnology,informatics (including GIS
mapping), space technology, and renewable energy technologies (solar, wind, biomass, andbiogas), as well as management and marketing techniques.We can enter a millennium of hope
if we abandon the old concept of a crop-centered green revolution and substitute it with anevergreen revolution, centered on farming systems and frontier technologies.
Industrialized countries are responsiblefor many of the global environmentalproblems,such as potential changes in temperature, precipitation, sea level, and incidence of ultravioletB radiation. While further agricultural intensificationin industrialized countries will be ecologically disastrous, the failure to achieve agricultural intensification and diversification indeveloping countries, where farming provides most of the jobs, will be socially disastrous.
This is because agriculture—includingcrop and animal husbandry, forestry and agroforestry,
fisheries and agrofisheries—provideslivelihoods for over 70% of the population in developing countries. The smaller the farm, the greater is the need for higher marketable surplus forincreasing income. Eleven million new livelihoodswill have to be created every year in India
and these have to come largely from the farm and nonfarm rural industries sectors. Importingfood and other agricultural commodities will have the same impact as importing unemployment.
In the ultimate analysis, the environmental and intergenerational equity goals of
UNCED can be achieved only if material affluence is tempered by spiritual influence. Bothunsustainable lifestyles and unacceptable poverty should become features of the past in the
coming millennium. This can be achieved if the rich of the world regard themselves as trusteesof their surplus wealth and use it for public good. The following principles, enunciated by
Mahatma Gandhi over 60 years ago, illuminate the path to sustainable societies and nations.
• Nature provides for everybody's need, but not for everybody's greed.
• We cannot be nonviolent to nature unless the principle of nonviolence becomes central tothe ethics of human culture.
Here is the pathway to keep our planet ever blue.

237

Lecture

Ecotechnology

andSustainable

Food

SecurityDr. M.S. Swaminathan
Chairman,MSSRFI. Introduction
Chairman Furumoto, ladies and gentlemen. On behalf of my colleagues, my research center,my wife, and myself, thank you again for this honor and this great opportunity also to meet somany distinguished scientists and experts here this afternoon.
The topic on which I would like to speak, the topic which is consuming a large portionof the resources of our small research center, is ecotechnology and sustainable food security.
I would like to define the two terms so that you can understand what I am going to say subsequently.Ecotechnologymeans at least three E-words: ecology, economics,and equity.Without
economic viability, the technology will not take off. Without ecological sustainability, thegains will be very short-lived.And without equity, both in gender and economicterms, we willfind that the world will not be a happy place. There will be more and more social disintegration and the rich-poor divide will increase.
So ecotechnologies are those which can combine some of these characteristics, particularly environmentalsoundness with economic viability. And what little work has been donein the world, both in industry and agriculture, shows that this is quite feasible. In fact, the bookproduced by the World Business Council during Rio, titled Changing Course, has stated that
good ecology is also good business today. Conversely,ecologically unsound practices are notgood business practices. The Asahi Glass Foundation has shown this with the Blue Planet
Prize.
The concept of food security has undergone considerable change in the last 40 or 50
years. In fact, ever since the Food and Agricultural Organization was established in 1945, theproblem of global food securityhas received attention in numerous fora. In the 1940s, 50s, and60s, the problem of food security was largely considered in the context of food production; theamount of food produced globally at the macro level, and the population and the amount offood required for the population. Then it became clear that this definition was inadequate,
because there might be a lot of food in the world but still very many hungry or undernourishedpeople. And therefore the economic dimension of food security—namely, sustainable livelihoods or the purchasing power of the people, the ability to buy food—became very important.
And later it became clear that these two definitions alone, that is, economic access andphysical access to food, are not adequate. It is also important to consider other aspects of food,
not only calories and proteins, but particularly micronutrients, like iron, zinc, iodine, andVitamin A; deficiencies of these nutrients lead to what is often called hidden hunger. In fact,according to recent United Nations figures, if about 800 million women, men, and children go238to bed hungry

tonight,

ents. Vitamin

A deficiency,

nearlytwo billion

And the third dimension
larly hygiene,

healthyof foodenvironmental

if we take food.
body.

suffer from hidden

for example,

hygiene,

The biological

And thereforeor hunger

blindnessin children.

security

relates

to environmental

safe and clean

retention

the food

hunger,causesdrinking

and absorption

securitywater.

of foodconcept

parameters,

Becauseparticu-

it is not enoughare equally

has undergone

for micronutri-

importantfor aconsiderable

evolution

to articulate

the scien-in the last 40 or 50 years.
The science

academies

tific viewpointon matters

For example,

beforeLondon,Novemberof science13, 1996,

mies get together.

have been meetingwhich

are largely

theU.S. National

Cairo

and the Indianin the context

of the world

National

Scienceand technology.

in Rome,we thought

They got together

discussed

at the political

AcademyAcademyAndin orderall got together

beforethe World

it was equallyat our Foundation

levelof Sciences,and looked
Food

importantin Madras

at thesethe Royalsummits.
Societyofat population

Summitstartingthat the scientificonacade-

in July 1996. At this Science

Academies
Summit, food security was defined as follows:• that every individual
has the physical , economic,
social, and environmental
access to a balanced diet that includes the necessary
macro- and micronutrients,
safe drinking water, sanitation,•

environmental

and productive
life.
that food originatesthat conserveand inlandhygiene,fromand enhanceand marine

primary

efficient

healthcare,and educationand environmentallythe natural

resource

benignbase of crops,

so as to lead a healthy
production

animaltechnologies

husbandry,

forestry,

fisheries.

II. The 20th century: a balance sheet
As we approach a new century we can look back and draw a balance sheet of our achievements
and failures. Spectacular progress in science and technology ranks first among our major
accomplishments.Recent advances in biotechnology and genetic engineering, space technology, informationtechnology, and new materials have opened up uncommon opportunities fora world where every individual can lead a healthy and productive life. The spread of democratic systems of governance, the breakdown of skin color-based apartheid and the advent of theinformationage have created the sociopolitical substrateessential for integrating the principles
of intra- and intergenerational equity in public policy. The power of a right blend of technology and public policy is strikingly evident from the progress made in recent decades to keep
the growth rate in food production above the rate of growth in population,thereby ensuring that
the Malthusian prediction of population overtaking our ability to produce adequate food does
not come true (International Commission on Peace and Food, 1994).
While the positive achievements are many and make us proud of the power of thehuman intellect, we will be entering the new millennium with some of the greatest social andscientific challenges humankind has ever faced. Several of these challenges have been articulated with great clarity in the Human Development Reports of the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) of recent years.
Environmental degradation and increasing economic and gender inequality are among239

the most serious problems we face today. The rich-poor divide is increasing at an alarming rate.
The pattern of development adopted by rich societies is leading to jobless economic growth,pollution, and potential changes in climate. Unsustainable lifestyles on the part of the rich billion and unacceptable poverty on the part of another billion coexist. The absence of an educational and health environment, which is conducive to every child achieving his/her innate
genetic potential for physical and mental development, leads to the spread of poverty in capability. UNDP has proposed indicators for measuring both human development and humancapability (UNDP, 1996).
The U.S. National Academy of Sciences, the Royal Society of London, the Indian
National Science Academy and 55 other scientific bodies in a statement made in 1993 pointed
out "stress on the environment is the product of four interacting factors: population growth,
consumption habits, technology and social organization." Concurrent attention is needed on allthese four factors to promote sustainable development and sustainable societies. The report,"Sustainable America," indicates what an affluent society should do (The Presidents' Council
on Sustainable Development, 1996). In poor nations, the social sustainability of the development process is as important as ecological and economic sustainability. Also, if the current
pace of damage to the ecological foundations essential for sustainable advances in biologicalproductivity—namely, land, water, flora, fauna, forests, oceans, and the atmosphere—continues, sustainable food and nutrition security cannot be achieved. Therefore, as we approach the
new millennium, we need a broader concept of sustainability which encompasses environmental, economic, and social parameters. Among social factors, gross economic and genderinequity needs priority aitention. If such a paradigm shift in developmental thinking and pathways does not occur, the successes achieved in the 20th century in abolishing skin color-based
apartheid, in conquering space and in splicing genes will be overshadowed by the spread oftechnological and economic apartheid. If these forms of apartheid are allowed to grow andspread, social disintegration and ecological genocide will be the result.

III. Ecotechnology: the emerging solution
Technologiesrooted in the principles of ecology, economics, and equity are now referred to as
ecotechnologies. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization(UNESCO) and the Cousteau Foundation established by Commandant Jacques Cousteau arepromoting ecotechnology networks in different parts of the world. The M.S. Swaminathan
Research Foundation (MSSRF) at Madras is the coordinating center for the Asian
Ecotechnology Network. A major purpose of this Network is the creation of ecojobs, which
are economically viable, environmentally benign, and socially equitable. A multimedia database on opportunitiesfor ecojobs is being developed, since the dissemination of information
on ecojobs is essential for creating opportunities for sustainablelivelihoods in rural and urban
areas.

hunger

The most

seriousis largely

the result

manifestationof inadequateof poverty
livelihood

is hunger.

It is now recognized

opportunities

whichthat endemic

in turn lead to inade-quate purchasing
power. Hidden hunger results from both micronutrient
deficiencies
and poor
environmental
hygiene, which impair the biologicalabsorption
and retentionof food.

240

During the next three decades, population is expected to increase by another 2.5 billion
people. Food requirements will grow due to increases in both population and per capita purchasing power. World grain production has grown from 631 million metric tons in 1950 tonearly 1,900million tons in 1995.Such a phenomenal growth has had its environmental costsin terms of soil degradation, aquifer depletion, genetic erosion, and pesticide pollution. This is
why we have to produce more in the coming decades but produce it differently.To achieve
such a shift, the followingbasic ground rules must be followedin technology developmentand
dissemination as well as in public policy.
First, production advances must be based on linking the ecological security of an areawith the livelihood security of the people in a symbiotic manner.
Second, steps must be taken to create widespread awareness of the human and animal
population supporting capacity of different ecosystems. Sustainable systems of managementof soil, water, biodiversity,and forests should be internalized in rural societies.
Third, since the poor remain poor, because they have no productive assets and there isno value to their time, asset creation and value addition to time should receive high priority inpoverty-alleviationprograms. Women belonging to the economically underprivilegedsectionsof the society,in particular, are often overworked and underpaid. What they need is a reduction in the number of hours of work and an increase in the economic value of each hour ofwork. This will call for massive efforts in information and skill empowerment of the poor, particularly women. The emerging technologies are largely knowledge-intensive and hence thetransfer of knowledge and market-driven skills can become the most powerful instrument forfighting poverty and deprivation. Modern information technology affords opportunities forreaching the unreached and thereby achieving a learning revolution within a short span oftime.
Four, equal attention is needed to the problems of the rural and urban poor. Lack of
livelihood opportunities in rural areas leads to the proliferation of urban slums. Damage tocommon property resources in villages results in the growth of environmental refugees (Myersand Kent, 1995). Since in many developingcountries agriculture—including crop and animalhusbandry, forestry, fisheries, and agro-processing—providesmost of the jobs and income inrural areas, the triple challenge of producing more food, income, and jobs from diminishing
per capita land, water, and nonrenewable energy sources can be met only through agriculturalintensification, diversification, and value addition. Integrated, intensive farming systems,
which are ecologically sustainable, are needed for this purpose.
Finally, an evergreen revolution of the kind described above can be imparted a self-propelling and self-replicating momentum only if it is based on the self-mobilization of the people. In all externally funded and introduced developmentprojects, there should be a built-in
withdrawal strategy, so that the program does not collapse when the external inputs are withdrawn.
IV. Meetingthe multidimensional

Research

Foundation

The responses

being

developed

challenges:

the response

and field tested

by MSSRF

of the M.S. Swaminathan
to identify

implementable241approaches

at the micro-

describedA.

and policy

levelsto meetthe challenges

outlinedearlierare briefly

of an area with the livelihood

securityof the local

below:

Linking

the ecologicalmunitv:creating

securityan economic

corn-stake in conservation

The communitybiodiversity program of MSSRF illustrateshow such mutually beneficial linkages can be fostered in biodiversity-rich areas. It is a sad fact that the tribal and rural families
who have conserved and enhanced biodiversity remain poor, while those who are utilizing the
products of their efforts become rich. When the conservers have no social or economic stakein conservation,denudation of natural ecosystems becomes more rapid. MSSRF has adopted
a three-pronged strategy for creating an economic stake in biodiversity conservation.
First, a transparent and implementable methodology has been developed for incorporating sui generis systems of plant variety protection procedures for recognizing and rewarding informal innovations in genetic resource conservation and enhancement (Swaminathan,1996).
Second,a symbiotic social contract between commercial companies and tribal and ruralfamilies is being fostered for the purpose of promoting the cultivationby local communities ofgenetic material of interest to the companies on the basis of buy-back arrangements. Such alinkage will prevent the primary material being unsustainably exploited.
Third, local women and men are trained in the compilation of biodiversity inventories
and in bio-monitoring, so that they themselves become custodians of their intellectual property. Such trained women and men constitute an AgrobiodiversityConservation Corps and will
be able to help their respective communities to deal with issues such as "prior informed consent" in the use of genetic resources.
For assisting the community biodiversity movement, MSSRF has established aTechnical Resource Centre for the implementation of the equity provisions of the Convention
on Biological Diversity. Since this is the first Technical Resource Centre of its kind in theworld, the six major components of the Centre are described below.
i.

Chronicling
ment

the contributionsof agrobiodiversity

Kerala,Andhraof tribal
through

Pradesh,and Orissa

group of islands.
ii. Organizationof an Agrobiodiversity
and men,and rural families

primary

who have a social

as wellCorpsof ecosystemof degradedsacredcommunities
Biologicalin dealing
Diversity

healthgroves.

with the "priorin the use of genetic

iii. Developmentof multimedia

families

conservation

242

in thewith the help of appropriate

The members

databasesof young

in their respective

priate training,
can undertake
tasks such as compilation
revitalizationof the in situ genetic conservation
traditions
monitoringin the states

as in the Lakshadweep

Conservation

stake in living

to the conservation

data collectionof the corps
informedand enhanceof Tamiland Greattribalvillages

Nadu,
Nicobarand rural women

and who, with appro-of local biodiversity
inventories,of their respective
communities,
bio-indicatorsand restoration

will be able to assist their respective

consent"

provisionof the Convention

onresources.
documenting

and improvement

the contributionsof agrobiodiversity,of tribal

and rural

for the purposeofenablingthem

to secure

theirentitlements

fromNational

and Global

Community

Gene

A Community

Gene

with

Funds.
iv. Maintenanceof a Community

Gene

Bank

and Herbarium

facilities for medium-term
storage has been established
to conserve-developed
seeds from the tribal areas of South India . The materialv.

linkedto the Technicalcenterfor the identification

servedby tribal and rural families.

Revitalization
recognitionof genetic

tribalmattersB.

conservation

replicableand rural families
adviceCentrerelating

modelsof plants

cell to maketraditional

traditions

Herbarium

cultivars

andfarmer-preserved

andwill be cataloged

andservesas a reference

medicinal

plantsand rural families

throughcon-socialand the creationof an economic

stakein conservation.

of private-sector

engagement

in contract

cultivationbylegal adviceinto tribal

property

canacitv

Theof tribal

of commercial

available

to intellectual

The nonulation-sunnorting

database.

of landraces,of their contributions

For this purpose,

vi. Legal

ResourceBankrightsvalue are being

and rural families
and plantof ecosystems:

variety

local-level

developed.
appropriate
protection.

socio-demographic

charter

In order to help internalize an understanding of the vital need to restrict population growthIn
within the supporting capacity of land, water, forests, and the other components of the ecosystem, training modules have been developed to enable the female and male members of villagelevel democratic institutions to prepare socio-demographic charters for their respective villages. A gender code is an important component of the charter. Such socio-demographic
charters will help local communities to view population issues in the context of social development and to ensure that children are born for happiness and not just for existence.

C. Information and skill empowerment
For this purpose, the concept of Information Villages has been developed (Swaminathan,1993). Trainedrural women and men will operate Information Shops where generic information on the meteorological, management, and marketing factors relevant to rural livelihoods
will be convertedinto location-specificinformation.Trained farm women and men themselves
become trainers. The computerized extension system adopted in the Information Shops also
helps to sensitize local families on their entitlements from government and other programs.
Information technologies provide considerable opportunities for value-added jobs in rural
areas. While new technologies are important, folk media are often even more effective inreaching the unreached. Hence, folk plays and folk art and theater are fully mobilized forachievinginformation empowerment. For ensuring the success of information empowerment
programs, the information disseminated should be demand-driven and should be locale-specific.
D.

Agricultural

This is achieved

intensification.
throughdiversification

participatory

researchand value-addition
with farm families.

grated pest management
and integrated
nutrient supply
involves the blending of the best in frontier technologies

Ecotechnologies

are used. Ecotechnology
with traditional
wisdomlike intedevelopment
and practices.

243

Modern science and the ecological prudence of the past can thus be combined (Swaminathan,1994).
Ecotechnologies are also practiced in aquaculture. Integrated agriculture and aquaculture techniques enhance both farm income and the nutrition security of the household. Wholevillages are being enabled to adopt such integrated, intensive farming systems (IIFS). Since
this approach is essential for meeting the triple goals of more food, income, and jobs from theavailable land and water resources, the seven basic principles guiding the IIFS movement aredescribed below:
i. Soil health careThis is fundamentalto sustainable intensification.IIFS fosters the inclusion of stem-nodulating legumes like Sesbania rostrata, incorporation of AzoIla,blue-green algae and othersourcesof symbiotic and non-symbiotic nitrogen fixation and promotion of cereal-legumerotation in the farming system. In addition, vermiculture composting and organic recycling
constitute essential components of IIFS. 'IFS farmers are trained to maintain a Soil Health
Card to monitor the impact of farming systems on the physical, chemical, and microbiologicalcomponents of soil fertility.
ii. Water harvesting and management
IIFS farm families include in their agronomic practices measures to harvest and conserve
rainwater, so that it can be used in a conjuctive manner with other sources of water. Where
water is the major constraint, technologies which can help to optimize income and jobs
from every liter of water are chosen and adopted. Maximum emphasis is placed on on-farmwater use efficiencyand on the use of techniques such as drip irrigation, which help to optimize the benefits from the available water.
iii. Crop and pest management
Integrated Nutrient Supply (INS) and Integrated Pest Management (IPM) systems form
importantcomponents of IIFS. The precise composition of the INS and IPM systems will
depend on the components of a farming system as well as on the agro-ecological and soil
conditions of the area. Computer-aided extension systems will provide farm families withtimely and precise information on all aspects of land, water, pest, and post-harvest management.
iv. Energy management
Energy is an important and essential input. Besides the energy-efficient systems of land,
water, and pest management described earlier, every effort will be made to harness biogas,
biomass, solar, and wind energies to the maximum extent possible. Solar and wind energy
will be used in hybrid combinations with biogas for farm activities like pumping water anddrying grains and other agricultural produce.
v. Post-harvest management
IIFS farmers will not only adopt the best available threshing, storage, and processing measures, but will also try to produce value-added products from every part of the plant or animal. Post-harvesttechnology assumes particular importance in the case of perishable commodities like fruits, vegetable, milk, meat, egg, fish, and other animal products andprocessed food. A mismatch between production and post-harvest technologies adversely244affects both producers and consumers. Growing urbanization leads to a diversification offood habits. Therefore there will be increasing demand for animal products like milk,cheese, eggs, and processed food. Agro-processing industriescan be promoted on the basisof an assessment of consumer demand. Such food processing industries should be promoted in villages in order to increaseemploymentopportunities for rural youth. In addition,
they can help to mitigate micronutrient deficiencies in the diet.
Investment in sanitary and phytosanitary measures is important for providing quality
food for both domestic consumers and export. To assist the spread of IIFS, government
should make a major investment in storage, roads, transportation, and on sanitary and phytosanitary measures.
vi. Choice of the crop and animal components of farming systems
In IIFS, it is important to give very careful consideration to the composition of the farming
system. Soil conditions, water availability,agro-climatic features, home needs, and above
all, marketing opportunities will have to determine the choice of crops, farm animals, andaquaculture systems. Small and large ruminants will have a particular advantage among
farm animals since they can live largely on crop biomass. Backyard poultry farming canhelp to provide supplementary income and nutrition.
vii.Information, skill, organization and management empowerment
IIFS is based on the principle of precision farming. Hence, for its success, the IIFS systemneeds a meaningful and effective information and skill empowerment system.
Decentralized production systems will have to be supported by a few key centralized services, such as the supply of credit, seeds, biopesticides, and animal disease diagnostics.
Ideally, an Information Shop will have to be set up by trained local youth in order to give
farm families timely information on their entitlements as well as on meteorological, management, and marketing factors. Organization and management are key elements and,depending on the area and farming system, steps will have to be taken to provide to small
producers the advantagesof scale in processing and marketing.
IIFS is best developed through participatory research between scientists and farm families. This will help to ensure economic viability, environmental sustainability, and social andgender equity in IIFS villages. The starting point is to learn from families who have alreadydeveloped successful IIFS procedures.
It shouldbe emphasized that IIFS will succeedonly if it is a human-centeredrather thana mere technology-drivenprogram. The essence of IIFS is the symbiotic partnership between
fanning families and their natural resource endowments of land, water, forests, flora, fauna andsunlight. Without appropriate public policy support in areas like land reform, security oftenure, credit supply, rural infrastructure, input and output pricing and marketing, small farm
families will find it difficult to adopt IIFS.
E.

IncreasingThe

biovillage

improvement
gram

farm and nonfarm
programaddressesof crop and animalin progressin villages

employment
three

productivity,in the Pondicherrykey

areas—preventing

and alleviation

resourceof poverty.

area of India places

degradation,

The biovillage

equal emphasispro-on off-farm245

livelihood opportunities and on-farm jobs. This program avoids a patronage approach topoverty alleviation.
It regards the poor as producers and innovators and helps to build their assets throughvalue addition to time and labor. The basic approach is on asset building and sustainablehuman development leading to the growth of entrepreneurship.
The programs are designed on a pro-nature, pro-poor, and pro-women foundation. By
placing emphasis on the strengthening of the livelihood security of the poor, the biovillage
model of sustainable development revolves around the welfare of the economically andsocially underprivileged.
It is thus a human-centeredpattern of development. The enterprises chosen are based onmarketing opportunities. The technological and skill empowerment of the poor is the major
approach.Because of the market-drivennature of the enterprises, the economic viability of thebiovillage approach is assured. Production and post-harvest technologies and farm and nonfarm occupationsare brought together in a manner that benefits both producers and consumers.
Biovillages around biosphere reserves would help in providing alternative sources ofmeeting the day-to-day needs for food, fuel, fodder, and other commodities of the families living near such biodiversity-rich areas. Also, biovillages near urban areas help to link the rural
producer and the urban consumer in a mutually beneficial partnership. By producing theprocessedand semiprocessedfood products needed in urban areas in the villages around towns
and cities, the need for the rural poor to migrate to urban centers for livelihood opportunities
is minimized.Also, food processing can be used as a method of providing the needed micronutrients by including millets and grain legumes in the food.
E The finalmilestone: a hunger-free world
The above represent some of the approaches adopted at MSSRF to overcome the challenges
of jobless growth, feminization of poverty and environmental degradation. The Tamil Nadu
Governmenthas recently decided to introduce a Hunger-Free Area Programme to end povertyinduced hunger in association with MSSRF.
Studies at MSSRF have shownthat by adding a horizontal dimension to numerous vertically structuredprograms and by promoting a coalition of all concerned with ending hunger
and deprivation,it is now possible to provide opportunitiesfor a healthy and productive life forall.
The problem of food and nutritionsecurity at the level of the individual has to be viewed
in three dimensions. First, inadequate purchasing power leads to calorie-protein undernourishment. Second, the lack of the needed quantity and variety of micronutrients and vitamins in
the diet leads to several nutritional disorders, including blindness caused by Vitamin A deficiency. This kind of problem is referred to as "hidden hunger," a problem which today affects
more than two billion people in the world. Third, lack of environmental hygiene and sanitation
leads to a low biological absorption and retention of food, due to intestinal infection and diarrhea. Thus, both food and nonfood factors assume importance in determining the nutrition
security of an individual. Concurrent action at all these levels is necessary in a Hunger-Free
Area Programme.

246

Development
and morethat is not equitable

equitable

ecotechnologies

world

is essential

and public

policies,

will not be sustainable
for our planet
there

in the long term.

remainingare now great

ever blue.

opportunities

A. Coastal

strategies

systems

and results:

research:someconservation

appropriate

for a better

present and future for all membersof the human family. It is to serve
will utilize the funds associatedwith the Blue Planet Prize.

V. Research

A hunger-freeGiventhis cause

commonthat MSSRF

examplesand development

The area of the Pichavaram

mangroveforest,degradedmatedusing remotesensingtechniques.

Betweenforestcover became

degraded.

Year

Area

Source1897

700 haForestDepartment,

1994

260 haRemoteSensingof Tamilecosystemsof 100 years,

1897 and 1994 nearly

GovernmentUnit,of mangrove

over a period

was esti-

63% of the mangrove

Nadu

MSSRF

A major cause for such large-scale degradation of the Pichavaram mangroves has been identified. Structural changes in the mangrove wetlands, particularly development of troughshaped topography,due to reduced inflow of fresh water and the consequent impoundment of
tidal water, increase soil and ground water salinity. High salinity was responsible for nearly
70% of the degradation. Grazing and felling for fuel were responsible for only 30% of thedegradation.
Techniquesto restore the areas degraded due to the formation of trough-shaped topography were developed and successfully demonstrated. The government management agency
is now adopting this technique for the restoration of another 100 ha of the degraded area of the
Pichavaram mangroves.
To arrest degradationdue to felling and grazing, an agroforestry system was introduced.
Techniquesof growing fodder species in the coconut and casuarina groves, the major agriculture plantations in the coastal areas, were successfully demonstrated with the participation of
the local communities. These techniques are now being replicated by the farmers themselves.
On the basis of the experience gained, a project titled "Coastal Wetlands: Mangrove
Conservation and Management" is being implemented in the major mangrove wetlands of theentire east coast of India. This project is supported by the India-Canada Environment Facility.
The goal of this project is to enhance the capacity of the local communities, voluntary organizations, grass-roots democratic institutions and government agencies to conserve,restore, andsustain mangrove wetlands through participatory research, training, and extension.
B. Biodiversity and biotechnology
i. Conservation
Themain objective of this program is Conservation of Endangered Plant Species. For thispurpose eight key areas ("hot spots") have been identified from the southern Western Ghats,247

such as Siruvani Hills, Gudalur Gene Pool Reserve, Kulathupuzha R.F. Kakki Hills, andSholayar.
The activities of this program include systematic collection, detailed description, ex
situ preservation of sample materials, storage of voucher specimens (herbarium) andmicropropagation.
The results of the study are as follows:• Collection of over 120 rare or threatened flowering plants including 20 species which•

are listed in various Red Data Books.
Assessment of the status and distribution pattern of these plants by using IUCN-revised•

threat status guidelines.
Development of a database for the rare and threatened••

Angiosperm Plant Database)
A herbarium for threatened/rare , medicinal, and traditional crop varieties.
Two species have been rediscovered (Sageraea grandiflora and Euonymous serrati-

plants collected(Rarefolius) and a new range of distribution for the species Crotalaria speciosa, Hydnocarpus
pendule, and Piper barberi has been recorded.
• Successful micropropagation of five endangered plant species collected .
During 1995, the Siruvani Hills have been periodically surveyed for monitoring of population dynamism of selected endangered plant species (e.g., Vateria macrocarps, Indigofera
constricta, Anaphyllum wightii, Crotalaria speciosa, and Anectochilus elation.

ii. Value addition through information
In southern India certain interesting characteristics accompany the tribal utilization ofplants. Often, many plants are used for a single purpose although other parts of the plants
may have potential utility values. For example, the following plants are used almost exclusively for their edible fruits and seeds: Bredelia retusa, Canthium dicoccum, Ficus racemosa, Madhuca longifolia var lalifolia, Palaqium ellipticum, Polyalthia cerasoides,
Scnlieichera oleosa, and Xylia xylocarpa. These plants are not used for construction or
making agriculturalimplements or other such uses.
Tribal use of plants is also characterized by diversity of choice. The majority of thehuman population depends on fewer than 100 plant species for most of their requirements.
In contrast, the tribal people living in southern India use several hundred. Thus a variety ofplants are used as edible greens:Amaranthus spp., Cansjeera rheedii, Colocasia esculenta,
Lycianthes laevis, Mukia maderaspatana, Talinumcuneifolium, and Trichosanthes nervifolia. Similarly,fruits of many plant species, to name a few like Carissa carandas, Cordia
obliqua, and Memecylonedule, are eaten by them.
This approach not only increases the choice of plants and hence the nutritional value
but also prevents overexploitation of any single or a few species. Ethnobotanical studies
conducted in Tamil Nadu by MSSRF reveal that the tribal communities use 223 plant
speciesfor various purposes, of which 88 plants are of edible value, 149 plants are used for
medicinal purposes, and 53 plants for other material purposes.
Tribal communities show prudence and ecological wisdom in resource utilization.

248

The Kadars of Tamil Nadu, for example, select only mature plants of the yam Dioscorea
for harvesting the tubers. They first examine the vine and choose only those whose leaves
are yellow, which is an indication of maturity. Tubers of young green vines are never dug
out. After harvesting the mature yams they cut off the upper portion of the tuber along withthe vine and replant it in the pit. They cover the pit with loose soil to allow the tuber toregrow for whoever may harvest it in the future. The community as a whole shares the harvest thus avoiding overexploitation. Part of the collection is stored for consumption during
the off-season.
Medicinal properties of plants have been recognized and utilized by tribal communities traditionally over thousands of years. Knowledge of some common local medicinal
plants is available from all members of the community. However, the elderly members
possess a great deal of knowledge of medicinal plants as well as of medicines for curingcertain life-threatening diseases. Tribal people use plants exclusively or in combination.
Some plants may be used for different disorders: for example, Calotropis gigantea is usedas vermicide and for chest pain, Centella asiatica for gynecological problems and for jaundice, Dodonaea viscosa for headache, stomachache and piles, Wrightia tinctoria for treating mumps and as a lactagogue. In certain cases a combination of different plants may be
used in the treatment of specific diseases. For example, Albizia lebbec together with Cassia
fistula and Euphorbia hirta is used for urinary disorder. Capparis zeylanica with Toddalia
asiatica is used for venereal disease. Each tribe has its own method of collecting the plants
as well as preparation of medicines. Dosage and duration of medication depend on the ageof the patient and the intensity of disease. Tribal people collect the plant part used for medicine at a particular time, such as either before flowering or fruiting, or in a particular season.
iii. Traditional agricultural practices of tribal communities
Tribal communities like Irulas, Malayalis, and Muthuvas inhabiting Tamil Nadu have beencultivating the traditional cultivars such as paddy, millets, pulses, and vegetable crops.
Nearly 58 traditional cultivars have so far been identified from the tribal communities, ofwhich 21 are minor millets. Their subsistence lifestyle, local dietary habits and dependence
on rain-fed irrigation have influenced them to cultivate and conserve the traditional cultivars or landraces. Many crops such as Panicum miliaceum, Echinocloa colona, Paspalum
scrobiculatum, and Setaria italica are now cultivated and conserved only by the tribal people in many parts of southern India. By selecting and conserving the seeds from one season to the next, they have been able to sustain the cultivation. For example, healthy cobs areleft in the field so as to allow them to dry for several days to make sure that no moisture isleft in the seeds. The selection of large and healthy seeds and the selection based on thecolor of the seeds (e.g., in the case of Castor seeds) have also helped them to ensure seedviability. The tribal communities prefer to continue the cultivation of traditional cultivars
as these are ecologically adapted and economically viable. The landraces and traditional
cultivars cultivated by tribal families are also drought- and disease-tolerant.
Community cooperation and participation prevailing particularly in the Malayali249

tribal community

have helped

such that every

familyimportantsomeoneneeds

returned.

This system

in a particulargranaryoccasionsthemseasonSeed material

in conserving

in the community

vest to the community
Duringthem

will contribute

maintained
likethe traditionala stipulated

and managed

marriages,sociallandraces.
amountby the chieftain

events,consumption,

grainscan be borrowed

has enabled

the tribe to conserve

the seed material

for sowing

stored for domestic

and the grains

for consumptionisof their harof the hamlet.

and festivals

for regularis less or if the grains

The practiceandon loan

also

when

and latereven if the produce

consumption

are exhausted.

are preservedin traditional

granaries.
These granaries
are made of bamboo
and coated with red soil. The roof is conical and is thatched with local grass. There is a free flow of air in the granaries,
which may
be one of the reasons

why the seeds

also stored

pots coveredmanyin earthen

varieties

community
as neemof cereals,

to maintain,

millets,preserve,

remainviablewith a cottonand legumes
and conserve

and Vitex are used in the granaries

until

cloth.

used the next time.
This indigenous

in Tamil Nadu.
the genetic

as insect

The seeds

practicearehas savedThis practicehas enabledthestrains.

of plants

such

Leavesand pest repellents.

iv. Patterns of distribution of vertebrate diversity on the Great Nicobar biosphere reserve
The Great Nicobar Island has been declared one of the eight biosphere reserves in India.
This island is unique for its endemic species. The MSSRF has taken up a three-year project in which the island is being mapped systematicallyfor distributionand diversity of vertebrates. This is being attempted for the first time in the history of the island.
More than 100 species of vertebrates including birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians,
and inland fish have been identified and their distributions recorded. The island has been
divided into 55 grids of five kilometers by five kilometers. Apart from the distribution ofvertebrates, the human impacts on each of these grids have been assessed. The various
human impacts have been scored appropriately. Simultaneously, the availability of wellpreserved habitats has also been assessed. Using this information, about 50% of the island
Conservation

Value Based on Habitat

Information

4
7
2

5

7

7
7

7
2

9

4

1
—2
1

250

9

3

1

3

1

0

that has alreadybeen mapped

grid map of the Great

best in termsof habitat

the island.

facingNicobarand thoseon this map for bettercharacterization

are the basic prelude
ies are difficult

markedproblemsonwill

the islandiswithinit

reserve.

of degreeof polymorphism

program.

Conventionaland so far no worthwhile

studies

genetic

have been carried

stud-

out on thisPublishedaccounts
are few and largely restricted
to some strayanalysis and enzyme
studies. Based on the available
information,

typic variability

in mangroves

into environmental

in conventionaland diversity
molecular

genetic

degreeusing molecularmarkers.

are not prone

characterization,from this groupof species

components.
on genetic

undertaken

on identification,

the observed

studiesmarkers

salt toleranceof confidence

and heritable
analysis,are beingtion, studies

Objectives• Documentationareas

and diversity

conservation

with a reasonable

markers,of ecologicalof the biospherein

9 are thedisturbed

distribution

and assessment

to partition

logical0 and -2 are the moston vertebrate

given

markedof a species

it is not possible

relationship,

The numbers

biologyin mangroves,and difficulties

value.

that the grids

to any meaningful

group of plant species.
reports on chromosome

delaysuggestunderstandingof management

and molecularconservation

Islandthat the informationand for recommendation

Biodiversity
Genetic

quality

It is envisaged

be superimposedv.

has been assigned

the following

to environmental

and isolation

are underof novelpheno-

In view of thepolymorphism,
Unlikemorpho-fluctuations.

In addi-genetic

traits such as

way.

of chromosome number and preparation of chromosome atlas for

Indian mangrove species• Analysis and assessment of the nature and extent of intra-site and inter-population
genetic diversity in different mangrove species• Development of species-specific genomic clones• Establishment of genetic relationships and evolutionary trends among mangrove
species
Identification and isolation of novel genetic combinations (e.g., salt-tolerant genes)
Mangrove species offer several physical and systemic constraints. They often occupy inaccessible habitats and there have been no proper identification criteria for different
species/varieties. The leaf and other tissues are rich in phenolics and other secondary
metabolites and mucilages.
•

Results obtained sofar• Somatic chromosome numbers have been determined for 12 mangrove species.
• Species-specificprotocols for isolation of enzyme-digestible genomic DNA have been
established for about 25 species.
• Genetic relationships have been established among species belonging to 21 mangrove
genera using molecular markers.
• Genetic polymorphism at inter- and intra-populationlevel have been worked out in 12

251

•

mangrovespecies.
More than 1,500•

genomic library of six mangrove
species.
Di- , tri- and tetra-nucleotide
repeat positive•

to design
A cDNA
protein

The number of populations
low-copy
genomic
clonesspecies-specificlibrary is being
expression

Conclusions• All the analyzed

cloneshave been identified

flanking primers.
constructed
for isolationin responsemangroveto stress

species

genes . Variation

are high polyploids
is species-specific.
and largely•

matic and other physicalcharacteristicsof the ecologicalzones the species inhabit.
Polymorphism
is independentof the morphologicalvariability
and the sexual nature•

the species.
Molecular
markerscould•

The 21 mangrove

genera•ter, the species show overall genetic
It would be possible to use molecular•

A few clones

be used
could

from

to stress-induced

for delineating

be grouped

the species

into five distinct

similarity.
markers

the genomic

instudied.

The observed

identified

variability

is beingof salt-tolerantand sequenced•

homologous

genetic

for each species ranged from six to 12.
have been identified
from the partial

for species
libraries

show

influenced

by the cli-

at populationlevel .

clusters. Withinidentification.

the presenceofeach clus-of sequences

gene sequences.

Species under study
The mangrove species under study include Avicenniamarina, A. officinalis,Acanthus
Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, R. lamarckii, Excoecaria agallocha,
Lumnitzera racemosa, Ceriops decandra, Bruguiera cylindrica, Aegiceras corniculatum,
Kandelia candel, etc. All these species were assessed for their intra-specific genetic polymorphism. In all these species, protocols for quality and enzyme-digestible DNA weredeveloped. The presence of large amounts of secondary metabolites like phenolics,
mucilage, and latex in these species complicate the process of purification as they co-precipitate along with the nucleic acids during the isolation steps. However, species-specificprotocols developed gave pure DNA/RNA preparations in these plants.
Both the random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and restriction fragment
length polymorphism (RFLP) fingerprintingpattern are being used to assess the intra- andinter-specificand intra- and inter-population genetic polymorphism in individual species.
In all these species distinct populations were selected both from the eastern and western
coasts of peninsular India. The samples collectedfrom these locations were used for isolation of DNA and further subjected to RAPD and RFLP analysis. About 10-15 plants fromeach population were used to account for the intra-population variations. Detailed RAPD
analyses were carried out on all the important genera using as many as 10 populations ineach species depending on their distributionand occurrence.
Our results show that the variation in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based
RAPD profile with the use of both 10 random primers and simple sequence repeats is252

species-specific and largely influenced by the climatic conditions and ecological zones the
species occupy. The variations observed are independent of the morphological variability
and also the reproductive nature of the plants. Population-specific markers have been developed in Acanthus ilicifolius. RFLP analyses were carried out in these species using the
genomic clones developed from the respective mangrove species. The results also reflect asimilar trend as observed in the case of RAPD analysis.
The genetic relationship between 20 mangrove species has been established using
molecular markers through PCR-generated random amplified polymorphic DNA profiling.
In all, 10 random primers were used that produced 172 amplification products. The presence and absence of these markers in 20 mangrove and one nonmangrove species(Rauvolfia tetraphilla) were scored and used for construction of a dendrogram for depicting the genomic relationship between the species. These species formed five distinct clusters with the nonmangrove species forming a separate operational taxonomic unit (OTU).
This is the first time a genetic relationship between a number of mangrove species has
been established using molecular markers. All 20 species taken up in this study include all
the species in the Pichavaram mangrove forest, Tamil Nadu.

Species-specificclones/ DNAprobes from mangroves
PCR-generated clones and clones developed by genomic libraries were used for our RFLP
studies. Genomicclones havebeen developedin the following mangrovespecies:Acanthus
ilicifolius, Avicennia spp., Excoecaria agallocha, Rhizophora spp., Ceriops decandra,
Bruguiera cylindrica, and Lumnitzera racemosa. The 1,000-plus clones including all theabove speciesare being maintained in pUC plasmids and selected clones are being used for
our RFLP experiments as DNA probes.
By screening all the clones using different microsatellites few DNA repeat-positive
clones were obtained. Characterization of these positives by double-stranded DNA
sequencing is under way in order to synthesize species-specificflanking primers for these
repeat sequences to analyze polymorphism profiles in these species more precisely.
Screening of the available clones and also generation of cDNA clones by cDNA
library construction is under way in order to isolate salt-stress induced genes. Promisingclones shallbe transferred to other plant species by transformationto look for its functional
capability to provide enhanced osmotic stress tolerance in the target plant.
C. Internalizing

the

ender

dimensionin develo

ment

nro

rams

The basic aim of the program area is advocacyto bring gender-relatedconcerns to the forefrontof the developmentprocess. Advocacy is at two levels—both to influence the policy process
and to create a climate of supportive public opinion. These findings are applicable to networking, training, and development of instructional materials.
The major research studies in the last two years relate to gender roles—one on the childcare needs of women working in the unorganized sector, and the other on women's multiple
roles and the management of breast-feeding. We havebrought to light importantfindings about
the way women handle their multiple roles, and these are being actively used for promoting253

woman-friendly policies in the economic arena, as well as for creating awareness among different interest groups like employers, professionals, and the media.
Communication draws on a wide range of approaches, from traditional folk performing
arts which are utilized to convey messages of sustainable development, to contemporary theater forms which are being used in an interactive and participatory way to give expression to
women's own voices through their own cultural idioms, as well as to explore the attitudes andvalues underlying social problems related to gender inequity and to bring these into the arenaof public discussion.
Electronic media (radio, TV, and video) are used both for training and dissemination ofideas as well as for "social marketing," that is, through repeated short messages on genderrelated themes. Journalism, literature, databases, documentation, and campaign materials arealso utilized to create wide awareness on these issues, while training materials are produced tohelp the groups engaged in public education.
D. Information

empowerment

The Informatics Centre in the Foundation has twin goals:
1. It functions as a service unit for all the laboratories and field units of the Foundation byoffering high-quality and consistent access to electronic databases and to the Internet.
2. It conducts designjobs that aim at use of modern information technology as a key technology in promoting learning and information dissemination for sustainable agriculturaland rural development and sustainable management of biological diversity.
The InformaticsCentre was established in December 1993 with a collection of personal computers, scanners, back-up devices, and printers with a rudimentary e-mail connection to
Internet. It had a collection of CD-ROM databases published by CAB International. In thethree years since inauguration,the hardware has been reasonably updated to keep pace with thevery rapid changes and developments resulting in the availability of a good laboratory fordesign of multimedia, navigable databases. The CD-ROM collection is considered to be thelargest in this country in the broad area of agricultural sciences, covering nearly 3.7 million
records. Since late 1995, full access to the Internet has been provided on a dial-up basis. In
terms of coverage,the CD-ROM facility is used by hundreds of visiting scientists from all overIndia every year.
The multimedia databases include the following:• Mangrove Ecosystems Information Service (MEIS)• Farmers' Rights Information Service (FRIS)• Ecological Farm Families of India
The MEIS is a collection of databases with global coverage: its experts' directory cov—ers 62 countries, its bibliography covers the period starting from 1975 (complementing the
UNESCO bibliography, 1600-1975), its sites and resources databases cover 22 sites in ninecountries in detail and 1,100 sites in 42 countries in a limited fashion. More than 700 visuals
are availablein a separate database.
The FRIS is a pilot multimedia database which functions as a component of theTechnical Resource Centre for implementing the equity provisions of the Convention on

254

Biological Diversity. The FRIS contains data in various forms (audio/video, text/numbers,
photos/diagrams) relating to tribal lifestyles, use of plant genetic resources, sacred groves,rare angiosperms, and related details for the states of Tamil Nadu and Orissa. Besides original
data, the FRIS provides detailed pointers to secondary information that is known but scattered.
The multimedia database on ecological farm families covers both technological andeconomic details of farms that use ecological techniques with high biological productivity.
This contains animations of technical processes.
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References
International Commission on Peace and Food. "Uncommon Opportunities. An Agenda for Peace and Equitable
Development."Report of the International Commission on Peace and Food (Chairman: M.S. Swaminathan).
London and New Jersey: Zed Books, 1994.
UNDP.Human DevelopmentReport. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Presidents' Council on Sustainable Development. "Sustainable America: A New Consensus for Prosperity,
Opportunity, and a Healthy Environment for the Future." Washington, D.C.: The Presidents' Council on
Sustainable Development, 1996.
Myers, Norman, and Jennifer Kent. EnvironmentalExodus-AnEmergent Crisis in the Global Arena. Washington
D.C.: Climate Institute, 1995.
Swaminathan, M.S. (ed.). Agrobiodiversityand Farmers' Rights. Madras: MSSRF, 1996.
Swaminathan, M.S. (ed.). Reaching the Unreached: Information Technology-A Dialogue. Macmillan India
Limited, 1993.
Swaminathan,M.S. (ed.).Reaching the Unreached: Ecotechnologyand Rural Employment-ADialogue. Macmillan
India Limited, 1994.

255

Major Publications
Dr. M.S. Swaminathan
Books
Swaminathan,M.S. Building a National Food Security System.Indian Environmental Society,
1981.
— .Scienceand Integrated Rural Development.New Delhi: Concept, 1982.
— .Science and the Conquest of Hunger. New Delhi: Concept, 1983.
Swaminathan, M.S., P.K. Gupta and V. Sinha (Eds.). Cytogenetics of Crop Plants. Madras:
Macmillan India, 1983.
Von Weizacker, E.V., M.S. Swaminathan and Aklilu Lemma (Eds.). New Frontiers inTechnologyApplication. Dublin: Tycooly International, 1983.
Swaminathan, M.S. and S.K. Sinha (Eds.). Global Aspects of Food Production. Dublin:
Tycooly International, 1985.
Zhensheng Li and M.S. Swaminathan (Eds.). Proceedings of the First International
Symposiumon ChromosomeEngineering in Plants. Beijing: Academia Sinica, 1986.
Swaminathan, M.S. and S.L. Kochhar (Eds.). Plants and Society. London: Macmillan, 1989.
Swaminathan, M.S. and Vineeta Hoon (Eds.). Biotechnology,Reaching the Unreached-an
interdisciplinarydialogue, Proceedings No. 3. Madras: Centre for Research on Sustainable
Agricultural and Rural Development (CRSARD), 1991.
Getubig,I.P.,V.L.Chopra and M.S. Swaminathan(Eds.).Biotechnologyfor Asian Agriculture,
Public Policy Implications. Kuala Lumpur: Asian and Pacific Development Centre, 1991.
Swaminathan,M.S. (Ed.) Biotechnologyin Agriculture,A dialogue. Madras: Macmillan India,
1991.
Swaminathan, M.S. and S. Jana (Eds.) Biodiversity,Implications for Global Food Security.
Madras: Macmillan India, 1992.
Swaminathan, M.S. and R. Ramesh (Eds.) Sustainable Management of Coastal Ecosystems.
Madras: Chrom Grafix, 1993.
Swaminathan, M.S. (Ed.) Information Technology,A dialogue. Madras: Macmillan India,
1993.
—.(Ed.) WheatRevolution,A dialogue. Madras: Macmillan India, 1993.
—.(Chairman, ICPF) Uncommon Opportunities, an Agenda for Peace and Equitable
Development.Report of the International Commission on Peace and Food. London and
New Jersey: Zed Books, 1994.
—.(Ed.) Ecotechnologyand Rural Employment,A dialogue. Madras: Macmillan India, 1994.
— .(Ed.) Farmers' Rights and Plant Genetic Resources,A dialogue. Madras: Macmillan India,
1995.
— .(Ed.) Agro-biodiversityand Farmers' Rights. Delhi: Konark, 1996.
— .Sustainable Agriculture, Towardsan Evergreen Revolution. Delhi: Konark, 1996.
— .Sustainable Agriculture, TowardsFood Security. Delhi: Konark, 1996.

256Articles
Swaminathan, M.S. "Our Common Agricultural Future." In Science, Ethics and Food, edited
by B.W.J. LeMay, 120-130. Washington: Smithsonian Institute Press, 1988.
— . "Global Agriculture at the crossroads." In Earth 88. Changing Geographic Perspectives,316-331. National Geographic Society, 1988.
— . "New Opportunities for Skilled Employment for Rural Women."Proc. Int. Conferenceon
Appropriate Technologiesfor Farm Women,29-34. ICAR, 1988.
— . "Seeds and Property Rights, A view from the CGIAR System." In Seeds and Sovereignty,
edited by J.R. Kloppenburg Jr., 230-254. Duke University Press, 1988.
— . "100th Birth Anniversary of Academician N.I. Vavilov."Indian J. Pl. Genetic Resources,
1 (1988), 1-5.
— . "Social Consequences of Genetic Engineering, Animals and Plants." In Proc. of the Sixth
Boehringer Ingelheim Symposium, edited by D. Weatherall and J.H. Shelley, 109-125.
Excerpta Medica, 1989.
— . "Genetic Conservation-microbes to man." In Plants and Society, edited by M.S.
Swaminathanand S.L. Kochhar, 102-123. London: Macmillan, 1989.
— . "Biotechnology and a Better Common Present." Kuala Lumpur: Asian and Pacific
DevelopmentCentre, 1989.
— . "AgriculturalProduction and Food Security in Africa." In The Challenges ofAgricultural
Production and Food Security in Africa, 29-64. Africa Leadership Forum, 1989.
— . "Small Farms and Sustainable Agriculture."In Sustainable Agriculture in India, edited by
Pradeep Chaturvedi, 29-37. New Delhi: Indian Association for Advancement of Science,
1990.
— . "Sustainable Management of Environmental Capital Stocks, Role of Technology
Blending." In TechnologyBlending and Agrarian Prosperity, edited by J.P.Verma and A.
Varma, 1-7. Mahotra, 1990.
— . "Jawaharlal Nehru and Agriculture in Independent India." J. Curr Sci., 59 (1990), 303307.
— . "Making Agricultural Progress Sustainable-Role of New Technologies." In Agricultural
DevelopmentPolicy,Adjustments and Reorientation, 108-132. New Delhi: Indian Societyof AgriculturalEconomics, 1990.
— . "Changing Nature of the Food Security Challenge, Implications for AgriculturalResearchand Policy."Sir John Crawford Memorial Lecture. Washington D.C.: Consultative Groupon InternationalAgricultural Research (CGIAR), 1990.
— . "Indian Agriculture, Accomplishments and Challenges.' In Glimpses of Science in India,
edited by U.S. Srivatsava, Diamond Jubilee Commemoration Volume, 25-48. Allahabad:
National Academy of Sciences, 1990.
— . "Agriculture and Food Systems." In Proc. of the Second World Climate Conference.
Geneva: World Meteorological Organization, 1990.
— . "Valedictory Address" to the Indian Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, edited by T.N.
Khoshoo and Manju Sharma, 273-286. New Delhi: Har-Anand and Vikas, 1991.
S.K. Sinha and M.S. Swaminathan."Deforestation, Climate Change and SustainableNutrition

257

Security,A Case Study of India?' J. Climate Change, 19 (1991), 201-209.
Swaminathan,M.S. "Environment and Development."J. Current Science,60 (II) (1991), 633635.
— . "Green Revolution and Small Farm Agriculture." "Point of View" in CIMMYTAnnual
Report, 12-15. Mexico, 1990.
"Biodiversityand Sustainable Agriculture, Look at It This Way." Outlook on Agriculture,
20 (1) (1991), 3-4.
Swaminathan, M.S. and E.A. Siddiq. "Rice Pest Management in India." Shell Agriculture, 10(1991), 31-35.
Swaminathan, M.S. "Agriculture and Food Systems." In, Climate Change, Science, Impacts
and Policy, edited by J. Jager and H.L. Ferguson, 265-277. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press,.1991.
SwaminathanM.S. "From Stockholmto Rio de Janeiro-The Road to SustainableAgriculture."
Monograph No. 4, M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Madras, 1991.(This has also
been translated into Chinese, Japanese and Hindi.)
Parry, Martin L. and M.S. Swaminathan. "Effects of Climate Change on Food Production." In
Confronting Climate Change. Risks, Implications and Responses, edited by Irwing, M.
Montzer, 113-125. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Swaminathan, M.S. "Agricultural Production in Africa." In The Challenges of Agricultural
Production and Food Security in Africa, editedby Olusegun Obasanjo and Hans d' Orville,
11-33.Washington: Crane Russak, 1992.
— . "The Green Revolutionin Indian Agriculturefrom an EnvironmentallySound Technology
Point of View."In EnvironmentallySound Technologyfor Sustainable Development,edited
by Dirk Pilari and David Philips Eade. Advanced Technology Assessment System (7).
New York: United Nations, 1992.
— . "Perspective for Crop Protection in Sustainable Agriculture." In Crop Protection andSustainable Agriculture, CIBA Foundation Symposium 177, 257-267. Chichester: John
Wiley, 1993.
— . "Food Security through Sustainable Agriculture." In Biotechnological Applications for
Food Security in Developing Countries, edited by H.C. Srivastava for Centre for Scienceand Technology of the Non-Aligned and Other Developing Countries, 3-50. New Delhi:
Oxford University Press and IBH Publishing Co., 1993.
Balakrishna P.and M.S. Swaminathan. "Biodiversityand Biotechnology,"New Opportunities(BCIL Journal) 1 (1994), 25-30.
Swaminathan, M.S. "Sustainable Agriculture."Environment, 36 (3) (1994), 3-4.
Balakrishna, P. and M.S. Swaminathan. "Screening Salt-Tolerant Rice Cultivars for Overall
Performance."Proc. Natl. Acad. Sciences (India), 54 (1994),133-142.
Swaminathan, M.S. "Methane Budget from Paddy Fields in India, Significance of the Study."
J. Current Science, 66 (1994), 888.
—. "GeneticDiversity and the Indian Seed Industry."In Patenting of Human Genes and Living
Organisms, edited by F. Vogel and R. Grunwald, 86-93. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York:
Springer, 1994.

258

Bui Ba Bong, F.U. Zamah, V.P. Singh and M.S. Swaminathan. "Techniques To EnhanceHybrid Rice Seed Production." Oryza, 31 (4) (1994), 266-270.
Bui Ba Bong, and M.S. Swaminathan. "Magnitude of Hybrid Vigor Retained in Double
Haploid Lines of Some Heterotic Rice Hybrids." Theor.Appl. Genet., 90 (1995), 253-257.
Ranjit Daniels, R.J., and M.S. Swaminathan. "Biosphere Reserves in the 21st Century
Country."Seville: MAB-UNESCO Conf. on Biosphere Reserves, 1995.
Swaminathan, M.S. "Population, Environment and Food Security."Issues in Agriculture No.
7. Washington D.C.: Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, 1995.
— . "Equity in Conservation,"EnvironmentalAwareness, 18 (1995),5-10.
— . "Blossoms in the Dust." People and the Planet, 4 (4) (1995), 26-27.
— . "Agriculture, Food Security and Employment, Changing Times, Uncommon
Opportunities."Nature and Resources, 31 (1) (1995), 2-15.
— . "Agricultural Productivity, Key to Food Security in Asia-Pacific." APO Productivity
Journal, Summer 1995, 112 - 142. Asian Productivity Organization, Tokyo.
— . "Science and Technology for Sustainable Food Security." Indian J. of Agricultural
Economics, 51 (1 and 2) (1996), 59-75.
— . "Compensating Farmers and Communities through a Global Fund for Biodiversity
Conservation for Sustainable Food Security."Diversity, 12 (3) (1996), 73-75 .
— . "International Agricultural Research and an Ever-green Revolution." CGIAR Annual
Report 1995-96, 65-75.
— . "Towards a Hunger-Free India." Kurukshetra, XLV (3) (1996), 3-8.
— . "Indian Agriculture, Looking Back and Forward," Yojana (ISSN-0971-8400), January
1997,5-13.
— . "Benjamin Peary Pal," Biographical Memoirsof Fellowsof the Royal Society,London, 42(1996), 267-274.

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