CSCAP MEMORANDUM NO. 31

Enhancing Marine Environment Protection in the Asia-Pacific Region

A Memorandum from theCouncil for Security Cooperation in the Asia Pacific (CSCAP)
March 2018

CSCAP MEMORANDUM NO. 31
ENHANCING MARINE ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION
IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION

Introduction
The Pacific Ocean is the world’s largest ocean, and along its western marginal seas aresome of the greatest concentrations of marine flora and fauna. The Coral Triangle alone,which stretches from the Philippine archipelago, eastern Malaysia, Indonesianarchipelago, and eastward to the Solomon Islands, is home to 76 percent of the world’s
known coral reefs species (605 out of 798), 37 percent of the world’s reef fish species(2,228 out of 6,000), and numerous species of marine turtles and cetaceans such as
whales and dugongs.1 The adjacent areas are equally rich in biodiversity, with the South
China Sea being home to as many as 500 species of corals.
Coral reefs, along with mangroves and seagrass, are among the most vital of marine
ecosystems as they serve as the spawning, nursing, and feeding grounds for several
endangered marine species and commercial fish. Healthy coral reefs are essential andprovide benefits not only for the littoral countries but for the entire region because of thephenomena of larval connectivity and the ocean currents. Coral reefs also contribute to
the protection of shorelines from erosion and severe weather.
However, coral reefs are also among the most vulnerable ecosystems in the region. For
instance, of the 91,700 square kilometers of coral reefs in Southeast Asia, 40 percent
have already been lost, 20 percent are at a critical stage, while 25 percent are
threatened.2 This, along with the overall degradation of the marine environment in the
Asia Pacific due to natural and man-made causes, can have potential adverse
implications for regional security, particularly economic and food security.
In light of the impact of marine environment challenges to regional security andsustainable economic development, the CSCAP Study Group examined the state ofmarine environment protection (MEP) in the Asia Pacific, using coral reefs as the focus
and case study, and national policies and regional mechanisms to protect the marine
environment.
The CSCAP Study Group’s objectives are to:(1) Promote regional cooperation in MEP to safeguard the coral reefs in the Asia Pacificregion for commercial and livelihood purposes
1 Presentation by Professor Edgardo Gomez of the University of the Philippines-Marine Sciences Institute (UP-MSI)

during the first meeting of the CSCAP Study Group on Marine Environment Protection in April 2016 in Manila, citing
the study by Veron, JEN, Devantier LM, Turak E, Green AL, Kinimonth S, et al. “Delineating the Coral Triangle,”
Galaxea, Journal of Coral Reef Studies 11: (2009), p. 93.
2 Presentation by Dr. Olof Linden of World Maritime University in Sweden during the first meeting of the CSCAP
Study Group on Marine Environment Protection in April 2016 in Manila.

2(2) Contribute to an understanding of maritime security in the Asia Pacific region that
includes the protection of the marine environment, and(3) Help build habits of cooperation among states in the Asia Pacific region through MEP

Marine Environment Protection and Regional Security
The destruction of the marine environment including the coral reefs can lead to dwindlingfish supply amid rising demands. For coastal communities – 120 million people aroundthe Coral Triangle alone are directly dependent on fishing – this could mean uncertainty
in their livelihood and food supply. This could also result in social disruption and tension,
including an increase in number of internally displaced persons and increase in migration
flows in the region. This in turn could impose additional burdens on the states’ coast
guards, other maritime law enforcement agencies, and navies.
The destruction of marine ecosystems may also force fishermen to resort to poaching ofendangered species and fish farther from the coasts. This could heighten the ongoing
disputes over marine resources and jurisdictional issues in the Asia Pacific.
Another impact of marine environment degradation is the loss of long-term opportunities
in areas of marine tourism, aquaculture, and commercial fisheries, including the multibillion dollar tuna industry.
Threats to the Marine Environment
The coral reefs and the broader marine environment in the Asia Pacific face significant
threats from both natural and human-induced causes, which include:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)

Ocean warming and ocean acidification resulting in the death of coral reefs;
Destructive fishing practices and overfishing, including cyanide fishing and blasting,and entry of alien and invasive species;
Harvest of endangered species such as giant clams and others;
Human activities such as coastal development, land reclamation, shoreline
hardening, and removal of mangroves that can smother corals and alter marine
ecosystems;
Pollution from land-based sources, including sewage and agricultural and industrial
run-off;
Pollution from sea-based activities such as seabed mining and offshore oil and gas
exploration and exploitation;
Pollution from dumping in rivers, harbors and at sea;
Pollution from vessels, including the risk of collision, oil spills, and grounding on coral
reefs due to noncompliance with international regulatory standards on shipping.

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Challenges to Governance
A. National level
Through a discussion of respective national policies and experiences of Asia-Pacificcountries on marine environment protection, the Study Group has noted the following
common challenges:
(1)
(2)
(3)

Inadequate ratification of and accession to international conventions on marine
environment protection and their adoption into the national laws and policies;
Poor interagency collaboration among ministries within national governments andweak enforcement of marine environmental laws;
Lack of public awareness of marine environment issues, laws and policies, making
stakeholder participation in MEP not as inclusive and informed as it could be.

B. Regional level
At the regional and global levels, mechanisms have been established to protect themarine environment, including coral reefs. Collaborative initiatives are being undertaken
through programs such as the Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seasof East Asia (PEMSEA), ASEAN Center for Biodiversity (ACB), and Coral Triangle
Initiative (CTI), UNEP Coordinating Body on the Seas of East Asia (COBSEA), and theInternational Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI), among many others.
There are declarations and initiatives for more regional coordination body or regional
instrument for the management of the uses and protection of the marine environment but
specific rules have not yet been agreed upon. There continue to be gaps as existing
programs on MEP have different geographic scopes, different actors, and different priority
areas, and species covered.
In addition, the success of regional mechanisms relies on effective implementation bynational governments. There is also a need to pursue marine environment protection at
different levels – regional, national, and even sub-national.
There is also a general lack of consultation and coordination among littoral states in the
management of marine resources. Despite the interlinkages of marine environment
issues and challenges, policies in the region are not harmonized. There is no process toreview non-ratified treaties, and states also have different levels of compliance withexisting international agreements on marine environment protection.
Territorial,jurisdictional, and maritime disputes also pose hindrances to cooperation.
Scientific research on the marine environment is also not being actively shared due theabsence of any institutional mechanism that would centralize such knowledge. Reportson the status of the marine environment and resources in the South China Sea, forinstance, are often published by academic institutions from the West rather than by the4countries surrounding it, one reason being that research is often conducted in the local
languages and not published in international scientific journals.
Recommendations
Based on the foregoing points, the following recommendations are made:A. Principles
States should strengthen compliance with legal instruments for the protection of theoceans. Central to this framework is the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of
the Sea (UNCLOS) that provides the general obligation of states to protect and preserve
the marine environment regardless of geographic boundaries and despite the existenceof disputes. Other related instruments for marine environment protection that are also
relevant to coral reefs are the 1992 Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), and the 2015 Paris
Climate Conference Agreement.
Countries should also observe at all times generally accepted principles for protecting themarine environment, such as the polluter pays principle which provides that those who
produce pollution should bear the costs of repairing the damage it caused; theprecautionary principle, which provides that preventive action should be taken in the faceof scientific uncertainty on the harmful effects of activities on the environment; and the
public trust doctrine, which states that certain areas should be preserved for public use.
Protecting the coral ecosystems in the region must also be based on the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDG) adopted by the United Nations. SDG 14, in particular, calls on
countries to manage and protect the marine environment, stop overfishing, and conserveat least 10 percent of all coastal marine ecosystems by 2030.
B. Specific Action Plans
Countries in the Asia Pacific should enhance the management of the regional seas
without prejudice to national interests and for the common good of the region. In thisregard, the following actions may be considered:
1.

Identification of sensitive habitats and resources with a view to proposing marine
protected areas (MPAs) and networks of MPAs. Mapping of all natural resources,
habitats, and human activities in the region’s marine ecosystems may beundertaken through close consultations with marine scientists, and international
marine law and policy experts. This can be a first step toward identifying whichareas are to be designated as MPAs, and to exploring the establishment of abinding regional instrument and regional coordinating body for the management of
the marine environment.

2.

Establishment of a regional network of marine scientists and sharing of scientificdata. A repository can be established to compile research studies and5environmental risk assessments, link libraries to create a singular inventory, andprioritize translation of available studies into English. A regional network can also
facilitate research collaborations among scientists and address asymmetries inexpertise among countries.
3.

Exchange of knowledge on technologies for coral preservation and restoration.
These technologies include the cultivation, reproduction, and transplantation ofcorals, and the use of artificial reefs. Governments can provide funding to coral
restoration projects in the region, and support further research on how coral reefs
can adapt to climate change and rising ocean temperatures.

4.

Supporting the work of regional bodies. This can be done by harmonizing national
policies with regional objectives and by providing funding support for these bodies
to continue operating.

5.

Strengthening the institutional and legal frameworks and undertaking necessaryreforms in national maritime management agencies.

6.

Promoting a community-based approach to MEP through education and capacitybuilding. Regional programs and national policies have no impact unless they are
implemented at the local level. Aside from local coastal communities, otherstakeholders such as non-government organizations (NGOs), private businesses,
and the tourism sector should be educated and empowered to better implement
programs on marine environment protection.

Role of ASEAN
ASEAN can take a lead in promoting multilateral cooperation on the management ofregional seas by raising actionable and concrete proposals. ASEAN should maintain
MEP and preservation as a priority in its Community-building process and a key agenda
in the ASEAN Regional Forum, Expanded ASEAN Maritime Forum (EAMF), and other
ASEAN-led mechanisms. ASEAN and other member countries of the ARF, EAMF, andrelated bodies must work closer together toward a comprehensive and integrated
approach to MEP.
Role of CSCAP
CSCAP should continue facilitating linkages among scientists, technical experts, andacademic communities from Asia-Pacific countries to help policymakers become moreaware of marine environment issues and their potential impact on national and regional
security. The interface between policy makers and marine scientists should be
strengthened. CSCAP should carry on its role in providing platforms for discussion andcooperation on MEP.
CSCAP Member Committees should be more proactive in keeping coral reef ecosystems
a priority agenda in discussions on MEP, and in advancing the recommendations of the
6Study Group in their respective governments. Continuous engagement and informationsharing with relevant national agencies must be maintained to propel those ideas toaction.
Conclusion
Recognizing that the health of marine ecosystems has an impact on regional security,and that the vitality of resources underpins economic development, CSCAP is committed
to promote an integrated, coordinated, and cooperative approach to MEP in the region.
CSCAP underscores that MEP is both a necessity for the Asia Pacific and an opportunity
for confidence building toward greater regional security.

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About the Study Group on Marine Environment Protection
Three Study Group (SG) meetings were held in a span of ten months, for a total of
about 23 hours. Twenty-one resource persons/subject matter experts from 16 countries
spoke in these meetings, many of them attending more than one SG meeting. CSCAP
Philippines was the lead proponent, and co-chaired by CSCAPs Australia, China,
Singapore, New Zealand, and Vietnam.
The agenda in the three SG meetings could be clustered into five topics, namely:
1. Description of the physical landscape and state of the ecosystem and biodiversity inthe maritime areas of the Asia Pacific region;
2. Sharing of maritime policies, laws, and best practices on marine environment
protection (MEP) by some countries, including those on coral reefs;
3. Discussion on the challenges to MEP, with focus on their implications to regional
security;
4. Discussion on bilateral and multilateral cooperation on MEP such as in marine
pollution, oil spills, overfishing, law enforcement, and protection of coral reefs; and5. Discussion on how to enhance MEP cooperation in the Asia Pacific region.
The CSCAP Memorandum on MEP was made possible through the contributions of, inalphabetical order: Dr. Edgardo Gomez, University of the Philippines; Cheryl Rita Kaur,
Maritime Institute of Malaysia; Youna Lyons, National University of Singapore; Dr.
Bevan Marten, Victoria University of Wellington; Prof. Niu Wentao, State Oceanic
Administration; Linda Paul, Pacific Forum CSIS; Dr. Robin Warner, University of
Wollongong; and Dr. Sukjoon Yoon, Korea Institute for Maritime Strategy. The
participation of government officials from the State Oceanic Administration of China,
National Institute of Oceanography of India, and the Philippines’ Department ofEnvironment and Natural Resources, and regular participants from CSCAP Member
Committees resulted in well-rounded discussions, and brought together scientists andpolicymakers.

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ABOUT CSCAP
CSCAP is a non-governmental (second track) process for dialogue on security issues in
the Asia Pacific. Membership in CSCAP is on an institutional basis and consists ofMember Committees. Current membership comprises Australia, Brunei Darussalam,
Cambodia, Canada, China, the EU, India, Indonesia, Japan, the Democratic People’s
Republic of Korea, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar New Zealand,
the Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam and the USA.
The functions of CSCAP are as follows:a. to provide an informal mechanism by which political and security issues can be
discussed by scholars, officials, and others in their private capacities;
b. to encourage the participants of such individuals from countries and territories in
the Asia Pacific on the basis of the principle of inclusiveness;c. to organise various working groups to address security issues and challenges
facing the region;d. to provide policy recommendations to various intergovernmental bodies onpolitical-security issues;e. to convene regional and international meetings and other cooperative activities forthe purpose of discussing political-security issues;
f. to establish linkages with institutions and organisations in other parts of the world
to exchange information, insights and experiences in the area of regional politicalsecurity cooperation; andg. to produce and disseminate publications relevant to the other purposes of theorganisation.
Study Groups are the primary mechanism for CSCAP activity.
This memorandum was produced by the CSCAP Study Group on Maritime Environmental
Protection.
Further information on CSCAP can be obtained from the CSCAP website atwww.cscap.org or by contacting the CSCAP Secretariat:
CSCAP Secretariat
c/o ISIS Malaysia
1 Persiaran Sultan Salahuddin
PO Box 12424
50778 Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia
T: +603-2693 9366 Ext 125
F: +603-2693 9375
E: cscap@isis.org.my

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CSCAP Memoranda

CSCAP Memoranda are the outcome of the work of Study Groups approved by the Steering
Committee and submitted for consideration by the ASEAN Regional Forum and other bodies.
 Memorandum No.30 – Preventive Diplomacy: Promoting Prospects or Mediation and PeacefulSettlement of Disputes in the Asia Pacific Region
Author: Study Group on Preventive Diplomacy
Date published: December 2017
 Memorandum No.29 – Harmonisation of Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue (SAR)
Author: Study Group on Harmonisation of Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue (SAR)
Date published: July 2017
 Memorandum No.28 – Energy Security in the Asia Pacific Region
Author: Study Group on Energy Security
Date published: June 2016
 Memorandum No.27 – Implementation of UNSCR 1540
Author: Study Group on Countering the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction in the
Asia PacificDate published: April 2015
 Memorandum No.26 – Towards an Effective Regional Security Architecture for the Asia PacificAuthor: Study Group on Regional Security Architecture
Date published: June 2014
 Memorandum No.25 – Maritime CBMs, Trust and Managing Incidents at Sea Author: Study
Group on Principles for Good Order at Sea
Date published: June 2014
 Memorandum No.24 – Safety and Security of Vital Undersea Communications Infrastructure
Author: Experts Group on Vital Undersea Communications Infrastructure
Date published: May 2014
 Memorandum No.23 – Enhancing Water Security in the Asia PacificAuthor: Study Group on Water Resources Security
Date published: January 2014
 Memorandum No.22 – Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction
Author: Study Group on Countering the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction in the
Asia PacificDate published: September 2012
 Memorandum No.21 – Implications of Naval Enhancement in the Asia PacificAuthor: Study Group on Naval Enhancement in the Asia PacificDate published: August 201210 Memorandum No.20 – Ensuring A Safer Cyber Security Environment
Author: Study Group on Cyber Security
Date published: May 2012
 Memorandum No.19 – Reduction and Elimination of Nuclear Weapons
Author: Study Group on Countering the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction in the
Asia PacificDate published: February 2012
 Memorandum No.18 – Implementing the Responsibility to Protect (RtoP)
Author: Study Group on the Responsibility to Protect (RtoP)
Date published: September 2011
 Memorandum No.17 – Promoting the Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy
Author: Study Group on Countering the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction in the
Asia PacificDate published: June 2011
 Memorandum No.16 – Safety and Security of Offshore Oil and Gas Installations
Author: Study Group on Safety and Security of Offshore Oil and Gas Installations
Date published: January 2011
 Memorandum No.15 – The Security Implications of Climate Change
Author: Study Group on the Security Implications of Climate Change
Date published: July 2010
 Memorandum No.14 – Guidelines for Managing Trade of Strategic Goods
Author: Export Controls Experts Group (XCXG)
Date published: March 2009
 Memorandum No.13 – Guidelines for Maritime Cooperation in Enclosed and Semi-Enclosed
Seas and Similar Sea Areas of the Asia PacificAuthor: Study Group on Facilitating Maritime Security Cooperation in the Asia PacificDate published: June 2008
 Memorandum No.12 – Maritime Knowledge and Awareness: Basic Foundations of Maritime
Security
Author: Study Group on Facilitating Maritime Security Cooperation in the Asia PacificDate published: December 2007
 Memorandum No.11 – Human Trafficking
Author: Study Group on Human Trafficking
Date published: June 2007
 Memorandum No.10 – Enhancing Efforts to Address Factors Driving International Terrorism
Author: Study Group on Enhancing the Effectiveness of the Campaign Against International
Terrorism with Specific Reference to the Asia Pacific Region
Date published: December 2005

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 Memorandum No.9 – Trafficking of Firearms in the Asia Pacific Region
Author: Working Group on Transnational Crime
Date published: May 2004
 Memorandum No.8 – The Weakest Link? Seaborne Trade and the Maritime Regime in the Asia
Pacific
Author: Working Group on Maritime Cooperation
Date published: April 2004
 Memorandum No.7 – The Relationship Between Terrorism and Transnational Crime
Author: Working Group on Transnational Crime
Date published: July 2003
 Memorandum No.6 – The Practice of the Law of the Sea in the Asia PacificAuthor: Working Group on Maritime Cooperation
Date published: December 2002
 Memorandum No.5 – Cooperation for Law and Order at Sea
Author: Working Group on Maritime Cooperation
Date published: February 2001
 Memorandum No.4 – Guidelines for Regional Maritime Cooperation
Author: Working Group on Maritime Cooperation
Date published: December 1997
 Memorandum No.3 – The Concepts of Comprehensive Security and Cooperative Security
Author: Working Group on Comprehensive and Cooperative Security
Date published: December 1995
 Memorandum No.2 – Asia Pacific Confidence and Security Building Measures
Author: Working Group on Confidence and Security Building Measures
Date published: June 1995
 Memorandum No.1 – The Security of the Asia Pacific Region
Author: CSCAP
Date published: April 1994

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