Employment Quality
Community Wellbeing
Biological Diversity
MAKING TOURISM
MORE SUSTAINABLE
A Guide for Policy Makers

Economic Viability
Local Control
Physical Integrity

Environmental Purity
Local Prosperity
Visitor Fulﬁllment

United Nations Environment Programme
Division of Technology, Industry and Economics
39-43 Quai André Citroën
75739 Paris CEDEX 15, France
Tel: +33 1 44371450 • Fax: +33 1 44371474
E-mail: unep.tie@unep.fr • www.unep.fr

Cultural Richness

World Tourism Organization
Capitán Haya 42 · 28020 Madrid, Spain
Tel: +34 91 567 81 00 • Fax: +34 91 571 37 33
E-mail: omt@world-tourism.org • www.world-tourism.org

Resource Eﬃciency
Social Equity

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

ii

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Foreword
Foreword

International tourist arrivals have almost quadrupled over the past 30 years anddomestic tourism has also intensiﬁed in most developed and newly industrializedcountries. At the same time, tourist movements have spread geographically to reachpractically all countries of the globe, becoming for many of them an importanteconomic sector in terms of income generation, foreign exchange earnings andemployment creation.
Awareness about sustainability issues—which referred originally to the naturalenvironment but now also covers the social, economic and cultural spheres as wellas the built environment—also developed signiﬁcantly over those 30 years. Today,
most governments, international development agencies, trade associations, academic
institutions and non-governmental organizations acknowledge that, without
sustainability, there cannot be development that generates beneﬁts to all stakeholders,solves serious and urgent problems such as extreme poverty, and preserves theprecious natural and man-made resources on which human prosperity is based.
The tourism sector could not remain indiﬀerent to the sustainability challengeof our times. This is why the World Tourism Organization (WTO) focuses its
advisory and technical assistance services on policies, development guidelines,
management techniques and measurement instruments that allow national and local
governments, as well as the tourism industry, to incorporate sustainability principles
into their decision making process and day-to-day operations. This is why the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has initiated a programme that aims at
integrating environmental sustainability into decision making in the tourism industry
and into consumers’ purchasing choices, by disseminating technical know-how andbuilding business networks to catalyse ‘sustainability’ in the tourism sector.
Making Tourism More Sustainable: a Guide for Policy Makers builds on UNEP and
WTO’s previous work on diﬀerent aspects of sustainability, undertaken over the pastten or so years. This is the ﬁrst time that the two organizations have combined their
input in a joint eﬀort to condense all aspects of the sustainability of tourism intoa single publication. In addition to earlier work by WTO and UNEP, an extensive
research survey was undertaken within WTO Member States, in 2003 and 2004,
to identify speciﬁc policies and tools applied in their territories that had eﬀectively
contributed to making their tourism sector more sustainable. The conclusions drawn
and the policies and tools recommended in this Guide are therefore based on realcases, collected from around the world, that have proven to be eﬀective and successfulin achieving the aims of sustainable development.
Development of the Guide, which provides a blueprint for governments to formulate
and implement sustainable tourism policies, was one of the most important building
blocks in the partnership between UNEP and WTO, also beneﬁting, in this case,from a Ford Foundation grant.
Each national or local government will surely need to select those policies and tools
considered most suitable to its particular circumstances, and adapt them to theconditions prevailing in its country, region or local jurisdiction.

iii

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Foreword

The Guide deﬁnes what sustainability means in tourism, what are the eﬀective
approaches for developing strategies and policies for more sustainable tourism, andthe tools that would make the policies work on the ground. It shows clearly that
there is no ‘one-ﬁts-all’ solution to address the question of sustainability in tourism
development. It does, however, highlight one key universal message: to succeed in
making tourism more sustainable it is crucial to work hand in hand with all relevant
stakeholders, within and outside government. Therefore—although the report is
aimed mainly at governments—public authorities at all levels are encouraged todisseminate its contents to those private and non-governmental organizations thathave an interest in ensuring the long-term success of the tourism sector, especially thewide range of tourism businesses and their trade associations.
The long standing partnership between the WTO and UNEP is a living example ofthe need for and beneﬁts of cooperation.

iv

Francesco Frangialli

Klaus Toepfer

Secretary General
World Tourism Organization

Executive Director
United Nations Environment Programme

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements
Conception, technical editing and supervision
Giulia Carbone (UNEP) and Eugenio Yunis (WTO)

Principal consultant
Richard Denman, The Tourism Company, United Kingdom

English language editor
Geoﬀrey Bird

DesignThe Graphic Environment

UNEP and WTO are grateful to the following for their input
For contribution to the case studies:
Australia: Alice Crabtree, David Morgans
Bulgaria: Kamelia Georgieva
Costa Rica: Amos Bien
Egypt: Bill Meade, Ahmed Hassan
Ghana: Wouter Schalken
Mexico: Liliana Garcia Huerta
Kaikoura, New Zealand: Kirsty Quickfall, Ian Challenger
South Africa: Anna Spenceley, Johann Kotze
Calvia, Spain: Rachel Dodds
Scotland, UK: Sandy Dear, Jon Proctor

Additional contributions to the text:
The International Ecotourism Society

Information on speciﬁc examples or topics:
Sylvie Barrere, Dirk Belau, Sylvie Blangy, Ralf Buckley, Kelly Bricker, Hugh Cresser,
John Downes, Andy Drumm, Steve Edwards, Enzo Finocchiaro, Miriam Geitz, Douglas
Hainsworth, Herbert Hamele, Moosa Zameer Hassan, Marion Hammerl, Veronika
Holzer, Martha Honey, Maxi Lange, Marcel Leijzer, Manoa Malani, Marie Louise
Mangion, Salvador Semitier Marti, Rabi Jung Pandey, Anna Quartucci, Laure Sagaert,
Jennifer Seif, Mercedes Silva, Murray Simpson, Claire Stott, Richard Tapper, Jean-Paul
Teyssandier, Yara Zuniga.

UNEP and WTO are grateful to the Ford Foundation for its
ﬁnancial support which has made this project possible.

v

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

vi

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

FOREWORDiii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

vii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ix

INTRODUCTION

1

1 TOURISM AND SUSTAINABILITY
1.1 Tourism: dynamism and growth
1.2 Sustainable development: an evolving agenda
1.3 Tourism and sustainable development: a special relationship1.4 Making all tourism more sustainable
1.5 Key challenges for more sustainable tourism
1.6 International recognition
1.7 Guiding principles and approaches
1.8 An agenda for sustainable tourism
1.9 Governments, the market and the industry’s view
1.10 The crucial role of government

7
8
8
9
11
12
14
15
18
20
23

2 POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF A SUSTAINABLE TOURISM AGENDA
2.1 Economic Viability
2.2 Local Prosperity
2.3 Employment Quality
2.4 Social Equity
2.5 Visitor Fulﬁlment
2.6 Local Control
2.7 Community Wellbeing
2.8 Cultural Richness
2.9 Physical Integrity
2.10 Biological Diversity
2.11 Resource Eﬃciency
2.12 Environmental Purity

25
26
28
30
32
33
34
36
38
39
41
44
46

3
3.1
3.2
3.3

STRUCTURES AND STRATEGIESStructures for working together
Interrelated national strategies
Integrating national and local level strategies

49
50
53
56

4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5

SHAPING SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
Developing a sustainable tourism strategy
Determining the level and nature of tourism
Inﬂuencing tourism development
Inﬂuencing the operation of tourism enterprises
Inﬂuencing visitors—promoting sustainable consumption

59
60
63
66
68
69

Table of Contents

Table of Contentsvii

Table of Contents

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

5 INSTRUMENTS FOR MORE SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
5.1 Measurement instruments

71
72

5.2 Command and control instruments
5.2.1 Legislation, regulation and licensing
5.2.2 Land use planning and development control
5.3 Economic instruments
5.3.1 Taxes and charges
5.3.2 Financial incentives and agreements
5.4 Voluntary instruments
5.4.1 Guidelines and codes of conduct
5.4.2 Reporting and auditing
5.4.3 Voluntary certiﬁcation
5.4.4 Voluntary contributions
5.5 Supporting instruments
5.5.1 Infrastructure provision and management
5.5.2 Capacity building
5.5.3 Marketing and information services

78
78
82
89
89
93
95
95
99
102
106
108
108
112
118

CONCLUSIONS: THE WAY FORWARD

125

CASE STUDIES
Australia: strategies leading to practical tools
Bulgaria: National Ecotourism Strategy and Action Plan
Costa Rica: commitment supported by certiﬁcation
Egypt: Red Sea Sustainable Tourism Initiative
Ghana: community based tourism initiative
Mexico: Agenda 21 for tourism in Mexico
Kaikoura (New Zealand): sustainability of a small community
South Africa: Tourism White Paper and subsequent initiatives
Calvià (Spain): Local Agenda 21 and resort rejuvenation
Scotland (UK): Tourism and Environment Forum andGreen Tourism Business Scheme

129
130
135
139
144
149
153
157
162
167
172

ANNEX 1Baseline issues and indicators of sustainable tourism

177
178

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
General information on sustainable development: impacts and principles
Sustainable development of tourism: principles, policies and guidelines
Structures and strategies to work with other stakeholders
Measurement instruments
Command and control instruments
Economic instruments
Voluntary instruments
Supporting instruments

181
182
183
189
191
191
194
196
199

CONTACTS FOR FURTHER INFORMATION

203

5.1.1 Sustainability indicators and monitoring
5.1.2 Identifying the limits of tourism

viii

72
75

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

CBD
CFCs
CSD
CSR
EIA
GRI
ICZM
ILO
IUCN
LA21
LAC
MSME
NGO
SEA
TIC
TOI
UNDP
UNEP
UNESCO
USAID
WSSD
WTO
WTTC

List of Abbreviations

List of Abbreviations
Convention on Biological Diversity
Chloroﬂuorocarbons
Commission on Sustainable Development
Corporate social responsibility
Environmental impact assessment
Global Reporting Initiative
Integrated coastal zone management
International Labour Organisation
International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (World Conservation Union)
Local Agenda 21
Limits of acceptable change
Micro, small and medium sized enterpriseNon-governmental organisation
Strategic environmental assessment
Tourist information centre
Tour Operators’ Initiative
United Nations Development Programme
United Nations Environment Programme
United Nations Educational, Scientiﬁc and Cultural Organisation
The US Agency for International Development
World Summit on Sustainable Development
World Tourism Organization
World Travel and Tourism Councilix

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

xIntroduction

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Introduction

Tourism is an activity that has grown by around 25 per cent in the past 10 years. It
now accounts for around 10 per cent of the world’s economic activity and is one of themain generators of employment. However, it also has major impacts on the naturaland built environments and on the wellbeing and culture of host populations. In
roughly that same period, the concept of sustainable development has become widely
accepted as the way to a better future, even though its roots go back to the 1980s.
It is against this background that Making Tourism More Sustainable: A Guide for Policy
Makers views the eﬀects of tourism, both positive and negative. In this context, theGuide examines ways in which principally governments but also other stakeholders
can develop strategies, policies and tools to maximize the industry’s positive eﬀects
while minimizing the negative impacts.
Tourism can play a signiﬁcant role in sustainable development and the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Tourism Organization(WTO) wish to encourage all countries to make sure that their policies and actions
for its development and management fully embrace the principles of sustainability.
Likewise, policies to promote sustainable development should take full account of theopportunities oﬀered by tourism.
Various international conventions and declarations have put forward principles
and guidelines for sustainable tourism and the importance of tourism andits sustainability was underlined at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable
Development. Many countries declare that they are pursuing, or wish to pursue,
policies for ‘sustainable tourism’. Despite this interest, there remains a degree of
uncertainty over the scope and priorities for making tourism more sustainable andonly partial appreciation of how to put this into practice.
All tourism should be more sustainable
Sustainable tourism is not a discrete or special form of tourism. Rather, all forms of
tourism should strive to be more sustainable.
Making tourism more sustainable is not just about controlling and managing
the negative impacts of the industry. Tourism is in a very special position to
beneﬁt local communities, economically and socially, and to raise awareness andsupport for conservation of the environment. Within the tourism sector, economic
development and environmental protection should not be seen as opposing
forces—they should be pursued hand in hand as aspirations that can and should bemutually reinforcing. Policies and actions must aim to strengthen the beneﬁts andreduce the costs of tourism.
Big issues are at stake here. Further massive growth is predicted for tourism between
now and 2020, providing excellent opportunities for spreading prosperity but
presenting considerable challenges and potential threats to the environment andlocal communities if not well managed. Climate change is recognized as a major
global issue, with signiﬁcant implications for tourism. There is also an increasing
appreciation of the potential role of tourism in addressing world poverty, by bringing
sources of income to the heart of some of the poorest communities.

2

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Stakeholders in sustainable tourism
Introduction

Many diﬀerent interests can beneﬁt from tourism being made more sustainable:• Tourism enterprises, while seeking long term proﬁtability, should be concerned
about their corporate image, the relationship with their staﬀ, and their impact on
the global environment and that immediately around them.
• Local communities are seeking increased prosperity but without exploitation ordamage to their quality of life.
• Environmentalists are concerned about the harmful impacts of tourism but also
see it as a valuable source of income for conservation.
• Tourists are seeking a high quality experience in safe and attractive environments;
they are becoming more aware of the impacts of their travelling.
In seeking more sustainable tourism, governments must recognize the diﬀerent positions
and motivations of these stakeholders and work with them to achieve common goals.
Governments play a leading role
Sustainability is the responsibility of all those involved in tourism. Most of the
impacts of tourism are the result of actions taken by private sector enterprises and by
tourists themselves. However, there is a clear need for governments to take a leadingrole if truly signiﬁcant progress is to be achieved in making tourism more sustainable.
This is because:• The tourism industry is very fragmented. It is diﬃcult for the individual
actions of many micro and small businesses to make a positive diﬀerence andcoordination is required.
• Sustainability relates to areas of public concern—air, water, natural and cultural
heritage and the quality of life. Moreover, many of the relevant resources aremanaged by governments.
• Governments have many of the tools that can be used to make a diﬀerence—suchas the power to make regulations and oﬀer economic incentives, and the resources
and institutions to promote and disseminate good practice.
Governments should provide an environment that enables and encourages theprivate sector, tourists and other stakeholders to respond to sustainability issues.
This can best be achieved by establishing and implementing a set of policies fortourism development and management, drawn up in concert with others, that placesustainability at its centre.
The principles of sustainable development put emphasis on local determination andimplementation of policies and actions. This should be placed within a supportive
national policy framework.
Who this Guide is for
The Guide is primarily aimed at governments, at both national and local levels. It is also
relevant to international development agencies, NGOs and the private sector, to theextent that they are aﬀected by, and can aﬀect, tourism policy and its implementation.

3

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Introduction

The sustainability of tourism is an issue of equal importance in both developed anddeveloping countries. This document is aimed at both. However, the balance ofpriorities may vary between them.
Purpose and scope of the Guide
The purpose of this document is to provide governments with guidance and aframework for the development of policies for more sustainable tourism as well as atoolbox of instruments that they can use to implement those policies.
The Guide contains ﬁve chapters:
1) Tourism and sustainability. This looks closely at what sustainability means fortourism and why governments need to address it. It introduces some key principles
and an agenda for more sustainable tourism, framed around a set of 12 Aims.
2) Policy implications of a sustainable tourism agenda. The 12 Aims for moresustainable tourism are discussed in turn and policy areas relevant to each ofthem are identiﬁed.
3) Structures and strategies for more sustainable tourism. This chapter is about
establishing the right structures through which governments can work with others
towards more sustainable tourism, and about the strategies that are required todevelop and drive policies and actions. Particular attention is paid to the relationshipbetween national and local structures and strategies for sustainable tourism.
4) Shaping sustainable tourism. This chapter looks at the process of developing a
tourism strategy that embraces sustainability and identiﬁes some of the strategic
choices that need to be made. It looks at product and market selection, andintroduces the tools that may be used to inﬂuence tourism development, theoperation of tourism enterprises and the behaviour of visitors.
5) Instruments for more sustainable tourism. A detailed description is given of aset of tools, and of how they can be applied by governments. They include theuse of sustainability indicators, planning, infrastructure provision, legislation andregulations, and a set of voluntary and facilitating instruments.
Both tourism and sustainable development are subjects that relate to a broad
spectrum of topics and a Guide such as this one inevitably makes passing reference tomany of them. To assist readers wishing to expand their background knowledge, theﬁnal section of the Guide provides a comprehensive list of relevant sources of further
information from UNEP and WTO.
Gathering information for the Guide
This document has been informed by looking at a wide variety of diﬀerent
practices by governments around the world, in the development of policies and theapplication of instruments.

4

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Introduction

Initially, a postal survey was carried out by the WTO asking governments to submit
information about their existing policies and initiatives relating to the sustainabilityof tourism. This was supplemented by a survey of experts and practitioners known
by UNEP and the WTO to be working in this ﬁeld. They were asked to recommend
examples of good practice against a checklist of instruments. A call for examples
was also issued through the regional oﬃces of UNEP, at a number of relevantinternational conferences, and through publications such as the newsletter of The
International Ecotourism Society.
Box I.1: Initial motivations and triggers
It is instructive at the outset to consider the kinds of motivational factors that mightlead a country or local destination to pay more attention to sustainability issues in its
policy making for tourism.
• A fundamental, overarching national policy position, putting sustainability at the
top of the public agenda.
In South Africa, all recent policies seek to support a process of reconstruction anddevelopment, with social empowerment and transformation being driving forces.
• A perceived need to change direction from high impact tourism in order to reduce
impacts on the local environment and improve quality of the product oﬀer in linewith new market trends.
Calvià (Spain), Mexico and Egypt provide examples of destinations with establishedor developing coastal resorts and heritage towns where it was realized that better
planning and reduced environmental impact were essential for long term economic aswell as environmental sustainability.
• A need to back up a tourism product and market position that is based on
the appeal of the area’s natural environment with policy to underpin its goodmanagement and future sustainability.
In Costa Rica, early success with ecotourism deﬁned the market positioning of
the country as a nature based destination and has stimulated an emphasis on
sustainability in the country’s tourism strategy. In Kaikoura (New Zealand) the focus
on environmental management underpins the town’s appeal as a green destination
based on a stunning coastal setting and a whale watching product. In Scotland
and Australia, the initial interest stemmed from the importance of the ﬁne naturalenvironment for the country’s tourism.
• The need and opportunity to develop a form of tourism which would bring income
to rural communities and beneﬁt conservation, with a supportive policy framework.
This is the situation in Bulgaria, where individual ecotourism projects were failingthrough lack of coordination and marketing. In Ghana the creation of a network ofcommunity-based tourism projects has raised the level of interest in tourism as a tool
for sustainable development and the ﬁght against poverty.

5MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Case Studies
Introduction

Ten Case Studies have been prepared from the material collected, and are presented
at the end of the document. Rather than focusing on individual policies or
instruments, they illustrate the more comprehensive approaches adopted by diﬀerent
countries or destinations. They have been chosen to represent diﬀerent types ofdestinations, facing a variety of challenges and with contrasting motives for seeking
more sustainable tourism. Most employ a range of instruments and the Case Studies
illustrate how they can be used together. The Case Studies illustrate a broad rangeof situations that may be reﬂected in many other destinations. Linkages to the Case
Studies also punctuate the text, at points where they throw additional light on thesubject under discussion.
The text is further illustrated by Boxes, like the one below, which describe individual
instruments and approaches by giving speciﬁc examples from around the world.

6

Tourism andSustainability

This chapter examines two basic questions:• What is meant by making tourism more sustainable? and• Why should governments be concerned about it?
In developing an answer, the chapter outlines why tourism isin a special position with respect to sustainable development;
discusses some of the key challenges that need to be addressed;
and reviews the international recognition that is being given to
the sustainability of tourism. Using this as a basis, it goes on to
outline some guiding principles that should be observed andthen presents an agenda for sustainable tourism, in the form of
twelve aims. Finally, it is shown that, although visitors and thetourism industry are becoming increasingly responsive to theseissues, governments nevertheless have a critical role in creating
the context and stimulating actions to ensure that tourism is moresustainable in the future.

1

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

1
Tourism andSustainability

1.1 Tourism: dynamism and growthWith 760 million international arrivals recorded in 2004, accounting for almost
US$622 billion of receipts, tourism is a major global activity that has grown by 25
per cent in the past 10 years.1
Predicted growth rates remain high and, although global and regional patterns
have ﬂuctuated from year to year (most recently owing to fears over terrorism,
health crises (e.g. SARs) and natural disasters), tourism has shown a strong andrapid ability to recover. More and more people have the desire and means to travel
and the World Tourism Organization (WTO) is predicting over 1 500 million
international arrivals by 2020, more than double the current level.2
Forecasts to the year 2020 predict growth in tourism in all regions of the world, withthe strongest relative growth occurring in parts of the developing world. Although
Europe, the Americas, and East Asia and the Paciﬁc will account for 80 per cent of
total arrivals, and thus continue to dominate in terms of volume, international tourist
arrivals to Africa are forecast to grow, on average, by 5.5 per cent per year during
this period and those to South Asia by more than 6 per cent, compared with a world
average of just over 4 per cent.3
International travel is only one aspect of tourism. In many countries, domestic
tourism outweighs international arrivals in terms of volume and income generated.
This is also predicted to grow strongly.
Tourism is also a major source of employment, supporting 74 million jobs directly
according to a World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) estimate, and 215
million (8.1 per cent of the world total) if all the indirect economic eﬀects of thesector are taken into account. It represents US$4 218 billion of GDP (10.4 percent of the world total), with travel and tourism making a particularly signiﬁcant
contribution to international trade, at over 12 per cent of total exports.4

1.2 Sustainable development: an
evolving agenda
The most commonly used deﬁnition of sustainable development is still that givenin the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (1987),
i.e. sustainable development is ‘a process to meet the needs of the present withoutcompromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.’
Sustainable development is therefore about creating a better life for all people in waysthat will be as viable in the future as they are at present. In other words, sustainable
development is based on principles of sound husbandry of the world’s resources, andon equity in the way those resources are used and in the way in which the beneﬁts
obtained from them are distributed.

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

1
Tourism andSustainability

The concept has evolved since the 1987 deﬁnition, notably through Agenda 21,
the plan of action which emerged from the UN Conference on Environment andDevelopment (Rio, 1992), and the plan of implementation from the World Summit
on Sustainable Development ( Johannesburg, 2002). Three dimensions or ‘pillars’ ofsustainable development are now recognized and underlined. These are:
• Economic sustainability, which means generating prosperity at diﬀerent levels ofsociety and addressing the cost eﬀectiveness of all economic activity. Crucially, it isabout the viability of enterprises and activities and their ability to be maintainedin the long term.
• Social sustainability, which means respecting human rights and equal
opportunities for all in society. It requires an equitable distribution of beneﬁts,
with a focus on alleviating poverty. There is an emphasis on local communities,
maintaining and strengthening their life support systems, recognizing andrespecting diﬀerent cultures and avoiding any form of exploitation.
• Environmental sustainability, which means conserving and managing resources,
especially those that are not renewable or are precious in terms of life support.
It requires action to minimize pollution of air, land and water, and to conserve
biological diversity and natural heritage.
It is important to appreciate that these three pillars are in many ways interdependentand can be both mutually reinforcing or in competition. Delivering sustainable
development means striking a balance between them.

1.3 Tourism and sustainable development: a
special relationship
Tourism is in a special position in the contribution it can make to sustainable
development and the challenges it presents. Firstly, this is because of the dynamismand growth of the sector, and the major contribution that it makes to the economies
of many countries and local destinations. Secondly, it is because tourism is an activity
which involves a special relationship between consumers (visitors), the industry, theenvironment and local communities.
This special relationship arises because, unlike most other sectors, the consumer of tourism(the tourist) travels to the producer and the product. This leads to three important andunique aspects of the relationship between tourism and sustainable development:• Interaction: The nature of tourism, as a service industry that is based on delivering
an experience of new places, means that it involves a considerable amount ofinteraction, both direct and indirect, between visitors, host communities and theirlocal environments.
• Awareness: Tourism makes people (visitors and hosts) become far more consciousof environmental issues and diﬀerences between nations and cultures. This can

9MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

1
Tourism andSustainability

aﬀect attitudes and concerns for sustainability issues not only while travelling but
throughout people’s lives.
• Dependency: Much of tourism is based on visitors seeking to experience intact
and clean environments, attractive natural areas, authentic historic and cultural
traditions, and welcoming hosts with whom they have a good relationship. The
industry depends on these attributes being in place.
This close and direct relationship creates a sensitive situation, whereby tourism can beboth very damaging but also very positive for sustainable development.
On the positive side, tourism can:
• Provide a growing source of opportunities for enterprise development andemployment creation as well as stimulating investment and support for local
services, even in quite remote communities.
• Bring tangible economic value to natural and cultural resources. This can resultin direct income from visitor spending for their conservation, and an increase insupport for conservation from local communities.
• Be a force for inter-cultural understanding and peace.
Conversely, tourism can:• Place direct pressure on fragile ecosystems causing degradation of the physicalenvironment and disruption to wildlife.
• Exert considerable pressure on host communities and lead to dislocation of
traditional societies.
• Compete for the use of scarce resources, notably land and water.
• Be a signiﬁcant contributor to local and global pollution.
• Be a vulnerable and unstable source of income, as it is often very sensitive to actualor perceived changes to the environmental and social conditions of destinations.
The net result is that all those involved in tourism have a huge responsibility torecognize the importance of its sustainable development. Tourism has immense
power to do good. Yet it can also be the vector for the very pressures that may
destroy the assets on which it relies. Developed without concern for sustainability,
tourism can not only damage societies and the environment, it could also contain theseeds of its own destruction.
For governments, tourism policies that address economic, social and environmental
issues, and which are developed with an awareness of the potential both for harmand for beneﬁt, can channel the forces resulting from the sector’s dynamic growth
in a positive direction. For the tourism industry, accepting this responsibility is not
only about good citizenship, it should also be fuelled by a strong element of selfinterest, since any harm that is inﬂicted to the natural, cultural or social environmentof destinations can lead to their eventual destruction or loss of value as a tourism
product. In economic terms, sustainability can guarantee that crucial factor
already mentioned: ‘the viability of enterprises and activities and their ability to be
maintained in the long term’.

10MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

1

1.4 Making all tourism more sustainable

Tourism andSustainability

Some commentators and institutions have implied that sustainable tourism
is a particular kind of tourism appealing to a market niche that is sensitive toenvironmental and social impacts, serviced by particular types of products andoperators, and usually—in contrast with high-volume tourism—implying smallin scale. This is a dangerous misapprehension. It must be clear that the term‘sustainable tourism’—meaning ‘tourism that is based on the principles of sustainable
development’—refers to a fundamental objective: to make all tourism moresustainable. The term should be used to refer to a condition of tourism, not a type of
tourism. Well-managed high-volume tourism can, and ought to be, just as sustainable
as small-scale, dispersed special interest tourism.
Box 1.1: The World Tourism Organization’s
deﬁnition of sustainable tourism
Sustainable tourism development guidelines and management practices areapplicable to all forms of tourism in all types of destinations, including mass tourism
and the various niche tourism segments. Sustainability principles refer to theenvironmental, economic and socio-cultural aspects of tourism development, and asuitable balance must be established between these three dimensions to guarantee its
long-term sustainability.
Thus, sustainable tourism should:
1) Make optimal use of environmental resources that constitute a key element intourism development, maintaining essential ecological processes and helping toconserve natural resources and biodiversity.
2) Respect the socio-cultural authenticity of host communities, conserve their built
and living cultural heritage and traditional values, and contribute to inter-cultural
understanding and tolerance.
3) Ensure viable, long-term economic operations, providing socio-economic beneﬁts
to all stakeholders that are fairly distributed, including stable employment andincome-earning opportunities and social services to host communities, andcontributing to poverty alleviation.
Sustainable tourism development requires the informed participation of all relevant
stakeholders, as well as strong political leadership to ensure wide participation andconsensus building. Achieving sustainable tourism is a continuous process and it
requires constant monitoring of impacts, introducing the necessary preventive and/or
corrective measures whenever necessary.
Sustainable tourism should also maintain a high level of tourist satisfaction andensure a meaningful experience to the tourists, raising their awareness aboutsustainability issues and promoting sustainable tourism practices amongst them.

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Moreover, sustainable tourism should not be taken to imply a ﬁnite state of tourism.
In fact, it is often argued that tourism may never be totally sustainable—sustainable
development of tourism is a continuous process of improvement.
Confusion over the meaning of sustainable tourism has been compounded insome countries by use of the term ‘ecotourism’ as meaning the same as ‘sustainable
tourism’. Ecotourism does indeed embrace the principles of sustainability, but it refers
explicitly to a product niche. It is about tourism in natural areas, normally involving
some form of interpretative experience of natural and cultural heritage, positively
supporting conservation and indigenous communities, and usually organized forsmall groups. The development of ecotourism can provide a useful tool withinwider strategies towards more sustainable tourism, as was expounded in the Quebec
Declaration on Ecotourism, 2002.5
The WTO has given the full deﬁnition of sustainable tourism presented in Box 1.1
emphasizing the need to make all tourism sustainable. Expressed simply, sustainable
tourism can be said to be:‘Tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social andenvironmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environmentand host communities.’
Making tourism more sustainable means taking these impacts and needs into accountin the planning, development and operation of tourism. It is a continual process ofimprovement and one which applies equally to tourism in cities, resorts, rural andcoastal areas, mountains, and protected areas. It can apply to all forms of business andleisure tourism.

1.5 Key challenges for more sustainable tourism
Tourism, like others sectors, faces major global challenges. Five of these are discussed
below. Although they do not encompass all of the challenges facing the sector, all are
important issues recognized around the world. They serve here to illustrate the range ofimpacts and opportunities that relate to tourism, and also to highlight some of the manyreasons why governments should pay serious attention to its sustainable development.
Managing dynamic growth
The doubling of international tourist movements predicted for the next 15 to 20
years will bring considerable pressures. If serious harm to the very resources on
which tourism depends is to be avoided, this growth must be well managed. This will
require careful planning of the location and types of new development, improved
environmental management practices and inﬂuencing consumption patterns.
Certain types of location, including those listed below, are particularly vulnerable to pressure:• Marine and coastal environments, where badly sited development, poor
management of waste from resorts and cruise shipping, and general over-use by

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tourists leads to serious loss of amenity and natural habitats.
• Historic towns and cities and cultural heritage sites, where pressures andcongestion from visitors and their traﬃc aﬀect overall amenity and residents’quality of life.
• Fragile natural environments, where even quite low levels of visitation canthreaten biodiversity.
Climate change
Climate change is a major issue for the long term sustainability of tourism in
two senses: climate change will have consequences for tourism, and tourism is acontributor to climate change.
Eﬀects of climate change, such as rising sea levels, increased frequency and energy ofsurges and storms, beach erosion, coral bleaching, and disrupted water supply threaten
many coastal destinations. Mountain resorts will also suﬀer, from rising snow lines
and shortening winter sports seasons. Changes in temperature and rainfall will aﬀect
market appeal in most parts of the world, although in diﬀerent ways, depending on
the interplay of push and pull eﬀects in countries of origin and destination. Tourism
may also be aﬀected by other factors such as the spread of tropical diseases and theavailability of water. Some of these impacts are already being felt.
It is estimated that tourism may contribute up to 5.3 per cent of global anthropogenic
greenhouse gas emissions, with transport accounting for about 90 per cent of this.6
Estimates suggest that aviation accounts for 2−3 per cent of the world’s total use offossil fuels and up to 3.5 per cent of the anthropogenic greenhouse eﬀect. More than
80 per cent of this is due to civil aviation.7 Based on current trends, these impacts are
set to increase signiﬁcantly as air transport is one of the fastest growing sources ofgreenhouse gas emissions.
Poverty alleviation
Halving world poverty by 2015 is the foremost UN Millennium Goal. The potential
for tourism to contribute to this reduction is increasingly recognized, partly because
it is one of the few sectors in which poor countries’ cultural and natural resources
give them a comparative economic advantage. The development of tourism provides agood opportunity to help alleviate poverty because it is often a new source of revenue
in rural areas, where three-quarters of the world’s poor are to be found. It is also alabour intensive activity and one that has low entry barriers. The challenge is to ﬁnd
better ways of channelling visitor spending towards poor people, including throughthe informal economy.
There is a parallel challenge here: to reverse the tendency for tourism jobs to be low
paid. All countries need to ensure that people employed in tourism are properly
remunerated, receive proper treatment and are given opportunities for advancement.
Support for conservation
The need to ﬁnd more ﬁnancial resources to support conservation is a worldwide
issue, although the severity of the problem varies from country to country. Protected

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areas in developing countries receive less than 30 per cent of their basic fundingneeds, and some governments have cut spending on conservation by over 50 per centin the past decade.
Tourism already makes a major direct contribution to income for protected areas andheritage sites, through entry fees, permits, concessions, etc. and this can be extended.
More widely, tourism can become a force for more sustainable land management inall parts of the world by providing an additional or alternative form of livelihood forfarmers and rural communities that is dependent on well maintained natural resources.
Health, safety and security
In recent years, uncertainty about the health and safety of travel and of certain
destinations has caused signiﬁcant ﬂuctuations in tourism ﬂows. Although this may
be a short term phenomenon and recovery is often fast, it should be regarded as a
global issue for the sustainability of tourism. There are policy implications for image,for management of information, and for speciﬁc measures to improve the safety andsecurity of tourists.

1.6 International recognition
The importance of tourism to sustainable development and of the need for tourism
to integrate sustainability principles has been increasingly recognized in internationalfora, and echoed in policy statements.
The UN Commission on Sustainable Development, 7th session, 1999
The seventh session of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)
urged governments to advance the development of sustainable tourism. Particularemphasis was placed on the need for the development of policies, strategies andmaster plans for sustainable tourism based on Agenda 21, as a way of providing focus
and direction for relevant organizations, the private sector and indigenous and local
communities. It underlined the need for consultation with all the above stakeholders
and for working in partnership with them. It called for capacity building with local
communities and for the deployment of a mix of instruments including voluntary
initiatives and agreements. Clauses included support for small and medium sizedenterprises and appropriate information for tourists.
The WTO Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, 1999
This code was endorsed by the UN General Assembly in 2001 which invited
governments and other stakeholders in the tourism sector to consider introducing
the contents of the code into relevant laws, regulations and professional practices.
The code contains many of the principles of sustainable development of tourism
articulated by the CSD and others. It also places particular emphasis on the specialrole of tourism in contributing to mutual understanding and respect between
peoples and as a vehicle for individual and collective fulﬁlment. Separate articles set
out the right to tourism (‘The prospect of direct and personal access to the discovery
and enjoyment of the planet’s resources constitutes a right equally open to all the14

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world’s inhabitants’) and freedom of movement of tourists, based partly on the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It also sets out the rights of workers andentrepreneurs in the tourism industry with regard to recognition, training, social
welfare and other matters.
Convention on Biological Diversity, Guidelines on Biodiversity andTourism Development, 2003
These guidelines were adopted in 2003 by the Conference of the Parties to theConvention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Governments are invited to integratethem into the development or review of their strategies and plans for tourism
development, national biodiversity strategies and action plans, and other related
sectoral strategies, in consultation with interested stakeholders. The guidelines set
out a 10-stage process for policy making, development planning and managementof tourism in destinations or sites. This includes data gathering, identifying visions
and objectives, review of legislation, impact assessment and management, decision
making, implementation, monitoring and adaptive management. The guidelines also
set out requirements for notiﬁcation of any intended development and for capacity
building to strengthen the overall process.
Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism, 2002
This is the declaration of the World Ecotourism Summit, which was the peak
event of the International Year of Ecotourism, 2002, as designated by the United
Nations. It sets out recommendations, from the participants in the summit, togovernments, the tourism industry and other stakeholders, on the various measuresthey should take to foster the development of ecotourism. A number of these include
recommendations on speciﬁc instruments considered elsewhere in this publication.
The declaration explicitly recognizes the relevance of approaches developed for
ecotourism to the wider task of making all tourism more sustainable.
World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 2002
In its Plan of Implementation, the WSSD speciﬁcally called for the promotion ofsustainable tourism as one of a number of strategies for protecting and managing
the natural resource base of economic and social development. Although not very
prescriptive, the plan (in its Article 43) places emphasis on international cooperation,technical assistance to communities, visitor management and improved market access.
Tourism development was also speciﬁcally referred to amongst measures for thesustainable development of small island states and for Africa, and in relation to the
management of energy and biodiversity conservation.

1.7 Guiding principles and approaches
The development and implementation of policies for sustainable tourism should
be based on a number of overarching principles and approaches. Some of these are
inherent to the principles of sustainability while others have been identiﬁed over timeby those working in the ﬁeld. Guiding concepts and principles are presented below.

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Setting the course

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Taking a holistic view
Planning and development of tourism should not take place in isolation. Tourism
should be considered as part of the sustainable development of communities,
alongside other activities. Its impact on other sectors, in terms of competing resource
use and mutual support, should be considered. Over-dependency of an economy
and society on tourism should be avoided. A holistic approach is also about taking
account of all impacts and relationships within the tourism sector itself, andconsidering how all public policies may aﬀect or be aﬀected by tourism.
Pursuing multi-stakeholder engagement
Sustainable tourism is about local control, but also about working together. All those
implicated by tourism should have an opportunity to inﬂuence its development andmanagement. This may involve formal partnerships or looser arrangements, as well as
strengthening and utilizing local democratic structures.
Planning for the long term
Short term approaches should be avoided and the long-term view encouraged, withresources committed accordingly. Where possible, actions should be self-sustaining.
Projects that are structured around short term inputs and ﬁnance must take accountof how initiatives, once started, can be maintained into the future.
Addressing global and local impacts
Impacts on the local environment and communities are often apparent. It cantherefore be easier to gain support for policies that address these local impacts rather
than for policies that address global issues. However, the sustainable developmentof tourism should pay equal attention to global impacts, especially with respect topollution from tourism (such as greenhouse gas emissions) and the use of nonrenewable resources. Such global impacts also have a direct eﬀect on tourism itself(e.g. climate change).
Promoting sustainable consumption
Sustainability is not just about the supply side. Equal consideration should be given
to inﬂuencing the pattern and impact of consumption. This means inﬂuencing thevolume and nature of tourism demand, the choices made by tourists (such as products
selected and mode of travel), and their activities and behaviour.
Equating sustainability and quality
It should be increasingly accepted that a quality tourism destination or product is one
that addresses the full range of sustainability issues rather than simply concentrating
on visitor satisfaction. Indeed, tourists should themselves be encouraged to think inthese terms—a place that cares for the environment and its workforce is more likely
also to care for them.

Developing the approachReﬂecting all impacts in costs—polluter pays principle
Under the polluter pays principle it is the perpetrator of environmental impacts whobears the responsibility for costs incurred which, where possible, should be reﬂected

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in ﬁnancial costs. This principle has strong implications both for policies and for theuse of economic instruments to inﬂuence consumption and pollution. In tourism it
has implications, for example, for charges for activities such as transport, admission tosites and waste disposal.
Minimizing risk taking—precautionary principle
Careful risk assessment is an important component of sustainable tourism
development. Where there is limited evidence about the possible impact of adevelopment or action, a cautious approach should be adopted. The precautionary
principle means putting in place measures to avoid damage before it occurs rather
than trying to repair it afterwards.
Taking a life cycle perspective
Life-cycle assessment means taking full account of impacts over the entire life of a
product or service, including initial resources used, siting and design, development
and construction, all inputs to its operation, and disposal and after-use implications.
Considering functional alternatives
Consideration should be given to whether the same function can be performed
and the same result achieved by doing things in a way that has more positive andless negative impacts on resources. For example, in a strategy to improve visitor
satisfaction by adding further recreational opportunities, preference should be given
to those options that bring the least environmental and social impacts and the highest
economic returns.
Respecting limits
The readiness and ability to limit the amount of tourism development or the volume
of tourist ﬂows in a destination or site are central to the concept of sustainable
tourism. Limiting factors may be ecological resilience, resource capacity, community
concerns, visitor satisfaction, etc. These factors should be taken into account in setting
limits that are respected by all concerned.

Ensuring ongoing progress
Adapting to changing conditions
Adaptive response and management is an important aspect of sustainable
development. Tourism is sensitive to external conditions in terms of its performanceand the level of its impact. Global threats, such as climate change and terrorism
need to be considered in planning for future tourism and in introducing risk
management policies.
Undertaking continuous monitoring using indicators
Sound management of tourism requires readily available evidence of changes in
impact over time, so that adjustments to policies and actions can be made. Indicatorsthat relate to sustainability aims and objectives should be established to monitor
the condition, performance and impact of tourism. Cost eﬀective monitoring
programmes should be put in place.

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1.8 An agenda for sustainable tourism
Consideration of the general concept of sustainable development, the special positionof tourism and the agreements reached at international fora, helps to set an agenda
for more sustainable tourism.
This agenda needs to embrace two, interrelated, elements of the sustainability of tourism:• the ability of tourism to continue as an activity in the future, ensuring that theconditions are right for this; and• the ability of society and the environment to absorb and beneﬁt from the impactsof tourism in a sustainable way.
Based on this, an agenda for sustainable tourism can be articulated as a set oftwelve aims that address economic, social and environmental impacts. The agenda
formulated in this way can then be used as a framework to develop policies for moresustainable tourism that recognize the two directions in which tourism policy canexert an inﬂuence:• minimizing the negative impacts of tourism on society and the environment; and• maximizing tourism’s positive and creative contribution to local economies, theconservation of natural and cultural heritage, and the quality of life of hosts
and visitors.
The twelve aims for an agenda for sustainable tourism are:1) Economic Viability
To ensure the viability and competitiveness of tourism destinations andenterprises, so that they are able to continue to prosper and deliver beneﬁts in thelong term.
2) Local Prosperity
To maximize the contribution of tourism to the economic prosperity of the hostdestination, including the proportion of visitor spending that is retained locally.
3) Employment Quality
To strengthen the number and quality of local jobs created and supported by
tourism, including the level of pay, conditions of service and availability to all
without discrimination by gender, race, disability or in other ways.
4) Social Equity
To seek a widespread and fair distribution of economic and social beneﬁts fromtourism throughout the recipient community, including improving opportunities,
income and services available to the poor.
5) Visitor Fulﬁllment
To provide a safe, satisfying and fulﬁlling experience for visitors, available to all
without discrimination by gender, race, disability or in other ways.

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To engage and empower local communities in planning and decision making
about the management and future development of tourism in their area, in
consultation with other stakeholders.
7) Community Wellbeing
To maintain and strengthen the quality of life in local communities, including
social structures and access to resources, amenities and life support systems,
avoiding any form of social degradation or exploitation.
8) Cultural Richness
To respect and enhance the historic heritage, authentic culture, traditions anddistinctiveness of host communities.
9) Physical Integrity
To maintain and enhance the quality of landscapes, both urban and rural, andavoid the physical and visual degradation of the environment.
10) Biological Diversity
To support the conservation of natural areas, habitats and wildlife, and minimize
damage to them.
11) Resource Eﬃciency
To minimize the use of scarce and non-renewable resources in the development
and operation of tourism facilities and services.
12)Environmental Purity
To minimize the pollution of air, water and land and the generation of waste by
tourism enterprises and visitors.
The order in which these twelve aims are listed does not imply any order of priority.
Each one is equally important.
Many of the aims relate to a combination of environmental, economic and social
issues and impacts, as illustrated by Figure 1.1 and by the examples below:• Economic viability of tourism depends strongly on maintaining the quality of thelocal environment.
• Visitor fulﬁlment is about meeting visitors’ needs and providing opportunities (asocial aim), but is also very important for economic sustainability.
• Cultural richness is often considered to be in the social sphere of sustainability,
but it has a strong bearing on environmental aspects in terms of the built
environment and cultural dimensions of society’s interaction with nature.
• Community wellbeing, which can be seen mainly as a social aim, is strongly
related to environmental resource management, for example with respect to accessto fresh water.
• Employment quality and social equity issues, such as poverty alleviation, relate
closely to both economic and social sustainability issues.

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Figure 1.1: Relationship between the 12 aims and the pillars of sustainability

1.9 Governments, the market and theindustry’s view
Governments should recognize that interest in the sustainability of tourism isgrowing amongst many private sector enterprises and within visitor markets. They
should take account of this when seeking to persuade the tourism industry to takesustainability more seriously, pointing out the advantages for attracting new businessand the overall proﬁtability of a more sustainable approach.
Understanding tourists’ attitudes—more than a niche market response
Governments need to understand what is important to tourists if they are toinﬂuence their behaviour eﬀectively. It has been suggested that tourists are notgenerally interested in the sustainability of the trips they take, and that this is a major
constraint on the pursuit of more sustainable tourism. However, the interpretation of
tourist response depends on the nature of the questions asked.
For example, although studies of the ecotourism market (e.g. those carried out by theWTO8) have concluded that this is indeed a small (albeit growing) niche market,
such surveys attempted speciﬁcally to identify tourists and tour operators that were

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looking for, or selling, special interest holidays involving nature observation andconcern for conservation as a primary motivation for the trip. Wider surveys thathave attempted to assess the degree to which general consumers are interested in theinterrelationship between their activities as tourists and the environment and hostcommunities (rather than their response to the concept of sustainability as a whole)suggest a far wider relevance in the market place. They point to:• Very high levels of concern for environment and society in destinations, where theissue is likely to directly aﬀect the tourist’s own wellbeing (e.g. cleanness of thewater and levels of safety).
• High and growing levels of interest by tourists in visiting natural and culturalsites during their holidays, and the authenticity and educational value of such
experiences. This applies to general holidaymakers as well as to those with a
specialist interest.
• Large numbers of tourists expressing concern about the impact of their travelling,both through their own actions and in their choice of tour operator or service provider.
• Considerable willingness to pay more to support local environments and communities.
Some statistical evidence backing up these conclusions is presented in Box 1.2.
Despite this positive feedback, it is important to be realistic about the balance ofinﬂuences on holiday choice. Visitor surveys and practical experience suggest that
overall perceived attractiveness of a destination, climate, convenience, quality offacilities, and price still far outweigh concerns for the impact of travel. However,the latter concerns do make a diﬀerence to holiday choices if the former factors are
considered equal. It also appears that tourists are more likely to be concerned about
impacts on the local environment and the quality of life of their hosts than about global
issues. Finally, there is less evidence that tourists have actually taken actions to change
their travel and consumption patterns, despite their expressed concern and interest.
The challenge therefore remains to provide more leadership, incentives andinformation to ensure a genuine response. In line with the broad approach advocatedin this Guide, the strategy should be to encourage all tourists to be more aware of
the impacts of their travelling and be more interested and concerned about hostpopulations, rather than to try to seek out the ‘sustainable tourist’.
Corporate Social Responsibility in the tourism sector
There is a general trend amongst private sector businesses to recognize their
responsibilities to society beyond their traditional functions of generating wealth andproﬁt. Governments can use this growing awareness when developing industry-related
policies and activities and as a lever to achieve industry involvement and buy-in.
In companies, the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) means adopting
transparent business practices that are based on ethical values. It has started to gain
ground and many companies already include social and environmental commitmentsin their core mission statements. Some adopt triple bottom line reporting, wherebysocial and environmental results are measured and reported next to ﬁnancial results.

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Box 1.2: Statistical evidence of market responsea) Anxieties about visitors’ own wellbeing• 83 per cent of British package holidaymakers say that a dirty beach or polluted sea
matter a great deal to them when choosing a destination. 74 per cent are similarly
inﬂuenced by levels of crime, and 62 per cent by incidence of local illness.9• 60 per cent of German tourists are concerned about litter, 51 per cent about noise
pollution and 46 per cent about good nature protection in the destination.10b) Interest in a diversiﬁed experience• 61 per cent of US tourists are looking for travel experiences involving wellpreserved natural, historical or cultural sites. 53 per cent agree that they havea better travel experience when they learn as much as possible about theirdestination’s customs, geography and culture.11• Three in four British tourists agree that their trip should include experiences of
local culture and food.12c) Concern for the impact of their actions• Three-quarters of US travellers feel that it is important that their visits do notdamage the environment.13• 51 per cent of British tourists say that food or water shortages for local residents
matter a great deal to them in their choice of destination.14• 65 per cent of British tourists feel that the reputation of the holiday company onenvironmental issues is important.15• 82 per cent of Dutch tourists believe that integrating environmental information
into travel brochures is a good idea.16d) Willingness to pay more
• 53 per cent of British tourists would be prepared to pay more for their holiday
in order that workers in the destination could be guaranteed good wages
and working conditions. 45 per cent would be prepared to do so to support
preservation of the local environment and reverse the negative environmental
eﬀects of tourism. The average additional sum indicated is about 5 per cent of theholiday price.17• 69 per cent of Danish tourists staying in eco-labelled hotels are willing to pay
more for such hotels owing to their environmental designation.
In the tourism sector, some companies now have an environmental management
system and have established foundations or other mechanisms for supporting socialand environmental projects in the communities in which they operate.
Tour operators have been quite active in embracing sustainability principles in thedesign of tour programmes, selection of suppliers, work with local communities, andinformation for tourists, but this has applied mainly to smaller, specialist operators.
Networks of operators committed to this approach exist in France, Germany, theNetherlands and some other countries. The Tour Operators’ Initiative, supported by
UNEP, UNESCO and the WTO, has members from a number of diﬀerent countries
and has pioneered good sustainability practice, both by tour operators and within thedestinations in which they operate18.

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The response of small independent service providers is diﬃcult to determine. Theirreaction to issues such as environmental management often depends on the personal
interest of the proprietor. The proportion of individual accommodation enterprises
participating in eco-labelling (certiﬁcation) is only between 1 and 10 per cent of thetotal of enterprises in countries where labelling exists. Nevertheless, there are somereally excellent examples of individual enterprises supporting local environment andcommunity projects. Governments can play a crucial role in stimulating widespreadrecognition and response across the industry.

1.10 The crucial role of government
Governments have a crucial role to play in the development and management of
tourism and in making it more sustainable. The level of government engagement
in tourism varies considerably across the world. Contacts with governments onsustainability nevertheless reveal that most are, at least nominally, seeking to pursue
sustainable tourism. This applies equally to developed and developing countries,
though the emphasis may be diﬀerent. In developing countries, interest in sustainable
tourism is more likely to be linked to poverty alleviation and the funding ofconservation; in the developed world, issues of rejuvenation and visitor management
are more prominent.
Whatever the motivation of governments, their role relates only partly to their own
actions. Tourism is primarily an activity carried out by private sector enterprises,
and it is their actions, together with those of tourists, that are responsible for mostimpacts, positive and negative. A primary function of government in fostering moresustainable tourism is therefore to create an environment that enables or inﬂuences theprivate sector to operate more sustainably, and inﬂuences patterns of visitor ﬂows andbehaviour so as to maximize the beneﬁts and minimize the negative impacts of tourism.
The key reasons for the importance of the role of government are as follows:• Much of the sustainability agenda is about areas of public rather than private
concern. Although the private sector is beginning to recognize its responsibility, itcannot, on its own, be expected to take a lead on these issues.
• In all countries, the tourism sector is fragmented into many thousands ofbusinesses, mainly micro or small enterprises. Collectively their actions canmake a diﬀerence, while individually they cannot, so coordination is needed.
Furthermore, very small businesses often need external support and advice if they
are to change their operations successfully to meet a new agenda.
• Governments are responsible for many functions that are fundamentally
important to the sustainable development of tourism, such as land use planning,
labour and environmental regulations, and the provision of infrastructure andsocial and environmental services.
• Many governments are already actively engaged in supporting tourism throughmarketing, information services, education and in other ways, often through joint
public-private frameworks. These functions need to continue and to be moreclosely aligned with sustainability objectives.

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These arguments and functions are applicable at both national and local
government levels.
In many countries, many of the objectives and actions that governments are pursuing
can be said to be in line with sustainability, and there is considerable recent interestin relating tourism policies to wider sustainable development or poverty reduction
strategies. However, as has already been pointed out, the understanding of what
the sustainable development of tourism entails, and even the terminology, is notconsistent between governments. A more systematic approach to link sustainability
aims and principles to policies and tools is needed.

Notes
1
2
3
4
5

WTO World Tourism Barometer, June 2005.
WTO Tourism 2020 Vision, 2004.
WTO Tourism 2020 Vision, 2004.
WTTC, World Travel and Tourism Forging Ahead, 2004.
The deﬁnition of ecotourism promoted by The International Ecotourism Society is‘responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and sustains the wellbeing of local people’. The Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism (2002) recognizes that
ecotourism embraces the following speciﬁc principles which distinguish it from the wider
concept of sustainable tourism:• Contributes actively to the conservation of natural and cultural heritage;• Includes local and indigenous communities in its planning, development andoperation, and contributes to their well-being;• Interprets the natural and cultural heritage of the destination to visitors;• Lends itself better to independent travellers, as well as to organized tours for small
size groups.
6 Gössling, S. (2002) Global environmental consequences of tourism. Global
Environmental Change 12, 283 – 302.
7 International Panel on Climate Change, Special Report on Aviation and the Global
Atmosphere (Penner et al.,1999).
8 WTO surveys, conducted in seven countries in 2001, indicated that this market niche
accounted for no more than 2−5 per cent of organised or packaged leisure tourism.
9 ABTA survey, 2002.
10 Ecotrans/FUR Reiseanalyse, 2002.
11 Travel Industry Association of America and National Geographic Traveller, The
Geotourism Study 2002.
12 Harold Goodwin and Justin Francis ‘Ethical and responsible tourism: consumer trends in
the UK’, Journal of Vacation Marketing, Vol 9(3), 2003.
13 Travel Industry Association of America and National Geographic Traveller The
Geotourism Study 2002.
14 ABTA survey, 2002.
15 Goodwin and Francis (2003).
16 FEMATOUR market study, 2000.
17 ABTA survey, 2002.
18 The Tour Operators’ Initiative is a voluntary network of tour operators committed tointegrate sustainable development in their operations. For more information visit
http://www.toinitiative.org.

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Policy Implicationsof a Sustainable Tourism Agenda

The previous chapter presented twelve aims for sustainable
tourism. In this chapter, the aims are used to identify policy areas
to be addressed so that speciﬁc policies and actions to meet theaims can be formulated. The focus is on policy areas rather thanon speciﬁc policies as it is governments and their partners whowill develop the actual policies appropriate to local circumstances.
All of the policy areas identiﬁed relate to the overall performanceand impact of tourism and are therefore areas in which bothnational and local governments and other stakeholders are,or should be, interested. In many cases, actions on the groundwill be taken by the private sector. The role of governmentis to develop and implement policies that create an enabling
environment, encouraging such actions and inﬂuencing them
towards sustainability.

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2.1 Economic Viability

Policy Implications

2

To ensure the viability and competitiveness of tourism destinations
and enterprises, so that they are able to continue to prosper anddeliver beneﬁts in the long term
Successful tourism businesses are vital if the sector is to deliver tangible beneﬁts
to host populations. Despite growing global tourism markets, many enterprises
struggle and there is a considerable rate of business turnover in the sector. Many ofthe businesses may be micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) withlimited skills and market access. There are also numerous examples around the world,
especially in developing countries, of projects aiming at delivering sustainable tourism
products (sometimes initiated or supported by NGOs or donors) that fail throughlack of good, long term business assessment and planning.
Policy areas to address:
Understanding the market
The viability of tourism destinations and individual enterprises depends on an
ability to identify markets that will continue to deliver business in the long term; tounderstand what potential consumers are looking for; and to adapt to trends andchanges in source market conditions, travel patterns and tastes. This requires eﬀective
and ongoing market research to guide tourism development in the destination as awhole, and realistic market assessment for individual project proposals.
Delivering visitor satisfaction
Long-term viability needs satisﬁed visitors who return and who recommend others tovisit. This means delivering an experience that meets or exceeds expectations. It requires:• An emphasis on the quality of every component of the visitor experience,
including mechanisms for checking, identifying and improving it.
• Attention to value for money and the overall competitiveness of the destination.
• Obtaining regular feedback from visitors.
Maintaining good trading conditions
A number of factors need to be in place if trading is to be carried out successfully
and tourism enterprises are to remain viable. These include:• An enterprise culture and a stable business climate. There should, therefore, be
no unnecessary regulatory burdens on enterprises or administrative ineﬃciency,
and the taxation system must be fair. A stable and supportive political climate isa prerequisite for economic sustainability.
• Eﬀective market access and promotion. Enterprises must be able to maintain costeﬀective ways of communicating with markets, directly or through intermediaries.
For small, individual enterprises, this is often a signiﬁcant challenge which can26

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

be eased through working in partnership and through channels developed at
destination level. Opportunities include adapting to new forms of market accessand making the best possible use of information technology.
• A reliable labour supply. In many parts of the world, staﬀ recruitment has
proved to be a considerable problem for tourism enterprises. This may be
addressed by policies relating to employment quality (discussed further underAim 2.3, below).
• Good accessibility. Reasonably swift and inexpensive access to markets is often
a key determinant of the viability of tourism enterprises. This is a particularissue in many developing countries where road access may be poor and othertransport options limited, and where the cost and convenience of air services
is a primary determining factor for a destination’s competitiveness. The
requirement for accessibility may be in conﬂict with the need to minimize
environmental pollution from tourism transport (discussed under Aim 2.12,
below) and a balance will need to be struck. Other aspects of accessibility, suchas telecommunications, are also key factors in some developing countries.

Policy Implications

2

Maintaining and projecting an attractive destination
The viability of individual enterprises is also considerably aﬀected by how thedestination as a whole is perceived by visitors. Three critical aspects of this are:
• A positive and consistent image. Eﬀective destination branding, promotion of
the brand and the ability to ensure that the nature and quality of experience
match the brand image have become principal concerns of many tourism
destinations in recent years. Media management is an important part of this.
• Safety and security. Viable destinations need to be safe and secure, and to beperceived as such. This requires attention to matters such as levels of policing,health care available to visitors, quality of information available and support
services for visitors in need of assistance. Travel advice relating to safety, issued
by governments in source countries, can have a considerable impact on theperformance of the tourism economy in recipient countries.
• Overall environmental quality. The attractiveness of the natural and culturalenvironment in a destination and the general level of amenity and maintenanceare of fundamental importance to the viability of tourism enterprises.
When asked how the public sector can best support their business, tourism
enterprises often suggest that a highest priority should be given to maintaining
an attractive environment. As already pointed out, the importance of theenvironment to the economic sustainability of the industry is a particularfeature of tourism.
Delivering business support
Enterprise viability can be underpinned by policies on business services, such as
training or advice in management and marketing skills. It is important that these are
tailored to needs. A particular requirement for long-term economic sustainability is
to avoid a culture of dependency on ﬁnancial assistance. Funding schemes should bedesigned to help businesses and projects towards self-suﬃciency.

27

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

2.2 Local Prosperity

Policy Implications

2

To maximize the contribution of tourism to the economic prosperity of
the host destination, including the proportion of visitor spending thatis retained locallyEnsuring that economic beneﬁts are secured at the place where costs are incurredis an important principle of sustainable development. As local communities have tomeet a number of external costs associated with tourism, it is important that policies
seek to maximize the economic returns to the community. This is partly about
securing reliable tourism growth, but equally about processes to maximize visitor
spending per head and to reduce leakages, as well as developing linkages in the local
economy. The fact that tourists, and the enterprises that serve them, make a verylarge number of purchases from a range of suppliers (tour operators, food producers,transport services, guides, etc.) means that there are often many opportunities tostrengthen the level of income retained locally.
Local prosperity means ensuring that tourism is well integrated within the economy andis developed alongside other sectors. It is also important to avoid over-dependency on
tourism, while ensuring that it can provide a consistent and reliable source of income.
Policy areas to address:
Reducing leakages
Leakages can occur through the repatriation of proﬁts by external investors orowners; by purchases made by tourists outside the destination (i.e. from international
tour operators); and by purchases by tourists and enterprises of imported goods.
Second round leakages may occur if income earned within a community is spentoutside of it. Policies may seek to:• Support locally owned businesses. When businesses are locally owned, a higher
proportion of proﬁts is likely to be retained within the community. In many areas,
locally owned businesses are likely to be MSMEs, and policies in support of them
may point to capacity building and ﬁnancial support programmes speciﬁcallyrelated to their needs. This should be weighed against the advantages that externalor multinational business may bring in terms of investment, skills, employment
generation, etc.
• Ensure that a fair proportion of total travel expenditure is received locally.
International tour operators have a very important role to play in the eﬀective
promotion of tourism and in reaching new markets, but they should not takean undue proportion of total visitor spending. The Internet has provided newopportunities for direct contact and booking, enabling a higher percentage ofholiday spending to be retained locally. In the face of this, international tour
operators will need to actively demonstrate the added value they can oﬀer interms of market access, creative programmes and visitor assurance.
• Encourage employment of local labour. This can have a signiﬁcant eﬀect on local
prosperity. It has further policy implications relating to nurturing and facilitating
a local labour supply, such as the local provision of education and training,transport to work, etc. (see Aim 2.3).

28

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Strengthening links between businesses

Policy Implications

2

Strengthening links between businesses means addressing the local supply chain.
Policies may seek to:• Encourage and facilitate local sourcing of supplies. Tour operators should be
encouraged to use locally based service providers and products that are most
likely to beneﬁt local communities. Service providers should be encouraged
to undertake an audit of sources used (such as food producers) and to seek tomaximize the proportion of local suppliers. Using local products can greatly
enhance the authenticity of the tourist oﬀer and the multiplier eﬀect of tourism
in local economies. Achieving a consistent supply of high quality local goods
can be a challenge, but is necessary to reduce the need for imported goods andthus reduce leakages. This can be facilitated by the creation of wholesale markets
or consortia.
• Encourage clusters and networking of businesses. This means getting businesses
to work more closely together, thereby achieving more for themselves andfor the local community. It can be achieved through planning policies thatencourage geographical clustering and through capacity building or marketing
to support trade associations. Networks may be formed between similar service
providers, for mutual support and cost and beneﬁt sharing; between providersof diﬀerent kinds of tourism service, to strengthen packaging of oﬀers; andbetween enterprises in diﬀerent sectors (e.g. between accommodation operatorsand suppliers of food or handicrafts), to strengthen the supply chain.
• Recognize the needs of multiple occupations, including tourism. Many partsof the world have a tradition of local people being involved in a variety ofdiﬀerent occupations at the same time, either as employees or running a numberof businesses together, sometimes on the same land holding. This can ﬁt wellwith the seasonal nature of tourism. Supporting such activity is very much inline with the holistic principles of sustainable development. Policies relating totaxation and business practice should facilitate and not penalize this.
Inﬂuencing levels of visitor spending
Local prosperity can be strengthened by demand-side policies, which seek to:• Attract higher spending markets. Some market segments are more likely thanothers to spend money within destinations visited.
• Increase length of stay as well as the availability of spending opportunities
and visitors’ awareness of them. This can be achieved by promoting longerstay markets and encouraging existing visitors to stay longer, at the time or on
return visits. It may involve seeking an optimum level of attractions, events andother activities and outlets to retain visitor interest. Extending the opening
hours of attractions can also make a diﬀerence. The provision of eﬀective local
information services can increase visitors’ awareness of places to visit and things
to do, thereby raising the level of spending.
• Promote the purchasing of local products. This means strengthening the whole
retailing process as well as the quality, price, distribution and display of local
products such as food, drink and handicrafts.

29

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

2.3 Employment Quality

Policy Implications

2

To strengthen the number and quality of local jobs created andsupported by tourism, including the level of pay, conditions of service
and availability to all without discrimination by gender, race, disability
or in other ways
Providing employment is one of the major ways in which tourism can contribute to
the quality of life in host communities. However, in spite of the importance of humanresources in tourism and the sector’s contribution to the global economy, tourism jobs
are often quite low paid, with poor conditions and little security of employment. Thisis partly due to the fragmentation of the sector which is characterized by seasonal,
part-time and often family-based employment, but also to the view that service
industry jobs are non-professional or casual work. There is a very high turnover ofworkers in some sectors of the industry. Improved conditions for workers can lead tobetter performance, increased staﬀ retention, and greater eﬃciency and productivity.
The resulting change in staﬀ-customer relationships can lead to greater satisfaction
with the overall holiday experience.
Policy areas to address:
Increasing employment opportunities and the proportion of year round,full-time jobs
High priority should be given to the creation of jobs that are stable, permanent andfull-time, and that provide fair salaries and beneﬁts. One of the main reasons why
the tourism sector fails to deliver quality employment is the signiﬁcant seasonal
nature of demand in many destinations. This calls for clear policies to extend theseason through measures such as: targeting markets most likely to travel in the oﬀseason; discounted seasonal oﬀers; organizing events at less busy times of the year;
encouraging attractions to stay open longer; and seeking to inﬂuence the root causesof seasonality, such as the timing of the school year.
Where year-round full-time employment cannot be achieved, alternative solutions
may prove possible. For instance, working hours could be adapted to suit seasonalpatterns while maintaining beneﬁts, or seasonal workers could be ensured jobs withthe same employers each season.
Ensuring and enforcing labour regulations
At a minimum, the International Labour Organization’s (ILO) ‘core labour standards’
should be observed in all countries, irrespective of their level of development. Thesestandards, which reﬂect basic human rights, stipulate: the right of workers to associate
and to bargain collectively; the prohibition of forced labour and of exploitative childlabour; and non-discrimination in employment.
Equity issues associated with sustainable development suggest that good employment
practice goes beyond these core standards, promoting economic and social welfare,and leading to the improvement of living standards and the satisfaction of basic

30

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

2
Policy Implications

Box 2.1: Principles for good employment practice
Employment promotion
Promoting full, productive and freely chosen employment.
Equality of opportunity and treatment
Eliminating any discrimination based on race, colour, sex, religion, political opinion,
national extraction or social origin.
Accommodating the cultural customs, traditions and practices of employees.
Security of employment
Oﬀering formal employment contracts and focusing on the long-term developmentof tourism enterprises.
Training
Encouraging skill formulation and development, complemented by vocational
training and guidance closely linked with employment.
Conditions of work and life
Providing the best possible wages, beneﬁts and conditions of work within theframework of government policies. Employee beneﬁts can be extended to include
contributions to health care, disability, maternity, education and retirement, wherethese are not legally mandated. Amenities such as housing, food and medical careshould be provided where needed and should be of a good standard. Service charge
distribution should be a well-documented and transparent process.
Minimum age
Respecting the minimum age for admission to employment or work in order tosecure the eﬀective abolition of child labour.
Safety and health
Providing adequate safety and health standards and programmes for employees.

needs. A set of principles, reﬂecting such good practice, and based on the ILO’s
Tripartite Declaration of Principles, is given in Box 2.1.
It is important to set labour standards that can be realistically attained by both
domestic and international operators, providing a level playing ﬁeld between themand ensuring maximum compliance by everyone.
Encouraging enterprises to provide skills training programmes
and career advancement
A high quality, loyal labour force is a great asset to an enterprise and to the reputationof a destination. This can be achieved through investment in skill development andvocational training, and reinforced by occupational development and opportunities
for promotion and advancement. Policies should be concerned with:• Inﬂuencing enterprises to provide training, e.g. through incentives.
• Establishing publicly driven and supported human resource development andtraining programmes, in local destinations or for groups of enterprises.

31

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE• Working with national technical and vocational schools to improve theirstandards and outreach.

Policy Implications

2

Concern for the wellbeing of workers who lose their jobs
The tourism sector is particularly vulnerable to many kinds of crisis—including disease,natural disasters, war and terrorism—that can occur without warning and have an
immediate eﬀect. Many workers including, but not only, the high numbers of part-timeor casual workers may have no right to beneﬁt or support when jobs are withdrawn.
This could be overcome by introducing contracts that require adequate provision foradvance notice of termination of employment, severance pay, etc. Government policy
on social security support for people made redundant is also relevant here.

2.4 Social Equity
To seek a widespread and fair distribution of economic and social
beneﬁts from tourism throughout the recipient community, including
improving opportunities, income and services available to the poor
Tourism policies concerned with social equity should seek to beneﬁt disadvantaged
people by delivering economic and social beneﬁts to them. A particular focus
should be on tackling poverty, an aim that is given clear prominence in international
declarations and related agendas for sustainable development. However, policies
should also address a wider constituency and aim to improve the circumstances of
those who have been historically disadvantaged or who have limited access to power.
For example, in many developing countries, indigenous and traditional communities
can be said to be historically disadvantaged, and there is often a need to improve
the position of women and the income earning options open to them. Social
equity is also an issue in developed countries, an example being the need to provide
opportunities for unemployed urban youth.
There are many reasons why tourism is well placed to reach disadvantaged people,
mainly because it is a labour intensive service industry with relatively low entry barriers
and an activity that takes place in situ within communities. In addition to bringing
income, the interaction it entails between people can bolster dignity and self-esteem.
Policy areas1 to address:
Developing income earning opportunities for disadvantaged people
Policies relating to local prosperity and employment quality are relevant here,
but should be more focused and extended when seeking especially to beneﬁt
disadvantaged people. Areas of action include:• Encouraging employment practices that provide opportunities for disadvantaged
people. Factors that can have a positive eﬀect include locating new enterprises
closer to poor areas; providing education and training that is relevant and accessible
to disadvantaged people in such areas; and adopting open recruitment policies.
• Engaging disadvantaged people more directly in the supply of goods and services.

32

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

This means encouraging tourism enterprises to pay particular attention to thenature of their sources, and to work with poor communities (e.g. marginal farming
communities ) on developing reliable supply streams for the tourism industry.
• Bringing more beneﬁt to the informal economy from tourism. Disadvantaged
people often gain access to visitors and seek to earn income from them throughactivities such as street trading, personal guiding services or providing simple
accommodation, etc. This can be strengthened through capacity building,attention to quality, licensing, better information for tourists, etc.
• Supporting the development of enterprises by disadvantaged people. This requires
policies to encourage the development of small, individual or communityowned tourism businesses within disadvantaged communities. There are many
good examples of joint ventures between private operators and disadvantaged
communities; policies should seek to provide the right conditions for such
ventures.

Policy Implications

2

Utilizing income from tourism to support social programmes
Income from tourism can be used to tackle social issues and beneﬁt disadvantaged
people indirectly, whether or not they are themselves engaged in the sector. This caninvolve development of pools of funding that can then be directed towards social andcommunity schemes, such as education, health and social welfare. Funds can be raised by:• Taxation or compulsory levies or charges on tourists or tourism enterprises.
• Voluntary giving and sponsorship by tourists or by tourism enterprises, including
help in kind.
Investment in tourism in a destination area can result in the provision of additional
services, such as water, electricity and health care, which can be of particular beneﬁt
to disadvantaged communities.

2.5 Visitor Fulﬁlment
To provide a safe, satisfying and fulﬁlling experience for visitors, available
to all without discrimination by gender, race, disability or in other ways
The social dimension and equity principles associated with sustainable development
should apply to tourists as well as to the host population. The great recreational andeducational beneﬁts brought by tourism should be respected and made as widely
available as possible without discrimination. This implies viewing visitor satisfaction
and fulﬁlment as an aim in its own right, rather than simply as a means to economic
beneﬁt. It is also about the responsibilities that destinations have towards thewellbeing of their guests.
Policy areas to address:
Improving access for all
Improving access for all means ensuring that tourism facilities and infrastructure areaccessible and usable by people with disabilities2. It should be borne in mind that, in

33

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

most countries, a large part of the population is aﬀected in some way by disability—
for instance having a disabled person within the family group. Consideration needs
to be given both to those with physical disabilities, including wheelchair users, andto those with sensory and learning diﬃculties. Good physical access can also beneﬁtother categories, such as families with small children. Issues to address include thedesign and layout of buildings and sites, access to public transport, and the provisionof eﬀective information to such groups.

Policy Implications

2

Providing holiday opportunities for the economically and sociallydisadvantaged
Low income or other social disadvantages aﬀect many people’s ability to take holidays.
Policy in this area should aim to provide people with opportunities to take inexpensive
holidays. This may be particularly relevant when seeking to provide recreational andvacation opportunities for the domestic population in developing countries. Policies
could address pricing, including diﬀerential pricing for disadvantaged groups. People
without cars are also often disadvantaged where tourism facilities are not accessible bypublic transport.
Maintaining a duty of care to visitors
Duty of care to visitors means being concerned for their safety and security in thedestination and in enterprises. Issues include ﬁre prevention, health and hygiene,
awareness raising, prevention and preparedness for disasters (natural and industrial)
adaptation to the eﬀects of natural hazards and protection from crime and terrorism.
Ensuring accuracy of marketing and information and avoiding misleading and false
descriptions are other important aspects. There should also be clear procedures forregistering and handling visitors’ complaints and for solving problems that theyencounter such as loss of possessions or the need for emergency medical attention.
Monitoring and addressing visitor satisfaction and the quality of experience
Policies that seek to promote quality and to monitor and deliver visitor satisfaction in
general are relevant to this aim. This includes maintaining a regular survey of visitors
to destinations and encouraging enterprises to obtain feedback from their guests.
Although tourists’ motivations for travel vary, particular attention should be paid
to encouraging and enabling them to learn about and appreciate the cultures andenvironments they visit. This is an important part of meeting the aim of visitor
fulﬁlment; it also assists in meeting other aims relating to social and environmental
impact within the host destination.

2.6 Local Control
To engage and empower local communities in planning and decision
making about the management and future development of tourism intheir area, in consultation with other stakeholders
Giving people responsibility and control over their lives is a fundamental principle ofsustainable development. Moreover, tourism projects that engage local communities

34

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

directly in their planning and implementation are much more likely to be successful
in delivering local beneﬁts and to be sustained over time. Policy in this area is not,however, just about engagement through consultation processes; it is also about
empowering communities to inﬂuence decisions about the developments andactivities that will aﬀect their future while enabling the needs of other legitimate
interests to be taken into account.

Policy Implications

2

Policy areas to address:
Ensuring appropriate engagement and empowerment of local communities
Given the widely diﬀering social structures and forms of governance around theworld, it is diﬃcult to be prescriptive about ensuring appropriate engagement andempowerment. However, in principle, decisions should be made about tourism
development at the lowest appropriate level of governance. Where it is appropriate
to make decisions centrally, the local stakeholders aﬀected should be consulted andencouraged to participate. It is important to:• Fully engage the local community in the development of tourism policies andplans. This should involve local government institutions and there should be aprocess of wider consultation and participation for the community and otherstakeholders. Community engagement structures and processes are discussed
further in Chapter 3.
• Empower local communities to inﬂuence decisions on tourism development in theirarea. This process covers both the ongoing direction of tourism and determinationof individual development proposals. In some countries it may be achieved throughdemocratic development control systems that are within the land use planning process
and which involve decisions made by local elected representatives, based on evidence
obtained from all of those likely to be aﬀected by a project.
Improving the conditions for effective local decision making
An important aspect of local empowerment is to provide the skills and knowledge
that people need to participate eﬀectively in decision making at the local level.
Policies in this area should aim to:• Strengthen the capacity of local governance bodies and improve their knowledgeof tourism and its sustainability.
• Raise public awareness of the ways in which tourism can aﬀect communities.
• Involve communities in the development and maintenance of a system ofindicators for sustainable tourism.
• Ensure that objective and transparent information on proposed new developments
is available locally.
Addressing the speciﬁc position of indigenous and traditional communities
with respect to local control
In many developing countries, indigenous communities are in a unique and often
vulnerable position with respect to the potential impact of tourism on their culture

35

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

and livelihoods. It is important to empower indigenous communities and to engage
them in decision making processes. Local control can be enhanced by:

Policy Implications

2• Respect and recognition of traditional tribal empowerment, backing this up withlegal empowerment.
• Guaranteeing the individual and collective rights of indigenous people regarding
the land that they occupy. This allows them to control tourism within their lands
and to negotiate.
• Respect for indigenous people’s beliefs and traditions and consulting with themon how to portray their culture to tourists.

2.7 Community Wellbeing
To maintain and strengthen the quality of life in local communities,
including social structures and access to resources, amenities andlife support systems, avoiding any form of social or environmental
degradation or exploitation
Tourism can impact the social wellbeing of communities in many ways, both
positively and negatively. As well as providing jobs, the additional investment andspending brought by tourism can support a wide variety of amenities that add tothe quality of local people’s lives. These include essential services such as water andenergy, roads and transport services, health services, shops, garages, leisure andentertainment facilities, and outdoor amenities. Conversely, the presence of visitors
can put pressure on facilities and services, adding to the cost of their provision andmaintenance, reducing the enjoyment of them by local people and making access tothem diﬃcult or even impossible. Tourism developments and activity also sometimes
interfere with other sources of livelihood and disrupt access to them.
Tourism can be socially disruptive in other ways. It may stimulate an abnormal rise inhouse and land prices and in the general cost of living. Visitors may cause noise andgeneral disturbance, leave litter and on occasion may be the source of crime. Formsof behaviour that may be alien to host communities can lead to unacceptable social
practices amongst tourists and local people, such as an increase in prostitution and druguse. Child sex tourism, which is a clear violation of human rights, is of considerable
global concern and is the subject of an international campaign for its eradication3.
Policy areas to address:
Getting the balance right in the volume, timing and location of visits
The diﬀerence between a negative and a positive community reaction to tourism
depends to a signiﬁcant extent on the volume of visitors in an area at any one timeand how this relates to the size of the local population. It may also be aﬀected by the
degree of concentration or geographical spread. The concept of the social carrying
capacity of a destination is relevant here, and policies should maintain an optimum
number of visitors. This can be done by keeping abreast of community reactions
and using appropriate indicators such as volume of visits, traﬃc counts, number ofcomplaints from local people, level of litter, etc.

36

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Reducing congestion

Policy Implications

2

Congestion, especially at peak times, caused by the volume of visitors and/or theirvehicles, can be a primary threat to community wellbeing. It can be addressed byvisitor management policies and actions including:• Managing demand and reducing seasonality by marketing and pricing techniques
to promote oﬀ-season visits, or by promoting alternative locations to spread visits
within and outside of the destination.
• Improving traﬃc management through physical changes, signage, information,and promotion of alternative transport options.
• Addressing speciﬁc types of activity that may bring large inﬂuxes of visitors at
certain times (e.g. management of cruise ship arrivals).
Careful planning and management of tourism enterprises and infrastructure
Forward thinking in the layout and design of tourist destinations and in the provisionof services can make a signiﬁcant diﬀerence to the impact on communities. Relevant
approaches include:• Planning the scale, design and siting of new tourism development, to take accountof the overall amenity of the destination and the location of residential areas andother activities within the community.
• Planning the development of infrastructure, including transport, water and energy
supplies, which should be designed to meet the combined needs of visitors andthe community.
• Maximizing the availability of open space and other amenity areas, including
beaches, that are accessible for use by residents and visitors.
• Where appropriate, encouraging tourism enterprises and their visitors tominimize water consumption.
Promoting mutual use of facilities and services by residents and tourists
Where possible, facilities and amenities developed for tourists should also be madeavailable to members of the local community. In some locations, visitor spending canmake the diﬀerence in ensuring viability of community services and facilities, suchas local shops and village halls. Use of such services by tourists should be encouraged
through information, events, etc.
Inﬂuencing the behaviour of tourists towards local communities
Many of the more speciﬁc and serious problems faced by communities as a result of
tourism are due to behaviour of individual tourists or particular groups. This can beinﬂuenced through:• Information, provided before and during the visit, on the nature of the hostcommunity, their values and any particular sensitivities that should be respected.
• Regulating certain aspects of visitor behaviour, such as noise and littering.
• Mounting or supporting campaigns, backed by legislation as appropriate, tocombat sex tourism and the exploitation of children.

37

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE• Maintaining an appropriate level of policing.
• Physical control measures to facilitate good behaviour, such as provision of litterbins and information boards in several languages, if necessary.

Policy Implications

2

2.8 Cultural Richness
To respect and enhance the historic heritage, authentic culture,
traditions and distinctiveness of host communities
Respect for, and understanding of, cultural diversity between nations and peoples isa key principle of sustainable development. Tourism can be a considerable force forthe conservation of historic and cultural heritage and can stimulate arts, crafts andother creative activities within communities. By providing a source of income basedaround local culture, tourism can encourage communities to value their cultural
heritage more highly. However, it is important to guard against the falsiﬁcation anddegradation of culture and heritage in the way they are promoted to tourists.
Policy areas to address:
Ensuring effective management and conservation of cultural and historic
heritage sites
Signiﬁcant historic and cultural sites are a major component of visitor appeal inmany countries. Although such sites are often dependent on visitor income for their
management and conservation, many are also suﬀering from visitor pressure thatthreatens to damage their fabric and devalue the quality of the visitor experience.
Policies in this area should focus on:• Conserving historic and cultural heritage features. The level of designation andprotection varies between countries. It may need to be extended in many places.
Promoting the inclusion of sites on the World Heritage Convention list isappropriate in certain situations.
• Eﬀective visitor management. This can include a range of techniques such as
spreading and deﬂecting demand, physical site management, etc.4• Avoiding or managing intrusive collateral activities. Some sites suﬀer from
intrusion from neighbouring urban development, unmanaged trading such as
informal trinket stalls or street sellers, etc.
• Securing more money from visitors for conservation. This can be achieved
through promoting greater use, management of admission income, provision ofwell managed retail outlets, encouraging voluntary donations, etc.
• Seeking ways to beneﬁt local communities living close to heritage sites. This canin turn help towards conservation as well as improving local livelihoods.
Working with communities on the sensitive presentation and promotion ofculture and traditions
Cultural richness can be strengthened and interpreted in a variety of creative ways.
Greater respect and understanding for local cultures can be achieved through38

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

improved information for guests and hosts and interaction between them. However,in all these activities, sensitivity is required and comodiﬁcation or devaluing of local
culture must be avoided. Policies should focus on:

Policy Implications

2• Developing interpretative programmes and events based on the heritage anddistinctiveness of the area.
• Conceiving creative, sensitive and viable visitor attractions where local culture andtraditions can be showcased.
• Incorporating aspects of local cultural heritage and distinctiveness into various
elements of visitor experience, such as furnishing in tourism establishments, local
cuisine in restaurants, traditional designs in architecture, and art and sculpture in
public spaces.
• Capacity building with local communities regarding visitor interpretation andissues of quality and authenticity.
• Capacity building with the private sector to help them and their guests to bridge
potential culture gaps.
• Informing tourists about local traditions and local culture before and during the trip.
• Informing local communities about the culture of their potential visitors.
• Guarding against the sale and purchase of items of cultural value as souvenirs.

2.9 Physical Integrity
To maintain and enhance the quality of landscapes, both urban andrural, and avoid physical and visual degradation of the environment
This is about the physical structure of places and their aesthetic quality andappearance. It is an important aim intrinsically from the environmental perspective,
as well as aﬀecting the wellbeing of local people. It is also critically important for thelong term health of the tourism industry as the physical attractiveness of destinations
is a key element of their appeal to visitors.
Land and coastal erosion are particular areas of concern where physical degradationis concerned. They may be caused, for example, by changes in vegetation cover or bymarine infrastructure aﬀecting long shore currents. Land degradation can also leadto loss of biodiversity, which is covered more speciﬁcally under Aim 2.10.
In relation to visual impacts, most attention in the past has been paid to the qualityof rural landscapes and how they aﬀect, and are aﬀected by, tourism. However, there
should be equal concern for the integrity and aesthetic quality of built as well as
natural environments in rural and urban areas5.
Policy areas to address:
Ensuring that new tourism development is appropriate to local
environmental conditions
Key to the aim of maintaining physical integrity is having policies and instruments inplace at a local level that inﬂuence the location and nature of new development.

39

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Attention should be paid not only to the building of tourism facilities, such asaccommodation, but also to a wide range of associated infrastructure, such as airports,
roads, marinas, and ski tows and slopes. Policies should address in particular:

Policy Implications

2• The scale and density of new development and the extent of urbanization. In
many areas, new structures should be avoided in order to keep the place natural.
In some situations, policies relating to tourism development may favour the reuse
and regeneration of existing buildings and previously used sites rather than newbuilding on greenﬁeld sites. In some situations, clustering of buildings may be
more appropriate than sporadic development.
• The siting of new structures with respect to physical landform, vegetation, and thecoherence of existing urban structures. Policies should seek an optimum amountof open space and the retention of tree cover. The height of new structures
should be sensitive to urban skylines and to the height of trees. In coastal andlakeside settings it may be necessary to establish set back limits for new building(minimum distance from the high water mark).
• Quality of development and attention to detail. The impact of tourism
development depends partly on sympathetic and creative designs, eﬀective
landscaping using indigenous species, and use of high quality materials. The
design of new buildings should be in harmony with the landscape, and whereappropriate reﬂect traditional designs.
• The robustness of structures and their ability to withstand the eﬀects of climatechange and natural disasters.
• The long term future and after use of buildings and sites. Consideration should begiven to the life cycle of tourism developments and to policies and resources formaintenance and renewal. For some forms of tourism, such as one-oﬀ events or
seasonal structures, there may be important issues of after use of sites in the short term.
As well as addressing the nature and location of development, policies and control
measures may seek to minimize physical degradation caused by the construction
process, including care over site preparation, the extraction of building materials, andthe removal and treatment of construction waste (see Aim 2.12).
Minimizing the physical impact of tourist activity
Physical degradation of the environment can result from the actions of tourists. Thiscan arise from all types of tourism but is most speciﬁcally associated with certain
recreational activities. Particular problems to address include:• Erosion resulting from over-use of sites. This can be a signiﬁcant issue withpopular hiking trails, especially where surfaces are fragile.
• Damage to marine structures, such as coral reefs, from diving or boating activities.
• Environmental degradation caused by dropping of litter.
• Willful damage, such as graﬃti.
Policies and actions to minimize such impacts include:• Visitor management measures to reduce pressures and deﬂect activities to morerobust sites.
• Educational activity to change behaviour.
• Development of codes of conduct, supported by regulation where necessary.

40

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Maintaining high quality rural and urban landscapes as a tourism resource

Policy Implications

2

As well as inﬂuencing tourism development and activities per se, policies should seek
to maintain the integrity and attractiveness of tourist destinations, including towns
and rural areas, by inﬂuencing development and maintenance in general, including:• Controlling intrusive new development, such as unsightly buildings.
• Controlling activities that will damage landscapes, such as mineral extraction or
destruction of forests.
• Maintaining the fabric and facades of properties, especially historic buildings.
• Maintaining traditional rural landscapes and features.
• Minimizing the impact of intrusive structures such as power lines.
• Avoiding the proliferation of advertisements and signing.
• Maintaining the quality of public open spaces.
Maintenance of physical integrity and attractive landscapes may partly be achieved
through extending and strengthening protected areas and how they relate to tourism.
This is covered in more detail under Aim 2.10. However, the overall aim is relevant toall areas and policies and actions should not be restricted to places with protected status.

2.10 Biological Diversity
To support the conservation of natural areas, habitats and wildlife, andminimize damage to themThis is an area where the positive and negative impacts of tourism can be felt moststrongly. The very environments which attract visitors can be the most vulnerable.
For instance, the development of coastal zones has led to much loss of habitat anddune destruction. Marine environments, such as coral reefs, have been seriously
damaged by over use or poor practice linked to diving operations. Boats and shorebased facilities have also caused extensive damage through physical destruction
and pollution. All ecosystems, whether mountains, deserts, rainforests, wetlands orinland waters, have their own special sensitivities which need to be considered whenplanning for tourism activities. On the other hand, income from tourism has proved
to be a critically important component of funding for conservation in many nationalparks, reserves and other protected areas.
Protection of biodiversity is closely related to the maintenance of physical integrity,
covered under Aim 2.9. and a number of the policy areas presented below also
support that aim. As with physical integrity, preventing destruction of biodiversity
not only by tourism itself but also by other activities can be very important inmaintaining the visitor appeal of many rural destinations.
Policy areas to address:
Working with national parks and other protected areas
The designation and management of all types of protected area provide an
opportunity to strengthen the protection from the negative impacts of tourism,

41

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

and to focus on sustainable tourism that increases visitor awareness and support
for conservation. In many countries, authorities responsible for national parks andprotected areas have taken a strong interest in tourism, seeing it as a source ofincome, an opportunity for a sustainable livelihood for park-based communities andas an activity that needs careful management.6 Important policy issues include:

Policy Implications

2• Extending the coverage of terrestrial and marine7 protected areas, including
buﬀer zones, as appropriate or as needed. This involves identifying areas that need
protection and considering their potential to beneﬁt from sustainable tourism.
• Preparing national guidelines on sustainable tourism in protected areas.
• Establishing structures for joint working on tourism with relevant stakeholders,
including preparing sustainable tourism strategies that integrate with park
management plans and link to regional and national strategies.
• Guaranteeing the availability and use of ﬁnancial resources for park management.
• Optimizing the level and use of park admissions to support a range of objectives,
including biodiversity conservation.
• Developing partnership agreements and concession-based relationships with local
communities and private sector operators that oﬀer clear beneﬁts to conservationand habitat management, as well as to communities and users.
• Creating networks of protected areas, and their branding for sustainable tourism.
Promoting development and management of ecotourism
Ecotourism, by deﬁnition, is a form of tourism that entails responsible travel to naturalareas which conserves the environment and sustains the well-being of local people. It
should therefore be encouraged in the interests of conservation. Governments should:• Bring together tourism and conservation stakeholders to agree priorities andpolicies for the development and careful management of ecotourism at a national
and local level.8• Ensure that products or new projects that are promoted as ‘ecotourism’ comply with theabove deﬁnition. This may require application of relevant tools such as certiﬁcation.
• Encourage well planned and executed ecotourism projects in natural areas,
including visitor facilities and interpretation, through technical support,
marketing and other appropriate measures.
Using tourism to encourage landholders to practice sustainable land
management
In many parts of the world, rural landholders (smallholders, farmers or communities
engaged in agriculture on communal lands) can earn additional income from tourism,
either directly or indirectly. This may involve providing accommodation or otherservices on the land, income from the sale of produce into the tourism supply chain,or income from engagement in tourism oﬀ the land (e.g. acting as guides). Tourism
can stimulate more sustainable land management by providing a new income source(as an alternative to unsustainable practices such as logging or slash and burnagriculture) and can encourage landholders to conserve wildlife or produce organic
food, as these are valued by visitors. Policies should seek to develop support, advice
and other incentives to encourage landholders to manage their land more sustainably.

42

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Working with private parks and reserves

Policy Implications

2

Private parks and nature reserves have grown signiﬁcantly in many countries in recent
years. Most are actively involved in tourism and there is an opportunity and need toinﬂuence their development and management. Priorities include:• Ensuring that private parks do not siphon away resources, including tourism
income, to the detriment of conservation in public parks.
• Ensuring that private parks maintain high conservation and tourism standards.
This may involve developing appropriate legal frameworks.
• Integrating the management of private and public parks into a single biodiversity plan.
Minimizing damage to natural heritage from tourism
Careful control of tourism development is particularly important in order to avoid
damage in areas of high landscape value or where biodiversity may be especiallyvulnerable. Guidelines for an agreed development planning process that will deliver
such control are set out in the Convention on Biological Diversity.9
Policies and actions should also seek to minimize damage to habitats and disturbanceof wildlife by visitors. This relates closely to the damage to physical integrity by
tourist activity, notably by particular types of recreation, covered under Aim 2.9, andthe measures indicated there are relevant.
Policies should also seek to minimize damage and disturbance from visitors. This applies
to all tourists, but a particular focus may be required on certain recreational activities suchas diving and adventure tourism in sensitive environments. Policy areas include:• Raising awareness through education and interpretation.
• Visitor management—controlling visitor numbers and behaviour (e.g. physicaldamage, wildlife disturbance, littering).
Policies should also be put in place that prevent tourism from contributing to thethreat to endangered species by either stimulating illegal trade in such species orpurchasing of souvenirs made from them.
Raising visitor awareness of biodiversity
Providing tourists with a better appreciation and understanding of the natural
heritage of the places they visit should help to prevent adverse impacts and encourage
support for conservation, as well as enhancing their enjoyment. Policies and actions
should support the provision of:
•
•
•
•
•
•

Good quality guiding, where possible involving local people.
Interpretative events.
Visitor centres, where appropriate, containing creative interpretative facilities.
Relevant information pre-arrival.
Educational activity amongst local people and potential domestic markets.
Better knowledge amongst tourism enterprises that they can pass on to their staﬀ
and guests.

43

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Raising support for conservation from visitors and enterprises

Policy Implications

2

Many tourism enterprises recognize the importance of ongoing conservation activity to
the visitor experience; others should be encouraged to do so. Polices could be introduced
that encourage enterprises to support biodiversity, through maintaining habitats on theirown properties and supporting local conservation initiatives, in cash or kind.
Financial support for conservation activity can also be raised from tourists and isproviding an increasingly important source of income. Tourists can also become
engaged in practical ways, for example through participating in conservation holidays.

2.11 Resource Efﬁciency
To minimize the use of scarce and non-renewable resources in thedevelopment and operation of tourism facilities and services
A sustainable future depends on the careful management of resources to ensure theiravailability for present and future generations. Resources that are non-renewable,in limited supply, or essential for life support are of particular concern. These
include land, fresh water, forests, minerals and fossil fuels. Conservation of energy isimportant, especially where it is derived from non-renewable resources.
Tourism is a signiﬁcant user of resources in many areas. Ensuring that it uses
resources eﬃciently is important both for the wellbeing of the local environmentand host community and in maintaining global resources. Eﬃcient use of resources,
notably energy derived from fossil fuels, is also important in the reduction ofpolluting emissions.
Resource eﬃciency in tourism will be achieved largely by changing the consumption
patterns of tourists and tourism enterprises. Enterprises should be encouraged toestablish environmental management systems to minimize impacts and drive aprocess of continual improvement.
Policy areas to address:
Taking account of resource supply in the planning of tourism development,
and vice versa
An integrated planning approach is required to ensure an equitable balance between
the needs of local communities and the tourism industry. Growth of tourism inan area may be seriously limited by the availability of land, water, energy or otherresources. Equally, predicted growth in demand from the tourism sector must be
taken into account when planning provision of water and energy supplies.
Minimizing water consumption by the tourism sector
Fresh water is a vital resource and consumption of water by the tourism sector is high.
In developing countries, it has been found that per capita daily use of water by tourists
can be as much as 10 to 15 times greater than by local residents. Much tourism demandoccurs in places and at times when water is very scarce, such as in summer in arid

44

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

coastal regions. In many tourist destinations new sources of water, such as desalination
plants, would be diﬃcult to establish, costly and bring their own environmental
problems. Policies to minimize water consumption are required and should address:

Policy Implications

2• Restricting water hungry facilities such as swimming pools, golf courses, andartiﬁcial snow cannons.
• Reusing and recycling water where possible, (e.g. use of greywater to irrigate
parks and gardens).
• Improving infrastructure and maintenance (e.g. reducing leakages).
• Encouraging installation of water eﬃcient technology such as low-ﬂow showers
and toilets.
• Persuading visitors to be responsible in their use of water.
Minimizing consumption of energy from non-renewable resources
Policies on energy use should seek to inﬂuence both sources of supply andconsumption, including:• Promoting the use of designs and materials for tourism facilities that maximize
insulation and the use of natural heat, light and ventilation.
• Providing renewable energy sources in tourist destinations.
• Encouraging individual tourism enterprises to generate their own energy supply,
or to supplement it, from renewable sources (such as photovoltaic systems andmini hydro schemes).
• Encouraging use of energy eﬃcient plant and equipment for lighting, water
heating, cooking, etc.
• Promoting resource eﬃcient transport options (discussed further under Aim 2.12).
• Persuading visitors to be responsible in their use of energy.
Ensuring the efﬁcient use of land and raw materials in tourism development
In some tourist destinations land may be in short supply. It is therefore importantto select sites for tourism development carefully, taking account of alternative uses
and the needs of the local community. Although use of local materials can add
to quality and distinctiveness, the design and construction of tourism facilities
should avoid proﬂigate use of naturally occurring materials such as timber, stone,sand and gravel, and should take account of the capacity of local supply andcompeting demands.
Promoting a reduce, reuse, recycle mentality
In general, tourism enterprises should be encouraged to be eﬃcient in all their use
of materials. This is equally true for their use of resources and generation of waste.
These themes are covered under Aim 2.12. Policies should support:• Purchasing of supplies from sustainable sources. This can be helped by better
information on local availability of such sources and ecolabelling schemes forrelevant consumer products.
• Minimizing use of unnecessary packaging, for example through economic
incentives to return containers such as bottles.

45

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE• Encouraging creativity in the reuse of products both within an enterprise or
making them available for use in the local community.
• The creation of markets to recycle tourism supplies (paper, glass and plastic in particular).

Policy Implications

2

2.12 Environmental Purity
To minimize the pollution of air, water and land and the generation ofwaste by tourism enterprises and visitors
Maintaining environmental purity means reducing waste and harmful emissions to
the environment in order to preserve the quality of the air, water and land that sustain
life, health and biodiversity. Actions should address all aspects of pollution prevention
and control throughout the lifecycle of tourism development, during and after the useof facilities, as well as the impacts of tourists themselves.
Although local impacts on the environment, such as local air and water quality, arethe most immediately apparent to local communities and to visitors, the tourism
industry also has global environmental impacts. Governments need to recognize theresponsibilities towards both the global and the local environment that are inherent
in maintaining environmental purity. There is a need for a profound change in theway we generate and use energy and in other activities that release greenhouseand other gases into the atmosphere. Global pollution may also impact many local
destinations through the consequences of climate change.
As with promoting resource eﬃciency, waste and pollution control will be achievedlargely by changing the consumption patterns of tourists and tourism enterprises.
This should be a key component of individual environmental management systems
within enterprises.
Policy areas to address:
Promoting the use of more sustainable transport
Transport is one of the most signiﬁcant sources of environmental pollution resulting
from tourism, mainly through air travel and the use of individual private cars. Travel
by rail and boat is far less polluting. As well as the global impact of greenhouse gas
emissions, emissions and congestion aﬀect the local environment and community.
Policies should seek to:• Favour low-impact forms of transport. This applies both to journeys to and fromthe destination, and within it. The latter may be easier to inﬂuence. Promotion ofwalking and cycling provides a particular opportunity in many destinations. Thiscan be facilitated by the provision of appropriate infrastructure, including trails
and public transport services, more integrated timetabling, and creative marketing.
• Minimize the number and length of journeys made. Although this would reduce
environmental impact, it may also have serious economic consequences for the
tourism industry and for local communities dependent on visitors. Policies could
seek to encourage longer stays, so that the amount of income gained by the46

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

destination per kilometre travelled is increased, and net income is retained.
• Mitigate the consequences of environmental impact from transport. A campaign
could be established that invites tourists to oﬀset the impact of their air travel bycontributing to carbon sequestration projects.

Policy Implications

2

Reducing the use of environmentally damaging chemicals
The tourism industry uses a variety of environmentally harmful chemicals.
Environmental damage may be caused, for instance, by the use or disposal ofchemicals present in cleaning products, fuel, paints, fungicides and pesticides,
or chlorination products for swimming pools. The industry also contributes todepletion of the ozone layer, by releasing CFCs into the atmosphere from coolingsystems and air conditioners, foam packaging and insulation, and through carelessdisposal of refrigerants in end-of-life fridges. Governments should be vigilant in
enforcing high standards for the disposal of hazardous waste. Wherever possible, theuse of environmentally damaging chemicals should be eliminated through carefulpurchasing policies.
Avoiding the discharge of sewage to marine and river environments
Water is an essential resource for both biological and human communities. It isessential for the tourism industry to place a high priority on reducing, managing andtreating wastewater and controlling sewage disposal. The impacts of emissions on
the environment are not felt solely at the point of disposal or discharge: pollutants
disperse and are borne by ﬂowing water or leach through the soil to join watercourses.
Wherever possible, connection should be made to mains sewage disposal systems
that are designed to treat and discharge to the highest standards. Governments
should provide appropriate infrastructure and legislation concerning connection to
the sewerage system. In some locations, alternative technologies such as discharge ofsewage to reed beds may be appropriate.
Minimizing waste and where necessary disposing of it with care
The tourism industry is a major generator of waste and disposal of non-degradable
waste is an important issue, especially in remoter locations. Land can becontaminated through the tipping of waste on landﬁll sites and landﬁlled biodegradable wastes can also release methane into the atmosphere. As well as causing
visual intrusion and habitat damage, such wastes can be damaging or life-threatening
to wildlife. There should be an emphasis on reducing waste at source and recycling
wherever possible. Where disposal is necessary, it should be in accordance withbest available practice. This can be helped by governments providing suitableinfrastructure and legislation against inappropriate waste disposal.
Inﬂuencing the development of new tourism facilities
Choices made prior to the development of a new facility can have a profound eﬀect
on environmental impact at the time of development, during operation of the
facility, and with respect to the after use and long term future of the site. Policies
should seek to inﬂuence:47

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE• The location of new development. This includes its general location in terms of
the overall environmental sensitivity of the area and its setting, for example inrelation to the coast or public transport links.
• Design and materials used. These can inﬂuence operational impacts such as
emissions, treatment and disposal of waste, etc.
• The construction process. Construction should take place with minimum
disturbance to the environment. In many areas, especially coastal sites, it has
been found that waste and emissions from the construction phase can be moredisruptive to the local environment than the operational phase.

Policy Implications

2

Notes
1 The policy areas identiﬁed here reﬂect a seven point model for addressing poverty throughtourism contained in Tourism and Poverty Alleviation – Recommendations for Action.
World Tourism Organisation, 2004.
2 The WTO deﬁned guidelines to facilitate tourism for people with disabilities as early as
1991 (see WTO General Assembly resolution ‘Creating opportunities for handicappedpeople: http://www.world-tourism.org/quality/E/main.htm).
3 International Campaign Against Sexual Exploitation of Children in Tourism
http:// http://www.ecpat.org/preventing-child-sex-tourism.html.
4 A detailed treatment of management measures can be found in the Handbook on
Tourism Congestion Management at Natural and Cultural Sites WTO, 2004. See also
the UNEP/UNESCO manual on tourism management in World Heritage Sites, 2002.
5 The participants to the WTO/UNESCO/Sultanate of Oman conference in Muscat,
Oman, (February 2005), issued a ‘Declaration on Built Environments for Sustainable
Tourism’ calling on governments to take action in this area.
6 A comprehensive treatment of the relationship between tourism and protected areas canbe found in Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas UNEP, WTO, IUCN, 2002.
7 See recommendations 22 and 23 of the World Parks Congress 2003 held in Durban,
South Africa. http://www.iucn.org/themes/wcpa/wpc2003/english/outputs/
recommendations.htm.
8 The Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism (2002) provides a framework for soundecotourism policies. http://www.world-tourism.org/sustainable/IYE/quebec/.
9 Guidelines on Biodiversity and Tourism Development, Convention on Biological
Diversity 2003.

48

Structures andStrategies

This chapter describes structures that help governments to work
internally and with other stakeholders to make tourism moresustainable. It also identiﬁes the strategies that are required todevelop and drive policies and actions.
Particular attention is paid to the relationship between national
and local structures and strategies for sustainable tourism. It is
critically important that they are in harmony and that policies andactions at these diﬀerent levels are complementary.

3

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

3.1 Structures for working together

Structures andStartegies

3

The holistic and equitable principles that underpin sustainable development imply
the need to bring together a wide range of stakeholders to develop and manage
tourism in a sustainable manner.
In bringing together these diﬀerent interests, governments must seek to develop
structures that have two purposes:• Engaging stakeholders in the formulation of a strategy and policies forsustainable tourism.
• Ensuring eﬀective coordination of actions and an ongoing dialogue between
stakeholders.
In many situations both purposes can be met by the same structures. Permanent
structures are required to ensure coordination; additional, temporary, working
structures may also be needed in the policy formulation stages.
Structures can be developed in partnership with other stakeholders, to:• Raise the proﬁle of the sustainable development of tourism, and to ensure thatthose who can inﬂuence it give it their full attention.
• Give a say in the development and management of tourism to those whose
interests or areas of responsibility will be aﬀected by its impacts.
• Bring together knowledge and expertise on economic, social and environmental
issues that are relevant to tourism.
• Ensure that polices and actions in other sectors or areas of activity that impingeon tourism are coordinated and taken into account, to prevent policy conﬂicts andenhance synergy.
• Encourage wide commitment of support and resources to a common, agreed
programme.
Box 3.1 gives an example of how diﬀerent stakeholders have been brought together
in Honduras.
Relationships and coordination structures within government
Many areas of government have responsibility for policies and actions that have astrong bearing on the sustainability of tourism. These are listed in Table 3.1.
The degree of priority given to diﬀerent aspects of sustainability will depend on
which part of government is responsible for tourism. For example, a separate
Ministry of Tourism has the advantage of being able to make relevant connections
with and between other ministries, but it may not carry much weight overall. Linking
tourism to the Ministry of Environment can underpin awareness of environmental
sustainability, and reinforce links with national parks or the promotion of nature
based tourism. Location within a Trade or Development Ministry may ensure ahigher political and budgetary proﬁle, but may also lead to greater emphasis on
foreign exchange earnings and less regard for local impacts.

50

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE3

Box 3.1: Honduras—getting key people together

Structures andStrategies

Honduras has introduced a number of initiatives to develop sustainable tourism based on the
country’s high quality natural environment and historic heritage attractions. It has recognized
the importance of having the right structures for ministries and tourism stakeholders to work
together at both a national and local level if it is to achieve its goals.
A special ‘tourism cabinet’ has been established, involving the President of the Republic and
the Secretaries for Tourism, Environment and Natural Resources, Finance, Justice, Security,
Transport and Public Utilities, and Arts and Culture.
Within the oﬃcial Institute of Tourism, there are separate units dedicated to the Environment
and to Municipal Development.
At a local level, approximately 60 Municipal Tourism Development Commissions have been
established, in each case under the leadership of the Mayor and involving local private sector
tourism interests and NGOs. The Institute of Tourism provides technical assistance andtraining to these Commissions, on issues such as tourism management, the application ofenvironmental legislation and the issuing of guidelines.
Groups of municipalities also work together regionally, for example on a sustainable tourism
initiative on the north coast and the area around the World Heritage Site of Copan.

Table 3.1: Areas of government inﬂuencing the sustainability of tourism
Tourism
Overall development, coordination and implementationof tourism policy. Support for tourism development,
management and marketing.
Prime Ministerial oﬃce Tourism’s position within the overall balance of policies andpriorities.
Finance
Level of budgetary resources allocated to tourism. Tax policy.
Trade
Terms of trade negotiations. Export and investment
promotion.
Economic Development Sustainable development policies. Support for enterprise.
Environment andRegulation and control of environmental impact.
Natural Resources
Conservation of biodiversity. Protected area management.
Management of resources for ecotourism.
Transport
Accessibility, traﬃc management and sustainable transport
issues.
CultureManagement and preservation of historic sites and cultural
heritage.
Agriculture
Rural development and supply chain issues.
Education
Tourism training.
HealthSafety and social security issues, for visitors and employees.
Sport and Recreation
Promotion of attractions, activities, events, etc. Elements ofdomestic market.
Internal Aﬀairs
Crime and security. Child protection.
Foreign Aﬀairs
Source country-destination relationships. Visa requirements.

51

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Structures andStartegies

3

Queensland,
Australia
adopted a‘whole of government’approach. An interministerial committee
was established and senior
executives within eachrelevant ministry were
given responsibility fortourism related work (seeCase Studies, p 130).
Examples ofcollaboration
include theprotocol signed between
the Ministries of
Economy, Environment
and Agriculture
in Bulgaria, on
implementation of the
National Ecotourism
Strategy, and the coming
together of the Egyptian
Environmental Aﬀairs
Agency, the Tourism
Development Authority
and the Red Sea
Governorate on planningpolicies and regulations(see Case Studies, p 135& p 144).

Irrespective of the location of tourism within government, there are some key
requirements if it is to be fully integrated into national sustainable development
strategies. These are:• Tourism should be given a clear, strong voice, with a direct link to top-level
cabinet decision makers.
• There should be a formal structure and process for inter-ministerial cooperation
on tourism.
• Such relationships should be also reﬂected within and between lower level publicagencies, such as tourist boards and environment agencies.
In addition to these inter-ministerial structures, ministries may collaborate to support
or implement speciﬁc initiatives. This may take the form of agreements with local
government, and can involve collaboration between government agencies. It is helpful
if such collaborative structures, agreements and actions are formalized by protocols or
memoranda of understanding.
Structures and mechanisms to engage stakeholders
A sustainable approach to tourism development requires structures that enable
representatives of local authorities and non-governmental interests to become
involved in the formulation and implementation of national tourism strategies andpolicies. Governments should establish and manage such structures.
Traditionally, this has been achieved through government agencies, such as tourist
boards, that have private sector representation on their executive committees. While
this should be continued, it is important to ﬁnd ways to widen the process throughadditional dedicated structures.
Some countries have permanent tourism councils, which are essentially discussion
and advisory bodies. These can be valuable mechanisms for promoting thesustainability of tourism, provided that their membership is well balanced to reﬂect
the diﬀerent dimensions of sustainability.
Ideally what is required is a permanent forum or standing conference based on a large
number of invited stakeholders representing diﬀerent interests, and a smaller body orcouncil, perhaps elected from the above, dealing with more detailed work.
Such a multi-stakeholder structure should represent the following, amongst others:• Diﬀerent government departments and agencies representing the areas ofgovernment identiﬁed above.
• Regional and local authorities.
• Diﬀerent segments of the tourism industry—hotel associations, tour operator bodies, etc.
• International travel trade.
• The transport sector (all forms).
• Environmental and community-based NGOs.
• Cultural heritage bodies.
• National parks and other protected areas.
• Tourism/recreation user groups.

52

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE• Civil society (not in tourism but aﬀected by it).
• Universities and other bodies involved with tourism education and training.
• Trade (labour) unions.

Structures andStrategies

3

Such a forum and council should be concerned with all aspects of tourism and should
focus on sustainability.
To ensure a focus on sustainability, it may be appropriate in some countries, to set
up a dedicated inter-agency communication and working group speciﬁcally for thispurpose. The challenge would be to ensure that the work of such a separate bodyrelates continually and strongly to the mainstream of tourism and is not marginalized.
Coordination structures at local level
Structures bringing together tourism, environment, community and wider
development interests are also required at the local level. Some or all of the areas andfunctions of national government listed in Table 3.1 may be reﬂected within local
authorities. To strengthen the sustainability of tourism, mechanisms should also beestablished that encourage joined-up thinking and action within local government.

The Scottish
Tourism andEnvironment
Forum is a good example
of what has become
essentially a pressuregroup for sustainable
tourism, checking policy
across its members andpromoting good practice(see Case Studies, p 172).

In a number of countries, ‘destination management organizations’ have been
established at the local level. These are partnerships between local government andthe private sector. Their main responsibility is the management and promotion of
tourism; they sometimes also address development aspects. Such organizations shouldtake full account of the social and environmental dimensions of sustainability byensuring sound representation of local community and environmental interests within
their governing bodies.

3.2 Interrelated national strategies
A strategy determines a goal and outlines the direction and approaches needed to getthere. Strategies can address a wide range of issues aﬀecting desired outcomes and may
also need to embrace a wide range of stakeholders whose actions will also inﬂuence
those outcomes. Governments can work with others to develop strategies relating bothto broad matters such as sustainable development and poverty reduction in general,and to speciﬁc sectors such as tourism. Policies, on the other hand, tend to be more
precise statements of position and intent about individual issues and may be more
speciﬁcally linked to individual stakeholders, notably government. Tourism policies
that embrace sustainability should be developed through comprehensive strategies.
Three types of strategy can be identiﬁed that have relevance to sustainable tourism:• An overall tourism strategy embracing sustainability principles.
• Other relevant government strategies recognizing or embracing sustainable
tourism (such as a biodiversity strategy).
• Strategies for sub-sectors of tourism that can play a role in making all of tourism
more sustainable (such as an ecotourism strategy).

53

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

A tourism strategy that embraces sustainability

3Structures andStartegies

Every country should have a strategy, contained in a published document, thatprovides a clear direction and framework for the development and management of
tourism, thereby:• Guiding the policies and actions of the tourism ministry and its agencies, such as
the national tourism organization.
• Inﬂuencing other government departments and ministries.
• Stimulating and controlling the private sector and potential investors.
• Providing a framework for tourism policies and action at the local level.
Rather than develop a separate strategy for ‘sustainable tourism’, mainstream tourism
strategies should fully embrace the concept of sustainable development.
In the past, tourism strategies (and especially tourism master plans which tend to be
more about physical and spatial issues) have often treated sustainability as a separate
section of the strategy or plan, being essentially a statement on possible impacts andproposals for their mitigation. This is not suﬃcient. The whole strategy should bebased on principles of sustainable development. It should therefore:• Emerge from processes that ensure stakeholder participation.
• Promote and respect planning for tourism at the local level, and provide aframework for this.
• Reﬂect aims and principles for sustainable tourism such as those set out in thisGuide, identifying the speciﬁc objectives, policies and actions that derive fromthose aims.
These three requirements are considered in more detail below.
A tourism strategy developed in this way should be able to stand up to external
scrutiny with respect to its likely impacts and outcomes. Screening and checking
processes for the sustainability of policies are being introduced in some countries. For
instance, in the European Union, Strategic Environmental Assessment of all public
policies in certain sectors (which explicitly include tourism) is now a requirement.
Such processes can also be helpful in moving existing tourism strategies towards
more sustainable positions. An example from Fiji is given in Box 3.2.
Effective coverage of tourism in other government agencies
As well as having a separate strategy for tourism that embraces sustainability,
governments should ensure that the sustainable development of tourism is fullyrecognized within other government strategies. There are three reasons why this isparticularly important:• Often it is only through speciﬁc and high-proﬁle inclusion within higher levelstrategies and policies that tourism will be taken seriously by the ministries
concerned with sustainable development and the environment. Only then will it
be aﬀorded adequate resources.

54

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE3

Box 3.2: Fiji—Assessing the strategy

Structures andStrategies

A Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) was undertaken on the Fiji Tourism
Development Plan (1998−2005) as part of its mid-term review, as it was felt that theplan had been focusing more on the economic component and less on the social andenvironmental aspects of sustainable development.
The SEA was undertaken by an external organization, WWF South Paciﬁc Programme,in partnership with government departments, civil society groups and the tourism
industry. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) also participated in the preparation of the
SEA by providing inputs in the initial concept design and drafting TORs in partnershipwith WWF and the Ministry of Tourism. ADB provided grant ﬁnancing for the projectwith co-ﬁnancing support from the Government of New Zealand.
The Tourism Development Plan had called for a ‘step-change’ in the rate of growthof tourism. The SEA involved looking closely at the baseline economic, social andenvironmental situation and assessing likely changes under the above growth scenario.
It concluded that:• The growth envisaged in the plan could result in large-scale development thatwould tip the balance towards environmental degradation and social tension. A
precautionary approach was needed.
• Although policies and laws enabling such a precautionary approach existed on
paper, much more eﬀort was needed to ensure that they were enforced and that
good practice guidelines were followed universally.
• There should be greater local involvement in tourism planning, with more local
retention of tourism earnings.
The ﬁndings of the SEA were exposed to scrutiny by a stakeholder workshop and wereadopted and endorsed by the National Tourism Council.
• Legislation and regulations necessary to control the impact of tourism may beinitiated by environmental or developmental strategies and policies. These must
therefore consider tourism at the outset.
• Sustainable development is holistic in nature. It therefore requires synchronizationof policies and coordination of action between sectors.
The following high level strategies (or their equivalent), found in many countries, areespecially important for sustainable tourism:• National Sustainable Development Strategies.
• Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers.
• National Environmental Strategies and Biodiversity Action Plans.
Other important strategies that should include tourism are those covering integrated
transport planning, culture and human resource issues such as vocational education.
As well as ensuring that tourism is addressed in these strategies, it is important that
tourism strategies should reﬂect them in the development of their own policies and actions.

55

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

More speciﬁc strategies

Structures andStartegies

3

In Bulgaria
steps weretaken tostrengthen the chancesof work on ecotourism
inﬂuencing mainstream
tourism: e.g. integrating
the ecotourism strategy
into the work of regional
tourism associations andinto the preparation bymunicipalities of regional
and local development
plans (see Case Studies,p 135).
Costa Rica andAustralia havealso shown thepotential inﬂuence of workon ecotourism (see Case
Studies, p 130 & 139).
Bulgaria hasdevelopeda National
Ecotourism Strategy
in parallel with 12
regional ecotourism action
programmes, with each
informing the other in a
two-way process (see Case
Studies, p 135).
Mexico hasan Agenda 21
initiative thatis about taking action in arange of local destinations
at the same time. This isbased on a framework
and process establishednationally and reﬂecting
one of the principal pillarsof the National Tourism
Programme (see Case
Studies, p 153).

56

In addition to general tourism strategies, it may be appropriate to develop strategies
or sets of policies for speciﬁc aspects of tourism. These could be deﬁned by product ormarket type: e.g. cultural, rural, health or sport tourism, or the cruise ship sector. They
should also reﬂect sustainability principles.
A number of countries have developed a separate strategy for ecotourism. In
some cases this has been stimulated by the Ministry of Environment or by otherenvironmental interests. Such strategies can be very helpful in coordinatingand ensuring success of this speciﬁc sub-sector. They can also be very helpful indemonstrating processes and formulating policies that can be emulated more widelyin tourism in general. On the other hand there is a danger that separate ecotourism
strategies may be assumed to be an adequate government response to making tourism
sustainable, reﬂecting a common misapprehension, already mentioned in Chapter 1,that sustainability for tourism refers to a particular type of tourism rather than to acondition for all tourism.

3.3 Integrating national and local levelstrategies
In order to achieve eﬀective results, policies must be developed and implemented
at both national and local levels. Local decision making is an important aspect ofsustainable development. All the more so as many countries are in the process ofdecentralizing their political and administrative structures.
It is increasingly recognized that the most successful route to sustainable tourism is
an integrated approach to the development and management of tourism within local
destinations. It is at the local level that the tourism industry most readily relates to,and is in turn aﬀected by, environmental and community issues. Box 3.3 gives some
useful background information on what is meant by a ‘local destination’.
It is critically important that national and local tourism strategies are complementary.
Typically, tourism strategies at these two levels may vary in their focus:• National tourism strategies relate to national tourism vision; overall position anddirection for tourism; overall issues of product-market ﬁt; broad spatial issues of
tourism development; ﬁscal issues; setting standards for the industry; controlling
legislation, regulations and other mechanisms; support programmes including
ﬁnancial resources; research, and the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge;a marketing and promotion strategy, especially at international level.
• Local tourism strategies relate to a holistic vision for the local destination;
local objectives and priorities; local resource opportunities and constraints; thevolume and nature of tourism sought; destination identity and branding; productdevelopment including location and relationship to land use plans; local networks
and supply chains; infrastructure provision; speciﬁc tourist sites and attractions;visitor management; visitor information and destination marketing.

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE3

Box 3.3: Deﬁning a local destination

Structures andStrategies

According to the WTO’s working group on destination management:‘A local tourism destination is a physical space in which a visitor spends at least one
overnight. It includes tourism products such as support services and attractions,and tourism resources within one day’s return travel time. It has physical andadministrative boundaries deﬁning its management, and images and perceptions
deﬁning its market competitiveness. Local destinations incorporate various
stakeholders often including a host community, and can nest and network to form
larger destinations.’
Local destinations may be cities, towns, resorts or rural areas, or groupings of these.
A combination of factors determines what may be a functional destination, including:• Whether the area is coterminous with municipal boundaries or other forms ofdesignation such as a national park.
• Whether it is uniﬁed by certain images and intrinsic features and qualities thatcan contribute to a clearly identiﬁable brand.
• Whether it is an area towards which local stakeholders feel a natural aﬃnity andwithin which it is practicable for them to work together.
Put simply, national strategies are more about identifying policies and instruments tocreate the enabling environment for sustainable tourism, while local strategies are more
about determining what happens on the ground. Sustainable tourism requires that bothnational and local tourism strategies embrace the principles of sustainable development,
and that national and local strategies be consistent and mutually reinforcing.
Local Agenda 21 processes and engaging local communities
Many local destinations in diﬀerent parts of the world have developed strategies andpolicies for tourism within the context of Local Agenda 211. This is a process forbringing together the broadest possible range of interests in the local area to integrate
global environmental concerns into local plans, to decide what sort of future they want
and to then work together towards it. Some destinations have pursued Local Agenda
21 processes, where tourism is seen as just one activity alongside many others. Ideally,
it is good to take this holistic approach ﬁrst and to then develop the sustainable
tourism strategy out of this process. In some places, where tourism is dominant, aLocal Agenda 21 strategy may be tantamount to a sustainable tourism strategy.
It is also important to recognize that a destination may well be made up of a numberof clearly identiﬁable individual communities. A sustainable tourism approach would
call for careful consultation within each community to ascertain local concerns andperceived opportunities with respect to tourism. The amount of emphasis to placeon this depends very much on the nature of the destination. In many developing
countries, the involvement of indigenous communities in determining tourism
development in their area is critically important.

In SouthAfrica, anational
Tourism White Paper
clearly articulates
principles of ‘responsible
tourism’ that haveprovided a direction
for tourism policies andstrategies throughout thecounty and have been
reﬂected in the policies,
planning frameworks andfunctions established at a
provincial level (see Case
Studies, p 162).
Calvia, in
Spain, is amajor tourism
destination that used
the participatory processof LA21 to bring all
stakeholders together (seeCase Studies, p 167).

57

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Notes

Structures andStartegies

3

1

58

More information can be found in Tourism and Local Agenda 21, UNEP and ICLEI,
2003.

Shaping Sustainable
TourismThis chapter looks at the process of developing a strategy forsustainable tourism, outlining the main steps in the process
and relating them to the objective of making tourism moresustainable. It then looks in more detail at the stage, within thisprocess, of making strategic choices about the level and natureof tourism. The focus in the later sections is on how policy
can inﬂuence the development of tourism and the behaviourof enterprises and consumers (i.e. the tourists) in favour ofsustainability. Tools to assist implementation and improvesustainability are also introduced, to be described in detail in thenext chapter.

4

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

4.1 Developing a sustainable tourism strategy

Shaping Sustainable
Tourism

4

In Calvia, highlevel politicalsupport (withthe mayor playing a keyrole) added considerable
strength, but underlined
the need for cross-party
commitment to the longterm vision and process
to ensure that it will
last through changes
in political climate.
Weaknesses in delivering
action also pointed, withhindsight, to a needto make stakeholders
more accountable for
implementation at theoutset (see Case Studies,p 167).

Developing a strategy for sustainable tourism should be a participatory process thatinvolves a range of stakeholders in order to foster wider adherence to the strategy andcommitment to its implementation. The mix of stakeholders involved in developing thestrategy should reﬂect the make up of partnership structures for tourism at a nationalor local level identiﬁed in Chapter 3 (Section 3.1). It is necessary at the outset to securelong term commitment both to the strategy and, crucially, to its implementation.
Three stages can be identiﬁed in the formulation of a strategy:• Analysing conditions, problems and opportunities.
• Identifying objectives and making strategic choices.
• Developing policies and action programmes.
Analysing conditions, problems and opportunities
This ﬁrst stage involves taking a careful and objective look at the state of tourism inthe destination (which may be a country or local area) as well as at the resources on
which tourism depends or has impacts, both at present and in the future.
Thought should be given at the outset to aspects and attributes that have a particularbearing on the sustainability of tourism, so that the data gathered and questions
asked are appropriate. The 12-point agenda provides guidance on what to include.
Initial indicators (discussed further in Chapter 5) should also be determined to allow
baseline measurements to be made and future change to be assessed.
The situation should be analysed using surveys, consultation and technical studies. To
assist with analysis, Box 4.1 provides a checklist and suggestion of the informationthat is most relevant to sustainability issues.

Formulationof the Tourism
White
Paper in Australia
made extensive use of
consultation through theInternet and email. In
Bulgaria, a wide range ofpromotional activity wasused, including numerouspress conferences, theuse of posters in local
communities, etc. (seeCase Studies, p 130 &p 135).

60

The situation analysis is a ﬁrst step in identifying a number of key issues for thesustainability of tourism in a given destination, and opportunities for the future—for
example: the viability of enterprises, capacity issues, market trends, environmental
degradation, or community concerns about future development. It can be useful tocapture this in an issues paper that is given wide circulation.
Consultation should be undertaken with a wide range of stakeholders to clarify theissues. Priorities will begin to emerge from this process. Various consultation andcommunication techniques can be used here, including open meetings, stakeholder
workshops and web-based consultation, etc. Involving the local media can be helpful
in generating interest.
Identifying objectives and making choices
National and local governments should work with stakeholders to agree on a visionand on a broad set of strategic objectives for tourism. These should be based on theanalysis set out above and should also reﬂect closely the 12 aims for sustainable
tourism already described.

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

The vision and strategic objectives must be appropriate to the country or destinationand fully embrace concerns for economic, social and environmental sustainability.
Objectives will vary from place to place, but they should always aim to strike abalance in the relative priority given to issues such as alleviating poverty, supporting
conservation or reducing negative environmental impact. These broad objectives
should be the overarching drivers for tourism policies and actions.

Shaping Sustainable
Tourism4

At this stage, a number of strategic choices will need to be made, such as the leveland nature of tourism appropriate for the destination, target markets and productselection. This is discussed further in Section 4.2. Other more speciﬁc and measurable
objectives may be identiﬁed reﬂecting these strategic choices, and may be linked toparticular policies and actions.
Developing policies and action programmesThis ﬁnal stage involves development of speciﬁc policies and actions that relate to
the aims and strategic objectives and that reﬂect the strategic choices made. Close
attention should be paid here to the policy areas identiﬁed in Chapter 2. It can beBox 4.1: Analysing the situation
Research and data collection should cover the following:• Analysis of past tourism policies and plans, as well as information and policies
relating more widely to sustainable development and the environment.
• Analysis of existing relevant research.
• One to one consultation with key stakeholders and people with particularexperience and expertise on relevant topics.
• Visitor survey.
• Survey of tourism enterprises.
• Local residents’ opinion—this could be through elected representatives, open
meetings, focus groups or household surveys.
• Site inspection, as practical and appropriate.
• Market opinion (e.g. through tour operators) and competitor analysis.
Information of particular relevance to sustainability issues includes:• The balance of opinion about the level and nature of tourism that is desired andachievable.
• The range of natural and cultural heritage resources, including current state ofpreservation, level of use, degree of potential tourism interest and sensitivity tofuture use.
• Economic and social issues in the destination, including contribution of tourism
alongside other economic sectors.
• State of the environment, including water and air quality, etc.
• Presence of relevant environmental management processes.
• Employment in tourism and support for this.
• Enterprise performance, outlooks, needs, etc.
• Current visitor ﬂows, market trends and market opportunities.
• Visitor satisfaction, including attitudes to environment and other issues.
• Tourism infrastructure and support services, including transport, water supply,
etc., and their capacity.

61

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

helpful to consider these policies and actions within a framework of ‘inﬂuencing
development’, ‘inﬂuencing the operation of tourism providers’, and ‘inﬂuencing
visitors’ (as presented in Sections 4.3−4.5).

Shaping Sustainable
Tourism

4

Further consultation, including the possibility of establishing technical working
groups, may need to be undertaken to develop particular policies and actions.
At this stage the range of instruments that governments can use to implement policies
and maximize sustainability should be established or strengthened (see Chapter 5).
An action programme should be established that indicates lead agencies, approximate
resources, targets, timescale and associated monitoring. Actions should be
implemented by the agencies concerned and progress reported. Results should bemeasured against the sustainability indicators originally identiﬁed, or a modiﬁed setof them. Box 4.2 gives an example of good practice.
Box 4.2: Collaborative structures and strategy development
for protected areas
EUROPARC, The Federation of National and Nature Parks of Europe, hasestablished a Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas.
The ﬁrst requirement of the Charter is that there should be a permanent forum, or
equivalent arrangement, between the protected area authority, local municipalities,
conservation and community organizations and representatives of the tourism industry.
Links with regional and national bodies should be developed and maintained.
The second requirement is for an agreed sustainable tourism strategy and action planfor the protected area. This must be based on careful consultation and be approved
and understood by local stakeholders. It should contain:• A deﬁnition of the area to be inﬂuenced by the strategy, which may extend
outside the protected area.
• An assessment of the area’s natural, historic and cultural heritage, tourism
infrastructure, and economic and social circumstances; considering issues ofcapacity, need and potential opportunity.
• An assessment of current visitors and potential future markets.
• A set of strategic objectives for the development and management of tourism, covering:- conservation and enhancement of the environment and heritage;- economic and social development;- preservation and improvement of the quality of life of local residents;- visitor management and enhancement of the quality of tourism oﬀered.
• An action plan to meet these objectives.
• An indication of resources and partners to implement the strategy.
• Proposals for monitoring results.
Twenty-three parks from eight countries have been awarded the Charter so far. In
each case, EUROPARC, through the use of external veriﬁers, has helped the parks to
identify ways to strengthen their actions towards sustainability and the Charter has
served as a valuable incentive towards good practice.

62

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

4.2 Determining the level and nature of tourism

Shaping Sustainable
Tourism4

As part of the strategy and policy formulation process, governments, in consultation
with partners, should make strategic choices about the general level and shape of
tourism that may be appropriate for the country or speciﬁc destinations. This includes
identifying targets for the volume and value of the sector, and for performance against
other indicators relating to sustainability. Many factors will aﬀect decisions on this,including overall strategic objectives and various factors identiﬁed in the situation
analysis, such as current tourism levels, market trends, and a variety of resource
constraints. Decisions can be assisted by the use of indicators and techniques todetermine limits to tourism.
Two important issues in determining the appropriate level of tourism activity and theneed and potential to accommodate growth are:
• The spatial distribution of tourism. Diﬀerent locations and communities will be
more or less suited to diﬀerent levels of tourism. Factors inﬂuencing decisions on
the location of new tourism development are considered below.
• Varying levels of demand across the year. Seasonality is a major issue for thesustainability of tourism. Many destinations experience distinct peaks and troughs.
This is welcomed in some places, as communities and environments are able torecover in the oﬀ-season, and a seasonal pattern allows tourism to be ﬁtted inalongside other activities and livelihood patterns. However, there are many reasons
why tourism would be more sustainable if demand was less seasonal, including:- increased enterprise proﬁtability and viability;- better quality jobs;- more eﬃcient use of resources (such as accommodation capacity) andinfrastructure;- avoidance of increased congestion at peak periods, which is when mostnegative impacts on communities and environments occur.
Market selection
Tourism strategies should identify priority markets. This will inﬂuence policies on
the types of product to favour and also the marketing strategy.
Considerations of sustainability point to the following factors to bear in mind whenselecting target markets:• Seasonality: this is a key factor in market selection for sustainability. Somemarkets are less restricted than others in terms of when trips can be taken, or are
more able and likely to respond to out-of-season products and oﬀers.
• Growth potential: in the interests of economic sustainability, most destinations
will seek to compete in markets indicating likely future growth.
• Spend per head in the community: higher spending visitors may contribute
more to local prosperity with no greater cost to the community or environment.
However, it is also necessary to consider the spending patterns of diﬀerent market
segments, including which types of visitors are most likely to spend money on
products and services from which income is retained in the community.
• Length of stay: visitors who stay longer may contribute more in economic terms
and become more aware and supportive of local community and conservation

63

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Shaping Sustainable
Tourism

4

•
•
•

•
•
•

needs, as well as providing more economic beneﬁt (a local gain) per distancetravelled (a global environmental cost). However, in many parts of the world,short trips are growing faster than long trips.
Distance travelled: nearer markets, involving shorter journeys to the destination,
will lower global environmental impact from transport emissions.
Relevance to the oﬀer: some market segments will be more likely than others to
respond positively to the type of destination and products on oﬀer.
Responsibility and impact: destinations with particularly sensitive environments
or communities may target particular segments that are likely to be more
appreciative and responsible or that will, by the nature of their activities, have less
impact on the environment or communities.
Dependability: there are advantages in selecting markets that are less prone tounpredictable ﬂuctuation, resulting from factors such as world events, exchange
rates or the image of the region.
Oﬀering opportunities for all: aiming to ensure visitor fulﬁlment implies a need
to be inclusive when oﬀering and facilitating tourism experiences, paying speciﬁc
attention to the needs of people who are physically or economically disadvantaged.
Ability to reach the market eﬃciently: markets should only be selected where aneﬃcient and cost-eﬀective communication process can be identiﬁed.

Strategic choices based on these factors need to be made between target markets. For
example, certain international markets may exhibit strong growth, high spend perhead and good aﬃnity with the product, but be more seasonal, less dependable, lessinclusive and involve longer journeys. Domestic markets may provide fewer economic
returns, but be more dependable, less seasonal and bring needed social beneﬁts
to participants. Where appropriate, business tourism and the MICE (meetings,
incentives, conferences, and exhibitions) markets can deliver high spend out of season.
Sustainability considerations point to the need for destinations to maintain an appeal
to a range of markets, to avoid over-dependency on any one market that may not
be consistent in the long term. The importance of sound market research has beenstrongly underlined as a key factor for sustainability.
Product selection
Tourism strategies should consider the balance of products in a destination.
Sustainability considerations may point to gaps in the range of products on oﬀer ortypes of product to emphasize.
Few tourism products are inherently unsustainable. In almost all cases, impact
depends on the nature and location of the development and operation. However,diﬀerent types of product have diﬀerent strengths and weaknesses in terms of theirrelevance to sustainability. This is illustrated by Table 4.1.
Governments, together with the private sector, should aim to reduce the potential
disadvantages and reinforce the advantages of the diﬀerent tourism products.
In general, destinations should seek a diversity of types of product, provided they
are in line with market demand, are well planned and developed and are operated tomeet the needs of local communities and environments.

64

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

4Larger resorts
and hotels,
or similar
enterprises• Generation of signiﬁcant
employment• Resources to support training• Business and marketing skills;
ﬁnancial stability• Ability to invest in environmental
management systems and newtechnology• Potential for market diversiﬁcation
to reduce seasonality• Can absorb large visitor volumes

Medium,small andmicro
enterprises• Individually owned and potentially
responsive to local circumstances• May be located in areas of
economic need
• Flexible, with potential to grow
• Able to deliver authentic
experience• Proﬁts may be retained incommunity

Communitybased tourism

Ecotourism
enterprises

Activity
tourismenterprises

Culturaltourismenterprises• Products owned/operated bycommunity, with sharing of
economic and social beneﬁts• Wider community awarenessstimulating local support forconservation of culture and nature• Delivery of authentic experiences
based on local knowledge• Increased visitor awareness of, andsupport for, community issues• Growing market interest• All ecotourism products by
deﬁnition should be speciﬁcallydesigned to minimize
environmental impact, andto support conservation andcommunities• Suited to sensitive/protected areas• Growing market interest• Strong recreational beneﬁts• Potential to extend season• Can generate new tourism inremote rural areas• Some environmentally benign
activities—walking, cycling• Supporting conservation ofheritage and cultural richness• Potential to extend season• Increases visitor awareness

Shaping Sustainable
Tourism

Table 4.1: Potential advantages and disadvantages of different types of tourism
in terms of sustainability
Tourism type
Potential advantages
Potential disadvantages• Land and resource hungry• Potentially large ecologicalfootprint• May not relate readily to local
community• Potentially greater economic
leakages, including repatriation of
proﬁts• Anonymity and lack ofauthenticity• Potential for exploitation ofcommunity/environment and lackof local inﬂuence• Possible lack of long term
commitment to the local area
• Moderate to low levels of
employment• Variable quality• Lack of resources to makeinvestments in quality andenvironmental management• Lack of business skills• Diﬃculty in securing market
access• Any uncertainty over ownership,and lack of entrepreneurial
motivation, may lead to weakeconomic sustainability• Challenge to ensure fair
distribution of beneﬁts• Lack of business skills anddiﬃcult access to markets• Can be diﬃcult to breakdependency on outside assistance• Location in natural areas, andpossibly indigenous communities,
opens potential for intrusive
impact• Potential to abuse term
‘ecotourism’, with positive impacts
not assured• Visitor appeal often seasonal• Can be seriously environmentally
damaging if not properly
managed/controlled• Potential concerns with visitor
safety• Term diﬃcult to deﬁne• Potential to degrade culture unlesswell handled65

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

The presence of a signiﬁcant range of visitor attractions, restaurants, retail outlets(including handicraft sales), and events provided by local enterprises and bodies
located within the community, will increase the potential level of visitor spending andthe economic value retained locally.

Shaping Sustainable
Tourism4

4.3 Inﬂuencing tourism development
Government policies that inﬂuence the extent and type of new developments areamong the most important in terms of making tourism more sustainable. Decisions
made at the development stage have a long term eﬀect and are diﬃcult to reverse.
Development of tourism can be inﬂuenced when policies are agreed and plans are
made for tourism in an area, and by determining the nature and shape of individual
development proposals, and deciding whether or not they should happen.
The principles and aims of sustainable tourism, and the policy implications arising fromthem, point to a number of factors that need to be taken into account when making
decisions about tourism development and developing policies that seek to inﬂuence it.
These factors are presented, in the following three groups, in Box 4.3:
• Strategic development factors—relating to the ways in which a development may
aﬀect the overall scale and shape of tourism in a destination.
• Locational factors—relating to choices and decisions about where tourism
development may be encouraged or discouraged.
• Performance and impact factors—concerned with the impacts of speciﬁcdevelopments on the economy, society and the environment.
Box 4.3: Factors affecting tourism development policies
Strategic development factors:• The eﬀect of new development on the overall level of tourism in the area and the mix ofdiﬀerent types of product (as discussed in the previous section).
• Relevance to target markets.
• The cumulative eﬀect of individual development projects over time.
• The eﬀect of associated activities such as traﬃc ﬂows.
• The degree of engagement of the local community in determining the level and natureof development.
Locational factors:• The relative merits of concentrating development in one place or spreading it
geographically, which will depend on the nature of the area and the overall strategic
objectives.
• The environmental conditions and sensitivity of individual sites or wider locations,which should be a critical factor in determining whether any development should occur
and the scale, density and nature of development.
• The potential to cluster development, leading to mutual support and stronger supply chains.
• Location with respect to population and incidence of poverty and economic need,relating both to avoiding labour supply constraints and to generating beneﬁts... cont. p 67

66

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

The tools described below may be useful in addressing the diﬀerent factors explainedin Box 4.3. Others tools are presented in similar fashion in subsequent sections; theirrelevance and use are discussed further in Chapter 5.

Shaping Sustainable
Tourism4

Tools
Land use planning and development control is the primary tool for inﬂuencing
the location and nature of new tourism development. This may also be linked todevelopment regulations. In some circumstances, less formal guidelines can also be
useful. The time when new development is being planned or approved can provide animportant opportunity to inﬂuence future sustainability by introducing obligations for
operators—for example introduction of requirements for reporting and auditing of
impacts. Economic instruments can be used as an incentive for new development toincorporate sustainability aspects. Capacity building is important in assisting small
enterprises and communities in deciding on, and implementing, new developments.
Investment in appropriate infrastructure can also aﬀect the sustainability of new
tourism development. The application of sustainability indicators and monitoring
will help to keep a check on the impact of tourism development over time.
Box 4.3 continued•••

Ability of the infrastructure (transport, water, other services) to sustain new
development without detriment to the community, and potential to support new
infrastructure provision if necessary.
General appeal of the area with respect to diﬀerent markets, and location with respect
to existing and potential visitor ﬂows.
Accessibility, including accessibility by public transport.

Performance and impact factors:• Account taken of location issues as identiﬁed above.
• The demonstration of need, demand and viability, including a speciﬁc market assessment.
• Eﬀect on existing businesses, taking account of the balance of supply and demand anduse levels.
• The potential to utilize existing capacity as an alternative, possibly involving
improvement or extension to existing enterprises.
• Potential to use existing buildings or previously used sites, as distinct from greenﬁeld sites.
• Proposals for the after-use of sites.
• Proposals for environmental management, minimizing resource use and waste, andreﬂecting this in the nature and design of development.
• Careful setting of new development with respect to communities, services, landscapefeatures, habitats, etc.
• Design sympathetic to the landscape and local vernacular style.
• Construction processes that minimize negative impact and maximize beneﬁts, such asuse of local materials and labour.
• Potential beneﬁts to conservation of natural and cultural heritage, such as utilization ofhistoric buildings, etc.
• Assessment of economic and social beneﬁts accruing, in terms of employment generated(direct and indirect), beneﬁts to other economic sectors, support for services, etc.
• Ensuring that the development and operation will be of suﬃcient quality and that thepersonnel have the skills and competence to establish and run a successful business.

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

4.4 Inﬂuencing the operation of
tourism enterprises

Shaping Sustainable
Tourism

4

Although the operation of tourism enterprises is essentially a responsibility of theprivate sector, there are many ways in which government policies can exert inﬂuencein order to encourage sustainability of operation.
Key areas for enterprises
Policies should encourage, support and promote action by enterprises in thefollowing areas:• Quality and customer care: these are central to issues of economic sustainability
and visitor fulﬁlment.
• Environmental management: establishing more or less elaborate environmental
management systems forms part of the actions that enterprises can take.
Equitable use of resources, such as water, respecting community needs should also
be seen as an aspect of sound environmental management.
• Human resource management: providing good quality, equitable employment
opportunities is of fundamental importance. Related issues include providing
employment opportunities for local people and for those who are poor orotherwise disadvantaged.
• Supply chain management: diﬀerent aspects of sustainability point to the need for
tourism enterprises to work with suppliers who:- are local to the area, thereby beneﬁting the local economy and reducing
transport distances;- demonstrate ethical employment and trading policies;- are located in poor communities and involve or support the poor;- use environmentally sustainable production processes, such as organic agriculture.
(It may not always be possible to satisfy all these requirements, and somestrategic choices may need to be made).
• Relationships with the local community and environment: enterprises should be
encouraged to support local conservation and social causes.
• Inﬂuence over guests: enterprises can have a signiﬁcant impact on the behaviourof their guests. They can exert inﬂuence through information, interpretation(e.g. by guides), and facilitation (e.g. helping those who arrive by public
transport).
Creating the context for sustainable enterprises
Governments can encourage enterprises to be more sustainable through direct
advice and support or through policies and actions to create the conditions forsustainability.
The main conditions for economic viability, are particularly relevant here. They
involve market access, a sound labour supply, positive destination images, safety andsecurity and the critical importance of maintaining an attractive environment for the
economic sustainability of tourism enterprises.

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Other factors for the creation of a suitable context for sustainable enterprises include:

Shaping Sustainable
Tourism4• Provision of the right infrastructure.
• Facilitating networking between enterprises.
• Helping to develop the supply chain through improving contacts and information
and assisting with the development of local sources of supply.

Tools
Legislation, regulation and licensing should cover the most fundamental and serious
impacts of tourism operation such as the welfare of employees and guests, or avoiding
environmental damage. However, much can be achieved by voluntary measures, suchas issuing guidelines and encouraging reporting and auditing. Voluntary certiﬁcation
provides a useful method for identifying and thereby stimulating good practice.
Economic instruments and coverage in marketing can also provide an incentive,
perhaps linked to certiﬁcation if appropriate. Capacity building is important inproviding enterprises and communities with the knowledge and skills to improvetheir management. In some places, the development and management of appropriate
infrastructure and public services will be necessary to enable enterprises to be
more sustainable. Maintaining regular feedback from enterprises that is set againstsustainability indicators will be important in assessing the impact of policies.

4.5 Inﬂuencing visitors—promoting
sustainable consumption
The activities of visitors and the decisions that they make have a bearing on thewhole sustainability agenda. They aﬀect the ﬂow and retention of income, the beneﬁts
and pressures felt by recipient communities and the impact on the global and local
environment. Their inﬂuence is partly direct and partly through the signals that themarket gives to enterprises, which is perhaps in the long term the most sustainable
way of aﬀecting industry behaviour.
Consumer awareness of the sustainability of tourism and travel can be raised at any
time, through general education, media features, etc. The impact of an individual trip canalso be inﬂuenced at any stage through images and messages delivered when people arechoosing or planning where to go, during the journey, at the destination or afterwards.
Governments can inﬂuence visitors directly in a variety of ways, including via
marketing and information activities, and indirectly through the eﬀect of theirpolicies on the travel trade.
Sustainable consumption in tourism can be encouraged by inﬂuencing travel choices,
visitor ﬂows and visitor behaviour. Policy choices should be made about what leveland kind of visitor activity should be encouraged or discouraged in the interestsof sustainability, and measures introduced that will inﬂuence visitors’ choices andbehaviour accordingly.

69

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Inﬂuencing travel choices and visitor ﬂows

Shaping Sustainable
Tourism

4

Inﬂuencing travel choices and visitor ﬂows means inﬂuencing the nature of trips
taken. Key factors relevant to sustainability include:• When trips are taken: as already mentioned, travel out of season may often be
more sustainable.
• Places visited: strategic decisions should be taken about the level of visitation to
be encouraged in diﬀerent areas. For example, visits to protected areas may be
encouraged because of the revenue they bring to conservation or, alternatively,
they may need to be discouraged because of the ecological sensitivity of the area.
• Transport used: the signiﬁcantly greater environmental impact of travel by private
car or air compared with other forms of transport has already been mentioned.
• Operators and enterprises selected: encouraging visitors to select operators that
follow sustainability principles will make consumption more sustainable.
• Group size: in many places, larger volumes of people arriving at the same time canbe more disruptive to environments and communities.
• Length of stay: in general, longer trips may bring more beneﬁts to hostcommunities and be more sustainable than short trips.
Inﬂuencing visitor behaviour and awareness
Visitors should be encouraged to:••••

Respect host communities and avoid all forms of disruptive behaviour.
Find out about the natural and historic heritage and culture of the area.
Purchase local products.
Reduce personal environmental impact—e.g. using water and energy sparingly,
recycling waste and not leaving litter.
• Follow good practice with respect to outdoor activities, including wildlife watching.
• Support conservation and social projects, ﬁnancially or in other ways.

Tools
Messages delivered through marketing and information services constitute themain method of inﬂuencing visitor ﬂows and behaviour. These may be backed
up as appropriate by the issuing of guidelines and codes of conduct. In somecircumstances, it may be necessary to control visitor ﬂows and behaviour throughregulation, for example where access needs to be restricted or harmful activities
prevented. Voluntary certiﬁcation provides a valuable tool for enabling tourists tochoose products and enterprises that are more sustainable. Economic instruments(e.g. pricing) may inﬂuence behaviour and can also be used to raise support fromvisitors. The provision and management of appropriate infrastructure such as public
transport is an important enabling tool. Sound management will require processes formonitoring the ﬂow of visitors and obtaining feedback from them, assessed againstsustainability indicators.

70

Instruments for More
Sustainable Tourism
This chapter presents thirteen instruments that governments canuse to inﬂuence the sustainability of tourism. Each instrument hasa signiﬁcant role to play, but it is important to realize that they are
not mutually exclusive and to consider them as a complete set oftools available to governments. This is backed up by experience andis amply illustrated by the Case Studies which show governments
applying ranges of tools in ways that are complementary andmutually reinforcing. However, in the interests of clarity, thefollowing pages present the tools grouped according to their main
purpose, as follows:• Measurement instruments—used to determine levels of
tourism and impact, and to keep abreast of existing or
potential changes.
• Command and control instruments—enabling governments
to exert strict control over certain aspects of development andoperation, backed by legislation.
• Economic instruments—inﬂuencing behaviour and impact
through ﬁnancial means and sending signals via the market.
• Voluntary instruments—providing frameworks or processes
that encourage voluntary adherence of stakeholders tosustainable approaches and practices.
• Supporting instruments—through which governments can,directly and indirectly, inﬂuence and support enterprises andtourists in making their operations and activities more sustainable.

5

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

5.1 Measurement instruments

Instruments

55.1.1 Sustainability indicators and monitoring
Attempting to make progress towards sustainability can be meaningless withoutsome objective way of assessing whether its underlying principles are being respected
or of measuring progress. The deﬁnition and use of indicators of sustainability istherefore a central component of the planning and management process. This subject
has been studied by the WTO for the past 10 years, resulting in the publication of acomprehensive guide.1
Why indicators are important
Indicators make it possible to monitor changes over time in a constant and consistentmanner. They can help to clarify goals and, most importantly, force them to be more
precise. They can be very valuable in fostering greater accountability and in raisingawareness of, and support for, actions.
Indicators can be used to show:• The current state of the industry (e.g. occupancy rates, tourist satisfaction).
• Stresses on the system (e.g. water shortages, crime levels).
• The impact of tourism (e.g. changes in income levels in communities, rate of
deforestation).
• Management eﬀort (e.g. funding of cleanups of coastal contamination).
• The eﬀect of management actions (e.g. changed pollution levels, number ofreturning tourists).
In Mexico, a setof sustainability
indicators
agreed at national level
was applied in a rangeof local destinations.
Initial measurements
taken against these
indicators provided
a basis for assessing
strengths and weaknesses
and priorities for local
action. As the same
indicators were used in
the diﬀerent destinations
it was possible to makecomparisons between them(see Case Studies, p 153).

72

Indicators provide early warning of when a policy change or new action may beneeded, as well as providing a basis for the long term planning and review of tourism.
Box 5.1: Guiding a strategy with sustainability
indicators and targets
In Lanzarote, Canary Islands, Spain, a broad range of indicators were employed tosupport planning in the context of the Lanzarote Biosphere Strategy addressing
tourism alongside wider issues of sustainable development. Six key factors wereidentiﬁed, including the economy and tourism, the terrestrial and marine ecology,
key environmental sectors, population changes, urban development and cultural
identity. After consultation and discussion, indicators were chosen for each issue
and an Island Observatory for Sustainability was established to monitor trends
over time.
The strategy, produced in 1997, contained baseline values for each indicator andtarget values for 2007. This has proved most helpful in keeping abreast of changes
and implementing a tourism management system guided by the strategy. In 2003,
the indicators were revised, based on the ﬁrst set but adding new ones according to
the island’s changing needs.

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

The use of indicators in policy making and planning

5

•
•
•
•

Instruments

Indicators of sustainability should be deﬁned at an early stage in the process of
formulating a tourism strategy for a destination. They can then be used for:Baseline assessment of conditions and needs.
Setting of targets for policies and actions.
Assessment of actions.
Evaluation, review and modiﬁcation of policies.

The selection of sustainability indicators can be built into the process of consultationand participation. This can be most valuable in helping the stakeholders involved tofocus their minds on tangible sustainability issues and priorities. Box 5.1 gives anexample of use of indicators and the process is described more fully in the WTO
guidebook on indicators referred to in Note #1.
Indicators need to be linked to the priority issues identiﬁed in the destination. It is
normal for a wide range of possible indicators to be identiﬁed initially, which may
then be reﬁned according to relevance and practicability of use.
In addition to their use in planning and making of tourism policy, indicators
can provide a highly eﬀective and ﬂexible tool when applied more widely in thesustainable management of a destination, including to issues such as development
control. Regular monitoring of changes in environmental or social conditions using
indicators can allow for an adaptive management approach that is more ﬂexible thanthe heavy use of regulation. Use of indicators in this way can be undertaken by local
authorities or be imposed by them on developers. Box 5.15 (page 101) provides apractical example of the use of indicators in development control.

In Calvia,
750 indicators
were identiﬁed
initially by experts. After
further consultationand examination, they
were reduced to a moremanageable quantity (seeCase Studies, p 167).

Criteria for selecting and reviewing indicators
Five criteria have been identiﬁed for the selection of indicators:
•
•
•
•
•

Relevance of the indicator to the selected issue.
Feasibility of obtaining and analysing the information required.
Credibility of the information and reliability for users of the data.
Clarity and ease of understanding amongst users.
Comparability over time and across regions.

A regular review of indicators is required to see whether the information is making
a diﬀerence, to determine whether the issues have changed, to consider any practicalissues associated with the usability of speciﬁc indicators, and to consider whether new
sources of data might permit alternative indicators to be used.
The WTO study has identiﬁed many hundreds of diﬀerent indicators that might
be considered by destinations. It is stressed that it is not expected that all of theseshould be used at any one time. Selection of indicators should be a matter of local
determination of priority issues, as identiﬁed above. However, 29 ‘baseline indicators’,
that correspond to 12 baseline issues of sustainable tourism, are recommended (seeAnnex 1).

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Monitoring sustainability

5
Instruments

Monitoring sustainability involves taking measurements of environmental, socialand economic conditions using selected indicators. Monitoring against a baseline
set of results enables trends to be identiﬁed; change to be detected and, if possible,
anticipated; and progress to be tracked. To be eﬀective, monitoring should beundertaken regularly and follow a well-deﬁned protocol.
Governments are often well placed to take the lead where monitoring is concerned.
Some countries and destinations have established tourism observatories to monitor
the volume and impact of tourism. Involving a wide variety of stakeholders ingathering relevant data to be used in monitoring can be beneﬁcial and may also help
to bind them into the process of management for sustainability (see Box 5.2). The
range can include tourism service providers and visitors themselves.
One form of monitoring of the sustainability of tourism is to make speciﬁc, mainly
quantiﬁed, measurement of:• Levels of tourism: including both supply (e.g. by audits of the accommodation
stock), and demand, (e.g. admission numbers to key sites or recorded bednights).
• The state of the environment and society: this may either be an outcome of tourism
or aﬀect its performance—examples include employment levels, crime levels, air andwater quality, and species counts in sensitive or heavily visited environments.
Another form of monitoring is keeping abreast of the activities, needs and opinionsof key stakeholder groups, notably:• Visitors: through site surveys, focus groups and feedback via hosts, etc., to checkon proﬁles and levels of satisfaction.
• Enterprises: through surveys, meetings, etc., to check on their economic andenvironmental performance and their perceptions and needs.
• The local community: through household surveys, focus groups, etc., to check on
attitudes to tourism and concerns about its impact.
In Egypt, an
Environmental
Monitoring
Unit was establishedwithin the Tourism
Development Authority
and an operations
manual prepared
containing guidelines on
the monitoring of coral
reefs and other natural
resources (see Case
Studies, p 144).

74

Certain forms of monitoring, such as the measurement of environmental impacts, may
require particular expertise. Provision of relevant guidance and training can help here.
Box 5.2: Involving users in data gathering
In Argentina, the Iguazu Natural Forest Reserve diversiﬁed its economic base,including the development of ecotourism. In order to assist with conservation and toplan the interpretative component of the tourist oﬀer, more information was neededon the location and visibility of diﬀerent animal species. It was decided to involvethe local tour guides and tourists themselves in this process. A form for recording ofsightings was provided, together with appropriate training.
Although not scientiﬁcally rigorous, the process made it possible to form a good
picture of wildlife movement and also of visitor perceptions over a period oftime. Involvement of local guides in the process increased the local communities’
knowledge and appreciation of the ecological and economic value and importance of
fauna. It also added value to the visitors’ experience.

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Benchmarking

5
Instruments

A valuable use of indicators and associated monitoring is to enable a destination
to check its sustainability performance against comparable destinations. This canhelp to show up points of relative weakness that may need to be given priority. Sucha benchmarking exercise requires destinations to cooperate in the use of similar
indicators and monitoring processes.
Governments are well placed to facilitate benchmarking at international or national
level. International benchmarking can take place between countries or between
comparable types of destination within diﬀerent countries.
At national level, benchmarking exercises can be carried out between destinations
within one country, perhaps coordinated by national government departments
working with a group of local authorities.
5.1.2 Identifying the limits of tourism
One of the principles of the sustainable development of tourism is preparedness torecognize and abide by limits on the development of tourism and visitor ﬂows.
Why it is important to identify limits
It has been widely demonstrated that where tourism is associated with negative
impacts on the environment or society, this is frequently due to the volume of tourists
or the extent of development exceeding the capacity of the recipient destination.
It is important to identify limits to tourism development in order to assist planningand policy making, and to respect those limits through action to control what actually
happens on the ground.
The concept of carrying capacity
The concept of carrying capacity in tourism has been the subject of much academic
debate and discussion over many years. It usually refers to the number of tourists thata place can accommodate without detriment to the environment or host population
nor any reduction in tourists’ satisfaction. Diﬀerent kinds of carrying capacity havebeen identiﬁed, including:

Kaikoura,
New Zealand,
providesan example of abenchmarking process
for a destination againstinternational standards
within the global Green
Globe 21 system (see Case
Studies, p 157).
In Mexico,
the use ofa standard
set of sustainability
indicators across alarge number of local
destinations, within thegovernment coordinatedAgenda 21for Tourism
initiative, has provided
the right conditions forbenchmarking (see Case
Studies, p 153).

• Ecological capacity: based on biological and physical factors such as ability ofcertain species to withstand disturbance.
• Socio-cultural capacity: determined by unacceptable impacts on the local
community or limitations due to the availability of human resources.
• Psychological capacity: the amount of crowding that tourists perceive as
acceptable without aﬀecting their quality of experience. This will vary according totypes of tourist and types of activity or use.
• Infrastructural capacity: such as number of bedrooms or the capacity of transportsystems or water supply. This is perhaps the element that can be most readilychanged in the medium to long term.
• Management capacity: the number of tourists that can be realistically managed in
an area without bringing economic and administrative problems.

75

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

A realistic approach to carrying capacity assessment

5
Instruments

There are many critics of the concept of carrying capacity as applied to tourism. It is
felt that it can be meaningless and perhaps misleading to put a precise capacity limiton the number of tourists. The diﬀerent factors aﬀecting capacities and impacts areboth numerous and complex, the concepts are quite subjective, conditions changeover time, and there is no clear way of arriving at a ﬁgure.
On the other hand there are many circumstances where it can be very useful, andsometimes necessary, to quantify a maximum or optimum level of usage or scale ofadditional development. Such numbers can be used, for example, as the basis formeasures to regulate, or otherwise maintain a control on visitor ﬂows in congested
places, or to guide planning decisions about the number of accommodation units that
may be acceptable in an area. Rather than reject the idea of quantiﬁcation on accountof the above weaknesses, a realistic approach should be adopted. This might entail:• Recognizing the inevitable subjectivity of any assessment, therefore using
relatively simple approaches to estimate some sensible limits based on thediﬀerent components of capacity identiﬁed above. Estimates can be made throughclose observation of sites, surveys, consultation, etc.
• Using these estimates to stimulate debate and discussion.
• Avoiding applying measures appropriate to one area to other areas that may not
be comparable.
• Identifying ranges rather than precise numbers.
• Being ﬂexible about the capacity limit and being prepared to make adjustments inthe light of experience.
It should also be accepted that the overall concept of carrying capacity is importantand can be the subject of valuable study to guide policies, even if a quantiﬁed capacity
limit is not actually identiﬁed. Carrying capacity studies, which have looked in detailat economic, social and environmental capacity issues, have proved very useful in a
number of countries (see Box 5.3), although they have sometimes not been as clearlyreﬂected in subsequent policies and plans as might be expected.
Limits of Acceptable Change
The problems associated with quantiﬁcation of carrying capacity have led to the useof alternative approaches to recognizing limits to tourism. The Limits of Acceptable
Change (LAC) concept recognizes that it is the level of undesirable impact (orchange) that is the problem, rather than the quantity of activity per se, and limits
should therefore be described in terms of impact. The process entails:• Identiﬁcation of impacts that should limit development or use.
• Identiﬁcation of usable indicators related to these impacts (see Section 5.1.1).
• Identiﬁcation of a range of values associated with these indicators that are considered
to be acceptable or unacceptable (based on expert evidence, consultation, etc.).
• Maintaining a monitoring process to check that performance remains within theacceptable range.
• Taking management steps to adjust levels of use if limits are exceeded.

76

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

The LAC approach has the advantage of being ﬂexible and based on a real assessmentof impacts of concern. However, it may sometimes be diﬃcult to rectify problems bymaking adjustments only after they have occurred.

Instruments5

Box 5.3: Malta’s tourism carrying capacity

In Malta, a small island state with 380 000 inhabitants, tourism accounts for avery signiﬁcant proportion of employment and gross national product. In the late
1990s the government recognized a danger of unplanned tourism development
leading to poor quality and a spiral of degradation. It, therefore, instigated a studyof tourism carrying capacity.
Comprehensive data gathering and consultation over two years involved surveys
of visitors and residents, aerial surveys of beaches, and analysis of existing data on
the state of the environment and the economic contribution of tourism. A study
group was established, with representatives of diﬀerent interests.
Possible scenarios for future development were considered: free development;planned intensive development; sustainable development; restricted up-market
tourism; or no tourism. The sustainable development approach was agreed upon,
maintaining signiﬁcant levels of tourism but within recognized limits.
A wide range of factors were analysed to identify those most critical indetermining future rates of growth. These were found to be: a need to maintaintourism as a critical source of foreign exchange earnings; avoiding excess supplyof accommodation leading to poor performance and quality; saturation insummer aﬀecting visitor satisfaction and society’s tolerance; scarce land resources;
and use of energy.
It was recognized that to establish carrying capacity a quantiﬁable starting point
was needed. This was taken as the supply of bedstock. It was calculated that
this should stay at current levels (41 000) in order to achieve viable occupancy
rates, rather than the considerable expansion that was then on the table. At
the same time, a set of policies was widely agreed to improve the returns fromtourism within these volume limits, including increasing per capita expenditure,strengthening the oﬀ-season, and promoting resource eﬃciency. This had
implications for selection of relevant target markets and improving the quality ofthe oﬀer.
The carrying capacity assessment and the clear policy direction that resulted fromit has remained the cornerstone of Malta’s tourism strategy, and is now used asjustiﬁcation for the application of European Structural Funds to improve thequality rather than the quantity of tourism facilities and the conservation andinterpretation of the islands’ heritage.

77

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

5.2 Command and control instruments

Instruments

55.2.1 Legislation, regulation and licensing
Legislation, regulation and licensing are inter-related tools that can be used
to strengthen sustainability by setting out requirements that are compulsory
and enforceable, and which lead to sanctions and penalties if they are not met.
Legislation provides the authority to enforce requirements, which are deﬁned
and elaborated by regulations. Licensing is a process of checking and signallingcompliance with regulations or otherwise identiﬁed obligatory standards, conveying
permission to operate.
Governments are in a position to apply laws, regulations and penalties to control
aspects of business development and operations and to inﬂuence people’s behaviour.
This can be applied to the whole business sector and community or be more
speciﬁcally targeted.
Legislation and regulations should be applied when governments deem them to benecessary. However, success requires regulations that are relevant, clear, practicable interms of compliance and capable of being enforced. A sensible approach is to:• Have the legislation in place that enables and supports the sustainability of
tourism and gives authority to act.
• Have clear and enforceable regulations, supported by licensing as appropriate,
where this is necessary to ensure important minimum standards.
• Seek to raise sustainability performance above such standards through other means,
which also stimulate personal commitment towards continual improvement.
When might obligatory controls be needed for sustainable tourism?
There are a number of aspects of the development, operation and management of
tourism that should be controlled through legislation and regulations in order to protect
the environment, communities, visitors and the functioning of business. These include:• The location and nature of development, covered under planning anddevelopment regulations.
• Rights and conditions for employees.
• Visitor health and safety, such as food hygiene and risk from ﬁre and accident.
• Trading practices and ability to trade.
• Serious environmental damage (e.g. caused by discharges to air and water).
• Fundamental nuisance to local communities, such as excessive noise.
• Use of water and other scarce resources.
• Serious misconduct and exploitation by visitors of local people and vice versa (e.g.
child prostitution).
• Right of access to services, land, etc.
The above aspects are of universal concern and should therefore be covered by a basic
legal framework in each country applicable to all types of tourism in all locations.
There may also be situations where further speciﬁc regulations are needed, relating toparticular activities or locations. These are covered below.

78

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE‘Enabling legislation’ in support of tourism sustainability

5
Instruments

Existing legislation should be reviewed, and where necessary strengthened, to ensurethat it is adequate not only for purposes of control but also to promote sustainable
tourism. Important areas to address are:
• The spectrum of legislation that relates to the areas of concern listed above. It is
important to determine whether it can be fully applied to tourism and whether
there are any gaps that need to be ﬁlled.
• The legal basis for positively encouraging sustainable tourism. This can include
powers and authority to promote tourism as an activity per se. It also includes theability to provide incentives and other support and, critically, the freedom andscope to utilize those incentives to favour enterprises and activities deemed moresustainable than others.
• The powers and responsibilities of particular bodies—for example, the authority ofprotected area bodies to control or promote tourism.
• The ability of particular stakeholders to engage in sustainable tourism. A criticalissue in many developing countries concerns land tenure. Legislation thatclariﬁes or strengthens the land rights of individuals or communities can be very
important. In appropriate circumstances, this may also allow conditions to be
attached that encourage, or possibly require, the land and resources to be used inways conducive to sustainable tourism (see Box 5.4).
Box 5.4: Legal recognition of rights and responsibilities

In Namibia, the Nature Conservation Amendment Act (1996) made provision
for members of rural communities to establish conservancies. This gave themrecognized rights and responsibilities over the management of wildlife and natural
resources in agreed areas of land. It has enabled the communities to establish theirown ecotourism enterprises. It has also given them the authority to negotiate termsof agreement with private sector tourism operators that secure clear environmental
and social beneﬁts.
The raft of legislation that may relate to the sustainability of tourism will beconsiderable and it would be impossible and unnecessary to consolidate all of thisin a single law. Moreover, legislation relating to particular issues (e.g. employment)
should be attached to those bodies that are ultimately able to enforce it, rather than
dividing it along sectoral lines. What is needed is a supportive national tourism law
coordinated with a suite of other laws that cover the above requirements.
Reﬂecting sustainability in national tourism law
National tourism laws set out the responsibilities of governments and their agencies
towards tourism. They provide a constitutional basis for tourism policy in the longterm, and are more shielded from short term political inﬂuence than non-statutory
tourism strategies. Laws—in the way that they describe tourism and the purposesof government intervention in the sector—can provide a vehicle for underpinningsustainability. Principles of sustainable tourism could be included in the preamble to79

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

new tourism laws and reﬂected in the balance and wording of diﬀerent articles. This
could include an emphasis on supporting communities, protecting natural resources, etc.

Instruments

5

Tourism laws can also provide the basis for enabling the control and licensing ofactivities speciﬁc to the tourism sector (such as hotels) and for the undertaking ofcertain actions to support tourism development (e.g. provision of ﬁnancial assistance)(see Box 5.5)
Box 5.5: Drafting a tourism law for Vietnam
In 2003, the Vietnamese government decided that a new tourism law was needed in
the face of a rapid growth in the numbers of international and domestic visitors andconcerns about the sustainable management of the country’s tourism resources. Sucha tourism law would raise the standing of tourism amongst all relevant government
ministries and other stakeholders, strengthening coordination between them.
Drafting the law involved collaboration between the Vietnam National
Administration of Tourism (VNAT), the WTO (which supplied technical expertise),and the Netherlands Development Organization (SNV), which facilitated theprocess and helped to integrate it with wider sustainable development issues.
Regional study tours and workshops were conducted for the Tourism Law Drafting
Committee, including representatives of the VNAT and other important ministries.
This enabled them to cement their own working relationship and also to meet local
government bodies, participants in community-based tourism initiatives, tourism
training institutions, tour operators and tourism service providers. The purpose was to:• Ensure that the new law reﬂected the local reality of provision for tourism andmanagement.
• Seek ideas and informed criticism.
• Avoid any allegations of imposed, ill-informed legislation.
• Strengthen the chances of eﬀective implementation and enforcement.
It was found that this opportunity to participate motivated all ministries andstakeholder groups to provide highly constructive input.
The new draft tourism law underpins sustainability in many ways. For example, thegeneral provisions and speciﬁc articles clearly recognize:• The role of tourism in socio-economic restructuring, generating employment,eliminating hunger and reducing poverty.
• The importance of local communities as beneﬁciaries and stakeholders.
• A responsibility placed on all stakeholders, including local communities andpeople’s committees, to protect the environment and landscapes at tourism sites.
• Speciﬁc obligations placed on tourism businesses regarding stewardship of
tourism resources, including facilitating research and conservation.
• The role of the state in providing relevant investment incentives for tourism
development in disadvantaged regions and for the restoration of natural andcultural sites and for traditional festivals and handicrafts.

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Harmonizing and synchronizing legislation

5
Instruments

In principle, the legislation needed to control many aspects of the impacts of tourism
will be contained in laws relevant to speciﬁc ﬁelds (e.g. environmental management
or employment legislation) rather than in tourism law. However, links should be
identiﬁed between tourism law and these other areas.
A process of harmonization and synchronization can be valuable. It should:• Cover the ways in which relevant legislative requirements do, or should, relate tolaws speciﬁc to tourism.
• Identify other laws that contain legislation relevant to the sustainability of tourism.
• Seek to minimize any conﬂict between diﬀerent areas of legislation.
• Ensure that there is no confusing duplication between the powers andresponsibilities of diﬀerent agencies in this matter.
• Assemble information on all relevant legislation so that this can be clearly
disseminated to the industry and other aﬀected stakeholders (see below).
The application of speciﬁc regulations
In addition to the fundamental aspects of sustainability of tourism listed earlier—which require legislation and regulations applied to all forms of tourism within acountry—it may be necessary to apply speciﬁc regulations to certain forms of tourism
or in particular circumstances. These may relate to:• Particularly sensitive environments (e.g. protected areas, or particular types of
ecosystem such as coral reefs).
• Especially vulnerable communities (e.g. certain indigenous communities).
• Particular types of activity. This could include certain outdoor sports, such as
diving, that may be potentially dangerous to participants and/or damaging to theenvironment.
Regulations may also be needed to control the number and frequency of certain
activities which through their concentration in space and time have a high impact oncommunities. An example is the arrival of cruise ships.

In Calvia,
regulations
concerning
anchoring and mooring
were introduced to limit
anchor damage andharbour congestion (seeCase Studies, p 167).

Regulations could cover many issues, but typically might relate to:••••Access to certain areas.
Frequency and length of tourism use.
Qualiﬁcations of operators.
Safety standards of equipment and facilities (applying, for example, to activity
based tourism).
• Certain seriously damaging activities that should be controlled.
In some cases, it may also be possible to control such situations through voluntary
codes or guidelines (see Section 5.4). In others, it may be helpful to issue suchguidelines, but to back them up with regulations.

In Ghana,
simple byelaws wereused to control access andactivities in heritage sites
providing the focal point
for community-based
tourism (see Case Studies,p 149).

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Licensing5
Instruments

Licensing of tourism enterprises can be used to:• Signal compliance with basic legislation on issues such as employment andenvironmental protection.
• Signal compliance with other more speciﬁc regulations, as above.
• Enforce standards above minimum legal requirements.
• Control the number of operators in any one place.
Licensing has been used in many parts of the world to control activity and enforce
standards in areas such as accommodation provision, guiding and informal street
trading. Some simple sustainability requirements could be added to licensing conditions,but above a certain level this may be better achieved through voluntary processes.

In Australia,
tourismenterprises
need a permit to operate
in protected areas. This
provides a basis foragreeing conditions
with them, and is also
linked to other tools
such as guidelines
and certiﬁcation tofurther strengthen
the sustainability ofoperations (see Case
Studies, p 130).
In South Africa
many tourism
enterprises
were not meeting therequirements of the Black
Economic Empowerment
Act, so targets were set
for the industry (see Case
Studies, p 162).

One form of licensing is the issuing of permits to operate in certain areas, suchas protected areas. This has proved to be an important tool for strengthening
sustainability, as stringent conditions appropriate to a given set of local
circumstances may not be suitable in other situations where more general licensing
would be appropriate.
Strengthening compliance
A major problem with using legislation and regulations as a way of improving
sustainability is the diﬃculty of enforcement and of overcoming non-compliance.
This is a fundamental issue both in developed and developing countries. Ways inwhich it can be addressed include:• Linking regulations to licensing, and issuing the licence in the form of a badgethat tourists are asked to look out for.
• Stimulating peer pressure amongst operators.
• Setting targets for implementation and getting operators to report against them.
• Streamlining inspection schemes, so that one inspector can cover various
legislative requirements.
• Providing simple information to operators about the regulations they have tomeet and what compliance means in practice.
Box 5.6 gives an example of the latter two approaches used in England in relation toprovision of accommodation.
5.2.2 Land use planning and development control
These inter-related tools can be used to inﬂuence the location and type of new
tourism activities and to control potentially harmful development.
The importance of land use planning and development control
These are, arguably, the instruments that have provided the primary means ofintervention by governments in shaping the nature of development on behalf of society.

82

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE5

Box 5.6: Streamlining inspections and clarifying requirements

Instruments

In England, the tourist authorities have taken a number of steps to address noncompliance with regulations in the accommodation sector and to make it easier forenterprises to understand the legal requirements they have to meet.
The ‘Fitness for Purpose’ initiative has involved systematic inspection of
establishments in six pilot areas to check compliance with respect to food hygiene,
health and safety, ﬁre safety and trading standards legislation. Consideration has been
given to ways of coordinating inspection processes to make them more eﬃcient bothfor the industry and for the enforcement bodies.
The national tourist authority has produced a ‘Pink Booklet’ as a practical guideto legislation for accommodation providers. The booklet identiﬁes the relevant
legislation under diﬀerent subject headings, spelling out in simple language thecircumstances under which it applies, what actions are necessary to meet therequirements, and sources of further information and help.
Land use planning and development control are critically important for thesustainability of tourism, inﬂuencing not only tourism development itself but also
controlling other forms of development that might be detrimental to the economic
sustainability of tourism in the short or long term. At the time when local land
use plans are being agreed, or more speciﬁcally when decisions are being made toapprove or refuse controversial developments (such as industrial plant, mining or
timber extraction), economic arguments relating to tourism can be used to advocate
environmental conservation.
The potential strength of these tools, and the way in which they can be applied,
will vary from country to country according to the nature and functionality of theland use planning system that is in place. This partly reﬂects political circumstances,legislative frameworks, levels of corruption, and administrative eﬃciency. The
nature of landownership is also a critical question. In some countries where there
is widespread government ownership of land, development control may be brought
about more directly through the issuing of leases, permits and licenses. However, thefundamental principles behind sustainable land use planning for tourism still remain.
The outreach of land use planning is also very important. In some countries planning
control is applied to all areas. In other countries, this may, essentially, be restricted tourban settlements or designated protected areas. In general, the greater the coverageof a sound land use planning system and eﬀective development control, the stronger
the chances of achieving more sustainable tourism.
Relating tourism strategies to spatial and land use plans
In the past, tourism planning tended to be executed through the preparation of somewhat
rigid and top-down master plans, which indicated locations and sites for tourism
development based principally on physical attributes of the land and location withrespect to potential visitor ﬂows and accessibility. Sustainability principles point to a more

83

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

strategic, ﬂexible, bottom-up approach, taking account of a wide range of economic, socialand environmental factors and based on local consultation and participation.

Instruments

5

The approach advocated for tourism is in line with the advent of integrated ‘spatialplanning’ at a regional level and community-based planning at a local level, which is
being pursued in many countries, and tourism planning should align with this.
Tourism strategies built on participatory structures and inclusive processes should
provide the basis for tourism planning. Planning should also mirror the preparationof tourism strategies at the national, regional and local destination levels emphasizedin Chapter 3. This can be achieved by two interrelated processes:

In Calvia,
the land use
planning
tool was used eﬀectively
to implement a local
sustainable development
strategy, centred on
tourism. This led tothe declassiﬁcationof land scheduled for
new accommodation
development in theinterest of greater
amenity for residents
and visitors and a moresustainable future (seeCase Studies, p 167).

84• National or regional spatial planning: in many countries and regions, it isappropriate for national or regional tourism strategies to be interpreted spatially.
These might take into account broad factors of natural resources, economic need,market potential, etc. In some cases they could lead to the indication of broad
priority areas for tourism development. Spatial planning at this level should also
make links between tourism and important related issues that have a spatial
dimension such as transport planning.
• Local community-based land use planning: decisions on the level, pace, natureand location of tourism development at the local level should be based on local
strategies and plans, involving thorough assessment of economic, social andenvironmental opportunities and constraints, together with full community
engagement. These processes should then determine land use planning policy.
Making land use planning for tourism more sustainable
The location of tourism development should be based on strategic choices reﬂecting
the agenda for sustainable tourism and these choices should be taken into accountwhen considering wider spatial planning and local land use planning for tourism.
Some important points to bear in mind when developing such plans include:• Positive planning for sustainability. Land use planning should not simply be acontrolling process. It can be used creatively to identify space and location for
new development that will contribute to sustainable tourism. For example, it canencourage clustering between tourism enterprises and related businesses, andstrengthening of the local supply chain, by facilitating co-location.
• The potential to use other tools in association with planning. For example, thenational or regional spatial planning process may lead to the identiﬁcation ofpriority areas for the development of tourism that meet sustainability criteria.
Such areas may then be used to concentrate economic incentives for thedevelopment of appropriate sustainable tourism products. The use of regulations
or looser development guidelines can also be closely associated with planning.
• Future prooﬁng. Planning should take account of already predictable changes in
conditions, and in doing so should apply the precautionary principle. A particular
example is taking account of the eﬀects of climate change, for instance with respect
to coastal planning, and responding with the appropriate adaptation measures.
• Flexibility and adaptive approaches. Plans should also be open to less predictablechange, such as world events that may alter demand patterns or unforeseeable

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

natural phenomena. Adaptive planning can be assisted through the identiﬁcationof reviewable limits and the use of indicators, regular monitoring and feedback.
• Checking the sustainability of the process. Some of the systematic approaches
used within industry, such as environmental management systems, could beapplied to the land use planning process. The Bodensee, Germany, provides anexample (see Box 5.7).

Instruments5

Box 5.7: Ecological land use planning (ECOLUP)
Four communities around the Bodensee, a popular tourist destination on the borderof Germany and Austria, have worked together to improve their land use planning,with funding from the European Union. This involved using the European Eco
Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) as a framework for auditing and assessing
all the various components of the land use planning process. The purpose was toensure that environmental conditions and needs are reﬂected in a more rigorous,
systematic and integrated way.
The exercise indicated the need to:
•
•
•
•
•

Widen the range of environmental impacts covered in land use planning.
Strengthen community participation in identifying environmental issues.
Integrate environmental management into municipality administration structures.
Delegate responsibilities and tasks between many diﬀerent bodies.
Strengthen the use of environmental indicators and checking mechanisms.
Integrated area management

Placing land use planning for tourism within the context of more strategic spatialplanning and with participatory processes at a local level is in line with certain
other directions that have been taken in the sustainable planning and managementof resources. There are some types of location that, because of their special
circumstances, require an even more closely integrated approach—coastal areas being
the most notable example.
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is a process that brings together
all those involved in the development, management and use of the coast withina framework that facilitates the integration of their interests and responsibilities.
As tourism is often a major activity in coastal areas, it is clearly very importantthat tourism strategies, polices and plans are incorporated in the ICZM processes.
Although this has a bearing on the wider coordination of organizations, strategies
and policies in coastal areas, it is a particularly important issue with respect toland use planning, given the impact of new development on marine and coastal
environments and communities2.
Zoning for tourism development
One approach to land use planning at a local level is to identify a series of zones
for diﬀerent types and levels of tourism development. Zoning may be more or lessappropriate as a tool according to the nature of the area, the landownership and85

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

planning circumstances and whether tourism is an established or newly developing
activity. Community engagement should remain an integral part of any process todeﬁne zones, and community related issues may determine whether rigid zoning is anappropriate approach.

Instruments

5

The Egypt Red
Sea Initiative
provides a clear
example of the applicationof zoning, using extensive
data gathering and GIS
mapping techniques, anddividing a coastal area
into ﬁve zonal types,
primarily based on thesensitivity of the natural
resources. The zones stretch
from zero use (strict
reserves), through use
for ecotourism, to areas
for moderate intensity
development. This process
has led to a considerable
amount of scaling downof development previously
proposed for certain
areas, and the issuing of
regulations that achievedagreement by both thetourism and environment
ministries (see Case
Studies, p 144).

The identiﬁcation of zones should be based on very careful assessment of resources
as well as being related to strategic spatial issues. The zones can then form the spatial
focus for quite precise planning policies and for the issuing of regulations to control
use. This zoning and regulatory approach usually implies some application of conceptsof carrying capacity in order to indicate appropriate amounts of development.
Development regulations and planning briefs
Development regulations, issued by governments or local authorities, can be used
to inform potential developers as to what will be acceptable or unacceptable before
they prepare schemes or projects for approval. They can also be used to ensurecompliance with certain standards during the construction phase. In order to improvesustainability, regulations could cover such aspects as the density of buildings, locationof buildings (e.g. set-back distances from the coastline), building heights, linkage toservices and sewage disposal systems, materials used (e.g. eﬃciency standards), andaspects of design (e.g. with respect to the local vernacular). Social sustainability issues,
such as health and safety features and provision of accommodation for staﬀ, could bebuilt into development regulations (see Box 5.8).
Rather than simply issuing regulations for general application, a planning authority
may decide to issue a more speciﬁc planning or development brief for a particular site,with which any potential developer must comply. This may have the twin purposesof strengthening the chance of that site being utilized for tourism development, andBox 5.8: Maldives development regulations
The small size and fragile environment of the islands in the Maldives requiresthat any tourism development should be very sensitively planned and designed. For
many years, a clear development concept for resorts has been pursued, backed up by
regulations, requiring for example, that:• Buildings should take up no more than 20 per cent of the total land area.
• No buildings should appear above the tree tops.
• Coastal vegetation should be maintained, to retain the natural façade of islands
and to guard against coastal erosion.
• A minimum of 5 linear metres of beach shall be available for every hotel room.
The regulations have been supported more recently by guidelines which provide
more detail on design, construction and management practice, and also spell out therequirements for Environmental Impact Assessment of new development.
The government believes that the success of tourism in the Maldives can be
attributed to a great extent to these clear regulations and the fact that they have beenstrictly enforced.

86

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

also of ensuring that the resulting development will match a clear pre-determinedstyle and design. Using such a tool allows sustainability related requirements to beincorporated in more speciﬁc detail.

Instruments

5

Some governments or local authorities have prepared design guidelines for speciﬁctypes of tourism facility. While these may be less rigorous than regulations,enterprises may be encouraged to follow them because they can assist in the processof obtaining planning permission.
Development control processes
If land use planning is to be eﬀective, it is necessary to have a development control
process that ensures compliance with land use planning regulations and prevents illegal
development. There are many reasons why development control may be dysfunctional(see Box 5.9), some of which may be deep seated and require signiﬁcant politicalchange. However, functionality in terms of tourism planning may be facilitated by:• Greater availability of human resources to handle applications.
• Capacity building with local administrations to increase knowledge of sustainable
tourism issues.
• Clear notiﬁcation requirements for potential developers, including bothprocedures to adopt and information to deliver.
• Enforcement of penalties for non-compliance, including ﬁnancial penalties,
criminal prosecution and removal of illegal structures.
Development control depends on potential developers being required to apply forplanning approval. The notiﬁcation procedure and the degree of detail required fromdevelopers prior to approval are determined by governments or local authorities, who
Box 5.9: Practical problems of implementation in Colombia
A pilot project to demonstrate the application of the CBD’s Guidelines on
Biodiversity and Tourism Development was undertaken in Colombia in 2002. This
looked at the context and reality of tourism development in Tayrona National Park,an attractive, protected coastal area with many ﬁne beaches. The study concluded thata general framework of legislation, planning and development control procedures
existed and was relevant. However, there were problems in ensuring eﬀective
enforcement, including:• Limitations of the administration and the shortage of human and ﬁnancial resources.
• Overlap of powers and authority between diﬀerent institutions, causing
duplication of eﬀort or even leading to lack of action by any of the institutions.
• An unclear situation as to land ownership, making it diﬃcult for the park to reachmanagement agreements with land owners and occupiers of land within the park,
and to enforce legal controls over tourism development on private land within thepark boundaries.
• The continuation of some tourism projects which had failed to comply withlegal requirements, consequently undermining the image and position of theinstitutions in exercising development control.

87

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

may choose to include a wide range of information relating to the sustainability ofthe development. It is important that the level and nature of information required
are relevant and realistic and not so onerous as to discourage compliance with thesystem. An example of information that could be required is contained in the section
on notiﬁcation within the CBD Guidelines on Biodiversity and Tourism3. This may
be met by a requirement that the developer produces a formal Environmental Impact
Assessment (see below).

Instruments

5

A further useful mechanism associated with the development control process is theissuing of conditions attached to the granting of individual planning permission. This
could be used to:• Strengthen or improve certain aspects of the impact of the project itself, as
proposed (e.g. design factors, landscaping, or access).
• Achieve some external beneﬁts for the community or for environmental
conservation through the process of planning gain (planning obligations). This
could include, for example, the inclusion of provision of services for community
use, replanting schemes, or the creation of trails or other infrastructure.
Any conditions or obligations that are imposed should be fair and realistic, and not
be so onerous as to prevent implementation and the achievement of mutual beneﬁt.
Environmental Impact Assessment
The sustainability of tourism development can be further strengthened by more
extensive and eﬀective use of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as arequirement placed on developers.
EIA provides an internationally recognized and structured approach to obtaining
and evaluating environmental information about the potential impacts of a physicaldevelopment; the EIA is then used in decision-making in the development process.
It is particularly useful as an adjunct to the process of granting planning permission
for new development, and may be required of a potential developer in order to aid
decision making. A particular strength of EIAs is the requirement to account for all
stages and processes of a proposed development, including upstream and downstream
impacts. There is also a requirement to consider alternative proposals that may lead toless harmful impact or provide greater opportunity for beneﬁt.
In many countries, use of EIA is required by law in situations where proposeddevelopment-related actions are expected to be environmentally damaging, but its
application to tourism varies around the world. There is a lack of consistency in theselection of developments for which speciﬁc EIA studies are required. Whether
or not an EIA is required is likely to depend on the size and nature of the project,
the sensitivity of the location in which it is proposed, and the perceived risk to theenvironment. Small scale projects are not included in most EIA systems although
their cumulative impacts may be signiﬁcant over time.
The close relationship between social and environmental systems makes it imperativethat social impacts are identiﬁed, predicted and evaluated in conjunction with88

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Recommendations for improving EIA processes include:• Clarifying the screening process that determines whether EIAs are required. The
provision for EIA should be based on legislation which is clear and explicit as tothe nature and scope of application and the type of approach to be taken.
• Reviewing how EIAs are applied to tourism development and whether coverage
should be extended. At present it is unlikely that an EIA will be required.
generally for all tourism projects, but the kinds of project and location for which
they are required should be clear to developers.
• Providing helpful guidelines, relevant to tourism, on what is required in the EIA.
• Avoiding duplication or uncertainty between the agencies involved, and providing
a swift response, in order to prevent projects that do not comply from proceeding
without a decision.
• Establishing a process to track compliance with any management and mitigation
measures proposed in the EIA and, where necessary, providing enforcement action.

5
Instrumentsbiophysical impacts. EIAs are increasingly including prediction and evaluation ofsocial, economic and health impacts as well as environmental impacts. Emerging
thinking and practice in the application of EIA is likely to focus mainly on adapting
and using EIA in conjunction with other tools as a means of testing development
proposals against pre-determined sustainability criteria.

Egypt provides
an exampleof how sloppy
procedures prevented
EIAs from providing
an eﬀective control
mechanism, and of how
this can be rectiﬁed
through clearer guidanceand coordination (seeCase Studies, p 144).

5.3 Economic instruments
5.3.1 Taxes and charges
These measures work through factors, namely cost, price and income, which havelong proven to be major inﬂuences on the choices and decisions made by enterprises
and consumers. They can be applied ﬂexibly and adjusted readily. However, they areindirect instruments, and it is therefore diﬃcult to be sure that the net eﬀect will bethat which was intended.
Imposing taxes and setting charges can have two important consequences for thesustainability of tourism:• Changing the behaviour of consumers and enterprises, through their eﬀect on
prices, costs and income. Taxes and charges can be constructed so as to penalize
unsustainable practice such as pollution, and to change the pattern of demand.
• Raising revenue from consumers and enterprises that can be used to mitigate
impacts and support actions such as conservation or community projects that leadto greater sustainability. For this to happen, taxes should be hypothecated—i.e.
constructed in such a way that the revenue raised is restricted to speciﬁc types ofuse rather than simply going into the general public purse.
These eﬀects are interrelated and should therefore be considered together. Often one
measure can produce both of the eﬀects at the same time. A balance may need to be
struck between them.

89

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Taxes and charges are important instruments in the process of internalizing the total
costs, including environmental and social costs, of activities like tourism. Dependingon the way they are directed, they can support adherence to the ‘polluter pays’ principle.

Instruments

5

The main ways in which governments can use these measures are by:• Setting charges for the use of resources or services which they control, such as
public utilities and amenities.
• Introducing general or more speciﬁc taxes on activities that aﬀect the operation of
tourism enterprises and the behaviour of tourists.
An individual tax or charge may inﬂuence the behaviour of enterprises or tourists
or both. This may depend partly on the response of enterprises and whether they
absorb the eﬀect or pass it on to consumers through higher prices. Irrespective of
who is aﬀected by the tax or charge, good communication about the measure, thereasons for it and the resulting beneﬁts is very important in winning support andmaximizing compliance.
Diﬀerent types of taxes and charges that have a particular bearing on tourism aredescribed below.
General business taxes
One way in which taxation is likely to aﬀect the sustainability of tourism is throughthe general impact of the ﬁscal system on the performance of tourism businesses.
Governments should ensure that corporate taxation does not discriminate unfairly
against small service sector businesses. They should also take account of how taxation
policy may aﬀect the full range of economic, social and environmental issues relating
to the particular circumstances of the sector, such as impacts on seasonal jobs andopportunities for micro enterprises and employees to engage in a variety of activities.
General tourist taxes

In Bulgaria
the law
relating to local
government ﬁnancing
has been changed so thatrevenue from tourism
taxes remains in themunicipality and has tobe used for tourism related
infrastructure (see Case
Studies, p 135).

90

A number of countries have introduced taxes on tourism in the form of a tax paid per
visitor, often raised per overnight stay as a ‘bed tax’. This is most usually collected fromtourism enterprises, and may or may not be passed on by them to tourists. Normally
it is not seen as a way of inﬂuencing visitor numbers but rather as a process forraising revenue. Signiﬁcant sums can be raised in this way, but it can lead to industry
concerns about the negative eﬀect on demand and on enterprise proﬁtability. A key
issue for sustainability is the extent to which the proceeds are retained locally and used
to support destination management, environmental conservation and social causes.
Taxes of this kind can be introduced speciﬁcally for the purpose of beneﬁting thedestination and sustainability. However, even if they are presented in this way they
can prove to be controversial, as was well demonstrated by the Balearics ecotax
described in Box 5.10
The successful introduction of such taxes may be more diﬃcult if it is seen by businessas adding to their existing tax burden. A more successful approach may be to direct

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE5

Box 5.10: Lessons from an ecotax

Instruments

In 2002 the government of the Balearic Islands, Spain, introduced a tax withthe clear objective of raising funds from tourists to be invested in environmental
protection and improvement in amenity in tourist areas. The purpose for which theproceeds could be used was enshrined in law. The tax was not seen as a controllingmeasure, but more as a source of additional revenue to support public expenditure. It
was considered as one tool in shifting the direction of tourism in the islands towards
sustainability and quality. Examples of projects supported include the purchase andimprovement of a natural coastal area for public use, removal of unsightly old hotel
buildings, and ﬁnancial assistance to farmers to plant trees.
The tax involved a ﬂat rate charge averaging around 1 euro per night per adult
tourist, collected by hoteliers. In the ﬁrst year approximately €4.5 million were raised.
Although many tourists and local residents were in favour of the tax, hoteliers andtour operators were very opposed to it. It was considered to be unfairly applied (it did
not reach the many tourists staying in self-catering or unregistered accommodation),
and was assumed to be one reason for a downturn in demand for the Balearics in theyear it was introduced. There was also some uncertainty about how the money was
spent and the transparency of this process. The new incoming government abolishedthe tax after one and a half years of operation.
There was a ﬁerce debate about the merits of the tax. Some felt that the long termcompetitiveness of the islands would have gained from the improvements funded by
the tax, despite negative short term reactions. Whatever the merits of it, however, theexperience pointed to the need to make sure that the industry is fully supportive ofsuch a process, especially if it is engaged in its implementation, that it is seen to be
fair, and that it is positively promoted as a measure seeking to bring beneﬁts to all.
such a charge at visitors, as is the case in Belize (see Box 5.11), which is essentially ahypothecated exit tax. Any tax of this kind needs to be fairly and evenly applied, easy
to collect, and fully discussed and supported by all those involved, including the travel
trade. The utilization of the tax needs to be completely transparent and made widely
known to those who are paying it.
Taxes and charges on speciﬁc inputs and outputs
A range of taxes and charges can be used to inﬂuence the use of resources by the
tourism industry and tourists. Examples include:• Eﬄuent charges to encourage the reduction of emissions through end-of-pipe
measures.
• Waste taxes to make ﬁnal waste disposal more expensive, promoting reduction
and recycling.
• Product taxes on items such as energy and packaging that have an environmental
impact in production, consumption or disposal (e.g. carbon taxes on the use ofcertain fuels).
• User charges for use of precious resources such as water.

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

In most countries taxes and charges of this kind are applied generally in order toinﬂuence the activities of all businesses. It is unlikely that the tourism industry will besingled out for special treatment. However, changes in behaviour on account of thesemeasures will aﬀect the impact of the industry, particularly in places where tourism
has traditionally contributed to environmental or social impacts.

Instruments

5

An issue of particular relevance to tourism is the use of taxation to inﬂuence choiceof transport. Some countries have high taxes on petrol in order to encourage a switchfrom private motoring to public transport; this is likely to have a particular eﬀect on
discretionary journeys such as leisure trips. The argument for introducing a tax on
aircraft fuel is frequently made, and is an important issue for the tourism industry.
In Calvia,
the adverse
reaction toa water tax illustrates
how important it is tocommunicate eﬀectively
with enterprises andconsumers over the
implementation of suchmeasures (see Case
Studies, p 167).
In Bulgaria,
ecotourism
enterprises
are supported by acapital fund raised fromenvironmental taxes
on pollution and fuelconsumption (see Case
Studies, p 135)

Taxes or charges on water consumption can be very important as a way of keeping
consumption down in tourist resorts.
Although taxes of this kind are primarily imposed to inﬂuence behaviour rather thanraise revenue, the proceeds from them can be used to support relevant activity. An
example is the Hospitable Climates scheme in the UK, described in Box 5.12.
Charges on the use of amenities and infrastructure
Charging for the use of public amenities can provide a valuable tool in the ﬁeld of
tourism. As visitors perceive that they are getting a direct beneﬁt, there is often little
negative reaction to this. A particular example is the setting of an admission pricefor entry into a national park or heritage site. Charges may be used for management
purposes, to control visitor numbers and environmental impact—this may be related
to carrying capacity and targeted levels of demand. They may be varied at diﬀerent
times of the year. Social equity considerations would suggest that diﬀerential charges
should be used that reﬂect ability to pay, preventing economic discrimination.
Generating revenue for use in conservation and management, or to support local
communities, can be an important objective in the setting of charges of this kind.
In some circumstances charges may be speciﬁcally augmented in order to increase
revenue available for local causes. Where possible a structured and transparent
approach should be used for the distribution of ﬁnancial resources raised, involving
local communities and informing those paying the charge about how theirexpenditure is being used, as in the Madagascar example in Box 5.11.
Charges may also be raised for the use of infrastructure. A common example is theuse of car parking charges, which can prove to be a sensitive management tool. As
well as helping to limit vehicle use and consequent pollution and congestion, they
can sometimes provide the only direct source of revenue for the management ofsites where no other form of admission charge is possible. This is the case for certain
countryside sites. Road tolls can also be employed to discourage private vehicle use.
Charges inﬂuencing after use—assurance processes
Charges can be constructed to serve as an assurance payment leading to sustainableoutcomes at some future time, for example:

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE5

Box 5.11: Examples of charges supporting conservation

Instruments

Belize: In 1996, the Protected Areas Conservation Trust (PACT) was established,
to provide funding for the conservation, awareness, sustainable development andmanagement of protected areas. In excess of US$1.75 million have been disbursed(1997−2004) through more than 70 grants to over 30 organizations. Funds are raisedby a compulsory US$3.75 conservation fee charged to visitors on their departurefrom Belize. PACT also receives 20 per cent of the cruise ship passenger head tax andof the recreational licence and concession fees in protected areas. Corporations andindividuals also donate voluntarily to PACT.
Madagascar: The government national park service has a policy of distributing 50 per
cent of the admission revenue from all parks to local conservation and community
development projects. The latter, proposed by special committees made up of elders
from individual villages, tend to be very practical (such as fruit growing schemes,
bee keeping, construction of grain stores) supporting sustainable livelihoods as
an alternative to slash and burn agriculture. The funding link with the local park
enhances community awareness and support for conservation.
• Performance bonds may be required of developers, in the form of a payment
returned to them later providing certain conditions are met. An example most
relevant to tourism is the use of a performance bond to ensure that reforestation
is carried out following a development project that has required clearance ofareas of forest.
• Deposit/refund charges might, typically, be applied to packaging such as glass orplastic bottles to stimulate reuse or enable controlled disposal.
5.3.2 Financial incentives and agreements
These are economic instruments that inﬂuence the behaviour of enterprises by
providing them with speciﬁc ﬁnancial support or commercial opportunities provided
that they act in a certain way.
Government action may involve:• Providing ﬁnancial support and opportunities themselves.
• Inﬂuencing and working with development assistance agencies whose policies inrecipient countries are increasingly inﬂuenced through priorities and programmes
agreed with governments.
• Inﬂuencing the ﬁnancial decision making policies and actions of commercial
sources of ﬁnance.
Positive ﬁnancial incentives
Various forms of ﬁnancial assistance can be used to inﬂuence behaviour and supportchange. They can be directed at existing tourism enterprises or new projects.
Where positive subsidy is used, principles of economic sustainability suggest that thetype and amount of assistance should be such that it encourages and supports selfsuﬃcient enterprise and avoids dependency.

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Three ways in which ﬁnancial assistance can be used to eﬀect change are:

Instruments

5

In one regionof Scotland, all
tourism projects
receiving assistancefrom the development
agency must participate
in an environmental
certiﬁcation scheme. (seeCase Studies, p 172).

In Ghana,ﬁnancial
assistance isavailable to community
tourism projects that meet
speciﬁc sustainability
criteria. In order to avoid
dependency and encourage
enterprise eﬃciency,
grants are given only
for infrastructure, withenterprise support being
in the form of loans (seeCase Studies, p 149)

• Leveraging action by placing conditions on ﬁnancial assistance.
This can apply to all kinds of projects. A lead is being taken by the World Bankand other development assistance agencies. The jointly agreed Equator Principles
lay down a wide range of social and environmental sustainability conditions
for large projects which must be the subject of assessment before assistanceis approved. Conditions may relate to minimizing impacts or supporting
conservation or social projects such as providing clean water. The approach isvery relevant for national as well as international assistance schemes and forsmall as well as large projects. Micro-credit can, for instance, be used to inﬂuencesustainable livelihood decisions.
• Assisting speciﬁc forms of tourism that relate to sustainability goals.
Rather than seeking to inﬂuence all types of tourism project, well tailoredﬁnancial assistance can be provided, as required, to particular types of projectthat are in line with speciﬁc sustainable development priorities. Examples might
be small scale community-based projects in poor areas, or certain ecotourism
projects. The economic instruments might be closely related to capacity building(see Section 5.5.2), with ﬁnancial assistance given to such aspects as building
market access.
• Funding speciﬁc, direct investments that will improve sustainability.
Financial assistance may be provided for actions that will improve sustainability,
such as the installation of environmentally eﬃcient new technology. Assistance
may also be given with the costs of establishing environmental management
schemes. It is important for governments to avoid simply paying for the
improvements that are sought, thus diminishing commitment to them. There are
therefore advantages in using soft loans or tax credits. Often, such schemes canbe most eﬀective if combined with other instruments such as certiﬁcation andcapacity building, as shown by some of the examples in Box 5.12.
Exerting inﬂuence through other ﬁnancial agreements

In SouthAfrica, thegovernment
has established conditions
and guidelines for theoperation of publicprivate partnerships
on state land, and has
disseminated these in theform of a toolkit (see Case
Studies, p 162)

94

Governments may also have an opportunity to inﬂuence the behaviour of enterprises
by reaching other kinds of ﬁnancial agreement with them. This may entail conveying
some form of property or trading right on the enterprise. Conditions can be attachedto this process that require compliance with a sustainability agenda. Examples include:• The granting by governments of concessions or contracts to enterprises. This has
proved to be an eﬀective vehicle for imposing conditions on selected enterprises—
for example those providing services in national parks.
• Introducing tradable licenses for water extraction, with basic protection of rights
for the poorest communities.
• Developing public-private partnerships with selected enterprises for theprovision of certain facilities, such as transport infrastructure, public amenities orinformation services.
• Government procurement policies—for example, only accommodation certiﬁed asmeeting sustainability criteria could be used for government business.

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

5Instruments

Box 5.12: Examples of ﬁnancial assistance forsustainability measures
Morocco: UNEP has worked with the state electricity organization to promote thepurchase of solar water heating equipment by hotels, by oﬀering subsidized low
interest loans from banks. Monthly repayments are collected as supplements to theregular payment of electricity bills, thus reducing the chances of default and therefore
reducing the risk to banks, enabling them to oﬀer lower interest rates. This should
strengthen the process of commercial lending in the solar energy sector, so enabling
the subsidy to be phased out.
Catalonia, Spain: grants are given to enterprises to meet external costs (such as
employment of consultants) of implementing the eco-certiﬁcation scheme. Somemunicipalities give enterprises in the scheme a 90 per cent reduction on the normal
community charge for waste collection, in order to encourage them to stay in the scheme.
Rimini, Italy: following a successful demonstration project on how to run a beachbathing station sustainably, the Province of Rimini has oﬀered grant assistance toother bathing stations on a competition basis and it is anticipated that 100 will takethis up. Assistance includes a special grant for installation of photovoltaic cells.
United Kingdom: the government oﬀers interest-free energy loans and 100 per centcapital tax allowances on energy eﬃcient equipment through the ‘Carbon Trust’(which receives funding through environmental taxes such as the Climate ChangeLevy). This assistance is packaged for hotels, together with a comprehensive advice
programme, within the government backed ‘Hospitable Climates’ initiative.
Barbados: The Tourism Development Act (2002) makes speciﬁc provision for
expenditure on acquiring eco-certiﬁcation and on community tourism programmes
to be oﬀset at a rate of 150 per cent against tax assessable income.

5.4 Voluntary instruments
5.4.1 Guidelines and codes of conduct
The development of guidelines and codes of conduct provides a mechanism forsetting out clear expectations or requirements of tourists, enterprises or otherstakeholders, without the back up of laws and regulations . In many circumstances,it may be felt that such non-statutory statements are suﬃcient to bring about therequired approaches, standards or changes in behaviour.
Governments may draw up codes and guidelines themselves or may help otherstakeholder groups to do so, acting as a broker in this process.

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

The purpose and advantages of codes and guidelines

5
Instruments

Codes and guidelines are written statements that set out clearly the actions that areor are not appropriate or acceptable in particular circumstances. Codes and guidelines
can be used to:• Exercise control, encouraging everyone to abide by a common approach.
• Give helpful guidance and improve performance, providing a checklist of actions
to follow to achieve objectives. However, they are diﬀerent from training manuals,
which tend to be more elaborate (see Section 5.5.2).
They may be reproduced or disseminated in the form of short documents, presented
on websites, displayed on notices and promoted through relevant media. Awarenessof codes and encouragement to use them may be best achieved by word of mouth anddirect distribution to intended users.
The term ‘code’ is usually applied to short lists of ‘do’s’ and ‘don’ts’, often written as aclear statement which stakeholders can sign up to more or less formally. A ‘guideline’is more likely to be a longer and more detailed statement, containing more advice
and information on how to take appropriate action. Codes and guidelines can becomplementary, with the latter providing detail on how to comply with the former.
Codes can refer to initiatives of more formal frameworks, such as the Global Codeof Ethics for Tourism, approved by the General Assembly of WTO and of theUnited Nations4.
The advantages of codes and guidelines are that they are direct, simple and may be
developed and used at little cost. The disadvantage is that they rely on voluntaryaction and there may be no in-built process of checking or enforcement.
It may be more appropriate to use codes and guidelines rather than regulations where:• Regulations are diﬃcult to disseminate and compliance cannot be controlled.
• The consequences of certain actions may be less serious.
• It is important or helpful to communicate positive actions to pursue, as well as
negative actions to control.
• There are stakeholder groups with whom guidelines and codes can be developed
and who promote compliance.
There are many examples of codes and guidelines relating to tourism sustainability,international, national, local and at site level. They may be aimed at policy makers,
tourism enterprises, and visitors, or a combination of them and may be produced
by international agencies, governments, management bodies such as national park
authorities, and NGOs.
Codes and guidelines may also be produced by associations of enterprises or otherstakeholders, as a way of promoting good practice within a group, seeking common
standards and demonstrating this to others. In this way, they form a very useful tool
for self-regulation within the tourism sector.

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Ways of strengthening the success of codes and guidelines include:

5

Drawing them up in close consultation with intended users.
Keeping the wording simple and the meaning clear.
Using positive language, and suggesting alternative actions.
Backing up statements by simple explanation.
Obtaining feedback, reviewing the statements and improving them over time.
Linking them to marketing and information services (see Section 5.5.3).

Instruments

•
•
•
•
•
•

Codes may be more or less formal, depending on circumstances. In some cases it may
be appropriate for them to be backed up by an agreement of adherence. They can beused as the basis for other instruments, such as reporting and certiﬁcation (see below)
which will make them more eﬀective.
In some circumstances, codes and regulations may be used together. Codes may covera wider set of desired actions, but with the most important requirements being backed
by legislation and regulations, which are then referred to in the codes and guidelines.
Codes relating to certain activities can be strengthened if they are supported andpromoted by a range of organizations working together and applied in diﬀerent
countries through international cooperation. An important example is the code
relating to combating child sex tourism (see Box 5.13).
The following subsections extend discussion of codes and guidelines and look at ways
in which they can be applied.
Policy guidelines
It is important that all stakeholders are aware of policies that relate to thesustainability of tourism, and the implications of those policies for action. The
Box 5.13: A clear code with international backing
The Code of Conduct for the Protection of Children from Sexual Exploitationin Travel and Tourism is an example of a short and clearly worded code that wasdeveloped by an NGO and now has international backing from UNICEF, the WTO
and a range of tourism industry organizations. The code is also supported and promoted
by government bodies, such as the Tourism Authority of Thailand. Associated actions
have been developed around the code, including training and publicity.
The Code, aimed at suppliers of tourism services, has just six elements:
1. To establish an ethical policy regarding the commercial exploitation of children.
2. To train the personnel in the country of origin and travel destinations.
3. To introduce a clause in contracts with suppliers, stating a common repudiation ofcommercial sexual exploitation of children.
4. To provide information to travellers by means of catalogues, brochures, in-ﬂight
ﬁlms, ticket-slips, home pages, etc.
5. To provide information to local ‘key persons’ at the destinations.
6. To report annually.

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Instruments

5

The Responsible
Tourism
Guidelines
produced in South Africa
provide a particularly
good example of aguidelines document.
Produced in booklet
format and circulated
widely, they set out
statements of principle
relating to economic,
social and environmental
sustainability, aroundwhich more detailed
policies and actions should
be developed. They havesubsequently been reﬂectedin the policies of a numberof provincial authorities
and have been taken up
by at least one of the mainbanks where they havebeen used as the basis
for criteria for funding.
The guidelines have also
been used to prepare anadvisory manual for
private enterprises (seeCase Studies, p 162).

development of multi-stakeholder structures and the process of formulating a tourism
strategy through widespread consultation may go some way to ensure this. However,this may not be enough.
Guidelines can be used to transmit general directions and key aspects of policy
to government agencies, local authorities, NGOs, private sector enterprises andsupporting bodies such as development assistance agencies and banks.
A single guideline document could be prepared which is generally applicable to all,or a range of diﬀerent documents could be produced, with the style and contents
adjusted to meet the requirements of the audience.
Codes and guidelines on development and management processes
Codes and guidelines relating to tourism enterprises may cover the country as awhole or be speciﬁc to particular types of location (including protected areas) or typesof product.
Codes and guidelines may be used to inﬂuence the nature of product development.
They can cover both procedures and processes to adopt and the nature ofdevelopment. Examples include guidelines on:• Planning and development control procedures: in protected areas, these might bebased on the CBD guidelines for sustainable tourism.
• The development of community-based tourism: a number of internationalguidelines exist on working with communities on assessing prospects andestablishing projects that embrace sustainability principles.
• Design for diﬀerent types of development.
Codes and guidelines can also relate to how tourism enterprises are managed in
diﬀerent situations in order to beneﬁt environments and communities (see Box5.14). These may be prepared by, or for, tour operators or tourism service providers.
Typically, they will cover aspects such as:• Procedures for minimizing pollution from operations or environmental damage
from recreational activities.
Box 5.14: Code for operating in a sensitive location
For many years the WWF Arctic Programme has maintained a Code of Conduct
for Tour Operators in the Arctic. This has covered, amongst other things, the way
in which operators use and manage natural resources; choice of accommodationand other suppliers; visitor management and information given to visitors; ways ofrespecting local cultures; qualiﬁcation and education of staﬀ; and safety procedures.
The Code has been translated into several languages and distributed widely. It
has proved popular. Operators following it have subsequently looked for greater
recognition of their good practice, and options for linking this to certiﬁcation arebeing considered.

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Visitor codes of conduct
Many codes have been produced with the objective of inﬂuencing visitor behaviour.
Most of these relate to the use of natural environments for diﬀerent activities.
However, they can also cover wider issues such as purchasing local produce,
selecting equitable service providers, tipping practices, dress codes to respect cultural
sensitivities, etc.
Codes may range from overall tips for responsible travel, to speciﬁc codes focused onparticular activities, such as do’s and don’ts for mountain bikers in a national park oreven on an individual trail.
In general, visitor codes will be more eﬀective if backed up by promotional activity(such as media coverage) and also used as the basis around which more personal
advice and information are given (see Section 5.5.3). The Leave No Trace programmein the USA (described in Box 5.28) is an example of an educational programme that
promotes its own simple visitor code.

5
Instruments• Good practice in liaising with local communities.
• Handling and controlling visitors, including group size, the nature of information
supplied to them, etc.
• Reporting procedures, covering the enterprises’ activities and providing feedback
to help destination management.

In Scotland,
the government
conservation
agency has been charged
by law to draw up a
Scottish Marine Wildlife
Watching Code whichmust include guidelines on
activities that are likely to
disturb marine wildlife,
circumstances in whichmarine wildlife may
be approached and themanner in which species
can best be viewed withminimum disturbance(see Case Studies, p 172).

5.4.2 Reporting and auditing
Reporting allows an enterprise or organization to describe the outcome of its eﬀorts
to manage its sustainability impacts, and to share this information with stakeholders.
Governments can encourage both the use of reporting within the tourism industry
and the widening of the scope of its concerns. The use of an agreed set of indicators isan essential part of any reporting activity.
A sustainability reporting framework enables tourism enterprises and organizations
to communicate any actions taken to improve economic, environmental, and social
performance; the outcomes of such actions and the future strategies for improvement.
Reporting can be undertaken at diﬀerent levels:• At the level of an individual enterprise or company or across a collection ofenterprises trading in a particular tourism segment.
• For a single destination or at a regional or national level.
Why is sustainability reporting important?
Measuring and reporting both past and anticipated performance is a criticalmanagement tool. It helps to sharpen the ability of managers to assess progress
towards stated social and environmental policies and goals, and is a key ingredientin building and sustaining the engagement of stakeholders. For tourism enterprises,
reporting can be used to maintain and strengthen their credibility, engage theircustomers, gain beneﬁt from any successes and promote market advantage.

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Growing interest in reporting in the private and public sectors

5Instruments

Across the world, there is interest in enlarging the scope of conventional corporateﬁnancial reporting to include non-ﬁnancial information. The growth in private
sector reporting has been driven by the industry itself, and there are many voluntary
reporting initiatives. The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) provides a set ofreporting guidelines and sustainability performance indicators, to be used in an
entirely voluntary capacity, that capture an emerging consensus on reporting practices
and attempt to bring some consistency to reporting. GRI Guidelines are intended tobe applicable to organizations of all sizes and types, operating in any location.
A number of supplements to the GRI have been developed to capture the diﬀerent
sustainability issues faced by various industry sectors. Issues relating to tour operating
are contained in a GRI supplement issued by the Tour Operators’ Initiative, backed
by UNEP and the WTO. Other sector groups, such as representatives of the hotels
sector, have also addressed reporting requirements.
Auditing activity for sustainability
Reporting may or may not be linked to an auditing process. An audit can be carriedout on any organization or enterprise that has stated policies and a programme
for improving sustainable performance. An audit is a systematic evaluation of theorganization’s systems and actions, in order to see if it is doing what it says it will do.
It can be carried out by self assessment, by the use of an independent auditor or by athird party veriﬁer. Once an environmental management system has been established,
it can be audited on a periodic basis to ensure that it is working properly and that it isdoing what it should.
Auditing can be used as an internal management tool to improve performance in the
tourism industry or to verify compliance with legal requirements. ‘Due diligence’ isessentially a compliance audit to test whether an organization has consistently met its
legal obligations. Such an audit should trigger action or corrective measures.
An audit can also be required by a third party, to verify compliance with conditions
that may have been attached to ﬁnancial support or permissions. Annual monitoring
reports may cover ongoing performance of project-speciﬁc environmental, healthand safety and social activities, reﬂected in the results of periodic and quantitative
sampling and measuring programmes.
How governments can promote reporting and auditing
There are a number of ways in which governments can strengthen the use ofreporting and auditing as a tool in making tourism more sustainable. These include:• Governments undertaking auditing and reporting on their own activities,
including that of their agencies. This can be valuable not only in the review andadaptation of their own policies and actions, but also by setting an example toothers in the tourism sector.
• Reporting more widely on the state of the sector. The performance reporting
arrangements of tourism ministries or local government can be developed to100

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

•
•
•
•

5
Instruments•

include reporting on progress within the tourism industry on sustainability
targets. Feeding this information back to the industry provides an opportunity
to review policies and programmes, to take account of success and identify whereeﬀort needs to be renewed or redirected.
Inﬂuencing the agenda for reporting. Private sector companies will often reporttheir actions in relation to national or local environmental and social goals.
Actively encouraging the process of auditing and reporting amongst groups ofoperators at a national or local level.
Encouraging the use of auditing by introducing guidance material and oﬀering
technical assistance.
Including an auditing and reporting requirement within recognizedenvironmental management systems and certiﬁcation processes.
Rewarding good practice by recognizing and promoting the results.

Governments may also wish to include a requirement to introduce sustainability
measures into existing arrangements for corporate reporting in legislation. In France,
for example, mandatory sustainability reporting was introduced in 2002 for the largest
companies. Investor pressure to obtain a clearer picture of corporate performance may
also lead to regulatory processes that require sustainability reporting.
Governments can require enterprises to carry out auditing and to report on the results,
as part of the process of checking on compliance with agreements. The basis forapproval of the Sydney Quarantine Station project provides an example (see Box 5.15).
Box 5.15: Required auditing and reporting on
environmental and social impacts
The North Head Quarantine Station is a site of natural and historic signiﬁcancewithin the Sydney Harbour National Park, Australia. In 2000, the government
decided that the best way of securing the future of the site would be to lease it
to a tourism operator who would introduce a range of complementary economic
uses. However, it was also deemed necessary for the operator to meet some serious
conservation and management concerns, many of which had been raised by the
local community. These latter requirements were to be formulated as conditions of
the planning permission and lease criteria, but it became clear that the costs andlimitations that they would impose would render the project unviable.
An alternative adaptive management solution was adopted, dependent on a processof regular auditing and reporting. This involved constant, systematic monitoring
against agreed indicators, of a range of social and environmental impacts, to checkthat agreed optimal conditions were being met. Should impacts be found to begreater than this, agreed management responses would come into force. For example,
bird breeding sites are counted regularly and their decrease would lead to measures
to reduce noise, lighting and visitor movements. This model approach involves anannual Environmental Management Report on the condition of the site and thesustainability of the operation.

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

5.4.3 Voluntary certiﬁcation

5
Instruments

Certiﬁcation is a mechanism for ensuring that an activity or product meets certain
standards that may be set by government or agreed within an industry sector. In
tourism, certiﬁcation is used primarily to check on the activities and standards of
tourism enterprises, such as accommodation operators, to ensure consumer safety andsatisfaction. However, it may also be extended to cover sustainability issues. The key
components of certiﬁcation include:
•
•
•
•
•

Voluntary participation by businesses.
Well deﬁned criteria and standards.
A process of auditing and assessment.
Recognition of those who meet the criteria, through a label or logo.
Follow up, in due course, to check continued compliance.
The advantages and disadvantages of certiﬁcation

The main advantage of certiﬁcation in promoting more sustainability in tourism isthat it provides a way of encapsulating at least some of the complex set of aims andobjectives that comprise sustainability, and of clearly distinguishing those enterprisesthat are achieving them. It is one of the few objective ways of enabling those whowant to promote sustainability in their actions and choices (e.g. individual consumers,
tour operators and governments) to know who to support.
For governments5, the main advantages of certiﬁcation are that it can help to:• Raise the market proﬁle and image of a destination in terms of its quality andenvironmental standards.
• Provide a way of encouraging the industry to raise standards in speciﬁcally
identiﬁed areas.
• Potentially lower regulatory costs.
The main disadvantage of certiﬁcation is that it can be costly and time consuming
to administer. It can also be diﬃcult to persuade businesses to participate, as theyoften do not see clear advantages that they can set against the costs of participatingin the process (e.g. meeting the inspection fee, and, potentially, complying with therequirements). Certiﬁcation can therefore be perceived as creating a barrier, especiallyto very small businesses. There is also a problem with comparability between schemes,
which can lead to varying standards, confusion amongst the public, and an unlevelplaying ﬁeld for businesses.
The role of governments in certiﬁcation
Governments have a very important role in supporting the certiﬁcation process.
Often they may be the initiators, and they should also continue to give support asschemes develop.
The agency responsible for running a certiﬁcation scheme will need to be totally
impartial, and to be widely perceived as being so, as well as technically competentand eﬃcient. In some countries, it may be beneﬁcial for governments to be directly

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

involved in the process if these conditions are to be met. In others it may be best to
use an external agency recognized by government.

Instruments

5

Whether or not governments become directly involved in running certiﬁcation
schemes, their oﬃcial endorsement and active support will be very important for its
success. This may include:• Financial support, at least initially as the scheme gets under way.
• Promotion of participation to the tourism sector at national and local level.
• Provision of support and incentives to enterprises who join the scheme, such as
coverage in marketing activities (see Section 5.5.3).
• Linking certiﬁcation to other instruments, which may include, for example, thegranting of planning permission, the granting of concessions and economic incentives.
Types of certiﬁcation
Common themes addressed by certiﬁcation schemes within the tourism sector include:• Health and safety compliance (often considered as a pre-requisite for the others).
• The quality of the facilities and service. This may be an objective measure of the levelof provision, or a more subjective assessment of the experience on oﬀer.
• Quality management, assessing the whole management process (such as the ISO
9000 scheme).
• Social conditions relating to staﬀ, training, etc.
• Environmental management and performance (such as the ISO 14000 or EMAS
schemes).
• Comprehensive sustainability, including environmental, social and economic aspects.

A numberof the Case
Studies include
certiﬁcation schemes
for tourism enterprises
pursuing sustainability.
The Costa Rica scheme, forexample, sees advantages
from being government
led, and government
support has been vital in
Scotland and Australia.
(see Case Studies, p 167,
p 172 & p 130).

Historically, certiﬁcation in tourism has related mainly to the measurement of
the quality of a facility, notably hotel accommodation. Many countries have such
schemes (often leading to a ‘star’ rating) which may be implemented by governmentsor their agencies or by private bodies (with or without oﬃcial endorsement).
In recent years there has been a considerable growth in schemes relating toenvironmental management and performance, which convey what might be commonly
termed an ‘eco-label’. In 2001, a WTO study6 estimated that there were some 60 suchcertiﬁcation schemes in tourism worldwide; this number will have grown subsequently.
Most of these schemes concentrate almost exclusively on environmental issues, thoughsome have a few social components. Certiﬁcation schemes relating more explicitly tosocial or labour issues are far less common (see Box 5.16, page 104).
Another important distinction is between schemes that measure ‘process’ and thosethat measure ‘performance’:• ‘Process’ schemes certify that businesses have established and documented systems
for assuring the improvement of quality or environmental performance. They do
not determine any speciﬁc performance results other than the company’s own andthose required by law.
• ‘Performance’ schemes certify that businesses have reached a speciﬁc, measurable
level of performance against the standards associated with the diﬀerent elementsof the scheme.

103MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

5Instruments

Box 5.16: Certiﬁcation reﬂecting national policy on social impact
Fair Trade in Tourism South Africa (FTTSA) awards a certiﬁcation Trademark totourism businesses that are able to demonstrate commitment to a set of principles
and compliance with predetermined criteria. FTTSA concentrates on social issues,
although concern for the environment and use of resources is also taken into account. The
criteria are: Fair wages; Fair working conditions; Fair operations; Fair purchasing; Fair
distribution of beneﬁts; Ethical business practice; and Respect for human rights, culture
and environment.
The Trademark is awarded on the basis of self-assessment followed by externalveriﬁcation. It relates closely to the responsible tourism policy and guidelines of theSouth African government, whose endorsement has been important to its credibility.
The main motivation and beneﬁts seen by those awarded the Trademark have been theopportunity for increased awareness, improved access to niche markets, networking,exchange of knowledge, mutual support and benchmarking between them.
Certiﬁcation can also vary according to the nature and level of the veriﬁcation
process. Some schemes rely primarily on self-assessment, with only occasional
external veriﬁcation, while most make the latter a requirement. Some schemes
allocate a graded result according to the level of compliance or amount of actions
taken, others just oﬀer a pass or fail.
Businesses thathave become
certiﬁed under
Costa Rica’s Certiﬁcationfor Sustainable Tourism
scheme have become
fervent supporters ofsustainable practices (seeCase Studies, p. 139).
Membershipof Scotland’s
Green Tourism
Business Scheme hasgrown by around 30 per
cent per year since its
establishment in 1998.
In 2004, the scheme had
550 members (see Case
Studies, p 172).

104

Take up of schemes and results achieved
The proportion of tourism enterprises participating in quality certiﬁcation schemes
is often quite high. However, environmental certiﬁcation schemes have so far
achieved a very low take up. For example, amongst European schemes, greatest
participation was found in Scotland, with a penetration rate of around 10 per cent ofaccommodation enterprises in the country.
The outlook for the future of environmental or wider sustainability certiﬁcation is,
however, more positive than this ﬁgure might suggest, and the results achieved havebeen quite signiﬁcant. Most enterprises that have been engaged in such schemes arevery positive about their participation.
Businesses that participate in certiﬁcation often report that the main advantage tothem is the educational process it involves, helping them to clearly understand therequirements of sustainability and focusing their attention on the changes they need tomake in their business. Compliance with certiﬁcation also beneﬁts businesses through:• Cost savings: most enterprises report clear savings, for example energy costs.
• Providing a potential marketing advantage: however, this appears to be still quite
limited in terms of the certiﬁcation of environmental or social sustainability
compared to certiﬁcation of quality.
• Better recognition by supporting bodies: including opportunities for technicalassistance and sometimes ﬁnance.

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Strengthening certiﬁcation for sustainability
There is growing international consensus that sustainable tourism certiﬁcation
systems should incorporate elements of both process and performance, but shouldemphasize performance. Schemes should also be based on external assessment
and ideally include a grading element to recognize diﬀerent levels and encourage
improvement over time.
In order to more closely reﬂect the components of sustainability, certiﬁcation
schemes might seek to include more social criteria in addition to the more common
environmental criteria.
A very important issue and challenge is the way in which certiﬁcation ofsustainability is linked to certiﬁcation of quality, and whether combining them into
one scheme would dilute the focus on sustainability issues. Having a number ofassociated schemes, linked and backed by government, may be a good approach.
Experience provides a number of pointers to good practice in certiﬁcation (borne outby the Case Studies) which should be kept in mind when developing new schemes orstrengthening existing ones. These underline the great opportunity and need to link
the use of certiﬁcation to other tools, for mutual advantage. They include:• Linking certiﬁcation to capacity building, mainly by strengthening the advice andpersonal help given to applicants and at the time of inspection, and by delivering
associated training programmes.
• Including government services in the certiﬁcation process, in order to strengthenoﬃcial ties and encourage enterprises by demonstration.
• Making sure that the requirements and processes are as simple and clear as
possible, enabling ease of audit and rapid compliance.
• Pursuing more speciﬁc ways of giving teeth to the scheme and linking it to otherpolicy areas.

The Scottish
Green Tourism
Business
Scheme has clearly shown
the advantage of aseparate eco-certiﬁcation
scheme but having thispromoted closely alongside
the national quality
grading scheme as anadditional option (p 172).
In Australia,
consideration
is being
given to including theecocertiﬁcation schemewithin a suite ofcertiﬁcation programmes
accredited and oﬃcially
supported by government(see Case Studies, p 130).
In Scotland,
certifying
TouristInformation Centres has
generated new interest
amongst enterprises (seeCase Studies, p 172).

A common standard for certiﬁcation
There is increasing recognition of a need to ensure compatibility between diﬀerent
sustainability certiﬁcation schemes. Consumer conﬁdence may increase as tourists
become aware that harmonized criteria mean that certiﬁcation programmes are allmeasuring more or less the same elements. Harmonization eﬀorts are well under
way in Europe (see Box 5.17, page 106) and in the Americas. There has also beensome movement towards the development of a programme to accredit the various
certiﬁcation schemes. This programme—which intends to, one day, become a global
Sustainable Tourism Stewardship Council—is developing regional networks forcooperation and harmonization of criteria.

In Australia,
Ecocertiﬁcation
has beenused by some states
as a requirement forenterprises to be given
preferential treatment
and extended concessions
to operate in parks (seeCase Studies, p 130).

105

5
Instruments

A particularly important sign of possible future market advantage is the growinginterest by some tour operators in using certiﬁcation as a basis for selecting thebusinesses that they will sub-contract and include in their holiday catalogues, reﬂecting
the increasing integration of sustainability into their business ethics and activities.

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Certiﬁcation of destinations and amenities

5
Instruments

In addition to the certiﬁcation of sustainability of tourism enterprises and theirproducts, there are also schemes that certify destinations or particular types of amenity.
The Blue Flag scheme for beaches and marinas (see Box 5.18) is a good example that
could be applicable worldwide. It underlines the advantages of clear focus, practicality,
relevance and persistence with a scheme over time.

In Kaikoura,
New Zealand,a certiﬁcation
programme has helped
to stimulate interest andfocus attention within
the community on better
management of resources(see Case Studies, p 157).

In a few locations across the world, sustainability certiﬁcation has been awarded toentire destinations. Such schemes take account of the way the whole destination is
managed, in terms of sustainability policies, resource eﬃciency, pollution control,social services, etc., as well as taking account of the environmental management
processes of the tourism sector. The merits of certiﬁcation for entire communities
have been the subject of considerable debate, partly due to the diﬃculties and costs ofacquiring meaningful and comprehensive data.
5.4.4 Voluntary contributions
There is increasing evidence that tourists and the tourism industry are prepared toprovide voluntary support for environmental conservation and the wellbeing of local
communities in destinations. A number of studies have identiﬁed that tourists arewilling to pay for such outcomes, provided that local beneﬁts can be clearly identiﬁed.
Box 5.17: VISIT—a family of European ecolabels
The VISIT initiative, funded by the European Union, links 12 separate eco-labelling
schemes for tourism enterprises, from Austria, Denmark, France, Italy, Latvia,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland and the Nordic countries. The
purpose of the initiative is to improve sustainability of European tourism by raising
the proﬁle and performance of the labels and to raise awareness of certiﬁed products.
Each of the labels concentrates on the environmental impacts of the establishments(mainly accommodation). A common standard has been agreed for the labels. This
includes: external veriﬁcation at least once every three years; a requirement that allenterprises meet national legislation; the inclusion of a set of basic performancerequirements; a requirement that enterprises regularly monitor consumption ofenergy and water and creation of waste per overnight guest; common management
criteria, including relevant staﬀ training; and issues concerning transparency andpromotion of the schemes.
Promotional activity has included the creation of a VISIT Holiday Guide, on paperand on the Internet, which features the participating labels and the individuallycertiﬁed products. Links with tour operators have also been developed, encouraging
them to feature the products.
A VISIT Association has been established to promote the interests of members andencourage new participants. Services will include market research and performancebenchmarking between the labels.

106

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Many tourism enterprises are taking direct supportive action, or are prepared to do so,
as part of their corporate social responsibility.

Instruments

5

Although this is primarily a matter for individual and private sector response,
governments can play a valuable role in encouraging and enabling the provision ofvoluntary contributions, by:• Establishing, supporting and promoting relevant schemes. This may entail
coordinating the activities of enterprises and tourists, as in the Lake District example
in Box 5.19, page 108.
• Providing ﬁnancial incentives, such as tax credits, to enterprises that make contributions.
Voluntary contributions and actions can centre around providing monetary support
or may involve the provision of assistance in kind. Voluntary contributions have theadvantage of being based on goodwill, commitment and active participation, although
they are unlikely to raise as much revenue as compulsory charges.
Examples of schemes involving tourists directly include:• Tourists being invited to make cash donations to local projects, which can varyfrom small sums to substantial amounts.
Box 5.18: Certiﬁcation for beaches and marinas
The Blue Flag award for beaches and marinas, run by the Foundation forEnvironmental Education, has been operational since 1985. In 2004, 2 938 beaches
and marinas were granted the Blue Flag in 29 countries across Europe, the Caribbean
and South Africa. Criteria include:• Water quality, including compliance with bathing water standards.
• Environmental education and information, including procedures for notifying
users about the water quality and the provision of environmental interpretation.
• Environmental management, including a land use and development plan for thecoastal zone, as well as beach cleaning and management processes.
• Safety and services, including guards or relevant equipment, access to telephone, etc.
The scheme has been successfully expanded over the years and has led to
improvements in the provision of relevant facilities and procedures. Strengths of thescheme include: meaningful and practical requirements that are clearly relevant not
only to the environment but also to the quality and safety of the visitor experience;strong branding (the blue ﬂag itself ); combination of management and information/
education requirements; requirement for strong practical engagement by local
authorities and communities; and integration with coastal management. Destinations
have been able to see the advantages both in terms of improved amenity and visitor
response, and many have used the award actively to promote a strong environmental
image. The ﬂag is re-awarded each season, or not, after the annual assessment.
The role of government (especially local authorities at the destination level) inbacking and promoting the scheme has been very important to its success.

107

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE• A small charge made by tour operators or service providers as a routine addition
to a bill, and which tourists can opt out of if they do not wish to pay. This has theadvantage of simplicity and usually leads to very few refusals.
• Tourists providing help in kind. An example of this is provided by the growing
number of holiday and educational travel oﬀers involving participation inconservation or community schemes.
• Contributions by tourists to carbon bio-sequestration schemes (e.g. tree planting), asa way of oﬀsetting the eﬀect of greenhouse gas emissions resulting from their travel.

Instruments

5

Tourism enterprises can provide ﬁnance or help in kind to local conservation andsocial projects. There are many examples where support has been given to projects
such as a local nature reserve, community group, health service or school. As well
as being of considerable beneﬁt to the recipients, enterprises can often beneﬁt fromthe goodwill this generates towards them from their customers. Assistance can beprovided by direct involvement or by establishing or contributing to a trust fund. It
can be particularly beneﬁcial if tourism enterprises are able to build up a supportive
relationship with neighbouring communities that can be maintained over time.
Box 5.19: A structured scheme for raising voluntary contributions
In the Lake District National Park, in England, a public/private partnership
involving the National Trust (an NGO), the National Park Authority and theRegional Tourist Board has been established as a vehicle for raising voluntary
contributions. The Lake District Tourism and Conservation Partnership includes
around 180 tourism businesses in its membership. Members raise money forconservation (e.g. maintenance of paths and landscape features) by inviting voluntary
contributions from guests. This may be via a small, optional supplement on bills, or
through simply inviting donations. Beneﬁciary projects are often speciﬁc to eachmember, thus strengthening individual commitment to them. Annual revenue raised
is around US$300 000.

5.5 Supporting instruments
5.5.1 Infrastructure provision and management
Whereas most of the tools available to governments relate to inﬂuencing the actionsof the private sector, the direct provision by government (or its agents, partners orcontractors) of a range of infrastructure and public utilities and services should also
be seen as an instrument for making tourism more sustainable.
Where investment is required in new infrastructure, it may be appropriate for costs
to be shared between the public and private sectors, based on an assessment of therelative importance of public good and private gain.
General sustainability issues relating to infrastructure and services
The availability of transportation, water, energy, sewerage and waste disposal,
telecommunications, and basic health and security services is of fundamental

108

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

importance for the successful functioning of the tourism sector. Provision is crucial
to the economic sustainability of tourism. The level and quality of provision is also
crucial to issues of social and environmental sustainability. The provision of these
services also forms a key part of the enabling environment, created by government,
for a more sustainable tourism industry.

Instruments

5

Infrastructure and public services should be supplied in such a way that:• They beneﬁt the local community, tourism enterprises and tourists, with adequate
provision to meet everyone’s needs.
• Their provision is cost eﬀective and sustainable.
• Best practices and technologies are used, minimizing consumption of resourcesand ensuring eﬃcient and eﬀective treatment of waste.
Careful, holistic planning and management of infrastructure and services is needed,taking full account of the existing and potential future demand from tourism as well
as from the local community and other sectors. A fundamental principle and priority
is to seek to minimize wasteful consumption by the tourism sector. In addition
to provision of infrastructure and services, emphasis must therefore be placed on
working with the industry on its environmental management, using the relevant
instruments.
The need for careful monitoring of levels of use by the tourism sector is of paramountimportance for future planning and to prevent over use. Mechanisms for monitoring,such as metering and counters, should be built in to the design of new infrastructureand equipment, and indicators and monitoring procedures should be built in to any
service agreements with suppliers and providers.
Transport provision
Transport is a very important strategic policy area for sustainable tourism. Tourism
should be fully taken into account in all transport plans, based on current visitor
ﬂow patterns and forecasts. The potential conﬂict between improving accessibility
to tourism destinations for economic reasons and reducing emissions from air andcar transport has already been pointed out. A general policy line is to improveaccessibility to and within destinations using less-polluting transport modes, and to
manage tourist traﬃc in ways that will minimize congestion and adverse impacts on
local communities and environments.
Many of the other instruments covered in this document can be used for transportmanagement, notably economic instruments and marketing and information delivery(Section 5.5.3). However, the actual provision of transport infrastructure and public
transport services is clearly an important area of action in its own right.
Examples of physical infrastructure measures include:• Improving access to communities where this is needed to ensure the viability of
tourism activity.
• Careful assessment of the environmental, social and economic impact of any
new transport infrastructure proposal, especially new roads, or port and airport
provision/extension.

109

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE• Being prepared to limit the capacity of roads and car parks as a control measure to
discourage excessive car use.
• Developing park and ride schemes in popular tourist areas.
• Developing dedicated walking and cycling trails for use by tourists.
• Extending pedestrian areas in towns and cities.
• Introducing traﬃc calming measures and lane systems that favour public transport.
• Measures to reduce noise pollution from roads, airports, etc.
• Careful planning of signposting as an eﬀective tool in traﬃc and visitor
management, while avoiding unsightly and confusing clutter.

Instruments5

Box 5.20 gives an example of integrated transport development.
Public transport can be made more appealing for use by tourists in a number ofways, including:• Integrated timetabling and ticketing between diﬀerent transport modes.
• Adjusting timetables to reﬂect visitor movement patterns.
• Route planning to take account of the location of accommodation and visitor
attractions.
Box 5.20: Integrated development of public transport offers
The combination of high levels of holiday and transit traﬃc produces signiﬁcantcongestion and pollution in narrow Alpine mountain valleys. In 1997, Austria’s
ministries for tourism, transport and the environment set up the ‘sustainable mobility– car free tourism’ project, with funding from the European Union, based on two pilot
Alpine resort communities. The project was subsequently expanded into the transnational Alps Mobility Project, with the purpose of demonstrating the potential topromote holidays in the Alps based on environmentally benign transport options.
A whole range of diﬀerent initiatives has been undertaken by the communities
involved in the project, involving considerable joint working between public sector
bodies, transport operators, tour operators and other stakeholders. Much of the
project has been about coordinated information provision and creative marketing andpackaging of public transport access to and within the region. However, the project
has also shown the importance of improved transport infrastructure and services.
Examples include:• Provision and leasing out of zero-emission electric cars and motor scooters,
together with solar-electric re-charging stations.
• Provision and coordination of bus routes, with improved visibility and design ofbus-stops and associated information panels.
• Establishment of booking systems and luggage transfer services.
• Extension of pedestrian areas and car free zones.
The community of Werfenweng, one of the initial pilots, has seen the proportion of
tourists arriving by train rise from 9 to 25 per cent. It has also observed an estimatedreduction of 375 tonnes per winter season in CO2 emissions, amounting to a 15 percent reduction against the trend.

110MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE• Provision of luggage handling services.
• Eﬃcient car and taxi sharing schemes.
• Extension of, and support for, public transport services on certain routes relevant
to tourists.
• Improved and widespread availability of information and ticketing.
• Improved quality, security and safety against crime on transport services.

Instruments

5

Tourist transport can be made more sustainable by the introduction of improved
technology. Governments can assist with this by supporting appropriate researchand development and by investing in, and procuring, modern transport systems that
employ such technologies.
Public utilities and services
The provision of public utilities requires careful planning in tourist destinations,especially where particular natural resources are in short supply.
• Water: the supply and management of water is a key issue in many tourist
destinations, in terms of both its quality and quantity. Increasing supply or
introducing new sources (e.g. from desalination plants) can often be costly andhave environmental consequences. Equitable water management is critical—ifwater is rationed, the interests of tourism enterprises should not be favoured over
local communities.
• Energy: in some destinations energy (for electricity and heat) may be supplied
from local sources. Renewable energy sources should be favoured, while paying
attention to the impact of related infrastructure on the landscape (e.g. siting ofwind turbines, pylons and hydro schemes).
• Solid waste: infrastructure, collection and management systems should enablewaste to be separated and recycled. In some countries, tourism businesses areprepared to recycle waste but the municipality does not provide trade access tocollection and treatment systems to back this up. Attention should also be paid tolitter collection and the cleanness and maintenance of public open spaces such asparks and beaches (see Box 5.21, page 112).
• Sewerage: wherever possible, tourism enterprises will connect to eﬀective sewage
treatment systems that have suﬃcient capacity to handle the ﬂows arising in thepeak tourist season. Discharge points should be carefully sited with respect tobeaches and other sensitive areas. Governments should also propose solutions for
sewage treatment for tourism facilities that cannot be connected to the publicsewerage system.
• Telecommunications: eﬀective telecommunications, including information
technology linkages, are very important for market access and economic viability.
Associated infrastructure should be carefully located to minimize impact on
sensitive landscapes.

The innovativewaste
management
programme in Kaikoura,
New Zealand,
undertaken by the local
authority in partnershipwith a community body,provides a good exampleof the provision of aconservation minded
waste handling service
together with the creative
reuse of waste (see Case
Studies, p 157).

Security and emergency services
Safety and security are increasingly important issues for destination image andperformance. Attention should be paid to levels of policing and provision of otheremergency services, such as health and ﬁre services. The suppliers of these services
should be in regular contact with tourism managers and sector bodies. A key issue is111

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

their ability to respond to visitors’ needs. Some destinations have dedicated tourist
assistance schemes and help lines. Speciﬁc tourist police units have been establishedin some countries.

Instruments

5

Systems for dealing with emergency situations such as health scares, terrorism andnatural and industrial disasters, including response to early warnings, should be wellrehearsed. This includes the provision of evacuation plans where necessary.
5.5.2 Capacity building
Capacity building is about developing the potential and ability of stakeholders
to make and implement decisions that will lead to more sustainable tourism, byincreasing their understanding, knowledge, conﬁdence and skills.
The advantages and role of capacity building
There are many advantages to using capacity building as an instrument to strengthen
the sustainability of tourism. Capacity building is direct and precise, and can betargeted at stakeholders or situations where change is needed or where it is felt thatparticular success may be achieved. It has the advantage of being a process which
is likely to spread commitment to sustainability within the tourism sector, and so
can secure long term beneﬁt. It is also a ﬂexible instrument that can be altered at
any time. Capacity building can, however, be time consuming and require skilled
personnel to carry it out. A particular challenge is securing the participation of
tourism enterprises in the process.
Capacity building is particularly important in strengthening the eﬀectiveness of theother tools presented in this document, such as economic instruments, certiﬁcationand planning regulations, by alerting people to them and assisting with compliance.
Box 5.21: Working together on waste
In the coastal resort of Side, Turkey, a workshop organized by the Tour
Operators’ Initiative and involving the local government, NGOs and private
sector representatives, identiﬁed waste management as an urgent priority for thesustainability of tourism in the area.
Activities carried out by the municipality in conjunction with the tourism association,
assisted by UNEP and others, included the introduction of:••••

A waste separation scheme, involving pick-ups from hotels and other companies.
A collection scheme for used batteries.
Waste separation bins in the town for use by tourists and residents.
Training sessions on solid waste management for hotel and restaurant staﬀ andfor municipality oﬃcers.
• A new, well located landﬁll area.
Over 100 hotels and all local shops and restaurants participate in the waste
separation scheme.

112

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Capacity building for more sustainable tourism will generally target:

5
Instruments• Tourism enterprises: most notably MSMEs, as these are likely to have more
limited professional capacity than larger enterprises and may be more likely toseek assistance.
• Local communities or more speciﬁc groups of local stakeholders.
• Organizations and institutions, including government bodies and NGOs.
In the past, capacity building for tourism has tended to concentrate on issues ofbusiness performance, competitiveness and quality. A sustainable tourism approach
would retain these priorities but add others such as management of human resources,
supply chains and the environment. In terms of process, it would emphasize an
integrated approach, encouraging enterprises and communities to work together.
Box 5.22: A government agency developing
sustainable tourism skills
In France, technical services relating to tourism are supplied by Observation,
Développement et Ingénierie Touristique (ODIT France), a public sector structure
under the Ministry of Tourism. ODIT member organizations include otherministries, chambers of commerce, private sector representative organizations,regional and local oﬃces of tourism and many other bodies engaged in tourism.
The role of ODIT France is to improve the performance of tourism in France,
including its competitiveness, accessibility and the sustainability of its development.
A primary function is capacity building and the development and exchange ofknowledge and technical skill.
Rather than imposing solutions from the centre, ODIT France works withdestinations and networks of enterprises at a local level, inputting technical expertise,developing and experimenting with ideas through consultation and observation,and then disseminating the results. It has worked in this way with a particular groupof destinations that have piloted an approach to sustainable tourism, including
developing a range of sustainability indicators.
ODIT France has produced good practice guides and advisory publications onsustainable transport, the management of natural sites, and ecotourism, amongst
others. It has also been active in helping destinations and speciﬁc types of enterprisesthat wish to develop a sustainable approach, to network, learn from one another andengage in joint promotion on several themes—examples include major heritage sites,
rural self-catering accommodation and outgoing tour operators.
ODIT France was created in January 2005 by the amalgamation of AFIT (Agence
Française de l’Ingénierie Touristique with two other tourism support bodies:
ONT (Observatoire Nationale du Tourisme) and SEATM (Service d’Etudes etd’Aménagement Touristique de la Montagne).

113

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

The role of government in capacity building

5
Instruments

Governments, both national and local, can play a direct role in the delivery ofcapacity building activity, or they may provide ﬁnancial, technical or politicalassistance to others to do this. Capacity building is often a key part of assistanceprojects for sustainable development, which may involve a range of agencies including
government. Support does not necessarily have to be ﬁnancial, governments are often
well placed to play a facilitation role.
Governments have a particularly important role in initiating and supporting research
programmes, of which the results can be used in capacity building, in disseminating
good practice, and in establishing stakeholder networks.
In many countries, governments may provide or fund institutions that are central
to capacity building, such as research bodies, advisory services, and education andtraining establishments (see Box 5.22, page 113).
Capacity building with enterprises
An important part of the capacity building process involves helping individual businesses
to make their operations more sustainable. Techniques used include the following:• Providing direct advice: a number of governments support small business advisory
services, which may also be assisted by donors. Providing technical advice on
environmental management and other sustainability issues has proved to be oneof the best ways of achieving eﬀective change. Advice can also be integrated withthe certiﬁcation process as indicated earlier. A challenge is often to get enterprises
to seek advice on sustainability in the ﬁrst place. For this reason a wider audience
may be reached by integrating sustainability with more mainstream business andmarketing advice.
Box 5.23: Capacity building tools linked to business interest
In England, the government agencies responsible for the rural environment and for
tourism joined together to produce a ‘green audit kit’ for tourism businesses. This is apractical advisory manual on environmental management that gives technical advice
as well as seeking to stimulate a response from businesses by demonstrating speciﬁc
beneﬁts (e.g. cost savings) and to relate actions to wider functions and objectives suchas marketing and the quality of the customer experience. The kit was distributed onrequest, so active circulation was a weakness. The impact on those receiving it wasnevertheless extremely positive—66 per cent took action as a result.
It was found that this advisory manual was not enough on its own. To back up thekit, the tourist boards established ‘The Green Advantage’, a one day training course
for enterprises, leading to a certiﬁcate. This is oﬀered as part of thematic training
under the ‘Welcome Host’ brand, including customer care. There is now pressure
from enterprises that have worked with the kit and undertaken training to receive
recognition through certiﬁcation, which is still to be developed in England. Many ofthe enterprises also found that their local authorities do not give suﬃcient back up,such as providing recycling schemes.

114

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Improving the awareness and skills of individual staﬀ, especially in larger
establishments, should also be seen as part of the capacity building process. This isrelevant to many aspects of the sustainability agenda, including quality of jobs andoverall levels of performance. Some speciﬁc issues include:• The need to make sure that training is designed to be accessible to all, irrespectiveof educational level.
• The potential to train speciﬁc staﬀ in aspects of management for sustainability.
Developing networks and learning areas
One of the best ways of securing more participation in capacity building processes,
and of increasing the chances of implementation of good practice over time, is toencourage and help businesses to work together in clusters or networks. Networks
can in themselves strengthen the ability of enterprises to address sustainability
issues. Networks may be geographically or thematically based, and may be related
to established structures such as tourist associations. They provide the advantage offostering common standards, mutual support and peer pressure between members(see Box 5.24, page 116).
A further development of the network approach is the concept of a ‘learning area’.
Traditionally, tourism training has been seen as a one way process with individuals or
enterprises receiving instruction from training bodies. New approaches point to more
dynamic, evolving, two-way processes, based on the concept of continuous learning.
A ‘tourism learning area’ links stakeholders in a destination (or thematic area) so thatthey can work together to improve their individual performance and the quality andsustainability of tourism in the area, through the development and exchange of skills,
knowledge and experience. All relevant public bodies and private enterprises would beseen as part of the learning area, including both recipients and deliverers of training. The
learning area approach seeks to ensure that capacity building processes are developedwith the enterprises themselves and properly tailored to their needs, while also building
cooperation and reducing duplication between training providers. A web portal would
play a key role in deﬁning the learning area and facilitating communication within it.

1. Australia’s
Business Ready
Programme
for Indigenous Tourism
is designed to assist
Indigenous Tourism
businesses to develop
the skills to set up andrun commercially viable
tourism operations (seeCase Studies, p 130).
2. Ecotourism businessdevelopment andmarketing is a key elementof Bulgaria’s National
Ecotourism Strategy (seeCase Studies, p 135).
3. In South Africa,emphasis is placed on skills
development. A national
qualiﬁcations frameworkhas been established,intended to trigger
increased investment in
training by employers (seeCase Studies, p 162).
In SouthAfrica, schemes
have beendevised for staﬀ lacking
formal education to beneﬁt
from on-the-job training
and assessment leading toqualiﬁcations, rather than
vocational training basedon written examination(see Case Studies, p 162).
In Egypt, hotel
environmentaloﬃcers are
identiﬁed and receive
training and certiﬁcation(see Case Studies, p 144).

Capacity building with local communities
Capacity building with local communities is an important component of sustainable
tourism development relating to community empowerment and a number of otherkey aims. The process takes time. It should be carefully executed, and be based on the115

5Instruments• Running training courses and workshops: these may cover relevant aspectsof business and environmental management. Training sessions, including
familiarization excursions, can also be used eﬀectively to raise enterpriseawareness of the special qualities and sensitivities of the local natural and cultural
heritage, which may be passed on to guests.
• Using advisory manuals: a number of countries and projects have produced
written manuals for enterprises on sustainability, which also include contacts
for more detailed information (see Box 5.23). These are a good way to reacha relatively wide audience but may be more eﬀective if combined with direct
training and other instruments.

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Instruments

5

In Australia,
a government
programme
is supplying a packageof support for tourism
development within
indigenous communities,
including help with
fostering alliances withthe mainstream tourism
industry (see Case
Studies, p 130).
In Ghana,
international
agencies andnational government
bodies have been involvedin capacity building withindividual communities,
assisting them in deciding
on the potential viabilityof communal tourism
programmes based onnatural and cultural
heritage resources and on
the ways in which beneﬁts
will be distributed (seeCase Studies, p 149).

principle of assisting local communities rather than being prescriptive. In a number ofareas, particular success has been achieved through partnership arrangements between
individual private enterprises and local communities.
A ﬁrst stage involves the facilitation of a visioning process and assistance with arealistic assessment of opportunities and impacts. The issue of the level of communal,
as distinct from individual, activity and ownership (which will vary widely between
diﬀerent types of society) also needs to be addressed at an early stage, as should social
equity issues such as gender. There are many projects around the world that haveexperience of working with local communities on capacity building for sustainable
tourism (see Box 5.25).
A second level of capacity building with communities involves assistance with theacquisition of knowledge and skills. Typically, topics will include: customer care,marketing, environmental management, guiding services, business skills, working andnegotiating with commercial operators, developing local supply chains, basic language
training, and monitoring impacts and performance.
Institutional strengthening
Capacity building for more sustainable tourism should also be directed at government
ministries at all levels, and their agencies. Institutional strengthening in terms of
Box 5.24: Capacity building leading to
private and public response
In Jamaica, the Environmental Audits for Sustainable Tourism (EAST) project,funded by USAID, has the Jamaica Hotel and Tourist Association ( JHTA) as
the main partner, and is supported by the Ministry of Industry and Tourism. The
focus of the project has been to improve the environmental management of hotels
through direct advice and training, leading to audits on energy, water and chemicaluse, wastewater and solid waste generation and disposal, and management and staﬀ
practices. Participating hotels have been able to demonstrate considerable cost savingsand environmental beneﬁts. A special environmental assessment protocol has been
designed to meet the needs of small hotels.
Working with the JHTA, which has promoted the scheme and its results to
its members, has been very important in spreading interest in environmental
management across the private sector. The scheme has also inﬂuenced government,
which has introduced a National Environmental Management Systems Policy toencourage all businesses to implement environmental programmes.
As an example of further integration of the lessons learned from the project, EAST
has been working with the government’s Tourism Product Development Company
to incorporate environmental practices into accommodation standards and theinspections process. It has also worked with educational institutions on including
environmental management best practices in hotel and hospitality training curricula.

116

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE• Developing basic capacity (in terms of awareness, competence and resources) at
all levels.
• Ensuring political awareness and support.
• Introducing technical competences in institutions.
Institutional strengthening may also be important for other bodies. For example,
NGOs working in the ﬁelds of environmental management or community
Box 5.25: Using participatory processes with communities
In Nepal, the Tourism for Rural Poverty Alleviation Programme (TRPAP) isa government programme, funded by a number of international agencies andimplemented in partnership with the Department of National Parks and Wildlife
Conservation and the Nepal Tourism Board. The objectives of the programme
include demonstrating models and institutional mechanisms for sustainable tourism
development. It has focused on six districts exhibiting need for poverty alleviation
and also tourism potential.
A key component of the programme has been capacity building, working at thelowest level within individual communities. Initial Tourism and Environmental
Awareness Programmes helped to orientate community members, including adultgroups and school children, towards sustainable tourism issues and resulted in some
simple activities such as environmental clean ups. From here, a thorough processof assessment and planning was undertaken with each community using various
techniques for community engagement, such as Appreciative Participatory Planningand Action. This takes participants through ﬁve stages:• Discover—what you are proud of and appreciate what you have.
• Dream—about what might be and create a positive image of your chosen future.
• Direction—narrow the dream to realizable proportions.
• Design—turn the dream into real action plans.
• Deliver—the dream and sustain the future.
This has led to strong local ownership of the ensuing activities.

In Ghana, it
became clearthat successdepends on alerting all
ministries to sustainable
tourism opportunities
and issues, strengthening
the ability of key agencies
such as the tourist board
to deliver support,
and bringing district
administrations onboard(see Case Studies, p 149).
In Calvia,
the mainrequirement
was not so much aquestion of technicalability as the need to securepolitical backing andeducate politicians in the
Local Agenda 21 process(see Case Studies, p 167).
In Egypt, anenvironmental
monitoring
unit was established in
the Tourism Development
Authority (see Case
Studies, p 144).

Speciﬁc skills training has also been delivered, for example for guides and cooks andfor the production of diﬀerent kinds of handicraft.
The programme found that it was necessary to develop structures to take sustainable
tourism forward within communities and existing institutions. This involved
establishing Sustainable Tourism Development Committees at the village level,
Sustainable Tourism Development Sections within the district authorities, and a
Sustainable Tourism Development Unit within the Nepal Tourism Board.

117

5
Instruments

structures and relationships was covered in Chapter 3. However, in many countries
there is also a need to strengthen awareness and knowledge of sustainability issues in
tourism. Diﬀerent needs and approaches include:MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

development can play a very important role in focusing tourism on sustainable
development objectives, but may lack practical knowledge of tourism (see Box 5.26).

Instruments

5

Extending and sharing knowledge and good practiceIn order to fuel the capacity building process, governments should support education andresearch into sustainable tourism and dissemination of good practice. This could involve:

Scotland’s
Tourism andEnvironment
Forum has a verypractical newsletter anda website which are good
examples of attractive
and informative
communication (see Case
Studies, p 172).
The study
tours andinternational
conferences organizedby Egypt’s Red Sea
Initiative were very
important in inﬂuencing
the country’s new
direction (see Case
Studies, p 144).

• Including sustainability issues in tourism education. Academic and vocationalcourses on tourism for young and mature students should include sustainability
issues in their curricula. Courses in related ﬁelds, such as environmental
management and sustainable development, should address the role of tourism.
• Supporting and disseminating relevant research and information. Acquisitionof and access to information to guide sustainable development can be costly
to individual enterprises, projects or communities. Support should be given
to relevant research that can then be shared. This includes keeping abreast ofinternational research and knowledge. Particularly relevant topics include market
research, management processes and the application of technology.
• Recognizing and disseminating good practice. Some countries and international
bodies use award schemes for sustainable tourism as a way of highlighting goodpractice. Diﬀerent techniques for dissemination can be employed.
• Encouraging study tours and other exchanges. The value gained from learning
about the experience of similar destinations or initiatives within the same country
or from abroad is frequently emphasized.
5.5.3 Marketing and information services
The marketing of countries or destinations and the provision of visitor information
are traditional tourism functions of governments at the national and local level, mostcommonly performed by a national or regional tourist board or by a local authority.
5.26: Regional assistance in building capacity
In Latin America, the International Labour Organization (ILO) has supported
a programme called REDTURS to help small and community based tourism
enterprises to prosper and grow. It focused initially on Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru, but
extended to other countries in the region. At a micro level, it has involved developing
and implementing business development services. At an intermediate level, services
are oﬀered to community groups and rural municipalities. Assistance is provided in
the development of tourism clusters and networks and the technical skills of local
government have been developed. At the macro level, indigenous organizations arestrengthened to improve their role of representation, negotiation and advocacy withstate institutions and other stakeholders.
Considerable use has been made of information technology in this work, whichis integrated with the training, and is vital in the dissemination of a wide range of
information and examples of good practice. It is also a key to the other half of the
programme’s work, which is developing tools for marketing.

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

In recent years, many countries have tended towards a partnership approach
between the public and private sector in providing these functions, perhaps using
an independent organization funded by both sectors. Even if governments are notengaged directly in destination marketing activity or in the delivery of information
services, they are often able to inﬂuence them.

Instruments

5

The role of marketing and information services in inﬂuencing sustainability
Marketing and information services are direct, powerful and ﬂexible tools that canbe used to inﬂuence the performance of diﬀerent types of tourism enterprise andthe behaviour of tourists, by providing an essential communications link between
destinations, products and visitors7.
These tools can be used on their own. However they are also very useful, andfrequently essential, in backing up other tools, such as economic instruments,
guidelines and certiﬁcation.
The primary functions of these tools in making tourism more sustainable are to:• Facilitate market access: the vital importance of market access for economic
sustainability is relevant to all types of tourism, but governments may need to pay
particular attention to small enterprises or community-based tourism initiatives inthis regard, owing to their limited resources for marketing.
• Promote particular forms of tourism or speciﬁc products that are more sustainable
than others. This can enhance sustainability in two ways, by:- raising the proﬁle and performance of such products and encouraging use ofthem;- providing a practical incentive. The restriction of certain promotional
opportunities to enterprises that meet certain criteria can be used as a
powerful incentive for all enterprises to become more sustainable.
• Inﬂuence visitors’ behaviour, by informing them about sustainability issues andencouraging certain types of activity while discouraging others.
Strategic marketing linked to sustainability objectives
The extent and form of marketing activity should reﬂect strategic decisions about theamount and type of tourism required, and its location. Strategic priorities common
to many destinations and that can be directly addressed through marketing andinformation include:
•
•
•
•
•

Promoting to selected target markets that relate to sustainability objectives.
Reducing seasonality, by promoting oﬀ-season images and opportunities.
Promoting alternative destinations, spreading beneﬁts and loads.
Maximizing value retained locally, increasing spend per head and length of stay.
Promoting the use of more sustainable transport.

Implications of sustainability for tactical marketing and information activity are
identiﬁed below.

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Conveying accurate images and information

5
Instruments

Successful destination marketing depends partly on developing and promoting a clear
brand based on the core values of the destination. In the interests of sustainability, thebrand and associated images (including pictures and text) should:
•
•
•
•
•

Be suﬃciently strong to successfully command attention and generate new interest.
Be suﬃciently distinctive, to diﬀerentiate the destination from others.
Match the values of the destination’s target markets.
Be authentic, i.e. it should relate to what visitors will actually ﬁnd.
Avoid stereotypes and images that may demean local communities and their values.

Box 5.27 gives an example of how some community based tourism networks arejointly promoting a common brand.
Some destinations are seeking to convey concepts of sustainability (such as clean
environments and engaged communities) in their core branding and images. Thiscan be helpful in terms of drawing visitors’ attention to such issues at the outset, but
only if the above conditions are met. Using ‘sustainability’ images in a contrived way
can be damaging.
Irrespective of brands and images, all destinations should ensure that visitors areprovided with accurate and suﬃciently detailed information, before and during
their trip, to enable them to make well informed choices and encourage responsible
Box 5.27: Promoting community-based tourism networks
A number of developing countries, including Kyrgyzstan, Namibia, Tanzania andUganda amongst others, have established networks of community-based tourism
projects, partly to assist mutual support and capacity building, and partly for joint
promotion within a common brand. Consistency of quality, visitor experience andadherence to sustainability principles are important in maintaining brand values, and
it is up to the members and network coordinators to address this.
Most networks oﬀer a range of basic accommodation, such as camping sites orhomestays, village visits, cultural programmes, guided walks, and local foods andhandicrafts. At least some of the income is disbursed to beneﬁt the community as awhole and projects may be based on varying degrees of community ownership.
Many of these networks have been established with the assistance of development
agencies. Although they are becoming self-suﬃcient, marketing support fromgovernment can be very valuable to them.
In Tanzania, the Cultural Tourism Programme, which oﬀers visits to tribal
villages, was set up by the Netherlands Development Organization SNV, but thecustodianship of it has been handed over to the Tanzania Tourist Board, which wasa partner in the programme from the beginning. The Board provides marketing
assistance and exposure, including housing the enquiry and reservation facility in the
Tourist Information Centre in Arusha to provide a gateway to the communities.

120

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

behaviour. This should relate to the destination as a whole and to individual locations,communities and sites. It should cover:

Instruments

5• The natural environment, including special qualities and sensitivities to certain
activities.
• The history, cultural heritage and traditions of the place, including implications
both in terms of visitor interest and visitor behaviour.
• The current economic and social conditions, and implications for how people
should be treated.
• Information relevant to visitors’ health and safety.
In some circumstances, it may be appropriate to produce and promote speciﬁc
guidelines or codes for visitors.
Tourist Boards and local authorities can have an important inﬂuence through theirown promotions, information print, and websites. However, to be eﬀective theyshould also work with incoming and international tour operators and with travel
media (especially guidebook editors) to get this information across.
Promoting speciﬁc products and experiences
Promotional activities and information services may seek to give particular exposure
to a range of products and services that relate most directly to sustainability
objectives. These may include, for example, enterprises pursuing good practice(possibly identiﬁed through certiﬁcation), particular forms of tourism such as
cycling or walking that are environmentally friendly, or community-based tourism
projects that have been developed speciﬁcally with poverty alleviation in mind. Three
important approaches, which are not mutually exclusive, are:• Identiﬁcation within mainstream promotion. A key principle is that marketingmessages relating to sustainability and associated products should not betreated as a separate component of destination marketing but be given a highproﬁle within mainstream promotions. This should involve integrating relevant
information, including features on particular types of product or transport
alternatives, within the main destination’s guide and website. A particular example
is the featuring of ecolabels within oﬃcial accommodation listings.
• Developing speciﬁc marketing campaigns. Alongside mainstream promotion,some types of more sustainable product may beneﬁt from separate marketing
activity. For example, many destinations oﬀer walking or cycling holidays,
promotion of which may be coordinated within separate print and media
campaigns. Giving priority to events and products available in the oﬀ-season may
also beneﬁt sustainability.
• Supporting collaborative marketing within networks. Joint marketing initiatives
have proved to be a useful way of facilitating market access for individual
MSMEs or community-based tourism initiatives, which may be too small
to achieve eﬀective market penetration on their own. This may be linked toadditional services such as central reservation, as well as to capacity building.
Marketing assistance can include researching markets, contact making with
operators, providing presence at fairs, assistance with publicity and exposure indestination print and websites.

In Scotland,
membershipof the Green
Tourism Business Scheme
is indicated against
entries in the oﬃcial
accommodation guide andenquirers can click on theoﬃcial website for a listof certiﬁed properties (seeCase Studies, p 172).

121

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Ensuring effective local information delivery and interpretation

5
Instruments

The availability of good quality information to visitors when they arrive andduring their stay can be a very valuable tool for making tourism more sustainable.
Information that brings out the qualities, distinctiveness and interest of theimmediate local area can help to encourage higher spending within the community.
The delivery of local information can also be combined with an element ofinterpretation, helping to raise visitors’ understanding of local environmental issues
and the needs of communities. Key delivery outlets include:• Tourist Information Centres (TIC): face to face information delivery can beparticularly eﬀective in getting the right messages across to visitors. TICs areoften government supported, though their long term economic sustainability isfrequently a challenge.
• Visitor Centres: these may combine visitor information and interpretative displays.
• Panels and signage providing information and interpretation: these need to berobust, well designed, simply worded, and strategically placed yet unobtrusive.
• Holiday company representatives: introductory information provided to visitors
by reps, serving to orientate them within the resort and the wider area, can bevery inﬂuential.
• Accommodation hosts: proprietors and reception staﬀ provide a regular pointof contact throughout a visit. Information they deliver (personally or throughnotices) can relate to the local area or to behaviour within the establishment itself,such as use of water, turning oﬀ lights, etc.
• Guides: tour guides and local guides can play a critical role in inﬂuencing visitor
behaviour as well as providing interpretation.
All the above should be made well acquainted with sustainability issues in the area,
through familiarization visits and training.
Box 5.28: Teaching good practice to visitors
In the USA, Leave No Trace is a national programme run by a non-proﬁtorganization, which is supported by a number of federal agencies as well as outdoor
recreation bodies and commercial companies. It was established originally by the US
Forest Service, and later joined by the National Park Service and others.
The programme teaches people how to behave responsibly in the outdoors, with anemphasis on environmental impact focused round a seven point code: Plan ahead
and prepare; Travel and camp on durable surfaces; Dispose of waste properly; Leave
what you ﬁnd; Minimize campﬁre impacts; Respect wildlife; and Be considerate ofother visitors. It is delivered through a range of train the trainer courses, workshop
sessions with groups (such as youth groups) and public contact at visitor centres
and elsewhere. The courses and a wide range of information material are based on
scientiﬁc research and practical experience obtained over a number of years.

122

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Using educational programmes

5

Local promotional campaigns and information delivery should not be seen only as
tools aimed at visitors.
Governments inﬂuencing outgoing markets
Governments can further aﬀect the sustainability of tourism by using marketingand information to inﬂuence the behaviour of their own citizens as international
travellers. In the past this has mainly been motivated by concern for traveller safety,
but some governments in developed countries (see Box 5.29) have recently taken aninterest in the impact of travel from their countries on the sustainable developmentof recipient countries. This can involve:

Instruments

More sustainable behaviour by visitors can also be achieved by educational activities,
either on site or in the visitors’ home, school or social environment. Governments
should promote teaching and training about responsible travel and recreation. An
example is the Leave No Trace programme described in Box 5.28. Developed in theUSA, this is now being established in some Latin American countries and elsewhere.
In Calvià anumber ofawarenessraising campaigns havebeen aimed at local people,
covering issues varying
from behaviour towards
visitors to the use of water(see Case Studies, p 167).

• Being conscious of the impact of oﬃcial travel advice about certain countries on
the wellbeing of the local tourist industry. Statements need to be carefully worded,
speciﬁc, accurate and up to date.
• Encouraging and inﬂuencing tour operators and the travel media in their support
for sustainable development and information given to tourists.

Box 5.29: Helping citizens be responsible travellers
In the UK, the government has taken a number of steps to inﬂuence the impact ofoutbound tourism:• The Sustainable Tourism Initiative, a multi-stakeholder partnership sponsoredby the Prime Minister, seeks to introduce sustainable tourism practice in the
UK outbound tourism industry. This led to the establishment of The Travel
Foundation, an independent charity that supports environmental and social
programmes in destination countries, partly funded by money raised fromtravellers by a group of leading tour operators.
• Adjustment to travel advisories. In 2004, the government announced that it would
be more sparing in its travel advice notices, advising its citizens against travel onlyin situations of extreme and imminent danger.
• A guide to sustainable travel. In 2004, the Government joined with a wellknown travel guide publisher to produce 2 million free copies of Rough Guide
to a Better World, a guide for the public on how to support action towards theMillennium Development Goals, including a section on ethical travelling.

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Notes

5
Instruments

1 Indicators of Sustainable Development for Tourism Destinations, A Guidebook, WTO, 2004.
2 UNEP Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment
has issued guidelines for tourism development in coastal areas, Key Principles for Tourism
Development, available at http://www.gpa.unep.org.
3 The CBD Guidelines are available on the Convention on Biological Diversity web site at
http://www.biodiv.org.
4 The Global Code of Ethics for Tourism is a comprehensive set of principles whose
purpose is to guide the stakeholders in tourism development: central and local
governments, local communities, the tourism industry and its professionals, as well as
visitors, both international and domestic. Although it is not a legally binding document,
its Article 10 provides for a voluntary implementation mechanism through therecognition of the role of the World Committee of Tourism Ethics (http://www.worldtourism.org/code_ethics/eng.html).
5 WTO prepared a set of Recommendations to Governments for Supporting and/or Establishing
National Certiﬁcation Systems for Sustainable Tourism. The document emphasizes the role ofgovernments in establishing and coordinating multi-stakeholder processes for certiﬁcation
systems, gives orientations for developing certiﬁcation criteria, and for operational aspects.
(http://www.world-tourism.org/sustainable/doc/certiﬁcation-gov-recomm.pdf ).
6 Voluntary Initiatives for Sustainable Tourism: Worldwide Inventory and Comparative Analysisof 104 Eco-labels, Awards and Self-Commitments (WTO, 2002).
7 For an overview of instruments and channels for marketing of sustainable tourism, see
UNEP/Regione Toscana report on Marketing of Sustainable Tourism Products (2005).

124

Conclusions:
The way forward

This Guide has presented and examined the wide range of issues
and signiﬁcant challenges involved in making tourism moresustainable. The most eﬀective structures and strategic approaches
to policy making and the relevant implementation instruments
have been discussed and illustrated.

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Conclusions

How can governments respond?
Based on the evidence and recommendations presented here, governments should
consider whether they are paying suﬃcient attention to tourism within the ﬁeld ofsustainable development, and whether their tourism policies and actions adequately
embrace concerns about sustainability.
Participatory structures through which governments could work with otherstakeholders to plan, develop and manage tourism in a sustainable manner should
also be established. Tourism policies should be developed and implemented within ajointly agreed strategy that has the principles and aims of sustainability at its centre.
This Guide aims to support and guide these processes.
It is appreciated that many countries will already have tourism strategies andpolicies. Where this is the case, strengthening the integration of sustainability
into them should be part of the process of their revision and review. Gaps anddeﬁciencies should be identiﬁed and addressed. Other countries that are developing
tourism policies for the ﬁrst time are encouraged to pursue the aims and approaches
identiﬁed here from the outset.
One key to more sustainable tourism is to work in eﬀective partnerships within
local destinations. It is at this local level that much of the necessary planning,
networking, capacity building and information delivery occur, and where tourism
needs to be eﬀectively integrated into local sustainable development. It is therefore
important that the material in this Guide is disseminated to local authorities
and that they use it to review, develop and implement their own tourism policies
together with local stakeholders. National governments are well positioned to fosterand facilitate this process.
At all levels of government, long term political support, technical competence
and a suﬃcient allocation of resources will be required to ensure that policies areeﬀectively implemented.

How can other stakeholders respond?
A growing interest in sustainability issues within the market and the private sectorof tourism has been identiﬁed. This should underline the importance and value togovernments of responding to sustainability issues.
Although this Guide is not directed at the private sector, tourism enterprises shouldtake note of its contents. They should seek to improve their own performance andactions in line with the aims and principles articulated here and work together tostrengthen their collective response. Private sector enterprises are also best placed toinﬂuence the awareness and actions of visitors. Moreover, they have a very importantrole to play in putting pressure on governments to take appropriate action and to126

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Conclusions

work with them on this. Tourism will not become more sustainable without theiractive commitment and response to the policies and instruments outlined here.
The messages contained in the Guide are also relevant to other types of organizationand institution, including the many kinds of government agencies, quasigovernmental bodies, and NGOs working in the ﬁelds of sustainable development,
environment and tourism. Such organizations are particularly important in building
bridges between government, the private sector and local communities. As wellas participating in policy formulation, they have a very valuable role to play in thedevelopment and execution of many of the instruments identiﬁed here, such as
certiﬁcation and capacity building.
Individual countries should not work in isolation on making tourism moresustainable. Many sustainability issues have trans-boundary, regional and global
implications. Inter-regional bodies should take note of the Guide and facilitate
joint approaches between governments as appropriate. The document also has many
implications for multinational and bilateral development assistance agencies and theway they support tourism policies and projects.

A continual communication process
A sustainable approach to tourism development and management is all aboutplanning for the long term, working together, checking on outcomes and adapting tochange. Eﬀective communication is fundamental to this. Policies and instruments
will not work unless they are put across in the right way.
Governments should make sure that all relevant stakeholders know what is expectedof them. The sustainable tourism strategy and policies should be clearly disseminated.
Many of the instruments outlined in this document require eﬀective communication
but others can facilitate it, such as regular government reporting on their own actions
and the issuing of simple guidelines based on the agreed policies. A commitment
to regular monitoring and review, and to communicating results between all
stakeholders, should become widespread.
A move towards more sustainable tourism should be widely trumpeted andcelebrated, amongst tourists, host communities and the participants in the industry.
Yet in doing this, the commitment to change and improvement must be genuine andbased on well-established policies and actions that can be delivered.

127

Conclusions

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

128

Case Studies

1. Australia: Strategies leading to practical tools
2. Bulgaria: National Ecotourism Strategy and Action Plan
3. Costa Rica: Commitment supported by certiﬁcation
4. Egypt: Red Sea Sustainable Tourism Initiative
5. Ghana: Community based tourism initiative
6. Mexico: Agenda 21 for tourism in Mexico
7. Kaikoura (New Zealand): Sustainability of a small community
8. South Africa: Tourism White Paper and subsequent initiatives
9. Calvià (Spain): Local Agenda 21 and resort rejuvenation
10. Scotland (UK): Tourism and Environment Forum andGreen Tourism Business Scheme

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Australia:
Australia

Strategies leading to practical tools
Pioneering work on the development of ecotourism and sustainability,with a focus on quality, based on the development of strategies and apractical mechanism to link tourism and conservation
Tourism is big business in Australia, employing around 7 per cent of the workforce.
As a long haul destination, it cannot rely on strategies of price or convenience to growits markets, but rather on oﬀering quality authentic and enriching experiences—currently referred to as ‘Platinum Plus’. The country’s natural and cultural heritage
resources are a key part of that experience.
This case study describes some of the policies and instruments that have beenused over time to develop tourism based on these resources and to underpin its
sustainability. It looks initially at the pioneering ecotourism strategy at a federal leveland some of the actions that stemmed from this, and then takes Queensland as an
example of the practical development of policies and actions within one state.
Initial approaches in planning for ecotourism and sustainability
Australia’s National Tourism Strategy, in 1992, highlighted the need for sustainable
tourism development and a more balanced approach to economic, social andenvironmental issues. At that time, the government believed that an overall policy
framework for the development of ecotourism would contribute signiﬁcantly toachieving sustainable tourism in natural areas. The National Ecotourism Strategy that
followed (1994) provides one of the earliest and most successful examples of plannedand supported development of ecotourism, which has been replicated elsewhere.
The strategy was produced after a year-long consultative process that raised awarenessof many of the issues of sustainability. The ﬁrst stage was the development of an
Issues Paper, which was used to stimulate discussion at a series of well publicizedworkshops held around the country. A call for public submissions was also madethrough advertisements in major newspapers. The workshop outcomes and 149
written submissions helped form the draft Ecotourism Strategy, which was circulated
to all participants in the process. A further 103 follow up responses were used
to reﬁne the document in conjunction with further consultation with relevant
government agencies at both the state and federal level.
The strategy advocated and supported the promotion of commercially viable andsustainable ecotourism, through the use of integrated regional planning and natural
resource management tools. Emphasis was placed on sustainable infrastructure,eﬀective monitoring and relevant education. There was a strong call for more ethicaland responsible marketing, rigorous professional standards, and the involvement ofindigenous Australians in all aspects of development and delivery.
A key to its success was the allocation of signiﬁcant, dedicated funding (AUS$10
million), largely made available through competitive grants, thereby ensuring action.

130

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

The grants were primarily focused on:Australia• Infrastructure development (innovative design and technologies plus site
hardening through signage, boardwalks and wildlife viewing platforms).
• Baseline studies, monitoring and regional ecotourism planning.
• Four central research and education themes—energy and waste minimization,
ecotourism education, business development and market research.
Notable tangible outputs from this funding included: an ecotourism certiﬁcation
programme (described below); research publications into ecotourism proﬁles; adirectory of Australian ecotourism educational opportunities; visitor awareness videos
for inbound ﬂights; a community ecotourism planning guide; several publications
on private sector waste and energy management practices; and integrated regional
planning and business development conferences and workshops.
The strategy together with these grants strengthened established collaborative
networks and a sophisticated ecotourism industry that continues to position Australia
as one of the world’s leading ecotourism providers. With the vast majority of parks
under the jurisdiction of state governments, the national strategy actively encouraged
states to develop their own speciﬁc plans and policies (see Queensland example below).
The Australian Government’s AUS$235 million Tourism White Paper, launched
in December 2003, reconﬁrms the importance of sustainable development to
the ongoing prosperity of the tourism industry, but places it more in the context
of broader regional and rural development processes and support. In terms ofsustainability, a focus is placed on: strengthening quality and capability throughnational accreditation and consolidation of tourism certiﬁcation programmes;
developing niche markets and products; supporting tourism development within
indigenous communities; and building partnerships between tourism enterprises andprotected areas. The White Paper was based on extensive consultation, with creative
use made of the Internet and emails to elicit response.
Evolving approaches to certiﬁcation
Following the National Ecotourism Strategy, seed funding was provided for acertiﬁcation programme for enterprises (the NEAP or National Ecotourism

Tourism operations on the Great
Barrier Reef require carefulmanagement
Photo: Tourism Queensland

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Australia

Accreditation Programme), a system that has been led and developed by theindustry. Rather than covering all types of tourism, it is limited to ecotourism,
as it was felt that there was a particular need to ensure that tourism in fragile
natural or cultural environments was deﬁnitely sustainable, and that the ecotourism
could be an exemplar of sustainability that could act as a mentor to the rest of
the tourism industry. The criteria include elements essential to sustainability
such as: environmental impact, contributions to conservation, working with local
communities, cultural sensitivity and returns to local communities.
Some important points about NEAP (now called the EcoCertiﬁcation Programme),
which is administered by Ecotourism Australia, include:• Awards, given to individual products, such as tour programmes or accommodation
units, rather than enterprises. In 2004, the programme included 414 certiﬁed
products belonging to 179 operators.
• Anecdotal evidence but no proven research that participants have strengthened
their environmental and social management because of the programme.
• The application document gives practical recommendations, contacts and detailsof courses. The process of assessment has often involved assessors or NEAP
Panel members providing informal training and advice.
• As there was unwillingness by enterprises to pay for a ﬂedgling programme, costs
had to be kept low, so it was based largely on self-checks with limited on-site
auditing. As the program has grown and become more successful, it is demandinga higher degree of rigour through introducing more regular on-site auditing.
• The programme is broadly self-suﬃcient in terms of day-to-day running, but
has relied heavily on external funding and support for marketing, promoting
to enterprises, and the auditing and judging processes, especially from state
governments (notably Queensland).
• Take up of the programme has been considerably strengthened by certiﬁcation
becoming a condition for enterprises to attain, or be favoured for, other beneﬁts,
notably preferential access or extended tenure for operating in protected areas(imposed by Western Australia for example).
As result of the White Paper’s emphasis on the delivery of quality experiences,
Australia has been giving considerable weight to voluntary certiﬁcation programmes
throughout the tourism industry as a way of strengthening quality. There is a focus
not just on provision of facilities against standards, but on business ﬁtness andeconomic sustainability, such as evidence of legal compliance, basic business planning,marketing plans, human resource management, good operational management
systems and risk management strategies.
The EcoCertiﬁcation Programme has been modiﬁed to take account of these wider
criteria. Other environmental certiﬁcation programmes, such as the Green Globe
21, are also active in Australia. Green Globe 21 has led initiatives to coordinate
environmental standards with the quality ‘star’ programmes through collaboration
with the Australian Automobile Association. The majority of mainstream and sectorspeciﬁc tourism certiﬁcation programmes now include basic environmental andsustainability criteria.

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Inﬂuencing tourism in protected areas and indigenous communities
Australia

With much of the tourism industry dependent on Australia’s unique natural andcultural heritage, much of the concern about sustainable tourism in federal policy
documents has focused on the relationship between tourism interests and protectedarea and heritage management.
The Australian Government report, Pursuing Common Goals: Opportunities for Tourism
and Conservation, released in July 2003, examines the relationship between tourism
and protected area management and concludes that there is substantial potential todevelop ventures that will grow tourism while improving environmental protection.
Many Indigenous communities are located within national parks and world heritage
areas or on lands still in a natural state and with high scenic attraction. Accordingly,
park management processes and environmental regulations are likely to have adisproportionately higher impact on Indigenous tourism.
The Pursuing Common Goals report identiﬁed—through case studies and discussions
with stakeholders—that there is a lack of small business skills in indigenous
communities, as well as limited product development and poor linkages to existing
tourism systems. The report indicated that Indigenous Tourism products andbusinesses are underdeveloped and that even where indigenous culture is a prime
reason for the existence of a protected area and where tourism appears to be
developed, more indigenous experience could be added.
The Business Ready Programme for Indigenous Tourism is a Tourism White Paper
initiative, designed to assist existing and start-up Indigenous Tourism businesses todevelop the business skills and knowledge speciﬁcally required to establish and run acommercially viable tourism operation.
The Tourism and Conservation Initiative is also a
key element of the Tourism White Paper, aimed at
facilitating the development of nature-based tourism
attractions while increasing Australia’s capacity toprotect and conserve the environment. The Tourism andConservation Initiative aims to encourage an integrated
approach to planning tourism and conservation
developments and increase the range and scope ofinnovative tourism centres that will signiﬁcantly improve
protection and presentation of eco-systems.
Funding of AUS$4.6 million will be available over three
years to:• Support Tourism and Conservation Partnerships that
stimulate regionally signiﬁcant nature-based tourism
and conservation.
• Conduct research aimed at product development andeconomic evaluation of park tourism.
• Improve park systems and regulations to engender partnerships between
protected area managers and tourism operators.
• Develop a tourism and conservation agenda.

Skyrail - an EcoCertiﬁed
attraction
Photo: Tourism Queensland

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Queensland’s approach to practical delivery
Australia

Queensland is a state that has been particularly active in the development andmanagement of ecotourism, and extending this to concern for the sustainability of
tourism as a whole. The Queensland government has introduced practical initiatives
that underpin sustainability, some of which are presented below.
Eﬀective political and technical structures. The Growing
Tourism Strategy has been developed by the State
government to provide a ‘whole of government approach’
to strategic tourism planning, policy and development.
The strategy involves key government bodies in its
implementation, with coordination facilitated by an acrossagency Chief Executive Oﬃcer’s Committee, and identiﬁed
tourism contacts in each agency. Industry is involved
through a Tourism Industry Consultative Forum. At atechnical level, within Tourism Queensland a dedicated unit
was established to cover tourism sustainability.
The Queensland Ecotourism Plan. This state level plan,following on from the National Ecotourism Strategy, isseen as a living plan with frequent updates and has been
supported by many practical implementation measures,
including training workshops and the distribution of a rangeof self-help manuals.

Integrated management planningat the local level

Support for sustainability certiﬁcation. The EcoCertiﬁcation
Programme has been strongly supported by Tourism
Queensland over the years. This has been through small
grants towards the running of the programme, on-site
auditing, etc., and also through adding value to participating
enterprises by linking them in to major marketing beneﬁts and to the protected area
concessions process.
The Tourism in Protected Areas Initiative. Reﬂecting the issues raised federally,a new participatory relationship has been forged between the Queensland Parks
and Wildlife Service and the tourism industry. The initiative has fostered thedevelopment of a new and more eﬀective, eﬃcient and equitable system of managing
sustainable tourism in Queensland’s protected areas. Key elements of the new
system, which also provides for greater input from traditional owners, include:
collaborative site planning, long term agreements, a market based fee structure and arange of other performance based measures including accreditation.
Local destination planning. Recognizing that eﬀective tourism development
and management occurs at the local destination level, Tourism Queensland has
established a framework and support for integrated destination management. In
each of the twelve tourism regions across the State, Destination Management
Plans have been developed which provide a framework for enhancing industry
coordination, strengthening partnerships, coordinating stakeholder interests, andproviding industry leadership.

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Bulgaria:
National Ecotourism Strategy and Action Plan
Bulgaria

Inﬂuencing national and local thinking on the sustainability of
tourism by thorough consultation on a far reaching plan, withassociated instruments
Bulgaria is a small country with a considerable natural and cultural heritage. The
importance of ecotourism planning was recognized as a result of the developmentof a National Biological Diversity Conservation Strategy and increasing politicalsupport for protected areas and a national ecological network. There was a clear needto create opportunities for economic growth and higher living standards for local
communities around protected areas in ways that would also strengthen local support
for conservation, and contribute to sustainable development in rural areas in general.
Ecotourism has been deﬁned in Bulgaria as tourism that is based on nature, rurallife and associated cultural sites and events. It includes an interpretative experience,
beneﬁts conservation and local communities (particularly the rural population), and isbased primarily on locally owned, small-scale enterprises.
The 1990s saw numerous attempts to develop ecotourism in local communities acrossBulgaria. Most of these initiatives, however, lacked clearly deﬁned relationships withthe local and protected area institutions; were not associated with any standards orregulation of tourist use or impact; were often pursued by people with insuﬃcientknowledge skills and resources; and were unproﬁtable as a result of lack of
coordinated marketing eﬀort.
International, national and local partners working together
The development process was initiated by three ministries—Environment andWater; Economy (which includes tourism); and Agriculture and Forests. They
formalized their joint support for ecotourism by signinga Cooperation Protocol underpinning their commitment
to the implementation of the strategy. The process was
supported by four international development assistanceagencies—USAID, UNDP, the World Bank and the Swiss
Government agency.
Working at both local and national levels was crucial to theprocess, with each level informing the other. This included:• Local pilot initiatives in the Rila and Central Balkans
national parks, based on participative planning
exercises that led to the formation of two ecotourism
partnerships/associations, including the parks, local
authorities and local enterprises. This formed a modeland also created a groundswell of interest, which spurred
the national approach.

Discussing the Regional
Ecotourism Action Plan for theCentral Balkans

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Bulgaria• Establishment of a National Ecotourism Working Group that included the above
three ministries, national, regional and local tourism associations, conservation
NGOs and the Foundation for Local Government Reform (FLGR).
• Holding of a sizeable National Ecotourism Forum which included input from a
range of international bodies and experts.
• Setting up of six thematic working groups at national level covering information
technology, product development and marketing, funding and ﬁnancial mechanisms,
enterprise development, institutional development, and regional development.
• Dividing the country into 12 ecotourism-destination regions based on landscapetypes and clusters of protected areas and cultural sites, and then working at a local
level with a range of partners to establish regional associations and prepare 12
regional ecotourism action programmes.
The whole process, which took two years, was characterized byextensive stakeholder participation and consultation, and national andlocal interaction. Two consultation drafts of the national strategy were
produced before it was ﬁnalized. The national strategy provided a basis
for the regional action programmes and the regional associations, inturn, provided signiﬁcant input to the creation of the resulting national
ecotourism action plan. In total, over 400 individual and groupmeetings were held and 800 diﬀerent institutions and organizations
were involved, including 140 municipalities.
Some important elements of the approach included:• Comprehensive research into the domestic market for ecotourism,
including quantitative surveys to measure the percentage of the
population with a potential interest in ecotourism, detailed focus
groups to ﬁnd out more about motivations and expectations, andinterviews with tour operators.
• Considerable eﬀort to stimulate local interest and support,
including posters and widespread dissemination of the summary of
the strategic framework and a ‘questions and answers’ brochure.
• Seeking extensive media coverage through 18 regional and 4
national press conferences which generated 120 features in thepress and broadcasting media.
Key elements of the strategy and action plan

Colourful posters and press
coverage encouraged public
participation and interest

The National Ecotourism Strategy spans a 10 year period, with the
Action Plan developed to cover the ﬁrst 5 years. Both the strategy andaction plan are very comprehensive and will therefore be challenging
to implement. If successful, however, they will make a signiﬁcant diﬀerence totourism in Bulgaria and to conservation and sustainable rural development.
The following aspects of the strategy and action plan stand out:
• Institutional development. This includes strengthening of the National
Ecotourism Working Group as a multi-stakeholder body responsible for136

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Bulgaria

overseeing the implementation of the plan and its annual review and update,as well as development of a Federation of Regional Tourism Associations
ensuring that local issues are reﬂected in national policy, providing support andassisting coordination.
• Clustering and networking. The strategy puts a lot of emphasis on gaining
strength and impact through networking between enterprises and mutual
support between tourism and other sectors at a local level—introducing a
concept of competitive clusters.
• Ecotourism business development and marketing. There is considerable
emphasis on providing business support through structured advice and training,ﬁnancial assistance packages, well targeted promotion, quality assurance
schemes and branding. The action plan contains some speciﬁc productdevelopment programmes such as a network of eco-lodges.
• Information management. This includes the development of product databases,
regular visitor surveys, and identifying and disseminating best practices.

Mountain landscapes in southwest Bulgaria

Developing instruments to support implementation
A number of instruments to support sustainability were developed in parallel withthe preparation of the strategy and action plan. These included:• A guidance manual for ecotourism product development.
• The awarding of prizes for best practice, which also helped to generate interest
and publicity.
• A system of indicators to measure the success and impact of ecotourism products,
tested in two destinations.
The process also stimulated two important changes to legislation to enable more
revenue to be raised from enterprises and visitors to support the environment.
The ability to award contracts to small tourism operations in protected areas wasestablished, so that income can be obtained from the contract and management

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conditions can be enforced. Secondly, the law relating to local government waschanged so that revenue from tourism taxes remains in the municipality and has tobe used for tourism related infrastructure.
The strategy and action programme provides a vital framework for securing further
funding from the European Union and other sources, as well as a dedicated budget
from government. In addition, some speciﬁc funding mechanisms for ecotourism
enterprise development and associated projects include a Trust Fund (the National
Trust Eco Fund and associated Protected Areas Fund), which attracts external donormoney, and the Ministry of Environment’s National Environmental Enterprise
Fund. The latter acquires resources from environmental taxes on fuel, pollution, etc.
A component (€1 million per year) is speciﬁcally earmarked for ecotourism andprotected area management.
Other instruments which are to be developed under the National Ecotourism Action
Plan include:• Capacity building structures at a local level, in the form of business growth centres.
• The establishment of guidelines on limits of acceptable change and acceptable usefor protected areas and cultural monuments.
• A process of synchronization of relevant legislation to reﬂect the strategy.
Mainstreaming the approach
Although this is a strategy and action plan for ecotourism, it is widely accepted that
tourism in Bulgaria needs to become more sustainable generally. When launching
the ecotourism strategy, the Prime Minister said that it pointed the way towards asustainable tourism strategy for Bulgaria.
Ecotourism in Bulgaria is not seen as something entirely separate from mass tourism
and of no interest to larger operators—rather, it is seen as a way of diversifying the
tourism product and providing a basis for transforming the image of Bulgarian
tourism. Concepts and approaches developed within the ecotourism sector can beused to address tourism more broadly.
Steps that have been taken to strengthen the impact of the ecotourism strategy on
tourism and sustainable development generally, include:• Placing the National Ecotourism Working Group within the National Tourism
Council.
• Making it conditional on municipalities that they take the ecotourism strategy
into account in preparing regional and local plans. This is particularly importantfor funding, as decisions on the spending of future EU money will depend onpriorities in these local plans.
• Integrating ecotourism into the work of Regional Tourism Associations.
• Involving the inﬂuential and respected Foundation for Local Government
Reform at key stages in the formulation of the strategy and action plan.
• Seeking to pave the way for ecotourism and sustainable tourism in the wider
Balkans region, including close involvement with the Regional Environment Centre.

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Costa Rica:
Costa Rica

Commitment supported by certiﬁcation
A country with a longstanding emphasis on ecotourism andsustainability in its approach to tourism markets and products,
supported by one of the best established certiﬁcation programmes
and other government led activities
Costa Rica covers just 51 thousand square kilometres but is one of the most richly
biodiverse countries in the world. It receives more than one million international
tourists per year. The Costa Rica Tourist Board describes the country’s strengths as:
impressive scenic beauty, a consolidated system of protected areas, social and politicalstability, high educational levels and an eﬃcient infrastructure and services.
Costa Rica has taken the decision, as a society, to support sustainable development,
especially in tourism. General policies articulated in the national tourism
development plan (2002–2012) start with the statement that: ‘The concept ofsustainability will be the fundamental axis of tourism activity and will be considered as
the main factor characterizing the national tourism product.’ Moreover, the country is
promoted under a slogan which resonates with green sentiment - ‘Costa Rica – No
Artiﬁcial Ingredient’.
Ecotourism and market awareness lead to a commitment to sustainability
Costa Rica’s commitment to sustainable tourism started in the realm of ecotourism.
This followed a common pattern—innovation by private individuals followed bystrong government support once the beneﬁts for the country become clear.

Red macaws - wildlife is a primary
attraction of Costa Rica

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Costa Rica

The ﬁrst ecotourism businesses and private nature reserves were established bybiologists and conservationists who had studied Costa Rica’s diverse ﬂora and fauna.
These businesses were governed from their inception by a strong conservationand social ethic, and they became the models upon which the rest of Costa Rica’s
ecotourism industry was built. Because of the success of the founders, late-coming
businesses often followed the environmental and social lead of the original models.
Another factor that stimulated this approach was the recognition of market
opportunity. The tourist board and the traditional business leaders of the tourist
industry came to realize the importance of the environment in determining Costa
Rica’s market position. The country’s visitors generally engage in a varied seriesof experiences that include ecotourism, combined with a visit to a volcano andwith conventional beach and city activities. Because the primary motivator for
visiting Costa Rica is its reputation as a natural destination, large conventional
hotels and tour operators now often implement sound environmental and social
practices. Ecotourism and the sustainability of wider forms of tourism have becomecomplementary. It has been good business for the country.
As a younger generation of business leaders developed policy, sustainability criteria
became mainstream concepts, in government and industry. Even now, however,promoters of conventional mass tourism exert political inﬂuence, although they too
have adopted sustainability criteria in their project portfolios.
Tourism strategy and planning
Costa Rica’s tourism master plan for 2002–2012 is entirely based on using theprinciples of sustainable development for the sound expansion of the country’s tourist
industry. In this plan, preservation, conservation, ecotourism, and conventional yet
sustainable tourism to beaches and cities maintain their existing complementarity.
Subsidiary zoning and regulatory plans for several of the larger tourist zones of thecountry have now been developed down to a 1:20 000 scale, based on sound use (orpreservation in other cases) of natural resources for tourism and other activities. These
plans are now being integrated into ecotourism management plans for protectedareas, and an eﬀort is being made to encourage local governments to convert theplans into binding zoning regulations for private land.
It is too soon to tell whether the sustainable tourism master plan for the country
will be fully implemented and enforced. There is a large gap between stated policy
and legally binding regulations. In part, this is because Costa Rica’s constitution andlegislation give wide latitude and freedom to do business in any legitimate form.
There is also recognition that it is easy to legislate, but diﬃcult and often impracticalto enforce regulations. Finally, there is reluctance, on the part of local governments,
to establish legally binding zoning regulations—perhaps because of the high cost of
establishing zoning over a large area for the ﬁrst time, perhaps because of political
opposition to establishing limits on permissible construction. Although it isgovernment policy to promote sustainable tourism and ecotourism, there is in fact
little government support for sustainable businesses versus conventional ones, because
it is in most cases illegal for the government to oﬀer preferential treatment.

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Costa Rica

Two important tools through which the government can exert inﬂuence on businessare described below. These may combine with consumer demand for environmental
good behaviour to make it easier for businesses to comply with government policy.

Finca Rosa Blanca, a top rated
country hotel under the CST
certiﬁcation

Certiﬁcation for Sustainable Tourism (CST)
One of the few legally permissible instruments for discriminating between
sustainable and conventional businesses is certiﬁcation through the governmentsponsored CST programme.
CST was developed by the Costa Rican Tourist Board in response to the perception,in the early 1990s, that it was becoming increasingly necessary to distinguish tourist
businesses that were truly conserving natural resources and protecting their culturalmilieu from those that claimed to do so, but were actually damaging both theenvironment and the social fabric of their communities. The businesses that claimed
to be ‘green’, but were not, were perceived to be a direct threat to Costa Rica’s enviable
market position as one of the world leaders in ecotourism and environmentallysensitive conventional tourism. The certiﬁcation programme was developed by the
Tourist Board, rather than private industry or environmental organizations, because
the government was among the ﬁrst to sense the danger of an erosion of Costa Rica’s
market position and because of enlightened leadership and advanced technical skills
amongst its staﬀ.
The CST programme was designed to reward businesses that are both socially andenvironmentally responsible, while maintaining a high level of consumer satisfaction.
The certiﬁcation instrument consists of 153 questions covering four basic areas:
biological and physical surroundings, physical plant, external client, and socio-

The Certiﬁcation for Sustainable
Tourism emblem

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Costa Rica

economic context. The questions are designed to be self-evident in intent, so that thebusiness owner can do an initial self-evaluation and then improve the characteristicsof the business, without the need for outside consultants. The certiﬁcation standard
emphasizes easily measured performance criteria, rather than environmental
management systems, although there are a few process-based requirements.
This structure allows a business to bring itself into basic compliance rapidly andinexpensively, and auditing is straightforward and also rapid.
Certiﬁcation is awarded by an independent commission to those businesses thathave been shown, upon external audit, to comply with certain minimum mandatory
criteria, as well as achieving a minimum score of 20 per cent in each of the four basic
areas. Further compliance allows the business to achieve up to ﬁve levels of CST,
indicated by leaves (parallel in concept with one to ﬁve stars for quality). However thebusiness is rated by the lowest score in each of the four areas, a strong motivation foradded attention to the weakest areas. To reach the ﬁfth level of CST (ﬁve leaves), a
business must score at least 95 per cent in all four areas. Only two businesses in Costa
Rica have accomplished this (out of 49 certiﬁed by mid 2004).
The development and continued operation of CST have depended on collaboration
between the Tourist Board, the principal business school, the National Institutefor Biodiversity, the National Chamber of Tourism, academic institutions, andenvironmental organizations.
CST has had a salutary eﬀect on Costa Rica’s tourist industry, as it establishes a set of
credible, objective criteria for sustainability. Those businesses that have been certiﬁed
and have made an eﬀort to improve their rating, have become fervent promotersof sustainable practices. Because the certiﬁcation instrument eﬀectively promotes
exemplary environmental and social practices, certiﬁed businesses have tended to
improve their performance in these areas in a noticeable way.
The scheme has been led by government. Strengths, partly as a consequence of this, include:••••

Government support enabling certiﬁcation to be free of charge to businesses.
High technical and ethical standards, making it one of the best in the world.
The establishment of an independent accreditation body with wide representation.
Oﬃcial recognition and use in marketing Costa Rica.

However, fewer businesses have been certiﬁed than might be expected. This may also
reﬂect on government involvement, with some bureaucratic inertia, inconsistency
following political changes, and weak promotion to businesses and tourists.
Work with protected areas and private reserves
Another legally permissible mechanism available to the government for supporting
sustainable tourism businesses is the payment for the environmental services oﬀered byprivate nature reserves. More than half of all private reserves in Costa Rica oﬀer someform of ecotourism, and these (along with those that do not) are entitled to receive
annual payments for protecting biodiversity, scenic beauty, and water production, as
well as reducing the emission of carbon dioxide that would result from deforestation.

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Ecotourism is also now seen by the government of
Costa Rica as a key tool for ﬁnancing protected areas
independently of the national budget. The most common types of protected areasin Costa Rica are national parks, which are wholly owned by the government. Only
non-essential services, such as parking, visitor centres, and souvenir shops can beoﬀered in concession to the private sector. These have been oﬀered by competitive
bidding to local conservation or community organizations, which often subcontract
the operation to successful businesses. In addition, the Interamerican Development
Bank has agreed, in principle, to pay for ecotourism infrastructure in the nationalparks and some other protected areas, as long as the income is reinvested into theoperation and protection of the park.

Costa Rica

The private reserves that are oﬃcially registered are also
entitled to protection from squatters and exemption fromland taxes. Although several studies have shown that the
primary motivating factor for the owners of private reserves
is the wish to conserve, not monetary considerations, theincome and incentives oﬀered by the government, together
with modest income from ecotourism, have allowed
the landowners to continue to conserve their land in anatural state, most often tropical rainforest. Without the
combination of incentives and tourist income, much of thisland might be deforested.

Furnishings at Lapa Rios ecolodge(CST certiﬁed) made from local
materials such as cane and bamboo

Certain categories of protected areas, such as wildlife refuges and forest reserves,usually have mixed public and private ownership. In these cases, it is legally permissible
to oﬀer aspects of the management of the protected area in concession to an
environmental or community organization, but this has been done in only one case.
This mechanism is considered too politically sensitive to implement on a wider scale,lest it create the impression that the government is ‘privatizing’ protected areas.

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Egypt:Egypt

Red Sea Sustainable Tourism Initiative
A comprehensive approach to coastal planning and management
involving zoning of areas and the introduction or strengthening ofa range of instruments to encourage developers and operators toembrace sustainability
Tourism is the largest source of foreign exchange earnings for Egypt, contributing
almost 12 per cent of GDP including indirect eﬀects, though many sources estimate
its share at around 15 per cent. It is one of the most dynamic sectors of the economy,
generating large numbers of jobs, with at least 8 per cent of all jobs connected totourism. Despite erratic tourism trends in the Middle East, due to the region’s
turbulent aﬀairs, incoming tourists increased in number by over 20 per cent in two
years, exceeding an all time record of 6 million visitors in 2004.

Eastern Desert towards SharmEl Loly, a natural deep waterbay within the ecotourism
development zone
Photo: PA Consulting Group

144

Antiquities provided the primary source of visitor attraction to Egypt until the early
1980s. Since then, there has been remarkable growth in tourism on the Red Sea
coast, based on the appeal of the abundant marine life in the coral reef systems. The
number of hotel rooms has grown from a few hundred in 1980 to almost 45 000
in 2005, attracting 2 million visitors. The Tourism Development Authority (TDA),
established under the Ministry of Tourism, in 1991, has initial plans for a four-foldincrease in the number of hotel rooms, to 164 000 on the coastal land over which it
has jurisdiction (the number of rooms country wide in 2017 will approach 350 000).

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Egypt

The TDA allocates large portions of land to private sector investors, who operate
under contract with the TDA and who are responsible for the establishment of
infrastructure, construction and operation of hotels, and the provision of community
utilities for staﬀ.
In the early years, the programme of tourism development was driven by growthtargets in terms of visitor numbers and accommodation capacity. However, the TDA
has now rethought its approach to embrace concerns for the environment of thedestination, its overall quality and long term future. This has been assisted by the Red
Sea Sustainable Tourism Initiative (RSSTI), which is based on a bi-lateral agreement
between the USA and Egypt. USAID has supported the programme throughtechnical assistance and the provision of cash transfers based on successful adoptionof policy measures.
Land Use Management Plan and Zoning Regulations
An important component of the initiative was the preparation of a detailed plan for
one of the coastal sectors. The TDA commissioned the South Marsa Alam Sector
Strategic Development Plan in June 2001. The strategy considered three development
alternatives: high growth (conventional/existing type) tourism development;sustainable tourism development; and low growth/ecotourism development. The
study’s proposed sustainable tourism alternative suggested around 15 000 rooms
for the area, or the equivalent of thirty-eight 400-room hotels along a 30-kilometre
coastline of which around 50 per cent consists of fringe reefs and protected areas.
The planning process for the Land Use Management Plan that followed was basedon the fact that diﬀerent resources have diﬀerent abilities to accommodate various
tourism activities. Identifying the key resources of the planning area, and those thatare most sensitive, was seen as an initial step in ensuring provision of appropriate
types and levels of tourist uses. The following steps for assessing the resource
sensitivity and identifying the land use zoning scheme were followed:
1. Collection of data on the existing conditions for each resource as a separate
Geographic Information System (GIS) layer.
2. Subdivision of the planning area into
homogenous natural sub-zone/habitats bycombining all natural resource layers.
3. Classiﬁcation of the sub-zones/habitats basedon ranges of weighted values. Sensitivity
to tourism use was graded (based on theprofessional judgement of experts) as: low,
medium, high, or very high.
4. Development of a land use zoning scheme
for the diﬀerent grades of natural sub-zones
according to their environmental sensitivity.
5. Development of conservation, managementand development regulations for the land use
management zones.

All shoreline vegetation isprotected
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A Sensitivity Map rates the most sensitive resources in terms of their resilience tothe impacts of use. This illustrates an important issue: in general, the resources thatthe visitors want to see are often those that cannot withstand the impacts of use. The
challenge for the zoning scheme was to accommodate use near or in the resources
while minimizing or eliminating impacts.
Each of the proposed management zones corresponded to the diﬀerent gradesof sensitivity within the natural sub-zones of the Southern Red Sea Region. The
following zoning scheme was proposed for the planning area: Core Zone (Absolute
Reserve Areas); Buﬀer Zone (Restricted Wilderness Areas); Transition Zone
(Ecotourism Zone); Low Intensity Development Zone (Coastal Eco-Resort Zone);and Moderate Intensity Development Zone. The Land Use Management plan listed
general regulations for the management of zones identiﬁed in the zoning scheme
to safeguard the area from urban expansion and ensure the best investment ofenvironmental and cultural resources and the preservation of ecological balance.
The result led to radical changes to the regulations applied previously by the TDA,
leading to serious modiﬁcations and cancellation of development plans in some zones.
For example, in the low intensity zone, the new regulations changed the stipulated
maximum density from 20 rooms per feddan (0.42ha) to 2 rooms per feddan andmaximum heights from three to two or one storeys. In the transition zone, the only
type of lodging facilities allowed will be the ecolodges and campsites with a maximumof 50 rooms on speciﬁed sites. The regulations also indicate limits on access.
The new regulations govern both development and conservation activities and wereapproved by a tripartite committee of the TDA, the Egyptian Environmental Aﬀairs
Agency (EEAA) and the Red Sea Governorate. For the ﬁrst time in Egypt, planning
regulations are based on sustainability criteria that combine long-term ecologicalviability, long-term economic viability, ethical use of resources, equity with local
communities, and compliance with EEAA guidelines and Environmental Law 4/1994.
Environmental impact assessment (EIA)
The EIA system in Egypt uses a listing approach to screen projects according to thepossible severity of environmental impact, dividing them into those with a mandatory
requirement for EIA, those where further screening is needed, and those notrequiring EIA.
Responsibility for EIAs for tourism projects is divided between the TDA and EEAA,
with evaluation by both. The RSSTI identiﬁed many weaknesses in the process,including:• A lack of guidelines for tourism projects (emphasis had previously been on morepolluting industries).
• Insuﬃcient coordination between the developer, TDA and EEAA, leading tohold ups in approval and many projects going ahead without it.
• Conﬂicting information between TDA and EEAA on EIA compliance.
• No systematic review to ensure that mitigation measures and compliance requiredby the EIA are followed.

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The RSSTI introduced improvements, including: a Memorandum of Understanding
between the TDA and EEAA; better guidance on initial screening; and establishingan EIA tracking system to verify compliance. At the outset only 20 per cent of
tourism projects were approved by EEAA prior to commencing construction.
Complete compliance with EIA regulations is expected by 2006−7 as a result of
implementation of these changes.
Environmental monitoring and management
The RSSTI has enhanced the TDA’s environmental monitoring capabilities,
including establishment of an Environmental Monitoring Unit within it. Protocols,
procedures and checklists have been established to facilitate monitoring. An
operations manual provides guidelines for monitoring of natural resources (suchas coral reefs) and tourism facilities (such as marinas). The baseline data collection
and recording process, using GIS, has been designed to enable assessment of the
cumulative impacts of TDA facilities over time.
The TDA will encourage developers and operators to implement bestpractices in environmental management, while monitoring progressin order to adjust TDA promotional policies. This process has been
assisted by studies, within the RSSTI, of best practices in the ﬁeldand by the production of best practice manuals for key issues such as
solid waste management, landscape architecture, planting, water andsanitation, energy eﬃciency, and environmental management for resorts.
These manuals highlight for developers and consultants the many
issues to be considered at each phase of development (planning, designand construction) and operation. A Red Sea Planting Encyclopaedia
interactive CD has been produced to allow professionals to select thetypes of plants to be used according to functional and environmental
criteria.
Environmental Management Systems (EMS) have been designed for
integrated resorts. The EMS programme includes stakeholder training
courses and certiﬁcation for hotel environmental oﬃcers.
A number of hotels and resorts have proceeded to recognition through the Green
Globe certiﬁcation programme.

Ababda woman from the Wadi El
Gimal Protected Area
Photo: PA Consulting Group

Economic instruments
Although regulations have been drawn up, the TDA’s policy in dealing with
developers is to encourage rather than discourage, provide incentives rather thanpenalize, and guide rather than command. To this end, a set of economic instruments
has been developed, including:••••

Use of environmental criteria in the competitive land award process.
Customs duty exemption and preferential ﬁnancing for clean technologies.
Promotion of environmental certiﬁcation and awards of excellence.
TDA criteria, standards and incentives for solid waste management.

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Ecotourism development

Egypt

There is considerable interest in ecotourism in Egypt, as a means of diversifying the
tourism oﬀer, attracting a growing market and satisfying conservation objectives.
Part of the southern coast, the Wadi El Gemal-Hamata area, was declared as aprotected area in 2003. It contains important ancient mining sites, dwindling
Bedouin populations and a host of rare and endangered plant and animal species. As
part of the RSSTI, careful research and mapping was undertaken of the cultural andnatural resources, and a study was produced of the ecotourism potential of the area.
Challenges include creating appropriately designed facilities and delivering a safe
recreational experience in harsh environmental conditions.
The advantages of good knowledge and communication
Three factors important for the success of the RSSTI are:
• The value of experience from elsewhere. The technical assistance and support
programme provided an impetus to consider alternative strategies and adopt a new,more sustainable approach. This was helped by a series of study tours to observe
good practice in other countries and international conferences held in Egypt.
• The need for harmonization between plans for tourism development andprotected areas. The bringing together of the TDA and EEAA on planning andother measures was vitally important.
• The value of objective information. The concept of sustainable tourism only becamea reality after extensive data collection, analysis and concrete recommendations
were made. This provided extensive insight into a largely unknown area and wasimportant in order to reach agreement on zoning regulations.

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Ghana:
Community based tourism initiative
Ghana

A project that has created new tourism products based onsustainability principles at the local community level, transforming
the country’s tourism offer and revealing challenges for government
support structures
Ghana has the good fortune of receiving increasing numbers of visitors in a troubled
West Africa region. Its attractions include numerous well maintained fortresses
along the coast, national parks, beaches and the well documented Ashanti culture.
Many visitors are Afro-Americans tracing ancestral links as well as individual
travellers looking for an interesting mixture of contemporary African life, history andnatural attractions. Critical to Ghana’s success are acceptable standards of safety andhygiene, eﬃcient access by air and relative political stability.
In 2002, the Community Based Ecotourism Project was set up, with funding from
USAID. The project is government led, through the Ghana Tourist Board (GTB)
which chairs the steering committee for the project. Implementing partners are the
Nature Conservation Research Centre (NCRC), SNV Netherlands Development
Organization and the US Peace Corps, together with local tourism management
teams at diﬀerent locations.
The product created and the role of partners
The main outcome of the project has been the creation of 14 community based
enterprises throughout the country. These include ﬁve sites where the attraction
is based on particular wildlife species, such as hippo, monkey or crocodile
sanctuaries; ﬁve sites based on village and cultural experiences; and four sites where
the attraction is a natural landscape feature. The product provided in each place
includes a mixture of access, interpretation, catering and accommodation.
Community Tourism Management Teams at the local level represent the communityand control resource utilization. They are supported by the partners, as follows:• The NCRC has been the recipient of the donor funds and has been the main
implementation agency.
• GTB assists with resource planning through its regional oﬃces, and is responsible
for the production of promotional materials and marketing. It has also conductedvisitor surveys and undertaken pricing reviews.
• The District Assemblies, in whose areas the developments take place, are involvedin providing permissions.
• Peace Corps Ghana has placed volunteers at the sites for periods of 12 to 24
months. They have assisted in introducing book keeping principles and standard
administration material as well as assisting the community with the production of
items such as souvenirs and T-shirts.
• SNV provides speciﬁc tourism capacity building support to all partners, including
planning and implementation, and placed full time advisors with the NCRC andthe GTB during the ﬁrst phase of the project.

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GhanaMAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

The Wechiau hippo sanctuary islinked to facilities provided by the
Lobi community

Action at each site has included the provision of an information centre, sanitation
facilities, refuse containers, safety equipment, marketing materials and basic training
in hospitality skills.
Sustainability objectives and effect on national tourism
This product was developed from the outset around sustainable development
objectives. Potential beneﬁts include:• Community engagement and control.
• Poverty alleviation, including distribution of beneﬁts within the community.
• Conservation of natural and cultural heritage resources, through the eﬀorts of thecommunity supported by visitor income.
• Regional and rural development. Until now, much of the country’s tourism focus
had been on the capital and coast.
• Product diversiﬁcation. A variety of diﬀerent experiences can be placed on tourist
itineraries.
Visitor numbers have exceeded initial expectations. Trends are upwards, with almosta doubling in revenue in 2003 over the ﬁrst year of operation. A number of local andinternational tour operators are featuring the sites in their itineraries.
The project has had a considerable impact on the national government’s outlook
on tourism. The Ministry of Tourism has used the experience of the project tomake a case in cabinet for the prioritization of ecotourism as a growth sector that150

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Ghana

contributes to poverty alleviation, and has linked this to Ghana’s National Strategy
for Poverty Reduction. Partly as a result of the project, the Ministry of Finance has
increased its commitment to tourism by increasing the budget for its development.
The government has also been able to secure World Bank HIPC funding for
tourism projects, now that they are seen as making a contribution to the ﬁght
against poverty.
Government capacity at different levels
The project has involved government in the practical issues of tourism development
and in the need to adapt policy and approach to incorporate sustainable tourism
objectives. However, it has also revealed a number of weaknesses and challenges thatneed to be addressed, which may also be relevant to other countries seeking moresustainable tourism.
The GTB, as the statutory agency for tourism development and with oﬃces andstaﬀ in all regions of Ghana, is hampered by a serious lack of resources and skills.
It also suﬀers from a lack of policy guidelines, meaning that most eﬀort is put into
administration rather than development and marketing. There is a tendency tosupport the development of attractions rather thanenterprise, so income generating opportunities may
be lost. The distinction between the activities of the
GTB and those of the Ministry of Tourism is also
insuﬃciently clear.
A clear commitment to tourism by other relevant
ministries is missing. A particular problem rests
with the Ministry of Land and Forestry, which is
responsible for protected areas. Use of parks fortourism is not a well formulated objective, yet is of
critical importance for the wellbeing of sustainable
tourism, partly because parks are among the few areas
where land tenure has been clariﬁed and guaranteed
by government. It is important that the conservationand sustainable tourism use of parks is defended in
the face of mining and forestry interests. It is possiblethat the proﬁle given to sustainable tourism throughthe project, and the interest generated in the Ministryof Finance, might strengthen the inﬂuence that can beexerted over other ministries in this matter.
At the level of District Assemblies (DA), there are problems with the use of locallyobtained income. The DAs can tax economic activities in their areas in order toimprove local services and infrastructure such as provision of water, electricity androads. Such services are in very poor condition in many of the project sites, and theirimprovement would be one way in which communities could beneﬁt from tourism
revenue. However, the DAs that are currently imposing a tax on the income fromthe community tourism initiatives are not delivering improvements to services. This
needs to be resolved.

Canoes at the Nzulezu stilt village

Illustration: Kathryn Buren

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Instruments used to support sustainable development

Ghana

The project has made good use of a number of tools in the development of the
product and in underpinning sustainability. These include:
Data collection and dissemination.
The regular collection of data on visitor numbers, spending, income, and employment
has been very important, not only in the management of the project and tracking
progress, but also in providing evidence to ministries. It was only through this datathat the government was persuaded of the value of rural tourism in Ghana.
Community consultation
Careful consultation was undertaken through the formal and also the traditional
structures of governance—elected district assemblies and traditional authorities.
Project assessment against feasibility and sustainability criteria
A systematic process of assessing proposals was undertaken. Interested communities
and individuals may ﬁrst contact the regional oﬃces of the GTB. At the outset,
basic criteria—to do with accessibility, general visitor appeal, ability to deliver local
beneﬁts, land tenure and linkages with other attractions—are checked. If these aremet, formal consultation with the community is conducted, to investigate the level ofcommunity consensus. If consensus is reached, more speciﬁc development processes
are followed, based on checking against more detailed development criteria, which
include sustainability issues such as: community ownership structures, process of
distributing beneﬁts, involvement of women and youth, environmental and social
carrying capacity, contribution to poverty alleviation and biodiversity conservation.
Funding, reﬂecting sustainability criteria
The level and nature of funding support to local projects is also assessed against
the criteria indicated above. This may be in the form of grants (applied to general
attractions and used partly to mitigate negative impacts such as for access control
measures and refuse disposal), or loans (applied to enterprise development that hascreated measurable and signiﬁcant beneﬁts for the community through a beneﬁt
distribution plan). Criteria have also been developed for the termination of support.
By-laws to control use
Most of the projects are related to natural or cultural heritage sites. Although misuseof the site is often prevented through tribal laws, it was felt necessary to establish
some oﬃcial by-laws to add further support to this. These have been aimed mainly
at controlling possible damaging activities by the communities and visitors, such as
hunting, extraction, vehicle access, etc. Agreement by the communities to these bylaws further underlines their support for the principles of sustainable tourism.

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Mexico:Agenda 21 for tourism in Mexico
MexicoA comprehensive initiative to make tourism more sustainable, basedon a framework established by central government departments
working together, and implemented through a partnership approachat local level using a range of instruments
This large scale initiative in Mexico is founded on principles stemming from the 1992
Earth Summit and its Agenda 21. It also takes account of international and regional
policies and declarations made since then such as the establishment of a Caribbean
Sustainable Tourism Zone, in 1999, the WTTC and WTO Agenda 21 for Travel
and Tourism, and the attention given to sustainable tourism at the World Summit on
Sustainable Development, in 2002.
It is also a response to fundamental challenges faced by the Mexican tourism industry
and to market trends. Tourism is a high priority for the Mexican government. The
National Tourism Programme 2001−6 clearly highlights that tourism should provide
one of the prime examples of balanced regional development. However, a diagnosisof the sector reveals that Mexican destinations face environmental and social
problems, such as disorderly urban growth close to major tourist centres, deteriorationof the environment and the loss of cultural identity. Although tourism contributes
strongly to GDP, it has not been suﬃciently well integrated to local economies tobring maximum beneﬁt to local communities.

The Agenda 21 programme
includes established resorts such as
Ixtapa-Zihuatanejo

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

MexicoMexico also recognizes that tourists are becoming more discerning, are using newtechnology to obtain more information to select their destinations, and will beaﬀected by changes in transportation, geopolitical and security considerations, andsocial and cultural changes.
All these factors point to the need for tourism planning and development that ismore sensitive to visitors needs and to economic, social and environmental impacts.
An integrated policy structure
Agenda 21 for Tourism in Mexico is a joint initiative of SECTUR (Ministry of
Tourism) and SEMARNAT (Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources).
It was launched in 2002, with support from the WTO. Essentially, it provides a toolfor improving tourism impact at the municipal (local destination) level, supported bystate authorities and based on a process developed, coordinated and championed atfederal level.

Preserving the historic character of
San Miguel de Allende

The initiative is ﬁrmly anchored in national
policy, stemming from the National
Development Plan 2001−6 which set an
overall vision for Mexico to 2025, andtwo policy programmes, the National
Programme for the Environment andNatural Resources, and the National
Tourism Programme. The latter document
identiﬁes the ‘maintenance of sustainable
tourism destinations’ as one of fourPrincipal Axes, under which two objectives
call for better, integrated planning at a
local level supported by the three levels ofgovernment.
The approach was based on extensive consultation, including focus groups anddiscussion panels with government bodies, private sector, academics and NGOs.
Meetings to discuss initial proposals were held with a range of tourism andenvironment agencies, and consultation was also undertaken via an internet site.
A seven-part framework
The most interesting aspect of the Mexican initiative is the comprehensive, sevenpart framework for action that has been established.
1. Implementing Local Agenda 21 within municipalities involved with tourism.
Deﬁning an integrated model for destination management focused onsustainability, but suﬃciently ﬂexible to take account of local conditions andopinions. Pilot projects were launched in ﬁve destinations. The approach has
since been extended to 25 principal destinations in Mexico, and will eventuallyextend to the entire country. The results are disseminated to relevant stakeholders,
communities and tourists.

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Mexico2. Developing a system of sustainable tourism indicators. The use of agreed
indicators is recognized as a very potent instrument for strengthening
sustainability. Indicators have been developed for diﬀerent types of destination,
tested in the pilot areas and then applied in all destinations.
3. Promoting better environmental practices in businesses and destinations.
Developing norms and a programme for water conservation for tourism service
providers, and establishing an overall sustainability certiﬁcation scheme andlabel for hotels, other tourism enterprises and eventually for destinations.
4. Developing incentives for sustainable tourism activities. Concentrating on
establishing ﬁnancial assistance schemes from a variety of sources, with anemphasis on setting up schemes speciﬁcally aimed at improvement of small andmedium sized enterprises and disseminating information about these sources.
5. Implementing a training and technology transfer programme. Developing
human resources to support sustainability of enterprises and destinations,through training based on needs assessment, careful design and delivery ofcourses, and benchmarking results. Successful cases are also disseminated anduniversity teaching and research on tourism sustainability updated.
6. Utilizing environmental legislation as a basis for integrated development.
Including participation in programmes for the management and protection ofcoastal zones and studying, applying anddeveloping environmental legislation and its
application in the land use planning process
in tourist destinations.
7. Establishing ecotourism in protectednatural areas. Working with local
communities to deﬁne a model andmethodology for development of
ecotourism in protected areas, identifying
areas where ecotourism will be successful,investing in appropriate infrastructuresuch as visitor centres and trails, training
businesses and guides, and marketing anddissemination.
Application of the framework

Oaxaca, a UNESCO World
Heritage Site and participant in
Agenda 21

By mid 2004, the Local Agenda 21 process had been established in 5 pilot areas
followed by 15 further destinations. These were selected to span seven types oflocation: Large integrally planned resorts (Cancun); Beach resorts (Acapulco);
Large cities (Tijuana); Medium sized towns (Merida); World Heritage Cities(Oaxaca); Magical towns (a national branding of culturally rich places, e.g.
Cuetzalan); and Nature areas ( Jalcomulco). The programme is also under way in 12
additional localities.

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MexicoA Local Agenda 21 Committee for each location is responsible for coordinating andmonitoring the programme. The tourism unit within the state government provides
leadership at the state level and links with other state authorities and with the federal
Tourism Secretariat. The latter is also part of the Committee, as technical advisor,and provides links with other federal bodies.
Each Committee has been developing proposals for action to achieve greater
sustainability, in conjunction with the local, state and federal stakeholders and taking
account of the diverse and unique circumstances of each place.
A Sustainable Tourism Indicator system has been established, and has been used
to make a preliminary diagnosis of the sustainability conditions and possible
improvement measures in each of the destinations. This has proved to be very
important in identifying and presenting the issues for each committee and inassisting decision making. These initial diagnoses are veriﬁed by local stakeholders.
The indicators cover:• Environmental impact: availability of fresh water; water consumption level;
treatment of water/sewage; energy consumption; air quality; generation of waste;
handling and recycling of waste; environmental education.
• Socio-economic impact: unemployment level; contribution to local economy;
contribution to local income tax; wellbeing and engagement of the local
population; demographic pressure; security; access.
• Tourism supply and demand: visitor satisfaction; visitor spending; occupancy andseasonality; oﬀer quality and price; certiﬁcation; attractiveness of destination;
bathing water quality.
• Urban development: planning and environmental legislation programmes; controlof urban growth; provision of infrastructure; state of housing; preservation ofimage (architectural and landscape).
An Environmental Quality certiﬁcation programme for tourism enterprises has been
established and certiﬁcates have been awarded, principally to hotels but also to otherenterprises such as marinas and attractions.
In the area of technical exchange, workshops on the application of Local Agenda
21 in tourist destinations have been held, in conjunction with the WTO, and on
international beach certiﬁcation, jointly with the World Bank. In addition, regularpresentations have been given within commercial, academic and municipal forums,
and to the stakeholders in Mexico’s principal tourism destinations.
Future challenges include: strengthening the operation of Local Agenda 21
committees; simplifying and rolling out the sustainable tourism indicator system;
expanding the number of companies in the environmental certiﬁcation programme;
and strengthening the involvement of federal organizations in the overall initiative.

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Kaikoura (New Zealand):
Kaikoura,
New ZealandSustainability of a small community
A small rural town in a ﬁne natural setting, receiving large volumes ofnature-based tourists that has taken a number of steps to reduce theimpact of tourism on the environment and on the whole community,
so genuinely qualifying for recognition as a sustainable tourism
destination and achieving certiﬁcation to back this up
Kaikoura lies on the east coast of New Zealand’s South Island. The municipality
covers 2 084 square kilometres. With only 12 employees, Kaikoura District Council
is the smallest local authority in mainland New Zealand.
Kaikoura is stunningly situated on a peninsular of land between high mountain
ranges and the Paciﬁc Ocean. An unusual feature is a deep see trench that comes towithin 500 metres of the shore and attracts a richness of marine life, including whales
and dolphins, which are easily seen by visitors.
In the 1980s, the town was in economic decline, with downsizing of the public andagricultural sectors bringing a serious loss of jobs. However, since that time tourism
has expanded dramatically, spurred by the launch of whale watching activities.
Tourism development was largely unplanned and unmanaged during the 1990s, led
by the market and with little knowledge of the impact on the environment and local
community. By 1998 it was estimated that the town was receiving 873 000 visitors(against a local population of just 3 483), with an annual growth rate of about 14
per cent.
Motivations behind a sustainable tourism approach
There were various reasons why the community of Kaikoura decided that it had to
devote more attention to creating the right environment for tourism to be sustainable.

The Kaikoura Peninsula
Photo: Peter Morath

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

These included:
Kaikoura,
New Zealand• The threat of a diminishing visitor experience and income. Visitor surveys showedthat the quality of the environment, including the natural setting as well as themarine life, was of fundamental importance to tourists. Moreover, visitors had animage of Kaikoura as an environmentally sound destination, but in fact this was
not matched by reality. There was therefore considerable concern that failing tomeet visitor expectations could ultimately lead to an economic downturn similar
to that previously seen in other sectors.
• Local concern for the environment. Surveys found that the quality of theenvironment was considered to be equally important by the town’s permanent
residents as by tourists.
• A local incident underlining tourism’s environmental sensitivity. In 2001 aroad accident caused a lorry to spill a load of poisonous chemicals into the sea.
Although the environmental damage turned out to be slight, Kaikoura received
urgent requests for reassurance from visitor markets around the world—thepotential for loss of trade was recognized.
• Reaching capacity in accommodating waste. The town’s landﬁll site was forecast
to be full by 2004, partly due to the rapid expansion in waste as a result of tourism
growth. Constructing a new site would place a considerable ﬁnancial burden on
local ratepayers. Rather than do this, the community decided to pursue active
waste minimization (see below). Working together on this provided a catalyst forcollaboration on wider environmental management.
Agreeing on a strategy
In order to guide the direction of tourism in Kaikoura, the District Council
worked together with representatives of the local community and Lincoln
University to produce the Kaikoura Tourism Strategy. This is being implemented
through a Tourism and Development Committee, which includes councillors,
tourism operators, community and Maori (indigenous) members, ﬁshing industry
representatives and the wider business community. Community involvement andbuy-in to the strategy was considered to be crucially important.
The tourism strategy focused on the need to address the seasonality of the tourism
oﬀer, the length of stay and the economic return to the community, by attracting
a more diverse market base and developing more local facilities and land based
ecotourism activities. Since the tourism strategy was produced, it has been alignedwith a more recent policy statement on environmental and social sustainability whichsets out speciﬁc commitments by the District Council on environmental management
and community support and engagement, and has tourism at its core.
Speciﬁc management initiatives
Over the last ﬁve years, the District Council, local businesses and the local
community have been working together on a number of environmental management
initiatives, which are also seen as bringing social and economic beneﬁt. Rather
than focusing speciﬁcally on tourism, these initiatives are aimed at improving theoverall environmental management of Kaikoura, but tourism stakeholders are seen as
primary participants and beneﬁciaries of this.

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Kaikoura,
New Zealand

Waste management
Waste management in Kaikoura demonstrates a sound partnership approach
between community activists, who pioneered some early initiatives, and theDistrict Council. Action is now carried out by Innovative Waste Kaikoura (IWK),a non-proﬁt joint venture company between the District Council (49 per centshareholding) and a community trust (51 per cent shareholding). This partnership
structure ensures community ownership and the ability to raise funds fromcharitable sources, together with the political commitment and ﬁnancial security
brought by local authority involvement.

Rubbish collection was stopped and replaced by arecycling service, which quickly led to a 30 per centdiversion of waste from landﬁll. This subsequentlyrose to over 65 per cent, assisted by a range ofmeasures including:• investment in a refuse press and compostingunit;• expanding recycling pick-up from businesses;• introducing a Waste Management Protocol forbusinesses, which outlines ways in which they
can reduce waste and save money, and is used asa requirement when granting consent for new
development;• opening a second hand shop and developing marketable products
from the waste stream.
The community is moving towards a zero waste target in 2015.
An example of promotional innovation in the waste recycling
campaign, linked to sustainable tourism objectives, is the Trash to
Fashion Show (clothing made out of recycled materials), which helps
to attract visitor interest in the low season.
Tree planting—CO2 offsetting
A study that calculated the amount of greenhouse gas emissions
generated by the community estimated that 2 million trees would
need to be planted to oﬀset the resulting CO2. This has been
adopted as a target in the Trees for Travellers project, which grows
native species of trees on the compost output from the waste
recycling programme. These trees are sold to tourists, who can track
their progress through the internet. The project also has a social aim,
employing young people who have been in trouble with the police intree propagation and planting work.
Energy efﬁciency initiatives
A small business energy project was started with the support of the District Council.
This was an advice and capacity building project, focusing on 10 local businesses
over the course of a year, examining energy use and developing and implementing

Waste management - recovery
shed (above) and the refuse press(below)

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Kaikoura,
New Zealandproposals for its reduction. The Council showed leadership by reducing its own
energy consumption as part of the ‘energy wise councils programme’.
Biodiversity, land and coastal management
Various projects have been initiated to strengthen biodiversity, including introducing
traditional Maori practices of management of marine life and preventing overﬁshing,
and working with private landowners on the management of waterways, wetlands
and other habitats. Areas of international, national and local importance tobiodiversity have been identiﬁed and landowners are encouraged and assisted in theirprotection through rate relief, private covenants and the establishment of reserves.
Conservation working holidays have been introduced, organized by the District
Council and IWK in conjunction with the British Trust for Conservation Volunteers,which have assisted the Trees for Travellers project and in the construction of trails
used by visitors.

Destination certiﬁcation
In 2001, the opportunity arose for Kaikoura to be adopted as one of the ﬁrst pilot
communities to work towards certiﬁcation as a sustainable destination under
the international Green Globe 21 scheme. It was felt that this would help toconsolidate the various separate initiatives already undertaken and underpin longterm commitment.

Dusky Dolphins - whale anddolphin watching are the primary
attraction
Photo: Dennis Buurman

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After signing up to the process, the next stage was comprehensive measurement andbenchmarking, covering 10 compulsory topics: presence of a sustainability policy;
extent of environmental accreditation of individual tourism enterprises; energy use;greenhouse gas emissions; potable water consumption; resource conservation; waste
production; air quality; water quality; and biodiversity. Community wellbeing was

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Kaikoura,
New Zealandalso included as an optional social topic, measured through a survey of local residents.
A ﬁnal local topic that was added, as it reﬂects a particular local threat, is the numberof road accidents resulting in chemical spills.
To achieve certiﬁcation, Kaikoura also had to demonstrate that it was meeting
a number of standards with respect to the management process, including: thecommitment of the lead authority; meeting all legal and regulatory requirements;
environmental and social planning; and stakeholder consultation and communication.
The community also had to submit to annual external inspection and veriﬁcation.
Kaikoura was ﬁnally certiﬁed as a Green Globe destination in 2004. Its experiencehighlights the hard work and diﬃculties faced in trying to obtain adequate data toachieve reliable measures of impact at a community level, taking into account bothresident and tourist impacts. However, the process has proved valuable in raising thelevel of awareness and commitment to sustainability management across the wholecommunity. It provides an ongoing framework for monitoring and managing impact.
It has also raised the proﬁle of Kaikoura externally in the tourism marketplace, as adestination that can now claim, with justiﬁcation, not only to oﬀer a supreme naturebased experience for visitors, but also to be taking care of the environment.
Relationship to national policy and action
Kaikoura demonstrates a bottom-up approach towards making tourism more sustainable,at the level of a small local community. It has relied on drive and commitment bothwithin the community and by the local authority, working in partnership.
At a national level, the New Zealand government has recognized the importance ofsuch local initiatives. It has often used Kaikoura as an example of good practice.
The approach ﬁts well with the New Zealand Tourism Strategy 2010, which has
as one of four key objectives ‘Securing and conserving a long term future’. The
vision speaks of seeking to conserve and sustain New Zealand’s environment andculture in the spirit of ‘kaikiakitanga’ (Maori word for guardianship). The country’s
marketing slogan ‘100% Pure’ makes an assertion that needs to be matched by soundenvironmental management.
The government is now providing tangible support for the approach of working onsustainability with groups of individual tourism businesses and communities at a local
level. The ministries of tourism and of the environment have jointly introduced a
new fund for six regions, which will implement a sustainable tourism project over athree year period. The regions will be asked to develop a sustainable tourism charter,with local businesses committing to the charter’s principles. A sustainable tourism
expert will be funded to work within each project to turn the charter into action.

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South Africa:
South Africa

Tourism White Paper and subsequent initiatives
A country that has taken proactive measures to transform tourism,
stemming from a forward looking policy document which has led
to a variety of initiatives and instruments to inﬂuence and support
enterprises and communities in pursuing sustainable tourism
In the past ten years South Africa has been one of the fastest growing tourism
destinations. In 2004 it received 6.5 million international arrivals.
Since 1994 and the advent of democracy, many areas of policy in South Africa haveembraced the concept of sustainable development. Moreover, a fundamental driverof policy has been the process of empowerment and transformation within South
African society, which is enshrined in the constitution, and stems from the African
National Congress’ Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP).
Tourism has been seen as playing a key role in implementing the RDP, and has become
one of the three main sectors promoted by the government for sustainable growth.
In the mid 1990s, the government recognized many weaknesses in South African
tourism, largely to do with it being an enclave activity for the privileged. It recognizedthat a new, integrated approach was needed that stimulated entrepreneurship, opened
up opportunities for local communities to engage in tourism and addressed a numberof key failings such as poor environmental management.
The Tourism White Paper
Tourism policy for South Africa is based on the White Paper on the Development andPromotion of Tourism, 1996. This document spelt out the above weaknesses and sought
to tackle them head on. Principles of sustainable tourism (referred to as ‘responsible
tourism’) are more central to this policy document, and more clearly articulated in it,
than in equivalent national tourism policies and strategies in other countries.
The emphasis on sustainability was inﬂuenced by the widespread consultationthat occurred over the earlier Green Paper, including 10 country-wide workshops
and many written submissions. The consultation revealed considerable concerns
amongst local communities about their involvement in tourism, which policies havesubsequently sought to address.
The responsible tourism principles covered economic, social and environmental
elements. The White Paper spelt out 15 ways in which the government would
facilitate the implementation of responsible tourism, including: deﬁning it;supporting certiﬁcation; providing incentives and marketing beneﬁts for responsible
enterprises; encouraging creative programmes and linkages; and actively assisting
local communities in tourism development. The policy statements in the White
Paper reﬂected this approach.

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Disseminating policy through guidelines
South Africa

The White Paper has had a strong inﬂuence on subsequent policy and activity in the
tourism sector.
Following on from the White Paper, a set of Guidelines for Responsible Tourism was
published and distributed in booklet form. The process of developing the guidelines
generated a great deal of enthusiasm. The guidelines oﬀer an enabling framework forthe public and private, the idea being that trade associations, geographically based
groups, etc. should use them to develop their own codes of conduct. Some have done so.
Provinces were all involved in the process of developing the guidelines and havegiven support to their promotion and implementation. They have, accordingly,
created tourism functions and developed provincial policies and planning frameworks
sensitive to responsible tourism and in line with the White Paper.
In order to make the guidelines more practically meaningful to individual
enterprises, a Responsible Tourism Handbook was published which set out the steps
enterprises could take, gave short examples of what others had done, and referred toassistance available.
Encouraging voluntary compliance
The approach in South Africa has been to start by encouraging voluntarycommitment to sustainability. Should this not be successful, legal instruments might
be considered to underpin the responsible tourism approach.
In order to demonstrate their compliance with responsible tourism, enterprises
can apply for relevant certiﬁcation. The Fair Trade in Tourism trademark scheme
focuses on social issues and labour relations. The Hospitality Association also issues
awards for responsible tourism, including social and environmental criteria. These
are both independent certiﬁcation schemes, but which receive some indirect support
from government.

Drakensberg Park, KwaZulu Natal
Province
Photo: Sylvie Blangy163

South Africa

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Tourism and local communities
beneﬁt from bridge construction
Photo: Great St Lucia Wetlands Park

Setting targets for black empowerment
A key issue in the transformation of South Africa’s economy and society, and for its
sustainability, is for historically disadvantaged people to have more opportunities tocontrol and beneﬁt from diﬀerent sectors of the economy. This requires a degree ofgovernment intervention to create the conditions to bring it about. Transformationin the tourism sector has been slow—by 2003, it was estimated that only 6 per cent of
tourism entities had black ownership and that of people in positions of management
and control, only 15 per cent were black males and 2 per cent black women.
The Broad Based Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) Act, 2003, encourages
the various economic sectors to develop their own targets and timeframes for
BEE. A Tourism BEE Scorecard has been drawn up, based on widespread
consultation within the tourism industry. This sets 10 year targets and weightings
for the following: Ownership (economic interest and voting rights); Management
control; Employment equity (proportions of black people at all skills levels); Skills
development; Preferential procurement from BEE compliant suppliers; and Support
for community and conservation projects.
Skills and capacity building
Considerable emphasis is placed in South Africa on skills development. A national
qualiﬁcations framework was initiated under the South African Qualiﬁcations
Act. Various sectoral education authorities were established, such as the Tourism,
Hospitality and Sport Education and Training Authority, with responsibility
to promote education and skills development and the establishment of national
qualiﬁcations for all sub-sectors of the tourism industry. It is felt that the availabilityof national qualiﬁcations will trigger increased investment in training by employers
because they have clearly articulated standards of competence against which tomeasure the impact of training.

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South Africa

Particular features of the approach that are most relevant to the needs of unemployed
and historically disadvantaged people, who have practical aptitude but limited formal
education, are:• combining apprenticeships with structured learning (tourism ‘learnerships’); and• national qualiﬁcations based on practical assessment on the job rather than
through a written or oral examination which can discriminate against people withlimited literary or language skills.
Granting concessions and conferring rights
One of the most potent instruments used in South Africa is the process of laying
down conditions on developers or operators of tourism facilities, either when granting
planning permissions or licences, or when granting concessions to use areas of land
over which the government has control. The latter is a tool that government uses tomobilize alternative capacity to develop and manage the country’s natural resources
for socio-economic development purposes. Conditions imposed often requiredevelopers to demonstrate proposals for community involvement and beneﬁt.
An example is the awarding of concessions by South African National Parks tosafari operators, caterers and shop managers associated with Kruger National
Park. Concessionaires undertook to make sure that 79 per cent of their employees
would be recruited from historically disadvantaged communities near the park.
They successfully achieved this objective. At the same time, there has been an
improvement in the quality of services provided to visitors and more funds have been
secured for conservation.
The government recognizes the importance of providing communities with anenabling environment in which they can obtain greater control over private sector
operators, and gain more beneﬁt from them. In many situations, communal land
rights require clariﬁcation. This is important in enabling communities to negotiate
concessions with developers.
An initiative of the Treasury has been
the introduction of a Tourism Public
Private Partnership Toolkit, recognizingthat such partnerships oﬀer signiﬁcant
opportunities for job creation, poverty
alleviation, infrastructure investment,
skills development, environmental
protection, black economic empowerment
and tourism promotion in especiallymarginalized parts of the country. The
toolkit aims to provide step-by-stepguidance to all parties for planning andprocuring a range of businesses based on
public-private partnership. This initiative’s
envisaged outcome is to bring certainty
and consistency to tourism relatedcommercial investments on state land.

Trainee chefs participating ina tourism skills development
programme
Photo: Great St Lucia Wetlands Park

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MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Spatial planning and ﬁnancial incentives
South Africa

Over the past 10 years the government has followed a strategic approach to spatialplanning for tourism, through the identiﬁcation of priority locations and corridors to
attract tourism investment. Some of these are areas where there is a particular desire
to establish more beneﬁts for local communities and to reverse the economic damageof former times. Some of the diﬀerent types of area designated for development ormanagement purposes have included:• Spatial Development Initiatives. Broad areas or development corridors, attracting
investment incentives and a holistic approach to development, including tourism.
• Priority Areas for Tourism Infrastructure Investment. Small areas seen asoﬀering a new opportunity for spreading the economic beneﬁt of tourism, andproviding a focus for tourism investment.
• Tourism nodes. Areas within which tourism enterprises network together, withjoint promotions and initiatives coordinated by local Destination Management
Organizations.
• Trans-Frontier Parks or Conservation Areas. Large areas of important ecosystems,
requiring integrated management, where nature based tourism is seen as one
key to conservation by providing sustainable livelihoods for often marginalized
communities.
These designations have helped to mobilize economic activity in the area in question.
A range of ﬁnancial incentives and business advisory services has also been
introduced to assist MSMEs, some of which require, or give priority to, enterprises
which demonstrate a responsible tourism approach. Some of the incentives havebeen focused on the development areas mentioned above, others have been more
widely available. The Development Bank of Southern Africa has developed its own
guidelines, based on the government’s Guidelines for Responsible Tourism referred
to above, to assist in the evaluation of responsible tourism project proposals.
Transformation and competitivenessIn conclusion, South Africa provides a good example of a consistent approach tosustainable tourism through policies and instruments cascading down from a boldoriginal policy document on tourism that put sustainability to the fore.
The case of South Africa demonstrates the advantage of having a clear government
commitment to transforming tourism, with a clear policy focus—widening thebase of tourism, making it more equitable and opening opportunities for previously
disadvantaged people. The value of such an approach to the performance andstanding of tourism as a whole can also be seen. A Global Competitiveness Study,
conducted by the government, indicated the potential beneﬁts to the tourism sector
arising from transformation, such as introducing innovation, providing a broader
range of products, oﬀering an authentic South African experience, stimulating
growth and spreading economic beneﬁt across the nation.

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Calvià (Spain):Calvià, Spain

Local Agenda 21 and resort rejuvenation
A major coastal resort area, suffering from degradation of theenvironment and the visitor experience, that brought the community
and tourism stakeholders together to prepare and implement a longterm improvement plan based on sustainability principles
Calvià is an example of a high-volume tourism destination which, in the late 1980s,
faced signiﬁcant economic, social and environmental decline as a result of tourism
pressure. However, after adopting an integrated and collaborative approach to theimplementation of sustainable tourism policies, using the participatory process ofLocal Agenda 21(LA21), the municipality has received many international awards inthe ﬁelds of environmental management and sustainable development.
Background and motivations for adopting a sustainable tourism approach
Calvià, lies on the south coast of the Balearic island of Mallorca, Spain. It is lessthan a 2-hour ﬂight from most major European cities and is one of the most popular
Mediterranean summer resorts. It embraces six tourist zones with 60 kilometres ofcoastline, 27 beaches and 120 000 tourist units. Each year 1.6 million tourists visit
Calvià, mainly between May and September. In 2002, 95 per cent of jobs related totourism and Calvià’s GDP was higher than the European average.
From the 1960s until the late 1980s, Calvià grew rapidly as a tourist destination (from3 000 inhabitants in 1972 to 50 000 by 2003). This growth was, however, fuelled byshort-term economic gain—a model based on high volumes, price competition anda standardized holiday experience focusing on sun, sea and sand. The impacts of this
rapid growth adversely aﬀected the attractiveness of Calvià as a tourist destination
and as human pressure increased a hundredfold and overloaded the capacity of thecoastline, tourism fell by almost 20 per centbetween 1988 and 1991. The degradation of theisland environment, deterioration of social systems
and facilities and the threat of further tourism
decline prompted the Municipality of Calvià tolook towards a more sustainable approach.
The Local Agenda 21 process
In the early 1990s, the Municipality of Calvià
undertook an in-depth and technical diagnosis of
the area looking at all three pillars of sustainability(social, environmental and economic).
In May 1995, the diagnosis was made publicthrough an initial document, which contained avision of a more sustainable tourism model andalternative growth scenarios—maintaining the current level of expansion or adopting
an alternative approach based on restoration, contained growth and sustainability.

Interviewing citizens aboutsustainability at a mobile survey
point

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Calvià, Spain

Participants in a local forum of industry, government and community representatives
reached a unanimous decision that a local action plan was needed to make the area
more sustainable. This was to be an integrated action plan for all aspects of the futureof Calvià, but with tourism playing a central part in it owing to its dominance in thelocal economy.
From 1995 to 1997, a great deal of work was undertaken in developing the plan,in collaboration with the university, technical experts and the private sector. This
centred around six key thematic areas (population and quality of life; ecology; cultural
heritage; economy; town planning; and key environmental sectors) which were thesubject of separate study, thematic commissions and reports. Twenty seven ﬁelds ofreference and more than 750 indicators were identiﬁed. The results were then sharedwith the public in a Citizens’ Forum, before being formally accepted and developed
into the Calvia Local Agenda 21 Action Plan, which was approved in 1997.
The Action Plan identiﬁed 40 initiatives under 10 strategic lines of action, as follows:High volume tourism,
Magaluf beach168

1. To contain human pressure, limit growth and foster complete restoration of theterritory and its coastal area.
2. To foster the resident population’s integration, coexistence and quality of life.
3. To protect the natural and marine heritage and promote the establishment of aregional tourist tax to be used for the environment.
4. To restore the historical, cultural and natural heritage.
5. To promote the complete rehabilitation of residential and tourist areas.
6. To improve Calvià as a tourist destination, replacing growth with sustainable
quality, increasing expenditure per visitor and seeking a more balanced tourist
season.
7. To improve public transport and encourage people to walk or cycle in town
centres or from one centre to another.
8. To introduce sustainable management into the key environmental sectors: water,energy and waste.
9. To invest in human and knowledge resources, to diversify the ﬁnancial system.
10. To innovate municipal management and increase the capacity of public/private
planned investment.

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Key aspects of government involvement
Calvià, Spain

Some important aspects of the approach of the Municipality of Calvià in gaining
initial support and involvement in the Action Plan, include:
Increasing understanding of the importance of tourism and its sustainability.
This involved lobbying for tourism to be recognized as a core and overarchingstrategic industry, and educating politicians and technicians about sustainability.
Seeking engagement and endorsement from local people
Eﬀective dissemination and communication of the proposed initiatives to local
people was deemed imperative. In 1998, signatures were collected from over 25 percent of the population in support of the Action Plan.
Clearly deﬁning priorities, based on a consensus view
The Municipality has worked closely with hoteliers, tour operators and other private
sector players such as marinas, trade unions and professional training colleges toachieve consensus on priority actions. Part of the consultation involved voting on thediﬀerent priorities for action, to help to determine initiatives for immediate action
and those for the longer term. Consequently, priorities were clearly deﬁned andpublic and private budgets allocated for each initiative.
Maintaining a system of monitoring and evaluation
Substantial preliminary diagnosis and research (along with the deﬁnition of a diverse
number of indicators) has enabled Calvià to benchmark, evaluate and monitor
progress. This has been fundamental, enabling an adaptive management approachallowing for changing priorities and situations.

Some of the actions implemented since 1997 are considered below.
Planning and regeneration
The Town Planning system has been a major tool supporting the implementation of
the new direction and approach. This has been utilized to de-classify land previously
allocated for urban development. 1 700 hectares of building land were declassiﬁed.
Over 30 building clearance action plans were carried out between 1993 and 2002,
including actual building demolition and the purchase of urban plots to prevent
further construction. By 2004, the entire surface area of demolished buildings wasmore than 13 500 square metres and urban land saved from construction was over
50 000 square metres. Demolition has included poorly located and unsightly hotel
buildings. There was no increase in the number of hotels during this period.
There has also been considerable work on the improvement of amenities. The
Magaluf and Palma Nova tourist areas have been upgraded by creating boulevards
and pedestrianized zones and planting trees which has improved the overall quality of
the area.
Despite these changes, the experience of Calvià suggests that zoning and planning fordestinations need to be legislated early on in the development process. Previous lackof planning in Calvià led to over development and critical environmental impacts,

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Calvià, Spain

which have been too large to fully reverse despite the initiatives undertaken in the
Action Plan.
There have been improvements in transport infrastructure. The Paseo de Calvià, a
40 kilometre cycling and walking path, was built linking urban centres, and is now
widely used by tourists and residents. However, public transport is still poor, due tofactors such as insuﬃcient integration with other territorial plans, lack of consistentpolitical will, limited support from the taxi industry and lack of usage by the local
community who favour private cars.
Environmental management
Signiﬁcant steps forward on protection and restoration of the local environment haveincluded the establishment of a marine park and terrestrial protected areas to protect
wildlife and ecosystems. Sea dredging previously used to regenerate beaches has been
terminated, and more environmentally friendly measures put in place to minimize
erosion. There are new regulations for mooring and anchoring in place and proposals
have been made for ﬂoating moorings, removable in winter, to limit anchor damage
and harbour congestion caused by boats.
Recycling and urban waste reduction plans have been implemented, to ensure that
30 per cent of all urban waste is separated at origin, facilitating and reducing cost ofrecycling eﬀorts and minimizing landﬁll.
Eﬀorts have been made to reduce water consumption, including an awarenesscampaign and tax incentives. However, it has proved diﬃcult to win support forwater conservation, with local people not keen to adjust taxes and charges nor to
reduce consumption. Demand exceeds supply and water is still being imported
from outside of the municipality. Today most of the potable water comes from adesalination plant located in the municipality of Palma.
Actions have been taken to save energy, but targets have not been met. One factor isthe expense of renewable energy equipment.
Human resources and socio-cultural integration
A strength of the approach in Calvia has been the integration of actions relating
to tourism and to the quality of life of local people. It has been accepted that a
successful, sustainable resort needs to address local social concerns. Programmes
have been put in place to combat crime and address housing issues. Innovative work
has been undertaken to integrate both tourists and immigrants (often working in
the tourism industry) into the Mallorquin way of life, including multi-cultural social
programmes such as dance, Spanish language classes and other cultural events.
Despite a number of initiatives in the Action Plan, it has proved diﬃcult to makea signiﬁcant diﬀerence to the knowledge base in tourism, through training andeducation standards. High-volume tourism continues to be regarded as relying on
low-skilled, untrained labour and improvement in educational levels has not been
seen as a priority by tourism enterprises or local inhabitants.

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The need for a consistent, long term approach• Stakeholders should be accountable for
implementation on an on-going basis,
not simply for engaging in the policy
formulation process. This should also
apply to the wider population. It has
been diﬃcult to maintain widespreadcommitment and response to someof the necessary measures, such as
reducing water consumption.
• Social and environmental concerns
must, consistently, be given strong
weight alongside economic drivers in all aspects of development. For example, a
new highway was constructed in Calvià but public transportation, such as a train
from the airport to the major tourist resorts was not put in place, with consequent
implications for pollution and congestion.
• There needs to be a source of long-term funding to support sustainability eﬀort.
In Calvià, many initiatives have been put on hold or are no longer funded,partially due to the abolishment of the Balearic eco-tax. This will prevent somesustainability targets being achieved.
• Integration and cooperation with all government sectors is key to realizing wider
policy objectives (e.g. transportation plans, marine protection and protected parks)
which need to be supported at both regional and national levels.
• Sustainability requires long-term political commitment. It is fundamental thata vision for sustainability is developed and subscribed to by as many politicalparties as possible, to ensure that initiatives continue and are realized over time.
Although the municipal government of Calvià changed in May 2003, work on
Local Agenda 21 continues towards sustainable tourism. Through working groups
open to local stakeholders, NGOs and local citizens, Calvià is now developing
a new Plan of Action that will take into account recent methodologies andrequirements. It is expected that this new Plan of Action will be completed insummer 2005.

Calvià, Spain

Overall, the formulation and adoption of the LA21 process and Action Plan has
been successful. Calvià has demonstrated what can be achieved by a careful process
of working together at a local level to develop and disseminate a common visionand move towards achieving it. The useof continual monitoring and an adaptive
management approach has been an
important feature. However, in addition
to the points made above, a number ofgeneral lessons also emerge from theexperience:

Paseo de Calvià, pathway linking
urban and rural settlements, lit bysolar energy

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Scotland (UK):
Scotland (UK)

Tourism and Environment Forum and Green Tourism
Business Scheme
A longstanding communication structure to pursue the sustainability of
Scotland’s tourism, together with an effective certiﬁcation programme
Scotland has a high quality natural environment, which surveys have repeatedly
indicated is the main reason why visitors choose the country as a holiday destination.
Over 215 000 jobs in Scotland are supported by tourism.
The Scottish Tourism and Environment Forum
Scotland’s Tourism and Environment Forum is an innovative and active structure
for promoting the sustainability of tourism amongst a wide variety of organizations.
When the Forum was formed, in 1994, it was unique in bringing together and being
jointly funded by the state agencies responsible for:
The Forum’s colourful newsletter
promotes examples of good practice• Tourism development and marketing (VisitScotland);• Natural heritage conservation and management (Scottish Natural Heritage); and• Economic development (Scottish Enterprise and Highlands & Islands Enterprise).
Its mission is to: ‘Bring long-term business andenvironmental beneﬁts to the Scottish tourism industry
through encouraging sustainable use of our world-classnatural and built heritage.’
The Forum’s membership includes 17 otherorganizations in addition to the agencies mentioned
above, representing the government executive, local
authorities, the tourism industry, landownership andland management, conservation and education.
This structure enables the Forum to be independentwhile having a strong voice at the heart ofgovernment.
The Forum itself has no legislative base or statutory
powers. It works by inﬂuencing its members(and others) that have such powers. For example,
particular topics may be debated within the forum
which then lead to advisory policy statements or to
general conclusions which the individual members
can build upon within their respective bodies. A
key to success has been to have the right people
round the table and a healthy balance of interests. In
this way, the Forum functions as a kind of internalpressure group for more sustainable tourism.

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Agreeing key aims for sustainable tourism
Scotland (UK)In 2004, the Forum established a new focus for its work in inﬂuencing tourism
policies and actions in Scotland when it published a statement entitled ‘Scotland...
Towards Sustainable Tourism’. This was partly spurred by moves by the UK and
Scottish governments towards more sustainable development and by a new European
Union requirement that certain development plans be subjected to Strategic
Environmental Assessment.
A review of existing policy documents relating totourism and sustainable development, together with
the WTO’s deﬁnition of sustainable tourism, wasused to prepare an initial list of aims. These weredebated during a full day event involving a wide rangeof stakeholders who were divided into workgroups
and asked to score each aim in terms of relevance andachievability. Agreement was reached around thefollowing seven aims:• A more even spread of visitors throughout the year.
• More tourism businesses actively enhancing
and protecting the environment, for example byjoining the Green Tourism Business Scheme (see below).
• Greater investment in tourism people and skills.
• A better integrated quality tourism product that meets visitors’ demands andexpectations and encourages them to stay longer and spend more.
• A clearer understanding of tourism’s impacts.
• Greater involvement of communities in tourism planning, development andmarketing.
• Greater use by visitors of Scotland’s public transport system.

The Trossachs - location for a
Tourism Management Programme,
now designated as a National Park

Photo: David Warnock

These aims were circulated widely throughout Scotland and each policy organization
was asked to develop them into speciﬁc, measurable objectives and to incorporate
them into its business plans. Forum staﬀ facilitate these processes by working withthe respective organizations. A particular opportunity to exert inﬂuence lies withthe forthcoming review of Scotland’s national tourism strategy: Tourism Framework
for Action.
Practical management and marketing initiatives
As well as inﬂuencing policy, the Forum has promoted more sustainable tourism
through a whole range of initiatives and the dissemination of good practice.
Examples include:• Tourism Management Programmes. Twelve partnerships were established at local
destination level, in towns or rural areas, bringing together local authorities, tourism
businesses and conservation and community interests. These established andimplemented visitor management actions including promoting alternative transport,
environmental improvements, traﬃc management schemes and information andinterpretation initiatives. These were short term programmes (ﬁve years) but were173

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Scotland (UK)successful in demonstrating new approaches and relationships that have now largely
been absorbed by individual partners and authorities.
• Wild Scotland. The Forum helped to establish an association of nature andwildlife tourism operators, launched in 2003, with their own charter andestablishing best practice guidelines based on sustainability principles.
• Website and newsletter. The Forum’s website (www.greentourism.org.uk) andnewsletter (Positive Impact) contain a great deal of information and many goodpractice examples aimed at private sector operators, local authorities, national
level departments and agencies, and the media.
The Green Tourism Business Scheme
The Green Tourism Business Scheme (GTBS) is a key instrument in achieving
greater sustainability in Scotland’s tourism. This is a voluntary environmental
certiﬁcation scheme for tourism enterprises established by VisitScotland in 1998; it isclosely linked to the Forum. By 2004, there were 550 establishments in the scheme,
including accommodation and visitor attractions. Membership has been growing ataround 30 per cent per year.
The scheme is based on a menu of 150 actions that businesses can take in theﬁelds of: energy, waste, water, wildlife, transport, supporting the local economy,
management and marketing, and involving and informing customers. Some of theactions are mandatory but most are voluntary. Enterprises obtain a bronze, silver orgold award according to the number of actions taken. All enterprises are required tomeasure and benchmark their energy and water consumption and waste production.
Inspection takes place every two years.
Some important pointers emerging from the scheme include:

Gleneagles Hotel (left) and aself-catering croft on the Isle ofSkye, contrasting participants in
the GTBS
Photos: Jon Proctor

174• The critical link to quality inspection. All enterprises in the GTBS have to bequality inspected and graded by VisitScotland. Certain basic requirements such ascompliance with health, safety and other regulations are therefore already covered.
Furthermore, the GTBS is actively promoted as an add-on ‘sustainability’ option
to quality grading, rather than as an entirely separate scheme. The oﬃcialrecognition and credibility that this gives to the scheme is vital to its success.
• Advice to participants. Real change in enterprise performance has been achieved
as much through the associated advice and information provided to participants

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

•

•

•

•

•

Scotland (UK)•as through the incentive of the label. Personal help is given at the time of initialinspection; a series of data and advisory sheets are provided in a ‘green folder’;regular newsletters are sent giving updates on new ideas, regulations, etc.; contacts
for more detailed information and assistance are listed; and structured training
sessions are oﬀered. Auditors act as green signposts for further advice, ﬁnancial
assistance and as a support team.
Relating business to government. The scheme provides an excellent
communication channel. Each year the criteria are discussed with government
agencies (especially Forum members) enabling new concerns to be reﬂected
and feedback from enterprises to be passed on. For example, the Environment
Protection Agency’s concern about chemical toilet disposal has been translated
into a requirement for holiday parks and camp sites.
Links to ﬁnancial instruments. Enterprises in the scheme are given up-to-date
information about relevant ﬁnancial assistance such as interest free loans tosmall businesses for insulation, installation of eﬃcient energy sources, etc. Somegovernment ﬁnancial assistance schemes to support tourism development or
improvement now require enterprises to sign up to the GTBS.
Involvement of government services. A number of local authorities are having
their own services certiﬁcated through the scheme. Certiﬁcation of Tourist
Information Centres has been found to be particularly valuable, as their staﬀ
have regular contact with small businesses and are able to pass on interest in
sustainability through their own experience and example.
Marketing support. Enterprises in the scheme are clearly identiﬁed inVisitScotland’s oﬃcial publications and websites, which display the green label
alongside quality rating. In addition, a separate green guide and webpages are
dedicated to certiﬁcated enterprises only.
The commercial advantage. Surveys of participants have found that around 30
per cent can point to speciﬁc cost savings as a result of their involvement in thescheme and that average bedroom occupancy levels of hotels in the scheme arearound 10 per cent higher than for Scotland as a whole. It is these commercial
advantages that provide the most persuasive arguments in winning new members.
The need to keep things simple. Experience has shown that small tourism
businesses respond much more positively to simple criteria, clearly expressed.

The GTBS is run by a private sector company on behalf of VisitScotland. Although
the scheme is now ﬁnancially viable in an operational sense, support from
VisitScotland and the Forum in promoting the scheme to enterprises and consumers,
and maintaining its proﬁle within Scotland, is essential for its survival.
The Forum has found that having a tool like the GTBS is extremely important ininﬂuencing government policy. It has demonstrated to politicians that the tourism
industry will respond to voluntary initiatives and provides a vehicle for futurecommunication and setting of targets.

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Annex 1:

Baseline issues and indicators ofsustainable tourism

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Annex 1Baseline issues and indicators ofsustainable tourism
The following table is a collection of the most common issues occurring in tourism
destinations, selected from among the more than 50 sustainability issues discussed in
the WTO Guidebook on Indicators of Sustainable Development for Tourism Destinations.
Baseline indicators considered most relevant and feasible to measure are suggested
for each issue.
Other issues and indicators could arguably be included in the short list—such as
health, security, environmental protection, and employment with their corresponding
indicators. All these and many other issues and their indicators are covered in the
WTO Guide that can be used as a reference. Importantly, the Guidebook also
contains a procedure for the development of indicators that correspond to speciﬁc
issues found at any destination. For this reason, tourism managers need to identify
the priority issues at their destinations, in consultation with the main stakeholder
groups, and develop indicators that are the most relevant for those priority issues,
clear to users and feasible to implement in terms of data availability and the cost to
obtain them.
Baseline Issue
Local Satisfaction
with Tourism
Eﬀects of Tourism on
Communities

Suggested Baseline Indicator(s)• Local satisfaction level with tourism (questionnaire)• Ratio of tourists to locals (average and peak period/days)• % who believe that tourism has helped bring new services
or infrastructure. (questionnaire-based)• Number and capacity of social services available to thecommunity (% attributable to tourism)
Sustaining Tourist• Level of satisfaction by visitors (questionnaire-based)
Satisfaction• Perception of value for money (questionnaire-based)• Percentage of return visitors
Tourism Seasonality • Tourist arrivals by month or quarter (distribution
throughout the year)• Occupancy rates for licensed (oﬃcial) accommodation bymonth (peak periods relative to low season) and % of all
occupancy in peak quarter or month• % of business establishments open all year
• Number and % of tourist industry jobs which arepermanent or full-year (compared to temporary jobs)
Economic Beneﬁts of • Number of local people (and ratio of men to women)
Tourism
employed in tourism (also ratio of tourism employment tototal employment)• Revenues generated by tourism as % of total revenues
generated in the community

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Annex 1Baseline Issue
Suggested Baseline Indicator(s)Energy Management • Per capita consumption of energy from all sources (overall,and by tourist sector, per person day)
• Percentage of businesses participating in energy
conservation programmes or applying energy saving policy
and techniques• % of energy consumption from renewable resources (atdestinations, establishments)
Water Availability• Water use: (total volume consumed and litres per touristand Consumption
per day)• Water saving (% reduced, recaptured or recycled)
Drinking Water• Percentage of tourism establishments with water treated to
Qualityinternational potable standards.
• Frequency of water-borne diseases: number/percentage ofvisitors reporting water-borne illnesses during their stay
• Percentage of sewage from site receiving treatment (toSewage Treatment
primary, secondary, tertiary levels)(Wastewater• Percentage of tourism establishments (orManagement)
accommodation) on treatment system(s)• Waste volume produced by the destination (tonnes) (bySolid Waste
month)
Management• Volume of waste recycled (m3) / Total volume of waste(Garbage)(m3) (specify by diﬀerent types)• Quantity of waste strewn in public areas (garbage counts)
Development• Existence of a land use or development planning process,Control
including tourism• % of area subject to control (density, design, etc.)
Controlling Use• Total number of tourist arrivals (mean, monthly, peakIntensity
periods)• Number of tourists per square metre of the site (e.g.
at beaches, attractions), per square kilometre of thedestination, mean number/peak period average

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Annex 1

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

180

Additional Resources• General information on sustainable development:
impacts and principles• Sustainable development of tourism:
principles, policies and guidelines• Structures and strategies to work with other stakeholders• Measurement instruments• Command and control instruments• Economic instruments• Voluntary instruments• Supporting instruments

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Additional
Resources

General information on sustainable
development: impacts and principles
Global Environment Outlook, 2004, UNEP-GRID
http://www.grid.unep.ch/geo/geo3/
GEO-3 examines environmental trends over the past 30 years to provide an
integrated explanation of the developments that have occurred. Continuing the
global and regional focus of this series of publications, it complements the detailed
assessment of the state of the global environment set out in GEO-2000. GEO-3
not only examines the state of the environment over its reporting period, but also thefull range of social, economic, political and cultural drivers that have brought aboutchange. Highlighting human vulnerability to environmental deterioration, it assesses
eﬀects of the spectrum of policy measures adopted.
Eco-Eﬃciency, Regulation and Sustainable Business - Towards a Governance Structure
for Sustainable Development, 2004, UNEP
http://www.earthprint.com
This book presents important new research on applied eco-eﬃciency concepts
throughout Europe. The aim of eco-eﬃciency is to achieve market-based measuresof environmental protection, in order to enhance the prospects for sustainable
development and achieve positive economic and ecological beneﬁts.
Assessing Human Vulnerability to Environmental Change- Concepts, Issues, Methods
and Case Studies, 2003, UNEP-DEWA
http://www.unep.org/dewa/publications/2003/vulnerability.asp
The report presents concepts, issues, methods and case studies relating to humanvulnerability to environmental change. Assessment of vulnerability can provide animportant guide to the planning process and to decisions on resource allocations at
various levels and help to raise public awareness of risks.
Evaluation of Environmental Impacts in Life Cycle Assessment, 2003, UNEP
http://www.uneptie.org/pc/sustain/reports/lcini/UNEP_US%20EPA%20LCIA%20m
tg%20report.pdf
In 1998 and 2000, UNEP joined forces with United States Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) and the Centre of Environmental Science (CML) to facilitate aninternational discussion forum on two speciﬁc issues of scientiﬁc development inthe ﬁeld of Life Cycle Assessment. The ﬁrst issue was the level of sophistication in
impact assessment, and the second was the type of environmental indicators to use.
In this report, evaluation is meant in its broad sense; here evaluation includes not
only the formal step weighting, but also the whole topic of assessing environmental
stressors in a life cycle perspective.
Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), Johannesburg, South
Africa, 2002, United Nations
http://www.johannesburgsummit.org/html/documents/summit_docs/131302_wssd_
report_reissued.pdf
The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), held in 2002
in Johannesburg, South Africa, was a useful step for many issues relating tosustainability. In the ﬁeld of tourism, substantive progress was made in comparison

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Resources

with Rio, where tourism was not dealt with. The Plan of Implementation which
emerged from the Johannesburg conference refers to tourism in relation to energy,
biodiversity conservation, Small Island Developing States and African issues. A
complete article on tourism (43) was also included.
Agenda 21, 1992, United Nations
http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/index.htm
Agenda 21 is a comprehensive plan of action to be used globally, nationally andlocally by organizations of the United Nations System, Governments, and Major
Groups in every area in which humans impact on the environment. Agenda 21, theRio Declaration on Environment and Development, and the Statement of principles
for the Sustainable Management of Forests were adopted by more than 178
Governments at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development(UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 3−14 June 1992.

Sustainable development of tourism:
principles, policies and guidelines
Sustainable Development of Tourism Department’s website, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/sustainable
The website presents all the activities undertaken by the Department, announces
events related to sustainable tourism and contains reports, recommendations andguidelines in this ﬁeld.
Sustainable Tourism web site, UNEP DTIE
http://www.uneptie.org/tourism
This site provides information on UNEP DTIE’s activities in sustainable tourism aswell as providing access to UNEP tourism publications.
Tour Operators’ Initiative web site, TOI
http://www.toinitiative.org
The TOI’s web site provides an overview of the TOI structure and activities andincludes all the TOI publications.
Marketing Sustainable Tourism Products, 2005, UNEP DTIE, Regione Toscana
http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/documents/EUROMEETING/marketing_sustainable_tourism.pdf
This report reviews the strengths and weaknesses of the tools and channels available
to promote and distribute sustainable tourism products. The distribution andpromotion channels include destination management organizations and tourist
boards, tour operators, guidebooks, media, certiﬁcation schemes, travel fairs, internet
retailers and consumer organizations.
A Practical Guide to Good Practice: Managing Environmental Impacts In The Marine
Recreation Sector, 2004, TOI/ Center for Environmental Leadership in Business (CELB)
http://www.toinitiative.org/supplychain/supply.htm
This guide provides information, in simple and direct language, on environmental
impacts, the rationale for good practice and suggestions on how to reduce impacts

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Resources

related to boat operation and maintenance and during marine excursions (snorkelling,
diving and scuba; seafood consumption and souvenir purchasing; recreational ﬁshing;and marine wildlife viewing). A self-assessment checklist is inserted to promote thepractice of evaluating environmental performance among marine recreation providers.
The guide is available in English and Spanish.
Supply Chain Management for Tour Operators - Three Steps Towards Sustainability,
2004, TOI/ Center for Environmental Leadership in Business (CELB)
http://www.toinitiative.org/supplychain/supply.htm
The Tour Operators’ Initiative has developed a methodology for tour operators
seeking to integrate economic, environmental and social sustainability criteria intheir providers’ service agreements. The Guide was developed with a participatory
approach, involving from the outset tour operator members of the TOI alreadyworking on sustainability with their suppliers. The Guide proposes a three step
approach for the integration of sustainability criteria in the selection of suppliers, andis supported by examples and tips.
Tourism and Poverty Alleviation: Recommendations for Action, 2004, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1349-1
This book provides evidence of the contribution that tourism can make to achieving
one of the most pressing UN Millennium Development Goals: alleviating poverty.
Based on an extensive analysis of successful experiences, it gives clear and practical
recommendations—to governments, private tourism companies, international andbilateral development agencies and other stakeholders—on the various ways andmeans they can utilize to make tourism a poverty alleviation tool.
Sustainable Tourism: The Tour Operator’s Contribution, 2003, TOI
http://www.toinitiative.org/good_practices/case_studies.htm
Over 30 case studies, grouped in the key business areas of supply chain management;internal management; product management and development; customer relations;and cooperation with destinations provide an overview of the diverse approaches andtools that tour operators can adopt. The supply chain management examples include
the use of ‘green’ checklists to assess hoteliers, the introduction of environmental
clauses into contracts, the provision of technical assistance, and the introduction of a
suppliers’ food hygiene campaign.
Climate Change and Tourism, 2003, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/sustainable/climate/ﬁnal-report.pdf
This publication was prepared as a result of the First International Conferenceon Climate Change and Tourism, held on 9−11 April 2003, in Djerba, Tunisia.
It includes a basic report and summaries of the discussions and sessions on theconsequences, opportunities and risks that the tourism sector is facing as a resultof changes in world’s climate. The publication includes the Djerba Declaration on
Tourism and Climate Change and the Agenda of Action.
A Practical Guide to Good Practice: Managing Environmental and Social Issues in
the Accommodations Sector, 2003, TOI/ Center for Environmental Leadership in
Business (CELB)

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Resources

http://www.toinitiative.org/supplychain/supply.htm
The guide provides information to managers on key environmental and social
issues including: energy and water conservation, waste management, chemical use,purchasing, contributing to community development and biodiversity conservation,
staﬀ management and developing environmental management systems. For
each issue, the guide oﬀers a brief summary, the business beneﬁts of adopting
good practices and a sample of actions that managers can adopt to improve theperformance of their facilities. References to additional resources are also provided.
Switched On: Renewable Energy Opportunities in the Tourism Industry, 2003, UNEP-DTIE
http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/library/energy.htm
A handbook exploring how clean and renewable forms of energy can sustainably
power the tourism industry. It provides the latest information on solar, wind, hydro,
geothermal and biomass resources. Written in simple non-technical language withspeciﬁc tourism case studies, the handbook can help small and medium-sized tourism
business assess which technologies and systems are most cost-eﬀective.
Tourism and Biodiversity: Mapping Tourism’s Global Footprint, 2003, UNEP-DTIE /Conservation International
http://www.uneptie.org/tourism/library/mapping_tourism.htm
A publication illustrating the overlap between tourism development (present andforecasted) and biodiversity hotspots, highlighting tourism related threats andopportunities for biodiversity conservation and improved human welfare. To explore
the relationship between tourism development, biodiversity conservation and poverty
reduction at the global level, a series of maps were produced that plot tourism andsocio-economic data against priority biodiversity areas.
Tourism and Local Agenda 21 - The Role of Local Authorities in Sustainable Tourism,
2003, UNEP-DTIE and the International Council for Local Environmental
Initiatives (ICLEI)
http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/library/local-agenda21.htm
This study looks at how tourism has been taken into account in local Agenda 21’s, as
drawn up and implemented by local authorities. The Agenda 21 planning frameworkis useful to local authorities facing the impacts of tourism development, in deﬁning
strategic goals for all stakeholders, and using tourism eﬀectively to achieve acommunity’s main goals. It is based on a study of the hands-on experience gained by
ﬁve European local communities involved to varying degrees in tourist activity, andhaving adopted a local Agenda 21 approach.
Sustainable Development of Ecotourism - A Compilation of Good Practices in SMEs,
2003, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1312-1
A compilation containing 65 case studies from 47 countries of exemplary practices insmall ecotourism businesses. The studies provide rich details on methodologies andbusiness approaches applied successfully by a wide range of ecotourism companies;
they provide a valuable well of information that can serve to generate ideas and adapt
sustainable ecotourism practices to speciﬁc local conditions elsewhere. The experiences
presented in this book come directly from the ﬁeld, from the people who havedeveloped these initiatives and who are daily in charge of these business ventures. They

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Resources

are a good reﬂection of the complexity of small businesses, the great challenges andopportunities they face, and the endless creativity that this business allows for.
Tourism and Poverty Alleviation, 2002, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/isroot/wto/pdf/1267-1.pdf
This report reﬂects the WTO’s concern that the beneﬁts of tourism should be widely
spread in society and that the poor should beneﬁt from tourism development. It
reviews current experience of tourism and poverty reduction in order to identify
what is known about the contribution which the tourism industry can make to theelimination of poverty. It also makes recommendations for action by government, theindustry, development agencies and local communities.
WTO Contributions to WSSD, 2002, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/sustainable/wssd/WTO-contributions-eng.pdf
In preparation for the World Summit on Sustainable Development, WTO published
a complete document containing, amongst others, the Report of the WTO Secretary
General, a Policy Report on sustainable development of tourism and a list of the
Actions in Assisting Developing Countries to Implement Agenda 21 undertaken by
the WTO since 1992.
Industry as a Partner for Sustainable Development: Tourism, 2002, World Travel andTourism Council (WTTC), International Federation of Tour Operators (IFTO),
International Hotel and Restaurant Association (IH&RA), International Council ofCruise Lines (ICCL), facilitated by UNEP DTIE
http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/library/wssd_report.htm
UNEP, in partnership with various industry organizations, launched a reporting
initiative to gauge progress by the private sector towards sustainable development.
This eﬀort contributed to the wider review of progress with the implementation ofAgenda 21, under the framework of the World Summit on Sustainable Development.
Ecotourism: Principles, Practices and Policies for Sustainability, 2002, UNEP-DTIE / TIES
http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/library/ecotourism.htm
A publication reviewing the current status and trends in ecotourism globally, thechallenges ahead and the lessons learned in over 15 years of ecotourism development
involving a broad range of stakeholders. It incorporates comments and suggestions
from recognized academics, NGO, representative and inter-governmental agencies as
WTO, IUCN and UNEP.
Industry and Environment, Vol.25 No.2, Responsible Entrepreneurship for Sustainable
Development, 2002, UNEP
http://www.uneptie.org/media/review/vol25no2/I&EVOL25.PDF
This issue of Industry & Environment formed part of UNEP’s contribution to theWorld Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg. It examines therole of business and industry in bringing about the changes urgently needed forsustainable development.
International Year of Ecotourism, Report of Activities, 2002, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/sustainable/IYE-Main-Menu.htm
At the request of the United Nations General Assembly, the WTO has prepared areport on the activities undertaken by States and major international organizations

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in the framework of the International Year of Ecotourism. The report and archives of
IYE 2002 (preparatory conferences reports, etc.), can be found at the above website.
Additional
Resources

The World Ecotourism Summit - Final Report, 2002, UNEP and WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/sustainable/IYE/quebec/anglais/index_a.html
This report contains the summaries of the debates held and conclusions reached at
the World Ecotourism Summit and its preparatory process, as well as the Quebec
Declaration on Ecotourism. The World Ecotourism Summit, was held in Quebec City,
Canada from 19 to 22 May, 2002. This was the principal event to mark 2002 as theInternational Year of Ecotourism. The purpose of the Summit was to bring together
governments, international agencies, NGOs, tourism enterprises, representatives of local
and indigenous communities, academic institutions and individuals with an interestin ecotourism, and enable them to learn from each other and identify some agreed
principles and priorities for the future development and management of ecotourism.
Enhancing the Economic Beneﬁts of Tourism for Local Communities and Poverty
Alleviation, 2002, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1280-1
This study is based on the document that was presented in a seminar that took placein Petra, Jordan, on 20 June 2002, within the framework of the 68th session of the
WTO Executive Council. The document has been complemented by the additionof ten case studies that were presented by the Council members during the seminar.
These case studies highlight either the countries’ national policies and approaches tocommunity-based tourism or speciﬁc projects that are considered success stories.
Sustainable Development of Ecotourism - A Compilation of Good Practices, 2001, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1214-1
Publication prepared on the occasion of the International Year of Ecotourism 2002.
It is the second volume within the series of Good Practices published in the area of
Sustainable Development of Tourism. The 55 case studies taken from 39 countries
present a wide range of successful ecotourism initiatives. Each of them is presented ina systematic form, describing stakeholders involved, objectives and strategies, funding,sustainability and monitoring aspects, problems encountered and solutions found ineach project, etc. The sustainability aspects are further detailed according to speciﬁc
elements of ecotourism such as: conservation, community involvement, interpretationand education, as well as environmental management practices.
Sustainable Development of Tourism - A Compilation of Good Practices, 2000, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1156-1
The progress towards a more sustainable tourism industry is best demonstrated
through success stories. This publication contains around 50 examples of goodpractices in sustainable development and management of tourism, collected from31 countries. A great variety of projects are presented, ranging from local toregional and national levels, including activities of the public, private and NGO
sectors, covering aspects of eco-, rural- and cultural tourism, accommodation, tour
operations, transportation, protected area management, regulatory and voluntary
frameworks, among others. Each case is described in a systematic order, including
detailed background information, success factors for sustainability, problems and theirsolutions, lessons learnt, and monitoring activities.

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Additional
Resources

Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, 1999, WTO
In October 1999, the General Assembly of the WTO, held in Santiago, Chile,
approved the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism which sets a frame of reference forresponsible and sustainable development of world tourism. The code includes nine
articles outlining the ‘rules of the game’ for destinations, governments, tour operators,
developers, travel agents, workers and travellers themselves. The tenth article involves
the redress of grievances and marks the ﬁrst time that a code of this type has amechanism for enforcement. The Global Code of Ethics for Tourism is an essential
tool to help minimize the negative impacts of tourism on the environment andcultural heritage while maximizing the beneﬁts for residents of tourism destinations.
A resolution in support of WTO’s Global Code Ethics for Tourism was accordingly
considered by the United Nations General Assembly on 19 November 2001.
Sustainable Development of Tourism - An Annotated Bibliography, 1999, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1129-1
To enhance the understanding of sustainable tourism and its practical applications,
the WTO has compiled a list of books and articles on the subject. For the second
edition nearly 100 books together with more than 250 articles were reviewed. As
a result, WTO oﬀers to the international community what is probably the mostcomplete Annotated Bibliography on Sustainable Tourism and related subjects.
Guide for Local Authorities on Developing Sustainable Tourism, 1998, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1016-1
This enlarged and revised edition of WTO’s most popular publication Sustainable
Tourism Development: Guide for Local Planners, presents concepts, principles
and techniques for planning and developing tourism and includes sections on
managing environmental and socio-economic impacts at the local level. It also
contains numerous examples of sustainable tourism best practices readily adaptable
to the particular conditions and level of development of each destination. Three
supplementary volumes exist for Asia and the Paciﬁc, Latin America and the
Caribbean and Sub-Sahara Africa.
How the Hotel and Tourism Industry can Protect the Ozone Layer, 1998, UNEP-DTIE
http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/library
The guide helps the hotel and tourism industry understand the damage being doneto the stratospheric ozone layer by ozone depleting substances (ODS) and why theyshould be concerned. It outlines the steps to be taken by hotel managers to establish
their own ODS management programme to properly manage the transition awayfrom these chemicals.
Handbook on Natural Disaster Reduction in Tourist Areas, 1998, WMO and WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1022-1
Tourism developments are quite often located in areas exposed to, or likely to be
exposed to, sudden-onset natural disasters, in particular beach and coastal areas, rivervalleys and mountain regions. If these developments are hit by natural disasters, theimage of the tourist destination will suﬀer. This handbook, produced jointly by WTO
and World Meteorological Organization experts, demonstrates how to combat natural
disasters in tourist areas and mitigate their impacts. It guides the reader through disaster
onset to post-disaster reconstruction and the relaunching of a tourist destination.

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Resources

Agenda 21 for the Travel and Tourism Industry, 1996, WTO and WTTC
http://www.world-tourism.org/sustainable/publications.htm
A joint WTO, WTTC and Earth Council publication outlining practical steps thatgovernments and private companies can take to implement the goals of the Rio Earth
Summit and make the tourism sector more sustainable.
Rural Tourism – A Solution for Employment, Local Development, and Environment,
1996, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1054-1
This publication is a result of the CEU-ETC Joint Seminar, held in Israel in 1996.
The purpose of this seminar was to promote an exchange of experience on rural
tourism between member countries, including in particular those for whom tourism
presents a new challenge. The publication includes a selection of presentations
submitted to the seminar, covering subjects such as rural tourism: products, market,
and marketing methods; rural tourism and local development, environmental
protection, and government aid; rural tourism: professions, training, qualiﬁcations,and employment creation; prospects for rural tourism in the future: cooperation toensure that this product promotes sustainable tourism at local level.
The Environmental Action Pack for Hotels, Technical Report Series No.31, 1995,
UNEP-DTIE
http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/library/
The Environmental Action Pack for Hotels is a response to Agenda 21
recommendations that business and industry shall be encouraged to ‘recognize
environmental management as among the highest corporate priorities and as a key
determinant to sustainable development’. The Environmental Action Pack is an
essential ﬁrst step guide for hoteliers around the world. It is also of interest to industry
associations, teaching institutions and governments directly involved in promoting andsupporting the tourism industry in its environmental management activities.

Structures and strategies to work withother stakeholders
Environmental Management and Community Participation: Enhancing Local
Programmes, 2003, UNEP-IETC
http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/kms/data/1459.pdf
This brief document outlines the mutually reinforcing beneﬁts of environmental
management and community participation at the level of a city or urban area. The
content is based on work done by UNEP-IETC in the Asia-Paciﬁc region on thethemes of environmental management systems and ISO 14001, community studies,
urban management and the interlinkages of environmental issues.
Co-operation and Partnerships in Tourism - A Global Perspective, 2003, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1327-1
The aim of Co-operation and Partnerships in Tourism: A Global Perspective is to
give inspiration and guidance on how to build, implement and further develop

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partnerships, focusing on strategic and operational issues in partnering and lessons
learned from past partnering experiences. By examining cases from all regions of
the world and from several diﬀerent areas in tourism, the study provides insightthat can be applied beyond the speciﬁc cultural and economic contexts of each case.
As tourism is increasingly becoming a sector successfully built on cooperation andpartnerships, this study is a valuable resource for anyone interested in Public-Private
Sector Cooperation.
Green and Sustainable Businesses from a Local Government Perspective: Fostering
Business Partnerships for Environmental Sustainability, 2003, UNEP- IETC
http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/kms/data/1471.pdf
Eﬀective business partnerships enable local governments and the private sector toassume initiative and co-responsibility in focusing on sustainability. Through eﬀective
and equal partnerships, the advantages of the private sector—dynamism, access toﬁnance, knowledge of technologies, managerial eﬃciency, entrepreneurial spirit—are
combined with the social responsibility, environmental awareness, local knowledge
and job generation concerns of local governments.
Waste Management in Agenda 21, 2003, UNEP-IETC
http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/kms/data/1449.doc
This brief document outlines the criticality assigned to waste management within
the various chapters of Agenda 21, and discusses the various dimensions of waste
management, from global to local. The publication directly emphasize the need to
manage waste, or advocate the institution of measures that reduce generation ofwaste, or its eﬀective integration into a recycling or reuse scheme that maintains
material ﬂow loops. It stresses that there is an urgent need to address the prevention
and reduction of man-made disasters and/or disasters caused by industries, unsafe
nuclear power generation and/or toxic wastes.
Public - Private Sector Cooperation, 2001, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1160-1
This report investigates the actual overall situation of public-private partnership, its
relevance and importance for the competitiveness of tourism destinations. Basedon a large number of collected projects, a total of 80 concrete case studies from 50
countries around the world were carefully selected, analysed and evaluated. Amongthe important ﬁndings are the essential principles and practices for public-private
partnership as well as the basic conditions under which such cooperation functions.
The report also describes strategies and guidelines for carrying out these partnerships
best to ensure sustainable development and provides a forecast of the importance ofsuch cooperation in the future.
Technical Workbook on Environmental Management Tools for Decision Analysis, 1999,
UNEP-IETC
http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/TechPublications/TechPub-14/summary.asp
Designed for developing countries, least developed countries, and countries witheconomies in transition, this workbook focuses on environmental management(EM) tools that aim to anticipate the environmental impact of decisions at the earlystages of planning and decision-making, with respect to selection of environmental

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technologies, identiﬁcation and characterization of risks to the environment, healthand safety, and planning environmental programmes for cities and municipalities. It
does not include auditing and evaluation tools.

Measurement instruments
Indicators of Sustainable Development for Tourism Destinations, 2004, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1369-1
This guidebook is the most comprehensive resource on this topic, the result of an
extensive study on indicator initiatives worldwide, involving 62 experts from morethan 20 countries. It describes over 40 major sustainability issues, ranging from the
management of natural resources (waste, water, energy, etc.), to development control,
satisfaction of tourists and host communities, preservation of cultural heritage,
seasonality, economic leakages, or climate change, to mention just a few. For each issue,
indicators and measurement techniques are suggested with practical information sourcesand examples. The publication also contains a procedure to develop destination-speciﬁc
indicators, their use in tourism policy and planning processes, as well as applications
in diﬀerent destination types (e.g. coastal, urban, ecotourism, small communities).
Numerous examples and 25 comprehensive case studies provide a wide range ofexperiences at the company, destination, national and regional levels from all continents.
Guide to Good Practice in Tourism Carrying Capacity Assessment, 2003, PAP/RAC
http://www.pap-thecoastcentre.org/publications.html
The aim of this Guide is to discuss various practices in Tourism Carrying Capacity
Assessment (CCA), including those using methodologies other than that of
PAP, and to stimulate new ideas for the future preparation of CCA studies in the
Mediterranean and in other parts of the world. The examples presented in the
document help to demonstrate in which types of area, in both geographic andeconomic terms, CCA can be used in a most eﬃcient way.
130 Indicators for sustainable development in the Mediterranean Region, 2000, UNEP/
PAM/ Plan Bleu
http://www.planbleu.org/vfrancaise/3-5b1.htm
The indicators have been adopted by the Contracting Parties in Malta, 1999. They wereselected during two-years of work by the Mediterranean Commission of Sustainable
Development (MCSD), and were validated by the Contracting Parties.

Command and control instruments
Tourism Congestion Management at Natural and Cultural Sites, 2005, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1370-1
This guidebook is aimed at a variety of professional users, both within the tourism
industry and for people who welcome and manage visitors at their destination orsite, including public authorities in the tourism, culture and nature ﬁelds. It provides
recommendations to the diﬀerent stakeholders in the tourism industry on how
they might contribute to the minimization of tourism congestion. Destinationand site managers will ﬁnd a range of recommendations to build a well-informed

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understanding of their places and their visitors, as well as recommendations for
upgrading the operational and physical capacities of their areas, in order to handle
high levels of tourism activity. The guidebook is intended to provide very practical
recommendations, using illustrations from the case studies. Congestion management
practices are explained at diﬀerent levels, linking actions between demand,
destination and site management.
Making Tourism Work for Small Island Developing States, 2005, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1372-1
For most islands, tourism is the main economic activity in terms of income generation,
employment creation, and foreign exchange earnings. But due to their small size,
islands are vulnerable to the negative environmental and social impacts that tourism
can sometimes bring. That is why it is vital to plan, manage and monitor tourism
development in small island developing states (SIDS), aiming at sustainability objectives.
This WTO report presents a summary of the current status of tourism in SIDS, whileproviding evidence of the key importance it has for the sustainable development of manyislands and for the achievement of the UN Millennium Development Goals. It also
addresses the key issues that need to be considered by small island nations and provides
policy orientations, guidelines and other tools to the National Tourism Authorities,
the tourism industry and other tourism stakeholders in SIDS on how to develop andmanage tourism in a sustainable manner for the beneﬁt of their population.
Forging Links Between Protected Areas and the Tourism Sector: How Tourism Can
Beneﬁt Conservation, 2005, UNEP DTIE/ UNESCO/RARE and UNF
http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/library/home.htm
This manual, based on interviews with tourism companies, provides practicalguidance on better ways of understanding the tourism industry. It also details what
can be expected from the tourism industry in terms of support for conservation.
Tourism Legislation Database (LEXTOUR), 2004, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/doc/E/lextour.htm
LEXTOUR has been designed to act as a referral system facilitating direct accessthrough links to external websites, databases and information servers on tourism
legislative data produced and distributed by authoritative sources such as parliaments,
central government bodies (including National Tourism Administrations),
universities, professional associations, etc.
Environmental Impact Assessment and Strategic Environmental Assessment: Toward an
Integrated Approach, 2004, UNEP- ETB
http://www.unep.ch/etu/publications/textONUBr.pdf
This document annotates and compares the lessons of EIA experience in developing
and transitional countries to provide points of reference for EIA practitioners
to review or develop EIA guidelines appropriate to countries’ speciﬁc needs,
development priorities and socio-economic and cultural background.
Coastal Zone Management Report: English-Speaking Caribbean, 2003, UNEP-GPA
http://www.gpa.unep.org/documents/PADH-docs.htm
This Study was undertaken to facilitate evaluation of the extent to which
commitments have been translated into action on the ground, to point out strengths

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and weaknesses of the actions taken to date, and to make recommendations on theway forward. In prosecuting these objectives the Study examines the present statusof the legal and institutional framework for coastal zone management in the English
speaking Caribbean.
UNEP Environmental Impact Assessment Training Resource Manual, Second Edition
and Studies of EIA Practice in Developing Countries, 2003, UNEP
http://www.earthprint.com/
The main objective of this publication is to facilitate the preparation of training
courses and materials that are speciﬁc to a particular country or region. Resource aids
are included to help EIA trainers to identify the needs of participants and to customdesign courses to meet them. The case studies have been prepared by EIA specialists
from developing countries to exemplify how the EIA process is implemented in
diﬀerent parts of the developing world and to identify diﬃculties that are commonly
encountered in EIA practice in this context. It is intended that the case studies will
be of use in two main ways. Firstly, they can be incorporated into customized training
materials to give them added relevance and realism. Secondly, the studies can be usedas ‘reference points’ or ‘building blocks’ to develop speciﬁc cases that reﬂect experienceand issues of EIA practice in a country or region.
Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas: Guidelines for Planning and Management,
2002, UNEP/IUCN/WTO
http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/library/sust_prot_areas.htm
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1259-1
Publication aiming to assist protected area managers and other stakeholders in theplanning and management of protected areas based on a wealth of practical casestudies and experience. Ensuring that tourism follows a sustainable path requires
clear leadership and enhanced partnership at all levels, particularly between the
tourism industry and relevant government and non government agencies. This bookdescribes how this can be achieved.
Tourism in the Least Developed Countries, 2001, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1170-1
To draw attention to the valuable economic opportunities which tourism cancreate, the WTO and UNCTAD organized a High Level Meeting on Tourism andDevelopment in the Least Developed Countries. This publication is a collection of
the presentations and discussion papers delivered during this meeting. It provides
recommendations on how developing countries can present and enhance their
tourism resources in order to compete in the international marketplace.
Integrated Coastal Management Guidelines for the ROMPE Region, 2000, UNEP-ROMPE
http://www.ropme.com/pages/publications.asp#
Guidelines that are applicable in almost any coastal situation, such as a gradualprocess of ICAM implementation within some or all of the seven steps proposed.
Other elements such as the importance of individual natural resources, possibilities
of implementation, institutional arrangements, or the application of tools andtechniques, must be understood and applied with ﬂexibility and with regard to theconditions prevailing in every particular area.

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Tourism at World Heritage Cultural Sites, 1999, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1117-1
World Heritage Sites include many of the world’s most outstanding attractions andgrandest monuments of the past. For tourism promoters they act as magnets, while
for the nation in which they are found they serve as icons that continue to inﬂuencecurrent values. This handbook concentrates on human-made sites, the physicalevidence of major historical events. It is devoted to helping the managers of World
Heritage Sites accomplish a dual purpose: to conserve the site in their care andprovide meaningful and considerate access to as many visitors as the site can allow.
Caribbean Regional Training Manual : Integrated Coastal Area Management (ICAM)
for the Tourism Industry, 1999, UNEP/USAID/SeaGrant
http://www.cep.unep.org/issues/ICAM%20manual.htm
This manual on general principles of ICAM is geared towards tourism industry
practitioners and developers. Its aim is to strengthen the regional capacity to
implement ICAM strategies in order to mitigate the negative impacts of tourism
activities on the coastal resources.
The International Conference on Sustainable Tourism in Small Island Developing Sates(SIDS) and other Islands, 1998, WTO/UNEP
http://www.world-tourism.org/sustainable/doc/lanzarote.pdf
The conference was convened jointly by WTO and UNEP in Lanzarote, Spain, 1998.
Based on its resolutions, regional meetings were organized in collaboration with UNEP:- Sustainable Tourism and Competitiveness in the Islands of the Mediterranean,
Island of Capri, Italy, May 2000,
http://www.world-tourism.org/sustainable/doc/capri.pdf- International Conference on Sustainable Tourism in the Islands of the AsiaPaciﬁc Region, Sanya, Island Of Hainan, China, December 2000,
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1217-1
An Integrated Approach to Resort Development, 1992, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1018-1
This WTO study analyses six resorts, all largely completed and representing various
regions of the world and diﬀerent types of development. For each case study,
comprehensive details are provided on planning and implementation, including the current
status of development. Economic, environmental and socio-cultural factors in planningand implementation are also analysed, as well as the development impact of these factors.
The report evaluates the ﬁnancing of both the infrastructure and tourist accommodation of
the resorts, the respective roles of the public and private sectors in ﬁnancing, and ﬁnancial
policies and procedures applied. Finally, it assesses the potential of applying these planningand implementation procedures in other development projects around the world.

Economic instruments
Tourism Satellite Accounts Project Webpage, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/statistics
Satellite accounts are a procedure to measure the size of economic sectors which, liketourism, are not deﬁned as industries in national accounts. Tourism, for example, is

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an amalgam of industries such as transportation, accommodation, food and beverage
services, recreation and entertainment and travel agencies, among others. A Tourism
Satellite Account (TSA) is a means to calculate tourist consumption of these goods
and services supplied within a country using a common method which will permit
comparisons over time and with other countries.
Tourism, Microﬁnance and Poverty Alleviation, 2005, WTO
http://ceres.wtoelibrary.org
Tourism can contribute to the ﬁght against poverty in developing countries, and more
speciﬁcally in the least developed countries. However, this potential is closely linked tothe accessibility of ﬁnancing sources. With the aim of ﬁnding solutions to the numerous
problems involved in the ﬁnancing of tourism development initiatives especially forsmall enterprises and microbusinesses in developing countries, the WTO in conjunction
with PlaNet Finance, a leading microcredit institution, is studying the possibilities ofadapting microcredit to the speciﬁc needs of the tourism sector. This report presents
recommendations for small tourism enterprises and microbusinesses as well as microﬁnanceinstitutions, with the objective of bringing them together and thus stimulate tourism
development that beneﬁts the poor. This report encourages governments and MFIs toadapt lending terms to the speciﬁc characteristics of tourism activity and poor populations.
The Use of Economic Instruments in Environmental Policy: Opportunities andChallenges, 2004, UNEP-ETP
http://www.unep.ch/etu/Publication/EconInst/econInstruOppChnaFin.pdf
This report seeks to help policy makers, especially in the developing world, to identify,
evaluate and apply economic instruments to address a country’s environmental
problems within its national and local circumstances. It presents an innovative
approach by oﬀering tools for comprehensive assessment of the country context andconditions, and by tailoring solutions to the speciﬁc country needs.
Leakages and Linkages in the Tourism Sector: Using Cluster-Based Economic Strategy To
Minimize Tourism Leakages, 2003, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/quality/E/trade2.htm
Leakages are broadly deﬁned as the loss of foreign exchange and other hidden
costs deriving from tourism related activities. Leakage avoidance can be undertaken
proactively through processes that maximize the ability of the national andparticularly the regional economy of countries to build and improve their tourism
value-chain. A process for accomplishing this, at least in part, has taken shape in theform of regional cluster-based economic development.
Financing for Sustainable Development, 2002, UNEP DTIE / International Monetary
Fund (IMF) / World Bank
http://www.unepﬁ.org/ﬁleadmin/documents/ﬁnancing_sustainable_devt_2002.pdf
This paper discusses how developing countries can generate some of the resources
they need for sustainable development, and how the private sector, developing
countries, donors, and local communities can contribute to this eﬀort. In particular,
the paper identiﬁes innovative ways of encouraging more eﬀective sustainability
ﬁnancing though public, private, or public-private approaches. It focuses on the issueof generating additional resources to ﬁnance sustainable development and does notdiscuss how these resources are to be employed.

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Financing Sustainable Energy Directory: A Listing of Lenders and Investors, 2002, UNEP-FI
http://www.fse-directory.net/
The Financing Sustainable Energy Directory is an inventory of lenders and investors
who provide ﬁnance to the renewable energy and energy eﬃciency sectors. It is
designed to help project developers and entrepreneurs seeking capital, as well as
investors looking for ﬁnancing vehicles.
Tourism Taxation, 1998, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1025-1
This study presents a comprehensive analysis of the eﬀects of taxation on the tourism
industry and oﬀers a series of recommendations aimed at assisting governments
in ﬁnding the right tourism taxation structure. Building on and complementing
previous reports on this subject, it is the result of detailed research and the input ofsix regional seminars held around the world. It provides an analysis and discussionof tourism taxation concepts and issues, a tourism taxation typology, and examines
future trends. The ﬁndings and conclusions are illustrated with an analysis of six
country case studies and a further selection of other geographic examples.

Voluntary instruments
Reports of the Regional Conferences on Sustainability Certiﬁcation of Tourism,
2003/2004, WTO
Europe— http://www.world-tourism.org/sustainable/conf/cert-czech/eng.htm
Americas— http://www.world-tourism.org/sustainable/conf/cert-brasil/esp.htm
Asia-Paciﬁc— http://www.world-tourism.org/sustainable/conf/cert-malaysia/ﬁnalrep.htm
The need for greater sustainability in tourism services and activities is alreadywidely recognized at all levels. Moreover, there are many and varied planning anddevelopment methodologies, as well as tourism management techniques that makeit possible to attain higher levels of sustainability and to increase them gradually.
Such methodologies and techniques can be complemented by voluntary certiﬁcation
systems for tourism services. The companies and organizations that provide thembegan appearing on the international tourism market in 1990 and have proliferated
over the past few years.
WTO recommendations to governments for supporting and /or establishing national
certiﬁcation systems for sustainable tourism, 2003, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/sustainable/doc/certiﬁcation-gov-recomm.pdf
This document emphasizes the role of governments in establishing and coordinating
multi-stakeholder processes for certiﬁcation systems, gives orientations fordeveloping certiﬁcation criteria, and on the following operational aspects (application,
veriﬁcation, awarding of certiﬁcation, consulting, advisory and technical assistanceservices, marketing and communication, fees and funding, etc.)
Voluntary Initiatives for Sustainable Tourism - Worldwide Inventory and Comparative
Analysis of 104 Eco-labels, Awards and Self-Commitments, 2002, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1232-1
This study, based on the analysis of 104 voluntary initiatives worldwide, provides
an evaluation of the eﬀectiveness of existing schemes. It identiﬁes similarities and196

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diﬀerences among voluntary initiatives and outlines the factors that make themsuccessful in terms of sustainable tourism development. Based on the results,
guidelines are made available to tourism companies wishing to adopt any of thesevoluntary schemes; organizations that run these initiatives, in order to improveexisting schemes or create new ones; as well as for governments and NGOs, toprovide them with technical criteria and guidelines for the support and supervision
they may wish to give to these initiatives.
Sustainability Reporting Guidelines, 2002, Global Reporting Initiative (GRI)
http://www.globalreporting.org/guidelines/2002/GRI_guidelines_print.pdf
The Guidelines represent the foundation upon which all other GRI reporting
documents are based, and outline core content that is broadly relevant to allorganizations regardless of size, sector, or location. All organizations seeking to reportusing the GRI framework should use the Guidelines as the basis for their report,
supported by other GRI documents as applicable.
Sustainability Reporting Guidelines- Tour Operators Sector Supplement, 2002, Global
Reporting Initiative (GRI)
http://www.toinitiative.org/reporting/documents/TourOperatorsSupplementNovem
ber2002.pdf
This book oﬀer performance indicators speciﬁc to the sector, developed in multistakeholder fashion. The indicators can support tour operators in producing a detailed
report on their sustainability performance, for public disclosure as well as to monitor
internally their performance and benchmark progress.
Trust Us: The Global Reporters 2002 Survey of Corporate Sustainability Reporting,
2002, SustainAbility
http://www.sustainability.com/online/
Trust Us is the second report in the Global Reporters series to put corporate
sustainability reporting under the microscope and focus on the emerging trends andhot topics that are bubbling under—or boiling over—in this increasingly importantarea of corporate accountability.
Child prostitution in tourism watch - International Campaign Against Sexual
Exploitation of Children in Tourism, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/protect_children/index.htm
In recognition of the need to engage both governments and the private sector in
the international campaign against child sex tourism the WTO child prostitution
in tourism watch and partners (ECPAT, International Federation of Journalists andTerre des Hommes, Germany) have implemented a series of interrelated projects. The
main activities include the implementation of guidelines for focal points at national
tourism administrations and local tourism destinations, the application of the Codeof Conduct for the Protection of Children from Sexual Exploitation in Travel
and Tourism and its six criteria for tour operators, the incorporation of training
modules on SECT in curricula of tourism education centres, the improvement ofknowledge about SECT among journalists and young people in Europe. The project
also acknowledges the diversity of tourism stakeholders and encourages all sectors
to participate, including tour operators, hotels, airlines and government tourism
ministries.

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Encouraging Voluntary Initiatives for Corporate Greening, 2000, UNEP-DTIE
http://www.uneptie.org/outreach/vi/reports/encouraging_voluntary_initiatives.pdf
This paper maintains that none of the usual options—the market, conventional
regulatory authority and customary propriety—can meet the challenge of moving
toward sustainability in a dynamic, globalizing political economy. At least they cannot
do so as usually applied and haphazardly associated. Eﬀorts to build a coherent
and well-integrated set of motivations for ‘voluntary initiatives’ are unlikely to be
suﬃcient by themselves either. Thus, the paper argues, the exercise of building such a
set of motivations along with appropriate individual initiatives is necessary, globally aswell as nationally.
Voluntary Initiatives: Current Status, Lessons Learnt and Next Steps, 2000, UNEP
http://www.uneptie.org/outreach/vi/reports/voluntary_initiatives.pdf
This paper is organized around the ﬁve major types of voluntary initiatives anddraws on the presentations and discussions from the UNEP Voluntary Initiatives
Workshop (Sept 2000). It summarizes the key messages and outlines possible next
steps to improve the eﬃcacy and credibility of voluntary initiatives in today’s context
of globalization.
Awards for Improving the Coastal Environment: The Example of the Blue Flag, 1997,
FEEE/ UNEP and WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1019-1
A joint publication of the WTO, the Foundation for Environmental Educationin Europe (FEEE), and UNEP, this book outlines Europe’s Blue Flag campaign.
It explains how Blue Flag assists the tourism sector and at the same time helps toimprove the coastal environment. The book includes chapters on the history of theBlue Flag campaign, how the campaign is ﬁnanced and monitored, and criteria
and lessons that can be learned from the European experience. It also looks at thediﬀerences between European beaches and those in other parts of the world andexplains how the Blue Flag programme can be adapted to regions outside of Europe.
Ecolabels in the Tourism Industry, 1996, UNEP
http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/library/ecolabels.htm
This publication examines the role of ecolabels within the context of voluntaryself-regulation in the tourism industry. It aims to help those applying for ecolabels
to better understand the nature of ecolabel schemes (the tourism industry, local andnational government, local communities and non-governmental organization).
Environmental Codes of Conduct for Tourism, UNEP Technical Report No. 29, 1995, UNEP
http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/library/codes_of_conduct.htm
A technical report based on the results of a survey and analysis of existing codesdeveloped by countries, industry associations and NGOs. It oﬀers not only examples
of environmental codes for the tourism industry, for host communities and for
tourists, but also essential elements common to successful codes and some of themost common pitfalls; implementation and monitoring tools and programmes
currently in use to activate codes and monitor and report on performance; references
and useful addresses.

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Guidelines on Municipal Wastewater Management, 2004, UNEP
http://www.gpa.unep.org/documents/wastewater/Guidelines_Municipal_Wastewater_
Mgnt%20version3.pdf
These guidelines provide practical guidance on how to plan appropriate andenvironmentally sound municipal wastewater management systems. They are meant
for decision-makers, operational professionals in government institutions and in theprivate sector, development banks and related organizations.
UNEP Programmes and Resources for Environmental Education and Training: An
Introductory Guide, 2004, UNEP
http://www.earthprint.com
This guide showcases some of UNEP’s many programmes and resources that support
the important work of environmental education and training. It contains details ofcourses in the UNEP Environmental Leadership Programme, UNEP networks forenvironmental training, its commitment to supporting environmental action learning
activities that link schools with their communities, training programmes for womenas managers of natural resources, and examples of its public education programmes innewspapers and television.
Evaluating NTO Marketing Activities, 2003, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1331-1
This report examines the ways in which tourism destinations and NTOs evaluate theeﬀectiveness of their promotional activities. The study takes account of the extensive
analysis of the research carried out on the subject. Based on the results of a survey intocurrent evaluation practices among NTOs, the study compares diﬀerent evaluation
methodologies in terms of best practices. As a result, a guide for the evaluation of themarketing activities of NTOs is developed setting out a number of practical steps.
A Manual for Water and Waste Management: What Tourism can do to Improve its
Performance, 2003,UNEP-DTIE
http://www.uneptie.org/tourism/library/waste_manual.htm
This manual looks at solid waste and water management and provides guidelines andexamples of how tourism operations can achieve positive results and minimize harm
to a community’s ecological and physical systems. Speciﬁc case studies highlightlarger hotel chains that have already implemented environmental management
systems but the main focus is on SME in developing countries, Small Island
Developing States and developing tourism destinations.
Managing Urban Sewage An Introductory Guide for Decision-makers, Freshwater
Management Series No. 10, 2003, UNEP-IETC
http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/Freshwater/FMS10/index.asp
This document is part of the IETC series of Introductory Guides for Decision-makers.
These guides are intended to assist decision-makers at the local level in understanding theissues and making informed decisions for the beneﬁt of all citizens and stakeholders.

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Capacity Building for Sustainable Development: An Overview of UNEP
Environmental Capacity Development Initiatives, 2002, UNEP
http://www.unep.org/Pdf/Capacity_building.pdf
A UNEP guide highlighting how capacity building is a central element of its
activities particularly in its approach to assisting the sustainable development ofdeveloping countries and countries with economies in transition. The guide gives
selected examples of capacity development taken from ten years since Rio and tries toproject into the next decade, after Jo’burg.
Human Resources in Tourism: Towards a New Paradigm, 2002, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1258-1
Human resource development occupies a central role in achieving eﬃciency in tourism.
In this context, the II International Conference on Tourism Professions, which took
as its theme ‘Tourism Employment: Towards a New Paradigm’ was held in Madrid,
Spain on 26–27 January 1998, with the participation of more than 30 speakers and 350
people from 28 countries. This publication is a collection of the papers presented during
the Conference on topics relating to the present situation of human resources in the
tourism industry and the advisability of creating an alternative conceptual framework
for the quality and eﬃciency of human capital in tourism.
E-Business for Tourism - Practical Guidelines for Destinations and Businesses, 2001, WTO
http://www.world-tourism.org/cgi-bin/infoshop.storefront/EN/product/1210-1
A report prepared as guidance for those who are prepared to embrace the E-Business.
After explaining the concepts of E-Business and Customer Relationship Management,
it provides an overview of the changing value chains and the evolving role of DMOs.
It continues with practical guidelines on how DMOs should respond to the challenges
by developing E-Business systems, and more speciﬁcally, how to go about developing
websites for consumers, intermediaries, travel media and tourism businesses. The report
also focuses on E-Business for tourism suppliers, particularly Small and Medium Sized
Enterprises (SMEs). E-tools can help SMEs to get market access, and ensure economic
viability, contribution to local economies, poverty reduction, etc.
Urban Environmental Management: Environmental Management System Training
Resource Kit, 2001, UNEP / FIDIC / ICLEI
http://www.earthprint.com
The majority of Environmental Management Systems (EMS) have been designed to
improve the environmental performance of private organizations, especially businessenterprises. More recently, local authorities have also shown interest in EMS as asystematic tool to achieve urban sustainability, and improve their liveability. They
are, in fact, consumers and producers of goods and services (electricity, food, water,
infrastructures, etc.) and their activities and policy choices have a signiﬁcant impact
on the local economy, the environment, human health and people’s quality of life.
Sowing the Seeds of Change: Environmental Teaching Pack for the Hospitality, 2001,
UNEP-DTIE
http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/library/training-hotel.htm
The Teaching Pack enables education professionals to develop tailor-madeenvironmental curricula to suit the needs and objectives of each school and education

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system (covering a minimum of 45 minutes teaching time) while for students of
hospitality management, it will serve as an environmental information and resource
handbook. The pack can also be used by hospitality professionals to support awarenessraising programmes and the development and implementation of Environmental
Management Systems.
Caribbean Regional Training Manual: Environmentally Sound Tourist Facility Design
and Development for the Tourism Industry, 1999, UNEP / USAID / CAST
http://www.cep.unep.org/issues/design-siting%20manual.htm
This manual aims to improve the technical capabilities of coastal developers
and planners in the countries of the Wider Caribbean Region in addressing the
problems arising from the traditional construction and design of tourism facilities,
and to introduce concepts and guidance for the construction and environmental
sustainability of new facilities.
Caribbean Regional Training Manual: Solid Waste and Wastewater Management for the
Tourism Industry, 1999, UNEP / USAID / CEHI
http://www.cep.unep.org/issues/solid%20waste%20manual.htm
This manual is geared towards improving the tourism sector’s technical capabilities
in the area of prevention and control of land-based sources of pollution caused by
tourism, in implementing strategies that improve water, wastewater and solid waste
management in tourist facilities and in promoting best practices for the reduction,
recycling and reuse of most solid wastes generated by and impacting on tourism.
Transport and the Global Environment: Accounting for GHG Reductions in Policy
Analysis, 1999, UNEP / RISØhttp://www.earthprint.com
This book oﬀers a consistent analytical structure for examining the environmental
aspects of transport choices; deﬁnes the key economic and environmental concepts
used in good policy analysis; and gives information on technologies, environmental
impacts and cost eﬀectiveness of various policy options. The book also describesinternational ﬁnancial mechanisms that can be used to support sustainabletransportation policies and programmes.
Improving Training and Public Awareness on Caribbean Coastal Tourism, 1997,
USAID / UNEP-CEP
http://www.cep.unep.org/issues/panos.PDF
This study is a component of a regional project started in late 1995 to promotecorrective actions regarding land-based sources of pollution caused by tourism thathave a negative impact on coastal and marine resources. It draws on ﬁndings andconclusions to propose a set of public awareness and training activities for the project.

201

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

202

Contacts for Further
Information

Contacts for Further
Information

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

10. Contacts for Further Information
Publication author: Richard Denman, The Tourism Company, UK rdenman@thetourismcompany.com
Further information relating to the Case Studies and to the examples in boxes may be obtained from the following sources.
Case Studies
Case study

Contact name

Organization

Bulgaria

Kamelia Georgieva

Scotland

Sandy Dear

MexicoJuan Carlos Arnau Avila
Leonel Uriarte García

Egypt

Ahmed Hassan

Costa Rica

Amos Bien

Australia

Alice Crabtree

Ghana

Wouter Schalken

Johann Kotze

CalviaMaxi Lange
Eduardo Cozar
Pablo de la Peña

www.ecotourism.bulgariatravel.org

Scottish Tourism andEnvironment Forumsandy.dear@visitscotland.
com

www.greentourism.org.uk

Red Sea Sustainable
Tourism Initiative

ahassan1@rssti.com

www.rssti.com

The International
Ecotourism Society

amos@ecotourism.org

www.visitcostarica.com
www.turismo-sostenible.co.cr

SNV Ghanawschalken@snvghana.org

Secretaría de Turismo deMéxicoDepartment ofEnvironmental Aﬀairs andTourism

Ian Challenger

Websitekgeorgieva@hrc-bg.com

The International
Ecotourism Society
Tourism Queensland

David Morgans

South Africa

Kaikoura

Biodiversity Conservationand Economic Growth
ProjectEmailjcarnau@sectur.gob.mx
luriate@sectur.gob.mx

alice@ecotourism.org
david.morgans@tq.com.au

www.sectur.gob.mx

www.atc.net.au

www.tq.com.au

www.snvworld.org

Jkotze@deat.gov.za

www.environment.gov.za

Ajuntament de Calviàmlange@calvia.com
ecozar@calvia.com

www.calvia.com

Kaikoura District Council

ian.challenger@kaikoura.
govt.nz

www.kaikoura.co.nz

Boxed Examples
Boxed example

Box #Contact nameHonduras
structures

3.1

Yara Zuñiga

Fiji SEA

3.2

Daniele Ponzi

Europarc
Charter

4.2

Richard Blackman

Lanzarote
Observatory

5.1-

Iguazu data

5.2-

Malta carrying
capacity

5.3

204Marie Louise
MangionOrganization

Email

WebsiteAsian DevelopmentBankdponzi@adb.org

www.wwf.org.uk/ﬁlelibrary/
pdf/ﬁjitourism.pdf

Cabildo de Lanzarote-

Iguazu Forest Natural
Reserve-

Honduras Institute ofTourism

EUROPARC
Federation

Malta Tourism
Authority

yzuniga@iht.hnr.blackman@europarc.org

marielouise.
mangion@visitmalta.com

www.letsgohonduras.com

www.europarc.org

www.cabildodelanzarote.
com/areas/presidencia/
biosfera
www.iguazuforest.com
www.mta.com.mt

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Boxed example

5.4

Box #

Contact nameVietnam law

5.5

douglas@snv.org.vn

Englandregulations

5.6

Pham Quang Hung Vietnam National
Administration of
Tourism
DouglasSNV Vietnam
Hainsworth

marion.hammerl@bodensee- www.ecolup.info
stiftung.org--

Organization

Namibia Ministryof Environment andTourism

VisitBritain

ECOLUPplanning

5.7

Marion Hammerl-

Maldives
regulations

5.8

Colombia
enforcement

5.9

Moosa Zameer
HassanMaldives Ministry of
Tourism

Belize Trust

5.11

-

Madagascar
revenues

5.11-

Morocco loans

5.12

Myriem Touhami

Catalonia
incentives

5.12

Salvador Semitier
Marti

Rimini beaches

5.12

Enzo Finocchiaro

UK Carbon
Trust

5.12

-

Barbados oﬀset

5.12

-

Exploitation
code

5.13

-

Arctic codes

5.14

Miriam Geitz

Sydneyreporting

5.15

Simon McArthur

S Africa
trademark5.16

Jennifer SeifBlue Flag

5.18

Finn Bolding
ThomsenLake District
Trust

5.19

Claire StottVISIT ecolabels 5.17

Richard Tapper

-

-

Email

-

-

zameer@maldivestourism.
gov.mv

rtapper@dircon.co.uk

Websitewww.dea.met.gov.na
www.vietnam-tourism.com

www.tourismtrade.org.
uk/uktrade/advisorywww.maldivestourism.
gov.mvwww.bfn.de/09/tayrona.pdf

Protected Areas
Conservation Trust-

www.pactbelize.org-

www.parcs-madagascar.
com/angap

United Nations
Environment
Programme

Myriem.touhami@unep.fr

www.uneptie.org/energy/

Provincia di Rimini

ﬁnocchiaro@provincia.
rimini.it

Association Nationale
pour la Gestion desAires Protégées

Generalitat de Catalunya, wsamitier@gencat.net
Department de Medi
Ambient i Habitatage--www.gencat.net/mediamb/
qamb/inici.htm
www.turismosostenibile.
provincia.rimini.it

www.hospitableclimates.
co.uk

Government of
Barbados-

WWF Arctic
Programme

mgeitz@wwf.nowww.panda.org/arctic
www.q-station.com.au

Fair Trade in Tourism
South Africa

Simon.McArthur@qstation.com.au

info@fairtourismsa.org.za

ECPAT

Q-Station

European Voluntary
Initiative for
Sustainability in
TourismFoundation forEnvironmental
Education

Lake District Tourism
and Conservation
Partnership--www.barbadostourisminvest
ment.com
www.thecode.org

www.fairtourismsa.org.za
www.yourvisit.info

blueﬂag@blueﬂag.org

www.blueﬂag.org

Claire@lakespartnership.
org.ukwww.lakespartnership.
org.uk205

Contacts for Further
Information

Namibia
conservancies

Contacts for Further
Information

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Boxed example

Box #Contact name

Austriatransport

5.20

Veronika Holzer

Turkey waste

5.21

-

ODIT France

5.22

Jean-Paul
Teyssandier

England manual 5.23-

Jamaica EAST

5.24

Hugh Cresser

Nepal TRPAP

5.25

Rabi Jung Pandey

REDTURS

5.26-

Leave no Trace

5.28

-

UK market
inﬂuence

5.29-

Tanzania
Culture

206

5.27

-

Organization

Email

Austrian Ministry ofveronika.
Agriculture, Forestry,holzer@lebensministerium.
Environment and Water at--

Observation,
Développement etIngénierie Touristique,Francejean-paul.teyssandier@oditfrance.fr

Environmental Audits
for Sustainable Tourism
project

east@infochan.com

The Countryside
AgencyTourism and Rural
Poverty Alleviation
Programme-

The Leave No Trace
Programme
Foreign andCommonwealthOﬃce, Department
for International
Development-

Websitewww.mobilito.at; www.
alpsmobility.org
www.toinitiative.org/
destinations/destination.
htm#Side
www.odit-france.fr

www.greenauditkit.org

rjpandey_trpap@ntb.org.np

www.welcomenepal.
com/trpap-

www.redturs.org-

www.lnt.org--

www.snvworld.org/cds/
rgTUR/documents_1.htm

www.fco.gov.uk
www.dﬁd.gov.uk/pubs/ﬁles/rough-guide/better-world.
pdf

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

207

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

Notes

208

MAKING TOURISM MORE SUSTAINABLE

209

About the World Tourism Organization
The World Tourism Organization is a specialised agency of the United Nations that serves
as a global forum for tourism policy and issues. Its Members include 152 countries andterritories as well as over 300 Afﬁliate Members from the public and private sectors.
WTO generates know-how for its members and the international tourism community.
WTO Sustainable Development of Tourism Department is currently
involved in the following main ﬁelds of activity:> Policies and planning for the sustainable development of tourism: WTO
has been providing technical assistance on sustainable tourism planning at thenational, regional and local levels in all countries.
> Sustainable tourism at speciﬁc destinations: WTO supports the sustainable
development and management of coastal, rural, and urban destinations, cultural
heritage sites, protected areas, etc. and of Small Island Developing States.
> Tourism and poverty alleviation: at the World Summit on Sustainable
Development in 2002, WTO launched the concept of “Sustainable Tourism as aneffective tool for Eliminating Poverty” (ST-EP) and is currently implementing projects
in this ﬁeld. WTO is collaborating with Micro-Finance Institutions and governments inthe developing world, encouraging them to coordinate efforts and to support micro,
small and medium sized tourism enterprises.
> The Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, approved by the UN, is acomprehensive set of principles whose purpose is to guide the stakeholders intourism development, including tourists, towards ethical behaviours.
> Indicators of sustainable tourism: WTO encourages the application ofsustainability indicators at destinations, as fundamental tools for the planning andmonitoring of tourism.
> Climate change and tourism: WTO is addressing the complex relations between
climate change and tourism.
> Voluntary initiatives for sustainable tourism: certiﬁcation systems, eco-labels andother forms of voluntary regulation represent an effective alternative to direct legislation.

WTO ́s mission is to promote and develop tourism as asigniﬁcant means of fostering international peace andunderstanding, sustainable economic development andinternational trade.

For more information,
see www.world-tourism.org