The Winners of the Blue Planet Prize2006

2006
Blue Planet Prize
Dr. Akira Miyawaki (Japan)

Dr. Emil Salim (Indonesia)

Director, Japanese Center for International
Studies in Ecology (JISE)
Emeritus Professor, Yokohama National
University

Professor, Faculty of Economics and Post
Graduate Course, University of Indonesia
Former Minister of Population andEnvironment, Republic of Indonesia.

Eternity:
Some time in our past, we
humans stopped listening to what
the forest tells us and no longer
paid heed to the wisdom ofnature. We forgot that life is limited, and that the might of eachindividual is also limited. The
2006 opening film told the storiesof the wisdom of nature and theforests which were the cradle ofliving creatures in their pursuit ofeternity.

247

Their Imperial Highnesses
Prince and Princess Akishinoat the Awards Ceremony

His Imperial Highness Prince Akishino congratulates the laureates
The prizewinners receive their trophies from Chairman Seya

Hiromichi Seya, chairmanof the Foundation delivers
the opening address

Dr. Akira Miyawaki

Dr. Emil Salim
The prizewinners Dr. Akira
Miyawaki (right) and Dr. Emil
Salim (left) at theCongratulatory Party

Dr. Saburo Nagakura, President of theJapan Academy and Jusuf Anwar,
Ambassador of the Republic of Indonesia,
to Japan, congratulate the laureates
The prizewinners meet the press

248

Profile

Dr. Akira Miyawaki
Director, Japanese Center for International Studies in Ecology (JISE)
Emeritus Professor, Yokohama National University

Education and Academic and Professional Activities
1928
Born on January 29, in Okayama, Japan1952
Graduated from the Department of Biology, Hiroshima University
1958-1960 Visiting Researcher, Federal Institute for Vegetation Mapping, West Germany
1961
Doctor of Science, Hiroshima University
1961-1962 Lecturer, Yokohama National University
1962-1973 Associate Professor, Yokohama National University
1970
Mainichi Publication Cultural Prize for "Plants and Human"
1973-1993 Professor, Institute of Environmental Science and Technology, Yokohama
National University
1985-1993 Director, Institute of Environmental Science and Technology, Yokohama
National University
1990
Asahi Shimbun Prize
1990
Goldene Blume von Rheydt Prize, Germany
1992
Purple Ribbon Medal, Japanese Government
1993-present Professor Emeritus, Yokohama National University
1993-present Director, Japanese Center for International Studies in Ecology
1995
Reinhold Tüxen Prize, Germany
1996
Nikkei Global Environmental Technology Awards
2000
Order of the Sacred Treasure, Gold and Silver Star, Japanese Government
2002
Japan Culture Life Award
2003
Distinguished Service Award, Ecological Society of Japan

Dr. Miyawaki specialized in weed ecology for his graduation thesis at Hiroshima University.
After graduating, he conducted field research in locations throughout Japan and wrote several
paperes on weed ecology. His paper drew the attention of Professor Reinhold Tüxen (1899 1980), then-director of the Federal Institute for Vegetation Mapping in Germany. At Professor
Tüxen' s request, Dr. Miyawaki studied in Germany under his tutelage from 1958.
Dr. Miyawaki studied the concept of potential natural vegetation which is the naturalvegetation supported by the existing conditions of the location in the absence of any humanintervention under Professor Tüxen and returned to Japan in the fall of 1960. He then conducted research into the natural vegetation remaining in the forests indigenous to the region249

around shrines and temples called "Chinju-no-mori," as well as the vegetation of more than
10,000 locations throughout Japan affected by various types of human activity, including
mountains, riverfronts, agricultural and mountain villages, and metropolitan areas, from which
he created maps of existing and potential natural vegetation.
Further, beginning in 1980, Dr. Miyawaki spent more than 10 years to research vegetation throughout Japan and author, edit, and publish the 10 volumes comprising "Vegetation ofJapan," with the cooperation of plant ecology laboratories at universities across the country.
Through his research, Dr. Miyawaki demonstrated that the primary indigenous species in theevergreen broadleaf forest region of Japan are indeed the evergreen broadleaved plants, like thechinquapin, Machilus tunbergii, and oak, like those found in the forests around shrines andtemples. Plants like the Japanese cedar, cypress, larch, and pine, found in limited locales inextreme environments like ridges and steep slopes were not native to the habitat, but wereplanted for the purpose of producing lumber.
The more research he conducted, he learned that the plants he used to believe were
native to the area were far from the unadorned face of the forest – the potential natural vegetation indigenous to the location – and felt increasingly astonished at his findings. This astonishment served as a turning point. Dr. Miyawaki saw forests as much more than merely providing an appearance of greenery. Instead, he began to believe in generating forests faithful tothe natural habitat, as our ancestors had created and left behind, and as symbolized by the traditional "Chinju-no-mori." Believing these forests should be recreated based on field investigations into vegetation ecology, Dr. Miyawaki presented a plan to recreate native, indigenous
forests, the equivalent of environmental protection, disaster prevention, and water source protection forests in modern terms.
In the early 1970s, forest creation began at the Oita Steelworks of Nippon SteelCorporation. A research was conducted at the nearby forests at Usa Shrine and the Yusuhara
Shrine to identify potential natural vegetation. After determining which species of trees shouldbe planted and undergoing trials and errors, it was decided potted plants should be created andutilized. They were planted mixed and densely in accordance with the system of an indigenous
forest. Large forests have been created at the steelworks in the 18 years since the trees werefirst planted, thus making possible the formation of a native forest using native trees. In theyears following, Dr. Miyawaki succeeded in restoring communities of disaster prevention andenvironmental prevention forests in 1,300 locations. The success can be attributed to the support of corporations, as well as municipal organizations, and government ministries, with the
Ministry of Land Infrastructure and Transport at the forefront, those organizations with foresight and action.
Beginning in 1978, Dr. Miyawaki conducted vegetation surveys in Thailand, Indonesia,
and Malaysia. He proposed that it was possible to restore tropical rainforests by conducting
forestation using an ecological method based on surveys of the local vegetation, while conventional thinking assumed that once a tropical rainforest was destroyed from felling andintentional burns, restoring the vegetation was nearly impossible. From 1990, Dr. Miyawaki
dedicated himself to the restoration of tropical rainforests in Bintulu, Sarawak, in Malaysia. By
2005, the seedlings planted in 1991 had grown to more than 20 meters tall, and a diverse trop-250

ical rainforest, mimicking the natural version as closely as possible, has been restored in theregion.
According to a theory known to as the classical succession theory, it would take morethan 150 to 200 years for an indigenous forest to restore itself on barren land in Japan, andbetween 300 and 500 years for a tropical rainforest. However, Dr. Miyawaki proved that it was
ecologically possible to restore disaster prevention and environmental protection forests thatclosely resemble indigenous forests in 20 to 30 years by densely mix planting various trees
based on potential natural vegetation.
Dr. Miyawaki has presented multi-faceted research results numerous times in various
international symposiums. His work has been internationally acclaimed for approachingforests not through the conventional method of commercial forestation, but with the end ofrestoring forest ecosystems indigenous to the habitat based on potential natural vegetation andfor having achieved demonstrative results which proved his concept.
More than 30 years ago, Dr. Miyawaki felt threatened by various environmental problems including the destruction of the environment on a global scale and biodiversity. He recognized the importance of indigenous forests as a basis for human survival, and developed
what is known as the "Miyawaki Method" to restore and reconstruct forests indigenous to thehabitat based on rigorous field investigations of the local vegetation and ecological theories.
Based on his method, Dr. Miyawaki has achieved demonstrable results in experiments and in
the field, inside Japan and abroad.

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EssayA Call to Plant Trees
Dr. Akira Miyawaki
The Rise and Fall of the Forest and Human Civilization
Today, we live in an era marked by the greatest scientific and technological advances ever seenin the 6,000-year history of human civilization. Differences remain between the North and theSouth. Nonetheless, every industry has progressed, and we enjoy more material wealth than
our ancestors could have ever imagined. To satisfy mounting desires, however, we fell forestsand mountains, overwhelm oceans and rivers with landfill, create new industrial sites, andscramble to build more cities.
Before long, more and more greenery began disappearing from our environment. In particular, the “native forests by native trees,” the indigenous forests with 30 times the greeneryin surface area of single-layered lawns, are disappearing without a trace. Living greenery is the
only producer in the ecosystem, and is fundamental to the existence of all life forms on Earth
including humankind. With the destruction of nature and the spread of environmental contamination, however, people—from scientists, corporations, and politicians to housewives andchildren—have finally begun to contemplate the gravity of environmental problems.
Environmental problems are occurring not only within large-scale natural development
and the realm of physics and chemistry, but also within new industries that contend with life
forms, such as agroforestry. They also accompany urbanization and the development of transportation infrastructure.
Environmental problems encompass an extremely wide range of issues. Some, liketyphoons, earthquakes, fires, floods, and tsunami, seem like nature’s retribution, triggered byher fury. Other problems include the environmental destruction wrought by natural development, water and atmospheric pollution caused by factory emissions of chemical substances,and global warming caused by increased carbon dioxide emissions. Various measures arebeing put into place to contend with each of the problems, incorporating the latest science andtechnology; nevertheless, these solutions are implemented on a case-by-case basis. Althoughconferences do take place to deal with such issues, as environmental problems range so widely,
the essence of environmental concerns gets lost in political and other agendas.
To protect the environment is to protect life. Human beings today behave as though they
own the universe. The fact is they only appeared in the last interlude of the history of life onearth spanning some three billion years. Human beings have barely achieved a life span of lessthan 100 years. Primitive forms of life were created on Earth three billion years ago. Since
then, our DNA, the thin thread of our genes, has somehow continued until the present in an
unbroken chain, bringing us to our existence today.
What is it that those of us who live today can leave for the future? It cannot merely bematerial luxuries or money. What we can pass down is the thin but irreplaceable thread of our252genes, the genes that have been passed down from three billion years ago until the present day.
These are the genes that belong to you, your loved ones, and your neighbors, which is the one
thing we can carry into the future. We live today as milestones for the future.
The most fundamental factor in protecting those genes is living greenery. In particular,
the “native forest by native trees,” the concentration of three-dimensional native greenery, isthe basis that guarantees the passage of our life, intelligence, sensibility, and, most importantly, our genes into the future. In reality, however, much of the three largest rain forests, long
regarded as natural forests, have also been felled and devastated. Forests in most areas where
people have built civilizations, beginning in ancient times, from the Mediterranean to India to
China, have been completely destroyed from practices such as the overgrazing of livestock.
Environmental destruction has also advanced in North and South America, as well as inAustralia, known as the new world. Indigenous forests are without a doubt vanishing on a
global scale.
Global Warming and the Forest
There have been voluminous research and assessment across the world into global warming
caused by increased carbon dioxide emissions, with projections made into the future.
Fossil fuels, like petroleum, coal, and natural gas, contain carbon, the principal culprit
for global warming. Fossil fuels were produced as a result of the underground carbonizationof organisms, largely plants, from approximately 300 million years ago. Life forms were in the
midst of evolution. There were no broad-leaved plants like there are today; plants had only
evolved to ferns. In a climate likely to have been favorable with high temperatures and humidity, however, tree ferns grew dense, forming large forests. Through photosynthesis, these
forests absorbed the carbon in the atmosphere and solidified. Subsequently, shifts in the climate and in the Earth’s crust buried them underground. Underwater mechanisms have yet tobe fully elucidated, but conventional thinking states that until recently the balance of material
circulation on Earth had been maintained in the space between the atmosphere, the geosphere,
including the hydrosphere, and the biosphere, the thin layer on Earth where all life forms exist.
With the onset of the Industrial Revolution at the end of the 18th century, the development of new industries like heavy manufacturing, fossil fuels that had been buried and locked
underground were drawn above ground and burned. Burning fossil fuels creates a chemical
reaction whereby the carbon combines with the oxygen in the atmosphere, producing carbon
dioxide. The amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide became unquestionably greater the more
fossil fuels people burned, which advanced global warming.
Energy conservation has been advocated as a countermeasure to global warming.
People around the world are raising their voices to advocate specific measures like curbing
manufacturing or excess consumption, decreasing electricity consumption, and driving as little as possible. Such vital measures have been put into place throughout the world; unfortunately, however, no matter how much they conserve, people of today will be unable to completely stop using electricity or eliminate the use of machines, cars, and air conditioners. Even
if countries fully exert their efforts to curb carbon dioxide emissions as determined at the
Kyoto Conference, as long as they continue to maintain their current economies, industries,

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and urban lifestyles, energy conservation measures will remain insufficient. Further, there is an
end to the availability of fossil fuels, which can be said is the current basis for modern civilization. Estimates project fossil fuel reserves to run out in several decades; no matter how
much people conserve, the reserves will not last another 100 years. In addition to hydraulic andnuclear power, and the use of natural sources of power such as solar energy, research innuclear fission, has been advanced and its results are highly anticipated. However, thesesources of power are still insufficient for immediate use. So what options are available?
The alternative I will describe may seem unspectacular and rather unrefined at first, andsome may think it will not have an immediate effect. Having said that, I believe that creating
indigenous and real forests, and covering as much of the land as possible with forests, is themost certain and effective measure to reduce carbon dioxide. Real forests form multilayered
communities, of tall trees, semi-tall trees, short trees, and bottom weeds. Thus, they have 30
times the surface area of greenery for photosynthesis compared to such single-layered communities as moors and lawns. As such, real forests should also have 30 times the ability to preserve the local environment and to mitigate impact, in terms of noise insulation, dust filtration,
air purification, and maintaining water quality. Moreover, the primary trees of real forests havedeep and axial roots, making them more resistant to falling, and contributing towards disasterprevention.
Plants absorb the carbon in the atmosphere through photosynthesis, turning into hydrocarbon and lignin and forming trunks, branches, and leaves. By following such methods to create a forest—in which small potted seedlings of the primary trees of the area’s potential natural vegetation are planted—increasing amounts of carbon are absorbed and solidified as theseedling grows into a mature tree. For example, if a seedling with a dry weight of 300–500
grams grows into a tree, 10–20 meters in height or even taller, with a dry weight of one ton,
then 50 percent, or at least 40 percent of its weight is carbon. This suggests that the treeabsorbed and solidified that much carbon from the air. Further, the semi-tall trees, short trees
and the bottom weeds would also grow as the forest develops, increasing the amount of carbon that is absorbed.
Theorists ridicule such efforts. They say that for a small number of people to plant trees
for carbon dioxide reduction represents only a drop in the bucket. But in 30 years, we have created forests alongside residential communities in more than 1,300 locations in Japan, with thenumber rising to 1,500 when we include overseas locations like Borneo, the Amazon, China,
and Inner Mongolia—planting more than 30 million seedlings. Environmentalist Wangari
Maathai of Kenya, winner of the 2004 Nobel Peace Prize, has also planted 30 million trees.
When I first met Ms. Maathai, I promised her I would cooperate with her in creating
real, indigenous forests in Kenya. After conducting two rounds of field surveys of the local
vegetation, we had our first tree-planting ceremony in November 2006 and planted seedlingsof indigenous primary trees, with the support of organizations like Mitsubishi Corporation. At
the time, Ms. Maathai spoke about her proposal to the United Nations to plant one billion trees
around the world in 2007. It may not have an enormous impact for one or two people to plant
trees, but what would happen if people around the world planted 10 trees wherever they could?
What would happen if they planted another 30 trees?

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People often ask if we would run out of places to live if we continued to plant so many
trees. But that concern is unwarranted. For example, 98% of the 120 million people in Japan
live in the evergreen broadleaf region of the country, which stays green throughout the winter.
That landmass is the equivalent to the area from the shoreline to 800 meters above sea level
west of the Kanto region. Many say that Japan has an abundance of greenery. Our recent
research, however, shows that only 0.06% of indigenous forests with multilayered communities remains compared to the original potential of the evergreen broadleaf forest region. Even
if the amount was increased a hundred-fold, it would only comprise 6%.
It may be the case that certain situations require the isolated planting of coniferous trees
for economic purposes, or to plant fast-growing trees to accelerate the greening of an area. But
the fundamental principle behind creating forests with high disaster prevention and environmental preservation capacities is to conduct mixed and dense planting of as many different
types of trees, in accordance with the potential natural vegetation of the area. The planting
should center on the primary trees of the location, and following the laws of the natural forest.
Fast-growing trees like the poplar and eucalyptus grow extremely rapidly in the earlystages, leading many to think that they have a high capability for absorbing and solidifying carbon. But the effect is not lasting. Seedlings of potential natural vegetation indigenous to thearea, with well-developed roots, planted densely and with different species mixed together,will not require maintenance after three years. They may bloom slightly later, but they will
unfailingly grow through a process of competition, and will continue to live for hundreds ofyears. If plants cost money to maintain after five years, it is because they are secondary vegetation or substitute tree species; in other words, they are counterfeit.
Real forests consisting of potential natural vegetation are formed from tall trees, which
are the primary trees, and beneath them, semi-tall trees, short trees, and bottom weeds, with theentire forest functioning as a whole system. They are resistant to natural disasters liketyphoons, earthquakes, and fires, and do not collapse easily. They also serve as levees against
tsunami, and can be a shelter or an escape route in case of an emergency. In addition to such
local functions, globally, they absorb carbon and can be expected to curb global warming bysolidifying the carbon and maintaining it within the forest for countless years.
Naturally, live trees die after several hundred years. But the semi-tall trees and shorttrees underneath them have successor trees in waiting. When one tree dies, these successor
trees quickly dominate the space it left behind. As a result, forest systems sustain themselves
semi permanently.
Plant Trees—From under Your Feet to the World
Creating indigenous forests is possible around the world. On continents with vast amounts ofland, forests should be created on the largest possible scale. Places where even if desertification has progressed, plant trees. Approximately two-thirds of the deserts and semi-deserts on
Earth today are man-made. In other words, these are regions where forests have been devastated, annihilated, and turned into semi-deserts as a result of human activity over the longterm. It follows that pursuing an ecological response—although challenging—will enable
forests to recover, and that is what must be done. In addition, in places like Japan where land-255

mass is limited and the population is concentrated, forests should be created not only in mountain areas but also in the metropolitan areas as urban forests. They should also be planted in residential areas.
In the Japanese written language, the pictograph for “forest” is symbolized by threetrees, while the pictograph for “dense forest” is represented by five trees. As this implies, thefirst step is to plant a tree. If a problem arises, then a solution should be considered. Debates
and conferences are also necessary, but actions should first be implemented. Even if it is asmall number, plant indigenous forests—those that absorb and solidify carbon; have the capabilities to prevent disasters and preserve the environment; enhance the knowledge and awareness of all citizens; and function as reservoirs of potential energy for new activity. It is essential to implement measures to counter the source of environmental contamination on the one
hand, and, at the same time, aggressively plant trees to create a green environment brimmingwith life.
Recently, there has been a trend toward planting trees as a societal contribution, perhaps
as a result of society gaining some breathing room. They say it is to bring back the insects andthe wild birds, and to restore our natural habitat. There is no question that this is important. But
regardless of the scientific and technological advancements that we achieve, I would like forpeople to recognize the cold, harsh reality that we only sustain our lives by being parasites togreen plants. Restoring and regenerating real forests, the native forests by native trees with thegreatest concentration of greenery—our hosts—is of utmost importance. Recreating forests is
not merely for wild birds, or for other people. It is for you yourself to survive into the future ingood health, and to ensure the future of the blue planet that is rich in biodiversity, where alltypes of life forms can coexist.
Real forests created based on the research of potential natural vegetation should, as aforest system, last more than 10,000 years even if individual trees replace one another. They
should continue to exist provided there are no catastrophic circumstances or human-inflicted
destruction. The next ice age is predicted to arrive in 10,000 years. Let each one of us take anactive step to plant trees to create this forest of life, starting with the ground we stand on—for
ourselves, for our loved ones, for our many neighbors, and to protect this beautiful blue planet.
In the last 60 years, I have conducted field surveys in 38 countries around the world, andplanted 30 million trees in the last 30 or so years. The main participants of forest creation are
citizens. It is the local citizens of all ages who plant trees, with sweat on their brow and handsin the earth. The trees are planted densely with different species mixed together. The citizens’
efforts are overseen by governments, corporations, and all types of organizations, and are
based on the results of local field surveys of vegetation science, in accordance with the laws of
the natural forest. It is not necessary to plant large trees but to plant potted seedlings with welldeveloped roots of many different species of trees. Focus the planting on primary trees indigenous to the location; they will have the strength to grow into large trees. Anybody who is serious about this endeavor can start anywhere, at any time.
I am only 78 years old. From a biological standpoint, humankind should live for around
110 years. My dream, as the first Japanese recipient of the Blue Planet Prize, an award
acclaimed highly both domestically and abroad, is to continue planting trees for another 30

256years. I would like nothing more than to create the forest of life, the foundation for the survival
for all of Earth’s life forms and the key to human development, with the citizens of Japan, therest of Asia, and the entire world. I would like to make this dream come true. Let us plant trees
together—from under our feet, and into the world.

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Lecture

Aiming for the Restoration of a Green Global Environment
Restoration of the Green Environment on the Basis of Field Studies and Research into the Ecology of Vegetation
Dr. Akira Miyawaki
Introduction
I am deeply honored to receive the Asahi Glass Foundation’s 15th international global environmental award, the Blue Planet Prize. In accepting this honor, I would like to express bothmy debt and my heartfelt thanks to all the people who have given their support, cooperation,
guidance, and assistance, both in and away from the spotlight, for the humble research andenvironmental restoration activities with which I have had the good fortune to be involved.
Protecting the Environment Means Protecting Life
Science and technology have made astonishing advances, and we are now enjoying lifestyles
somewhat rich in material in the midst of an artificial environment that our ancestors could
never have imagined. The necessities for life and our other desires can mostly be fulfilled in
an instant, and in the virtual world of information technology in particular we can gain accessto information around the world with just a finger. Yet why is it that while we are blessed withsuch an environment, there exists a great many people who feel a vague unease about the
future? Perhaps it may come from some basic, animal instinct within us human beings who
have been made to dwell in an unliving, uniform urban environment from which the greeneryand the indigenous forests that once covered the land have almost all been lost.
If we are to live in good health into the future, we must protect the environment, whichis the very basis of living and health. Environmental problems are the most pressing issues facing us, which everyone from elementary schoolchildren to politicians in the world must
address. However, the area covered by the environment is extremely wide, comprising both
hands-on and more intangible aspects. Hands-on measures taken in such areas as energy conservation, waste disposal, or pollution source control are all important, but it is not sufficientjust to take partial measures that only focus on one side of the issue; the fact is that at best suchmeasures merely prevent the environment from deteriorating further than it already has. Rather
than just thinking in terms of returning the environment that has been lost to its original state,
for the sake of the future we need to proactively regenerate and create a rich environment forsurvival. Protecting the environment means protecting life from an ecological standpoint. Our
DNA and our genes stretch back for over three billion years in an unbroken chain; biologicallyspeaking, whole purpose of our short lifespan in this modern day, which measures less than
one hundred years, is to continue this chain of genes into the future.
The Role of Forests in Protecting Life
There are many types of greenery. Whether it be man-made, monoculture forests of conifers258

grown for lumber, undeveloped woodland surrounding rural settlements, or the purely cosmetic greenery grown to make our cities more pleasant, all greenery is important. Living
greenery is the only producer in the ecosystem. We human beings are consumers within thesocial order of living things, and we only live by being merely parasites on green plants. Green
plants are thus our hosts. Among the different types of greenery, real forests made up of trees
native to the area are three-dimensional, multi-layered communities with 30 times the surface
area of greenery of single-layered lawns, and have more than 30 times the ability to protect
against natural disasters and to conserve the environment. These forests are completely
unyielding to natural disasters such as fires, earthquakes, typhoons, or tsunamis. So the greenery that is most important to us now is the greenery of native forests made up of trees native tothe area, as symbolized by the groves of village shrines. Native forests protect life and protect
the environment.
I have been working on creating forests of indigenous trees in their native habitat forover 30 years, together with people of foresight from the government, private companies andthe general public. Rather than simply restoring forests that were there before, this work
involves creating genuine native forests through rigorous field surveys and research into theecology of the vegetation in order to ensure a future without the mistakes that have been madeso far. Forests that have been regenerated on the basis of potential natural vegetation cost nothing to maintain, are long lasting, and carry out a diverse range of functions. Native forests protect the lives of all the people born and raised in the area, and the people who go to school orwork there. They sharpen the senses for the creation of culture; they give rise to intellect for
new developments. I became wholly engrossed in regenerating this three-dimensional green
environment almost without realizing it. The conviction and the activities with which I devote
myself to creating forests for life are not something that came about overnight; I hope you will
look at them as the way I have lived for 78 years.
Specialty in the Ecology of Weeds
I was born the fourth son of a farming family in a mountainous area some 400 meters above
sea level in Kibi Kogen, Okayama Prefecture. I grew up watching the people around me carryout the hard task of clearing weeds and undergrowth by hand, and in my young mind I wondered if there could be a way to make life a bit easier for farmers by keeping the weeds at bay
without resorting to herbicides. I left elementary school at the end of the 1930s, in the midstof a disastrous war. My brothers went off to war, and my father decided that I, the youngest of
the four, should take over the family’s farm. However, perhaps because he thought I wouldn’t
be up to straightforward agricultural work as I was a rather weak and lazy fellow, he sent me
to Niimi High School of Agriculture and Forestry, one of three agriculture high schools in
Okayama Prefecture at the time.
Academic study became more interesting for me when I entered agricultural highschool, and as I felt I wanted to continue my studies a little further, I took the examination toenter Tokyo College of Agriculture and Forestry, which is now Tokyo University ofAgriculture and Technology, in Fuchu City. The examination was in February 1945, the final
year of the war. I couldn’t make it to the examination hall because of the fierce air raids on

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Tokyo, but I was given another chance to sit the examination a month later. The Tokaido Line
had sustained damage in the bombing and was out of use, so I had to make my way along thecoastline of the Japan Sea. It took me three days and three nights to reach my brother’s housein Saitama. My brother had avoided being conscripted due to his weak constitution and wasaiming to become a writer of stories for children. The night I arrived, the sky to the south wasbright red. It was March 9, the night of the firebombing of Tokyo. The following day I walked
to Fuchu, and after all I had been through I was finally able to sit the examination. I entered
Tokyo College of Agriculture and Forestry on the biology course, which had been specially set
up because there were not enough biology teachers in the junior high schools, girls’ highschools and normal schools at the time.
At that time I didn’t have any special liking for green plants; in fact, I was rather indifferent to them. Right by my parents’ house there were plantations of cedar and cypress trees,
as well as groves of undeveloped woodland—called satoyama in Japanese—with deciduoustrees such as sawtooth oak, konara oak and Japanese snowbell. There were also meadows of
cut grass, rice paddies and crop fields. All around was a mass of greenery, yet I longed for the
big cities standing shrouded in black smoke that I had seen in my text books in elementary andjunior school. As a youth, my dream was to live somewhere where I could hear the deafeningroar of airplanes every day.
When I actually moved to Tokyo, the year the war ended, there was a grave shortage offood and I felt the pangs of hunger in my belly. Nonetheless, I threw myself into my studies
with Ichiro Oga and my fellow students. Going out to Mt. Takao to carry out surveys andlooking at the grass and trees of the fields, I was amazed by the variety of plant species which
I had never even noticed before. When I went back home to Okayama for the summer vacation, I was surprised again to discover that the wild plants growing in the fields were more orless the same as I had seen in Tokyo.
After graduating I worked for a year as a teacher of biology and English at Niimi
Agricultural High School in Okayama, but I very much wanted to study some more. However,I did not want to return to the hunger of Tokyo, and instead I went to Hiroshima University of
Literature and Science (now Hiroshima University), which was then the nearest national university to Okayama. It was normal for students from agricultural school to go into the biology
department, and I opted to specialize in plants, as I couldn’t stand the sight of blood. It was four
years since the atom bomb had devastated Hiroshima; the ceiling of the science departmentbuilding, which had escaped being burned down, was pitch black and the electric lines stillhung down. There were just nine other students beside me, and we studied as hard as we could,
at night cooking rice in a camping pot together. I enjoyed it immensely.
I was fortunate to be taught by Dr. Yoshio Horikawa, who took a fieldwork-oriented
approach and had walked throughout Japan studying plant distribution. When I was asked
what I wanted to study for my graduation thesis, I replied straight away that I wanted to study
weed ecology. I had grown up watching farmers struggle with weeds, and so one way or
another I wanted to become an expert on them. Dr. Horikawa looked me steadily in the eye.
“Weeds are on the border of science and agriculture—there is almost no one working in thatarea,” he said. “If you study weeds, Miyawaki, your work will probably never see the light of260

day and no one will have anything to do with you. But if you are determined to risk everything
on this, then you should certainly go ahead and do it.” I am an extremely earthy individual, andI have spent nearly 60 years since then single-mindedly tramping the field.
Weeds grow quickly, and so surveys of weeds need to be carried out in each of the four
seasons. Four times a year I would spend 60 days—a total of 240 days—surveying groups ofweeds from Kagoshima in the south to Otoineppu on the island of Hokkaido in the north,sleeping on night trains as I traveled the country. Otoineppu was then the most northerly regionof Japan where rice was cultivated. When I graduated from Hiroshima University of Literatureand Science, plant physiologist Prof. Yasona Fukuda told me that I needed to study some more
and he took me to Tokyo. There I entered the morphology laboratory of Prof. Ken Ogura, partof the graduate school of the old University of Tokyo. I was never very keen on using a microscope, but when I was given a task I put everything into coming to grips with it. I entered the
University of Tokyo laboratory in April, and in May I was appointed to the position of assistant at Yokohama National University. For the next six years I spent three days a week at themorphology laboratory of the University of Tokyo, and the other three days teaching at
Yokohama National University as an assistant under Prof. Masao Kitagawa, devoting myself
to research into weeds. I also wrote two theses in English and one in German, which brought
together the research I carried out under Prof. Ogura into morphological and ecological variations in the roots of weeds in relation to differences in the amount of moisture.
Just as Prof. Horikawa had predicted, Japanese scholars did not want anything to dowith me. However, one day an airmail letter arrived. Apparently, my work had caught the eyeof Prof. Dr. Drs. mult. Reinhold Tüxen, who was then director of the Federal Institute for
Vegetation Mapping in Germany. “Weeds are at the point where human activity meets naturalvegetation, and are extremely important,” he wrote. “I am also working in this area; by allmeans come and join me.” This was in the days when an air ticket to Germany cost 450,000
yen. The salary for an assistant at Yokohama National University was then 9,000 yen a month,while a professor made 20,000 yen a month; going to Germany seemed almost impossible. I
was fortunate, though, to receive assistance from the German government and the Humboldt
Foundation, and it was arranged for me to study in Germany for nearly two years from the endof September 1958. Professor Tüxen turned out to be the most important teacher I have had.
Vegetation Science and Phytosociology Learned in the Field
I was to study at a vegetation-mapping laboratory in Stolzenau, a small town in Germany
where the laboratory was evacuated with a population of 5,000 people. I remember that in late
September the bitter winter winds were already blowing in northwest Germany, and it was
unpleasantly cold. Right from the day after I arrived, I was taken out every day to carry out
field surveys, and I spent the nights drawing up a comparative study of the data the laboratory
had on weeds from around the world and the data I had collected in Japan.
I began to wonder if it was really worth spending every day out in the harsh conditionsof freezing wind mixed with drizzle just making field surveys of plants and soil profiles, andso after about a month I rather timidly asked Professor Tüxen if I could perhaps do someslightly more scientific research. Professor Tüxen was a grave, imposing figure, like the last of261

the great Teutonic warriors. He fixed me with a steely blue eye; “What is scientific?” he asked.
I answered, “I want to listen to some professor’s lectures in Berlin Technical University andwant to read books in Bonn University” Then he said “It’s too early for you to listen to people
talking or to read books. Get out there into the field—there are three billion years of the history of life out there, there is a real life drama unfolding under our great sun that the German
government could never achieve, no matter how many million marks they threw into research.
Your own body should be the instrument to measure it—study it by looking at it with youreyes, touching it with your hands, smell it, taste it, feel it!” He drove into me the art of thoroughly scrutinizing plants in the field. Together with Professor Tüxen and the other researchers
working there, I carried out exhaustive field studies of every group of plants—from the weeds
growing in fields and grasslands to secondary forest, the heaths (heide in German) formed asa result of degradation of the vegetation through long years of human activity, and the homestead woodland and forests of native trees. Fieldwork was the most important thing—always,
it was fieldwork.
Around the time I published my first thesis on plant communities, Professor Tüxen said
to me, “Weeds are important, but they are just like my beard—they grow because you cut them.
The important thing is the concept of ‘potential natural vegetation,’ in other words what sortof vegetation a given area has the ability to support.” Professor Tüxen had published his ideaof potential natural vegetation, the unadorned, indigenous vegetation of an area, in 1956, andit was thoroughly instilled into me out in the field. In both Europe and Japan, most of the vegetation has changed under the influence of various different human activities, and most of thereal forests made up of native vegetation have been lost. Distinguishing the potential naturalvegetation of an area is just like trying to see a body through the clothes it is wearing—you
can’t really make it out. It is so difficult that I first thought you needed some special, ninja-typeskills.
One day, when it was getting near the time to return to Japan, I woke up in the middleof the night and for some reason the image of a festival I attended as a child entered my head.
It was the festival of Onzaki Shrine in my hometown, which was held at the beginning of
every November and at the time was the sole amusement in my remote village. The traditional
Bitchu kagura music and dancing, which started from midnight, was performed at the shrine
all through the night. I remembered walking out into the small precinct yard at half past fourin the morning when the music and dancing ended and seeing the branches of the trees stretching upwards, jet black against the dawn sky. I had trembled with emotion when I saw those
trees all those years ago, and in a flash it struck me—surely they were the primary trees forpotential natural vegetation!
My Interest Moves from Weeds to Trees
As soon as I returned to Japan, I visited Onzaki Shrine. The surroundings of the shrine were
occupied by secondary forests of broad-leaved trees and plantations of cedar and cypress, but
on either side of the steps to the shrine were huge specimens of Quercus acuta and Q. salicina(see photo). These trees were the primary trees for the potential natural vegetation of areas of
the Chugoku region at an altitude of around 400 meters. Whereas I had only been interested in262

weeds up until then, after returning to Japan I carried out exhaustive surveys of all types of vegetation. My surveys covered everything from theplants growing in cities and industrial areas, secondary forests such as the mixed woodlandaround rural settlements, and plantations of cedar,to the groves remaining in village shrines up anddown the country. My first thesis in which I freed
myself from weeds was a research investigation
into the evergreen forest that remains on theisland of Amami Oshima.
Big trees of Quercus acuta and Q. salicina at
Around that time in Germany, vegetation Onzaki Shrine
maps, and in particular, potential natural vegetation maps, were being used for urban planning, regional planning, planning of industrial areas,and even national land conservation. In Japan, however, there was no one who would recognize the value of using vegetation mapping, and there were no requests at all for vegetation surveys. During the roughly 10 years following my return to Japan at the end of 1960, I devoted
myself to just going around Japan, carrying out field surveys of vegetation. It was around thistime that young people from around the country who were interested in studying under megathered at Yokohama National University’s education department, which at the time did nothave the right of awarding degrees. No one who came was turned away, and no one who left
was chased after; we were simply absorbed in our work. During the day we went out into thefield, surveying every different type of plant community in places ranging from forests tograsslands, even the communities of weeds growing in cities, and at night we compiled andcollated our data. This decade was perhaps the most fulfilling period of my life, and I think it
was decisive in shaping my later fieldwork-oriented stance on research. We accumulated amass of data on the vegetation around Japan, which came from the results of surveys carriedout by crawling around on the ground, and these data were so important they were practicallya census of the nation’s greenery.
Fortunately, we started to receive requests from different companies for cooperation
over research surveys in the 1970s. Researchers are egoistic people—I politely refused any
requests or any assistance that did not benefit my own research. My method was to survey all
the vegetation on-site. In other words, using the vegetation science methods that were widelyused internationally, I would judge the degree of cover and the degree of community formation of each plant present there, and draw up a census of the greenery. From regional data I
made comparisons on a global scale and compiled plant community units and clusters madeup of combinations of species; these are termed “associations.” By further comparing similar
communities to each other, I compiled them into alliances, orders, and classes. My aim wasalways to make a phytosociological organization of plant communities like this. Furthermore,whenever I received an external request to cooperate over a survey, I would without fail append
a text in an European language to the survey or research report—we were studying the world,
for the world. I asked them to print over 500 additional reprints, and, gladly or grudgingly, they263

cooperated. As far as I was concerned, a vegetation survey did not end with simply putting out
the report; it didn’t become a real research survey until it had been subjected to the unforgiving,
critical eyes of a great many specialists at international academic gatherings. And if the results
were not the scientific research results of real vegetation surveys, they would be of no use in creating real forests for protection against natural disasters and environmental conservation.
The Completion of Vegetation of Japan
So we were completely engrossed in carrying out vegetation surveys up and down the country with the cooperation of companies, municipal governments, central government ministries,
and other organizations that all had the necessary foresight. We drew the actual distribution ofvegetation communities into diagnostic maps of the current status of greenery, and existing
vegetation maps that could be of use to related sciences. The existing vegetation is completely
different from the original vegetation, which has been changed by human intervention, and soat the same time I also gained a grasp of the sort of natural vegetation that the sum total of thenatural environment could support if all human influence were stopped. This is not necessarily the same as the original vegetation; it is today’s potential natural vegetation, and we mapped
its spread in the form of potential natural vegetation maps. While comparing existing vegetation maps with potential natural vegetation maps, I made a diagnosis of the natural environment of the area, and made full use ofthis as a scientific scenario for using
potential natural vegetation in the creation of forests where the original
forests of the area had been lost. I did
not limit the work of drawing up thesevegetation data, greenery censuses andvegetation maps just to any given
region—my real desire was to draw
them up on a nationwide scale thatwould cover every region of Japan.
Existing vegetation of JapanI was fortunate enough to receive
promotional expenses for publicizing
the findings of my research from thethen Ministry of Education, and I wasable to compile and publish them as 10
volumes of Vegetation of Japan, (Vol. 1,
Yakushima; Vol. 2, Kyushu; Vol. 3,
Shikoku; Vol. 4, Chugoku; Vol. 5,
Kinki; Vol. 6, Chubu; Vol. 7, Kanto; Vol.
8, Tohoku; Vol. 9, Hokkaido; Vol. 10,
Ogasawara, Okinawa). I sweated bloodover this huge task. Vegetation of Japan
was published at the rate of one volume
Potential natural vegetation of Japan264

a year starting in 1980. My approach wasto compile and collate the vegetation survey data and vegetation maps from theareas of Japan that had been surveyed sofar, while at the same time carrying out athorough field survey of the vegetation of
the area to be published the following year.
My aim was for a near-perfect collectionof vegetation survey data; during the day I
worked hard at the fieldwork and at night I
sorted through the data. I put a great dealof effort into determining individual plantcommunity units, and organizing and sys- Completed 10 volume Vegetation of Japantemizing plant communities that could becompared on a global scale. While I was working on compiling Vol. 1, Yakushima, I was concurrently working on the vegetations surveys for Vol. 2, Kyushu, which was to be publishedthe following year; while I compiled the Kyushu data, I was also carrying out surveys in
Shikoku. Working in this way, I completed 10 volumes of Vegetation of Japan over the courseof 10 years. The compositional charts of plant communities that are a census of the nation’s
greenery, the existing vegetation maps that serve as diagnostic maps for the present status ofgreenery, and the potential natural vegetation maps that serve as a scientific scenario for theregeneration of a new green environment were printed in 12 colors, and an index wasappended. The text ran to 6,000 pages, and the whole thing weighed 36 kilograms.
Working under such relentless conditions, I would never have completed the Vegetationof Japan if it were not for the 116 people from universities and research organizations aroundthe country who so generously cooperated on the project. At the very core, though, it was justfive or six researchers from the vegetation laboratory of Yokohama National University who
carried out the work of determining the plant community units, organizing them on a global
scale, and producing vegetation maps. Just as we were approaching the third volume, AssistantProfessor Shigetoshi Okuda said to me on behalf of the research team that they wanted me totake a break for a year. If they carried on like that they were all going to die, he said, and did I
really want to kill them? It was just at the time that an Southeast Asian plant community survey project was being carried out with overseas survey funds from the then Ministry of
Education. I had set my heart on this project, which involved spending three months of theyear, from November to January, carrying out overseas surveys in parallel in Borneo, Thailand,
Malaysia, and Indonesia. I thought long and hard about it, but I realized that if I broke off theJapanese vegetation project for a year, despite all the effort that had gone into getting it started
it would probably just end there. So I told them that I was going to give everything I had, andI wanted them to do the same. We came to a mutual understanding, and in that way we brought
all 10 volume of the Vegetation of Japan to completion. I really am enormously grateful to all
the members of the research laboratories from that time, to all the researchers around Japan
who supported them, and to my senior researchers for their cooperation and for the results of265their splendid efforts.
The distinctive feature of Vegetation of Japan is that not only does it contain the resultsof vegetation surveys and vegetation maps compiled from a global perspective, it also has alarge section on the vegetation ecology approach to the conservation and regeneration of thegreen environment at the end of each volume. These sections contain specific proposals compiled by region for the preservation of natural vegetation that is close to the original vegetationof the region, and for the creation of disaster prevention and nature conservation forests native
to the area, forests that nurture river sources, urban forests, forests in industrial areas, andforests to protect the environment of roads and traffic facilities. From the tall trees that will
form the main species of future forests, to the semi-tall trees, the bushes and flowering shrubs,
and the species that make up the mantle communities at the forest edge, every tree species islisted by its potential natural vegetation regions. I believe Vegetation of Japan is now being
used as the fundamental ecological work for conservation and regeneration of the green environment. Additionally, as Japan stretches for 3,000 kilometers across the central region of theNorthern Hemisphere, the completion of the 10 volumes of Vegetation of Japan has received
acclaim overseas. All the data is also appended in European languages, so Vegetation of Japan
should have a place as a basic text in many universities and libraries across America andEurope.
Research into Non-flowering Vegetation Begins to Attract Attention: Creating Forests
Based on Potential Natural Vegetation
From around the end of the 1960s onward that there
was a rapid growth in industry, and there was
exploitation of nature on a massive scale.
Atmospheric and water pollution became more andmore serious, and such hazards came to beaddressed as grave social problems. There was an
unexpected backlash of public opinion, and civil
campaigns opposed to pollution and the destructionof nature spread from the regions. The small laboraPlanted area in front of the main gate of
tory where we weed people worked, which had preYokohama National University
viously had no connection to society, suddenly had
visitors coming one after another. I thought their
only real interest in coming was probably just to ask
us to plant some greenery to atone for the pollution
they had caused. I always answered that I would not
help by planting greenery just as a temporary coverup. I would, though, be very happy to cooperate increating a real, native forest based on the potential
natural vegetation of the area. Most of the people
who came to the laboratory said no way, that’s justThe main gate of Yokohama National
pure cheek, and went home in a huff. But there were
University (five years after planting)266

some people who thought that this Miyawaki
person’s ideas might just have something tothem, and so to find out more they asked me togive lectures at their company headquarters orcame back with their company executives in tow
to hear again what I had to say. These people
seriously looked into creating forests.
The first forest I created was at the requestof Nippon Steel Corporation. In 1971, there wasa telephone call to the laboratory at seven
Potted seedlings with well-established rootsystems (Machilus)
o’clock one morning from Ken Shikimura, headof the newly-formed environmental division of
Nippon Steel Corporation. He had attended oneof my lectures at the Japan Association of
Corporate Executives in Tokyo, and he wanted
my cooperation in creating a forest. This was aperiod when the big companies were considered
the main culprits for the pollution and
Yokohama National University was seen as ahotbed of left-wing activity. It was unthinkablefor a major company and a university to put
Planted area in a shopping center
together a joint project, but I told him, rather
audaciously, “The lives of the trees I plant are at stake. If you are prepared to put your job on
the line as well, I will help you.” These were the words of a greenhorn assistant professor at a
new university, but Mr. Shikimura replied, “Of course I’ll do it for real.” And so began the creation of a forest at the Oita Steelworks, which was then still under construction.
When I visited the site, I found it was reclaimed land with seawater rising up. The prefectural and municipal authorities had planted various trees, but only the stakes to support themremained. I carried out a vegetation survey of the surrounding area, and found the primary trees
for potential natural vegetation such as Machilus tunbergii, Castanopsis cuspidate, blue
Japanese oak, and Quercus myrsinaefolia, growing at nearby Usa Shrine to heights of over 20
meters and with trunk diameters at breast height of over 80 centimeters. I proposed that theseeds of these trees—their acorns—be gathered and used for planting.
Japan has heavy rainfall, and if the soil is too wet it is difficult for deep-rooted trees ortrees with axial roots to grow. I realized that for the trees to grow well, it would be best to create a mound to improve the drainage and plant the trees on top of the mound. I had all the waste
left lying around the vast site, such as waste wood and anything else that was neither poisonous
nor difficult to break down, used as a natural resource; it was mixed into soil, and I had this built
up into a rounded mound between 30 and 50 meters in width, 10 meters at the narrowest, andabout five meters high.
Conifers such as cedar, Japanese cypress, or pine have shallow roots, and if planted asbare seedlings they soon take. However, the trees I wanted to plant were species with deep267

roots or axial root systems, which are difficult totransplant—so difficult that gardeners tend to dislike them. I couldn’t create a real forest without fulluse of these species, and through trial and error I
found that planting potted trees worked well. I
planted acorns in pots, and after a year and a half or
two years there would be 30-centimeter seedlings
with well-established root systems. I planted these
Trees planted on the premises of Tokyoon the mound, where the topsoil had been restored,
Electric Power's Higashi Ohgishima
thermal power station immediately after
together with all the other people working on theplanting
project.
The style of planting whereby trees thathave already grown big are planted here and there
on a lawn, supported by stakes, is used for creating
the scenery of parks or gardens and it means creating what is basically a heath-like, wilderness landscape. For a natural plant community (society), thebest situation is where the plants compete witheach other and have to put up with each other. Our
Nature conservation forest grown on themethod of planting trees followed the law of thepremises of Tokyo Electric Power's
forest, and seedlings whose roots had filled the pot
Higashi Ohgishima thermal power station
were planted densely, different species mixed
together. In a natural forest, between 30 and 50 seedlings sprout per square meter. There aresome places in Borneo where there are between 500 and nearly 1,000 seedlings per square
meter. We densely planted different species together in the proportion of about three seedlings
per square meter.
In a natural forest, seedlings emerge from a covering of fallen leaves, and when creating
the forest we spread a thick layer of rice straw on the ground. Three or four kilos of straw per
square meter is about right, and we spread it as gently as if we were putting a blanket over asleeping baby. The straw gradually forms a mulch, which is extremely important; even if there
is no rain the seedlings do not have to be watered for 40 days or so, and even if there is a sudden, 150-millimeter deluge one night the soil will not be washed away. The mulch also servesto protect against cold, and makes it difficult for weeds to grow. As the straw rots, it fertilizes
the soil.
These days I am rather more timid, but then it was a case of fools rush in where angels
fear to tread; I brazenly announced to the Nippon Steel Corporation, said to be the world’s
number one company, “The primary trees for potential natural vegetation like these species ofchinquapin, Machilus, and oak have grown together with the residents of this region over hundreds of years. I want a guarantee that if the trees of these species that we planted at the steelworks all suddenly die off one day, you will turn off your blast furnaces.” Nippon SteelCorporation asked for three days to think about it. Mr. Shikimura and Hideaki Nakagawa, themanager of the Administrative Department, got back to me: “OK. We will do everything we

268

Comparison of classical and new succession
theories

Location of disaster-prevention and nature
conservation forests created in Japan (1,400 asof September 30, 2006)

can for pollution source control,” they said. After that, I worked on the creation of forests notjust in Oita but also for all of Nippon Steel’s other steelworks in Nagoya, Sakai, Kamaishi,
Futtu, Hikari, Muroran, and Yawata.
When the then Ministry of Trade and Industry established the Factory Location Law,
which stipulated that 20% of the area of the land on which a new factory was built must be covered with vegetation, many young officials came to us and I gave various different proposals.
However, because the law made no reference to the type of trees to be planted, in the end there
were many cases in which the greening just took the form of a few fully-grown, non-native
trees with insufficient roots planted here and there on a lawn. As a consequence, greeningaround factories had a bad reputation for costing too much in maintenance fees. However, ourway of creating forests using seedlings of trees indigenous to the area with well-developedroots, planted densely and with different species mixed together, gradually became better
understood. Electricity companies such as Tokyo Electric Power, Kansai Electric Power,
Kyushu Electric Power, and Okinawa Electric Power, and companies such as Toray, Honda
Motors, and Mitsui Fudosan—thinking about it now, these were international corporations—
all put our ideas for forest creation into practice. Of course, there were a great many small andmedium-sized companies, as well as local authorities with foresight, who also started to work
to create real forests in different regions. In this way, disaster-prevention and nature conservation forests of trees indigenous to the area took shape around the country.
In the retail industry, Takuya Okada, honorary president of Jusco, part of the Aeon
Group, gave his understanding and consent and from 1990 it was decided that all new premises
were to carry out forest creation work. Under this plan, the space around new premises, even
if only one meter in width, is covered in a three-dimensional forest, centered around the primary trees for potential natural vegetation. Trees with seasonal flowers are good as a sort ofcosmetic touch for the marginal trees facing a road, a bit like the patterned hem of a kimono.
Along the coastline trees that are resistant to salt water, such as Japanese pittosporum, Indian
hawthorn, and Eurya emarginata, are planted; inland, it is trees that flower in winter such as
snow camellia and sasanqua camellia, or spring-flowering trees such as gardenia or daphne.

269

Comparison of CO 2 absorption and fixation
between subtropical rainforest in Malaysia andevergreen forest in Japan (from D2H)

Satsuki azalea or azalea are planted on southfacing slopes. The trees are mixed together
and densely planted, in line with the laws of anatural forest, and mantle communities form.
People going to do their shopping always passthrough a park with flowers, and dead leaves
do not fall outside the group of trees—they
decompose with time, and help in the reproduction of the forest. As of August 2006, theAeon Group has created forest like this at 550
sites, which include places in Malaysia,
Thailand, Hong Kong, and China. Over six
million seedlings have been planted by local
citizens. Magnificent forests have developed
where the primary trees for potential naturalvegetation were planted, and these are someof the few places in the world where shopping
centers surrounded by green forests can beseen standing out in the midst of urban desert.
Regenerating Forests Overseas(1) Southeast Asia
The established opinion up until the 1970s was that the world’s great tropical forests ofSoutheast Asia, the South American Amazon, and Central Africa could not be regenerated
once they had been destroyed, and so they should be preserved without any logging. However,

Clockwise from top left; Seeds of lauan tree botanized in Malaysia, A seed bed in Brunei Forestry
Center (June 3, 1991), 2000 people planting 6,000 trees at eight hundred hectares of burnt fields on the
Bintulu campus of the Universiti Putra Malaysia in Bintulu, Sarawak State, Malaysia, (July 1991),
Planted area on the Bintulu campus of the Universiti Putra Malaysia (July 15, 1991), Planted area at
Universiti Putra Malaysia (August 20, 2006)270

as I carried out field surveys in Southeast Asia, my assessment was that it was difficult but not
impossible to regenerate the ecosystems of the tropical forests, which are a treasure house of
every biotic resource. To do this, rather than planting non-native species such as Australianeucalyptus or American pine, it is necessary to densely plant the area with a mix of the primarytree species indigenous to the area. The primary trees could be ascertained by carrying out thenecessary field studies.
As luck would have it, Mitsubishi Corporation put forward a proposal and in 1990 I set
up the world’s first project aiming to regenerate native tropical rainforest. The site for the project was an 800-hectare area of burnt fields on the Bintulu campus of the Universiti Putra
Malaysia (UPM) in the Malaysian state of Sarawak. I collected the seeds of indigenous tree
species, the primary tree communities for potential natural vegetation, and grew them in pots.
Some 2,000 people took part in the first tree-planting festival on July 15, 1991, including students at the UPM and members of the local Iban tribe. We had to dig the holes for planting thetrees by hand, so that time we only managed to plant 6,000 trees, but those 30-centimeter
seedlings with their sturdy roots that filled the pots have now reached a height of nearly 20
meters and are growing unhindered into a forest that is close to the ecosystem of a natural rainforest (see photo).
Since then, tree-planting festivals have been held every year right up until the present,
and starting 13 years ago around 30 Japanese volunteers have taken part every year; together
with local people, they are working on creating forests.
This project to regenerate the rainforest was extremely well received in Malaysia
because it was carried out in the form of a joint research project with the UPM, which is thecountry’s oldest university. On July 30, 2006, I was awarded an honorary doctorate inforestry—I was the first foreigner to receive such a degree, and I was deeply honored to receive
it from the Sultan in person at a magnificent degree ceremony to mark the university’s 75th
anniversary. I pledged once again my desire to work even more energetically for the regeneration of natural tropical rainforest in Malaysia and other parts of Southeast Asia together withlocal people as well as volunteers from Japan and other countries.
I am now working on regenerating water conservation forest and dry tropical forest in
Thailand and Cambodia together with local people and volunteers from Japan by planting
seedlings mainly of the primary trees for potential natural vegetation.
(2) The Brazilian Amazon, Kenya in Africa, and China
After the tropical rainforest regeneration project in Borneo, we started a field survey of the vegetation in the Brazilian Amazon on the South American continent in December 1990, with theaim of regenerating lowland tropical forest. We decided to hold the first tree-planting festival
ten days before the Earth Summit, which was held in Brazil in 1992. In Southeast Asia we had
carried out field surveys over a period of more than 10 years, but we only spent just over a year
on the field survey in the Brazilian Amazon. We determined that the primary trees for potential natural vegetation as virola and other trees in the outskirts of Belem, the capital of the Stateof Para, but it was by no means certain that we had determined all the primary trees in theindigenous forest. We therefore grew seedlings in pots of over 20 species of the tall trees found271

The Miyawaki method for regenerating tropical forest

Pattern diagram of secondary succession at a burnt natural rainforest, Malaysia

272

in the area. We invited then Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Yasushi Murazumi
and his wife to the festival, and altogether 1,000 people, including students of University ofAgrarian Sciences of Pará (Faculade de Ciencias Agrarias do Para) and local people, planted
a total of 10,000 seedlings.
Among the trees we planted, fast-growing species such as balsa at first grew at atremendous rate. After three years they were six meters high, after five years, 10 meters. From
the tenth year onward, however, these trees started to topple over and die, even though there
were no strong winds. On the other hand, trees such as the virola, which had been considered
one of the primary trees, grew steadily and are now forming a forest that closely resembles alowland tropical forest ecosystem. This project was carried out in the form of a joint research
project with University of Agrarian Sciences of Pará (Faculade de Ciencias Agrarias do Para),
with the cooperation of the then Eidai Brazil and the Mitsubishi Corporation.
After successfully regenerating tropical forest in Malaysia and the Amazon, I am currently working on regenerating the tropical forest of Africa, the last of the world’s three great
tropical forests. I am carrying out the regeneration work in Kenya which lies along the equator.
I became involved in this area after Wangari Maathai, the Nobel prizewinner from Kenya who
has planted 30 million trees in Africa, asked for advice. She told me that foreign tree species
such as eucalyptus, which were planted during the colonial era, were destroying the hills. I
went to Kenya twice, in December 2005 and March 2006, to carry out field surveys of the vegetation. I plan to do all I can for the regeneration of the African tropical forests, and I will holdtree-planting festivals in November of this year (2006) and March 2007, together with membersof Kenya’s Green Belt Movement as well as companies and volunteers from Japan.
I have also been working to create forests in continental China, which is Japan’s neigh-People planting trees in the Brazilian
Amazon(above and above right), Plantedarea in the Brazilian Amazon(right)

273

bor and also the womb that nurtured Japan’s vegetation. This work is based on the results ofsurveys I carried out with grants for overseas surveys from the former Ministry of Education.
I met with Takuya Okada, honorary chairman of the Aeon Environment Foundation, and the
Beijing Municipal People’s Government, and the decision was made to regenerate the indigenous forests along the Great Wall on the outskirts of Beijing over a three-year period startingin 1998. At the time I was the first Asian to have been elected President of the International
Association for Ecology, and with the recommendation of both Japan and China I was
appointed to lead the project. From previous surveys I knew that the primary tree around theGreat Wall in the province of Yanqing was Quercus mongolica, and we proposed to the mayorthat we should create forests using mainly this species. However, the head of the city’s Forestry
Division and others told us, “Those sort of trees disappeared ages ago, we don’t have themnow. The only ones we do have are poplar, false acacia, willow, and alder.” Fast-growing trees
like that develop quickly but they do not last a long time. I insisted that if we were going to create a forest it had to be a real forest with indigenous tree species that could withstand disasters
and would last a long time.
On three separate occasions between 1998 and 2000 we planted a total of 400,000
seedlings, mainly of the primary tree Quercus mongolica and also Chinese arborvitae, Chinesepine, acer and other species, together with 3,200 Chinese people from Beijing and elsewhere,
as well as 3,980 volunteers from Japan. Because the trees were planted in very rocky areas withharsh conditions their initial development was rather slow, but a field survey carried out in Juneof this year (2006), the sixth year since the final planting, showed that with some exceptions
the Quercus mongolica and other trees have grown over three meters high. Their roots have

Planted area along the Great Wall of China

Tree-planting festival in China

Tree planting in China

Planted area in the Pudong district of Shanghai,
China

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eaten their way firmly into the rock, binding the slopes like living rope. I was able to confirm
that a native forest based on potential natural vegetation is steadily being regenerated.
The same sort of forest creation is being carried out using species indigenous to the areain the Pudong district of Shanghai, which is currently undergoing development, as well as
along the Qingdao Expressway, around the Maanshan Steelworks, and other areas. All of theseprojects have been commissioned by local city authorities or companies, who plant theseedlings together with local residents. Forests are also being created around the Aeon shopping centers at Huhehaote in Inner Mongolia, Linxi, and Guangzhou.
Indigenous Forests and Biodiversity
Tree-planting festivals based on the concept of potential natural vegetation and on ecological fieldsurveys of vegetation have so far been held over 1,500 times in Japan and overseas. I have planted
trees with a huge number of people; together we have worked up a sweat on our brows and felt
the solid earth with our hands. I believe that there is so much more to planting a tree than just ascientific investigation to take stock of the present conditions—it is the act of planting a tree inthe hearts of every individual. The forest is the root of all life; it is the womb that revives our biological instincts, that deepens our intelligence and increases our sensitivity as human beings.
Local forests that have been regenerated or created using trees indigenous to the area on
the basis of the concept of potential natural vegetation do not just carry out diverse functions ofdisaster prevention and environmental protection; at the same time they have an ecological connection to the conservation and maintenance of biodiversity. E.O. Wilson advocated the importance of biodiversity at the 1992 United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, after which
the preservation of biodiversity became a worldwide environmental theme. There is now anever-growing body of thought that we should preserve native and endemic species, preserve all
their particular characteristics from their genes to their ecosystems, and ensure their continuity
in every region of the world.
We have successfully regenerated forests of multi-layered plant communities that are
extremely close to their natural state using the method of densely planting mixed species indigenous to the area. We have worked to regenerate and maintain the diverse forest ecosystems, fromthe layers of tall trees and semi-tall trees to the short trees, the bottom weeds and even the bacteria in the soil. For us, the protection of biodiversity is a fundamental principle that guides ouractions. We started putting our method of forest creation into practice in the 1970s, which meansthat we pre-empted Wilson’s thinking on the preservation of biodiversity by nearly 20 years.
Protecting the environment of indigenous forests is protecting life, protecting genes, andprotecting the mind. At the same time, it makes a definite contribution to the regeneration andmaintenance of ecosystems and biodiversity native to particular areas. Everyone has a leadingrole to play in creating forests. Let us go out and create real forests based on potential naturalvegetation—not waiting for tomorrow, but starting now from where we are standing and spreading outward to the whole world. I myself am resolved to continue to plant trees based on potential natural vegetation together with you all, starting from where I stand and spreading to thewhole world, so long as I have life left in my body. Receiving the Blue Planet Prize has madethis resolve stronger still.

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Major Publications
Dr. Akira Miyawaki
Books
1. Miyawaki,A. (1970) Plants and Humans — Balance of Biocoenosis — 230pp.
NHK Books 109. Japan Broadcast Publishing, Tokyo. (Japanese).
2. Miyawaki,A. (1983) Testimony by Green Plants. 241pp. Tokyo-Shoseki, Tokyo. (Japanese).
3. Miyawaki,A.(1987) Forest is Life — Ecology and the right to live— . 268pp.
Yuhikaku, Tokyo. (Japanese).
4. Miyawaki,A.(1991) Prescription for Restoration of Green Environments. 289pp Asahi-Shinbun-sha, Tokyo.
(Japanese).
5. Miyawaki,A. et al.(1994) Vegetation in Eastern North America — Vegetation System and Dynamics under
Human Activity in the Eastern North American Cultural Region in Comparison with Japan —. 515pp. Univ.
of Tokyo Press, Tokyo.
6. Miyawaki,A.(1997) Green Environments and Vegetation Science — Chinjuno-mori to the global forest. —244pp. NTT Publishing, Tokyo. (Japanese).
7. Miyawaki,A.(1999): Bring Forests to Life. 178pp. Dainippon-tosho, Tokyo. (Japanese).
8. Miyawaki,A.& Itabashi,K.(2000) Chinju-no-mori(Native forests of native trees)
159pp. Shincho-sha, Tokyo. (Japanese).
9. Miyawaki,A. et al.(2004) Planting Tomorrow. 287pp. Mainichi-Shinbun-sha, Tokyo. (Japanese).
10. Miyawaki,A.(2005) Forests of acorns save our lives. 192pp. Shuei-sha, Tokyo. (Japanese).
11. Miyawaki,A.(2005) A man who planted the most trees in Japan. Textbook for NHK TV Program. 161pp.
Japan Broadcast Publishing, Tokyo. (Japanese).
12. Miyawaki,A.(2006) 30,000,000 seedlings bear native forests. 205pp. Japan Broad-cast Publishing, Tokyo.
(Japanese).
13. Miyawaki,A.(2006) Plant Trees!. 220pp. Shincho-sha, Tokyo. (Japanese).
14. Miyawaki,A. & Box, E.O. (2006) The Healing Power of Forests. The Philosophy behind Restoring Earth’s
Balance with Native Trees. 286pp. Kosei Publishing Co., Tokyo.

Articles1. Miyawaki,A. & Itow,S.(1966) Phytosociological Approach to the Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources in Japan. Presented at Divisional Meeting of Conservation, the 11th Pacific Science Congress. 5pp.
Tokyo.
2. Miyawaki,A.(1975) Entwicklung der Umweltschutz-Pflanzungen und -Ansaaten.
In: Tüxen,R.(ed.) Sukzessionforschung. Berichte der Internationalen Symposien der Internationalen
Vereinigung für Vegetationskunde 237-254.
Gramer, Vaduz.
3. Miyawaki,A.(1981a) Das System der Lorbeerwälder (Camellietea japonicae)
Japans. In: Dierschke,H.(ed.) Syntaxonomie. Berichte der Internationalen
Symposien der Internationalen Vereinigung für Vegetationskunde 589-597.
Gramer, Vaduz.
4. Miyawaki,A.(1981b) Energy policy and green environment on the base of ecology. In: Fazzolage,R.A.&
Smith,C.B.(eds.) Beyond the energy crisis opportunity and challenge. 581-587. Oxford & New York.
5. Miyawaki,A.(1982a) Umweltschutz in Japan auf Vegetations-ökologischer Grundlage. Bull. Inst. Environ.
Sci. Technl. Yokohama Natl. Univ. 8: 107-120. (German with Engl. synopsis).
6. Miyawaki,A.(1982b) Anthropogene Veränderungen der Struktur und Dynamik Immer- und Sommergrüne
Laubwälder auf den Japanischen Inseln. In: Dierschke, H.(ed.) Struktur und Dynamik von Wäldern. Ber. Intl.
Symp. der Internationalen Vereinigung für Vegetationskunde 659-679. Gramer, Vaduz.
7. Miyawaki,A.(1982c) Phytosociological study of East Kalimantan, Indonesia.
Bull. Inst. Environ. Sci. Technl. Yokohama Natl. Univ. 8: 219-232.(Germany with English synopsis).
8. Miyawaki,A.(1985) Vegetationsökologische Betrachtung Mittel-Japans unter dem Aspekt der276

Geomorphologie. Colloques Phytosociologiques 8: 28-40. Bailleul.
9. Miyawaki,A.,Fujiwara,K. & Box,E.O.(1987) Toward harmonious green urban environments in Japan andother countries. Bull. Inst. Environ. Sci.
Technl. Yokohama Natl. Univ. 14: 67-82. Yokohama.
10. Miyawaki,A.(1988) Die Veränderung innerhalb der japanischen anthropogenen Vegetation. Flora 180: 191201. Jena.
11. Miyawaki,A.(1990) A Vegetation-Ecological View of the Japanese Archipelago.
Ecology International. INTECOL Bull. 18: 13-28. Athens, GA.
12. Miyawaki,A.(1992a) Restoration of Evergreen Broad-leaved Forests in the Pacific Region. In: Wali,M.K.(ed.)
Ecosystem Rehabilitation. 2. Ecosystem analysis and synthesis 233-245. SPB Academic Publishing, The
Hague.
13. Miyawaki,A.(1992b) Ecological Studies on Human Activities and Vegetation Dynamics in the Eastern North
American Cultural Region in Comparison with Japan Archipelago. Gakujutsu-Geppo 45(5): 424-434.
(Japanese).
14. Miyawaki,A.(1993) Restoration of native forests from Japan to Malaysia.
In: Lieth,H. & Lohmann,M.(eds.) Restoration of Tropical Forest Ecosystems. 5-24. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, the Netherlands.
15. Miyawaki,A.,Fujiwara,K. & Ozawa,M.(1993) Native forest by native trees — Restoration of indigenous forest ecosystem — (Reconstruction of environmental protection forest by Prof.Miyawaki's Method) Bull. Inst.
Environ. Sci. Technl. Yokohama Natl. Univ. 19: 73-107. Yokohama. (English and Japanese).
16. Miyawaki,A. & Golley,F.B.(1993) Forest reconstruction as ecological engineering. Ecological Engineering 2:
333-345. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
17. Meguro, S. & Miyawaki,A.(1997) A study of initial growth behavior of planted Dipterocarpaceae trees forrestoration of tropical rain forests in Borneo/Malaysia. Tropical Ecology 38(2): 237-245.
18. Miyawaki,A.(1998) Restoration of urban green environments based on the theories of vegetation ecology.
Ecological Engineering 11: 157-165. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
19. Miyawaki,A.(1999) Creative Ecology: Restoration of native forests by native trees. Plant Biotechnology 16(1):15-25.
20. Miyawaki,A.(1999) Potential Natural Vegetation and Reforestation. JCCA for Tomorrow 203: 30-33. Tokyo.
(Japanese).
21. Miyawaki,A.(2000) Recreation of Ecological Environment Protection Forests.
Forestry Economy 617: 9-19. Tokyo. (Japanese).
22. Miyawaki,A. & Meguro,S. (2000) Planting experiments for the restoration of tropical rainforest in Southeast
Asia and a comparison with laurel forest at Tokyo Bay. Proceedings of IAVS Symposium, 249-250. Opulus
Press, Uppsala, Sweden.
23. Miyawaki,A. & Abe,S. (2003) A Reforestation Project of Lowland Tropical Forests in Brazilian Amazon –Growth behavior in ten years. Proceedings of IAVS Symposium
24. Miyawaki,A. (2004) Restoration of living environment based on vegetation ecology: Theory and practice.
Ecological Research 19: 83-90. Blackwell Publishing Asia, Australia.
25. Miyawaki,A. & Abe,S. (2004) Public awareness generation for the reforestation in Amazon tropical lowland
region. Tropical Ecology 45(1): 59-65.

Editorial Work
1. Miyawaki,A. & Tüxen,R.(eds.1977) Vegetation Science and Environmental Protection. Proceedings of theInternational Symposium in Tokyo on Protection of the Environment and Excursion on Vegetation Sciencethrough Japan. 578pp. Maruzen Co., Tokyo.
2. Miyawaki,A.(ed.1980-1989) Vegetation of Japan. vol. 1-10.
1.Yakushima 376pp. 2.Kyushu 484pp. 3.Shikoku 604pp. 4.Chugoku 540pp.
5.Kinki 596pp. 6.Chubu 604pp. 7.Kanto 641pp. 8.Tohoku 563pp.
9.Hokkaido 563pp. 10.Okinawa and Ogasawara 676pp. each vol. with colored vegetation maps and tables.
(Japanese with German and/or English summary). Shibundo, Tokyo.

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3. Miyawaki,A. et al.(eds.1983) Handbook of Japanese Vegetation. 872pp. (Japanese with Latin). withDistribution Maps of Japanese Plant Communities 168pp. Shibundo, Tokyo.
4. Miyawaki,A.(ed.1985) Vegetation Ecological Studies on Mangrove Forests in Thailand. 152pp. Inst. Environ.
Sci. Technl. Yokohama Natl. Univ. Yokohama.5. Miyawaki,A., Bogenrider,A., Okuda,S. &White,I.(eds.1987) Vegetation Ecology and Creation of New Environments. Proceedings of International
Symposium in Tokyo and Phytogeographical Excursion through Central Japan. 473pp. Tokai Univ. Press,
Tokyo.
6. Miyawaki,A.& Okuda,S. (eds.1991) Vegetation of Japan Illustrated. 800pp. Shibundo, Tokyo. (Japanese).
7. Miyawaki,A. (ed.1996) Indices to Vegetation of Japan. — Community names and subjects —. 330pp.
Shibundo, Tokyo. (Japanese with German and Latin).

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Profile

Dr. Emil Salim
Professor, Faculty of Economics and Post Graduate Course, University of Indonesia
Former Minister of Population and Environment, Republic of Indonesia

Education and Academic and Professional Activities
1930
Born on June 8 in South Sumatra, Indonesia
1958
Graduated from University of Indonesia, Faculty of Economics
1959-1964 University of California at Berkeley, USA, Ph.D. in Economics
1970-1972 Vice Chairperson of the National Development Planning Agency, and concurrently State Minister for State Apparatus Reform
1972-present Professor, Faculty of Economics, University of Indonesia
1973
Bintang Mahaputera Adiprandana from the Government of Indonesia
1973-1978 Minister of Transportation, Communication and Tourism
1978-1983 Minister of Development Monitoring and Environment
1982
Golden ARK (Commandeur) of the Netherlands 1983-1993 Minister ofPopulation and Environment
1983-1987 Member of the World Commission on Environment and Development
1990
Paul Getty Award, USA
1992-present Founder and Chairperson of the Board of Trustees of the Sustainable
Development Foundation
1993-2003 Founder and Chairperson of the Board of Trustees of the Indonesian
Ecolabelling Institute1994-2003 Founder and Chairperson of the Board of Trustees of the Indonesian
Biodiversity Foundation
1994-1999 Co-chair the World Commission on Forests and Sustainable Development
1995-1999 Deputy Chairperson of UN High Level Advisory Council for Sustainable
Development
2000-2002 Chairperson of the UN Commission for Sustainable Development
2001-2002 Chairperson of the National Economic Council
2001-2002 Chairperson of the Preparatory Committee of the World Summit on Sustainable
Development
2001-2002 Member of Advisory Group for the President of the Republic of Indonesia
2005
Zayed Prize Winner for Environmental Action Leading to Positive Change in
Society

Dr. Salim was born in South Sumatra in 1930 and was educated in a Dutch elementary school279

during the Dutch colonial period and in a Japanese school under Japanese occupation. He
learned the importance of a capacity for logic from his father who was an engineer andacquired an interest in religion from his mother who was a devoted Muslim. He grew to
become interested in economics and studied economics at the University of Indonesia.
After graduating from the university, Dr. Salim went to University of California
Berkeley in 1959 and studied mainstream economics at that time in the United States, andearned a Ph.D. degree. Later, returning to Indonesia and while teaching at the University ofIndonesia, he participated in a team of economics experts for President Soeharto and dealt with
the issues in building the nation with a sound management based on macro economics with anemphasis on market principles and began to have influence on the management of the economy.
In 1971 at the age of 41, he became Minister of State for Administrative Reform, andtill 1993 for 22 years served four terms the ministerial positions as Minister of Transportation,
Communication and Tourism, Minister of Development Monitoring and Environment, andMinister of Population and Environment. He became the first minister of the Environment inIndonesia in 1978 with the strong request of President Soeharto who became concerned of theenvironmental destruction caused while the country goes through economic development andexecuted environmental policies which enable economic development consistent with environment conservation.
As minister of Environment, he enacted the Basic Guidance for Environmental
Management in 1982 which is Indonesia's first general and comprehensive fundamental law
on the environment, and further built the foundation of environmental administration inIndonesia by establishing the Environmental Impact Management Agency.
The foresight Dr. Salim had shown through trying to build a sustainable society gained
high international reputation, and from 1984 to 1987, he participated in the United Nations
World Commission on Environment and Development (The Brundtland Commission) representing Asia and made a significant contribution in establishing the concept of "Sustainable
Development." After the Earth Summit was held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, as Deputy
Chairperson of UN High Level Advisory Council for Sustainable Development, he contributed
in coordinating the discussions on sustainable development carried out in the United Nations.
In 1994, he became the co-chair of the World Commission on Forests and Sustainable
Development which was established modeled after the Brundtland Commission, and in 1999
published the report "Our Forests Our Future" by listening to the voices from worldwide,
stressing the need of sustainable development in forest conservation which was facing crisis.
At the Johannesburg Summit which was held ten years after the Earth Summit, Dr.
Salim as the chairman of the 10th Commission on Sustainable Development which served as
Preparatory Committee for the World Summit made a significant contribution in getting theconsensus and in preparing the draft implementation plan.
Dr. Salim addressed from early on the environmental problems in the developing
nations region in Asia, and as the chairman of the ASEAN Environment Ministerial Congress,
set the target, the scope, the program and the action plan for the ASEAN nations to cooperate
in the environment area. He also participated in the meetings of the Asia-Pacific Forum for280

Environment and Development (APFED) and made a large contribution in arranging the recommendation to the Johannesburg summit and the final report. It is of great significance thatthe opinions from the developing nations of Asia were voiced to the world by Dr. Salim being
the pioneer, when there were hardly anything raised about environmental problems in thedeveloping nations of Asia in the international arena.
After serving as Minister of the Environment of the Indonesian government, while
teaching at the University of Indonesia, Dr. Salim has put his efforts in promoting various environmental NGO activities such as the "Indonesian Biodiversity Foundation," placing himself
at the core of various promotion propagation activities. He has also helped and assisted theAfrican nations in its development problems and environmental issues.
Dr. Salim has taken the initiative ahead of the world in consolidating the development
plan with environmental consideration. And to realize Sustainable Development, he showed
great leadership consistently in Indonesia, in the developing nations of Asia, in the AsiaPacific region and the whole world, played an active role internationally, and contributed tobetter the global environment.

281

EssayOut of the Poverty HoleDr. Emil Salim
October 2006
A woman fell into a deep empty hole. There was no water, only clay and stone and the walls
were steep, difficult to climb. There was nothing she could use to pull herself out of the hole,
no tools, no ladder, nothing. She shouted loudly to call for help, but nobody listened. The
woman got tired and weak. She waited for a miracle, if only somebody knew that there issomeone in the hole and by only throwing a rope, she could pull herself out of the hole. But
then she is still not safe, because she may fall in another hole that is spread all over the place.
Her life is uncertain in a place full of holes.
Profile of the Poor
There are many “poverty holes” in the globe today and many poor people are still trapped init. At the end of the 20th century their number has reached 2.2 billion out of 6 billion peopleof the globe. These people are usually the vulnerable poor living in developing countries. The
poor live in rural areas but have only small plots of land, not enough to support their basic
needs. Muscles are their only “tools” of work. They work in agriculture on land not their own.
If they live in cities, they find their living in informal sectors as street traders, to sell whatever
they can sell with their limited funds. Most of them earn their living with low cost activities likecollecting and recycling garbage, selling newspapers, bottled drinks, cigarettes, and some timeeven their own body. They live in squatters or slum areas without access to clean drinking
water, decent sanitation facilities, and they are forced to use rivers or ponds as toilets. They do
not have electricity and telecommunication facilities. Many of them are still illiterate. Few ofthem have obtained primary education. Some continue to lower level secondary schools, but
most of them cannot afford education to higher level secondary schools. The household sizeof the poor is large, but many of them will not survive long. The girls from poor families, whenreaching the marriage age level, drop out of schools to prepare themselves to become housewife. If the wife delivers her baby, she is usually assisted by unskilled midwife, with high riskof loosing her life. The poor suffers high maternal mortality rate and high infant mortality rate.
Malnutrition is high among the children of the poor. Many of these children go to school without breakfast and with only few dollar cents to buy cheap food for lunch. Health facilities arepoor and inadequate to cope with people’s diseases, like malaria, tuberculosis, flu, and infection of respiratory and digestive channels.
Poverty is not inherent in the genetics of the people, but it is strongly affected by thesocio-economic conditions of the poor. Most poor family’s breeds further poor offspring that282

are trapped in the “poverty hole”. As poor individuals caught isolated in poverty, they have noone to rely upon and no access to any means to help them out of poverty. But in society as agroup the poor can rely on social solidarity for help. In rural areas, the customs of “mutualhelp” still exist at times of sickness and death. The poor can enjoy community support for weddings and building family houses. The poor can also rely on the available food supply in community’s rice storehouse to meet bad seasons. Informal leaders can play effective role to help
the poor through social institutions, like collective praying, mosques, churches, religious praying centers, community based organizations and non-governmental organizations.
The strength and effectiveness to uplift the poor depend very much on the quality ofsocial cohesiveness of the society, which is much stronger in rural than in urban communities.
Rural society is much closer to their natural surroundings and is more holistic and eco-centricin their environmental worldviews as opposed to the atomistic and individual centered environmental worldviews. According to this eco-centric worldview, human beings are part of and
not apart from the community and the ecological processes that sustain all life. Under these circumstances the social cohesiveness fabric becomes strong, which makes possible to uplift thepoor from the “poverty hole.” With the introduction of industries and the growth of urban
cities, the society’s link with nature and its surroundings becomes more “human-made” anddetached from the natural surroundings, pushing away the holistic eco-centric worldview andreplaced by human-centered environmental worldviews. In this view, human beings are theplanet’s most important and dominant species that manage the planet for their own benefit.
This leads towards the atomistic individual centered orientation of behaviors and actions.
(Miller, 2002, 375-377).
Society is classified into the upper rich class, the middle income group and at the bottom of the poor. To allocate resources most efficiently among alternative wants, the effective
vehicle is price mechanism that registers demand and supply signals through the market. Thisis especially true for non-public resources, non-public goods and services. Markets reveal relative scarcity of resources, goods and services only under very strict assumptions, such as thevalidity of property rights, the availability of full information, equitable income distribution,
free competition and economic efficiency. When market allocates resources in the development process, the rich are more equipped to lay claims on resources that suit their benefits better than the poor. The market cannot cater to the needs of the poor because they have limitedaccessibility to resources and development capability that determines the outcome of the market. But it also reveals the ingredients for policies to alleviate poverty.
Poverty Alleviation through Sustainable Development
The twentieth century model of development has demonstrated that development along thesingle path of economy is necessary but not sufficient. Gross World Product has increased witha factor of seven in 2000 compared to 1950. The world of today is better off materially. But theexistence of 2.2 billion poor people in the globe is morally not acceptable. The same applies
to massive hunger that still persists in Africa. The digital divide between the rich and poor
countries is increasing because education and human capacity building are seriously lacking
in developing countries. Social development is not moving as fast as economic development.

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This is also true with environment. Million hectares of forests have shrunk.
Transportation, industries and energy have released green-house gasses with serious impacts
on global warming, climate change, increased water scarcity, negative impacts on agriculture
and animal husbandry, and the emergence of new diseases, sea level rise, increased typhoons
and stormy weather.
Conventional development as conducted in the past is clearly not sustainable and cannot proceed on the “business as usual” basis, when population is climbing from 6 to 9 billion
at the end of this 21st century and the proportions of the poor are increasing. Hence, sustainable development must change fundamentally the content of conventional development byembracing simultaneously economic, social and environmental sustainability with as its focus
to reach for the goal of poverty alleviation, to get the poor out of the “poverty hole.”
Within this context, sustainable development requires that economic development musttake deliberate efforts to build human capacity through education. The focus of educationmust change from education about to education for sustainable development (Osman, 2005,p.28). Education for sustainable development is focused on building human capacity, individually as well as societal, that raises the quality of life to a balanced level between the physicalneeds for human survival and the psychological as well as the social needs of human being ina society to live a humane life in harmony with natural environment.
Economic development affects environment as sources for development. The basic
notion here is that perpetuity of economic development emphasizes enrichment rather than the
exploitation aspects of natural resource development. Science and technology can enrich trees
to derive higher value than those of wood by transforming the bark of trees, leaves, fruits andits roots to medicinal ingredients.
Economic development affects horizontal and vertical social mobility that changes thesocial structure of the society. The movements of the rural poor to the cities are triggered by
the image of having a better life in the more developed urban areas. Economic development
affects the poor through it’s wide repercussion on environment and social development.
Social development on the other hand affects the economy through education, humancapacity building, skill formation, knowledge, science and technology development that raises
productivity of the society, and it also opens the opportunity to add values to natural and environmental resources. Social development enables us to attack the roots of poverty by opening
the accessibility of the poor to acquire economic developmental tools. Social development acts
like a “rope” that is thrown into the “poverty hole” to enable the poor to pull themselves out of
the hole.
Environmental development assures the sustainability of economic development by
maintaining natural eco-systems to function continuously. It assures the conservation of water,
clean air, comfortable climate, soil fertility and the diversity of genes, species and microbes in
an interconnected and interdependent web of life. Environmental development ensures stability of the “web of natural life” by maintaining diverse eco-systems that on the other handenables natural environment to sustain also the “web of societal life.” Such a healthy “web ofnatural and social life” will be beneficial for the poor who always suffer first when the reverse
happens.

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In focusing on poverty alleviation it is important to structure sustainable development
policies by taking into account the vice-versa interdependent relationship between economic,
social and environmental forces of development affecting the needs of the poor. Because of
market failures, such an interdependent approach of sustainable development cannot fully relyon the free market as an appropriate tool for poverty alleviation. Market responds more accurately to demand for private goods and services rather than for public ones. To cater medicines
for the rich are more profitable than those for the poor. Private transportations are more lucrative for business than public transportation. Government intervention in the market is therefore
required to overcome market failures and to correct price distortions.
But governments in most developing countries are weak, especially in soft states, whichcause underdevelopment. This leads to many instances where government’s functions in public services, like infrastructure development, human and societal security, are taken over bycorporate business groups. Also in general election to elect public officials, the funding of
campaigns depends too much on business contributions. It may create collusion and a strong“mutual help” relationship between governments and corporate business groups. Development
may then cater too much for the interests of business first and the general public later. This isespecially true when the interests of the poor do not coincide with those of business, like theclash of interests in using land, forests, water, and space for the benefit of the poor as against
business.
In this context civil society groups can play a balancing role between governments andcorporate business groups. Civil society groups, with their close link to the poor, know theneeds of the society at the bottom level in the villages much better than the corporate or governments. Through social networks with the poor, civil society groups are able to articulate felt
needs of the poor more realistically. With this capacity, civil society can counter-balance theinterests of business and politicians in governments to enable a more equitable approach ofsustainable development to serve the poor.
The prerequisite for successful sustainable development is the effectiveness of “goodgovernance” that is able to reach an equitable balance between government’s political interests
with business’ commercial interests and civil society societal interests, with special emphasison the interests of the poor. “Good governance” requires high quality of intimate trust between
government, corporate and civil society groups. Trust will not come automatically, but must be
nurtured to grow towards a common focus of elevating the poor out of the poverty trap throughsustainable development.
Pro-poor Sustainable Development Policy
Development is usually indicated by the annual growth rate of Gross Domestic Product (GDP)as it applies to the whole economy on national as well as on per capita basis. High growth rateof GDP per capita is necessary for developing countries to meet the many challenges of underdevelopment. But obtaining high growth rate of income per capita in macro-economic terms
does not automatically imply a similar high growth rate of income for the poor. The results canbe entirely different when high growth rate of income is achieved through increased output byintensive capital projects and rising exports by modern highly capitalized extractive industries285with no linkages to the people, especially the poor. The popular arguments of “trickle down
effect” are here not valid and are not effective to pull the poor out of the “poverty hole.” Thefact that conventional development of the last fifty years has raised economic growth withincreased number of the poor is a clear demonstration that fruits of development have nottrickled down effectively to the poor. This trend of unequal growth pattern between the rich andthe poor must change into a more equitable growth through pro-poor sustainable development
policies.
To what extent aggregate growth process is pro-poor can be derived from the key measurement tool, like the “growth incidence curve,” that indicates how growth rates for given
quintile vary across quintiles ranked by income. Pro-poor growth is indicated by the growthrate in the mean of the poorest quintile (Ravallion and Chen, 2001, 2).
Such a pro-poor growth requires focusing on several priority sectors: First, is the needof the poorest of the poor to meet their basic needs of food. The greatest portion of spendingof the poor is on food. It means that for the poor, the availability, accessibility and the purchasing ability to secure food is of the highest importance. The policy of poverty alleviationmust integrate the various factors affecting food, such as price, trade, production, distribution,
imports, and storing food policy.
Food is not only an agricultural commodity produced by farmers; it is also a vital commodity that affects heavily the conditions of the poor, who spend most of their income, energy
and time to obtain food. It requires a level of price that affects the number of the poor below
the poverty line, but it needs also to sustain farmers to earn a decent living. Price formation offood concealed conflict of interests between alleviating poverty and raising farmer’s income.
Farmers with mini plots of land that is not enough to sustain their basic needs or farmlabors without land of their own are the majority of the poor living in rural area. These poor
are in general net buyers of food and are hence vulnerable to global, national and local priceincrease of food. Under these circumstances it is not acceptable to give more weight on highprice policy of food under the pretext “to protect” the farmers who are not net buyers of food,at the expense of increased number of the poor below the poverty line. Food price policy mustfavor the interest of the poor. Efforts must be made to make the terms of trade of products thepoor sell much higher than what the poor buy.
The urban poor require skill, capital and technology for non-farm development program, since they have only their body and muscle as their “capital” to work. Therefore propoor policy must prioritize capacity building of the poor for non-farm, industrial and services
development. Most urban poor earn their living as street traders in informal sectors. Urban
planning must take these interests of the poor into account and provide urban space to be combined with financial and food health facilities accordingly.
The vulnerable poor and the near poor are living precariously under and close to thepoverty line. Among the poor, it is the poorest quintile at the bottom of the poor that suffer themost and carries the highest risk of collapse in times of crisis. They are also the weakest linkin the chain of social life. If this link is not strengthening, any small crisis can break the chain
and turn the society into disorder. It is therefore important that the pro-poor policy is focusedon empowering the poorest of the poor that have a spill over effect in strengthening the fabric286

of the whole society. A stable society and an increased purchasing power that starts frombelow will create a condition that is conducive for sustained development.
The second priority area of pro-poor development policy is trade. Developing countries’
factor of endowment forms the basis for natural resource development like agriculture andmining. These products are subject to seasonal and price fluctuation. Because of lack of capital, the poor producer looses competition against the wealthier traders. The difference in economic capabilities raises the dependence of the poor to the wealthier traders, who also acts as
its “personal financer,” off-harvest food supplier, provider of inputs and seller of their output.
Under these conditions the traders bargaining position is always stronger than those of the poor
and will always reap the benefit of any price increase, while any price drops is passed on to thepoor producer.
Pro-poor development policy must raise value added of agricultural and mining development by enabling domestic producer to process raw material into final products. In mostcases the poor is trapped to produce raw material only, because they don’t master the technology and skill of processing. Hence, government must actively interfere to raise production
capability of the poor and to link them in the network of science and technology to joint thetrend of change to shift conventional raw material products into higher value added productsin the global economy.
Pro-poor policy must also enhance linkages with other producers of similar conditions
to raise their economic and social bargaining power. The poor lacks financing and marketing
ability. Pro-poor policy must induce cooperation in marketing and develop better financial
services for and by the poor.
The third area of pro-poor sustainable development policy is energy, especially renewable energy. Micro-hydro power, solar energy, biomass energy, wind energy, natural and steam
gas combined with a decentralized local grid system are examples of renewable energy systemthat need to be coordinated with existing electricity network.
The supply of renewable energy development must be linked with a restructuring of
demand side, by designing appropriate transportation, information and communication system, road network, rural, urban and housing architecture with the focus of energy savings andits optimum utilization.
The world is currently facing “green house gas” emitted by fossil fuel based energy,transportation and industrial development. Increased air pollution will raise global warming,
climate and level of the sea. This will negatively affect agricultural and especially food production, increases new diseases, raises frequency of storms and floods, which will hit the poor
more than any other income groups of population.
This comprehensive renewable energy program must include efforts to correct market
failures. Government’s taxation, subsidies, licenses, and all other policy tools must necessarily internalize into the cost structures of production all externalities that affect negatively thequality of environment. It must raise prices of items that degrade and reduce prices that
improve social and natural environment. All this market corrections are aimed at the goal of“getting the prices right.” Removing price distortions through the correction of market failures
will improve the quality of the pro-poor sustainable development policy.

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There are of course other important focus areas for pro-poor sustainable development
policies. However suffice it is to demonstrate the intricate content of pro-poor sustainable
development policies that cover agricultural food production, trade and energy. The content
will be made more complex because of the fierce competition between developed and developing countries in the global economy.
While leaders of developed countries are preaching for the need of open markets, freecompetition and economic liberalization to developing countries, the grim reality is that developed countries themselves are not implementing them within their own boundaries and inglobal negotiations.
Agriculture has the potential to become the main engine of growth in developing countries. It fails because of limited market access into the developed countries market. High importduties, quota system, non-tariff trade barriers, anti-dumping arrangements, special safeguardmechanism, special and differential treatment for developing countries are market access provisions of the World Trade Organization framework agreement on agriculture that requires
fundamental changes in the current trade system between developed and developing countries.
Developing country exporters in agriculture are facing protection that is four to seventimes higher than in manufacturers in the Organization for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (OECD) countries. Domestic support and subsidies for agricultural products indeveloped countries have made these products artificially competitive against those produced
in developing countries. In the European Union, Japan and the United States the combinationof quotas, tariffs, and subsidies have made domestic producer to receive more than double theworld market price. In sugar for example, OECD governments alone have supported sugar producer at the rate of $6.4 billion annually, which is equal to sugar exports of all developing
countries. This has made possible for the European Union to change from a net importer ofsugar in the early 1980s to a net exporter today.
US subsidies to cotton growers of $3.1 billion (2003) were 1.5 times higher than US foreign aid to Africa. These subsidies depress world cotton prices by 10-20% and have reduced
income of poor farmers of Western Africa, Central and South Asia and other developing countries. More than 70% of subsidies in developed countries are directed to large farmers, whohave reached income that are higher than average incomes in Europe and Japan and to a lesser
extent the United States. (Newfarmer R, 2006: 17-18). The WTO is currently under severepressure from developing as well as developed countries to reach for a wise solution. Because
voting arrangement of WTO is based on dollar contribution, it will put developing countries
in a most disadvantageous position.
On energy, the Final Report of the Extractive Industries Review commissioned by theWorld Bank has recommended to phase out World Bank Group’s investments in oil production by 2008, the year of the first commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol, and devote its
limited scarce resources to investments in renewable energy resource development, emissionsreducing projects, clean energy technology, energy efficiency and conservation, and otherefforts to delink energy use from greenhouse gas emissions (Extractive Industries Review,
2003, 64). This proposal was rejected by the World Bank because the Bank considered thatfossil fuel investment will raise export earnings and other economic benefits to developing288

countries, and the negative impact of fossil fuel development on the environment is consideredlower than the positive impacts of economic development.
Taking these circumstances into account, it is clear that substantial changes are requiredin international institutions, such as WTO, World Bank and International Monetary Funds,
who base their decisions on dollar-vote. Globalization has blurred national boundaries. Greenhouse gas emissions in one country raise their impacts on the global environment affecting all
countries. It is hence imperative that international institutions that affect the global economy,society and ecology cannot be based on dollar votes, but must be part of the UN family withdecision making on the basis of country vote. This is the logical consequences of the globalization process that affects all walks of life of anyone in every country. But most poorest of thepoor are concentrated in developing countries, and they will suffer the most from any decision
making process that put them “outside the development voting box” to be left behind suffering in the “poverty hole.”
There are too many human beings under the poverty line that are still trapped in“poverty holes” of the globe. It is the moral and humane duty of decent people all over theworld to pull the poor out of the “poverty hole” and to enable them to walk on the path of sustainable development towards a life worth living for all.
References
1. Miller, George. Tyler. (2002). Sustaining the Earth, (Fifth Edition). Wadsworth Group/Thomson Learning,
Belmont, USA.
2. Osman, Omar. Gapor, Salfarina Abdul. Sanusi, Zainal Abidin. Editors. (2005), Education for Sustainable
Development, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Penang, Malaysia.
3. Ravallion, Martin. And Chen, Shaohua. (August 2001), Measuring Pro-Poor Growth, Policy Research Working
Paper, the World Bank.
4. Newfarmer, Richard., Editor. (2006). Trade, Doha, and Development, the World Bank, Washington D.C. USA.
5. Extractive Industries Review. (2003), Striking a Better Balance, (Volume I), the World Bank, Washington D.C.
USA.

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Lecture

Plain Living, High Thinking
Dr. Emil Salim
Introduction of the Problems
It was in March 1978 when President Soeharto invited me to joint him on a boat ride at the
Jakarta Bay. This was the time when the just elected President invited candidates for cabinet
position to have a person-to-person talk with him away from the glare of television lights andcrowded journalists.
We passed the mouth of the Ciliwung River at the Jakarta Bay, when he showed me thepolluted dirt entering the sea. The water close to the coast was full with filth. The President told
me that he enjoyed fishing here in the past, but he now had to sail further away from Jakarta
Bay into the ocean. He told me about his village life when he was a young boy playing withfriends in the forests, washing his water buffalo and joyfully swimming in clean rivers. But
now not only the Jakarta Bay is heavily polluted, but also the river in his village and all otherrivers, the forests have also gone and we have not even started our development yet, he uttereda sigh with anguish.
Then he looked into my eyes and said with a firm voice, that he wanted me to prevent
further environmental destruction. We must reconcile development with environmental construction. Development should not be anti environment and environment should not be against
development. Development and environment must be merged into one flow of joint effort. I
want you as Minister of Environment to assist me.
I was honestly surprised by this offer. I am a trained economist and I have served in the
National Development Planning Board. I know somewhat about economics and development
but to be frank, I don’t know anything about ecology.
The President however argued that because I am a developmental economist, it is easier for me to reconcile development with environment. “Since you are an economist it must be
somehow related to the same word of oikos in ecologist, isn’t it? Why not reconcile economy
with ecology?” And with a smile he extended his hand and shook my hand.
Since then I have traveled the road searching to reconcile development with environment and economy with ecology. In this journey I have gained some wisdom and knowledge
from numerous leaders, experts and common people around the globe to make me beginningto understand the idea of sustainable development and ecological economy.
Environment Ministers usually have to attend regular annual meetings organized byUnited Nations Environment Program (UNEP) in Nairobi, Kenya. UNEP was created in
Stockholm, Sweden, at the UN Human Environment Conference (1972). Since then the word
“environment” entered into the world’s vocabulary. Some progress has been made in environment, but the negative impacts of development on environment have moved much faster.
UNEP called in 1982 for a Special Session to review progress made ten years after

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Stockholm. The general consensus of this session was that environment had to be consideredwithin the framework of development. Based on the proposal made by Japan, the Special
Session agreed to set up a World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) to
explore efforts to reconcile environment with development in a global agenda for change.
Prime Minister of Norway, Gro Harlen Brundtland, was asked to chair and she selected 21 personalities representing different continents of the globe to become members of what became
known as the Brundtland Commission.
Saburo Okita, who was the oldest, represented Japan but also the most experienced of
the group. He was one of the prominent architects of Japan’s post war development in thefifties. He shared his experiences with commission members on the good and the bad sides ofdevelopment when environment was not known at that time. Developing countries can learn
from the mistakes made when development neglects the environment. Discussions among
commission members were held everywhere and at any occasions. The group celebrated
Saburo Okita’s birthday on the boat while traveling on the Amazon River on the way to Manos,Brazil.
On the basis of discussions within the group as well as in public debates with various
stakeholders from all continents that were visited by the commission, ideas were gradually
sharpened up and have found its way into the Commission report “Our Common Future”(1987). After the publication of this report, numerous conferences and meetings have takenplace in and outside the UN, which contributed to the enhancement of sustainable development
concept with distinct differences from the prevailing concept of conventional development.
Almost twenty years after the Brundtland Commission has completed its work in
Tokyo, February 1987, and the world has moved into the 21st century, the time has come to ask
the questions what has development in the globe achieved thus far, what has gone wrong withconventional development model of today and in what direction do we have to go?
To answer these questions we need to revisit the ideas of Sustainable Development, as
it was perceived twenty years ago when “Our Common Future” was published and to explore
efforts, to reconcile “development with environment” and “economy with ecology.”
Conventional Development’s Achievements
The world of today has pursued in the twentieth century the pattern of “conventional development” that has been able to raise Gross World Product of the year 2000 seven times those in
1950.
The world has witnessed nations, like Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Venezuela andothers to reach the level of 1999 Gross Domestic Product per capita already in or before 1960
(World Bank, 2003, 149), which put them in a more advanced level than Botswana, Republicof Korea or India at that time. Now however the positions of these countries have been
reversed, the latter countries have surpassed the former indicating the non-sustainability of former countries’ development.
Conventional development has been able to raise income, education and health condition of developed countries but it has failed to do the same in developing countries. Out of 6
billion-world populations in 2000 more than 2.2 billion people were living on less than two

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dollars a day. In many countries of Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean more people are suffering undernourishment, high infant mortality rates, low education quality, inferior
health facilities, lack of clean drinking water and poor housing. In the meantime developed
countries on the other hand, have to cope with increased obesity, aging population, underutilized class rooms, highly sophisticated disease control, abundant clean drinking water andincreased demand for second summer housing.
In San Francisco the Vermont Meeting (1995), chaired by Mikhail Gorbachev, hasvoiced the concern that the current trend of global development is leading towards a world of
20/80, implying that 20% of the global population of developed countries will control 80% of
global resources, while 80% of global population of developing countries will control only
20% of global resources, because of continued economic and technology strengthening ofdeveloped countries at the expense of weakening developing countries in the world of globalization, open market and free competition.
This gap between developed and developing countries is also increasing because oflack of capital and limited transfer of financial resources from the rich to the poor countries. It
is recorded by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development that during
2000-2002 in the European Union, domestic subsidies to agriculture have reached up to $105
billion compared to $25 billion of net official development assistance; in the United States, $95
billion total agricultural support is accompanied by less than $10 billion net official development assistance; in Japan $58 billion total agricultural support is match by almost $5 billion
net official development assistance. (World Bank, 2005, 184).
It indicates that funds are actually available in developed countries to assist developing
countries, but the political will is seriously lacking. While in developing countries globalization, open market and free competition are widely promoted, in developed countries however,protection and unequal competition in subsidized agricultural products still persist.
Growth of Gross Domestic Product in developed countries also requires larger inputs ofnatural resources. World Wildlife Fund has estimated in 1999 the “ecological footprints” as“the amount of productive land needed per person to support patterns of consumption”, which
in US was 9.7 hectares compared to Japan (4.3 hectares), the global economy (2.2 hectares),
People’s Republic of China (1.5 hectares), Asia Pacific (1.3 hectares), Indonesia (1.2 hectares),
India (0.8 hectares) and Bangladesh (0.6 hectares). (Asian Development Bank, 2005, 3). This“ecological footprint” is currently much deeper and is expected to be worse in this 21st century,
if development continued to proceed along the path of “business as usual”.
The main features of conventional development as promoted by the World Bank wereto build infrastructure, import machines, protect industries from competition, invest in humancapital, technology transfer, liberalize markets, free the exchange rate, privatize state-owned
industries and expose them to competition. This model is widely supported by the US Treasury
and the International Monetary Fund, and is popularly known as the “Washington Consensus.”
Under these conditions the main engine of sustained economic growth is private enterprise
operating through the market. (World Bank, 2005, 45-46).
There is a rational logic in this development model that makes sense. Private enterprises will flourish in a market that is geared up for growth. It assumed however, that those pri-292

vate enterprises are of similar strength and operate in a global market of equal level playing
field. The grim reality is that competition between developed and developing countries is conducted with unequal strength, as if we are watching a boxing match between the heavy weight
US champion, Mohammad Ali, against the heavy weight Indonesian champion, Elias Pical. It
is obvious that the Indonesian champion with nutrition intake, training facilities, body weightand boxing skills far below the US champion, looses the fight.
The world has no facility in agriculture, industry or trade to close the gap between developed and the developing countries. The weak has to compete against the strong in a free competitive market. The results are that the gap has grown in the past and it will grow further in the
future if no drastic change is made in the currently prevailing development model.
Market, Policy and Institutional Failures
When the Brundtland Commission’s report “Our Common Future” was published in 1987,
total World Gross Domestic Product was about U$33 trillion. In 2006 it has reached around$60 trillion, a doubling of World GDP in a time span of less then 20 years. In spite of such a
growth, most shocking are the facts that the Commission’s evaluation of the world situation 20
years ago is for the most part still valid today.
The world of today is still suffering poverty, hunger, low education and health facilities
with ravaging effects on the quality of life in developing countries. On the other hand developed countries are much better off, although suffering from “rich country’s diseases” like obesity, hearth diseases, overcrowded cities, traffic jams and lower birth rate. The gap between
developed and developing countries is still widening, because of un-equal growth that still prevails today.
The basic flaw of the conventional development model is that it relies heavily on themarket but fails to cope with market failures. Social and environmental goods are public goods,
which the market cannot sell. Public vaccination against infectious diseases, for instances, isa social service whose values are not registered by the market. Clean air, rivers, mountains,forests, comfortable climate are environmental goods that have no market value.
Development that relies solely on the market will necessarily put economic values ofgoods and services on the forefront, while ignoring the values of social and environmental
goods and services.
The market is also not accommodating externalities, in which one’s action creates negative effects or externalities to “outsiders” and therefore raises their costs. One’s action may
create positive effects and positive externalities that raise benefits to “outsiders”. Both negative and positive externalities are not revealed in the market and are therefore not accommodated in the cost structure of the producer and price structure for the consumer. With a distorted
cost and price structure in the market, those products that pollute, like fossil fuel, will be overvalued, while those that are clean, like solar energy, will be under-valued. Under these conditions of price distortions, fossil fuel and other non-renewable energy sources are flourishing,while solar and other renewable energy sources are dwindling.
Private enterprises are oriented towards the interests of shareholders first and stakeholders later. Financial returns on investment dominate, while social and environmental inter-293

ests play a subordinated role. With this outlook, it is not surprising if conventional development
produces rapid economic growth, at the expense of social deterioration and environmental
degradation as demonstrated by development indicators of the globe thus far.
Looking closer to resource use, conventional development model does not explicitly
take into account the different nature of natural resources as renewable and non-renewable
resources. Renewable resources have a threshold beyond which its regeneration will not takeplace. In utilizing renewable resources, development must therefore take this threshold into
account. It also means that the choice and the use of technology must not exceed the thresholdlevel for regeneration of renewable resources.
When renewable resources are located in public domain, like fish, we must apply principle of “sustained yield.” Adequate and enforceable restrictions must be effective to avoid thevalidity of the “tragedy of the common”; in which everybody will face the tragedy of loosing
if everybody wants to use freely common property.
Resource use management is different when using non-renewable resources that are
subject to resource depletion and produce as by-product pollution and waste. These factors are
not taken into the conventional development model and will then necessarily raise pollution
and waste. When non-renewable resources are depleted, like in mining, the company usuallyleaves the place after paying some “farewell money” to the people left behind. There are noplans in the company’s budget to deal properly with appropriate compensation to locallyaffected people who lost their livelihood. No time frame is drawn for the period before
resources are used up to develop alternative substitutes to enable development to sustain
beyond the time of depletion.
Factories ignore to deal comprehensively with wastes, especially hazardous and toxic
waste, by not internalizing them in factories’ costs structure and by not managing well its negative impacts. Unless the government and the corporate strictly enforce the environmental andpollution laws, these external costs will not be internalized in the conventional development
model.
To cope with pollution and waste, the company should from the beginning and all theway through the life cycle of production take into account the choice of clean technology. The
corporate must cope with all costs related to social and environmental degradation at all stagesof production.
Closely linked to the externality problem is “property right,” which according to the
Coase Theorem posits that assigning property rights to any good, even if externalities are present, makes bargaining between affected parties and reaching efficient solution possible.
(Callen and Thomas, 2000, 87).
The second basic flaw in conventional model of development is the use of scales, suchas the time and size scale. Practically most conventional developmental issues are of short-term
duration, highly influenced by the usual 5-year time frame of elected government officials.
This limited and short-term period influences the way we conceive development, which has
the tendency to be myopic and to deal only with developmental issues as observed through atunnel vision. Only the short-term issues are caught on the radar screen, while the longer-term
issues are outside the purview of conventional development. Social and environmental issues

294are typical long-term issues. Its impacts are felt after sufficient time has elapsed. In the shortterm model of economic policy, these long-term issues are insignificant because, as Keynes
likes to say, on the long run we are all dead.
Another scale-issue is size. Most experiments of social and environmental development
are initially conducted on a pilot project of limited scale. When it proves to be successful, theinclination is to blow these small-scale pilot projects into bigger size, with the risk of failures.
Rice production, which was successfully experimented in Indonesia on peat-soil as pilot project in a scale of less than 10 hectares was blown up into 1 million hectares of peat-soil. The
results have been disastrous.
Government bureaucrats are eager to reach for quick results. Small scale projects aretrapped in the “fallacy of scale”, where it is believed that the multiplication of small into larger
scale of these projects will also multiply the results in growing proportions. This is not realistic.
The pressure for large and quick results has induced governments to launch development with a big push approach. Countries that have the ambition to jump on the ladder of technology development from low to high-technology in a short period of time have to pay highly
subsidized costs. With economic crises these high-tech projects become easily the victim ofbankruptcy.
After decades of centralization and strong central authority, under the spell of democracy, Indonesia has decentralized government’s central power straight to the districts andbypassing provinces. When decentralization is executed with a big bang approach in 1999, it
has created a stinginess effect that is still felt today. The adjustment from a highly centralized
into a highly decentralized model of governance within a too short time period has createdwaves of confusions and instability that have now not been subdued.
The third basic flaw is that main actors in conventional development model are too limited to governments as regulators and policy makers with only businesses as executors of economic development. The government’s task is to provide legal structure to create a healthy climate for businesses to flourish and grow. Other non-governmental and non-business actors are
not playing a significant role.
In democratic system that has been widely promoted in developing countries, top decision making leaders are elected through general elections. Since campaigning and running
political parties are quite expensive, candidates for top ranking government’s positions are
inclined to look for financial support from business people. The formation of illicit collusion
between elected government and business leaders are the bitter consequences of such politicalalliances. It makes elected government leaders obliged to conduct policies that are very muchpro-business and pro-free market to enable businesses to obtain a profitable rate of return on
their political investments.
Currently a growing tendency emerges that successful and rich business people are
actively striving for top positions in governments.
Under these circumstances it is difficult to expect government to be objective in intervening and correcting market forces for the benefit of the whole society. There are numerous
examples of governments’ policies that are very much pro-business while ignoring the inter-295

ests of the small, the weak, the vulnerable and the poor.
The content of “development” is steadily eroded from its initial ideal goal of sustained
livelihood and social welfare for the common people, to the content that is becoming increasingly commercial to raise material wealth and money. “Development” becomes now the general commodification of economic goods to be followed later of environment and social goods.
(Rist in Development Dialogue, 2006, 71).
The market is increasingly replacing the state as the primary means of allocating
resources that reduces also its executive capacity, its mandate and scope of its activities. The
more the market dominates and the less the state regulates the better. This seems to be the hidden assumption of the Washington Consensus.
Under these circumstances it is of crucial importance to induce civil society groups thatare non-governmental and non-business to grow into countervailing powers to push government and businesses to strive for policies and development that are very much pro-poor andpro-environment. With the dominance of neo-liberal paradigm that has pushed development
away from the road to improve conditions of the poor, civil society organizations are increasingly growing in opposition to the state and to corporate capital. (Hyden in Development
Dialogue, 2006, 183).
Since the World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002), a range of partnershipamong various actors has sprung up vividly to execute jointly the “Johannesburg Plan of
Implementation”. These partnerships follow in general the pattern of the triangle of equal
actors comprising of government as regulator and policy maker, businesses as implementerswith economic interests and civil society as balancing power to articulate societal interests,
especially of the deprived citizens. The emerging triangle of equal partnership among government, business and civil society groups opens the opportunity to correct the various basic flaws
in conventional development and opens the way towards sustainable development.
After 20 years of conventional development, it is clear that radical change is necessary
to move development away from the pattern of “business as usual”, to cope with its basic
flaws and to follow the correct pattern of sustainable development.
Main Features of Sustainable Development
Conventional development model is used to follow a single linear line of approach to deal witheconomic developmental issues only, while other non-economic variables are frozen. Whenenvironment deteriorates, it cannot supply the needed resources to sustain development.
Similarly if social factors are ignored and erupt into social conflicts, the sustainability of development will also be at risk.
It is clear that sustainable development requires a bundle of triple lines, consisting of
economic, social and environmental lines moving in a spiral upwards of poverty alleviation,higher quality of human development with social cohesion, within a perpetuating life supporting eco-system.
This triple approach is to be formulated into “sustainable development matrix,” thatreveals dimensions of economic, social and environment in vertical and horizontal columns.
Sustainable development requires an inter-disciplinary approach combining economic, social

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and environment in a “three column and three row matrix” simultaneous development.
To pursue poverty alleviation through employment creation as the goal of economic
development, will raise impacts on social and environmental development that must be managed.
Similarly, to raise human quality through education, health and human resource development with efforts to improve social cohesion as the goal of social development, will exert
its impacts on economic and environmental development.
By the same token, to assure the sustained functioning of eco-systems to support life,
such as water, land, air, climate, and genetic resources as the goal of environmental development will affect economic and social development.
With the application of “inter-sector impact analysis” the interrelationship and interactions between economic, social and environmental factors can be pursued. By managing thetriple sector impacts within and between each factor, this comprehensive and holistic approachcan ensures the sustainability of development.
In economic theory, growth was initially considered as moving along a singular linear
line of economics only. Since the fifties “growth” has to make way for a wider concept of“development,” which involves economic and social dimensions along a two linear lines. With
the introduction of “sustainable development,” however, development covers now a broader
field of economic, social and environmental development. Development has left the single
approach to shift into the triple lines along an upward spiral of sustainable development “thatmeets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meettheir own needs” (Our Common Future, 1987, 430)
Requirements for Sustainable Development
This “triple lines” of sustainable development require strong management that is able to coordinated government, business and civil society through the triangle of equal partnership.
Sustainable development can however be hampered by the weakest line in the bundle of triplelines. This calls for a management that strengthens and empowers the weakest link, whichrefers currently to the social and environmental dimensions of sustainable development.
Sustainable development model recognizes five modes of capital: namely natural,
human, social, financial and human-made capital.
• The quality of natural capital is determined by the sustained function of networks of interlocking ecosystems;• Human capital is affected by raising the quality of human resources through education, cultural, spiritual and human health development;• Social capital depicts the quality of togetherness, the social relationships and networking
among individuals that are strongly affected by the quality of the “we-ness” or “Wirheit”
approach. Interesting is the fact that the Indonesian language has two words for “we”,
namely “kami” implying “we-without-you” and “kita” meaning “we-with-you.” Investment
in social capital implies strengthening togetherness of “kita” that enable inclusion of all
members of society in a “we-with-you” togetherness regardless of differences in race, ethnic, religious beliefs, culture, custom law, language and political ideologies. Social cohe-297

sion requires value formation and value strengthening of “unity in diversity”;• Financial and human-made capital is both creation of human beings that requires investments in hard and software.
With the proper combination of all these capital and recognizing constraints of nature’s
as well as societal carrying capacity or the “Plimsoll line,” depicting the limits of cargo carrying capacities of ships, we can pursue sustainable production and consumption as the twin pillars of sustainable development.
Sustainable production can be achieved if in terms of natural resources, renewable
resources are used below the threshold level and non-renewable resources recycled and used.
In terms of energy, priority must be given to maximize energy efficiency, to actively
stimulate and promote the use of renewable energy, to reduce pollution by non-renewable
resources through the use of clean technology with full awareness that “green house gas emissions” must be controlled in accordance with the Kyoto Protocol allowable limits to prevent
climate change. On the demand side, we must launch cleaner and more efficient transportation
modes, environment friendly urban development plans that are able to cope with floods, sanitation, and waste, pollution while assuring distribution of safe drinking water, clean air andhealthy public open spaces. Construction of tropical architecture and building codes must
promote energy efficiency and energy savings.
In terms of spatial use, through effective enforcement of spatial plan we must optimize
the use of land and other natural resources within the constraints of eco-systems’ carrying
capacities. Spatial planning serves to prevent and solve social conflicts in resource use between
resource exploiting companies and local people.
In terms of technology, it can optimize natural resource use and raise value added especially of biological resources, it eliminates hazardous and toxic wastes, and it recycles, reduces
and reuses pollution and waste for further production. Biotechnology, genetic engineering,
marine technology and nano-technology are most effective in raising value added of biological and marine resources.
Sustainable consumption requires that government’s policies, taxation, subsidies, budget spending, laws and regulations are geared toward making available goods and services thatare produced along the sustainable production patterns as close as possible to the consumer’spurchasing power ability. Examples are by shifting tax burden away from immaterial humanmind creativity towards material intensive human made consumption goods. Human mind
creativity, such as science and technology development, creative arts and culture as well as
spiritual endeavors will satisfy social-cultural demand that are using less material compared tomaterial intensive consumption goods.
Similarly with government’s policies of financial incentives in fiscal, trade and industry, we can promote renewable resource and recyclable non-renewable based consumption
goods and services, such as in automotive industries that make more use of light, recyclable
non-renewable material in construction of cars.
By imposing health regulations of the World Health Organization, government can promote requirements to reduce harmful and unhealthy substances in consumption goods, likenicotine in cigarettes or pesticides in food.

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To assist consumer to choose healthy and environmentally friendly consumer goods,
countries must impose eco-label, ISO 14000 and ISO 28000 and other international standards
for environmentally friendly products.
To ensure sustainable consumption, we must apply transparency and disclosure of information on the content and quality of consumption goods.
Since markets fail to register social and environmental preferences, environmental valuation techniques have been developed to substitute for failures in “getting the prices right”(The Wealth of Nature, 2003, 116-126) as the basis “to get the incentives right”.
To deal with pollution problems, emission charges are instruments to reduce the quantity of pollution. Under the Kyoto Protocol permits are issued equal to the permissible total
emissions in the region. Polluters that are not using their allowable emission levels can sell thisunused emission level as tradable pollution permits with scarcity values that provide incentives to create a market for these permits.
There are two methods for valuing in environmental resources, namely the indirect
method in estimating the use value of resources by means of travel cost method and hedonic
pricing, and the direct method through the contingent valuation methods.
Travel cost method uses the amount of expenditure spent on the trip and transportcharges as well as the average time spent on the trip in reaching the sites of recreational forests,
which reveals the total value of the forests. (Environmental Valuation, 2000, 140-141 andNatural Resources and Environmental Economics, 2003, pp.411-438).
Hedonic pricing, for instance, reveals to particular characteristic of a building to obtainhigh value because of its contribution to environmental benefits, such as the hotel rooms withocean view compared to hotel rooms looking to the wall of its neighbors.
Contingent valuation methods assess the economic value of environmental services
through surveys on the “willingness to pay” for demanding a given environmental service tobe harmonized with the “willingness to accept” its compensation. The equilibrium between
the “willingness to pay” and the “willingness to accept” determines the value of the environmental services.
Realizing that market failures persist in the economy, government policies can make thenecessary corrections required by interfering in the market through fiscal, trade, industrial
policies, regulations, licensing and by creating values for environmental goods and services
through tradable permits, travel cost method, hedonic pricing and contingent valuation methods. More instruments are expected to become viable for valuing environment in the future.
By managing these inter-sector impact analysis, and by dealing with market failure
combined with valuing environmental service, this comprehensive approach makes possible
the change of conventional into sustainable development.
To manage sustainable development properly, the crucial prerequisite is the creation ofgood governance as revealed in the triangle of equal partnership between government, business and civil society.
It is not the government’s scale of preference per se, or the businesses companies
desired objectives only, but it is bundling up of the combined preferences of governments,
businesses and civil societies that enable balanced management of sustainable development.

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This is especially true when democracy has not been matured and government’s institutions as well as the corporate are not yet functioning properly. Check and balance by civilsociety components in conjunction with improving maturity in democracy on the path ofdeveloping good governance make sustainable development more realistically feasible.
It enables social and environmental services to obtain appropriate compensation byinterfering and correcting market prices. This interference requires institutional arrangementsthat make possible to capture the appropriate societal scale of preferences through the triangleof equal partnership between government, businesses and civil society.
It requires also an aspiration of striving for a common goal in a long-term time perspective that emerges through democratic deliberations from below with people’s participation.
A goal that is not emphasizing long run economic achievements only, but is balanced
by social and environmental achievements that enables sustainability of life for mankind andsociety within a life supporting natural ecosystem most feasible and desirable.
Implication of Sustainable Development on the WorldAt the international forum there are no similar national government’s operating institutions,which make market corrections difficult on global level.
This will be made more complicated if powerful governments and international institutions are enforcing unilaterally their own convictions and economic ideologies of liberalism,
free trade and private enterprises in a world with inequality.
International conventions are normally used to substitute for global governance but tobe effective it must be based on multilateralism.
Since the world is differentiated in unequal economic, technology and political strength
between the rich and the poor countries, developing countries adhere to the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities”. All countries have common responsibilities toenhance sustainable development, but these responsibilities must be differentiated in accordance with the differences in economic strength and development capacities between the twogroups of countries.
Because the fruits of development are not equally shared between the rich and the poor
countries, the burden of development cannot be distributed even. Unless developed and developing countries have equal rights, especially in influential world institutions when the dollar
votes dominate such as the World Bank, International Monetary Fund and the World Trade
Organization, the validity of “common but differentiated responsibilities” is its logical outcome.
On the other hand if this goal of equally sharing the benefits between the rich and thepoor are not achieved, the danger will be that social and armed conflicts will perpetuate, as
revealed in the current battles in developing countries of Afghanistan, Lebanon, Iraq andPalestine against the armed forces of developed countries of US and United Kingdom, making the world unsafe and unsustainable.
This calls for the need to strive for the essentials of sustainable development to live
within the carrying capacity of the global economic, social and eco-systems.

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The world has enough natural, human, social, financial and human made capital to support a humane sustained livelihood. Based on the accumulation of knowledge, science, wisdom and technology, human and social life can be sustained within a healthy ecological system.
The needs of the world today are in changing the course of development from anincreased materially based style of life into an increased enrichment of immaterial, cultural,
spiritual, knowledge and science based humane livelihood within the purview of human needs
that is able to suppress human greed.
There are increased efforts today to critically review the economically based Gross
Domestic Product and to strive for Green GDP to make the necessary corrections throughinternalizing externalities, by incorporating resource depletion and by including social andenvironmental benefits.
The life style of tomorrow does not imply reducing consumption, but consuming differently. What is needed is changing the quantity of consumption from resource exhaustion
with finite energy inefficiency to raising the quality of consumption with resource enrichment
and sustained by perpetual energy efficiency.
To strive for this different life style, plain living is the most ideal paradigm supported by
the creativity of high thinking on the basis of science, technology, cultural and spiritual development.
Agenda for Actions
To reach for this goal of changing life style, the following efforts are required:First, to educate and enrich human capacity to understand the interdependent net-working
processes of the economy, society and ecology on the basis of symbiotic relationship of natural sciences (biology, ecology, physics and chemistry) that interact with social sciences (economics, sociology, psychology, anthropology, political science) to give substance to sustainable development, among others by making use of ideas developed by “Blue Planet Prize
Laureates” during these last 15 years;
Second, to change the orientation of development from an “I” or “aku” and “we-without-you”
or “kami” into a “we-with-you” or “kita” outlook. This is important to consider within the
Asian context, since this region is expected to become the main “locomotive” of global growthin the 21st century. Unlike in the West, in Asia there is a strong urge to ascertain harmonious
relationship between human being and God the Creator, between human being and nature andbetween human being and society. These Asian values are crucial in sustainable development
and needs to be nurtured through moral persuasion, education, intellectual, cultural and spiritual enhancement;
Third, incentives, disincentives, punishment and rewards must be created through government
policies, law enforcement and institutional development to shift paradigms of resource
exploitation to resource enrichment by applying science, technology and local wisdom that301

add value to social and natural resources;
Fourth, governance in sustainable development requires the involvement of government, businesses and civil society leaders in a triangle of equal partnership to enable maximum participation of all people to reach for poverty alleviation through full employment, raising qualityof human development within a cohesive society and sustaining essential life supporting
ecosystem;
Fifth, global partnership among nations on equal basis in decision making are necessary
requirements to reach for Millennium Development Goals and the Johannesburg Plan of
Implementation of Sustainable Development.
On the basis of these five-points it is possible to draw the essence of sustainable development, which is revealed in the notion of plain living, high thinking as the basis of a sustained
life style for global survival with God’s blessing.
References
1. World Bank, Sustainable Development in a Dynamic World, IBRD Washington DC, 2003, page 149;
2. World Bank, Perspectives on Development, Pressgroup Holdings Europe, S.A. Spring 2005, page 184;
3. Asian Development Bank, Making Profits, Protecting Our Planet, Manila, ADB 2005, page 3;
4. World Bank, Ibid, Spring 2005, pages 45-46;
5. Callan, Scott, J. and Thomas, Janet, M., Environmental Economics and Management, Harcourt, Inc., Orlando,
2000, page 87;
6. Rist, Gilbert, “Before Thinking about What Next”, in Development Dialogue, Dag Hammarskjold Foundation,
Sweden, June 2006, page 70-72;
7. Hyden, Goran, “Civil Society: What Next?” in Development Dialogue. Dag Hammarskjold Foundation,
Sweden, June 2006, page 183;
8. The World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future, Oxford University Press,
New York, 1987, page 43;
9. Hassan, Fuad, Kita and Kami, Winoka, Jakarta, 2005, pages 17-34;
10. Nadeau, Robert L., The Wealth of Nature, Columbia University Press, New York, pages 116-122;
11. Rietbergen, Jenniver and friends, Editors, Environmental Valuation, United Nations Environment Program,
2000, pp.140-141 and Permen, Roger and friends, Natural Resource and Environmental Economics, Pearson
Education Limited, 2003, pp.411-438;302