41

Journal ofWorld Buddhist Cultures
Vol. 4

Research Center for World Buddhist Cultures,
Ryukoku University
㸫 March 2021 㸫Editorial Note
Eiji Hisamatsu
Director, Research Center for World Buddhist Cultures

The 2020 academic year opened up with the coronavirus pandemic. Due to theemergency situation, the Research Center for World Buddhist Cultures was obligated tocancel or postpone many scheduled events. However, despite restrictions caused by thecircumstance, the center managed to conduct researches and hold online events whileconsidering prevention of infection. For example, on the twenty-ninth of October, thecenter invited Rev. Dr. Takashi Miyaji (minister of the Southern Alameda County
Buddhist Church and Assistant Professor at the Institute of Buddhist Studies in Berkeley,CA) as a guest speaker for the online lecture “Amida Nyorai no negai to deau: Shakai
PRQGDLQLWDLVXUXVKLQVKǌWHNLDSXUǀFKL´ Encountering Amida’s Great Aspiration: A Shin
Buddhist Approach to Current Social Issues). On the third of December, the center hosted
a lecture by Dr. Obuse Kieko (Visiting researcher at Kobe City University of Foreign
6WXGLHV HQWLWOHG³%XNN\ǀWRLVOƗPXVHLNLL]HQQRVǀJRJHQN\ǌQLRNHUXµ%XGGD¶WR
µ<RJHQVKD¶ QL FKǌPRNX VKLWH´ %XGGKLVP DQG ,VODP )RFXVLQJ RQ 0XWXDO 5HIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQ³%XGGKD´DQG³3URSKHW´EHIRUHWKH6HYHQWHHQWK&HQWXU\ 7KLVOHFWXUHLVUHODWHG
WR WKH V\PSRVLXP WLWOHG ³%XNN\ǀ LVXOƗPX NLULVXWRN\ǀ QR NǀU\X QL PXNHWH+LNDNXVKǌN\ǀ QR VKL]D NDUD´ ,QWHUDFWLRQV DPRQJ %XGGKLVP ,VODP DQG &KULVWLDQLW\
From a Viewpoint of Comparative Religion) where prominent scholars of Islamic Studies
and Christian Studies participated. Moreover, on the seventeenth of December, the centerco-hosted two events. One was the “International Symposium on Socially Engaged%XGGKLVP LQ -DSDQ´ KHOG LQ FROODERUDWLRQ ZLWK WKH ,QWHUQDWLRQDO 1HWZRUN RI (QJDJHG
Buddhism (INEB), the Japan Network of Engaged Buddhism (JNEB), the Center forSouth Asian Studies (RINDAS), and Ryukoku University’s Religious Affairs Office.
Japanese Buddhist activists were invited to present their experience with vulnerable
populations, and it was the first attempt to discuss the reality of engaged Buddhism in-DSDQ DQG VXUURXQGLQJ LVVXHV $QRWKHU V\PSRVLXP ³.DQJR WR EXNN\ǀ QR UHQNHL R
PRWRPHWH 7DVKL VKDNDL QR VKǌVHLNL QL NDQJRVKD WR EXNN\ǀVKD ZD QDQL R VXEHNLND´(Pursuing the Cooperation between Nursing Care and Buddhism: What Should Nurses
and Buddhists Do at the End of Life in Death-ridden Society) was held by the center’s
Applied Research Division together with the Graduate School of Practical Shin BuddhistiStudies at Ryukoku University and the Kyoto Nursing Association.
Regarding other projects the center originally planned to conduct during theacademic year, most of them are now scheduled in the coming year. We are eager to carryout the projects despite this difficult situation.
Last but certainly not least, I am pleased to announce the publication of the fourthvolume of the Journal of World Buddhist Cultures which includes seven articles byscholars from Japan and other countries. I would like to express my gratitude to thecontributors, and it would be a delight if the journal could contribute to the developmentof international networks among Buddhist scholars.

iiⓎ ห ࡢ ㎡
ஂᯇ ⱥ஧
ୡ⏺௖ᩍᩥ໬◊✲ࢭࣥࢱ࣮㛗௒ᖺᗘࡢ㱟㇂኱Ꮫୡ⏺௖ᩍᩥ໬ࢭࣥࢱ࣮ࡢ◊✲άືࡣࠊ᪂ᆺࢥࣟࢼ࢘࢕ࣝࢫࡢឤᰁᣑ
኱࡜࠸࠺␗ᖖ஦ែࡢ࡞࠿࡛ጞࡲࡾࡲࡋࡓࠋࡇࡢࣃࣥࢹ࣑ࢵࢡࡢᙳ㡪࡟ࡼࡾࠊணᐃࡉࢀ࡚
࠸ࡓᮏࢭࣥࢱ࣮ࡢ࢖࣋ࣥࢺࡢ኱༙ࡀ୰Ṇࡸᘏᮇࢆవ൤࡞ࡃࡉࢀࡲࡋࡓࠋࡇࡢࡼ࠺࡞኱ࡁ
࡞ไ⣙ࡢ୰࡛ࠊᙜࢭࣥࢱ࣮ࡣ࢜ࣥࣛ࢖ࣥ㛤ദ➼ࠊឤᰁᣑ኱㜵Ṇ࡟ດࡵ࡞ࡀࡽ◊✲஦ᴗࢆᒎ㛤ࡋࡲࡋࡓࠋࡲࡎࠊㅮ₇఍࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࡣࠊ10 ᭶ 29 ᪥ࠊ⡿ᅜ࢝ࣜࣇ࢛ࣝࢽ࢔ᕞ࣭༡࢔ࣛ
࣓ࢲ௖ᩍ఍ࡢ㛤ᩍ౑ࢆົࡵࡘࡘ⡿ᅜ௖ᩍ኱Ꮫ㝔࡛ᩍ㠴ࢆ࡜ࡗ࡚࠸ࡿ Takashi Miyaji Ặࢆᣍ࠸࡚ㅮ₇఍ࢆ㛤ദࡋࡲࡋࡓࠋ┿᐀೔⌮ࡢᑓ㛛ᐙ࡜ࡋ࡚ࡢ❧ሙ࠿ࡽࠕ㜿ᘺ㝀ዴ᮶ࡢ㢪࠸࡜ฟ఍࠺̾♫఍ၥ㢟࡟ᑐࡍࡿ┿᐀ⓗ࢔ࣉ࣮ࣟࢳࠖ࡜࠸࠺ࢸ࣮࣐࡛࠾ヰࢆఛ࠸ࡲࡋࡓࠋࡲ
ࡓࠊ12 ᭶ 3 ᪥࡟ࠊࠕ௖ᩍ࡜࢖ࢫ࣮࣒ࣛ㸸17 ୡ⣖௨๓ࡢ┦஫ゝཬ࡟࠾ࡅࡿࠕ௖㝀ࠖ࡜ࠕ㡸ゝ⪅ࠖ࡟ὀ┠ࡋ࡚ࠖ࡜࠸࠺ㅮ㢟࡛ࠊᑠᕸ᪋♳ᜨᏊẶ㸦⚄ᡞᕷእᅜㄒ኱Ꮫᐈဨ◊✲ဨ㸧࡟ࡼࡿㅮ₇఍ࡀ㛤ദࡉࢀࡲࡋࡓࠋࢩ࣏ࣥࢪ࣒࢘࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࡣࠊ᪥⛬ࡢ㛵ಀ࡛ᮏㄅ᫖ᖺᗘ࡛ࡣ
ሗ࿌ࡉࢀ࡚࠾ࡾࡲࡏࢇ࡛ࡋࡓࡀࠊ2 ᭶ 7 ᪥࡟ࠊ௖ᩍࢆ㍈࡟ࠊ࢖ࢫ࣮࣒ࣛࠊ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍ࡜
࠸࠺ୡ⏺᐀ᩍࢆẚ㍑ࡋ࡚஺ὶࡢᡭࡀ࠿ࡾࢆ᥈ࡿヨࡳ࡜ࡋ࡚ࠊᅜෆࡢⴭྡ࡞࢖ࢫ࣮࣒ࣛᏛ
⪅ࡸ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍᏛ⪅ࡽࢆᣍ࠸࡚ࠕ௖ᩍ࣭࢖ࢫ࣮࣒࣭ࣛ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍࡢ஺ὶ࡟ྥࡅ࡚̿ẚ㍑
᐀ᩍࡢどᗙ࠿ࡽ̿ࠖ࡜࠸࠺ࢸ࣮࣐࡛ࢩ࣏ࣥࢪ࣒࢘ࡀ㛤ദࡉࢀࡲࡋࡓࠋࡉࡽ࡟ࠊ12 ᭶ 17᪥ࠊᅜ㝿࢚ࣥࢤ࣮ࢪࢻࣈࢵࢹ࢕ࢬ࣒࣭ࢿࢵࢺ࣮࣡ࢡࠊ᪥ᮏ࢚ࣥࢤ࣮ࢪࢻࣈࢵࢹ࢕ࢬ࣒࣭
ࢿࢵࢺ࣮࣡ࢡࠊ㱟㇂኱Ꮫ༡࢔ࢪ࢔◊✲ࢭࣥࢱ࣮ࠊ㱟㇂኱Ꮫ᐀ᩍ㒊ࡢ༠ຊࢆ࠼࡚ࠊ᪥ᮏ࡟
࠾ࡅࡿ♫఍ཧ⏬௖ᩍࡢάືᐙࢆᣍ㞟ࡋࠊ᪥ᮏࡢ࢚ࣥࢤ࣮ࢪࢻ࣭ࣈࢵࢹ࢕ࢬ࣒ࡢ⌧ᅾ࡜ࡑࡢㄢ㢟࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ウㄽࡍࡿࡣࡌࡵ࡚ࡢヨࡳ࡜ࡋ࡚ࠊᅜ㝿ࢩ࣏ࣥࢪ࣒࢘ࠕ᪥ᮏࡢ࢚ࣥࢤ࣮ࢪ
ࢻ࣭ࣈࢵࢹ࢕ࢬ࣒ࡢ⌧ᅾ࡜ࡑࡢㄢ㢟ࠖࡀ㛤ദࡉࢀࡲࡋࡓࠋࡲࡓᮏࢭࣥࢱ࣮ࡢࠕᛂ⏝◊✲㒊㛛࡛ࠖࡣࠊ12 ᭶ 17 ᪥࡟ࠊ㱟㇂኱Ꮫ኱Ꮫ㝔ᐇ㊶┿᐀Ꮫ◊✲⛉࡜ࡢඹദ࡛ࠊி㒔ᗓ┳ㆤ༠఍ࡢᚋ᥼ࢆཷࡅ࡚ࠊ
ࠕ┳ㆤ࡜௖ᩍࡢ㐃ᦠࢆồࡵ࡚ 㹼ከṚ♫఍ࡢ⤊⏕ᮇ࡟┳ㆤ⪅࡜௖ᩍ⪅ࡣఱࢆࡍ࡭ࡁ࠿ࠖ࡜࠸࠺ࢸ࣮࣐ࡢࡶ࡜ࠊࢩ࣏ࣥࢪ࣒࢘ࡀ㛤ദࡉࢀࡲࡋࡓࠋ ࡞࠾ࠊୖグ௨እࡢ௒ᖺᗘᐇ᪋ணᐃࡔࡗࡓ◊✲ࣉࣟࢪ࢙ࢡࢺάື࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࡣࠊࡑࡢ࡯
࡜ࢇ࡝ࡀḟᖺᗘᣢ㉺ࡋ࡜࡞ࡗ࡚࠾ࡾࡲࡍࠋࢥࣟࢼ⚝࡟࠶ࡗ࡚ࡶࠊྍ⬟࡞㝈ࡾࠊ஦ᴗᒎ㛤ࡋ࡚࠸ࡃᡤᏑ࡛ࡍࠋ
ࡉ࡚ࠊࠗୡ⏺௖ᩍᩥ໬◊✲࠘➨㸲ྕ࡟ࡣࠊᅜෆእ࠿ࡽ 7 ྡࡢ◊✲⪅ࡢㄽ⪃ࢆᥖ㍕ࡍ
ࡿࡇ࡜ࡀ࡛ࡁࡲࡋࡓࠋᢞ✏ࡃࡔࡉ࠸ࡲࡋࡓ᪉ࠎ࡟ᚚ♩ࢆ⏦ࡋୖࡆࡲࡍ࡜࡜ࡶ࡟ࠊࡇࡢ Eࢪ࣮ࣕࢼࣝࡀᅜෆእࡢ◊✲⪅࡟ᗈࡃ⾜ࡁΏࡾࠊ௖ᩍ◊✲ࡢᅜ㝿ⓗࢿࢵࢺ࣮࣡ࢡࡢᵓ⠏࡟ᐤ୚ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡀ࡛ࡁࡿࡼ࠺㢪ࡗ࡚࠾ࡾࡲࡍࠋ

iii

Table of Contents
Editorial Notei

Table of Contentsiv

ޮ Articles 1 ޮࠝSpecial Contentsࠞ
Shin Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam: Comparative Theology (2016-2019)
Introduction
Mitsuya DAKE

3

Elif EMIRAHMETOGLU

11

A Muslim Perspective of the Concept of Ultimate Reality

Myth and History in Christian Thought: Reunification and Retrieval
James L. FREDERICKS
A Shin Buddhist Sense of

23

David MATSUMOTO

43

The Discourse of Religious Experience as Testimony: Tsunashima Ryōsen’ s
Philosophy and Practiceࠑin Japaneseࠒ
Tadayoshi FURUSO

75

Wisdom and Compassion, Exposure and Embrace:
Transendent Immanenceޮ Articles 2 ޮ

Metaphorical Interpretations of “Kalyāṇamitra” in the Gaṇḍavyūha-sūtra
Jianrong SHI
Reimagining Ancient India in Modern Japan: Interactions between Buddhist Priests,
Scholars, and Artists at Ajanta

95

Paride STORTINI

117

Purpose of the Journal

135

Authors’ Profiles

138

iv

ⴤ ⅗
Ⲱࡀʌ䗔

i

ⴤ⅗

iv

ޮ 䄌
 ᮽ 1ޮࠝ≉㞟ࠞShin Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam: Comparative Theology (2016-2019)
Introduction᎟ Ⓐҕ

3

Elif EMIRAHMETOGLU

11

A Muslim Perspective of the Concept of Ultimate Reality

Myth and History in Christian Thought: Reunification and Retrieval
Wisdom and Compassion, Exposure and Embrace:
Transendent Immanence

James L. FREDERICKS
A Shin Buddhist Sense of

23

David MATSUMOTO43ਚ㦎 ॗ㗟

75ޮ 䄌 ᮽ 2 ޮ䁲䀶ʆɵʄʌᇍᮏ։偉䀶䃢ă㏧ጬặᐓʌᙓᜩʆᇕ䐫ă

Metaphorical Interpretations of “Kalyāṇamitra” in the Gaṇḍavyūha-sūtra䠁 ฻㷃
Reimagining Ancient India in Modern Japan: Interactions between Buddhist Priests,
Scholars, and Artists at Ajanta

95

Paride STORTINI

117

ⲰࡀʌⴤⲺ

135

อㅼ㘻ж㿝

138

v

ซ ౛
1, ᮏㄅࡣࠊⱥㄒࢆ୺ゝㄒ࡜ࡍࡿࡀࠊ᪥ᮏㄒ࡟ࡼࡿᢞ✏ࡶࡉࡲࡓࡆ࡞࠸ࠋࡋࡓࡀࡗ࡚ࠊ┠ḟࠊᕳᮎᇳ➹⪅➼ࡣࠊⱥㄒ࡜᪥ᮏㄒࢆేグࡍࡿࠋ2, ₎Ꮠ⾲グ࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࡣࠊ⩻ヂࢆྵࡴ᪥ᮏㄒཎ✏ࡢሙྜࠊ୍㒊ࡢேྡࠊ᭩ྡࢆ㝖ࡁࠊཎ๎ࠊᖖ⏝₎Ꮠ࡟⤫୍ࡍࡿࠋ3, ᮏㄅ୰࡟౑⏝ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿᅗ∧ࡢ↓᩿ࢥࣆ࣮ࡣᅛࡃ⚗ࡎࡿࠋ

vi

Articles 1
ࠝSpecial Contentsࠞ

Shin Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam:Comparative Theology (2016-2019)‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬Introduction
ࠑin Englishࠒ

Mitsuya DAKE
Professor, Ryukoku University3Mitsuya DAKE
Introduction‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬Introduction
Mitsuya DAKE
“Shin Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam: Conversations in Comparative Theology” wasa cooperative international research project conducted at Ryukoku University in Kyoto
and the University of Münster in Germany, Georgetown University and the Institute of
Buddhist Studies in the USA from 2016 through 2019. It brought together a small groupof scholars working cooperatively to explore topics in Shin Buddhist, Christian, andIslamic theological thoughts in a comparative manner. In particular, it was designed to
examine issues raised by Shin Buddhist thought from comparative theologicalperspectives.
Western scholars have long noted that Shin Buddhism, as a Mahayana tradition thatappears to share a number of conceptual and structural features in common with theChristian tradition, may serve as a particularly fitting partner in seeking interreligious
understanding. This project afforded an opportunity to bring Shin Buddhism into
sustained conversation with Christian and Islamic scholars of various nationalities
engaged in Christian-Buddhist, Islamic-Buddhist, and Christian-Islamic researches andenabled fresh perspectives on dialogue among these major religious traditions. It has
expanded and deepened Buddhist interreligious dialogue and further illuminated new
directions for the development of contemporary Shin Buddhist thought in a global,
pluralistic context.
The research meetings were attended by Shin Buddhist, Christian, and Islamicscholars and researchers. In addition to them, there were a group of core participants (whoattended all of the four main meetings), and other participants invited for particular
meetings as budget and schedules permitted. All of the participants were familiar withintroductory works on the other traditions selected by the core participants.
Core participants (attended all meetings):
Prof. James Fredericks, Loyola Marymount University, USA
Prof. Perry Schmidt-Leukel, Münster University, Germany
Prof. Imtiyaz Yusuf, Center for Buddhist-Muslim Understanding, Mahidol
University, Thailand
Prof. David Matsumoto, Institute of Buddhist Studies, USA
Prof. Mitsuya Dake, Ryukoku University, Japan

5

Journal of World Buddhist Cultures‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Vol. 4

Prof. Dennis Hirota, Ryukoku University, Japan
Each meeting consisted of four sessions over two days. It was initiated by keynote
presentations of the thinking within each tradition, followed by responses and open
discussion. The presentations assumed basic knowledge of the traditions. The responses
discussed topical issues and questions that were raised amongst the traditions for eachother.
The three papers published in this E-journal are some of selected papers presented
at the research meetings.

*The programs of the research meetings are as follows.
1) The First Conference at Ryukoku University, Research Center of World Buddhist
Cultures, Kyoto
Date:
February 15-17, 2017
Theme: Shin Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam: Conversation in Comparative
Theology[Public Lectures]
1. Prof. Perry Schmidt-Leukel (Münster University German, 2015 Gilford Lecture
Laureate)“A Fractal Interpretation of Religious Diversity”
2.

Dr. Keiko Obuse (Kobe City University of Foreign Language)“Mutual Perception between Buddhists and Muslims: With Special Reference
to Japanese Buddhists’ Perspectives”[Trialogue]
Session 1:

Buddha’s Teaching, Revelation, Logos“Then Teaching as Truth in Shinran”
Prof. Dennis Hirota (Ryukoku University)

Session 2:“Revelation in Islam”
Prof. Imtiyaz Yusef (Mahidol University)“Buddha’s Teaching, Revelation, Logos: A Christian Perspective”
Prof. Perry Schmidt-Leukel (Münster University)
Universality and Exclusivism

6

Mitsuya DAKE
Introduction‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬“Universality and Exclusivism in Religious Dialogue from
Perspective of Shinran Thought”
Prof. Mitsuya Dake (Ryukoku University)
Prof. Junya Shinoe (Doshisha University)
Prof. Peter Phan (George Town University)
Myth and History“Myth and History in Shin Buddhist Thought”

Session 3:

Prof. David Matsumoto (the Institute of Buddhist Studies)“Myth and History in Islamic Religious Thought”
Prof. Maria Dakake (George Mason University)“Myth and History in Christian Thought”
Prof. James L. Fredericks (Loyola Marymount University)
Amida, Allah, Trinity“Revitalizing the Monothetics Discourse of Creation: Two
Buddhist’s Views”
Prof. Eisho Nasu (Ryukoku University)“A Muslim Perspective of Concept of Ultimate Reality”
Prof. Elif Emirahmetoglu (Münster University)“Christian Doctrine of the Trinity: Distinctive Concerns and Possible
Encounters with Buddhism and Muslim”
Prof. Bernhard Nitsche (Münster University)

Session 4:

2) The Seconds Conference at Münster University, Münster in Germany
Date:
Theme:

July 12-14, 2017
Theme: Evil and Self-Awareness[Public Lectures]
1. Prof. Imtiyaz Yusuf (Mahidol University)“Buddhism, Islam and Politics in South- and Southeast Asia”
2.

Prof. Mouhanad Khorchide (Münster University)“Islam and Inter-Faith Relations”[Trialogue]
Session 1:

Karmic Evil, Sin, Suffering, and Predestination“Karmic Evil, Sin, Suffering, and Predestination: A Shin-Buddhist7‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

Perspective”
Prof. Eisho Nasu (Ryukoku University)“The Mind al-Qur’an—Sin, Suffering, and Predestination”
Prof. Imtiyaz Yusef (Mahidol University)“The Christian Understanding of Evil
Session 2:

Prof. James Fredericks (Loyola Marymount University)
Practice, Prayer, and Transformation“The Real Is Transformative Dynamic: Shinran’s Concept of Shinjin”
Prof. Dennis Hirota (Ryukoku University)“God’s Mercy Encompasses All, but Whom Does God Love?”

Session 3:

Prof. Maria Dakake (George Mason University)“Practice, Prayer, and Transformation”
Prof. Perry Schmidt-Leukel (Münster University)
Repentance and Forgiveness, Aspiration and Hope
“Repentance and Forgiveness; Aspiration and Hope: A Shin-Buddhist
Perspective”
Prof. David Matsumoto (the Institute of Buddhist Studies)“Sin and Forgiveness in Islam and Its Meaning for the Afterlife”
Prof. Mouhanad Khorchide (Münster University)“Being Saved and Being Just: Grace and Salvation in the ChristianTradition”
Prof. Peter Phan (George Town University)

Session 4:

The Nature of Human Existence“A Shin Buddhist Perspective to the Nature of Human Existence”
Prof. Mitsuya Dake (Ryukoku University)“Existence of Human Being in Islam”
Prof. Junya Shinohe (Doshisha University)“Conceptions of the Human: A Christian Point of View”
Prof. Bernhard Nitsche8Mitsuya DAKE
Introduction‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬3) The Third Conference at George Town University, Washington D.C. in the USA
Date:
June 27-29, 2018
Theme:

Salvific Action[Pre-Conference Panel]
Buddhist-Christian-Muslim Conversation on Salvific Action“What Can a Buddhist Learn from Islam?”
Dr. Keiko Obuse (Kobe City University of Foreign Language)“Shinran, Kierkegaard and The Sickness unto Death”
Dr. Daniel Rumel (Münster University)“Salvific Action in the Tension between Human Free Will and Predestination”
Prof. Elif Emirahmetoglu (Münster University)[Public Lectures]
1. Prof. Leo Lefebure (George Town University)

2.

“Go, Tell It on the Mountain: Salvific Action in Light of African American
Christian Experience”
Prof. Dennis Hirota (Ryukoku University)“Learning from Others: Engaging the Shin Buddhist Path in the Contemporary
World”[Trialogue]
Session 1:

Session 2:

Wisdom-Compassion, Divine Love/Mercy, and Transcendence“Wisdom and Compassion, Exposure and Embrace: A Shin Buddhist
Sense of Transcendent Immanence”
Prof. David Matsumoto (the Institute of Buddhist Studies)“The Name and the Vow: Reading Exodus 3 with Shinran”
Prof. James Fredericks (Loyola Marymount University)
Shinjin, Nembutsu, Surrender/Faith, Remembrance, and the Prophetic
Voice“Shinran’s Idea of Realization in Shinjin and Nembutsu”
Prof. Mitsuya Dake (Ryukoku Univeristy)“Surrender, Faith, and Remembrance”
Prof. Leo D. Lefebure (George Town University)"Muhammad: A Human Prophet"Prof. Imtiyaz Yusuf (Mahidol University)9‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬

Session 3:

Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

Amida’s Directing of Virtue: Grace, Justice, and Moral Life
“Amida’s Directing of Virtue and Its Moral Implications in Shin
Buddhist Faith and Practice”
Prof. Eisho Nasu (Ryukoku University)“Grace and Salvation in the Christian Tradition”
Prof. Peter C. Phan (Georgetown University)“Deepening Belief in Islam with the Divine's Directing of Virtue: An
Examination of the ‘Three Fun-damental Principles of Islam’ by
Muhammad bin Abdul-Wahhab”

Session 4:

Prof. Junya Shinohe (Doshisha University)
Naturalness (jinen), Fitra, Spirit“The Real Is Transformative Dynamic: Shiran’s Concept of Jinen”
Prof. Dennis Hirota (Ryukoku University)“Simul Bodhisattva et Icchantika: A Christian Reflection on Jinen”
Prof. Perry Schmidt-Leukel (Münster University)4) The Fourth Conference for Publication Project at Institute of Buddhist Studies,
Berkeley in the USA
Date:
June 11-12, 2019
Participants:
Prof. James Fredericks (Loyola Marymount University)
Prof. Perry Schmidt-Leukel (Münster University)
Prof. Imtiyaz Yusuf (Mahidol University)
Prof. David Matsumoto (Institute of Buddhist Studies)Prof. Mitsuya Dake (Ryukoku University)
Prof. Eisho Nasu (Ryukoku University)
Prof. Dennis Hirota, (Ryukoku University)10‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬A Muslim Perspective of the Conceptof Ultimate Reality
ࠑin EnglishࠒElif EMIRAHMETOGLU
Research Assistant,
Berlin Institute for Islamic Theology,
Humboldt University of Berlin11‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

Abstract
This paper aims to briefly portray from a Muslim view how the concept of ultimate
reality is treated in Islamic thought focusing particularly on the three divine names: alHaqq (the Real), ar-Rahman (the Merciful) and an-Nur (the Light). After that, it points
out some parallels between Shin Buddhism, Christianity and Islam in respect of theperception of ultimate reality and liberating experience of human being.

12Elif EMIRAHMETOGLU
A Muslim Perspective of the Concept of Ultimate Reality‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬A Muslim Perspective of the Conceptof Ultimate Reality*
Elif EMIRAHMETOGLU
Keywords:

Islam, Buddhism, Ibn al-µ$UDEƯ&RPSDUDWLYH7KHRORJ\

Two Main Aspects of God: Transcendence and Immanence
The conceptions of God found in the Qur’an, the hadith literature and various theological,
philosophical and mystical schools of the Islamic tradition provide us a wide spectrum ofdifferent images of God. Despite the diversity of the Islamic concepts of God we canspeak of two main aspects of the Absolute: His transcendence and immanence.
The Qur’an declares that “He is Allah, the One and Only. Allah, the Eternal,
Absolute; He neither begets nor is born.” (112:1-3) and “there is nothing like Him”
(42:11). “He is the Most High, the Most Great.” (2:255) Such verses explicitly point out
the absolute transcendence of God which implies that nothing is identical with Him andcan be equated with Him. However, the Qur’an also accentuates God’s nearness to thecreatures, His concern for human beings and that He is present everywhere, as forexample in the following verses: “He is with you wherever you are.” (57:4), “It was We
Who created man, and We know what dark suggestions his soul makes to him: for We
are nearer to him than (his) jugular vein. (50:16), “To Allah belong the East and the West:
Everywhere you turn, there is the Face of Allah. For Allah is all-Pervading, all-Knowing.”(2:115)
Taw‫ۊ‬Ưd: “The All-Embracing Principle of Islam”
The fundamental Islamic doctrine of taw‫ۊ‬ƯG unities both the transcendent and immanent
aspects of the divine Reality in question. The notion of taw‫ۊ‬ƯG essentially means theoneness of God or more exactly recognizing the oneness of the ultimate Reality, but it
also implies how the creatures are connected with this absolute Reality. Islamic tradition
explains the relationship between the transcendence of God and the phenomenal world
with the help of the two terms, WDQ]ƯK and WDVKEƯK, that is, the incomparability of theAbsolute and the similarity of the Absolute respectively.
*
This essay is based on a paper given at a Shin Buddhist, Christian and Muslim trialogue at Ryukoku
University in Kyoto in February 2017.

13‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

7DQ]ƯK means literally “to declare something pure and free of something else.” 1 In
accordance with the definition of the word, the perspective of WDQ]ƯK underlines theabsolute transcendence and the total otherness of God. God in Himself is essentiallybeyond human understanding and language. As it is said in the Qur’an: “Utterly remote
is Allah, in His limitless glory, from anything to which men may ascribe a share in His
divinity!” (59:23)
However, the same transcendent Reality has also some sort of similarity with his
creatures. The Qur’an expresses these similarities in an anthropomorphic description of
God as having hand and face, and by ascribing some human attributes and actions to God.
Thus, the Qur’an says of God: “He is the Hearing and the Seeing.” (42:11) He is “theSovereign, the Pure, the Perfection, the Bestower of Faith, the Overseer, the Exalted in
Might, the Compeller, the Superior” (59:23). In addition to these attributes, God also
describes in the Qur’an how He enters into relation with human beings and the cosmos as
the Protector, the Provider, the Watcher and so on. The divine Names associated with
WDVKEƯK indicate the nearness of God to human beings that enables an experience of theAbsolute. On the basis of the personal representations of God people can turn towards thetranscendent Reality and experience His closeness and mercy, as indicated by this divine
statement: “Call upon Me, and I will answer you.” (40:60)
Sachiko Murata and William Chittick who both are outstanding scholars of Sufism
and Islamic thought elucidate the notions of WDQ]ƯK and WDVKEƯK, these two complementary
aspects of the main principle of Islam, as follows: “The perspective of WDQ]ƯK affirms
God’s oneness by declaring that God is one and God alone is Real. Hence everythingother than God is unreal and not worthy of consideration. God’s single reality excludes
all unreality. In contrast, the perspective of WDVKEƯK declares that God’s oneness is suchthat his one reality embraces all creatures. The world, which appears as unreality andillusion, is in fact nothing but the One Real showing his signs. Rather than excluding allthings, God’s unity includes them.” 2
After my brief explanation of taw‫ۊ‬ƯG as the fundamental notion of Islam, I would
like to take a closer look at the three names of God which spell out more clearly themeaning of taw‫ۊ‬ƯG as the unity underlying the diversity of appearances. The
representation of the conceptions of God in the Islamic tradition through the medium of
His following three names, that is, the Real, the Most Merciful and the Light, may also
constitute both a useful and fruitful basis for a comparative analysis of the concepts of
the ultimate Reality between Christianity, Shin Buddhism and Islam.
1
2

Sachiko Murata, William C. Chittick, 7KH9LVLRQRI,VODP, (London: I.B. Tauris, 2015), p. 71.
Murata and Chittick, 7KH 9LVLRQ RI ,VODP, p. 71.

14

Elif EMIRAHMETOGLU
A Muslim Perspective of the Concept of Ultimate Reality‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬Al-Haqq: “Everything is perishing but His Face”
One of the divine Names found in the Qur’an is al-Haqq, literally “the Real”. “That is
because Allah is the Real, and what they call upon apart from Him is unreal.” (22:62,
31:30) As declared by this verse and other numerous statements of the Qur’an, God is the
only eternal Reality. From the point of view of the Real, all things in the phenomenal
world are merely illusory appearances which we experience from the relative point ofview as the cosmic multiplicity.
The first statement of the Shahadah, the Islamic creed, also supports God’s absolute
Reality: “There is no god but God”. This can be also formulated as ´there is nothing real
but the Real´. God is the only eternal Real, everything other than God is unreal, transitory
and illusory, as stated by the verse: “Everything is perishing but His Face.” (28:88)
In addition to that, God declares in the Qur’an that He “created the heavens and theearth and everything between the two only with the Real.” (15:85) At this point, I would
like to refer to the great Sufi master Ibn al-µ$UDEƯ (1165-1240) and introduce hisinterpretation of the relationship between the Real and the transitory and illusionary realm
briefly.
Ibn al-µ$UDEƯ¶V concept of the unity or oneness of Being (wa‫ۊ‬GDW DO-ZXMǌG) denotes
the ontological unity of God and creation. He characterizes this unity by the term "tajalli",
which refers to the self-manifestation of God in the material world and in the heart of thefaithful. God manifests himself by His names and attributes, but not by His essence. Thismeans that we need to distinguish between God´s essence on the one hand, “God as
Essence”, and God´s manifestation on the other hand, “God as Divinity”. In fact, Ibn alµ$UDEƯ’s theory of the modes of manifestation, or the stages of Being, is morecomprehensive and versatile but here I confine my remarks only to the two dimensionsof the Absolute. God as Essence indicates the original and undifferentiated state ofoneness that is the Real in Itself. Whereas the Essence of God remains always
unrecognizable, He manifests himself in His various names. It is merely through His
names and attributes that God is recognizable, since the human being is not able to realize
the Essence of God with his limited abilities. For this reason, the manifestation of thequalities of the Absolute such as mercy, protection and sustenance demonstrates thecloseness of God to His creatures. He can also be glorified in his Names and Attributes
which manifest divine Reality within the categories of human language and conception.
Ibn al-µ$UDEƯ refers to the phenomenal world as a shadow of the Real. The Real isineffable, indefinable in itself, however it discloses itself in all things. Yet the divine15‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

Essence as Self-sufficient is beyond all the Names and Attributes. For this reason, Ibn alµ$UDEƯ uses the terms “unity of many” and “unity of Essence” to point out “His [God’s]
complete independence of the Names”. In his famous book, 7KH %H]HOV RI :LVGRP, Ibn
al-µ$UDEƯ says that “God’s Unity, in respect of the divine Names that require ourexistence, is a unity of many, while in respect of His complete independence of the Names
and us, it is unity of Essence, for both of which the Name the One is used.” 3 He further
states that “There is [in fact] only He Who is distinct, nor is there any similarity [withHim]. In existence, there is no similarity or dissimilarity, for there is but One Reality, anda thing is not the opposite of itself.” 4 The consideration of Ibn al-µ$UDEƯ’s doctrine ofself-manifestation of the Real leads us to the second divine name which indicates anotheressential aspect of God and His relationship with human beings.
Ar-Rahman: “The Breath of the All-Merciful”
In the Sufi literature, a famous hadith qudsi is often mentioned to explain the reason of
the existence of the realm of multiplicity. It reads as follows: “I was a hidden treasure,and I loved to be known. Thus, I created the creatures so that I might be known.”
According to this divine utterance, the creative movement of God is activated by theprinciple of Love. He loved to be known and “breathed of His spirit into man” (32:9). In
this respect, the whole being is considered in the Islamic tradition as the Breath of the
All-Merciful (Nafas ar-Rahman). God turns to human beings in love and mercy and His“Rahma (Mercy) encompasses all things” (7:165).
Thus, the basic idea is that God created the word out of Mercy. But not only
creation is regarded as an expression of God´s Mercy. The revelation or the manifestationof God through divine words is also repeatedly mentioned in the Qur’an as a mercy andhealing for the diseases in the hearts. By means of His All-Merciful Breath, the divine
words become manifest, and thereby He enters into a saving and enlightening relationshipwith His creatures. The salvific aspect of the divine Mercy is depicted in the following
verses: “Most Gracious! It is He who has taught the Qur’an. He has created man.” (55:13), “[…] This is (nothing but) Lights from your Lord, and Guidance and Mercy, for any
who have Faith. When the Quran is read, listen to it with attention. And hold your peace:That you may receive Mercy.” (7: 203-204). The act of the recitation of the Qur’an is in
this regard the internalization of God´s declaration of Love and fulfillment of the heartwith divine Mercy.
3 Ibn al-µ$UDEƯ, 7KH %H]HOV RI :LVGRP, translated by R.W.J. Austin, (New Jersey: Paulist Press, 1980),

p. 126.
Ibn al-µ$UDEƯ, 7KH %H]HOV RI :LVGRP, p. 108.

4

16

Elif EMIRAHMETOGLU
A Muslim Perspective of the Concept of Ultimate Reality‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬The permeation of God´s merciful Breath in the whole creation has also anotheressential aspect which plays an important role in the spiritual perfection of human being.
Since people carry within themselves the immanent divine nature of the merciful Breath,the realization of this nature leads man to the knowledge of God. As recorded in the hadith
literature, “whosoever knows himself knows his Lord”. By recognizing and becoming
aware of their true nature, human beings may attain an immediate vision of the Absolute.
According to Ibn al-µ$UDEƯ, “inhaling Mercy […] seeks to resolve thingness in
Identity and Uniqueness.” 5 As soon as the illusory perception of the distinction between
subject and object, or knower and known is dispelled, the essential Unity with the Realwill be recognized. “When you enter into His Paradise you enter into yourself. Then you
will know yourself with a gnosis other than that by which you knew your Lord byknowing yourself. Thus, you will be possessed of two kinds of gnosis, first knowing Him
as knowing yourself, second, knowing Him through you as Him, not as you.” 6
An-Nur: “The Light of the Heavens and the Earth”
Another name of God closely associated with His Mercy and demonstrating His
boundless grace to human beings is “the Light.” As the famous light verse of the Qur’anstates, “Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth” (24:35). In addition, God describesin the same way His revelation as a Light which illuminates the darkness: “there has cometo you from Allah a light” (5:15).
In the words of Ibn al-µ$UDEƯ, the compassionate self-disclosure of the Real is theradiation of the Light in the heart of the believer. “The heart has been illuminated by God
with the light of faith.” 7 In this sense, the Light of faith reflects the divine Light. Whenthe light of God shines in the heart of the person of faith, the darkness of the transitory
world will be dispelled by the Mercy of God. The following verse refers to believers
whose will be brought out of darkness into the light by virtue of their sincere faith: “Onthe Day you see the believing men and believing women, their light proceeding before
them and on their right” (57-12). Another verse of the Qur´an also reinforces that throughturning towards God in sincere faith the Light of God will be realized: “O you who havebelieved, repent to God with sincere repentance. Perhaps your Lord will remove from you
your misdeeds, […] Their light will proceed before them and on their right; they will say,
‘Lord, perfect for us our light and forgive us.’” (66:8)

5 Ibn al-µ$UDEƯ, 7KH %H]HOV RI :LVGRP p. 223.
6
7

Ibn al-‘AraEƯ, 7KH %H]HOV RI :LVGRP, p. 108.
Ibn al-µ$UDEƯ, 7KH %H]HOV RI :LVGRP, p. 161.

17‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

Conclusion
Finally let us get back to our starting notion of taw‫ۊ‬ƯG As I tried to show, the principleof taw‫ۊ‬ƯG is related to the different aspects of the divine existence. In the words of Murata
and Chittick: “Neither WDQ]ƯK nor WDVKEƯK provides a complete picture of reality. The
universe needs to be understood in terms of both perspectives simultaneously. Then we
see that each thing is at once near to God and far from him, at once similar to God andincomparable with him.” 8 In this respect, “tawhƯd is an all-embracing concept, in keepingwith the all-embracing nature of the divine reality which it expresses.” 9 The oneness of
the Reality encompasses the whole aspects of God. He is both Outward and Inward, there
is in fact no difference between God’s transcendent incomparability and immanent
similarity as far as the oneness of Being is concerned. The blowing Breath and radiating
Light of the Real imply this Unity. To express this again in Ibn al-µ$UDEƯ’s words: “So,O friend, do not know Him in one context and be ignorant of Him in another, nor affirm
Him in one situation and deny Him in another, unless you affirm Him in an aspect inwhich He affirms Himself and deny Him in an aspect in which He denies Himself, as in
the verse in which denial and affirmation of Himself are brought together.” 10
I have tried to portray a Muslim understanding of ultimate Reality by means of thethree Names of God, which may provide an opportunity to talk about the parallels andcommonalities between Christianity, Shin Buddhism and Islam, beyond the well-known
doctrinal differences in certain respects. The Real as the transcendent aspect of God
underlines that none of religious traditions can completely reflect the nature of ultimate
Reality. This is a very good reason to remain humble while talking about the Real, butalso to be more eager to acknowledge and appreciate its various conceptions in the
different contexts. While the essence of divine Reality remains undefinable, God´smanifestation through the Name “All-Merciful” denotes the divine proximity andcompassion to everyone. Since the Love and Mercy of God constitute the principle ofcreation, His Mercy is not limited merely to Muslims who belong to the institutionalized
Islam as religion, rather it encompasses all creatures. Similarly, the divine names as theBreath and the Light show that God manifests himself in each human being, independentof whether they are aware or ignorant of this fact. There is no boundary to the forms inwhich It manifests itself and nothing devoid of the Mercy of God.
“All becoming is an imagination
8

Murata and Chittick, 7KH 9LVLRQ RI ,VODP, p. 73.
Murata and Chittick, 7KH 9LVLRQ RI ,VODP, p. 44.
10
Ibn al-µ$UDEƯ, 7KH %H]HOV RI :LVGRP, p. 191.
918

Elif EMIRAHMETOGLU
A Muslim Perspective of the Concept of Ultimate Reality‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬And in truth also a reality
Who truly comprehends this,Has attained the mysteries of the Way” 11

Response to the Papers of Eisho Nasu and Bernhard Nitsche
In my response to the papers of Eisho Nasu and Bernhard Nitsche, I want to take three
Buddhist teachings as a starting point to display the feasible parallels between Shin
Buddhism, Christianity and Islam regarding the concept of ultimate Reality. They are “thedoctrine of WUL-kƗya,” the concepts of “non-duality” and “the Buddha-nature.”
The MahƗyƗna doctrine of the three bodies of the Buddha (WUL-kƗya) has alreadybeen compared to the Christian concept of ultimate Reality by some Buddhist scholars
such as John Makransky or Masao Abe. I would like to bring in an Islamic perspectiveby highlighting some similarities between the concept of WUL-kƗya, Christian Trinitarian
thinking and Ibn al-µ$UDEƯ’s concept of God. The doctrine of WUL-kƗya refers to the various
manifestations of the Buddha as identical with the Dharma on the different levels of being.
These tree bodies of the Buddha are GKDUPD-kƗya (the truth body), VDPEKRJD-kƗya (theenjoyment body), and QLUPDQD-kƗya (the transformation body). 'KDUPD-kƗya refers to
the ultimate reality which is formless, undifferentiated and eternal. This inconceivable,
formless GKDUPD-kƗya manifests itself in conditioned form-beings as supramundane andmundane Buddhas, who represent the levels of VDPEKRJD-kƗya and QLUPDQD-kƗya
respectively.
Similar to the formless and undifferentiated GKDUPD-kƗya, the Essence of God
remains always undefinable, ineffable and totally other in the Islamic tradition. It is the
only eternal Reality being beyond all of the human words and concepts. Berharnd Nitsche
likewise refers in his paper to God as “inaccessible fullness” and an “ungraspable
mystery” which is also the foundation of all reality. Nitsche further describes theunfathomable abundance with the following nice metaphor: “As a shoreless and limitlessocean, it is the inner reality of everything without being composed of everything. Thisocean precedes all seas and allows for them to exist. This divine ocean does not findfulfillment in the entirety of reality.” In line with this quotation from Nitsche, I want tocite the following verse from the Qur’an which also illustrates the unfathomable greatnessof God and infinitude of His words: “If whatever trees upon the earth were pens and thesea [was ink], replenished thereafter by seven [more] seas, the words of Allah would not
be exhausted” (31:27).
11

Ibn al-µ$UDEƯ, 7KH %H]HOV RI :LVGRP, p. 197.

19‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

It is obvious that all three religions use an apophatic discourse regarding ultimate
Reality. In addition, there is another similarity between these religious traditions which
relates to the manifestation of the transcendent Reality in the transitory realm. In the Pure
Land tradition, the manifestation of the GKDUPD-kƗya is as a compassionate activity in therealm of samsara which enables the person of faith attaining awakening. In this respect,
the enjoyment bodies of the Buddha are called dharma-body as upƗya, or, as it isunderstood by the English translation, as “compassionate means.” Amida Buddha, whois the central focus of Jǀdo Shinshǌ, represents one of the supramundane manifestationsof formless reality. Out of great compassion, he has created his Pure Land as a realm of
enlightenment and he is therefore considered as an object of faith and veneration in Shin
Buddhism.
Turning again to the Christian and Islamic tradition, we encounter a similar
compassionate-salvific dimension of the transcendent Reality as the divine immanence inthe world. In addition to the divine fullness, Nitsche also emphasizes in his paper thenecessity of “the worldly presence of God in Jesus Christ and the Spirit.” According toChristian theology, “salvation and peace can only be effected through God himself.”
Similar to Buddhism and Christianity, also in the Islamic tradition the compassion andmercy of God is the foundation that enables the attainment of realization and religious
awakening. God enters into a saving and enlightening relationship with the creatures
through the manifestation of the divine Names and Attributes which are the signs of His
proximity. In this connection, it can be said that there is a functional similarity between
the VDPEKRJD-kƗya, the Logos and the divine Names. All three imply that thetranscategorial ultimate appears as mercy-compassion-love when entering the sphere ofhuman concepts and categories.
Apart from the considered similarities, I now want to point out a difference between
Islam and Buddhism in conceiving of the manifestation of ultimate reality. According to
the doctrine of WUL-kƗya, after attaining Buddhahood the enlightened being can bring abouta manifestation of GKDUPD-kƗya as a transformation body. In contrast to this, themanifestation of the Names and Attributes of God takes place without any humanendeavor, in the manner of the process of attaining Buddhahood and bringing about amanifestation of GKDUPD-kƗya. More precisely, by practicing the Bodhisattva path, theBodhisattva DharmƗkara had attained Buddhahood, fulfilled his forty-eight vows andbecame the Buddha AmitƗbha. His Enjoyment Body and Pure Land represent the wisdomand compassion of Amida, but on the other hand, they are the spontaneous results of theBodhisattva DharmƗNDra’s “collection of merit and wisdom.” As it can easily be seen, thestarting point of the manifestation of ultimate Reality remains different in Islam and20

Elif EMIRAHMETOGLU
A Muslim Perspective of the Concept of Ultimate Reality‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬Buddhism. In the Islamic tradition, the manifestation of the divine Names and Attributes
is a downward movement from the Essence of God into the phenomenal world. In
contrast, attaining Buddhahood and the manifestation of a Pure Land are primarily an
upward movement from the realm of samsara and then a downward movement returning
to the deluded people. However, the main reason of the manifestations of ultimate Reality
is similar in both traditions: the saving mercy, compassion and wisdom of transcendent
Reality.
My second remark is related to the comparison of the Islamic emphasis on theoneness of ultimate Reality and the Buddhist notion of non-duality. In his introduction to
Shinran, Dennis Hirota explains that the dharma-body is characterized by three kinds ofnon-duality: “that of the karma-created (…) and the uncreated; of existence andnonexistence; and of the many and the One” 12. He further states that in the Pure Land
tradition this non-duality is developed as the activity of Buddha in the realm of samsara. 13
To Hirota, all these forms of non-duality indicate the non-discriminating unity of nirvana
and samsara and non-duality of existence and nonexistence. A similar paradoxical
relation between the manifestations of ultimate Reality and the ultimate Reality itself canbe ascertained in the writings of Ibn al-µ$UDEƯ. He calls everything apart from the absolute
Reality “imagination”, but the whole imagination is also seen as Reality at the same time.
As soon as the illusory perception of the distinction between subject and object, or knower
and known is dispelled, the essential Oneness will be recognized. In a similar manner, theBuddhist term of “non-discriminative wisdom” implies the realization of the oneness “ofthe many and the One.”
By addressing the notions of non-duality and oneness I come to my last point of
the comparison: the Buddhist doctrine of “the Buddha nature” that is closely connectedto the concept of non-duality. Perry Schmidt-Leukel uses in his introductory book on
Buddhism the term “oneness” when explaining the Buddhist notion of dependent
origination according to the Hua-yen school. He states that for this school “oneness as
thoroughgoing interconnectedness, without remainder, is the universal BuddhaNature.” 14 The Buddha nature as “original luminosity” enables the transformation of themind and the heart of a person which are obscured by delusional thinking and thedefilements. When someone becomes aware of his true nature through the practice of thenembutsu, the mind of the person of faith is replaced by Amida´s mind. Similar to Jǀdo12
Yoshifumi Ueda, Dennis Hirota, 6KLQUDQ An ,QWURGXFWLRQ WR +LV 7KRXJKW, (Kyoto: Hongwanji
International Center, 1989), p. 77.
13 Ueda and Hirota, 6KLQUDQ An ,QWURGXFWLRQ WR +LV 7KRXJKW, p. 89.
14
Perry Schmidt-Leukel, 8QGHUVWDQGLQJ %XGGKLVP, (Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic Press, 2006), p.
142.

21

‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

Shinshǌ, the divine immanence has a parallel soteriological dimension in Christianity andIslam. The Breath of the All-Merciful and the radiating Light are divine immanence and“a hidden treasure” of which people are unaware. By recognizing the immanent divine
nature of the merciful Breath, a spiritual transformation of human beings may occur.

Bibliography
Al-‘Arabţ, Ibn. The Bezels of Wisdom. Translated by R. W. J. Austin. New Jersey: Paulist
Press, 1980.
Murata, Sachiko, and William C. Chittick. The Vision of Islam. London: L. B. Tauris,
2015.
Schmidt-Leukel, Perry. Understanding Buddhism. Edinburg: Dunedin Academic Press,
2006.
Ueda, Yoshifumi, and Dennis Hirota. Shinran: An Introduction to His Thought. Kyoto:
Hongwangi International Center, 1989.

22‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬Myth and History in Christian Thought:
Renunciation and Retrieval
ࠑin Englishࠒ

James L. FREDERICKS
Emeritus Professor, Theology Studies,
Loyola Marymount University23‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

Abstract
As different forms of discourse, myth and history have a complex relationship in
Christian tradition. This essay claims that faith, as construed in the narratives about Abraham
in the Book of Genesis, requires the renunciation of mythos and the embrace of history as aform of human existence. The author appeals to the thought of Mircea Eliade (1907-1986) tosubstantiate this claim. In contrast, Eliade’s colleague at the University of Chicago, Paul
Ricoeur (1913-2005), called for the retrieval of mythos as a religious discourse. In his
phenomenological inquiry into evil and his hermeneutical reflection on the Christian doctrineof Original Sin in The Symbolism of Evil, Ricoeur argued that Augustine’s highly
rationalized interpretation of the Myth of the Fall needs to be replenished by the “surplus of
meaning” available in the mythos of Genesis 2-3. The discourses of myth and history in
Christian thought, therefore, must be understood in terms of renunciation (Eliade) andretrieval (Ricoeur).

24

James L. FREDERICKS‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬Myth and History in Christian Thought

Myth and History in Christian Thought:
Renunciation and Retrieval
James L. FREDERICKS
Keywords:

Myth, History, Eliade, Ricoeur, Faith, Eschatology, Original Sin,
Christian Theology

In Christian thinking, the relationship between history and myth, however these terms
might be understood, has undergone multiple changes since the rise of scientificexplanation and the application of critical historical methods in the study of the Bible. In
the reflections that follow, I will address only two aspects of this complex issue, selectedin the hope of inviting useful conversation among Christians and Buddhists. First, I will
outline a theology of Christian faith understood as existential trust in the divine plan ofredemption as it unfolds in the form of a “salvation history” (Heilsgeschichte). The
Christian’s “eschatological hope” in the historical unfolding of God’s plan of salvation
can be seen as an alternative to the “eternal return” to origins in mythical time that can beseen in many ancient societies. In this section of the essay, historical consciousness will
be held up as an alternative to mythical consciousness. In the second section, I will argue
that the relationship of myth and history in Christian tradition is considerably more
complicated than the reflections in section one might suggest. To justify this claim, I willoffer a sketch of Paul Ricoeur’s highly influential retrieval of mythos as a discourse of
Christian revelation. My reflections conclude with some suggestions on how thisconversation among Christians, Buddhists and Muslims might continue in the future.
Part One: Christian faith as the Renunciation of Nostalgia for the Mythic Past
The Myth of the Eternal Return
Christian faith, understood as a form of human existence, is rooted in the Hebraic
affirmation of history as the locus of God’s self-disclosure to human beings. For theancient Hebrews, so it is often argued, God is not to be found in the mythological past,
but rather in the historical future. Since the eighteenth century, and arguably much earlier,
Christian theologians have set Christian faith in sharp contrast to the “mythic
consciousness” of “archaic man” Thus, these theologians speak of a Heilsgeschichte(salvation history) which begins with God’s call to Abraham, the first Jewish Patriarch(in effect, the first Jew) to set out into the desert in the future hope of being led to a25

Journal of World Buddhist Cultures‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Vol. 4“promised land.”1 As a result of this encounter with God, Abraham’s life is reoriented
from the mythological past to the historical future. Therefore, the Jewish (and byextension the Christian) understanding of time is linear in contrast to cyclical notions oftime as found in societies based on mythic narratives and, for that matter, in contrast to
Buddhism.2
The work of Mircea Eliade (1907-1986) presents us with a classic version of thisargument.3 Eliade claims that the myths and rituals of so-called “primitive societies” arebased on an implicit “archaic ontology.” For members of such societies, mundane humanactivities and events have no intrinsic value or meaning as unique and unrepeatablehistorical facts. Activities and historical events are “real” to the degree that they
participate in an original, archetypal reality that was established in illo tempore (in the
beginning, in mythic time). This archaic ontology allows for an escape from themeaninglessness of profane time into an original and pristine mythic time. The historicalcontingency of chance and misfortune of profane time is abolished by a return to thesacred time of origins through the repetition of the archetype in the performance of ritualand the recitation of the myth that accompanies the ritual.
For example, Eliade notes that in archaic societies rites for the dedication of
temples often included the recitation of the creation myth such that the construction of
the temple recapitulates the original ordering of the cosmos in illo tempore by the gods.
The same can be said of rituals commemorating the founding of cities. The periodic
rebuilding of the Shinto shrine at Ise (the ᘧᖺ㑄ᐑ Shikinen Sengu ritual), is a case inpoint. Every twenty years the shrine at Ise is dismantled and rebuilt anew. The ritual is acultural performance of Shinto belief in the cyclic destruction and rebirth of the cosmos.
As the shrine itself undergoes periodic destruction and rebirth in its pristine state, so also
does the cosmos.4 This “eternal return” to mythic time also can be seen in the Akitu, theBabylonian new year’s ritual. The Akitu consists of 12 non-calendrical days in the spring.
During this time there is the retelling of the Enuma Elish, the Babylonian creation myth,in which the great god Marduk slays Tiamat, the monster of chaos, and recreates thecosmos from the dead monster’s body. In the retelling of the myth, there is a return tomythic time in which the cosmos is regenerated through recreation.
1

For a discussion of Heilsgeschichte as a theological term, see Oscar Cullmann, Christ and Time(revised edition), trans. by Floyd V. Filson, (Philadelphia, Westminster Press, 1989).
2
Jan Nattier, Once Upon a Future Time: Studies in a Buddhist Prophecy of Decline, (Fremont: Asian
Humanities Press, 1991).
3
Mircea Eliade, The Myth of the Eternal Return or Cosmos and History, (Princeton, Bollinger Series,
1954).
4 Felicia G. Bock, “The Rites of Renewal at Ise,” in Monumenta Nipponica 29, 55-68.

26

James L. FREDERICKS
Myth and History in Christian Thought‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬In Eliade’s view, time is qualitatively differentiated. Historical or chronologicaltime gradually grows old and falls into disorder, tainted by the misfortunes and confusionof contingent events. But time can also be renewed by a return to the mythic time oforigins when the cosmos was first created out of the original chaos. Moreover, Eliade
argues that primitive man’s nostalgia for mythical time constitutes a “refusal of history”[refus de l'histoire].5 In lieu of what might be called historical existence, “primitive man”
opts for the eternal return to the mythological past, before there was death, toil, disease,pain in childbirth, and military threat; a Golden Age when human beings could converse
with the animals and enjoyed friendship with the gods.
The great break with this refusal of history, in Eliade’s view, is found in the
Hebrew Bible.6 Eliade discerns in this literature the gradual emergence of “faith,” oralternatively “eschatological hope” in the fulfillment of a divine promise that is to takeplace in the future. Therefore, in the Hebrew Bible, the God of the Jews is not encounteredin the eternal return to the mythic origins of the world in illo tempore. The Jewish God is
encountered in historical time, the profane time that archaic societies seek to escape in
the retelling of their myths. The Jewish God transcends not only the cyclic patterns of
nature but also the chaotic vicissitudes of history. He is the “lord of history” who bends
history to his will and reveals himself within history as he sees fit. Thus, God is
encountered in historical time. The human person comes before this God only by steppingout into the contingencies of history. This Hebraic theology of history is the basis for the
Christian understanding of faith as eschatological hope.
Text: The Call of Abraham (Gn. 12:1-7)
Eliade’s interpretation of the Hebraic understanding of history can be seen better bylooking at texts from the Hebrew Bible. Traditions having to do with Abraham areespecially important in this regard. Abraham’s first encounter with God is found in thetwelfth chapter of Genesis, the first book of the Bible.
The Lord [God] said to Abram [Abraham], “Go forth from the land of yourkinsfolk and from your father’s house to a land I will show you. I will makeof you a great nation, and I will bless you; I will make your name great, sothat you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you and curse those
who curse you. All the communities of the earth shall find blessing in you.”Abram went as the Lord directed him. (Gn. 12:1-7)

5
6

Eliade 85-89
Eliade 102 ff.

27‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4The exegesis of this text requires several comments.
First, the text begins with a simple statement about a past historical event: “TheLord said to Abram.” To appreciate this, the text must be placed into its wider context.
The first eleven chapters of the Book of Genesis constitute a compendium of myths: thetwo creation accounts (Gn. 1-2), Cain’s murder of his brother Able (Gn. 4:1-16), the storyof Noah and the flood (Gn. 6:5 – 7:29), and the story of the tower of Babel (Gn.11:1-9).
Note that, with the exception of the two creation accounts, these myths tell of the originof disorder, not the establishment of order. In the twelfth chapter of Genesis, the literaryform changes dramatically from myth to history. The “call of Abraham” (Gn. 12:1-7) isan early Jewish tribal tradition about the beginning of the Jewish people that has beenredacted, not into a myth, but into an historical account of the first Jew. Moreover, theredactor has two explicit theological purposes: a Jewish theology of history and a Jewish
theology of faith understood in terms of eschatological hope in the historical fulfillmentof God’s promises.
Second, God speaks to Abraham in the imperative mood: “Go forth!” ( ְ‫ל‬- ‫ ֶל‬lekhleka). The Hebrew emphasizes the definitive character of Abraham’s act of obedience tothe summons of God as an act that takes place within historical time, not in illo tempore.
This means that the Patriarch’s setting out into the desert is an historical event, not a ritual
act based on the repetition of a mythical archetype. In setting out into the desert,
Abraham’s has acted within the historical present, yet he has also stepped out into theeschatological future. He has not annulled what Eliade calls the “terror” of history by
returning mythic time. Instead, he has acted within the present in response to a promised
future – “a land I will show you.”Third, even as God commands Abraham to go forth into the desert, the commandis immediately complimented by a series of promises: (1) God will make Abraham a great
nation and will bless him, (2) God will make Abraham’s name great, and (3) God will
bless those who bless Abraham and curse those who curse Abraham. The exclusive useof the future tense in these verses is noteworthy. Both the divine command to set out andthe divine promises of future greatness reorient Abraham to a divine plan unfolding inhistorical time.
Fourth, Abraham’s response to the divine command is obedience. He does notvacillate or ask for explanation. In fact, he says nothing in the entire account. The text
simply informs us that Abraham “went as the Lord directed him.” Later in the Book ofGenesis, Abraham’s obedience will be held up as the hallmark of his faith in God. 7
7

See the account of the sacrifice of Isaac in Gn 22 and the commentary on Gn. 22 in a New Testament
text, the Book of Hebrews 11:17-19. In Christian tradition, the most influential argument for28

James L. FREDERICKS
Myth and History in Christian Thought‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬Abrahamic faith requires the Jewish people to step out into the historical future in
obedience to divine command.
Fifth, this text documents the historical beginning of the Jewish people. As such,it is an origin story, comparable to mythological origin stories. The story of the call ofAbraham, however, is not a mythological etiology. Abraham, summoned by God to set
out into the desert, becomes the first Jew in an act of obedience to a divine command thattakes place within historical time. The telling of the story of the first Jew does not take usback ab origine to a mythic past. The account does not begin in illo tempore. Gn. 12:1-7
is a tribal memory about the origin of the Jewish people in the historical past. In
assembling the Torah, this memory was redacted into a theology of faith understood aseschatological hope in God and a corresponding theology of history understood as thelocus where the Jewish God will continue to reveal himself to the Jewish people in the
future. Abraham is the first Jew, but the first Jew is not a mythological figure like themonster-slaying hero, Marduk, of the Enuma Elish or like Ninigi-no-Mikoto (⎟⎟ᯂᑛ),
who descends from heaven with the three sacred treasures (୕✀ࡢ⚄ჾ) in the Kojiki.
Neither is Abraham like Adam ( ‫“ אָ דָ ם‬the man”) as found in the mythological material of
Gn. 1-11. Abraham is also a kind of archetype. As the first Jew, he is an ideal-type ofJewish faith in the God who leads the Jewish people into the desert and into history. But
Abraham is not an archetype in the ontological and mythological sense that Eliade assigns
to this word. He is a historical example to be emulated, not an archetype from a mythicalUrgeschichte to be re-enacted. Like Abraham, the first Jew, all of Israel has been uprooted
from its past and now looks to the future for the fulfillment of God’s promises to his
people.
Text: The Covenant with Abraham (Gn. 15:1-21)
In the fifteenth chapter of the book of Genesis, the new relationship between God andAbraham is ritualized by means of a “covenant” (‫ ברית‬berith). Like the call of Abraham
in Gn. 12:1-7, this text also constitutes a renunciation of Eliade’s archaic ontology, with
its eternal return to mythic time. In Gn. 15:1-21, we again have a folk tradition that has
been redacted for a theological purpose. The account begins with a reference to ordinary,historical time: “Some time after these events….” As with the call of Abraham, Godinitiates the encounter. God reminds Abraham of his promises: “I will make your reward
very great.” Abraham responds by asking, “O Lord God, what good will your gifts be, if
I keep on being childless….” The promises made to Abraham in his first encounter with
understanding Abraham’s obedience as faith is in Søren Kierkegaard’s Fear and Trembling, (London:
Penguin Classics, 1986).

29‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

God are meaningless, historically speaking, as long as Abraham remains childless. God
responds by showing Abraham the nighttime sky and promising him that his descendants
will be more numerous than all the stars he can see above (Gn. 15:2-5). God thensolemnizes his relationship with Abraham by “cutting” (‫ כּ ַָרת‬karath) a covenant (‫ברית‬berith) with him. Various animals are cut in half, following a standard ritual in the ancient
Near East for establishing the responsibilities of a superior party with an inferior (Gn.
15:9-21). The notion of a covenant as a way of configuring the divine-human relationshipis noteworthy. Covenants are about future behavior, not past events. If the eternal return
ab origine entails mythic archetypes of repetition, the historical existence required ofAbraham’s faith in God looks to a radically different paradigm which forces our attention
on to the future.
In Gn. 15:6, the text informs us, “Abraham put his faith in the Lord who credited
it to him as an act of righteousness.” Two important terms are introduced in this verse.
The verb he’emin (‫)הֶ א ֱִמין‬, “to have faith,” is being used in a theologically precise way.
Generally speaking, he’emin means “to rely on,” or “to trust in.” The verb suggests
constancy or endurance over time. Moreover, he’emin is an activity manifest in acts thattake place as time moves forward. Now this word is being applied in a narrative having
to do with the Jewish people’s relationship with God. Thus according to Rabbinic midrash,
Abraham’s “faith” takes a concrete historical form in his obedience to the divine summons
to sojourn in the desert. Abraham’s steadfast faith in God corresponds to the future
obligations imposed on God by the covenant. The text also speaks of Abraham’s tzedakah(‫ )צדקה‬or “righteousness.” Tzedakah connotes a harmonious relationship between
individual human beings, or between social groups. In this text, the connotation of theword is being extended to cover the relationship between Abraham and his God. In the
Vulgate (the first translation of the Bible into Latin, dating from the fourth century of theCommon Era), tzedakah is translated as iustitia (justice). The original Hebrew, however,does not suggest justice in any forensic sense. Instead, the Hebrew suggests an on-going
relationship of trust and solidarity between Abraham and his God. Abraham’s
righteousness, therefore, is the state of a human being who “walks with God” (see Gn.
5:22). Once again, the text orients us to future hope, not the mythological past.
Other texts from Genesis could be cited. The sacrifice of Isaac (Gn. 22:1-19) andthe account of Jacob wrestling with God (Gn. 32:22-32) come easily to mind. All of thesetexts are Hebraic tribal memories redacted for a theological purpose: an affirmation of the
God who has entered into vicissitudes and contingencies of history and is to be foundthere, not in the mythological past. These texts constitute a repudiation of Eliade’s archaic
ontology of the eternal return to mythic time and, in its place, these texts affirm faith as30

James L. FREDERICKS
Myth and History in Christian Thought‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬eschatological hope in the historical fulfillment of the divine promises. In the centuries
after Abraham, Jewish eschatological hope will become focused on “the day of the Lord”(‫ יֹ ום יְהוָה‬yom Adonai), in which God will finally fulfill the promise he made to Abraham
and to his descendants. Israel’s journey of faith will end. This Jewish theology of history
is now central to Christian faith. The God of Christianity is the God of Abraham, the God
who cannot be conjured by means of the eternal return to origins by the ritual enactmentof myth. Christian faith orients us to the eschatological future, not the mythological past.
History, properly understood, is a Heilsgeschichte, the unfolding of God’s plan ofredemption within historical time.
Part Two: Paul Ricoeur’s Hermeneutical Retrieval of Mythos
The Legacy of the Enlightenment on Christian Thought
There are multiple reasons for the marginalization of myth in Christian tradition. The
Jewish eschatological understanding of history as Heilsgeschichte is certainly one of them.
Faith constitutes a new form of human existence within historical time, a form of humanexistence that entails the renunciation of the comforts of mythos. But in addition to thisrenunciation of mythos rooted in the Old Testament itself, we must recognize that
Christianity, more so than any other religion, has had to deal with the acids of criticism
leveled against mythology demanded by the European Enlightenment. Many
Enlightenment thinkers insisted on a sharp separation of myth from history. The rise ofscientific explanation and the application of critical historical methods to the Bible led tothe dismissal of myth as false explanation and the product of the pre-modern mind.
Christian thinkers have responded to the Enlightenment’s rejection of myth in various
ways, both successful and unsuccessful. Some Christians insist on the literal truth of thebiblical page, rejecting the findings of the historical-critical method. At times, these“fundamentalists” argue, for example, that the two creation stories in Genesis (Gn. 1-2)
are historically accurate accounts of the origins of the world and that “creation science”
should be taught in schools as an alternative to geology and evolution theory. The ironyof Christian Biblical literalism is that it is often criticized for being “Medieval” in its
reading of the Bible when, in fact, it is a form of Christianity that has accepted the
Enlightenment’s epistemology uncritically. Fundamentalism is a modern phenomenon.
The Liberal Protestant theologians, on the other hand, tended to agree with the
Enlightenment thinkers that myths are simply erroneous etiologies. They also argued,
however, that the myths in the Bible are unnecessary for Christian faith. Fredrich
Schleiermacher (1768-1834), for example, stressed the radically historical character ofreligious consciousness perhaps even more than Hegel, his colleague at the University of31‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

Berlin. Schleiermacher argued for a trans-religious principle emerging within the worldthat is discernable in the unfolding of history. This allowed him to conclude that Protestant
Christianity takes pride of place as the highest form of “religion” because it is the mostrooted in the forward march of God’s historical plan.8
The relationship of myth and history in the Bible, however, is considerably more
complicated. A strict separation between myth and history is no longer acceptable formost Christian thinkers, biblical literalists being a significant exception. Myth cannot bedismissed as the product of pre-scientific consciousness. Myths make available truths thatcannot be expressed with the propositions of scientific objectivity. This return tomythology in Christian thought has been supported in no small way by the rise ofphenomenological studies of religion by figures like Rudolf Otto, Max Muller, Mircea
Eliade, Gerard Van der Leeuw, Joachim Wach and Raffaele Pettazoni. In addition, arenewed appreciation of mythos among Christian theologians has been guided by thephenomenological hermeneutics called for by Martin Heidegger, Hans-George Gadamer
and Paul Ricoeur. Ricoeur’s contribution alone is enormous. Here, I will comment only
on part of his contribution to the discussion.
The Retrieval of Mythos
Ricoeur’s philosophical journey was long and convoluted. Early in his career, Ricoeur
was interested in a philosophy of human fallibility. He published Le Symbolique du Mal
in 1960. 9 In this volume, Ricoeur argues that articulating a philosophy of humanfallibility is hampered by the fact that evil does not come into speech directly; it is present
ambiguously through the mediation of symbols. This being the case, he proposes aphenomenological “re-enactment” of the confession of fault by religious consciousness
as a necessary first step toward a hermeneutics of mythos as a “narrated symbol.”10 Mytharises as the intermediary between primitive and spontaneous symbolizations of evil andthe speculative language of theology and philosophy.
Ricoeur’s starting point, therefore, cannot be highly rationalized and abstract
speculation regarding human fallibility. Augustine’s theology of original sin, 11 forexample, is far removed from the immediacy of the more spontaneous avowals of fault
that can be found in the psalms (Hebrew liturgical hymns) and the Hebrew prophets. The
8Christian Berner, “Mythe et philosophie: de l'exégèse biblique à l'herméneutique philosophique,” inMythe et philosophie: les traditions bibliques.” (Paris: PUF, 2002), 257-270.
9
For an English translation, see Paul Ricoeur, The Symbolism of Evil, (Beacon Press: NY, 1967).
10
Ricoeur, Symbolism of Evil,19.
11 For Augustine’s theology, see Alasdair McGrath, Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrineof Justification (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020), 42-58.

32

James L. FREDERICKS
Myth and History in Christian Thought‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬

Christian doctrine of original sin is Augustine’s theological rationalization of the “Adamic
myth,” more commonly known as the “myth of the fall,” as found in the second and thirdchapters of Genesis. But even the Adamic myth is a derivative, secondary language of theconfession of fault. Proceeding phenomenologically, Ricoeur argues that the reality ofevil emerges most spontaneously in the symbolisms of defilement, followed by sin as arelatively more complex symbolization and finally the symbolism of guilt.12
Although the phenomenology of evil admits to various levels of complexity, there
is no confession of fault that completely escapes the mediation of language. The mostarchaic symbolizations of evil are already emerging into discourse as logos. Thus, thephenomenology of the symbolism of evil opens-up the possibility of a hermeneutics ofevil. Therefore, Ricoeur can argue that myth is a species of symbol that arises in theinterval between the spontaneous expressions of fault and speculative discourse abouthuman fallibility. In mythos, the primordial symbols of evil are “thickened” by submitting
to narration. By being narrated, the primordial symbols are located within the categoriesof space and time.13
Ricoeur also notes that myth is an “embarrassment” to the Enlightenment thinkers
for whom history and myth must be strictly separated. The modern attempt to separate
mythos from logos, however, is yet another example of the Enlightenment’s failed quest
for objectivity. Even still, Ricoeur’s phenomenology of the avowal of fault does not
surrender to a nostalgia for a pre-modern naivete about mythos. Instead, he seeks to affirm
a post-critical “second naivete” in which myth is allowed to speak once again after thework of criticism.14
In order to let mythos speak again, Ricoeur must rule out certain approaches tomyth. First, he argues that myth is not a form of allegory. If myth is a species of allegory,then its narration of primordial symbols of evil would be fully translatable into the
propositional truths of speculative discourse. This would make myth into something
disposable, “like a useless garment,” after being decoded into propositions. In the recitalof myth, however, there is the disclosure of a “surplus of meaning” that cannot be fitted
into propositional language with no remainder.15 Second, Ricoeur warns that myth mustnot be dismissed summarily as erroneous explanation or what he calls “false gnosis.” Thecritical consciousness of the Enlightenment rejects myth as a pre-scientific etiology andas false history. Myth, however, needs to be understood as a mediation, in narrative form,
12

Ricoeur, Symbolism of Evil, 25-150.
Ricoeur, Symbolism of Evil, 18.
14
Ricoeur, Symbolism of Evil, 161.
15 Paul Ricoeur, Interpretation Theory: Discourse and the Surplus of Meaning, (Fort Worth: Texas
Christian University Press, 1976).
1333‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4of the more primordial expressions of fault (defilement, sin, guilt). 16 As a narrated
symbol, myth makes ambiguously present a meaning that would otherwise be unavailable.
The more primordial symbolisms of evil emerge as speech at the level of narration. Of
course, narrative is a discourse bound by the finitude of time and space. This binding,however, is itself the circumstance which awakens us to a surplus of meaning which
exceeds the narrative’s capacity for mediation. There is a plentitude of meaning present
under the contingency of a finite sign. Thus, in keeping with Heidegger’s view of symbol,
myths reveal and conceal truth.
The Adamic MythRicoeur’s treatment of the Adamic myth (Gn. 2-3) is illustrative.17 After creating Adamand Eve, the first parents, God places them in the garden of Eden with the command,“You are free to eat from any of the trees of the garden except the tree of knowledge ofgood and evil. From that tree you shall not eat; when you eat from it you shall die (Gn.
2:16-17). The serpent, the “most cunning of all the wild animals the Lord God had made,”
temps the woman into eating this forbidden fruit. The dialogue between Eve and theserpent is carefully composed. The serpent asks, “Did God really say, ‘You shall not eat
from any of the trees in the garden’?” The woman responds, “We may eat of the fruit of
the trees in the garden; it is only about the fruit of the tree in the middle of the garden that
God said, ‘You shall not eat it or even touch it, or else you will die.’” The serpent thensays, “You certainly will not die! God knows well that when you eat of it your eyes will
be opened and you will be like gods, who know good and evil.” After eating the fruit, “theeyes of both of them [the man and the woman] were opened, and they knew that they
were naked; so they sewed fig leaves together and made loincloths for themselves.” Whenthey hear God walking about in the garden “in the cool of the day,” the man and thewoman hide. God calls out, “Where are you?” Adam answers, “I heard you in the garden;
but I was afraid, because I was naked, so I hid.” God’s interrogation of Adam, Eve andthe serpent and their punishments follows on this. The serpent will crawl on its belly forthe rest of its days. The woman will endure childbirth in pain. The man will wrest foodfrom the ground by the sweat of his brow. The first parents are then expelled from thegarden, “to the east,” and God stations an angel (in Christian tradition, the Archangel
Michael) with a fiery sword at the gate of the garden to insure that no one will ever enter
Eden again.
16

Paul Ricoeur, Symbolism of Evil, 161-170.
Ricoeur, p. 235 ff. Ricoeur also provides extensive commentary on Gnostic myths, Greek tragedy
and Mesopotamian myths.

17

34

James L. FREDERICKS
Myth and History in Christian Thought‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬I will make only a few brief comments on Ricoeur’s treatment of this myth.
First, the literary form of this narrative is mythos, not an objective account ofhistorical events that happened in years past. Reading the text as an historical accountleads to a systematic distortion of the meaning. This includes those Christians who holdthat the first and second chapters of Genesis (the two creation stories) are “scientific”
accounts of the origins of the world. Renouncing the narrative as history is a necessary
first step in letting the text begin to speak again as mythos. On the other hand, the Adamic
myth is not “merely a myth” in the sense of a false etiology. The narrative supplies adisclosure of truth that cannot come into human speech in clear and unambiguous
propositions without leaving a surplus of meaning.
Second in Ricoeur’s reading, the Adamic myth is the most radical attempt toseparate the origin of evil from the divine act of creation and the intention of the Creator.
The root of evil is not found in creation (in contrast to various gnostic myths andManicheism), nor in a wicked god or fate (in contrast to Greek tragedy). Evil comes fromthe defectability implicit in the embodied self-awareness of the human person as a nexus
of finitude and freedom. As a result of their eating of the forbidden fruit in an exercise of
their freedom, the man and the woman fall into a self-consciousness that they cannot
abide: “the eyes of both of them were opened, and they knew that they were naked.”
Neither is the serpent the zone of the emergence of evil into the world. Note that theserpent never lies to Eve. The serpent is correct in saying “you certainly will not die” ifyou should eat the forbidden fruit. In addition, eating the fruit does in fact make them“like gods, who know good and evil.” But the man and the woman are not gods – theireyes are now opened yet their finitude cannot be renounced. They are unable to bear thisgod-like knowledge. Guilt is the result of this newly arrived inability to abide as anembodied transcendence. The sign of this guilt is their awareness of their nakedness. Thezone of evil’s emergence into the world is not the cosmos and not the serpent. Evil comes
into the world in the inability of the man and the woman to endure their God-given
creatureliness.
Third, the Adamic myth arises at the boundary that separates the primordialsymbols of evil and speculative discourse about evil. The symbolisms of defilement, sin
and guilt come into language by being narrated as Adam and Eve’s hiding from God, theirdisobedience to divine command and the denial of their creatureliness. But the narrative
mediates the primordial symbols in a way that allows for theological speculation about
the possibility of defection implicit within finite freedom. Augustine, reflecting
theologically on this text in the fifth century, will interpret the narrative as “the fall”(lapsis) into “original sin” (pecattum originale), although neither of these terms appears35‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4in the Bible. These terms are part of a speculative theology that Augustine has generated
from the narrative.
Fourth, in the Adamic myth, narrative has a heuristic function. Looking from thelevel of myth downward to the more spontaneous avowals of fault, narrative can be seen
as a way of exploring how the meaning of evil supplied by the primitive symbols areinterrelated. For example, the narrative succeeds in linking sin (as disobedience to divine
command) with guilt (nakedness). Looking upward, toward speculative language about
evil, the narrative is a way of exploring how the interrelation of the primitive symbols, asnarrated in the myth, supplies an impetus for philosophical and theological theory. For
example, as remarked above, Ricoeur does not look on the serpent as the devil. Belief inSatan is a later development in Jewish thought. The serpent is a tempter or trickster, notan allegorical figure representing evil. More to the point, the serpent is a necessary
element for advancing the plot so as to reveal the defectability implicit within the humanperson as a nexus of finitude and freedom. By means of narration, therefore, the mythshows that evil emerges as something subsequent to the creation of the world andsubsequent to the creation of the first human beings. The origin of evil lies in the inabilityof the human person to bear the burden of freedom and finitude, but evil is not an essential
element in the human person’s creatureliness. This truth is discovered by the heuristic
function of the narrative and revealed in mythos as a form of narration.
Augustine’s Theology of Original Sin
Augustine’s theology of original sin provides a classic example of bringing the ambiguity
and plentitude of mythos into speculative discourse as theology. Speculative reflection on
the Adamic myth led Augustine not to a cosmology (as with the various systems of
Gnosticism and Manicheism) or to a wicked god (as in Greek tragedy), but to ananthropology. The first man, Adam, has fallen away from his original innocence by meansof a misuse of his God-given freedom. His soul, created to be opened-up to divinetranscendence, has become turned-in on itself (incurvatus in se). 18 Now, all humanbeings share in this fallen state. Adam was created to be a nexus of freedom and finitude.
As such, fallibility is implicit within our creatureliness as created by God, although thisfact does not make a fall into sin inevitable. Neither our finitude nor our freedom are evilin themselves. Assuredly, neither is the nexus of finitude and freedom evil in itself. The
nexus of finitude and freedom constitutes our fallibility but does not imply the18

The phrase, properly speaking, can be attributed to Luther, but may have been coined by Augustine
himself. See Matt Jenson, Gravity of Sin: Augustine, Luther and Barth on Homo Incurvatus in Se(London: T & T Clark, 2006).

36

James L. FREDERICKS
Myth and History in Christian Thought‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬

inevitability of our defection. In his speculative reading of the Adamic myth, Augustineconcludes that the human person has the freedom to reject his God-given creatureliness.
The human person has been created a “living being” (‫ ֶ֫נפֶש‬nephesh), innocent of aconsciousness of its own fallibility. And yet evil begins within us, not in God and not in
the cosmos God has created.
Ricoeur also argues that speculative discourse drawn from myth is in constantneed of revision and renewal by being brought back to the plentitude of meaning suppliedby the myth itself. Augustine, for example, assumed that Adam and Eve are figures fromthe historical past, not the illud tempus of the mythic past. He also taught that the “stain”
of original sin is passed from generation to generation by sexual intercourse. But
Augustine’s theology is subject to revision by means of a return to the Adamic myth outof which it first emerged. The fall need not be conceived as a matter of a temporal
succession from innocence to guilt. To say that Adam’s disobedience constitutes an“original” sin need not indicate its temporal priority over other sins and its biologicaltransmission. The fall of the man and the woman is not a distant historical event passed
on to us generation after generation as argued in Augustine’s theological speculation. The
mythological past arises spontaneously in the historical present. If “in Adam all have died,”as the Apostle Paul teaches (I Cor. 15:22), Adam’s defection is recapitulated within thefinite freedom of every human person for whom, as Heidegger has said, “being in theworld” (in-der-Welt-Sein) is always a “being unto death” (Sein-zum-Tode).19
Part Three: Questions for Discussion
These reflections are only a sketch of two issues pertinent to the question of myth andhistory in Christian thought: the renunciation of mythos demanded by the eschatologicalcharacter of Christian faith and the retrieval of mythos by Paul Ricoeur. Even though they
are only a sketch, they bring with them opportunities for further discussion among
Christians, Buddhists and Muslims. I will raise a number of possibilities for further
conversation.
First, many Pure Land Buddhist intellectuals, although not all, are comfortablewith the idea that the story of King Dharmakara in the Larger Pure Land Sutra [኱↓㔞ᑑ ⤒ Daimuryoju-kyo] is mythos. 20 How much reflection there has been on thisinterpretation of the Larger Sutra in the Japanese language literature on the Sutra isunclear to me, but various questions can be posed. If the story of Dharmakara is mythos,
19

Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, trans. John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson. (New York:
Harper & Row, 1962), H255.
20 Carl B. Becker, “Hermeneutics and Buddhist Myths: Bringing Paul Ricoeur to Mahayana
Buddhism,” Soundings, Vol. 67 no. 3 (Fall, 1984), 325-335.

37‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4can we conclude that Shinran’s teachings about the Sutra are a speculative rationalizationof the Dharmakara myth? If so, this would make Shinran’s teachings (roughly) analogous
to Augustine’s rationalization of the Adamic myth as theology in his writings on originalsin. And if this should be the case, how might Shinran’s speculative language be critiqued
and/or renewed by a return to the “surplus of meaning” to be found in the Dharmakara
narrative? Currently, I have the impression that the recognition of the Dharmakara
narrative as myth sometimes functions as an excuse for ignoring the Sutra and fixatingon Shinran’s theological speculation as normative.
Second, our understanding of Shinran’s rationalization of the Dharmakara myth
might be assisted by looking at contemporary Shin Buddhist discussions of Shinran inlight of the work of Paul Ricoeur as outlined above. Rudolf Bultmann, a Christiantheologian noteworthy for his call to demythologize biblical narrative, also might
illuminate discussions among Shin Buddhists and Christians. The relationship between
Ricoeur’s work on myth and Bultmann’s is, to say the least, complicated.21 I think it safe
to say, in a preliminary way, that there are important differences distinguishing Bultmannfrom Ricoeur. Bultmann, for example, calls for the liberation of the kerygma (the basic
message of the New Testament) from its prison in mythological language in order torender it intelligible to the modern world. Ricoeur, in contrast, argues for a “second
naivete” though which we can return to the “surplus of meaning” in mythos as a way toreplenish our speculative thinking. How does this difference separating Ricoeur from
Bultmann illuminate contemporary Pure Land Buddhist interpretations of theDharmakara myth in the Larger Pure Land Sutra? My hunch is that Pure Land scholars
have demythologized the Larger Sutra with the aim of rendering its teaching in a moreexistential language, in keeping with Bultmann’s program for Christian Biblicalhermeneutics. Have Pure Land scholars engaged the Sutra with a “second naivete”? How
might this second naivete require a revision of contemporary interpretations of Shinran?
Third, I have sketched the contrast between mythos (the “eternal return”) andhistory (eschatological hope) in Christian faith. I have also argued that the notion that theChristian world view is “historical” in contrast to the “mythological consciousness” of“primitive societies” is overly simplistic. Here let me go on to note that mythos figures
prominently not only in Christian protology (creation and fall). Mythos figures
prominently in Christian eschatology (the fulfillment of the Heilsgeschichte) as well. In
Christian tradition, discourse on the origin of the world is mediated by mythos. Discourse
21This complexity is amplified by Ricoeur’s own publications on Bultmann. See for example
Ricoeur’s “Preface” to Bultmann’s Jesus, mythologie et demythologisation (Paris: Ed. du Seuil, 1968).

38

James L. FREDERICKS
Myth and History in Christian Thought‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬on the ultimate destiny of creation is mediated by mythos as well. In the New Testament,
for example, Christian eschatology presents itself in the mythopoetic language of
apocalyptic discourses.22 The end of time will be inaugurated by the “second coming” ofJesus, understood as the “Son of Man” as promised in Jewish apocalyptic literature. This
“second coming” will bring with it the “new and eternal Jerusalem.” Many of the themes
found in the mythologized language of Christian eschatology are present mutatis
mutandis in Islamic tradition. This correspondence can be seen most dramatically in theeschatological beliefs of Shiite Muslims, but can be seen in Sunni traditions as well.
Fourth, the New Testament witness to the resurrection of Jesus is highly
mythological. This point is closely related to the mythologization of Christian eschatology.
There is now a broad consensus among Christian theologians and exegetes that the“Easter event” (the resurrection of Jesus) constitutes the irruption of the eschaton (the“last day,” the fulfillment of God’s plan) into the historical present.23 This being the case,the language of the New Testament about the Easter event must be recognized as
mythopoetic language: Jesus has been “exulted,” “glorified” and “resurrected,” into a“new and eternal life” and in the process, Jesus has become a “new creation” like “thenew and eternal Jerusalem” promised by the Hebrew prophets. In the resurrection of Jesus,
the “fullness of time” is arising (my use of the present tense is deliberate) within historicaltime. This means that the resurrection of Jesus is not a simple, unambiguous, historicalevent that can be known objectively by all observers apart from what is called “Easterfaith.” In effect, the resurrection of Jesus, while remaining an historical event, can be said
to “happen to” the disciples of Jesus. The disciples who see the empty tomb are filledwith fear and confusion. These same disciples proclaim that “Jesus is risen” only by beingtransformed by his appearance to them as crucified and risen. Therefore, “Easter faith”
arises by means of a personal metanoia or conversion. The only language Christians havefor this metanoia is mythopoesis. There may be an opportunity for discussion with Pure
Land Buddhists in regard to this issue. For example, what is the relationship between
shinjin ಙᚰ, to the extent that it can be understood as a personal metanoia, and the mythof the Primal Vow and its “working” (ാࡁ hataraki)? David Matsumoto, a Shin Buddhist
theologian, has reflected on this issue. Professor Matsumoto quotes Keiji Nishitani to theeffect that,
Time is in its most fundament nature, religious. And this nature of time
emerges as present only through man’s religious existence. In Shinran’s
22Inter alia, see the Apocalypse of St. John, Matthew 24, Mark 13 and II Thessalonians 2. Much of
the New Testament apocrypha qualifies as highly mythologized apocalyptic literature as well.
23 For a survey of this discussion, see Francis Schussler Fiorenza, Foundational Theology: Jesus andthe Church, (NY: Crossroad, 1984).

39‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

religious experience, the historical time of his realization of shinjin issimultaneously the time of the working of the power of the Primal Vow.24
These words could be modified only slightly to reflect Christian affirmations about theresurrection of Jesus and its intimate connection with the rise of “Easter faith” in the lifeof a Christian.
Fifth, much of my reflections on myth and history in Christian tradition was
written with the European Enlightenment’s critique of myth in mind. The Enlightenment
looked on mythos as erroneous etiology. We should not be bound by this narrow
understanding of myth for several reasons. For example, restricting myth to etiology is
not helpful in understanding the mythopoetic quality of Christian and Muslim eschatology.
This is especially the case with Shia Muslim belief in the eschatological hope for a madhi(redeemer) who will establish justice on earth. In addition, restricting myth to nonscientific etiology does not account very well for the mythic quality of thecommemoration of historical events, such as the Jewish Passover or, in Christian tradition,
the death and resurrection of Jesus on Easter. Moreover, myth is not merely “bad history.”
Myths must include narratives of events that cannot, in principle, be verified historically.
In this regard, our discussions might continue by reflecting of Paul Ricoeur’s subsequent
work on narrative. 25 In Ricoeur’s argument, narrative constitutes a form of human
discourse that includes both mythos and history (as both are understood by the European
Enlightenment).
I began this discussion by recognizing the complexities inherent in a discussionof myth and history in Christian tradition. In this essay, I have addressed only two issues.
First, I looked at the contrast between mythos and the Christian eschatology ofHeilsgeschichte and the seminal impact this has on Christian understandings of faith asexistential hope in the historical fulfillment of the Divine Promise. Faith entails arenunciation of mythos. Second, I reflected on Paul Ricoeur’s retrieval of myth by meansof his hermeneutics of sacred texts. My hope is that both of these issues carry with thempossibilities for deepening the conversations among Christians, Buddhists and Muslims.

Bibliography
Becker, Carl B. “Hermeneutics and Buddhist Myths: Bringing Paul Ricoeur to Mahayana
Buddhism,” Soundings, Vol. 67 no. 3 (Fall, 1984), 325-335.Berner, Christian.
24

See Keiji Nishitani, “The Problem of Time in Shinran,” The Eastern Buddhist, New Series, Vol. XI
no. 1, May 1978, 13-26.
25 See for example, Paul Ricoeur, Time and Narrative, Vol. 1 and 2, (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1984).

40

James L. FREDERICKS
Myth and History in Christian Thought‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬“Mythe et philosophie: de l'exégèse biblique à l'herméneutique philosophique,” inMythe et philosophie: les traditions bibliques.” (Paris: PUF, 2002), 257-270.
Bock, Felicia G. “The Rites of Renewal at Ise,” in Monumenta Nipponica 29, 55-68.
Cullmann, Oscar. Christ and Time (revised edition), trans. by Floyd V. Filson,(Philadelphia, Westminster Press, 1989).
Eliade, Mircea, The Myth of the Eternal Return or Cosmos and History, (Princeton,
Bollenger Series, 1954).
Fiorenza, Francis Schussler. Foundational Theology: Jesus and the Church, (NY:
Crossroad, 1984).
Heidegger, Martin. Being and Time, trans. John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson. (NewYork: Harper & Row, 1962).
Jenson, Matt. Gravity of Sin: Augustine, Luther and Barth on Homo Incurvatus in Se(London: T & T Clark, 2006).
Kierkegaard, Søren. Fear and Trembling, (London: Penguin Classics, 1986).
McGrath, Alasdair. Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020).
Nattier, Jan. Once Upon a Future Time: Studies in a Buddhist Prophecy of Decline,(Fremont: Asian Humanities Press, 1991).
Nishitani, Keiji. “The Problem of Time in Shinran,” The Eastern Buddhist, New Series,
Vol. XI no. 1, May 1978, 13-26.
Ricoeur, Paul. Interpretation Theory: Discourse and the Surplus of Meaning, (Fort Worth:
Texas Christian University Press, 1976).
–––––.“Preface” to Bultmann’s Jesus, mythologie et demythologisation (Paris: Ed. duSeuil, 1968).
–––––.The Symbolism of Evil, (Beacon Press: NY, 1967).
–––––.Time and Narrative, Vol. 1 and 2, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984).

41‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬Wisdom and Compassion, Exposure and Embrace:
A Shin Buddhist Sense of Transcendent Immanence
ࠑin Englishࠒ

David MATSUMOTO
President, Institute of Buddhist Studies
Former Professor, Contemporary Shin Buddhist Studies43‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

Abstract
An inter-religious, theological conversation about wisdom and compassion shoulddraw upon shared reflections on transcendence and immanence within each participant’s
tradition.
7KH6KLQ%XGGKLVWSDWKLVJURXQGHGRQ0DKƗ\ƗQDWHDFKLQJVWKDWRIIHULQVLJKWLQWR
WKHQDWXUHRIWKHILQLWHVHOIDQGLQILQLWH%XGGKDLQFOXGLQJWKHELGLUHFWLRQDOLW\RIWDWKƗJDWDERGKLVDWWYDV¶SUDFWLFHRIQRQGLVFULPLQDWLYHZLVGRPWKHWULNƗ\DGRFWULQHDQG7anluan’s
two-fold dharma-body theory.
The true Buddha and land manifest the activity of fundamental nondiscriminative
wisdom and its compassionate unfolding as subsequently-attained wisdom. They are,moreover, nirvana, which transcends understanding or explication, and yet works
immanently to bring all beings to enlightenment.
In the arising of shinjin wisdom is experienced, not simply by the enlightened
subject, but also by its object – the unenlightened sentient being. Wisdom arises when ourfalse claims to independence and omnipotence are exposed and emptied within the
Wisdom-Light, giving rise for the first time to the possibility of knowing ourselves andliving genuine lives. Shin Buddhism thus offers a soteriology of transcendent immanence.
Amida as Absolute Other exposes and embraces the finitude and particularity of eachbeing as other; Amida as Other becomes Absolute within the other’s being exposed as
finite and evil and thus embraced by the Other.

44

David MATSUMOTO‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬Wisdom and Compassion, Exposure and Embrace

Wisdom and Compassion, Exposure and Embrace:
A Shin Buddhist Sense of Transcendent ImmanenceDavid MATSUMOTO
Keywords:

7UDQVFHQGHQFH,PPDQHQFH0DKƗ\ƗQD1RQGLVFULPLQDWLYH:LVGRPSubsequently-attained Wisdom, Two-fold dharma-body, WULNƗ\DIntroduction - Transcendence and Immanence in Theological Reflection
The question of transcendence and immanence in religious and philosophical thought has
been addressed in academies, churches and assemblies for many centuries across a vast
range of worldviews, scholarly considerations and religious concerns. Discourses haveconsidered whether transcendence signifies an independent, ontological divinity aboveand beyond all existences, or indicates a reality that is beyond our conception, expression
or explanation. They have considered whether the idea of immanence describes a divine
essence that permeates the universe or depicts the working of the divine in this imperfectworld. 1
It is not be my intention to offer here a thorough study of the question oftranscendence and immanence. I simply suggest that any conversation about wisdom andcompassion in Christian, Islamic and Buddhist traditions would benefit from sharedreflections on the meaning and implications of transcendence and immanence within eachparticipant’s own tradition. Allow me to suggest also that a deep-reaching and fruitfulinter-religious conversation about wisdom and compassion might well be facilitated by awillingness to consider certain fundamental questions raised within the age-old discourses
on transcendence and immanence. For instance,
1. Must a transcendent (existence, reality, truth) by its very nature be beyond therealm of being(s)?
2. Is the transcendent prior to the existence of being(s) or in response to the state of1
There is an abundance of helpful references on this topic. Among them are: Louis Dupre, “Transcendence and Immanence as Theological Categories,” 3URFHHGLQJV RI WKH &DWKROLF
7KHRORJLFDO 6RFLHW\ RI $PHULFD, 31, 2012. Retrieved from: https://ejournals.bc.edu/index.php/
ctsa/article/view/2842; Chin-tai Kim, "Transcendence and Immanence." -RXUQDO RI WKH $PHUL
FDQ $FDGHP\ RI 5HOLJLRQ 55, no. 3, 1987, 537-49. Accessed February 28, 2021. http://www.
jstor.org/stable/1464069; David R. Loy, “Beyond Transcendence? A Buddhist Perspective on
WKH $[LDO $JH´ 3KLOLS :H[OHU  -RQDWKDQ *DUE HGV 1HZ <RUN 3HWHU *DUE   -172. Retrieved from: http://www.davidloy.org/downloads/Loy_Beyond_Transcendence.pdf.

45‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4that existence?
3. Does transcendence know? feel? love? Can it be known? felt? loved?
4. Might we identify a middle ground (a Middle Way!) between monistic or dualistic
perceptions of immanence and transcendence? What might be the features andimplications of a nondualistic apprehension of finitude and the infinite, themeasurable and immeasurability, or conditioned existence and the unconditioned?
5. Can an Absolute Other expose and embrace the (relative, finite, particular) other?
Could it be that the Other becomes Absolute within the other’s experience of being
exposed as finite, imperfect, and evil and thus be embraced by the Other?
Transcendence and Immanence from a Buddhist Perspective
Buddhism is the path of enlightenment—the path that enables an unenlightened being toattain Buddhahood. It is a path that originated in teachings attributed to the historical
Gautama Buddha (463– %&(  DOVR NQRZQ DV ĝƗN\DPXQL %XGGKD ZKR OLYHG LQ
ancient India. It could be said that the starting point of the path lies in our own samsaric
state of existence. Samsaric existence is characterized by endless repetitions of pain andsuffering from birth to death to rebirth, which are driven by deluded passions and craving,
and arise out of a fundamental attachment to the self. Stated in another way, lying at thebottom of our bondage to samsara is our distorted view of reality in which we see a world
centered around (the desires of) our self and which apprehends a dichotomy between thisself (the subject which sees) and the world (the object which is seen). 2 Perhaps it might
be more precise to say then that the Buddhist path begins with a sentient being’s encounter
with one’s own finitude, limitations, fooliVKQHVVDQGIDOVHFRQVFLRXVQHVV7KH0DKƗ\ƗQDpath of teaching, practice and realization is the vehicle upon which one seeks to breakthrough ignorance and craving and root out self-centered and dichotomous thinking.
7KHLGHDOSUDFWLWLRQHURQWKH0DKƗ\ƗQD%uddhist path is the bodhisattva, the person
in search of enlightenment. The bodhisattva’s engagement of the path involves theawakening of mind aspiring for enlightenment (ERGKLFLWWD) for oneself and all otherbeings, aspirations that find expression in the bodhisattva’s vows. Upon declaring thosevows, the bodhisattva undertakes over great innumerable kalpas of time the practice of
SUDMxƗSƗUDPLWƗ, or nondiscriminative wisdom. The “goal” of the Buddhist path is
Buddhahood, the realization of complete enlightenment. Also expressed as supreme
nirvana, this reality is referred to as ultimate, for it represents the complete transcendenceof our own finitude, limitations, foolishness and false consciousness.
2<RVKLIXPL8HGDDQG'HQQLV+LURWD6KLQUDQ$Q,QWURGXFWLRQWRKLV7KRXJKW .\RWR+RQJZDQMLInternational Center, 1989), 56-90.

46

David MATSUMOTO
Wisdom and Compassion, Exposure and Embrace‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬The dynamic nature of the path of enlightenment is given further clarity with an
examination of the Indian word, “7DWKƗJDWD,” which is a synonym for Buddha. 7DWKƗJDWD
represents a two-fold combination of ideas. 7DWKƗ (ዴ Q\R) refers to supreme nirvana, true
reality, suchness, and thusness. *DWD (ཤ ko) indicates “has gone,” the past-perfect tenseof the verb “to go.” ƖJDWD (᮶ UDL) is its opposite; hence, “has come.” In other words,
7DWKƗJDWD (WDWKƗ + JDWD) as the “thus gone” (Q\RNR) means that Buddhas is “one who hasgone to suchness.” At the same time, Buddha is 7DWKƗJDWD (WDWKƗ+ ƗJDWD), the “thus come”(Q\RUDL) or the “one who has come from suchness.”
In other words, the path of enlightenment is framed with this complex sense of
directionality: (1) the bodhisattva encounters the finitude of one’s samsaric existence and,attaining nondiscriminative wisdom, ultimately “goes to suchness,” which completelytranscends all aspects of one’s existence, and (2) the awakened one “comes from suchness”
to work actively, compassionately, and immanently in samsaric existence for the sake ofunenlightened beings.
<RVKLIXPL8HGDDQG'HQQLV+LURWD¶VWKRURXJKH[SOLFDWLRQRIWKHIXQGDPHQWDOVRI
0DKƗ\ƗQDWHDFKLQJV 3 offers us many expressions intended to bring us to realize insight
into the nature of the finite self and infinite Buddha. “Samsara is nirvana” is well-known,of course, but more relevant to our discussion here is the phrase, “Form is not different
from emptiness; emptiness is not different from form. Form is itself emptiness; emptinessis itself form.” 4 “Empty" signifies two aspects of a single reality. First, it refers to SUDMxƗ
(non-dichotomous wisdom) or the cutting off of dichotomous thought (YLNDOSD). This isthe bodhisattva's contemplative practice of “not seeing.” Second, it indicates emptiness(ĞǌQ\D), or that is, the non-existence of all things discriminated by the ego-centered mind.
Stated in another way, non-discriminative wisdom (not seeing) arises when dichotomous
thinking ceases, and the subject (the seer) and object (the seen) become one. Thus, thebodhisattva is able to see all things just as they are, in their absolute particularity, and also
in their non-difference from all other things (which are empty of all inherent self-nature). 5
9LMxDSWL-PƗWUDWD (consciousness-only, or, subjectivity-only, also known as<RJƗFƗUD) thought of Maitreya, Asaৄga and Vasubandhu (c. 4th C. CE) describes thepractical implications of the idea that “form is emptiness.” In particular, Asaৄga’s
0DKƗ\ƗQDVDۨJUDKD 6 sets forth the <RJƗFƗULQ perspective that three kinds of3

8HGDDQG+LURWD6KLQUDQ$Q,QWURGXFWLRQWR+LV7KRXJKW, 56-90.
A famous phrase from the 3UDMxƗSƗUDPLWƗLQ7ZHQW\-ILYH7KRXVDQG/LQHVFLWHGLQ8HGDDQG+LURWD
6KLQUDQDQLQWURGXFWLRQWRKLVWKRXJKW, 63.
5Ibid.
6 Asaৄga, 6XPPDU\ RI WKH *UHDW 9HKLFOH (0DKƗ\ƗQD VDPJUDKD . John P. Keenan, trans. (BerNHOH\ 1XPDWD &HQWHU IRU %XGGKLVW 7UDQVODWLRQ DQG 5HVHDUFK   GEHW 3') YHUVLRQ 
retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20140821120318/http://www.bdk.or.jp/pdf/bdk/digital
447‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

nondiscriminative wisdom are realized on the bodhisattva path. 7 They are:
1. Preparatory nondiscriminative wisdom (S. SUƗ\RJLND-MxƗQD, J. ຍ ⾜ ᬛ
NHJ\ǀFKL). Wisdom realized at the preparatory stages of practice in the mundane
world, where one hears the teaching, yet still makes it an object of discriminative
thought. In contrast to ordinary deluded thought, such wisdom deepens throughpractice
2. Fundamental nondiscriminative wisdom (S. QLUYLNDOSD-MxƗQD, J. ᰿ᮏ↓ศูᬛ
NRQSRQ PXIXQEHWFKL). All discriminative thinking is eradicated, and the
opposition of seer and seen is broken through. The bodhisattva “touches”
suchness and will hereafter never fall back into the bondage of samsara. Still,
however, residues of deluded passions remain to be eliminated through thepractice of SUDMxƗSƗUDPLWƗ.
3. Subsequently-attained nondiscriminative wisdom (S. WDW-p‫ܒ܈܀‬KDODEGKD-MxƗQD, J.
ᚋᚓᬛ gotokuchi). The bodhisattva engages in discriminative thinking in order
WRSHUFHLYHEHLQJVDQGPDNHGLVWLQFWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHP+RZHYHUWKLVLVSXULILHG
mundane wisdom, in which the bodhisattva knows, based on fundamental
wisdom, that such discriminatory thinking is false and that both the subject andobjects of perception are non-existent.
1DJDR *DGMLQ GHVFULEHV WKH ILUVW W\SH RI ZLVGRP DV RFFXUULQJ LQ DVFHQW DLming
toward fundamental wisdom), whereas the third type of wisdom takes place in the
direction of descent from the dharma realm to this mundane realm where the bodhisattvas
engage in salvific activity of teaching and guiding ignorant sentient beings. 8
UedDDQG+LURWDJRRQWKHVWDWHWKDWWKHERGKLVDWWYDWKDWDWWDLQVWKHVHDVSHFWVRI
wisdom corresponds to “subjectivity only with no object.” That is, the bodhisattva
realizes wisdom in which all objects are seen as false and non-existent. Thus, the subjectobject dichotomy has been eradicated and both seer and seen are empty. And yet at thesame time, since the bodhisattva’s mental activity (perception and cognition) sees that all
objects are false and non-existent, that subjectivity, which perceives and discriminates
between objects, must be said to exist provisionally. The objects (beings that are seen) of
the bodhisattva’s mental activity are referred to as “subjectivity that has appeared as form.”
This has two meanings: (1) the bodhisattva that practices and realizes SUDMxƗSƗUDPLWƗ is
dl/dBET_T1593_GreatVehicleSummary_2003.pdf.
7 *DGMLQ01DJDR0ƗGK\DPLNDDQG<RJƗFƗUD$6WXG\RI0DKD\DQD3KLORVRSKLHV, Leslie.DZDPXUDWUDQV $OEDQ\6WDWH8QLYHUVLW\RI1HZ<RUN -225.
8
1DJDR0ƗGK\DPLNDDQG<RJƗFƗUD4-

48

David MATSUMOTO
Wisdom and Compassion, Exposure and Embrace‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬able to know things by becoming them (the seer vanishes into identity with the seen), and(2) so the bodhisattva knows itself without falsely objectifying itself (subjectivity-only
without an object). 9
There are two consequences to this discussion. The first is that non-dichotomous
wisdom comes to manifest itself as form that accommodates itself to the capacities of
LJQRUDQWEHLQJVLQRUGHUWROHDGWKHPWRHQOLJKWHQPHQW+HUHZLVGRPPDQLIHVWVLWVHOIDV
compassionate activity. 7KLVFRQVWUXFWLVDOVRVHHQLQWKHFHQWUDOWHDFKLQJRI0DKƗ\ƗQD
known as the three Buddha-body (WULNƗ\D) theory, which reveals that “Buddha” is a multidimensional construct. The three bodies are:(1) “Dharma-body” (GKDUPD-NƗ\D) ( ἲ ㌟ hosshin). True, formless reality itself,suchness or dharma-nature. This is the fundamental dimension of enlightenment,of reality perceived by (and identical with) non-discriminative wisdom, whichtranscends all concepts of subject, object, space or time.
(2) “Enjoyment body” (VDPEKRJD-NƗ\D) (ሗ㌟ KǀMLQ) The “fulfilled,” “recompensed,”or “reward” Buddha-body. It arises as the result of the bodhisattva’s practice andfulfillment of the bodhisattva vows. In a sense, this body is said to “enjoy” thefulfillment of those vows and practices, thereby being adorned with special
features of the vows. The Buddha establishes a Buddha land in which to act tohelp brings beings to realize nirvana.
+HUH ZH VHH DQ LQWHUIDFH RI WLPH DQG WLPHOHVVQHVV RI IRUP DQGformlessness. The Buddha embodies timeless and formless true reality, which also
has a temporal beginning in the bodhisattva vows. It also exhibits form with atemporal sphere, although inconceivable by ignorant beings. Traditionally, it washeld that this dimension of the Buddha can be seen by beings only throughcontemplative or other practices; and it is capable of influencing and helping only
those who can realize a direct perception of it.
(3) “Transformed body or bodies” (QLUPDQD-NƗ\D) (໬㌟ keshin) of the Buddha.
Sometimes called the “accommodated” or “provisional body” (ᛂ㌟ ǀMLQ), this is
the form taken by the Buddha when dwelling in samsaric existence within
historical time. As such it has a beginning and an end within the birth and deathof that historical figure. A temporary or impermanent existence, QLUPDQD-kƗ\D at
the same time embodies timeless and formless true reality. True reality enters into
history as the body of transformation in a manner that is accommodated to thecapacities of ignorant beings so as to lead them to enlightenment.
9

8HGDDQG+LURWD6KLQUDQDQLQWURGXFWLRQWRKLVWKRXJKW, 72-75.

49‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

In other words, body of true reality or suchness (GKDUPD-NƗ\D) provisionally
manifests form as recompensed body (VDPEKRJD-NƗ\D) and transformed body (QLUPDQDNƗ\D) within samsara in order to perceive unenlightened beings (which it knows to be
empty and non-existent) and guide them (knowing them by becoming them) toenlightenment.
A second consequence of <RJƗFƗUD thought is that there is no true reality apart fromfalsity. Wisdom is absolute and always holds within itself the existence of false thinking.
<HWWKLVIDOVHWKLQking is in reality non-existent, since the objects of such thinking do not
H[LVW 7KXV DFFRUGLQJ WR SDUDGR[LFDO ORJLF 0DKƗ\ƗQD LW UHDOO\ H[LVWV 7KDW LV WR VD\subjectivity exists through not existing. It is both true and real, and at the same time it isempty, false and unreal. 10
This paradoxical structure of wisdom will ground the Shin Buddhist perspective on
shinjin. As I will attempt to explain, what makes the Shin Buddhist view unique is thefact that wisdom is experienced, not from the perspective of the bodhisattva, the subjectof perception, but from the perspective of the object of perception – the unenlightened
sentient being.
Wisdom and Compassion in Shin Buddhism
Pure Land Buddhist Path
Over two hundred and ten 0DKƗ\ƗQD sutras make some mention of Buddha $PLWƗ\XV
and/or the Buddha $PLWƗEKD and that Buddha’s land of utmost bliss (6XNKƗYDWƯ). Each ofthese Pure Land scriptures describes the sublime and ideal beauty of that land and of that
Buddha and the bodhisattvas of that land. Among those scriptures, the three Pure Landsutras provide detailed descriptions of and focus on Amida Buddha and that Buddha’s
land of utmost bliss.
For instance, the /DUJHU6XNKƗYDWƯ6XWUDdescribes the land in this way,
Further, the halls, living quarters, palaces and storied pavilions, all adorned withthe seven precious substances, appear miraculously of themselves. Covering themis a jewel-canopy composed of pearls, moon-radiant mani-jewels, and various
other gems. Everywhere about the buildings, both inside and out, there are ponds
for bathing ten yojanas, or twenty or thirty, up to one hundred thousand yojanas
across. Each is of dimensions—in length, breadth, and depth—of perfect symmetry.
They are brimming with pure and fragrant waters possessed of the eight excellent
10

8HGDDQG+LURWD6KLQUDQDQLQWURGXFWLRQWRKLVWKRXJKW, 75-83.

50

David MATSUMOTO
Wisdom and Compassion, Exposure and Embrace‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬

qualities and have the taste of nectar. 11
The &RQWHPSODWLRQ6XWUD instructs practitioners to engage in a range of contemplations
on Amida Buddha and his land. Among them is the ninth contemplation, which states in
part,>1@H[WHQYLVLRQWKHSK\VLFDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDQGWKHOLJKWRI$PLWƗ\XV$QDQGD\RXshould realize that his body is as glorious as a thousand million kotis of nuggets of
JROGIURPWKH-DPEX5LYHURIWKH<DPD+HDYHQDQGWKDWKLVKHLJKWLVVL[KXQGUHG
thousand kotis of nayutas of yojanas multiplied by the number of the sands of theGanges. The white tuft of hair curling to the right between his eyebrows is five
WLPHVDVELJDV0RXQW6XPHUX+LVH\HVDUHFOHDUDQGDVEURDGDVWKHIRXUJUHDW
oceans; their blue iriVHVDQGZKLWHDUHGLVWLQFW+LVDXUHROHLVDVEURDGDVDKXQGUHG
kotis of universes, each containing a thousand million worlds…. 12
Among the many descriptions of Amida’s land in the $PLGD6XWUD are these,
Sariputra, why is that land called ‘Utmost Bliss’? Because beings there suffer nopain but only enjoy pleasures of various kinds. Again, Sariputra, in the Land of
Utmost Bliss there are seven rows of balustrades, seven rows of decorative nets,
and seven rows of trees. They are all made of four kinds of jewels and extend over
the whole land, and so it is called ‘Utmost Bliss.’ …
)RU ZKDW UHDVRQ 6DULSXWUD GR \RX WKLQN WKDW %XGGKD LV FDOOHG µ$PLWƗEKD"¶
Sariputra, the Buddha’s light shines boundlessly and without hindrance over all the
ZRUOGVLQWKHWHQGLUHFWLRQV,WLVIRUWKLVUHDVRQWKDWKHLVFDOOHGµ$PLWƗEKD¶$JDLQSariputra, the lives of the Buddha and the people of his land last for innumerable,
unlimited and incalculable kalpas. It is for this reason that the Buddha is calledµ$PLWƗ\XV¶ 13
Amida’s Buddha-land, in other words, was conventionally considered to be an ideal
place—in contrast to this world—for hearing the Buddha’s teaching and practicing the11

In Shinran, 7HDFKLQJ 3UDFWLFH DQG 5HDOL]DWLRQ RI WKH 3XUH /DQG :D\, Chapter on Transformed
Buddha-bodies and LandsWUDQV'HQQLV+LURWDHWDOLQ-RGR6KLQVKX+RQJZDQML-ha. 7KH&ROOHFWHG:RUNVRI6KLQUDQYRO .\RWR+RQJZDQML6KXSSDQ -9.
12 +LVDR,QDJDNL7KH7KUHH3XUH/DQG6XWUDV$VWXG\DQGWUDQVODWLRQ .\RWR1DJDWD%XQVKRGR
1994), 332-333.
13
Inagaki, 7KH7KUHH3XUH/DQG6XWUDV 353-355.

51‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

bodhisattva path of enlightenment.
Shinran’s Reformulation of the Pure Land Path
Shinran (1173-  VWDWHV WKDW WKH ³WUXH %XGGKD´ LV WKH ³7DWKƗJDWD of inconceivable
light,” while the “true land” is the “land of immeasurable light.”
Reverently contemplating the true Buddha and the true land, I find that the Buddha
is the Tathagata of inconceivable light and the land also is the land of immeasurable
light. Because they have arisen through the fulfillment of Vows of greatcompassion, they are called true fulfilled Buddha and land. There are relevant Vows
that were made: the Vows of light and life. 14
Amida Buddha and the Buddha’s Pure Land are viewed respectively as
inconceivable and immeasurable light, which is the form taken by (and symbolic of)
wisdom and compassion. In addition, Shinran affirms that both Buddha and land are
VDPEKRJD-NƗ\D, the fulfilled Buddha-body, for they have come about through, or
UHSUHVHQWWKHFRPSDVVLRQDWHDFWLYLW\RIWKHERGKLVDWWYDYRZVRI'KDUPƗNDUDIXOILOOHG
through the perfection of bodhisattva practices. This Buddha’s enlightened activity hastaken this form of inconceivable and immeasurable light (Amida Buddha and the PureLand) because of the bodhisattva’s Twelfth and Thirteenth Vows.
1RWHVKRXOGEHPDGHWKDW6KLQUDQPDNHVQRGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHWUXH%XGGKD
and land. In other words, Shinran does not adopt the classic Pure Land Buddhist approachthat seemed to attribute physical features to Amida Buddha and that Buddha’s land.
1HLWKHURQHPLJKWDOVRVD\GRHVKHVHHPWRWDNH$PLGDWREHDSHUVRQLILHGH[SUHVVLRQand the Pure Land to be an environmental expression of enlightenment. Rather, both aresignificant as inconceivable light and emerge as the dynamic compassionate activity ofultimate reality.
The modifiers “inconceivable” and “immeasurable” indicate that both the true
Buddha and land transcend all false, discriminative thinking. They represent the activityof fundamental nondiscriminative wisdom and its arising as subsequently-attained
nondiscriminative wisdom. Immeasurable light points to spatial infinity—that whichtranscends all spatial conceptualizing. Immeasurable life, in contrast, represents temporal
infinity—that which transcends all temporal conceptualization. The true Buddha and landtranscend all dimensions of space and time and are thus inconceivable for they cannot be
grasped by our conventional thought, which seeks to substantialize all existence within
14

Shinran, 7HDFKLQJ3UDFWLFHDQG5HDOL]DWLRQ, Chapter on the True Buddha and Land, 177.

52

David MATSUMOTO
Wisdom and Compassion, Exposure and Embrace‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬the limits of our discriminative consciousness.
And yet, although they comprise both immeasurable light and life, it is the light of
WKHWUXH%XGGKDDQGODQGWKDWLVHPSKDVL]HGE\6KLQUDQ+HFLWHVQXPHURXVVXWUDSDVVDJHV
that extol the twelve-fold light of the Buddha, a light that is boundless, unhindered,incomparable, blazing, pure, joyful, wisdom, uninterrupted, inconceivable, inexpressible
and surpasses the sun and moon. The Buddha’s light, he says is exalted and supreme; itis boundlessly excellent.
In order to arrive at this conclusion, Shinran offers a formulation unique within
SUHYDLOLQJ3XUH/DQGWKRXJKW+LVYLHZRI$PLGD%XGGKDDQGWKH3XUH/DQGLVEDVHGQRWRQO\RQWKHJHQHUDO0DKƗ\ƗQDQRWLRQRIWKHWKUHHERGLHVRIWKH%XGGKD7KDWLVKe clearly
adopts another, somewhat related perspective on the dharma-body, which is found in the&RPPHQWDU\RQ9DVXEDQGKX¶V7UHDWLVH by Tanluan (476-542). According to that theory,the dharma-body is two-fold.
The following quotation of a passage from Tanluan is found in the Chapter on True
Realization of Shinran’s 7HDFKLQJ3UDFWLFHDQG5HDOL]DWLRQ.
Concerning the phrase, Reflect on this, we should reflect that these three types offulfilled adornments were originally accomplished by the adorning activity of thepure Vow-mind expressed as the Forty-eight Vows; hence, because the cause ispure, the fruition is also pure. It is not that there is no cause or that there is someother cause.
It is because, stated in brief, they enter into the phrase “one-dharma.”
The preceding seventeen phrases on the land’s adornments, eight phrases on the
Tathagata’s adornments, and four phrases on the bodhisattvas’ adornments are“extensive.” That they enter into the phrase “one-dharma” is termed in brief. Why
is it explained that extensive and brief interpenetrate? Because all Buddhas andbodhisattvas have dharma-bodies of two dimensions: dharma-body as suchness
and dharma-body as compassionate means. Dharma-body as compassionate meansarises from dharma-body as suchness, and dharma-body as suchness emerges outof dharma-body as compassionate means. Those two dimensions of dharma-bodydiffer but are not separable; they are one but cannot be regarded as identical. Thus,
extensive and brief interpenetrate, and together are termed “dharma.” Ifbodhisattvas do not realize that extensive and brief interpenetrate, they areincapable of self-benefit and benefiting others. 15

15

Shinran, 7HDFKLQJ3UDFWLFHDQG5HDOL]DWLRQ, Chapter on True Realization, 165.

53‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

Tanluan’s &RPPHQWDU\ presents the notion of the two kinds of dharma-body(dharma-NƗ\D    GKDUPD-body as suchness ( ἲ ᛶ ἲ ㌟ KRVVKǀ KRVVKLQ, literally“dharma-nature dharma-body”) and (2) dharma-body as compassionate means (᪉౽ἲ㌟ KǀEHQ KRVVKLQ, literally “XSƗ\D dharma-body”). Traditional Shin Buddhist studies
generally assert that this theory represents an explanation of Tanluan’s Buddha-bodytheory, and, accordingly, his perspective that Amida Buddha is the dharma-body ascompassionate means.
0RFKL]XNL 6KLQNǀ QRWHV KRZHYHU WKDW 7anluan does not refer to the kinds of
Buddha-bodies, such VDPEKRJD-NƗ\D or QLUPDQD-NƗ\D here. Surmising that this text may
have preceded the full development of the WULNƗ\D doctrine in Chinese Pure Land
Buddhism, Mochizuki concludes that Tanluan’s introduction of the two-fold dharmabody theory is not made in the context of the concept of the three Buddha-bodies. 16
Instead, he suggests, Tanluan draws upon texts such as the :DQJVKHQJOXQ and 'D]KLGXOXQWRFRQILUPWKDWWKH3XUH/DQGRI$PLWƗEKDWUDQVFHQGVWKHWKUHHUHDOPVRIGHVLUHIRUP
and formlessness.
<DPDGD<XNLRPDLQWDLQVWKDW7DQOXDQDFWXDOO\SUHVHQWVWKHWZR-fold dharma-body
QRWLRQLQRUGHUWRFODULI\0DKƗ\ƗQDSHUVSHFWives on the activity of ultimate reality (S.
SDUDPƗUWKD-VDW\D, J. ➨୍㆟ㅉ GDLLFKLJLWDL) and more specifically, the meaning ofentering into the phrase “one-dharma” (ධ୍ἲྃ Q\ǌLSSǀNX) that is presented in the
7UHDWLVH. Ultimate reality is the sphere of the Buddha’VNDUPLFDFWLYLW\+HUH7DQOXDQ¶V
primary focus is to demonstrate the interpenetration or nonduality of the brief orcondensed (␎ U\DNX) aspect of ultimate reality (dharma-nature of suchness, ┿ዴἲᛶVKLQQ\RKRVVKǀ) and its extensive or manifested (ᘅ Nǀ) aspects (the 29 adorned dharmicvirtues of the Buddha-realm – 17 of the Land, 8 of the Buddha, and 4 of the bodhisattvas).
Because all Buddhas and bodhisattvas have dharma-bodies of two dimensions, theextensive and brief aspects of ultimate reality interpenetrate (ᘅ␎┦ධ kǀU\DNXVǀQ\ǌ).
The dharma-body as suchness and dharma-body as compassionate means arise mutuallyfrom each other; they differ but are not separable; they are one but not the same. Thus,
the two dharma-bodies arise in simultaneous immediacy in a horizontal relationship andnot through a step-by-step or vertical relationship. 17
Roger Corless suggests that Tanluan presents the two-fold dharma-body theory in
16

6KLQNǀ0RFKL]XNL³3XUH/DQGLQ&KLQD$'RFWULQDO+LVWRU\&KDSWHU6HYHQ7¶DQ-luan.” Leo M.
Pruden, trans. Richard K. Payne, ed. 7KH3DFLILF:RUOG-RXUQDORIWKH,QVWLWXWHRI%XGGKLVW6WXGLHV.
Third Series, no. 2 (Fall 2000): 164.
17 <XNLR<DPDGD³7¶DQ-luan’s Theory of Two Kinds of Dharma-body as Found in Shinran’s Wago
Writings,” 7KH3DFLILF:RUOG-RXUQDORIWKH,QVWLWXWHRI%XGGKLVW6WXGLHV. Third Series, no. 2 (Fall
2000): 100-101.

54

David MATSUMOTO
Wisdom and Compassion, Exposure and Embrace‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬order to propose a solution to the dilemma posed by two dualistic polarities:
1. If the realm of liberation from suffering is the same as or continuous with therealm of suffering, then there is no true liberation from suffering.
2. If the realm of liberation from suffering is different from this realm of suffering,then there is no way to get from here to there, and there is no liberation from
suffering.
7DQOXDQ ZDV WKRURXJKO\ YHUVHG LQ 0ƗGK\DPLNDQ WKRXJKW +LV PDMRU FRPPHQWDULDO
sources include the 'D]KLGXOXQ (0DKƗSUDMxƗSƗUDPLWƗ ĞƗVWUD) and =KDROXQ (7UHDWLVHV
of >6HQJ@]KDR, 378-413). Thus, maintains Corless, Tanluan declares that the realms ofsuffering and liberation are nondual; they are connected, while at the same time
separate. 18
It is important to note that Shinran follows this line of thought in his 7UXH7HDFKLQJ
3UDFWLFHDQG5HDOL]DWLRQ, but not in his Japanese writings. That is evident by the fact thathe quotes Tanluan’s passage on the two-fold dharma-bodies in the Chapter on True
Realization and not in Chapter on the True Buddha and Land of his major text.
In the Chapter on True Realization, Shinran states that true realization is both thewondrous state attained through Amida's perfect benefiting of others (฼௚ᅭ‶அጁ఩
ULWD HQPDQ QR P\ǀi) and the ultimate fruition of supreme nirvana (᪢ୖᾖᵎஅᴟᯝ
PXMǀQHKDQ QR JRNXND). That is, true realization is not simply a matter of one's own
realization of wisdom; it is also the culmination of Amida Buddha's perfect directing ofvirtue (the mind of self-benefit and benefiting others).
This implies, moreover, that true realization does not merely arise in a single
direction. The true Pure Land path comprehends a movement from samsara to nirvana
and also a movement (a return) from nirvana to samsara. This two-fold directionalism is
EDVHGLQWKHIXQGDPHQWDO0DKƗ\ƗQDDSSURDFKWR%XGGKDKRRG7KHHQOLJhtened one has“gone to thusness” (7DWKƗ + JDWD, Q\RNR) and “comes from thusness” (7DWKƗ + ƗJDWD,
Q\RUDL). A Shin Buddhist sense of the bi-directional nature of enlightened activity can beseen in the two aspects of Amida Buddha’s directing of virtue (to beings): (1) the aspectof going to be born in the Pure Land (ǀVǀHNǀ  ┦ᅇྥ), which comprises true teaching,practice, VKLQMLQ, and realization, and (2) the aspect of returning from the Pure Land
(JHQVǀHNǀ 㑏┦ᅇྥ). Shinran’s stance regarding true realization results from his radical
re-interpretation of traditional notions pertaining to Amida Buddha and the Buddha’s
18

Roger Corless, “The Enduring Significance of T’an-luan,” 7KH3DFLILF:RUOG-RXUQDORIWKH
,QVWLWXWHRI%XGGKLVW6WXGLHV. Third Series, no. 2 (Fall 2000): 4-6.

55‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

Land of Bliss. Buddhahood and enlightenment give expression to a reality that is dynamic
and active. True realization represents the nonduality of (1) the “necessary attainment of
nirvana” (by beings) and (2) “great nirvana” itself.
Further, one might say that Shinran presents a uniquely Shin Buddhist slant on the0DKƗ\ƗQDQRWLRQRIWKHPLQGDVSLULQJIRUHQOLJKWHQPHQW ERGKLFLWWD ⳶ᥦᚰ bodDLVKLQ).
In general, the bodhisattva’s aspiration for enlightenment has two inseparable aspects: (1)the wish to attain enlightenment for oneself (⮬฼ MLUL self-benefit) and (2) the desire tosave sentient beings (฼௚ ULWD benefiting-RWKHUV +HUHLQFRQWUDVt, Amida’s directing ofvirtue to beings in both aspects of going to and returning from the Pure Land could besymbolic of two ways in which ordinary beings come to experience that true aspiration.
That is, Amida Buddha is presented as the subject that directs virtue (the actor thattransfers merit), and we sentient beings are positioned as the objects toward which virtue
is directed (the recipients of such merit). In other words, we are being benefited by the
Other in going forth to the Pure Land and we are receiving Amida’s benefiting of othersin the return to the VDKD world. 19 ³7KLV´VD\V6KLQUDQ³LVWKHEHQHILWZHUHFHLYH´+Hclearly states that being able to “return to this world” upon the attainment of birth andrealization of supreme nirvana in the Pure Land is also a benefit that we receive – thestate of benefiting and guiding others” (฼௚ᩍ໬ᆅࡢ┈ ULWDN\ǀNHMLQR\DNX ).
Since Tanluan takes up Vasubandhu’s declaration that all of the pure adornments of
the land, the Buddha and the bodhisattvas originated in the “Vow-mind,” Shinran findsthat the adorned virtues of the land (which are manifested forms of enlightenment) are
interpenetrated by formless, uncreated dharma-body. +HUHWKH ³LQWHUSHQHWUDWLRQRIWKH
extensive and brief” (ᘅ␎┦ධ kǀU\DNXVǀQ\ǌ) implies that (1) extensive phenomena
arise out of the singular, pure Vow-mind, thereby manifesting that noumenal reality and(2) the unfolding of purity into the adornments of Amida Buddha and the Pure Land
becomes the foundation for saving ignorant beings in samsara. Dharma-body as suchness
and dharma-body as compassionate means are revealed to be in a complex, dynamic
relationship in which the latter arises from the former, even as the former emerges as thelatter. In Tanluan’s words, they differ but are not separable; they are one but are not
identical.
I would suggest that this interpenetration of dharma-bodies is also representativeof the relationship between fundamental nondiscriminative wisdom and subsequentlyattained nondiscriminative wisdom as compassionate activity. This perspective is more
19

A more detailed examination of Shinran’s perspective on Other’s benefiting and benefiting others
can be seen in Jitsuen Kakehashi, “Shinran’s View of Other Power: On “the Profound Significance of
Other’s Benefiting and Benefiting Others,” 7KH3DFLILF:RUOG-RXUQDORIWKH,QVWLWXWHRI%XGGKLVW6WXGLHV. Third Series, no. 2 (Fall 2000): 61-98.

56

David MATSUMOTO
Wisdom and Compassion, Exposure and Embrace‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬evident in Shinran’s Japanese writings, in which there is a slight difference in theapproach taken to the two-fold dharma-body theory by Shinran. In his text, Notes onµ(VVHQWLDOVRI)DLWK$ORQH¶, Shinran interprets Tanluan’s idea in this manner,
Since it is with this heart and mind of all sentient beings that they entrust
themselves to the Vow of the dharma-body as compassionate means, this shinjin isnone other than Buddha-nature. This Buddha-nature is dharma-nature. Dharmanature is dharma-body. For this reason there are two kinds of dharma-body withregard to the Buddha. The first is called dharma-body as suchness and the second,dharma-body as compassionate means. Dharma-body as suchness has neither color
nor form; thus, the mind cannot grasp it nor words describe it. From this onenesswas manifested form, called dharma-body as compassionate means.
7DNLQJWKLVIRUP7KH%XGGKDDQQRXQFHGWKHQDPH%KLNVX'KDUPƗNDUDDQG
established the Forty-eight great Vows that surpass conceptual understanding.
Among these Vows are the Primal Vow of immeasurable light and the universal
Vow of immeasurable life, and to the form manifesting these two Vows Bodhisattva
Vasubandhu gave the title, “Tathagata of unhindered light filling the ten quarters.”
This Tathagata has fulfilled the Vows, which are the cause of that Buddhahood, andthus is called “Tathagata of the fulfilled body.” This is none other than Amida
Tathagata. 20
Dharma-body as suchness is true reality itself, perceived through nondiscriminative wisdom, within the absolute non-duality of subject and object, in which
all existences are emptied of conceptualized substance or self-nature. Therefore, Shinransays, it “has neither color nor form; thus, the mind cannot grasp it nor words describe it.”As a result, it becomes active as subsequently- attained non-discriminative wisdom,taking form so that it might be grasped and described with words, and thereby guides
ignorant beings to enlightenment. This form, says Shinran, is called “dharma-body ascompassionate means” (literally, XSƗ\D-GKDUPDNƗ\D)In effect, Shinran is carefully weaving through the interrelated nuances in the socalled three-Buddha bodies and two-fold dharma-body theories, which can be found in
the description of this dharma-body as compassionate means.
“Fulfilled” means that the cause for enlightenment has been fulfilled. From the20

Shinran, 1RWHVRQµ(VVHQWLDOVRI)DLWK$ORQH,’ DenQLV+LURWDHWDOWUDQVLQ-RGR6KLQVKX+RQJZDQMLha. 7KH&ROOHFWHG:RUNVRI6KLQUDQYRO .\RWR+RQJZDQML,QWHUQDWLRQDO&HQWHU &:6

57‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4fulfilled body innumerable personified and accommodated bodies are manifested,
radiating the unhindered light of wisdom throughout the countless worlds. Thus
appearing in the form of light called “Tathagata of unhindered light filling the ten
quarters,” it is without color and without form; that is, it is identical with the dharmabody as suchness, dispelling the darkness of ignorance and unobstructed by karmic
evil. For this reason it is called “unhindered light.” “Unhindered” means that it is not
obstructed by the karmic evil and blind passions of beings. Know, therefore, that
Amida Buddha is light, and that light is the form taken by wisdom. 21
According to Shinran, the dharma-body as compassionate means clearly refers to
VDPEKRJD-NƗ\D, for he calls it “7DWKƗJDWD RIWKHIXOILOOHGERG\´<HWLWVHHPVWREHPXFKmore complex than simply that. In his view, Amida Buddha as fulfilled body or
immeasurable light manifests “innumerable personified and accommodated bodies.” It
would appear, that is, to embody QLUPDQD-NƗ\D as well. Furthermore, these personified
bodies also radiate unhindered light. In one sense, this means that they are identical withdharma-body as suchness. In another sense, it means that they actively work to savebeings, dispelling ignorance without any hindrance.
This Japanese text thus presents the multi-faceted and dynamic notion of the true
Buddha and land in Shinran’s thought. Amida Buddha and the Pure Land are not static
entities. Instead, they are described as dharma-body as suchness giving rise to dharmabody of compassionate means. Formlessness gives rise to form, which is the
PDQLIHVWDWLRQRIIRUPOHVVQHVV%\WDNLQJWKHIRUPRIWKH³7DWKƗJDWDRIXQKLQGHUHGOLJKW
filling the ten quarters,” Amida Buddha remains identical with suchness even while it isactive in the world of beings, dispelling the darkness of ignorance and unobstructed bykarmic evil. The dharma-body as suchness is formless. Therefore, it fulfills its true nature
by taking form as dharma-body as compassionate means.
This compassionate reality, in which non-duality arises as duality, represents, as it
were, a dichotomy of non-dichotomy. True Buddha sees ignorant beings as false andempty, and yet also sees them as non-different from self. Thus, it arises within samsara to
awaken beings and take them into itself, thereby directing them to the attainment of
Buddhahood. Shinran describes this “formlessness as form” in greater detail in anotherJapanese text, Notes on Once-&DOOLQJDQG0DQ\-&DOOLQJ,
True reality-VXFKQHVV LV WKH VXSUHPH JUHDW QLUYDQD 1LUYDQD LV GKDUPD-nature.
21

Shinran, 1RWHVRQµ(VVHQWLDOVRI)DLWK$ORQH,’ 461-2.

58David MATSUMOTO
Wisdom and Compassion, Exposure and Embrace‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬

Dharma- nature is Tathagata. With the words, “treasure ocean,” the Buddha’s
nondiscriminating, unobstructed, and nonexclusive guidance to all sentient beings
is likened to the all-embracing ocean waters of the great ocean.
From this treasure ocean of oneness form was manifested, taking the name of%RGKLVDWWYD 'KDUPƗNDUD ZKR WKURXJK HVWDEOLVKLQJ WKH XQKLQGHUHG9RZ DV WKHcause, became Amida Buddha. For this reason Amida is the “Tathagata of fulfilled
body.” Amida has been called “Buddha of unhindered light filling the ten quarters.”
This Tathagata is also knows as 1DPX-IXNDVKLJLNǀ-butsu 1DPX-Buddha ofinconceivable light) and is the “dharma-body as compassionate means.”“Compassionate means” refers to manifesting form, revealing a name, and making
itself known to sentient beings. It refers to Amida Buddha. This Tathagata is light.
Light is none other than wisdom; wisdom is the form of light. Wisdom is, inaddition, formless; hence this Tathagata is the Buddha of inconceivable light. This
Tathagata fills the countless worlds in the ten quarters, and so is called “Buddha ofboundless light.” Further, Bodhisattva Vasubandhu has given the name, “Tathagata
of unhindered light filling the ten quarters.” 22
Wisdom-FRPSDVVLRQWDNHVWKHIRUPRIOLJKW $PLGD%XGGKD DQGUHYHDOVD1DPH
(1DPX$PLGDEXWVX) in order to make itself known to sentient beings mired in samsaric
existence. At the same time, it is formless wisdom (suchness) arising unobstructed in the
midst of darkness to awaken beings to itself. Because suchness manifests form and reveals
D QDPH DOO EHLQJV ZKR VHH$PLGD V OLJKW DQG KHDU$PLGD V 1DPH DUH DEOH WR UHDOL]H
freedom from birth-and-death. As an earlier version of the /DUJHU6XWUD states, “Among
all beings and even insects that leap and worms that crawl, there is none that does not see
Amida Buddha’s light.” 23 In other words, for Shinran, the true Buddha and land represent
light that cuts through all limitations. Moreover, it transforms all who see it.
Among those in the realms of hell, beasts, hungry ghosts, or asuras, where they
suffer pain and affliction, there is none who, upon seeing Amida Buddha’s light,
does not gain respite and, although not acquiring remedy, obtain emancipation
IURPVRUURZDQGSDLQDIWHUGHDWK$PLGD%XGGKDPDNHVWKDWOLJKWDQG1DPHKHDUG
throughout the boundless, unlimited, countless lands of the Buddhas in the eightquarters, the zenith and the nadir. There is none among devas and human beings
22

Shinran, Notes on Once-&DOOLQJDQG0DQ\-&DOOLQJWUDQV'HQQLV+LURWDHWDOLQ-RGR6KLQVKX+RQJZDQML-ha. 7KH&ROOHFWHG:RUNVRI6KLQUDQYRO .\RWR+RQJZDQML,QWHUQDWLRQDO&HQWHU 
486-7 (emphasis added)
23
Cited by Shinran in 7UXH7HDFKLQJ3UDFWLFHDQG5HDOL]DWLRQ, 180.

59‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

who does not hear and know them. Of those who hear and know them, none fails
to attain emancipation. 24
It is not insignificant that Shinran here cites an earlier version of the /DUJHU6XWUD,
for in it we see an early connection between the Buddha’s light and WKH%XGGKD¶V1DPH
7KURXJKRXWKLVWKRXJKWERWKOLJKWDQG1DPHDUHFRQQHFWHGWKH\UHSUHVHQWWKHIRUPDQG
activity taken by non-discriminative wisdom or true reality as it compassionately works
to bring ignorant beings to enlightenment.
It is interesting to note that in the Chapter on the True Buddha and Land of his
principal text Shinran never describes the nature of Amida Buddha and the Pure Land
using traditional Pure Land terminology or symbols. Instead of positive, concrete
expressions of the Buddha’s countenance, lotus pedestal, jeweled pavilions or the like,
Shinran often employs negative expressions (“nonexistent” or “impermanent,” forexample), which are grounded in 0DKƗ\ƗQDnotions of non-dichotomous emptiness.
It is from the perspective of 0DKƗ\ƗQD thought that Shinran states that the true
Buddha and land are none other than emancipation, for they represent true, eternal, andXQKLQGHUHGOLIH+HDOVRHTXDWHV7DWKƗJDWD and emancipation with nothingness, here notsignifying a void, but rather emptiness or the transcendence of all ego-centered,
GLVFULPLQDWRU\WKLQNLQJ+HDOVRGHFODUHVWKDWWUXH%XGGKDDQGODQGDUHQRWQRQ-arising,
non-perishing, un-DJLQJDQGXQG\LQJIRUDVQLUYDQDWKH\DUHWKHHWHUQDO%XGGKD+HUH
eternity is useGLQWKHVHQVHRI³XQFUHDWHG´+LJKHVWHQOLJKWHQPHQWLVQRWWKHSURGXFWRI
karmic action; it is not an entity brought about by ever-changing connections between
causes and conditions. Because of this, true Buddha and land are not “impermanent;” they
are “eternal.”
Shinran also states that the true Buddha and land possess the virtue of Buddha
nature. They manifest the potential for Buddhahood, the fundamental reality of
Buddhahood, and the process for its attainment. When sentient beings, who lack thewisdom eye, see wisdom through practice, therein the bodhisattva attains enlightenment.
'KDUPƗNDUD EHFRPHV $PLGD DQG WKH 3XUH /DQG EHFRPHV WKH SODFH RI DWWDLQLQJ
enlightenment. The following passage is a well-known.
7KHODQGRIEOLVVLVWKHUHDOPRIQLUYDQDWKHXQFUHDWHG.
…
7KHUHDOPRIQLUYDQD refers to the place where one overturns the delusion ofignorance and realizes the supreme enlightenment. 5HDOP means “place”; know it
as the place of attaining enlightenment.
24

Cited by Shinran in 7UXH7HDFKLQJ3UDFWLFHDQG5HDOL]DWLRQ, 180.

60

David MATSUMOTO
Wisdom and Compassion, Exposure and Embrace‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬

1LUYDQD has innumerable names. It is impossible to give them in details. I will
OLVWRQO\DIHZ1LUYDQD LVFDOOHGH[WLQFWLRQ RI SDVVLRQV WKH XQFUHDWHGSHDFHIXO
happinenss, eternal bliss, true reality, dharma-body, dharma-nature, suchness,oneness, and Buddha-nature. Buddha-nature is none other than Tathagata. This
Tathagata pervades the countless worlds; it fills the hearts and minds of the oceanof all beings. Thus, plants, trees, and land all attain Buddhahood. 25
According to Shinran, the true Buddha and land also have the virtue of bliss orpleasure. Instead of pleasure in the conventional sense, they possess the four aspects oftrue pleasure: eradication of pleasure (and pain), great quiescence, all-knowing-wisdom,
and a body that is undecaying. The land is also possessed of the virtue of purity. Because
it is great nirvana, it bears the four aspects of purity and severs twenty-five forms ofexistence. Shinran draws upon Tanluan’s &RPPHQWDU\, which states,
Concerning “the fulfillment of the adornment of the virtue of purity,” the gathastates:Contemplating the features of that world,
I see that it transcends the three realms.
Why is this inconceivable? When foolish beings possessed of blind passions attainbirth in the Pure Land, they are not bound by the karmic fetters of the three realms.
7KDWLVZLWKRXWVHYHULQJEOLQGSDVVLRQVWKH\UHDOL]HQLUYDQDLWVHOI+RZFDQWKLV
be conceived? 26
The true Buddha and land are pure; their nature is that of the WDWKƗJDWD, orcompassionate, salvific activity unfolding from wisdom. Because of this, it is said,WDWKƗJDWDV do not actually enter ultimate nirvana and are termed “bodhisattvas.” This isinconceivable to ignorant beings. In the same way, the paradoxical nature of Buddhanature cannot truly be grasped by beings. Buddha-nature transcends conventional
concepts of time, such past-present-future, and yet, for beings mired in samsara, it is tobe realized in the future. Although buddha nature is possessed by all sentient beings, itdoes not exist in the present in ignorant beings; it only exists in the future. Stateddifferently, those lacking the good roots or seeds of Buddhahood (LFFDQWLND) have no
possibility of attaining enlightenment, and yet, since all beings have Buddha nature and25

Shinran, 1RWHVRQµ(VVHQWLDOVRI)DLWK$ORQH¶ 460-1.
Tanluan, &RPPHQWDU\RQ9DVXEDQGKX¶V7UHDWLVH, cited by Shinran in 7UXH7HDFKLQJ3UDFWLFHDQG
5HDOL]DWLRQ, Chapter on True Buddha and Land, 191.

2661‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

QRIL[HGQDWXUHDOOZLOODWWDLQHQOLJKWHQPHQW+HQFH³LWVKRXOGQRWEHWDXJKWWKDWWKRVH
lacking the seed of Buddhahood fall into hell.” 27
The Buddha teaches, from the perspective of wisdom-compassion, that all beings
have Buddha nature, and yet “because it is covered over by blind passions,” sentient
beings “cannot see it.” Even bodhisattvas of the highest stage only see Buddha nature “aOLWWOH´+RZHYHUWKH\FDQ³VHHWKURXJKKHDULQJ´—they can know the WDWKƗJDWD's mind
and know that they will attain enlightenment.
Shinran concludes,
Thus, we clearly know from the Tathagata’s true teaching and the commentaries ofthe masters that the Pure Land of peace is the true fulfilled land. Delusional anddefiled sentient beings cannot, here, see [Buddha-@QDWXUHIRULWLVFRYHUHGRYHUE\blind passions. The [1LUYDQD@6XWUD states, “I have taught that bodhisattvas of thetenth stage see a little of Buddha-QDWXUH´+HQFHZHNQRZWKDWZKHQZHUHDFKWKH
Buddha-land of happiness, we unfailingly disclose Buddha-nature. This is throughthe directing of virtue by the Power of the Primal Vow. Further, the [1LUYDQD@6XWUD
states, “Sentient beings will, in the future, possess a body of purity adorned with
virtues and be able to see Buddha-nature.” 28
The significance of true Buddha and land, for Shinran, is that the person of VKLQMLQ
is the “same as Maitreya” (a bodhisattva of the highest stage). As such, she can hear and
NQRZWKH1DPH—³SHUFHLYHDQGNQRZWKHWDWKƗJDWD VPLQG´—and know that the Vow
carries those who cannot attain Buddhahood to enlightenment. The salvific activity ofAmida Buddha and the Pure Land arises from the great compassion of true enlightenmentof equality. The true Buddha and land possess the inconceivable power of the fulfillmentof virtues of self-benefit and benefiting-others. In Tanluan’s words, “The Vow gives riseto the power; the power fulfills the Vow.” 29
Reflections: Wisdom and Compassion, Exposure and Embrace: a Shin Buddhist
Sense of Transcendent Immanence
Amida Buddha and the Pure Land Are the Activity of Wisdom Unfolding as
Compassion.
27

The 1LUYDQD6XWUD, cited by Shinran in 7UXH7HDFKLQJ3UDFWLFHDQG5HDOL]DWLRQ, Chapter on True
Buddha and Land, 186.
28 Shinran, 7UXH7HDFKLQJ3UDFWLFHDQG5HDOL]DWLRQ, Chapter on True Buddha and Land, 202.
29
Tanluan, &RPPHQWDU\, cited by Shinran in 7UXH7HDFKLQJ3UDFWLFHDQG5HDOL]DWLRQ Chapter on
True Buddha and Land, 194.

62

David MATSUMOTO
Wisdom and Compassion, Exposure and Embrace‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬My understanding of Shinran’s insight is that Amida Buddha and the Pure Land are
DFWLYLW\,GUDZIURPKLVGHFODUDWLRQWKDW³>7@KH%XGGKDLVWKH7DWKƗJDWD of inconceivable
light and the land also is the land of immeasurable light” 30 his heart-felt realization that
Amida Buddha is the activity of wisdom unfolding as compassion within this realm of
samsara. I receive this sense even more so in his words, “Formless Buddha manifests
form, revealing a name, and making itself known to sentient beings. It refers to Amida
Buddha. This 7DWKƗJDWD is light. Light is none other than wisdom; wisdom is the form oflight.” 31Transcendence and immanence in Shin Buddhism
6XSUHPH 1LUYDQD—transcendent enlightenment, Buddha in all of its simultaneously
multiple dimensions—is active. It reveals a name, making itself known to us—beings of
ILQLWXGHLJQRUDQFHDQGGHOXGHGWKLQNLQJ(YHQDVZHFDOORXWWKH1DPHRIWKH%XGGKD
perhaps searching for peace, happiness, or just the end of pain, gradually, step-by-step,
ZHFRPHWRUHDOL]HWKDWZHDUH³KHDULQJ´WKDW1DPHZKLFKLVVHDUFKLQJIRUXV%XGGKDas-1DPHUHYHDOVLWVHOIWRXVDOORZLQJXVWRNQRZWKHVLJQLILFDQFHRIHQOLJKWHQPHQW
The famous nembutsu follower, Asahara Saichi (1850-1932), expresses thisrealization in verse.
Where is the 7DWKƗJDWD?
The 7DWKƗJDWD is here.
It fills Saichi's heart.
$V,VD\³1DPX$PLGD%XWVX´LWLVKHUH
6DLFKL<HV"
:KRLVVD\LQJWKHQHPEXWVXULJKWQRZ"+PP"
It is Saichi.
1RWKDWFDQ WEH,WLVWKHGLUHFWWHDFKLQJRI$PLGDThe oneness of being and Buddha.
³1DPX$PLGD%XWVX´
Oya's calling voice!
The child's response.
30
31

Shinran, 7UXH7HDFKLQJ3UDFWLFHDQG5HDOL]DWLRQ Chapter on True Buddha and Land, 177.
Shinran, Notes on Once-&DOOLQJDQG0DQ\-&DOOLQJ, 486.

63‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4³1DPX$PLGD%XWVX1DPX$PLGD%XWVX´
Amida %XGGKDLVDFWLYLW\,WLV1DPH0RUHVSHFLILFDOO\LWLVWKHDFWLYLW\RIQDPLQJ
– the taking of a name to make itself known to those whom it knows cannot know on ourown. It is a calling, a calling voice. It calls us to dare to choose – to walk out onto thesingle white path of the power of the Vow.
$PLGD%XGGKDLVDOVRFDOOHGWKH7DWKƗJDWDRI:LVGRP-Light. As Shinran says,
This Tathagata is called the Buddha of light surpassing conceptual understanding
and is the form of wisdom. Know that Amida pervades the lands countless as
particles throughout the ten quarters. 32
The Pure Land, explains Shinran, is nirvana, which has many names. It is called dharmabody, suchness, oneness, Buddha nature and WDWKƗJDWD, among other things. It istranscendent reality that is beyond understanding or explication, and yet (and because ofthat) it is immanent and ubiquitous, actively working to bring all beings to enlightenment.
Buddha-nature is none other than Tathagata. This Tathagata pervades the countlessworlds; it fills the hearts and minds of the ocean of all beings. Thus, plants, trees,
and land all attain Buddhahood. 33
This transcendent realm is not silent; it echoes with the sound of enlightenment. I sensethat Shinran might have drawn from the words from the /DUJHU6XWUD, “The great soundof enlightenment / reverberates throughout the worlds of the ten directions!” when hewrote these hymns of praise,
Pure winds blow in the jewel-trees,
Producing the five tones of the scale.
As those sounds are harmonious and spontaneous,
Pay homage to Amida, the one imbued with purity. 34

32

Shinran, 1RWHV RQ ,QVFULSWLRQV RQ 6DFUHG 6FUROOV WUDQV 'HQQLV +LURWD HW DO LQ -RGR 6KLQVKX+RQJZDQML-ha. 7KH&ROOHFWHG:RUNVRI6KLQUDQYRO .\RWR+RQJZDQML,QWHUQDWLRQDO&HQWHU 
501.
33 Shinran, 1RWHVRQµ(VVHQWLDOVRI)DLWK$ORQH,¶ 461.
34
Shinran, +\PQVRIWKH3XUH/DQGWUDQV'HQQLV+LURWDHWDOLQ-RGR6KLQVKX+RQJZDQML-ha.
7KH&ROOHFWHG:RUNVRI6KLQUDQYRO .\RWR+RQJZDQML,QWHUQDWLRQDO&HQWHU 

64

David MATSUMOTO
Wisdom and Compassion, Exposure and Embrace‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬The delicate, wondrous sounds of jewel-trees in the jewel-forests
Are a naturally pure and harmonious music,
Unexcelled in subtlety and elegance,
So take refuge in Amida, the music of purity.
sounds: the branches of the trees, the waters of the ponds, and the things that workand move - these all, without exception, produce the sound of dharma.
SXUHDQGKDUPRQLRXV: the softness of the sounds of the notes, NXQJVKDQJ FKLDR
cheng, and \X >RIWKHDQFLHQW&KLQHVHVFDOH@ 35³>7@KHEUDQFKHVRIWKHWUHHVWKHZDWHUVRIWKHSRQGVDQGWKHWKLQJs that work and move- these all, without exception, produce the sound of dharma.”
Coda One. The Great Compassionate Heart of the Buddha.
The Institute of Buddhist Studies has been operating at the Jodo Shinshu Center inBerkeley, California since 2006. Early on, Rev. Kodo Umezu (now the Bishop of the
Buddhist Churches of America) and I were given the task of selecting a motto or Buddhist
passage that could capture the spirit of the center’s educational programs. After somedeliberation, we chose the words of the Chinese Pure Land Master, Shandao, “Ꮫష኱ᝒᚰ (JDNXEXWVXGDLKLVKLQ), which we translated as “learning the great compassionate heartof the Buddha.” 36 The motto never really gained much popularity and it was neverofficial adopted. At the tenth anniversary celebration for the JSC, I decided to bring up
Shandao’s words again, this time giving it an ungrammatical spin, “We are able to learn
ZLWKLQ the great compassionate heart of the Buddha,” in order to suggest the following
notion.
As we reflect upon the myriad of activity—the dreams, support, work, study andlearning of the Buddha-dharma that goes on constantly, we become aware of the wisdomand compassion of all the Buddhas and bodhisattvas throughout time and space whose
wish to guide all beings to enlightenment represent the living heart – the life blood – thatsustains this ever-widening world of faith and practice that we call Buddhism. Might weacknowledge that that myriad of activity, support, maintenance and learning is an ongoing
manifestation of great wisdom and compassion in this world? Would it be too much tosuggest that all of that activity is in reality – and effect – Buddha activity, immeasurable
light and life at work within our lives – here and now? Or that the Buddha-mind – that35

Shinran, +\PQVRIWKH3XUH/DQG, 39, 334.
6KDQGDR³+\PQRI7DNLQJ5HIXJHLQWKH7KUHH7UHDVXUHV´ .LVDQEǀJH LQWKH&RPPHQWDU\RQWKH
&RQWHPSODWLRQ6XWUD.

3665‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

activity of enlightenment – supports, grounds, enables our individual and communal lives
of seeking to take the Buddha’s Vows as our own and practice compassion with a deep
sense of interconnectedness and gratitude for all existences?
Exposure and Embrace – a Shin Buddhist Sense of Transcendent Immanence:HKDYHVXJJHVWHGDERYHWKDW6KLQUDQZDVD3XUH/DQG%XGGKLVWDQGD0DKƗ\ƗQLVWDQG
that his reformulation of the Pure Land path of enlightenment was grounded upon his
0DKƗ\ƗQLVWXQGHUVWDQGLQJ:HGUHZRQ<RVKLIXPL8HGDDQG'HQQLV+LURWD¶VZULWLQJVWR
examine in particular the <RJƗFƗUD underpinnings of Shinran’s Pure Land perspective on
wisdom and compassion.
We briefly discussed the bodhisattva’s practice and attainment of three aspects of
nondiscriminative wisdom (SUDMxƗSƗUDPLWƗ) and how they correspond to the notion of“subjectivity only with no object.” The bodhisattva realizes wisdom in which all objects
are seen as false and non-existent. The subject-object dichotomy is eradicated and bothseer and seen are “empty.” And yet at the same time, the bodhisattva’s perception andcognition, while grounded in fundamental nondiscriminative wisdom, perceives anddiscriminates between beings and objects in samsaric existence. Those objects (beings
that are seen) of the bodhisattva’s mental activity “subjectivity that has appeared as form.”
It means: (1) the bodhisattva that practices and realizes SUDMxƗSƗUDPLWƗ is able to know
things by becoming them (the seer vanishes into identity with the seen), and (2) so thebodhisattva knows itself without falsely objectifying itself.
Wisdom unfolding as compassion means that: (1) non-dichotomous wisdom comesto manifest itself as form that accommodates itself to the capacities of ignorant beings, inorder to lead them to enlightenment, and (2) there is no true reality apart from falsity.
Compassionate wisdom is absolute and always holds within itself the provisional
existence of ignorance, delusion and false thinking. For this reason, according to Tanluan,
formlessness gives rise to form, which is the manifestation of formlessness. This is the“dharma-body as suchness” giving rise to the “dharma-body as compassionate means.”
Transcendent suchness, which surpasses our human finitude and understanding, fills our
emptied hearts and those of all sentient beings.
In Shinran’s words,“Compassionate means” refers to manifesting form, revealing a name, and making
itself known to sentient beings. It refers to Amida Buddha. This Tathagata is light.
Light is none other than wisdom; wisdom is the form of light. Wisdom is, in66

David MATSUMOTO
Wisdom and Compassion, Exposure and Embrace‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬addition, formless; hence this Tathagata is the Buddha of inconceivable light.” 37
Transcendent suchness manifests the form of light, which exposes our emptinessand falsity within its illumination, and reveals a name, making itself known to us as itcomes to know us by becoming us. I interpret Shinran’s perspective in this way: Although
Shinran inherits the perspective, topic and subject of this discursive narrative from
Vasubandhu and Tanluan, he shifts the focus of the narrative from the subject,bodhisattva/practitioner, to the object, foolish beings (“us”) who, in the experience ofVKLQMLQ, find ourselves exposed and embraced by wisdom arising as compassion.
The experiences of exposure and embrace are referenced, I believe, in Shandao’s
teaching of the two kinds of profound realization (QLVKXMLQVKLQ),
Deep mind is the deeply entrusting mind. There are two aspects. One is to believe
deeply and decidedly that you are a foolish being of karmic evil caught in birthand-death, ever sinking and ever wandering in transmigration from innumerable
kalpas in the past, with never a condition that would lead to emancipation. The
second is to believe deeply and decidedly that Amida Buddha’s Forty-eight Vows
grasp sentient beings, and that allowing yourself to be carried by the power of the
Vow without any doubt or apprehension, you will attain birth. 38
Deep mind, for Shandao, this is a two-fold belief that (1) one is a foolish being ofkarmic evil forever caught in birth and death without any condition leading toemancipation, and (2) Amida's Forty-eight Vows grasp beings and carry beings without
doubt or apprehension to birth in the Pure Land. Shinran considers deep mind to be thecontent of VKLQMLQ itself. Its two aspects — the fundamental impossibility for one to attainnirvana and the absolute certainty of attainment through the Vow — form the content of
DVLQJOHUHDOL]DWLRQ1HLWKHULVWKHSUH-requisite for the other. Rather, they arise together,in a mutual inter-relationship.
The realization of VKLQMLQ, says Shinran, is none other than the arising of wisdom.
Know that since Amida’s Vow is wisdom, the emergence of the mind of entrusting

37

Shinran, Notes on Once-&DOOLQJDQG0DQ\- &DOOLQJ, 486-7
Shandao, &RPPHQWDU\RQWKH&RQWHPSODWLRQ6XWUD, cited by Shinran in 7UXH7HDFKLQJ3UDFWLFHDQG5HDOL]DWLRQRI WKH3XUH/DQG:D\WUDQV'HQQLV+LURWDHWDOLQ-RGR6KLQVKX+RQJZDQML-ha.
7KH&ROOHFWHG:RUNVRI6KLQUDQYRO .\RWR+RQJZDQML,QWHUQDWLRQDO&HQWHU 
3867

‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4oneself to it is the arising of wisdom. 39
This is a counter-intuitive sense of wisdom. It is wisdom that arises when we
profoundly realize our finitude, falsity and emptiness. Even this sense of wisdom isbeyond our capability, however. It is Buddha-wisdom that unfolds as compassion. Evenas we seek to know ourselves and the Buddha – as we learn, read and hear the Buddha’s
voice – we come to realize that the Buddha really knows us by becoming us, entering into
our hearts as VKLQMLQ.
We come to know the Buddha when we find ourselves illumined by the WisdomLight. We are exposed by the light, emptied within the light. Our false claims to
independence, agency, and omnipotence are exposed and emptied within the light. It is
exactly in that emptying that there arises for the first time the possibility of being able toknow ourselves and live genuine lives. We awaken to the reality of wisdom andcompassion in all existences and find ourselves able to be participants in the activity of
wisdom and compassion in our lives.
Coda Two. Shinran and Transcendent Immanence$VPXFKDV,UHYHUH6KLQUDQ,DOVRKDYHJUHDWUHVSHFWIRU'ǀJHQ=HQML1RWORQJDJRP\FROOHDJXHDWWKH,QVWLWXWHRI%XGGKLVW6WXGLHV5HY'DLMDNX.LQVWD6ǀWǀ=HQSULHVWDQG
, ZHUH HQJDJHG LQ RQH RI RXU PDQ\ FRQYHUVDWLRQV DERXW =HQ DQG 6KLQ Buddhism. In
particular, we were discussing this well-NQRZQSDVVDJHIURP'ǀJHQTo study the buddha way is to study the self. To study the self is to forget the self.
To forget the self is to be actualized by myriad things. When actualized by myriad
things, your body and mind as well as the bodies and minds of others drop away.
1RWUDFHRIUHDOL]DWLRQUHPDLQVDQGWKLVQR-trace continues endlessly. 40
My conversations with Daijaku Kinst are usually rambling, speculative and highly
entertaining. We recogni]H RI FRXUVH WKDW 'ǀJHQ DQG 6KLQUDQ KDG YHU\ GLIIHUHQW
perspectives on practice, enlightenment and Buddha. But, to the extent that they weremore-or-OHVVFRQWHPSRUDU\WKLQNHUVJURXQGHGLQ0DKƗ\ƗQD%XGGKLVPZHDUHIDVFLQDWHG
39Shinran, +\PQVRIWKH'KDUPD-$JHVWUDQV'HQQLV+LURWDHWDOLQ-RGR6KLQVKX+RQJZanjiha. 7KH&ROOHFWHG:RUNVRI6KLQUDQYRO .\RWR+RQJZDQML,QWHUQDWLRQDO&HQWHU 
40'ǀJHQ ³*HQMǀNǀDQ” (Actualizing the Fundamental Point), in 6KǀEǀJHQ]ǀ ("Treasury of theTrue Dharma Eye"), translated by Robert Aitken and Kazuaki Tanahashi, and revised at the
6DQ )UDQFLVFR =HQ &HQWHU 5HWULHYHG IURP http://www.the]HQVLWHFRP=HQ7HDFKLQJV'RJHQB7H
achings/GenjoKoan_Aitken.htm.

68David MATSUMOTO
Wisdom and Compassion, Exposure and Embrace‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬by their approaches to common religious concerns. On this particular occasion, we werediscussing the passage above, and I offered this rather shallow (and provisional)
VXJJHVWLRQ 0LJKW QRW 'ǀJHQ¶V DQG 6KLQUDQ¶V WKRXJKWV RQ VWXG\LQJ RU OHDUQLQJ WKH
Buddhist path be expressed, respectively, in the following way?
)RU'ǀJHQ%XGGKD-nature is revealed when the self, actualized by myriad things,
VHHVWKDWLWLVHPSW\+HUHWKHIRFXVZRXOGEHRQRQH¶VHQFRXQWHUZLWKWKHQRQGXDOQDWXUH
of reality within this realm of duality. Perhaps this might also offer an insight on the ideaof immanent transcendence. In other words, “That which is beyond the self is revealed
within none other than the self itself.”
In contrast, my sense on Shinran could be expressed in this way: Myriad things are
actualized when the self is exposed by emptiness/Buddha-nature. This perspective might
be focusing on the exposure of our dualistic apprehension of reality within compassionate
activity that unfolds from nondual wisdom. In that sense, it could be thought of in the
VHQVHRIWUDQVFHQGHQWLPPDQHQFH3HUKDSVD6KLQ%XGGKLVWH[SUHVVLRQPLJKWEH³1RQH
other than this very self is exposed by that which is beyond the self.”, DP DOVR UHPLQGHG RI D 'KDUPD WDON JLYHQ E\ D =HQ SULHVW ZKR RIIHUHG WKLV
example: Imagine yourself sitting in a pitch-black room; no light has entered that roomfor eons of time. Suddenly, a curtain parts, allowing a single ray of light to pierce thedarkness. We might ordinarily say that the light has entered the room and illuminated thedarkness, and thus we see the light. But what does that mean? In actuality, we are notreally seeing the rays of light themselves. What we are seeing is the light reflecting off ofdust floating in the room. Isn’t this always the case for us, in our samsaric existence? We
PLJKWVD\³%HFDXVHRIWKHGXVWZHFDQVHHWKHOLJKW´0LJKWWKLVEHD=HQXQGHUVWDQGLQJ"
In contrast, might Shinran be teaching us this? “Because of the light, we can see
the dust.” I would like to suggest that Shin Buddhism offers a focus on a soteriology oftranscendent immanence. Formless Dharma-body as suchness gives rise to Dharma-bodyas compassionate means. It manifests the form of light, which exposes us in its wisdomillumination, and takes a name—1DPXDPLGDEXWVX—making itself known to us, enabling
us to know ourselves and live authentic lives.
Moreover, it also seems to me, that Shinran, the realist, might now ask an age-old
TXHVWLRQDTXHVWLRQSRVHGE\+DPOHWLQWKLVZD\:KDW>D@SLHFHRIZRUNLVDPDQKRZQREOHLQUHDVRQKRZLQILQite in faculties, inform and moving, how express and admirable in action, how like an Angel inapprehension, how like a God! The beauty of the world! the paragon of animals –and yet to me, what is this quintessence of dust? Man delights not me – nor Woman

69‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

neither, though by your smiling you seem to say so.” 41With these words from his monologue in Act Two, Scene 2 of Shakespeare’s play,+DPOHWODPHQWVWRKLVROGIULHQGVRYHUWKHZLGHGLVSDULW\EHWZHHQWKHQRELOLW\WKDWSHRSOH
believe themselves to possess and the base reality of the human heart and behavior.
³>+@RZOLNHD*RG«+DPOHWFULHV³$QG\HWWRPHZKDWLVWKLVTXLQWHVVHQFHRIGXVW"´
What does it mean to be a sentient being? Exposed within the illumination of WisdomLight do we simply recognize ourselves as dust, albeit the fifth-level element within ourbase and evil world? Is that all there is to Shinran’s message to unenlightened beings? Or,
might he be suggesting paradoxically transformative and empowering? Does Shinran
perhaps reveal that Amida Buddha as Absolute Other exposes and embraces the finitude
and particularity of each being as other, and in that way Amida as Other becomes Absolute
within the other’s experience of being exposed as finite, imperfect, and evil and thus
embraced by the Other? Perhaps within the activity of wisdom unfolding as compassion
it is not just that we can see the light because of the dust or see the dust because of thelight. Perhaps Shinran offers that we can see it in both ways.
In this well-known passage in the postscript of 7DQQLVKǀ, the individual sentient
being Shinran cries out from the particularity of his own experience of shame andgratitude for the compassionate activity of Amida’s Vow-mind:
When I consider deeply the Vow of Amida, which arose from five kalpas ofprofound thought, I realize that it was entirely for the sake of myself alone! Then
how I am filled with gratitude for the Primal Vow, in which Amida resolved to saveme, though I am burdened with such heavy karma. 42
The Buddha’s Vow mind is not true because we know it, but because it exposes us; it
knows us and becomes us. It is not real because we seek and find it, but because itembraces us; it seeks and finds us just as we are. Emptied of our false claims to
LQGHSHQGHQFHDJHQF\DQGRPQLSRWHQFHZHDUH LQ6KLQVKǌ-esque terms) “embraced andnever abandoned” by the Wisdom-Light, and are now able to live genuinely, as unique
individuals within a universe of genuine, unique individuals. The Buddha’s Vow mind—
41

6KDNHVSHDUH:LOOLDP³+DPOHW 4XDUWR ´ ,QWHUQHW6KDNHVSHDUH(GLWLRQV, (University of
9LFWRULD 1D1 XQGHILQHG 1D1 :HE  )HE   5HWULHYHG IURP
https://internetshakespeare.uvLFFDGRF+DPB4LQGH[KWPO
42 $5HFRUGLQ/DPHQWRI'LYHUJHQFHVWUDQV'HQQLV+LURWDHWDOLQ-RGR6KLQVKX+RQJZDQMLha. 7KH&ROOHFWHG:RUNVRI6KLQUDQYRO .\RWR+RQJZDQML,QWHUQDWLRQDO&HQWHU 

70

David MATSUMOTO
Wisdom and Compassion, Exposure and Embrace‫ ٳ‬Articles 1 ‫ٳ‬that activity of wisdom unfolding as compassion—exposes and empties us, and yet at thesame time, it grounds and enables our individual and communal lives so that we may seek
to take the Buddha’s Vows as our own and practice compassion with a deep sense ofinterconnectedness and gratitude for all existences.

BibliographyAsaৄga, 6XPPDU\ RI WKH *UHDW 9HKLFOH (0DKƗ\ƗQD VDPJUDKD . Translated by Joh
Q 3 .HHQDQ %HUNHOH\ 1XPDWD &HQWHU IRU %XGGKLVW 7UDQVODWLRQ DQG 5HVHDUF
h, 2003). Dbet PDF version, 2014. Retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20140821120318/http://www.bdk.or.jp/pdf/bdk/digitaldl/dBET_T1593_GreatVeh
icleSummary_2003.pdf; 6KǀGDLMǀURQVKDNX, T.31.1593.
,QDJDNL+LVDR7¶DQ-OXDQ¶V&RPPHQWDU\RQ9DVXEDQGKX¶V'LVFRXUVH RQWKH3XUH/DQG
$6WXG\DQG7UDQVODWLRQ .\RWR1DJDWD%XQVKRGƃ, 1998).
Shinran. .HQMǀGRVKLQMLWVXN\ǀJ\ǀVKǀPRQUXLIn 6KLQVKǌ6KǀJ\ǀ=HQVKR, vol. 2. Edited
E\6KLQVKǌ6KǀJ\ǀ=HQVKR+HQVDQMR-.\ǀWR ƿ\DJLNǀEXQGǀ
Shinran. .HQ -ǀGR VKLQMLWVX N\ǀJ\ǀVKǀ PRQUXL 7KH 6$7 'DL]ǀN\ǀ 'DWDEDVH [http://21dzk.l.u-WRN\RDFMS6$77DDFLW@
Shinran. 7UXH7HDFKLQJ3UDFWLFHDQG5HDOL]DWLRQRIWKH3XUH/DQG:D\. Jodo Shinshu+RQJZDQML-ha. 7KH&ROOHFWHG:RUNVRI6KLQUDQ, Vol. 17UDQVODWHGE\'HQQLV+LURWD
et al, 1-.\RWR+RQJZDQML,QWHUQDWLRQDO&HQWHU
Vasubandhu. Jodoron: A Discourse on the Pure Land. Translated by David Matsumoto.
In 7KH3DFLILF:RUOG-RXUQDORIWKH,QVWLWXWH RI%XGGKLVW6WXGLHV, Third Series, no.
17. 2015.
Buswell Jr., Robert E. and Donald S. Lopez, Jr. The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism.
Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2014.
Corless, Roger. “The Enduring Significanc of T’an-luan.” 7KH3DFLILF:RUOG-RXUQDORI
WKH,QVWLWXWHRI%XGGKLVW6WXGLHV. Third Series, no. 2 (Fall 2000): 3-16.
Dupre, L. Transcendence and Immanence as Theological Categories. Proceedings of the&DWKROLF 7KHRORJLFDO 6RFLHW\ RI $PHULFD, 31 (2012). Retrieved fromhttps://ejournals.bc.edu/index.php/ctsa/article/view/2842
Faulconer, James E., ed. 7UDQVFHQGHQFH LQ 3KLORVRSK\ DQG 5HOLJLRQ. Bloomington.
Indiana University Press, 2003.
*DGMLQ1DJDR0ƗGK\DPLNDDQG<RJƗFƗUDDVWXG\RI0DKD\DQDSKLORVRSK\. Translated
E\/HVOLH6.DZDPXUD$OEDQ\6WDWH8QLYHUVLW\RI1HZ<RUN3UHVV+\ODQG 'UHZ $ )LQLWXGH DQG 7UDQVFHQGHQFH LQ 3ODWRQLF 'LDORJXH. Albany: 681<71‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4Press, 1995.
Jackson, Roger R. and John J. Makransky, eds. %XGGKLVW7KHRORJ\FULWLFDOUHIOHFWLRQVE\
FRQWHPSRUDU\%XGGKLVWVFKRODUV Richmond Surrey: Curzon Press, 2000.
Kakehashi, Jitsuen. “Shinran’s View of Other Power: On “the Profound Significance of
Other’s Benefiting and Benefiting Others.” 7KH 3DFLILF :RUOG -RXUQDO RI WKH,QVWLWXWHRI%XGGKLVW6WXGLHV. Third Series, no. 2 (Fall 200): 61-98.
Kennan, John P. $6WXG\RIWKH%XGGKDEKǌP\XSDGHĞD: The DRFWULQDODHYHORSPHQWRIWKH
1RWLRQRI:LVGRPLQ<RJƗFƗUD7KRXJKW. Berkeley: Institute of Buddhist Studies and
BDK America, Inc., 2014.
Kim, Chin-Tai. "Transcendence and Immanence." -RXUQDORIWKH$PHULFDQ$FDGHP\RI
5HOLJLRQ 55, no. 3 (1987): 537-49. Accessed February 28, 2021.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1464069.
Lancaster, Lewis, ed. Prajnaparamita and Related Systems: studies in honor of Edwarad
Conze. Berkeley: Regents of the University of California, 1977.
Loy, David R. “Beyond Transcendence? A Buddhist Perspective on the Axial Age.” $IWHU 6SLULWXDOLW\ VWXGLHV LQ P\VWLFDO WUDGLWLRQV. Edited by Philip Wexler
 -RQDWKDQ *DUE 1HZ <RUN 3HWHU *DUE  -172. Retrieved from: ht
tp://www.davidloy.org/downloads/Loy_Beyond_Transcendence.pdf.
0RFKL]XNL6KLQNǀ³3XUH/DQGLQ&KLQD$'RFWULQDO+LVWRU\&KDSWHU6HYHQ7¶DQ-luan.
Translated by Leo M. Pruden. Edited by Richard K. Payne. 7KH 3DFLILF :RUOG-RXUQDORIWKH,QVWLWXWHRI%XGGKLVW6WXGLHV. Third Series, no. 2 (Fall 2000): 149-165.
6KDNHVSHDUH :LOOLDP ³+DPOHW 4XDUWR   ´ ,QWHUQHW 6KDNHVSHDUH (GLWLRQV.
8QLYHUVLW\RI9LFWRULD1D1XQGHILQHG1D1:HE)HE5HWULHYHGIURPKWWSVLQWHUQHWVKDNHVSHDUHXYLFFDGRF+DPB4LQGH[KWPO
8HGD<RVKLIXPLDQG'HQQLV+LURWD6KLQUDQ$Q,QWURGXFWLRQWR+LV7KRXJKW. Kyoto:+RQJZDQML,QWHUQDWLRQDO&HQWHU, 1989.
Williams, Paul. 0DKD\DQD %XGGKLVP The DRFWULQDO )RXQGDWLRQV QG (GLWLRQ 1HZ<RUN5RXWOHGJH<DPDGD <XNLR ³7¶DQ-luan’s Theory of Two Kinds of Dharma-body as Found in
Shinran’s Wago Writings.” 7KH3DFLILF:RUOG-RXUQDORIWKH,QVWLWXWHRI%XGGKLVW6WXGLHV. Third Series, no. 2 (Fall 2000): 99-113.

72

Articles 2

Masaaki Nohnin

On “Shakuson Eden,” a Tibetan Illustrated Biography of the Buddha‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬

The Discourse of Religious Experience as
Testimony:
Tsunashima Ryǀsen’ s Philosophy and Practice
Ǉin Japaneseǈ

Tadayoshi FURUSO
Lecturer, Department of Community Management,
Faculty of Sociology, Ryukoku University75‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

Abstract

Tsunashima Ryǀsen (1873–1907) realized that human beings are Sons of God
through a variety of religious experiences that were not confined to any particularreligious tradition. However, he deepened this awareness through prayers based on
traditions of religions such as Christianity and Pure Land Buddhism, and he used thought
derived from both religions to develop a specific discourse based on his awareness. This
paper utilizes Paul Ricœur’s concept of testimony after examining the concepts ofreligious pluralism, multiple religious belonging, and religious subjectification to develop
a framework for understanding Tsunashima’s religious attitudes.
According to Ricœur, “testimony” comprises a witness’s self-designation that he or
she was present at a given event. Testimony is not only objective evidence for the content
of the testimony but also a call for faith in the testimony. Proof of the testimony isestablished by eliciting the trust of the person receiving the testimony. Additionally, thewitness demands that those who do not believe their testimony listen to the testimonies
of other witnesses.
Tsunashima’s discourse on religious experience can be clearly understood byRicœur’s theory of testimony. Tsunashima specifically narrated his own religious
experiences to demonstrate that he was a witness to his religious experiences, and hepropagated the truth of the “awareness of Sons of God” not only to help people understandbut also to persuade them to believe in his truth. Furthermore, he invited those who did
not believe him to read the discourses of Christ and Shinran, whom he believed spoke thesame truth he did.

76

Tadayoshi FURUSO

The Discourse of Religious Experience as Testimony‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬ドゝ࡜ࡋ࡚ࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝʊʊ⥘ᓥᱱᕝࡢᛮ᝿࡜ᐇ㊶ʊʊ*ྂⲮ ໷⩏
࣮࣮࢟࣡ࢻ㸸ドゝࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࠊゝㄝࠊ⥘ᓥᱱᕝࠊ࣏࣮࣭ࣝࣜࢡ࣮ࣝ

ᗎㄽᮏ✏࡛ࡣࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࢆᇶ┙࡟ࡋࡘࡘࡶ」ᩘࡢ᐀ᩍఏ⤫࡜῝ࡃ㛵ࢃࡾ࡞ࡀࡽᛮ᝿ࢆᙧᡂ
ࡍࡿ᭱ᬌᖺࡢ⥘ᓥᱱᕝ㸦1873㹼1907㸧ࡢ᐀ᩍⓗែᗘࢆᤊ࠼ࡿࡓࡵࡢᯟ⤌ࡳ࡜ࡋ࡚ࠊ᐀ᩍ
ከඖ୺⩏㸦religious pluralism㸧ࠊ」ྜ᐀ᩍᖐᒓ㸦multiple religious belonging㸧ࠊ᐀ᩍⓗ࡞୺
య໬㸦subjectivation㸧ࡢᴫᛕ࡜ᑐẚࡋ࡞ࡀࡽࠊ
ࠕドゝ㸦témoignage㸧
ࠖ࡜࠸࠺ᴫᛕࢆᥦ♧ࡍࡿࠋᮾிᑓ㛛Ꮫᰯࡢ኱す⚃ࡢࡶ࡜࡛ဴᏛࡸ೔⌮ᏛࢆᏛࢇࡔ⥘ᓥࡣࠊ༞ᴗㄽᩥ࡛࠶ࡿࠕ㐨ᚨⓗ⌮᝿ㄽࠖ࡟࠾࠸࡚࢖ࢠࣜࢫ⌮᝿୺⩏ࡢᛮ᝿ࢆ࣮࣋ࢫ࡟ࡋࡓ೔⌮ᛮ᝿ࢆᒎ㛤ࡋࡓࠋࡇࡢ
ㄽᩥ࡟࠾࠸࡚⥘ᓥࡣࠊே㛫࡟ࡣᢕᥱࡋ࠼࡞࠸⤯ᑐⓗ⌮᝿࡜ࠊே㛫ࡀ⪃࠼ࡘࡁࠊᐇ⌧࡛ࡁࡿ┦ᑐⓗ࡞⌮᝿ࢆ༊ูࡍࡿࠋࡑࡋ࡚ࠊ⮬ࡽ┦ᑐⓗ⌮᝿ࢆタᐃࡋࠊࡑࢀࢆᐇ⌧ࡋ࡚࠸ࡃ࡜
࠸࠺⧞ࡾ㏉ࡋࡀ⤯ᑐⓗ⌮᝿ࡢ⮬ᕫᐇ⌧࡬ࡢཧ୚࡜࡞ࡿ࡜࠸࠺㆟ㄽ࡛ಶே᱁ࡢ㐨ᚨⓗ⾜Ⅽࢆព࿡࡙ࡅࡿࠋ
ࡇࡢࡼ࠺࡞ព࿡࡙ࡅࡣࠊ⤖᰾Ⓨ⑓ᚋ࡟ᒎ㛤ࡉࢀࡿ᐀ᩍᛮ᝿࡟࠾࠸࡚ࠊ⚄࡬ࡢឤᛂࡢ࠺
ࡕ࡛⏕ࡁࡿே㛫ࡀࠕ⚄ࡢᏊࠖ࡜ࡋ࡚↹᝖ࡋ೺㜚ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡢ㔜せᛶࢆㄝࡃ㆟ㄽ࡬࡜ࡘ࡞ࡀ
ࡿࠋ᐀ᩍⓗ࡞ᛮ᝿ࡸಟ㣴ࢆࡉࡽ࡟῝ࡵࡓ⥘ᓥࡣࠊ1904 ᖺࡢ 7 ᭶௨㝆࡟Ỵᐃⓗ࡞ 3 ᗘࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࠊࠕぢ⚄ࡢᐇ㦂ࠖࢆᚓ࡚ࠊㄽ⪃ࠕணࡀぢ⚄ࡢᐇ㦂࡛ࠖࡇࡢయ㦂ࢆලయⓗ࡟ᥥฟࡍࡿ࡜࡜ࡶ࡟ࠊࡇࡢయ㦂࠿ࡽᚓࡓ┿⌮ࢆㄒࢁ࠺࡜ࡍࡿࠋ᭱ᬌᖺࡢ⥘ᓥࡣ≉ᐃࡢ᐀ᩍ࡬ࡢ
ᖐᒓព㆑ࢆࡶࡓࡎࠊ≉ᐃࡢ᐀ᩍ࡟ᅃࢃࢀ࡞࠸᐀ᩍయ㦂ࢆᇶ┙࡟ࡋࡓᛮ᝿ࢆᒎ㛤ࡍࡿࡀࠊࡑࡢ㝿」ᩘࡢ᐀ᩍࡀࡶࡘᴫᛕࢆ⏝࠸࡚ࡑࡢᛮ᝿ࢆࡼࡾ῝ࡃᤊ࠼ࡼ࠺࡜ࡋࡓࠋ⥘ᓥࡣࠊ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍ࠿ࡽ⚄࡜࢟ࣜࢫࢺࡢ∗Ꮚ㛵ಀ࡜࠸࠺Ⓨ᝿ࢆ೉⏝ࡋࠊ࠶ࡽࡺࡿே㛫ࡀ⚄ࡢᏊ࡜࠸࠺࠶ࡾ᪉ࢆࡋ࡚࠸ࡿ࡜ㄽࡌࡿࠋࡇࡢ࠶ࡾ᪉ࢆ⮬ぬࡍࡿࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖࡇࡑࡀ⥘ᓥ࡟࡜ࡗ࡚᰿ᮏⓗ࡞┿⌮࡛࠶ࡾࠊ᐀ᩍⓗᩆ῭ࢆࡶࡓࡽࡍࡶࡢࡔࡗࡓࠋࡑࡋ࡚ࠊ≉࡟࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍ࡜
ίᅵᩍ࡜ࢆࠊ
ࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖࢆ᭱ࡶࡼࡃ⾲⌧ࡍࡿࠕ⚄Ꮚᩍࠖ࡜ࡋ࡚㧗ࡃホ౯ࡋࠊࡇࢀࡽ 2*ᮏ✏ࡣࠊ⛉Ꮫ◊✲㈝⿵ຓ㔠㸦ㄢ㢟␒ྕ 20K12819㸧࠾ࡼࡧ㱟㇂኱Ꮫᅜ㝿♫఍ᩥ໬◊✲ᡤ㸦2018ᖺᗘಶே◊✲㸧ࡢຓᡂ࡟ࡼࡿ◊✲ᡂᯝࡢ୍㒊࡛࠶ࡿࠋ77‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4ࡘࡢ᐀ᩍࡢᛮ᝿ࢆ⏝࠸࡚⚄࡜Ꮚࡢ㛵ಀࢆࡉࡽ࡟᥈✲ࡋࡓࠋࡇࡢ᥈✲ࡢ㐣⛬࡛᭱ᬌᖺࡢ⥘ᓥࡣίᅵᩍࡢ௚ຊࡢᛮ᝿ࢆ῝ࡃཷࡅධࢀࡓࡀࠊࡑࡢ⤖ᯝࠊ⥘ᓥࡀಶே᱁ࢆ⊂ຊ࡛Ꮡ❧ࡋάືࡍࡿ⪅࡜ࡋ࡚ᤊ࠼ࡿഴྥࡣᙅࡲࡗࡓࠋ⥘ᓥࡣࠊึᮇࡢ
೔⌮ᛮ᝿࡟࠾࠸࡚ࡶࠊࠕぢ⚄ࡢᐇ㦂ࠖ௨๓ࡸ௨ᚋࡢ᐀ᩍᛮ᝿࡟࠾࠸࡚ࡶࠊ⤯ᑐⓗ⌮᝿ࡸ⚄ࡢࡶ࡜࡛↹᝖ࡋ೺㜚ࡍࡿಶே᱁ࡀ⤯ᑐⓗ࡞ࡶࡢ࡟⼥ゎࡏࡎ࡟Ꮡ❧ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࢆ㔜どࡋ࡚࠾ࡾࠊࡇࡢⅬࢆᮎᮌᩥ⨾ኈࡣྠ᫬௦ࡢ᐀ᩍᛮ᝿ᐙ࡜ẚ㍑ࡋ࡚㧗ࡃホ౯ࡍࡿ 1ࠋࡋ࠿ࡋࠊ
᭱ᬌᖺࡢ⥘ᓥࡣࠊಶே᱁ࡢᏑ❧ࢆ᏶඲࡟ྰᐃࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡣ࡞࠸ࡶࡢࡢࠊ⊂ຊ࡛ಟ㣴ࡋ࡚ಙ௮ࢆ῝ࡵࡿಶே᱁ࢆ⪃࠼࡚࠸࡞࠸ࠋಶࠎேࡢಟ㣴ࡣ⚄࡬ࡢឤᛂ࡟ᇶ࡙࠸࡚⮬ࡎ࠿ࡽ⏕ࡌ࡚ࡃࡿࡼ࠺࡞ࠕἐಟ㣴ࡢಟ㣴ࠖࡔ࡜ᤊ࠼ࡽࢀࠊࡇࡢࡼ࠺࡞ಟ㣴ࢆྍ⬟࡟ࡍࡿࡢࡣࠊ⮬ຊ࡜௚ຊ࡜ࡀ⼥఍ࡋࡓࠕ⼥఍ຊࠖࡔ࡜ࡉࢀࡿࠋࡇࡢࠕ⼥఍ຊࠖࡀ࡝ࡢࡼ࠺࡞ࡶࡢ࡞ࡢ࠿ࢆ
᭱ᬌᖺࡢ⥘ᓥࡣ᫂☜࡟ࡋࡁࢀ࡞࠿ࡗࡓࡀࠊᑡ࡞ࡃ࡜ࡶ᭱ᬌᖺࡢ⥘ᓥࡣࠊಶே᱁ࡢಙ௮ࡸ
ᐇ㊶ࡢ※Ἠࡣ⚄࡬ࡢឤᛂ࡟Ꮡࡋ࡚࠾ࡾࠊಙ௮ࡸᛮ᝿ࢆ῝ࡵࡿ⮬ຊⓗ࡞ດຊࢆྰᐃⓗ࡟ᤊ࠼ࡘࡘࡶࠊྠ᫬࡟⤯ᑐⓗ࡞ࡶࡢ࡟⼥఍ࡋ࡞࠸ಶே᱁ࢆ⥔ᣢࡋࡼ࠺࡜ດࡵ࡚࠸ࡓ࡜ᛮࢃࢀࡿ 2ࠋࡋ࠿ࡶࠊ⥘ᓥ⮬㌟ࡣ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍⓗ࡞௙᪉࡛⚄࡟♳ࡾࠊᛕ௖ࢆ⛠࠼ࡿࡇ࡜࡛ࠊ⚄࡬ࡢឤᛂࡸࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖࢆࡉࡽ࡟῝ࡵࡼ࠺࡜ࡋ࡚࠸ࡓࠋ⥘ᓥ࡟ࡣ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍࡸίᅵᩍ࡬ࡢᖐ
ᒓព㆑ࡣ࡞࠿ࡗࡓࡀࠊࡓ࡜࠼ࡤ⥘ᓥࡣ㐨཭୰᱒☜ኴ㑻ᐄࡢ᭩⡆㸦1907 ᖺ 3 ᭶ 22 ᪥௜㸧࡟࠾ࡅࡿࠕ┗༑᪉↓☀ගዴ᮶ ࡜ࡣ࠶ࡾࡀࡓࡁ㈗ࡁゝⴥ࡟ࡶೃ࠿࡞ ཱྀ࡟⛠࡬ೃ࡚ࡔ࡟
ఱ࡜࡞ࡃග᫂ᾏ୰࡟ᦤྲྀࡉࡿ࢏ᛮࡦ࠸ࡓࡋೃஓࠖ
㸦9:523㸧3࡜࠸࠺グ㏙ࢆࡳࡿ㝈ࡾࠊ⥘ᓥࡣίᅵᩍⓗ࡞ᩆ῭࡟୚ࡗ࡚࠸ࡿࡼ࠺࡟ࡶࡳ࠼ࡿࠋ
௨ୖࡢࡼ࠺࡟ࠊ⥘ᓥࡣࠊಙ௮ࡸ᐀ᩍⓗ࡞ᛮ᝿ࡀ᐀ᩍ࣭᐀ὴ࡟ᅃࢃࢀ࡞࠸⚄࡬ࡢឤᛂࡸ
᐀ᩍయ㦂ࢆᇶ┙࡟⏕ࡌ࡚ࡃࡿࡶࡢࡔ࡜ᤊ࠼ࡘࡘࡶࠊᐇ㝿࡟ࡣࡑࢀࡽࢆ」ᩘ᐀ᩍࡢఏ⤫࡟๎ࡗ࡚ゝㄝ໬ࡋࠊᐇ㊶ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࠋ࡛ࡣࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࡢලయⓗ࡞ᥥฟࡔࡅ࡛࡞ࡃࠊ
᐀ᩍయ㦂ࢆ࣮࣋ࢫ࡟⏕ࡳฟࡉࢀࡓࡉࡲࡊࡲ࡞ᛮ᝿ࡢ⾲⌧඲యࢆࠕ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝࠖ࡜⪃࠼ࡓ࡜ࡁࠊ⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝࢆ࡝ࡢࡼ࠺࡞ᯟ⤌ࡳ࡛ศᯒࡍࢀࡤࠊ」ᩘࡢ᐀ᩍ࡟㛵ࢃࡿ⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍⓗែᗘࢆ᫂☜࡟࡛ࡁࡿࡔࢁ࠺࠿ࠋᮏ✏࡛ࡣ௨ୗࡢ 4 ࡘࡢᴫᛕࢆ⏝࠸᳨࡚ウࡍࡿࠋ➨୍࡟ࠊࢪ࣭ࣙࣥࣄࢵࢡࡢ⪃࠼ࡿ᐀ᩍከඖ୺⩏࡛࠶ࡿࠋ⚄ࡸࢲ࣐ࣝ࡞࡝ࡢㅖ᐀ᩍࡢ㉸㉺ⓗ࡞ࡶࡢࡣ၏୍࡛୙ྍ▱ࡢࠑᐇᅾࠒࡢṔྐⓗ࡞⌧ࢀࡔ࡜ᤊ࠼ࠊࡇࡢࠑᐇᅾࠒࢆㅖ᐀ᩍ
ࡀ᐀ᩍ㛫ᑐヰࢆ㏻ࡋ࡚࡜ࡶ࡟᥈✲ࡋ࡚࠸ࡃ࡭ࡁࡔ࡜⪃࠼ࡿࣄࢵࢡࡢᛮ᝿ࡣࠊ⥘ᓥࡢⓎ᝿
࡜㏆࠸ࠋࡘࡲࡾࠊ⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝࡣࠊίᅵᩍࡸ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍࡢᛮ᝿ࡸᐇ㊶ࢆ㏻ࡋ࡚ࠊ
1ᮎᮌᩥ⨾ኈ䛄᫂἞ᛮ᝿ᐙㄽ䠄㏆௦᪥ᮏ䛾ᛮ᝿䞉෌⪃პ䠅䛅䝖䝷䞁䝇䝡䝳䞊䚸2004 ᖺ䚸203 㡫䚹௨ୖ䛾ෆᐜ䛻䛴䛔䛶䛿䚸௨ୗ䛾ᣋ✏䛷䜒ㄽ䛨䛶䛔䜛䚹䛂⥘ᓥᱱᕝ䛾᐀ᩍయ㦂䛸᐀ᩍဴᏛ䛃᐀ᩍဴᏛ఍⦅䛄᐀ᩍဴᏛ◊✲䛅➨ 38 ྕ䚸2021 ᖺ 3 ᭶ห⾜ணᐃ䚹3⥘ᓥᱱᕝ䛾グ㏙䛻䛴䛔䛶䛿䚸」้∧䛾䛄ᱱᕝ඲㞟䛅඲ 10 ᕳ䚸ูᕳ 2 ᕳ䠄኱✵♫䚸1995 ᖺ䠅䛛䜙ᘬ⏝䛧䚸䠄ᕳᩘ䠖㡫ᩘ䠅䛾ᙧᘧ䛷ᩥ୰䛻ᘬ⏝⟠ᡤ䜢♧䛩䚹ᪧᏐయ䛿᪂Ꮠయ䛻ᨵ䜑䚸୍㒊䛾⾲グ䜢ኚ᭦䛧䛯䚹ᙉㄪ䛿䛩䜉䛶⥘ᓥ䛻䜘䜛䚹
278

Tadayoshi FURUSO

The Discourse of Religious Experience as Testimony‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬ࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖ࡜࠸࠺ᙧ࡛ࠑᐇᅾࠒ࡟᥋㏆ࡋࡼ࠺࡜ࡍࡿᑐヰⓗ࡞᥈✲࡜ࡋ࡚ᤊ࠼ࡽࢀ࡞
࠸ࡔࢁ࠺࠿ࠋ
➨஧࡟ࠊ࢝ࢺ࣮ࣜࢾ࣭ࢥࣝࢽ࣮ࣝࡢࠕ」ྜ᐀ᩍᖐᒓ࡛ࠖ࠶ࡿࠋࢥࣝࢽ࣮ࣝࡣ」ᩘࡢ᐀
ᩍ࡟㛵ࢃࡾࢆࡶࡘேࡢ࢔࢖ࢹࣥࢸ࢕ࢸ࢕ࢆ᐀ᩍ࡬ࡢࠕᖐᒓࠖࡢほⅬ࠿ࡽᤊ࠼ࠊ5 ࡘ࡟ศ㢮ࡉࢀࡓࠕ」ྜ᐀ᩍᖐᒓࠖࡢᴫᛕࢆᥦ♧ࡍࡿࠋࡑࡢ 4 ࡘ┠ࡢ㢮ᆺࡀࠕᖐᒓ࡞ࡋ࡟ಙࡌࡿࠖ
࡛࠶ࡿࠋࡇࡢ㢮ᆺࡣࠊ⮬ࡽࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂࡞࡝࡟ᇶ࡙࠸࡚ㅖ᐀ᩍࡢᛮ᝿ࡸᐇ㊶ࢆ⢭㑅ࡍࡿࡓࡵࠊ≉ᐃࡢ᐀ᩍ࡬ࡢᖐᒓព㆑ࢆࡶࡓ࡞࠸ࠊ࡜ࡉࢀࡿࠋࡇࡢ㢮ᆺࡣ⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍⓗែᗘ࡟㐺ྜࡍࡿࡼ࠺࡟ᛮ࠼ࡿࠋ
ࡋ࠿ࡋࠊࡇࡢ 2 ࡘࡢᴫᛕ࡛⥘ᓥࢆ⌮ゎࡍࡿ࡜ࠊᑐヰⓗ࡟┿⌮ࢆ᥈✲ࡋ࡚ࠊᛮ᝿ࡸᐇ㊶ࢆ㑅ᢥࡍࡿ⬟ືⓗ୺యࢆ⥘ᓥࡢ࠺ࡕ࡟ㄆࡵࡿࡇ࡜࡟࡞ࡿࡀࠊࡑ࠺ࡍࡿ࡜⥘ᓥࡢᛮ᝿ᙧᡂ
ࢆ㥑ືࡍࡿ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡢ᰿ᮏⓗ࡞ཷືᛶࡀᤊ࠼ࡁࢀ࡞࠸ࡼ࠺࡟ᛮࢃࢀࡿࠋ
ࡑࡇ࡛ࠊ➨୕࡟☾๓㡰୍ࡢ᐀ᩍⓗ୺య໬ㄽࢆྲྀࡾୖࡆࡿࠋ☾๓ࡢ᐀ᩍⓗ୺య໬ㄽ࡛ࡣࠊ
ᚋᮇࣇ࣮ࢥ࣮ࡢ୺య໬ㄽࢆ࣮࣋ࢫ࡟ࠊࢪࣕࢵࢡ࣭ࣛ࢝ࣥࡢᛮ᝿࠿ࡽ⊂⮬࡟ᢳฟࡉࢀࡓࠕ኱
ᩥᏐ㸭ᑠᩥᏐࡢ௚⪅ࠖ࡜࠸࠺ᴫᛕࢆ⧊ࡾ஺ࡐ࡚ᒎ㛤ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࠋࡘࡲࡾࠊ᐀ᩍⓗ࡞୺యᙧᡂࡀࠊㅦࡵ࠸ࡓ௚⪅࡜ࡋ࡚ࡢ㉸㉺⪅ࡢࡲ࡞ࡊࡋ࡟ࡉࡽࡉࢀࡿ࡜࠸࠺ཷືᛶ࡟࠾࠸࡚⏕㉳ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࠊࡑࡋ࡚ࠊ㉸㉺⪅ࡢࠕᑠᩥᏐࡢ௚⪅ࠖ࡜ࡋ࡚ࡢഃ㠃ࡀࠊ㉸㉺⪅࡬ࡢ⮬ᕫࡢྠ୍໬࡜࠸࠺ᙧ௨እࡢ୺యᙧᡂࢆྍ⬟࡟ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡀㄽࡌࡽࢀࡿࠋࡇࡢࡼ࠺࡞⌮ㄽࡣࠊࠕぢ⚄ࡢᐇ㦂ࠖࢆ⿕ࡗࡓ⥘ᓥࡀࠊ୍᫬ࡣ⚄ேྜ୍ⓗ࡟⚄࡜ே㛫ࡢ㛵ಀࢆᤊ࠼ࡓࡀࠊᚋ࡟ࡑࡢ
⌮ゎ࠿ࡽ㞳ࢀ࡚ࠊ⚄࡬ࡢឤᛂࡢ࠺ࡕ࡛⚄࡜࡜ࡶ࡟ാࡃಶே᱁ࢆ⥔ᣢࡍࡿᛮ᝿࡟❧ࡕᡠࢁ࠺࡜ࡍࡿ⥘ᓥࡢゝㄝࡢᒎ㛤ࢆㄝ᫂ࡋ࠺ࡿࡼ࠺࡟ࡶࡳ࠼ࡿࠋ
ࡋ࠿ࡋࠊ㔠ගᩍࡸ኱ᮏࡢ㔠⚄ಙ௮ࢆ୺࡟ᢅ࠺☾๓ࡢ㆟ㄽࡣࠊ୍✀ࡢ▱㆑ே᐀ᩍ 4࡜ࡋ࡚ᤊ࠼࠺ࡿ⥘ᓥࡢゝㄝࡢᒎ㛤ࢆㄝ᫂ࡋࡁࢀ࡞࠸࡜ࡇࢁࡀ࠶ࡿࠋ➃ⓗ࡟ゝ࠼ࡤࠊ⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝࢆ⏕ࡳฟࡍ※Ἠ࡜ࡋ࡚ࡢཷືⓗ࡞᐀ᩍయ㦂࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ᤊ࠼࠺ࡿࡶࡢ࡛࠶ࡿ࡜
ࡋ࡚ࡶࠊ⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝࡀࡁࢃࡵ࡚✚ᴟⓗ࡟⏕ࡳฟࡉࢀࠊࡋ࠿ࡶ⏕ࡳฟࡉࢀ࡞ࡀࡽ
ᚎࠎ࡟ෆᐜࢆኚ໬ࡉࡏ࡚࠸ࡗࡓࡇ࡜ࡢせᅉࢆ༑ศ࡟ㄝ࡛᫂ࡁ࡞࠸ࡼ࠺࡟ᛮࢃࢀࡿࠋ
ࡔ࠿ࡽࡇࡑࠊ୺య໬࡛ࡣ࡞ࡃࠊ⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝࡢศᯒ࡟❧ࡕ㏉ࡾࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝࡢ⏕ᡂࢆ㥑ືࡍࡿࡶࡢࡢ⑞㊧㸦࡜ࡣ࠸࠼ࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡸ⚄࡞࡝ࠊ⑞㊧ࢆṧࡋࡓᐇయⓗ࡞ࠕఱ࠿ࠖࡀ๓ᥦࡉࢀࡿࡢ࡛ࡣ࡞ࡃࠊ࠶ࡃࡲ࡛⑞㊧࡜ࡋ࡚ࡋ࠿⌧ࢀ࡞࠸ࡶࡢ㸧ࢆゝㄝࡢ࠺ࡕ࡟
ࡓ࡝ࡿࡇ࡜࡟ࡶព࿡ࡀ࠶ࡿࡔࢁ࠺ࠋᮏ✏࡛ࡣࠊࡇࡢ⑞㊧ࢆ࣏࣮࣭ࣝࣜࢡ࣮ࣝࡢࠕドゝࠖ࡟㛵ࡍࡿศᯒࢆ㏻ࡋ࡚ᤊ࠼࡚ࡳࡓ࠸ࠋࡍ࡞ࢃࡕࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂࠿ࡽᚓࡓࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖ࡜࠸࠺┿⌮ࡢࠕドゝࠖࢆ⾜࠺⥘ᓥࡣࠊ⮬ศࡀ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡢሙ࡟࠸ࡓࡇ࡜ࢆࠊࡍ࡞ࢃࡕ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡢࠕドே࡛ࠖ࠶ࡿࡇ࡜ࢆࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡢලయⓗ࡞ᥥ෗ࢆ㏻ࡋ࡚୺ᙇࡋࡓࠋࡑࡋ࡚ࠊయ㦂ࡸయ㦂ࢆ㏻ࡋ࡚ᚓࡽࢀࡓ┿⌮ࡣࠊࡑࡢ┿ഇ㸦య㦂ゝㄝࡀయ㦂࡟┿࡟୍⮴ࡍࡿࡢ࠿࡜࠸ࡗࡓ

4▱㆑ே᐀ᩍ䛸䛔䛖ᴫᛕ䛻䛴䛔䛶䛿䚸῝⃝ⱥ㝯䛄ၨⵚ䛸㟋ᛶ䇷䇷㏆௦᐀ᩍゝㄝ䛾⏕ᡂ䛸ኚᐜ䛅ᒾἼ᭩ᗑ䚸2006 ᖺ䜢ཧ↷䛾䛣䛸䚹79‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4࠶ࡿ✀࣓ࢱⓗ࡞␲ᛕࡶྵࡵ࡚㸧ࡀၥࢃࢀࡿᡭ๓࡛ࠊドゝࢆ⪺ࡃ⪅ࡢಙࢆ࿧ࡧồࡵࡿࠋࡇࡢࡼ࠺࡟ࠊ᭱ᬌᖺࡢ⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍⓗែᗘࡣࠊゝㄒ໬ࡶྜ⌮ⓗ࡞⌮ゎࡶ㞴ࡋ࠸᐀ᩍయ㦂࡟ཷືⓗ࡟ᑕ㈏࠿ࢀ࡚࠸ࡿ࠿ࡽࡇࡑࠊ⮬ࡽࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡢドゝ࡟ᑐࡍࡿ௚⪅ࡢಙ࡟⮬ࡽࢆጤࡡΏࡋ࡚ࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝࢆᒎ㛤ࡏࡊࡿࢆ࠼࡞࠸ࠕドேࠖ࡜ࡋ࡚ᤊ࠼ࡽࢀࡿࡼ࠺࡟ᛮࢃࢀࡿࠋ

1. ࣄࢵࢡࡢ᐀ᩍከඖ୺⩏᐀ᩍከඖ୺⩏ 5ࡣ௚ࡢ᐀ᩍࢆ⌮ゎࡍࡿ௙᪉ࡢ㢮ᆺ࡜ࡋ࡚ࠊ᤼௚୺⩏㸦exclusivism㸸⮬ࡽࡀಙ௮ࡍࡿ᐀ᩍయ⣔ࢆ⤯ᑐどࡋࠊ௚ࡢ᐀ᩍయ⣔ࢆㄆࡵ࡞࠸㸧ࡸໟᣓ୺⩏㸦inclusivism㸸⮬ࡽࡢ᐀ᩍࡢ┿⌮ࢆ⤯ᑐⓗ࡞ࡶࡢ࡜ࡳ࡞ࡋࡘࡘࠊ௚ࡢ᐀ᩍࡢࡶࡘ┿⌮ࡶ⮬ࡽࡢ᐀ᩍࡢ┿⌮ࡢ⌧ࢀ࡜ࡋ࡚ㄆࡵࡿ㸧࡜ࡋࡤࡋࡤ୪⨨ࡉࢀࡿ 6ࠋࣄࢵࢡࡣࠊ┿ᦸ࡟᐀ᩍⓗ࡞┿⌮᥈✲ࡸᐇ㊶ࢆ⾜ࡗ࡚࠸ࡿ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍ௨እࡢಙ⪅ࡓࡕ࡜஺ὶࡍࡿ࡞࠿࡛ࠊࠕ೧኱࡞ୡ⏺᐀ᩍࠖࡀࡑࢀࡒࢀ┿⌮ࢆࡶࡘࡇ࡜ࢆㄆࡵࡿࡼ࠺࡟࡞ࡿࠋ
ࡑࡋ࡚ࠊ⤯ᑐⓗ࡞┿⌮ࡀ」ᩘ୪Ꮡࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࢆ⌮ㄽⓗ࡟⾲⌧ࡍࡿࡓࡵࡢࠕ௬ㄝࠖ࡜ࡋ࡚ከ
ඖ୺⩏ࢆᥦ♧ࡍࡿࠋࡍ࡞ࢃࡕ⚄ࡸ࢔ࢵ࣮ࣛࠊࢲ࣐ࣝ࡞࡝ࡢ㉸㉺ⓗ࡞ࡶࡢࡣ၏୍࡛୙ྍ▱ࡢࠑᐇᅾࠒ
㸦Real㸧ࡢṔྐⓗ࡞⌧ࢀ࡛࠶ࡾࠊ
ࠕ೧኱࡞ୡ⏺᐀ᩍࠖࡢಙ௮ࡣࡇࡢࠑᐇᅾࠒ࡬
ࡢே㛫ࡢᛂ⟅࡛࠶ࡿ࡜⪃࠼ࡿࠋࡑࡋ࡚ࠊࡇࡢே㛫ࡢᛂ⟅࡟࠾࠸࡚ࠕ⏕᮶ࡢ⮬ᡃ୰ᚰ࠿ࡽࠊ
⚄ⓗ࡞ࡶࡢ࣭✲ᴟ⪅࣭ࠑᐇᅾࠒ୰ᚰ࡬࡜⛣⾜ࡍࡿࠊே㛫Ꮡᅾࡢ⌧ᐇⓗ࡞ኚ㠉ࠖ7࡜ࡋ࡚ࡢᩆ῭ࡀ⏕ࡌࡿ࡜ᤊ࠼ࡿࠋ
ࡶࡕࢁࢇࠊࡇࡢࡼ࠺࡞ࠑᐇᅾࠒࡢᏑᅾࡶࠊㅖ᐀ᩍࡢ㉸㉺ⓗ࡞ࡶࡢࡀࠑᐇᅾࠒࡢṔྐⓗ㢧⌧࡛࠶ࡿࡇ࡜ࡶㄽド࡛ࡁ࡞࠸ࠋࡲࡓࠊ᐀ᩍከඖ୺⩏ࡣṔྐⓗ࡟ᙧᡂࡉࢀ࡚ࡁࡓㅖ᐀ᩍ
ࡢᅛ᭷ᛶࢆ┦ᑐ໬ࡍࡿࡶࡢ࡛࠶ࡾࠊㅖ᐀ᩍࢆࠑᐇᅾࠒ࡟㑏ඖࡍࡿ⪃࠼᪉ࡔ࡜ᢈุࡉࢀࡿ
ࡇ࡜ࡶ࠶ࡿࠋࡋ࠿ࡋࣄࢵࢡࡣࠑᐇᅾࠒࢆࠕ௬ㄝࠖ࡜ࡋ࡚ᥦ♧ࡍࡿࡢ࡛࠶ࡾࠊࡑࡢ⌮⏤ࡣࠊ᐀ᩍ㛫ࡢᑐヰࢆྍ⬟࡟ࡍࡿሙࢆ๰タࡍࡿࡓࡵ࡛࠶ࡿࠋ⤯ᑐⓗ࡞┿⌮ࢆ᭷ࡍࡿ࡜୺ᙇࡍࡿ
᐀ᩍࡀ⮬ࡽࡢ᐀ᩍ௨እ࡟ࡶ」ᩘᏑ❧ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࢆㄆࡵࡊࡿࢆᚓ࡞࠸᐀ᩍከඖⓗ≧ἣ࡟࠾࠸࡚ࠊ⮬ࡽࡢ᐀ᩍࡢ⤯ᑐᛶࢆ┦ᑐ໬ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡶࠊ௚ࡢ᐀ᩍࢆ⮬ࡽࡢ᐀ᩍ࡟㑏ඖࡍࡿࡇ࡜
ࡶ࡞ࡃࠊ௚ࡢ᐀ᩍࡀ⤯ᑐⓗ࡞┿⌮ࢆ᭷ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࢆ⌮ゎࡋࡓୖ࡛ㅖ᐀ᩍ࡜ࡢᑐヰࢆᐇ⌧ࡍࡿࡓࡵ࡟ࠊ✲ᴟⓗ࡞୍ඖᛶ࡜ࡋ࡚ࡢࠑᐇᅾࠒࢆࠕ௬ㄝࠖࡍࡿࡢ࡛࠶ࡿࠋࡇࡢ࡜ࡁࠊ᐀ᩍ
㛫ᑐヰࡢႠࡳࡣࠊㅖ᐀ᩍࡢ᐀ᩍ⪅ࡓࡕࡀ୍࡞ࡿࠑᐇᅾࠒࢆ᥈✲ࡍࡿヨࡳ࡜࡞ࡿࠋ
ࢪ࣭ࣙࣥࣄࢵࢡࡢ᐀ᩍከඖ୺⩏ࡣࠊ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍࡀᥦ♧ࡍࡿ⤯ᑐⓗ࡞┿⌮ࡸᩆ῭ࢆ௚ࡢ
5᐀ᩍከඖ୺⩏䛚䜘䜃ḟ⠇䛾」ྜ᐀ᩍᖐᒓ䛻䛴䛔䛶䛿௨ୗ䛾ᣋ✏䛷ㄽ䛨䛯䛣䛸䛜䛒䜛䚹䛂↓᐀ᩍ⪅䛻䜘䜛᐀ᩍ䛸䛾ᑐヰ䇷䇷᐀ᩍ䛾య㦂䛸」ྜ᐀ᩍᖐᒓ䛾どⅬ䛛䜙䇷䇷䛃୰ᮧ༤Ṋ䞉ྂⲮ໷⩏䞉ᮏከ┿䞉ᒸᓮ⚽㯢䛄᐀ᩍ䜢㛤䛟䇷䇷᐀ᩍከඖ୺⩏䜢㉺䛘䛶䇷䇷䛅⪷බ఍ฟ∧䚸2015 ᖺ䚸3䡚74 㡫䚹
6䛯䛸䛘䜀䚸௨ୗ䜢ཧ↷䛾䛣䛸䚹℈⏣㝧䛂᐀ᩍከඖㄽ䛃ᫍ㔝ⱥ⣖䞉ụୖⰋṇ䞉Ềከ㞞Ꮚ䞉ᓥⷵ㐍䞉㭯ᒸ㈡㞝⦅䛄᐀ᩍᏛ஦඾䛅୸ၿ䚸2010 ᖺ䚸573 㡫䚹
7John Hick, The Rainbow of Faiths: Critical Dialogues on Religious Pluralism, London, SCM Press,
1995, p. 18. 䠄㛫℩ၨඔヂ䛄᐀ᩍ䛜䛴䛟䜛⹿䇷䇷᐀ᩍከඖ୺⩏䛸⌧௦䛅ᒾἼ᭩ᗑ䚸1997 ᖺ䚸32 㡫䠅

80     Tadayoshi FURUSO

The Discourse of Religious Experience as Testimony‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬᐀ᩍࡢ┿ᦸ࡞ಙ௮⪅࡟ࡶ㐺⏝ࡍࡿ࡜࠸࠺ព࿡࡛ࡢໟᣓ୺⩏ⓗ࡞᐀ᩍほࢆඞ᭹ࡋࡼ࠺࡜
ࡍࡿࠋㅖ᐀ᩍࡀ⊂⮬࡟⤯ᑐⓗ࡞┿⌮ࢆಖᣢࡋ࡚࠸ࡿ࡜ㄆࡵࡘࡘࠊ⮬ศࡢ᐀ᩍࡢ┿⌮ࡢ⤯ᑐᛶࢆಖᣢࡋࡘࡘࡶ཯┬ࡢ┠ࢆྥࡅࠊ௚ࡢ᐀ᩍ࡜ࡢᑐヰࡢ୰࡛⮬ศࡢ᐀ᩍࡢ┿⌮ࢆࡉࡽ࡟᥈✲ࡋ࡚࠸ࡃࡇ࡜ࢆྍ⬟࡟ࡍࡿࠋࡋ࠿ࡋࠊࡇࡢ᐀ᩍ㛫ࡢᑐヰ࡜࠸࠺Ⓨ᝿ࡢ⿬࡟ࡣࠊ᐀
ᩍࡢᬑ㐢ᛶ࡜࠸࠺すὒ㏆௦࡟⏤᮶ࡍࡿⓎ᝿ࡀ₯ࢇ࡛࠸ࡿࠋࡘࡲࡾࠊㅖ᐀ᩍࢆࠑᐇᅾࠒ࡞
ࡿ௬ㄝࡢࡶ࡜࡟ᑐ➼࡟ᢅࡗ࡚ᑐヰࢆᐇ⌧ࡋࡼ࠺࡜࠸࠺Ⓨ᝿⮬యࡀすὒ㏆௦࡟➃ࢆⓎࡍࡿࡶࡢࡔ࡜ᢈุ࡛ࡁࡿࠋࡲࡓࠊࠕ೧኱࡞ୡ⏺᐀ᩍࠖࡢಙ௮ࢆ၏୍ࡢࠑᐇᅾࠒ࡬ࡢே㛫ࡢᛂ⟅࡜ࡋ࡚ᤊ࠼ࡿ⫼ᬒ࡟ࡣ୍⚄ᩍⓗ࡞๓ᥦࡀᏑࡋ࡚࠸ࡿ࡜ゝ࠸࠺ࡿࠋࡉ࡚ࠊ㏆௦᪥ᮏࡢ⥘ᓥࡢᛮ᝿ࡣࣄࢵࢡࡢከඖ୺⩏࡜㏆࠸࡜ࡇࢁࡀ࠶ࡿࠋ᭱ᬌᖺࡢ⥘ᓥࡶࠊ࡜ࡾࢃࡅ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍ࡜ίᅵᩍࢆࠊ᭱ࡶࡼࡃ⚄࡜ே㛫ࡢ㛵ಀᛶࢆ⾲⌧ࡍࡿࠕ⚄Ꮚᩍࠖ࡜ࡳ࡞ࡋࠊ2 ࡘࡢ᐀ᩍఏ⤫࡟᰿ࡊࡋࡓᛮ᝿࡜ࡢᑐヰࢆ㏻ࡋ࡚ࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖࢆ῝ࡃ᥈✲
ࡋ࡚࠸ࡃⅬࡣከඖ୺⩏ⓗ࡞᐀ᩍほ࡟ᇶ࡙࠸࡚࠸ࡿࡼ࠺࡟ࡶࡳ࠼ࡿࠋ
ࡋ࠿ࡋࠊ⥘ᓥࡢゝㄝࡣࣄࢵࢡࡢ⌮ㄽ࡜ࡣ␗࡞ࡿⅬࡀ࠶ࡿࠋࣄࢵࢡ࡟࠾࠸࡚ࡣㅖ᐀ᩍ࡜
ᑐヰࡋ࡞ࡀࡽ⮬ࡽࡢ᤼௚ⓗ࡞ಙ௮ࢆ཯┬ࡋࠊࠑᐇᅾࠒࡢ᥈✲࡟ཧ୚ࡋ࠺ࡿࠊ࠶ࡿ✀ྜ⌮ⓗ࡛⬟ືⓗ࡞୺యࡀ᝿ᐃࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࡀࠊ⥘ᓥ࡟࡜ࡗ࡚ே㛫ࡣࠊ⚄ࡢ࠺ࡕ࡛⚄࡟ឤᛂࡍࡿ
࡜࠸࠺࠶ࡿ✀ࡢཷືᛶࢆᇶ┙࡟ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࠋ᐀ᩍከඖ୺⩏࡜࠸࠺ᴫᛕ࡛ࡣࠊ⥘ᓥࡢゝㄝࡀ⚄࡟ឤᛂࡍࡿࡇ࡜࡟ࡼࡗ࡚㥑ືࡋ࡚࠸ࡿ࡜࠸࠺ཷືᛶࢆྲྀࡾ㏨ࡍ࠾ࡑࢀࡀ࠶ࡿࠋ
ࡉࡽ࡟ࣄࢵࢡ࡜Ỵᐃⓗ࡟␗࡞ࡿࡢࡣࠊ⥘ᓥ࡟࡜ࡗ࡚ࠑᐇᅾࠒࡣㅖ᐀ᩍ࡜ࡢᑐヰࢆ㏻ࡌࡓᛮ⣴ࢆྍ⬟࡟ࡍࡿࠕ௬ㄝࠖ࡞ࡢ࡛ࡣ࡞ࡃࠊࡲࡉ࡟య㦂ࡉࢀࡓࡶࡢࡔ࡜࠸࠺Ⅼ࡛࠶ࡿࠋ᭱ᬌᖺࡢ⥘ᓥ࡟࡜ࡗ࡚⚄ࡣ᐀ᩍయ㦂࡟࠾࠸࡚ࡲࡉ࡟ᐇᅾⓗ࡞ࡶࡢ࡜ࡋ࡚ឤᛂࡉࢀࡿࡶ
ࡢ࡛࠶ࡾࠊࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖࡇࡑࡀ⤯ᑐⓗ࡞┿⌮࡛࠶ࡗࡓࠋ⥘ᓥࡣࠊ2 ࡘࡢṔྐⓗ᐀ᩍ࡜ࡢᑐヰࢆ㏻ࡋ࡚௬ㄝⓗ࡞ࠑᐇᅾࠒࢆ㏣✲ࡍࡿࢃࡅ࡛ࡣ࡞ࡃࠊࡲࡎࡶࡗ࡚ᐇᅾⓗ࡞⚄ࢆయ㦂ࡋࠊࡇࡢ⚄ࡢᛮ᝿ⓗ⾲⌧࡜⚄࡟㏆᥋ࡍࡿᐇ㊶࡜ࢆྍ⬟࡟ࡍࡿṔྐⓗ᐀ᩍ࡜ࡋ࡚ 2 ࡘࡢ᐀ᩍࢆྲྀࡾୖࡆࡿࡢ࡛࠶ࡿࠋࡇࡢ⥘ᓥࡢႠࡳࡣࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖ࡟Ṕྐⓗ᐀ᩍࢆ㑏ඖࡉࡏࡿࡶࡢ࡛ࡶ࡞࠸ࠋ࡜࠸࠺ࡢࡶࠊᗎㄽ࡛㏙࡭ࡓࡼ࠺࡟ࠊ⥘ᓥࡣίᅵᩍࡸ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍࡢఏ⤫࡟ᇶ࡙࠸ࡓᛕ௖ࡸ♳ࡾࢆ㏻ࡋ࡚ࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖࢆ῝໬ࡉࡏ࡚࠸ࡿ࠿ࡽ࡛࠶ࡿࠋࡶࡕࢁࢇࠊ
୍᪉࡛⮬ࡽࡢࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖࡢᛮ᝿࡟㐺ྜࡍࡿ 2 ࡘࡢ᐀ᩍఏ⤫ࡀ㑅ࡤࢀࠊࡋ࠿ࡶ 2 ࡘࡢ᐀ᩍఏ⤫࠿ࡽ⮬ศࡢᛮ᝿࡟ྜ࠺㒊ศࡀ㑅ᢥⓗ࡟ᢳฟࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿ࡜ࡇࢁࡀ࠶ࡿ௨ୖࠊ2 ࡘࡢ᐀ᩍఏ⤫ࢆࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖ࡟㑏ඖࡍࡿഃ㠃ࡣ࠶ࡿࡢࡔࡀࠊ௚᪉࡛ 2 ࡘࡢ᐀ᩍఏ⤫ࡢᣢࡘᛮ᝿ࡸᐇ㊶ࢆᑛ㔜ࡋࠊ2 ࡘࡢ᐀ᩍఏ⤫ࢆ㏻ࡋ࡚⮬ࡽࡢᛮ᝿ࡸಙ௮ࢆኚ໬ࡉࡏ࡚࠸ࡿࠋ
⤯ᑐⓗࠊᬑ㐢ⓗ࡞┿⌮࡜ࡋ࡚ࡢࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖ࡜ࠊṔྐⓗ࡟ᙧᡂࡉࢀࡓㅖࠎࡢ᐀ᩍఏ⤫ࡀࠊ࡝ࡕࡽ࠿୍᪉࡟㑏ඖࡉࢀࡿࡇ࡜࡞ࡃࠊ┦஫ⓗ࡞㛵ಀࢆಖࡕ࡞ࡀࡽ୪❧ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࡢ࡛
࠶ࡿࠋ

81‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

2. 」ྜ᐀ᩍᖐᒓ
10 ௦࡛ᒸᒣ┴ࡢ㧗ᱱᩍ఍࡛Ὑ♩ࢆཷࡅࡓ⥘ᓥࡣࠊୖிࡋ࡚ᮾிᑓ㛛Ꮫᰯ࡛Ꮫࡪ࠺ࡕ
࡟ṇ⤫ⓗ࡞࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍࡢᩍ⩏ࡸ൤♩࡟␲ᛕࢆࡶࡘࡼ࠺࡟࡞ࡾࠊ௨᮶≉ᐃࡢᩍ఍࡬ࡢᖐᒓ
ព㆑ࢆࡶࡓ࡞ࡃ࡞ࡿࠋࡲࡓࠊ᭱ᬌᖺࡢ⥘ᓥࡶࠊ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍ࡜ίᅵ┿᐀ࡢᛮ᝿࡟ඹឤࡋࠊ
୧⪅ࡢᛮ᝿࡟๎ࡗࡓ♳ࡾࢆ⾜࠺ࡶࡢࡢࠊ≉ᐃࡢᩍὴ࡟ᖐᒓࡋ࡚࠸ࡿព㆑ࡣ࡞࠸ࠋࡑࡢࡼ
࠺࡞⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍⓗែᗘࢆࠕᖐᒓࠖࡢᴫᛕ࡛ᤊ࠼ࡿࡢࡣ୙㐺ษ࡛࠶ࡿࡼ࠺࡟ࡶᛮࢃࢀࡿࠋ
ࡋ࠿ࡋࠊ」ᩘࡢ᐀ᩍ࡟ఱࡽ࠿ࡢ㛵ࢃࡾࢆࡶࡘ⪅ࡢ᐀ᩍ࡬ࡢᖐᒓࢆ⪃࠼ࡿୖ࡛ࡣࠊ≉ᐃࡢᩍᅋ࡟ᖐᒓࡍࡿ࠿࡝࠺࠿࡜࠸࠺ព࿡࡛ࡢᖐᒓࡼࡾࡶᗈ࠸ព࿡࡛ࠊࡍ࡞ࢃࡕࠊࡑࡢேࡢ᐀
ᩍⓗ࢔࢖ࢹࣥࢸ࢕ࢸ࢕ࢆつᐃࡍࡿ᐀ᩍ࡜ࡢ㛵ࢃࡾ࡜࠸࠺ព࿡࡛ࠕᖐᒓࠖ࡜࠸࠺ㄒࢆᤊ࠼
ࡿࡇ࡜࡛ࠊ」ᩘ᐀ᩍ࡬ࡢ㛵ࢃࡾࡢከᵝᛶࢆᤊ࠼ࡿࡇ࡜ࡀ࡛ࡁࡿࡔࢁ࠺ࠋࡇࡢከᵝᛶࢆ࠶ࡽࢃ࡟ࡍࡿࡓࡵࡢᴫᛕ࡜ࡋ࡚࢝ࢺ࣮ࣜࢾ࣭ࢥࣝࢽ࣮ࣝࡽࡀࡶࡕࡔࡍࡢࡀࠕ」ྜ᐀ᩍᖐᒓࠖ
ࡢᴫᛕ࡛࠶ࡿࠋ
ࡲࡎࠊࢥࣝࢽ࣮ࣝࡢ」ྜ᐀ᩍᖐᒓࡢ㢮ᆺࢆ☜ㄆࡋࡓ࠸ࠋࢥࣝࢽ࣮ࣝࡣ」ᩘࡢ᐀ᩍ࡟┿ᦸ࡟㛵ࢃࡿேࠎࡢᏑᅾࢆཷࡅ࡚ࠊࡑࡢ㛵ࢃࡾ᪉ࢆ᐀ᩍ࡬ࡢከᵝ࡞ᖐᒓࡢၥ㢟࡜ᤊ࠼࡚ 5ࡘ࡟ศ㢮ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿ 8ࠋࢥࣝࢽ࣮ࣝࡣࠊಶࠎேࡀពᅗⓗ࡟㑅ᢥࡋࡓࡢ࡛ࡣ࡞࠸ᖐᒓ࡜ពᅗ
ⓗ࡞㑅ᢥ࡟ࡼࡿᖐᒓ࡟኱ࡁࡃศࡅࡓୖ࡛ࠊ๓⪅ࡢᖐᒓ࡜ࡋ࡚ḟࡢ஧ࡘࢆᣲࡆࡿࠋ➨୍࡟ࠊձ」ᩘࡢ᐀ᩍࡀ⤫ྜࡉࢀࡓᩥ໬ࢆཷືⓗ࡟ཷࡅධࢀࡿࡇ࡜࡛᐀ᩍⓗ࡞࢔࢖ࢹࣥࢸ࢕ࢸ
࢕ࡀᙧᡂࡉࢀࡿࠕᩥ໬ⓗᖐᒓ㸦cultural belonging㸧࡛ࠖ࠶ࡿࠋ᪥ᮏ࡟࠾࠸࡚ࠊ௖ᩍࡸ࢟ࣜ
ࢫࢺᩍࡀᩥ໬࡜ࡋ࡚ཷࡅධࢀࡽࢀ࡚ࠊⴿ൤ࡸ⤖፧ᘧ࡞࡝ࡢሙ࡟ᛂࡌ࡚᐀ᩍᛶࢆ࠶ࡲࡾព
㆑ࡏࡎ࡟൤♩ࡀᐇ⾜ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࡇ࡜ࡶࡇࡢᖐᒓࡢ౛࡛࠶ࡿࠋ➨஧࡟ࠊղ୧ぶࡀ㐪࠺᐀ᩍࢆಙ௮ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿ࡞࡝ࠊ」ᩘࡢ᐀ᩍࡀ⤫ྜࡉࢀࡎ࡟୪Ꮡࡋ࡚࠸ࡿ⎔ቃ࡟ᢞࡆ㎸ࡲࢀࡓ࡞࠿
࡛⮬ࡽࡢ᐀ᩍⓗ࢔࢖ࢹࣥࢸ࢕ࢸ࢕ࢆᵓ⠏ࡍࡿ࡜࠸࠺ࠕᐙ᪘ⓗᖐᒓ㸦family belonging㸧࡛ࠖ࠶ࡿࠋࡇࡢ 2 ࡘࡢᖐᒓࡣࠊ」ᩘࡢ᐀ᩍ࡟㛵ࢃࡿ≧ἣ࡟ᢞࡆ㎸ࡲࢀ࡚࠸ࡿ࡜࠸࠺ཷືᛶ࡟
࠾࠸࡚ඹ㏻ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࡀࠊ」ᩘࡢ᐀ᩍࡀᩥ໬࡜ࡋ࡚⤫ྜࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿ࠿ࠊ࠶ࡿ࠸ࡣ⤫ྜࡉࢀ࡞࠸ࡲࡲ୪Ꮡࡋ࡚࠸ࡿ࠿࡜࠸࠺Ⅼ࡛␗࡞ࡿࠋ
ࡲࡓࠊᚋ⪅ࡢᖐᒓ࡜ࡋ࡚ḟࡢ 3 ࡘࡀᣲࡆࡽࢀࡿࠋ➨୍࡟ࠊճࠕᚲせ࡟ᛂࡌ࡚ࡢᖐᒓ
㸦occasional belonging㸧࡛ࠖ࠶ࡿࠋཷࡅධࢀࡓㅖ᐀ᩍࡢෆᐜࡢ▩┪࡟ࡣ㡻╔ࡏࡎࠊ⌧ୡ฼┈ⓗ࡞ຠࡁ┠㸦efficacy㸧࡟ᇶ࡙࠸࡚ྛ᐀ᩍࡢㅖᐇ㊶ࢆ㑅ᢥⓗ࡟ྲྀࡾධࢀࡿࠋ➨஧࡟ࠊմࠕᖐᒓ࡞ࡋ࡟ಙࡌࡿ㸦believing without belonging㸧࡛ࠖ࠶ࡿࠋ⤯ᑐⓗ┿⌮ࢆ㢧࡟ࡍࡿ᐀ᩍ
ࡀ୪Ꮡࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࡼ࠺࡟ࡳ࠼ࡿ᐀ᩍከඖⓗ⌧ᐇ࡟᫹ࡉࢀࡿ࡜ࡁࠊಶࠎேࡣࠊ⮬ࡽࡢ᐀ᩍⓗ࡞⤒㦂ࡸయ㦂ࢆᇶ┙࡟ࡋ࡚ 9ࠊࠕࡉࡲࡊࡲ࡞᐀ᩍࡢᩍ࠼ࡸᐇ㊶ࡢ୰࠿ࡽ⢭㑅ࡍࡿࡇ࡜࡟
ࡼࡗ࡚⮬ศ⮬㌟ࡢ᐀ᩍⓗ࢔࢖ࢹࣥࢸ࢕ࢸ࢕ࢆᙧᡂࡍࡿࡼ࠺࡟࡞ࡿࠖ10ࠋࡇࡢ࡜ࡁࠊಶࠎ
8

Catherine Cornille, “Multiple Religious Belonging”, in D. Cheetham, D. Pratt, D. Thomas (ed.),Understanding Interreligious Relations, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013, pp. 324-340.
9䛂ᩍ⩏䛾せㄳ䜘䜚䜒䚸ಶே䛾⤒㦂䜔ุ᩿䛣䛭䛜䚸ಶ䚻䛾ᩍ䛘䜔ᐇ㊶䛾᭷ຠᛶ䜔┿⌮䛾ᇶ‽䜢ᙧᡂ䛧䛶䛔䜛䛃䠄Ibid., p. 327䠅䚹
10
Ibid., p. 326.

82     Tadayoshi FURUSO

The Discourse of Religious Experience as Testimony‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬ேࡣ⮬ࡽࡢయ㦂ࢆࡶ࡜࡟ㅖ᐀ᩍࡢせ⣲ࢆ⮬⏤࡟ྲྀᤞ㑅ᢥࡍࡿࡓࡵࠊࠕྲྀᤞ㑅ᢥⓗ࡞㸦eclectic㸧ᖐᒓ࡛ࠖ࠶ࡾࡘࡘࡶࠊ≉ᐃࡢ᐀ᩍ࡬ࡢᖐᒓព㆑ࢆࡶࡓ࡞࠸ࠕ」ྜ᐀ᩍ㠀ᖐᒓࠖࡔ࡜ᤊ࠼ࡽࢀࡿ 11ࠋ➨୕࡟ࠊյࠕ୍ࡘࡢ᐀ᩍ࡟ᖐᒓࡋࡘࡘࡶ࠺୍ࡘࡢ᐀ᩍ࡟ࡶඹ㬆ࡍࡿࠖ
㸦ibid.㸧ࠕ㠀ᑐ⛠ⓗᖐᒓ㸦asymmetrical belonging㸧࡛ࠖ࠶ࡿࠋ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍࡢ୍᐀ὴ࡟ᖐᒓ
ព㆑ࢆ᭷ࡍࡿேࡀ⚙ࡢᛮ᝿ࡸᐇ㊶ࢆᮏ㉁ⓗ࡞ࡶࡢ࡜ᤊ࠼࡚⮬ࡽࡢᛮ᝿ࡸᐇ㊶ࡢ࠺ࡕ࡟ྲྀࡾධࢀࡿ࡜࠸ࡗࡓ౛ࡀᣲࡆࡽࢀࡿࠋ
ࡇࡢ 5 ࡘࡢ㢮ᆺࡢ࡞࠿࡛ࡣࠊ⥘ᓥࡣմ࡟㐺ྜࡍࡿࡼ࠺࡟ࡳ࠼ࡿࠋ⥘ᓥࡣ⮬ࡽࡢ᐀ᩍయ
㦂࡟ᇶ࡙࠸࡚ࠊ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍࡸίᅵᩍࡢᛮ᝿ࢆά⏝ࡋ࡞ࡀࡽࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖࢆゝㄒ໬ࡋ࡚࠸ࡃࠋ୧᐀ᩍ࡜ࡢ㛵ࢃࡾࡣࠊ୧᐀ᩍ࡬ࡢᖐᒓព㆑ࢆࡶࡓ࡞࠸࡞ࡀࡽࡶࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂࡟ᇶ࡙࠸ࡓࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖࡢᛮ᝿࡟ࡘ࠸࡚࠺ࡲࡃ⾲⌧ࡋ࠺ࡿ୧᐀ᩍࡢᛮ᝿ࡢ୍㒊ࢆྲྀࡾୖࡆ࡚
࠸ࡿࡼ࠺࡟ࡶࡳ࠼ࠊྲྀᤞ㑅ᢥⓗ࡜ࡶᤊ࠼ࡽࢀࡿࡔࢁ࠺ࠋ
ඛ㏙ࡢ㏻ࡾࠊ」ྜ᐀ᩍᖐᒓࡣࠊ」ᩘࡢ᐀ᩍ࡬ࡢ㛵ࢃࡾ᪉ࡢከᵝ࡞࠶ࡾ᪉ࢆᤊ࠼ࡿࡢ࡟
᭷⏝࡞ᴫᛕ࡛࠶ࡿࠋࡋ࠿ࡋࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂࠿ࡽ⏕ࡌ࡚ࡃࡿ」ᩘ᐀ᩍ࡬ࡢ㛵ࢃࡾࢆศᯒࡍࡿ㝿࡟ࡣࠊ2 ࡘࡢⅬ࡛ࡇࡢᴫᛕࡣ㐺ࡉ࡞࠸࡜ᛮࢃࢀࡿࠋ
➨୍࡟ࠊմࡢ୺యࡣㅖ᐀ᩍࡢᛮ᝿ࡸᐇ㊶ࢆ⮬⏤࡟ྲྀᤞ㑅ᢥ࡛ࡁࡿ୺యࡔ࡜᝿ᐃࡍ࡭ࡁ
࡛࠶ࢁ࠺࠿ࠋࢥࣝࢽ࣮ࣝࡢ㢮ᆺ࡛ࡣࠊ⤯ᑐⓗ┿⌮ࢆ㢧࡟ࡍࡿ᐀ᩍࡀ୪Ꮡࡍࡿ᐀ᩍከඖⓗ≧ἣ࡟࠾࠸࡚ࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࢆᇶ┙࡟ㅖ᐀ᩍ࠿ࡽᩍ࠼ࡸᐇ㊶ࢆ⮬⏤࡟㑅ᢥࡍࡿ୺యࡀ๓ᥦࡉ
ࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࠋࡋ࠿ࡋࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡣࡑࡢࡼ࠺࡞⮬⏤࡟ྲྀᤞ㑅ᢥࡍࡿ୺యࢆ᰿ᰌ࠿ࡽᦂࡿࡀࡋࠊ
ఱࡽ࠿ࡢᚲ↛ᛶ࡛ࡶࡗ࡚࠶ࡿᩍ࠼ࡸᐇ㊶ࢆ㑅ᢥࡉࡏࡿࡶࡢ࡛ࡶ࠶ࡾ࠺ࡿࠋ⥘ᓥࡀࠕぢ⚄ࡢᐇ㦂ࠖࢆ⿕ࡗࡓᚋ࡟ࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂࠿ࡽᚓࡓᛮ᝿ࢆ࠸࠿࡟ㄒࡿ࠿ࢆᝎࡳ࡞ࡀࡽㄽ⪃ࢆⓎ⾲ࡋࠊࡉࡽ࡟ࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖࢆ⾲⌧ࡍࡿࠕ⚄Ꮚᩍࠖ࡜ࡋ࡚࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍࡔࡅ࡛࡞ࡃίᅵᩍࢆ῝ࡃཷᐜࡋ࡚࠸ࡃ࡞࠿࡛᐀ᩍⓗ࡞ᛮ᝿ࡸᐇ㊶ࢆࡉࡽ࡟ኚ໬ࡉࡏ࡚࠸ࡃ࡜࠸࠺㐣⛬ࢆࡳࡿ㝈ࡾ 12ࠊ⥘ᓥࡀ୺యⓗ࡟ㅖ᐀ᩍࢆྲྀᤞ㑅ᢥࡋ࡚࠸ࡿ࡜࠸࠺ࡼࡾࡶࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂࡟㥑ືࡉࢀ࡚ཷືⓗ࡟㑅ᢥ࡟ᑟ࠿ࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࡼ࠺࡟ࡳ࠼ࡿࠋ
ࡲࡓࠊ⥘ᓥࡣ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍࡸίᅵᩍࡢఏ⤫࡟ᇶ࡙࠸ࡓ▂᝿ࡸ♳ࡾࢆ⾜࠺ࡓࡵࠊㅖ᐀ᩍࢆ
⬟ືⓗ࡟㑅ᢥࡋ࡚ᐇ㊶ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࡼ࠺࡟ࡶࡳ࠼ࡿࡀࠊࡑࢀࡣ⚄࡟ឤᛂࡍࡿࡓࡵࡢ⬟ືⓗ࡞ಟ㣴࡛ࡣ࡞࠸ࠋ᭱ᬌᖺࡢ⥘ᓥ࡟࡜ࡗ࡚ಟ㣴࡜ࡣࠕἐಟ㣴ࡢಟ㣴࡛ࠖ࠶ࡾࠊࡑࢀࡣ⚄࡬ࡢឤᛂࡢ࠺ࡕ࡛⮬ࡎ࠿ࡽ⏕ࡌࡿࡼ࠺࡞⾜࠸ࡢࡇ࡜࡛࠶ࡿ 13ࠋࡲࡓࠊ᭱ᬌᖺࡢ⥘ᓥࡣ⮬ࡽࡢᛮ᝿ࢆࠕ⚄࡜೰࡟ᴦࡋࡳ⚄࡜೰࡟ാࡃࠖ࡜ᐃᘧ໬ࡍࡿࡀࠊࡇࡢࠕ⚄࡜೰࡟ാࡃࠖࡇ࡜ࡣࠊ
⥘ᓥࡢึᮇࡢ೔⌮ᛮ᝿࡛ㄽࡌࡽࢀ࡚࠸ࡓࡼ࠺࡞ࠊ⤯ᑐⓗ⌮᝿㸦⚄㸧ࡢ࠺ࡕ࡛┦ᑐⓗ⌮᝿ࢆᐇ⌧ࡍ࡭ࡃ⬟ືⓗ࡟೺㜚ࡍࡿࡇ࡜࡛ࡣ࡞ࡃࠊ⚄࡬ࡢឤᛂࡢ࠺ࡕ࡛⮬ࡎ࠿ࡽࠊ⮬↛ἲ∞
11

Ibid., p. 327.
䛣䛾㐣⛬䛻䛴䛔䛶䛿௨ୗ䛾ᣋ✏䛻䛶ㄽ䛨䛯䚹䛂᫂἞᐀ᩍ䞉೔⌮ᛮ᝿䛻䛚䛡䜛⥘ᓥᱱᕝ䛾䛂ಶே᱁䛃䛾ព⩏ࠖ᐀ᩍ೔⌮Ꮫ఍⦅䛄᐀ᩍ䛸೔⌮䛅17 ྕ䚸2017 ᖺ䚸44ࠥ58 㡫䚹13᭱ᬌᖺ䛾⥘ᓥ䛾䛂ἐಟ㣴䛾ಟ㣴䛃䜔䛂⚄䛸೰䛻ാ䛟䛃䛾௚ຊⓗ䛺ᤊ䛘᪉䛻䛴䛔䛶䛿䚸௨ୗ䛾ᣋ✏䛷⡆₩䛻ྲྀ䜚ୖ䛢䛯䛣䛸䛜䛒䜛䚹䛂䛄ᅇぴ㞟䛅䛾䛺䛛䛾す⏣ኳ㤶䠄䠐䠅䇷䇷䛄ᅇぴ㞟䛅䛸䛿ఱ䛛䛃୍⇠ᅬ䞉ᐉග♫⦅䛄ග䛅1171 ྕ䚸2018 ᖺ䚸14䡚21 㡫䚹
1283‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4࡟⏕ࡌ࡚ࡃࡿ⾜࠸࡜ࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࠋ᭱ᬌᖺࡢ⥘ᓥ࡟࠾࠸࡚ࠊಙ௮ࢆ㑅ᢥࡋ⾜Ⅽࡍࡿ୺యࡢ
⬟ືᛶࡣ࠿࡞ࡾపࡃぢ✚ࡶࡽࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࠋ
ࡋ࠿ࡋࠊ᭱ᬌᖺࡢ⥘ᓥࡣయ㦂࡛ᚓࡓ┿⌮ࢆࠕఏ㐨ࠖࡍࡿᚲせᛶ࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ఱᗘࡶゝཬࡋ࡚࠾ࡾࠊ✚ᴟⓗ࡟㐨཭ࡓࡕ࡜஺ὶࡋ࡚ࠊ⚄Ꮚᅋ࡜࠸࠺ಟ㣴㞟ᅋࢆᙧᡂࡋࠊࡇࡢ㞟ᅋࡢᶵ㛵ㄅ࡛ࡶ࠶ࡿࡼ࠺࡞㞧ㄅࢆห⾜ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࢆィ⏬ࡋࡓࡇ࡜ࡀ࠶ࡗࡓ㸦ᐇ⌧ࡣࡋ࡞࠿ࡗࡓ㸧ࡢࡔ࠿ࡽ 14ࠊ⥘ᓥ࡟ࡶᵝࠎ࡞᐀ᩍⓗ⫼ᬒࢆࡶࡘ㐨཭ࡓࡕ࡟ゐⓎࡉࢀ࡚ࠊ⬟ືⓗ࡟ಙ௮ࢆᙧᡂࡋᐇ㊶ࡍࡿ୺యࡀᙧᡂࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡓࡢ࡛ࡣ࡞࠸࠿ࠋࡋ࠿ࡋࠊ⥘ᓥࡢ⏕๓࡟ᐇ⌧ࡋࡓࡢࡣࠊ⥘ᓥࡢᛮ᝿࡟ඹឤࡍࡿ㐨཭ࡓࡕࡢ஺ὶࡢሙ࡛࠶ࡿࠕᱱᕝ఍ࠖࡸࠊ㐨཭ࡓࡕࡀ᐀ᩍⓗ࡞య㦂ࡸᡤឤ࡞࡝ࢆඹ᭷ࡋྜ࠺ᅇぴࣀ࣮ࢺࠗᅇぴ㞟࡛࠘࠶ࡗࡓ 15ࠋࡇࡢࡼ࠺࡞ඹྠᛶࡢ
࠺ࡕ࡛ࠊ⥘ᓥࡶᙼࡢ㐨཭ࡓࡕࡶࠊࡓࡋ࠿࡟ࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖࡀ㔜せ࡛࠶ࡿ࡜࠸࠺ᛮ᝿ࡣඹ
᭷ࡋ࡚࠸ࡓࡀࠊ
ࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖ࡟㛵ࡍࡿ⌮ゎࡢ௙᪉ࡣࡉࡲࡊࡲ࡛ࠊ
ࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖ࡟㛵ࡍࡿඹ㏻⌮ゎࡸࡇࡢ⮬ぬࢆᚓࡿ᪉ἲࢆ⬟ືⓗ࡟ᙧᡂࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡶ࡞࠿ࡗࡓࠋ⥘ᓥ࡟࡜ࡗ࡚ࠗᅇぴ㞟࠘ࡣࠊ㐨཭ࡓࡕࡀྛ⮬࡛ࠕἐಟ㣴ࡢಟ㣴ࠖࢆ⾜࠸ࠊࡑࡇ࠿ࡽᚓࡓయ㦂ࡸᡤឤࢆඹ᭷ࡍࡿሙ࡞ࡢ࡛࠶ࡗ࡚ࠊㅖ᐀ᩍࡢᛮ᝿ࡸᐇ㊶ࢆ㑅ᢥⓗ࡟ཷᐜࡋ࡚⮬ࡽࡢಙ௮ࢆᙧᡂࡋ
࡚࠸ࡃࡼ࠺࡞ሙ࡛ࡣ࡞࠸ࡢ࡛࠶ࡿࠋ
➨஧࡟ࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡢゝㄝ໬࡜࠸࠺ほⅬ࠿ࡽ」ྜ᐀ᩍᖐᒓࡢ㢮ᆺࢆࡳࡓ࡜ࡁࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡢゝㄝ໬࡟࡜ࡗ࡚ᖐᒓࡢၥ㢟ࡣ኱ࡋ࡚㔜せ࡛ࡣ࡞࠸ࡢ࡛ࡣ࡞࠸࠿ࠋ☜࠿࡟⥘ᓥࡣմࡢ㢮ᆺ࡟࠺ࡲࡃ࠶࡚ࡣࡲࡿࠋࡋ࠿ࡋࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂࡟ᇶ࡙࠸࡚ㅖ᐀ᩍࢆᦤྲྀࡍࡿ⪅ࡢ୰࡟ࡣࠊյ
ࡢࡼ࠺࡟ 1 ࡘࡢ᐀ᩍ࡬ࡢ㸦≉ᐃࡢ᐀ὴࡸᩍᅋ࡬ࡢᖐᒓ࡜࠸࠺⊃⩏ࡢ㸧ᖐᒓࢆ᭷ࡋ࡞ࡀࡽࠊ
ูࡢ᐀ᩍ࡟ࡶඹឤࡍࡿே≀ࡶከ࠸ࠋ⥘ᓥࡢ㐨཭ࡢ࡞࠿࡛࠸࠼ࡤࠊࡓ࡜࠼ࡤ㒆᫝〇⤬ᰴᘧ఍♫ࡢ♫ဨᩍ⫱࡟ᦠࢃࡗࡓᕝྜಙỈ㸦ᒣ᭶ࠊ1867ࠥ1962㸧ࡣࠊ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍⓗ࡞᐀ᩍయ㦂ࢆ⤒࡚࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍ࡬ࡢ⊃⩏ࡢᖐᒓࢆ᭷ࡍࡿࡼ࠺࡟࡞ࡗࡓࡀࠊ௖ᩍ࡞࡝࡟ࡶᏛࡧࡘࡘࠊࠕᮾすྂ௒ࡢಙ௮࡜㐨ᚨࢆ⥲ྜࡋࠊ♳⚏ࠊ▂᝿ࠊ⪷᭩ࡢ㟋ぬⓗ࣭㐨ᚨⓗ◊✲࡜ᐇ㊶㌠⾜ࢆ 4ࡘࡢᰕ࡜ࡍࡿಟ⾜࡟ບࢇࡔࠖ16ࠋࡲࡓࠊ୕ᾆಟ࿃㸦1875ࠥ1920ࠊᩍ⫱⪅ࠊࠗᅇぴ㞟࠘ᕳ஬
ᇳ➹᫬ࡢ 1908 ᖺ࡟࠾࠸࡚ࡣጲ㊰ᖌ⠊Ꮫᰯࡢᩍㅍ㸧ࡣࠗᅇぴ㞟࠘ࡢᕳ஬࡟࠾࠸࡚⮬ࡽࡢᅇᚰࡢయ㦂ࢆヲ⣽࡟グࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࠋ୕ᾆࡣ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍࡢὙ♩ࢆཷࡅ࡚࠸ࡓࡀ 17ࠊ⑓Ẽ⒪㣴
ࡢ࡞࠿࡛⚄௖ࢆయ㦂ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡀ࡛ࡁࡎⱞࡋࢇ࡛࠸ࡓࠋࡋ࠿ࡋࠊࠗᅇぴ㞟࠘ᕳ஬࡟࠾࠸࡚ࠊ
⚄ࡀࠕṚࡍࡿࡶ⊰࿃ࢆ㞳ࢀࡊࡿ⪅ࠖࡔ࡜࠸࠺⮬ぬࢆᚓ࡚ࠊࠕ୍ษࢆࡍ࡚࢏ ᇶ╩࡟ᑟ࠿ࢀ࡚ ⚄ࡢỌஂ⏕࿨࡟ཧࡍࡿࠖ18࡜グࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࠋࡇࡢయ㦂ࢆᚓࡓ୕ᾆࡣࠊ
ࠕ⚄ࡼࠖ࡜♳ࡿ14

䛣䜜䜙䛾Ⅼ䛻䛴䛔䛶䜒๓ὀ䛾ᣋ✏䜢ཧ↷䚹䛄ᅇぴ㞟䛅䛻䛴䛔䛶䛿௨ୗ䛾ᣋ✏䛷⡆₩䛻ㄽ䛨䛶䛔䜛䚹䛂䛄ᅇぴ㞟䛅䛾䛺䛛䛾す⏣ኳ㤶䠄䠍䠅䇷䇷ᇼ⡿ᗣኴ㑻䛸䛾㆟ㄽ䛛䜙䇷䇷䛃୍⇠ᅬ䞉ᐉග♫⦅䛄ග䛅1164 ྕ䚸2018 ᖺ䚸21䡚31 㡫䚹
16బ䚻ᮌ⿱Ꮚ䛂ᕝྜಙỈ䛃஭ୖ㡰Ꮥ⦅䛄㏆௦᪥ᮏ䛾᐀ᩍᐙ 101䛅᪂᭩㤋䚸2007 ᖺ䚸55 㡫䚹
17䛄ᅇぴ㞟䛅ᕳභ 12 㡫䛾ఫᡤẶྡ䜢グධ䛩䜛ḍ䛻ᡤᒓ䛾᐀ὴ䜢グධ䛩䜛ḍ䛜䛒䜚䚸䛂Ὑ♩䛿᫂἞ 34
ᖺ 10 ᭶䛻ᘺ⏕⏫ᱜ஭ᩍᖌ䜘䜚ཷ䛟䛃䛸䛒䜛䚹ᱜ஭ᩍᖌ䛸䛿䚸ᮾிᕷᮏ㒓༊ྥ䞄ୣᘺ⏕⏫䛾ྥ䞄ୣᩍ఍
15

䛒䛝䛾䜚

䛷∾ᖌ䜢ົ䜑䛶䛔䛯Ḉ஭᫛ᝓ䛸ᛮ䜟䜜䜛䚹
18
䛄ᅇぴ㞟䛅ᕳ஬䚸104 㡫䚹84     Tadayoshi FURUSO

The Discourse of Religious Experience as Testimony‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬ࡔࡅ࡛࡞ࡃࠕᛕషࢆࡶၐ࡬࡚ࢄࠖࡓ 19ࠋ୕ᾆࡢ⊃⩏ࡢ᐀ᩍⓗᖐᒓࡣ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍ࡛࠶ࡿࡀࠊ
᐀ᩍయ㦂ࢆ⤒࡚ࠊ⚄࡟♳ࡾࠊᛕ௖ࢆ⛠࠼ࡿ࡜࠸࠺⥘ᓥ࡜ఝࡓ᐀ᩍᐇ㊶ࢆႠࢇ࡛࠸ࡿࠋ
ࡇࡢࡼ࠺࡟ࠊ⥘ᓥࡢ㐨཭ࢆࡳࡿࡔࡅ࡛ࡶࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂࡟ᇶ࡙࠸࡚」ᩘࡢ᐀ᩍ࡜῝ࡃ㛵ࢃࡿே≀ࡣࠊ≉ᐃ᐀ᩍ࡬ࡢᖐᒓࡢ᭷↓࡟࠿࠿ࢃࡽࡎᏑᅾࡍࡿࠋࡑࡶࡑࡶࠊࢥࣝࢽ࣮ࣝࡢ」ྜ᐀ᩍᖐᒓࡢศ㢮࡟࠾࠸࡚ࡣࠊᖐᒓ࡜࠸࠺ㄒࡢព࿡ࡀከ⩏ⓗ࡛࠶ࡿࠋࡶࡕࢁࢇࠊ」ᩘࡢ
᐀ᩍ࡜㛵ࢃࡿከᵝ࡞࠶ࡾ᪉ࢆ⥲యⓗ࡟ᤊ࠼ࡿ࡜࠸࠺ពᅗ࠿ࡽࡍࢀࡤࠊࡇࡢከ⩏ⓗ࡞ㄒࡢ౑⏝ࡀຠᯝⓗ࡟ᶵ⬟ࡍࡿࡢࡔࡀࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂࡟ᇶ࡙࠸࡚」ᩘࡢ᐀ᩍ࡜㛵ࢃࡿேࡢ᐀ᩍⓗ࢔࢖ࢹࣥࢸ࢕ࢸ࢕ࢆᖐᒓ࡜࠸࠺ほⅬ࠿ࡽᤊ࠼ࡼ࠺࡜ࡍࡿ࡜ࡁࠊᖐᒓ࡜࠸࠺ㄒࡀ᭕᫕࡛࠶ࡿ
ࡇ࡜ࡣ㆟ㄽࢆᡂ❧ࡋࡀࡓࡃࡍࡿࠋࡑࡋ࡚⊃⩏ࡢᖐᒓ࡟㝈ᐃࡋ࡚⪃࠼ࡿ࡜ࠊࡇࡢࡼ࠺࡞ே
ࡢ࢔࢖ࢹࣥࢸ࢕ࢸ࢕ࢆᙧᡂࡍࡿࡶࡢ࡜ࡋ࡚㔜せ࡞ࡢࡣ⊃⩏ࡢᖐᒓࡢ᭷↓࡛ࡣ࡞ࡃࠊ᐀ᩍ
య㦂ࡑࡢࡶࡢ࡛࠶ࡿ࡜ᛮࢃࢀࡿࠋ

3. ᐀ᩍⓗ୺య໬ㄽࡇࢀࡲ࡛ࡳ࡚ࡁࡓࡼ࠺࡟ࠊ᐀ᩍከඖ୺⩏࡛࠶ࢀ」ྜ᐀ᩍᖐᒓ࡛࠶ࢀࠊㅖ᐀ᩍ࡜✚ᴟⓗ࡟ᑐヰࡋ࡚⮬ࡽࡢ᐀ᩍࢆ཯┬ⓗ࡟ᤊ࠼┤ࡋࡓࡾࠊㅖ᐀ᩍࢆ㑅ᢥⓗ࡟ᦤྲྀࡋࡓࡾࡍࡿࠊ࠶
ࡿ✀ࡢ༟㉺ࡋࡓ⬟ືᛶࢆ᭷ࡍࡿ୺యࢆ᝿ᐃࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡀࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࢆ⿕ࡿ࡜࠸࠺ཷືᛶࡢ
࠺ࡕ࡛」ᩘ᐀ᩍ࡟㛵ࢃࡿ୺యࡀ❧ࡕ⌧ࢀ࡚ࡃࡿࡇ࡜࡜㱈㱒ࢆ᮶ࡍࡼ࠺࡟ᛮࢃࢀࡿࠋࡑࢀ
࡛ࡣࠊఱࡽ࠿ࡢ≧ἣࡸ㉸㉺⪅ࠊ௚⪅࡜ࡢ㛵ࢃࡾࡢ࡞࠿࡛᐀ᩍయ㦂ࢆ⿕ࡿ࡜࠸࠺ཷືᛶࢆ
ྵࡳ㎸ࢇࡔ᐀ᩍⓗ୺యࡢᙧᡂࣉࣟࢭࢫࢆㄽࡌࡽࢀ࡞࠸ࡔࢁ࠺࠿ࠋ
ࡑࡢࡼ࠺࡞᐀ᩍⓗ୺య໬ㄽ࡜ࡋ࡚ࠊ㔠ගᩍࡸ኱ᮏ㸦࠾ࡼࡧࡑࢀࡽࢆㄽࡌࡿᓥⷵ㐍ࡸᏳ୸Ⰻኵ㸧ࢆㄽࡌࡿ☾๓㡰୍ 20ࡢࠊ୺య໬ㄽ࡜࠸࠺᪉ἲ࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࡢ㆟ㄽࢆ୰ᚰ࡟ྲྀࡾୖࡆ
ࡿࠋ☾๓ࡣࠊࠕᶒຊࡢ࠶ࡾ᪉ࡀࠕつᚊࠖ࠿ࡽࠕ⏕ᨻ἞ࠖ࡟㌿᥮ࠖࡋࡓࡇ࡜ࢆ㋃ࡲ࠼࡚ࠊ
ࠕ୺య໬㐣⛬ࡢศᯒࢆ㏻ࡌ࡚ࠊࡑࡢᢈุⓗ࡞෌ᵓ⠏ࢆ᥎ࡋ㐍ࡵࡿ᐀ᩍⓗ࡞୺య໬㐣⛬ࢆࡵࡄࡿ㆟ㄽࠖࡀᚲせࡔ࡜୺ᙇࡍࡿ㸦8㸧ࠋ☾๓ࡢゝ࠺୺యࡢ☜❧࡜ࡣࠕᑡ࡞ࡃ࡜ࡶࠊ↓ព㆑ࡢ㡿ᇦࢆྵࡵ࡚⮬ศ࡜࠸࠺༢఩ࢆ☜ᐃࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࠖ
㸦9㸧࡛࠶ࡾࠊ୺యࡢ☜❧ࡢ༢఩ࡣࠕಶே
࡜ࡣ㝈ࡽ࡞࠸ࠋᐙ᪘ࠊᮧⴠࠊᅜᐙࠊ࠶ࡿ࠸ࡣ⫋ሙࡸ᐀ᩍᩍᅋࠋ⚾ࡓࡕࡣఱ࠿ࡢ୍㒊࡛࠶ࡿࡇ࡜࡛⮬ᕫࢆ☜❧ࡍࡿࠖ
㸦10㸧ࠋ㞟ᅋࡸඹྠయ࡟࠾࠸࡚↓ព㆑ࡢ࠺ࡕ࡟ᙳ㡪ࡉࢀࡿࡼ࠺
࡞ࠊ୺యᙧᡂࡢཷືⓗ࡞ഃ㠃ࡶᤊ࠼ࡽࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࠋ
ࡉ࡚ࠊ☾๓࡟ࡼࢀࡤࠊ୺య࡜ࡣࠕㅦࡵ࠸ࡓ௚⪅ࡢ║ᕪࡋ࡜ࡢ୧⩏ⓗ࡞㛵ಀࡢࡶ࡜࡛ࠊ
⮬ᕫࢆ☜❧ࡋࡓࡾࠊࡑࢀࢆ෌⦅ࡋ࡚࠸ࡃࡶࡢ࡜ᤊ࠼ࡽࢀࡿ࡭ࡁࠖ㸦11㸧ࡶࡢ࡛࠶ࡿࠋࡇ
ࡇ࡛ゝ࠺ㅦࡵ࠸ࡓ௚⪅ࡣࠊ⚄௖ࡔࡅ࡛࡞ࡃࠊ
ࠕྠ᫬࡟ᅜᐙࡸኳⓚ࡟ࡶ࡞ࡾ࠺ࡿᏑᅾࠖ
㸦9㸧
19๓ᥖ᭩䚸109 㡫䚹ᓥⷵ㐍䞉Ᏻ୸Ⰻኵ䞉☾๓㡰୍䛄Ẹ⾗᐀ᩍㄽ䇷䇷᐀ᩍⓗ୺య໬䛸䛿ఱ䛛䛅ᮾி኱Ꮫฟ∧఍䚸2019 ᖺ䚹ᮏ⠇䛷䛣䛾ⴭస䛛䜙ᘬ⏝䛩䜛㝿䛻䛿୸䜹䝑䝁䛻ᘬ⏝䝨䞊䝆ᩘ䜢ධ䜜䛶⾲グ䛩䜛䚹
2085‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4ࡔ࡜ᤊ࠼ࡽࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࠋࡇࡢㅦࡵ࠸ࡓ௚⪅࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࠊ☾๓ࡣࢪࣕࢵࢡ࣭ࣛ࢝ࣥࢆࡦࡁ࡞ࡀ
ࡽࠕ኱ᩥᏐࡢ௚⪅ࠖ࡜ࠕᑠᩥᏐࡢ௚⪅ࠖ࡜࠸࠺ᴫᛕ࡛ㄝ᫂ࡍࡿࠋ☾๓ࡣࠊ㓇஭┤ᶞࡢ⪃ᐹ࡞࡝ࢆཧ↷ࡋ࡞ࡀࡽࣛ࢝ࣥࢆ⊂⮬࡟⌮ゎࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࠋࡘࡲࡾࠊࠕ኱ᩥᏐࡢ௚⪅ࠖࡣࠕ⚾ࡓࡕࡀ▱ࢁ࠺࡜ࡋ࡚ࡶ▱ࡿࡇ࡜ࡀฟ᮶࡞࠸ࡅࢀ࡝ࡶࠊࡑࢀࡺ࠼࡟ᡃࠎࢆ㨩஢ࡋࠊࢃࢀࢃ
ࢀ࡟࿧ࡧ࠿ࡅ࡚ࡸࡲ࡞࠸Ꮡᅾࠖ21࡛࠶ࡿࡀࠊ≉࡟ࠕไᗘ໬ࡉࢀࡓᅛᐃࡋࡓ௚⪅ീࠖ㸦9㸧ࠊࠕᅜẸᅜᐙࡸ᐀ᩍᩍᅋ࡜࠸ࡗࡓࠊᅛᐃ໬ࡋࡓࢩࢽࣇ࢕࢔ࣥࠖ
㸦111㸧࡛࠶ࡾ࠺ࡿࡇ࡜ࡀᙉ
ㄪࡉࢀࡿࠋࡇ࠺ࡋࡓࠕ኱ᩥᏐࡢ௚⪅ࠊ㇟ᚩ⏺ࡢࢩࢽࣇ࢕࢔ࣥ࡟ฟ఍࠺ࡇ࡜࡛ࠊ⚾ࡓࡕࡣ⮬ศ࡞ࡾࡢ௚⪅ീࢆᗁ᝿࡜ࡋ࡚᝿㉳ࡋࠊࡑࡢ௚⪅ീࡢᮇᚅ࡟ࡑ࠺ࡼ࠺࡟⮬ᕫࡢ୺యࢆᵓ
⠏ࡍࡿࠖ 22ࠋࡘࡲࡾࠊ☾๓ࡣࠕ኱ᩥᏐࡢ௚⪅ࠖ࡜࠸࠺ㄒ࡛ࠊᩍ⩏ࡸ࢖ࢹ࢜ࣟࢠ࣮ࠊ๰㐀ࡉࢀࡓఏ⤫࡟ࡼࡗ࡚ᅛᐃ໬ࡉࢀࡓ㉸㉺ⓗᏑᅾࢆ⪃࠼࡚࠾ࡾࠊࡑࡇ࡟ࡣ⚄௖ࡔࡅ࡛࡞ࡃኳ
ⓚไࡸᅜᐙ୺⩏ࡶྵࡲࢀࡿࠋࡑࡋ࡚ࠊࡇࡢ㉸㉺ⓗᏑᅾࡢ㇟ᚩࢆࡑࡢࡲࡲཷᐜࡋ࡚⮬ᕫࡢ୺యࡀᵓ⠏ࡉࢀࡿ࡜ࡁࠊ㐣⃭࡞άືࡶ᫝࡜ࡍࡿࡼ࠺࡞ಙ௮࡜࡞ࡿࡇ࡜ࡀ༴᝹ࡉࢀࡿ 23ࠋ☾๓ࡢᢅ࠺㔠ගᩍ࡟࠾࠸࡚ࡶࠊୡ⏺୍ษࡀ⚄࡛࠶ࡾࠊ⮬ࡽࡶಙ⪅ࡓࡕࡶ⚄࡛࠶ࡾࠊ⚄ࡢᏊ࡛࠶ࡾࠊಙ⪅ࡣㄡࡶࡀ㔠⚄ࡢྲྀḟ⪅࡜࡞ࡾ࠺ࡿ㸦23㸧ࠋࡋࡓࡀࡗ࡚ࠊ⮬ࡽࢆᐇయ໬ࡉ
ࢀࡓ㔠⚄࡟୍య໬ࡉࡏࠊ㔠⚄࡜⮬ศࢆྠ୍どࡍࡿࡼ࠺࡞ࠕ⮬ᡃ࢖ࣥࣇ࣮ࣞࢩࣙࣥࠖ
㸦24㸧࡜࠸࠺୺యᙧᡂࡶ࠶ࡾᚓࡿࠋ
ࡋ࠿ࡋ㔠⚄ࡣࠊࡶ࡜ࡶ࡜⮬ࡽࡢᏑࡍࡿ᪉఩ࢆ㑊ࡅ࡞ࡅࢀࡤ⚅ࡿࡼ࠺࡞⚄࡛࠶ࡗࡓࠋ㔠ගᩍ࡟࠾࠸࡚ࡇࡢ㔠⚄ࡀ⚅ࡿ⚄࡜ࡋ࡚ࡢഃ㠃ࢆṧࡋࡘࡘୡ⏺ࡢ୺ᐓ⚄࡟㌿᥮ࡉࢀࡓࠋ㔠ගᩍࡢ๰ၐ⪅࡛࠶ࡿ㔠ග኱⚄㸦㉥ἑᩥ἞ࠊ1814㹼83㸧ࡣ࠸࠿࡞ࡿ⾜Ⅽࡀ㔠⚄ࡢᛣࡾࢆ㈙࠺ࡢ࠿⌮ゎ࡛ࡁ࡞࠸ࠕซኵࡢ⮬ぬࠖ㸦24㸧ࢆ๓ᥦ࡜ࡋࠊ㔠⚄࡟ࡣㄆ㆑ࡸศᯒࡢᒆ࠿࡞࠸
వⓑࡀᏑࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࢆぬ▱ࡋࠊ⚅ࡿ࠿ࡶࡋࢀ࡞࠸ࠕ⚄࡟ᑐࡍࡿᜍࢀࡢឤ᝟ࡀࡘࡡ࡟Ꮡᅾࡍ
ࡿ㛵ಀࠖ㸦102㸧ࢆᙧᡂࡍࡿࠋࡇࡢࡼ࠺࡞ㄆ㆑ࡸศᯒࡢᒆ࠿࡞࠸వⓑࠊࠕไᗘ໬ࡸᅛᐃ໬
ࢆ㏨ࢀཤࡿ௚⪅ࠖ㸦9㸧ࡀ☾๓ࡢゝ࠺ࠕᑠᩥᏐࡢ௚⪅ࠖ࠶ࡿ࠸ࡣࠕᑐ㇟ a࡛ࠖ࠶ࡿࠋࡇࡢ
௚⪅ࡀࠊᅛᐃⓗ࡛࡞࠸୺యࡢᙧᡂࡸ෌⦅ᡂࢆྍ⬟࡟ࡍࡿࠋࠕᑠᩥᏐࡢ௚⪅ࠖࡣࠕ⚾ࡓࡕࡢㄆ㆑ࢆࡍࡿࡾ࡜㏨ࢀࡿࡀࡺ࠼࡟⚾ࡓࡕࡢ࡝ࡢࡼ࠺࡞ḧᮃࢆࡶయ⌧ࡍࡿవⓑ࡜ࡋ࡚ࡶᶵ⬟ࡍࡿࠖ24ࠋูゝࡍࢀࡤࠊࠕᑠᩥᏐࡢ௚⪅ࠖࠊࠕᑐ㇟ aࠖࡣࠕ⮬ศࡀ୺యࢆᵓ⠏ࡍࡿ࡜ࡁ࡟ษࡾᤞ࡚ࡽࢀࡿṧవ࡛࠶ࡿ࠿ࡽࠊ୺యࡢ⮬ᕫ⤫୍ᛶ࡟୙Ᏻࢆࡶࡓࡽࡍࠋࡑࡢ୙Ᏻࢆㄆ
㆑ࡍࡿࡇ࡜࡛୺యࡣ᪂ࡓ࡞≧ἣ࡟ᑐᛂࡍࡿ෌⦅ࡶྍ⬟ࠖ㸦9㸧࡜࡞ࡾࠊࠕ኱ᩥᏐࡢ௚⪅ࠖ

21☾๓㡰୍ࠕኳⓚไᅜᐙ࡜వⓑࠖ᪥ᮏ᐀ᩍᏛ఍⦅ࠗ᐀ᩍ◊✲࠘89 ᕳ 2 ྕࠊ2015 ᖺࠊ209㡫ࠋ22๓ᥖ☾๓ㄽᩥࠊ209㹼210 㡫ࠋ23⯆࿡῝䛔䛾䛿䚸┤᥋ⓗ䛻䛿᪥ᮏ䛾᪂᐀ᩍ䛾ᒎ㛤䜢ᢅ䛖䛣䛾᭩䛜䚸䜸䜴䝮┿⌮ᩍ䛻䛚䛔䛶኱ᩥᏐ䛾௚⪅䛻ྲྀ䜚㎸䜎䜜䛶ᅛᐃⓗ䛻ᙧᡂ䛥䜜䛶䛧䜎䛳䛯᐀ᩍⓗ୺య䜢཯┬ⓗ䛻ᤊ䛘䜛䜉䛟䚸⌧௦䛻䛚䛔䛶᐀ᩍⓗ୺య໬ㄽ䜢ᢈุⓗ䛻෌ᵓ⠏䛩䜛䛣䛸䜢ၥ㢟䛻䛧䛶䛔䜛䛣䛸䛷䛒䜛䚹䛂௚⪅䛾║ᕪ䛧䛻䜘䛳䛶ᨭ䛘䜙䜜䛺䛜䜙䜒䚸䛭䛾║ᕪ䛧䜢⮬ぬⓗ䛻ᤊ䛘㏉䛧䚸ಶே䛾୺య䛾୰䛻ᢈุⓗ䛻ྲྀ䜚㎸䜣䛷䛔䛟䛒䜚᪉䛜⌧௦䛷䛿ồ䜑䜙䜜䜛䛃䠄11䠅䚹24๓ᥖ☾๓ㄽᩥࠊ210 㡫ࠋ

86

Tadayoshi FURUSO

The Discourse of Religious Experience as Testimony‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬ࡢࡶ࡜࡛ᅛᐃⓗ࡟ᙧᡂࡉࢀ࠿ࡡ࡞࠸୺యࢆ⬺⮻ࡉࡏ࡚ࠕព࿡ࡢᅛᐃ໬ࡋ࡞࠸ࠕᑠᩥᏐࡢ
௚⪅ࠖ࡟ࡼࡗ࡚ὶື໬ࡍࡿ୺యࠖ㸦111㸧ࢆᙧᡂࡋ࠺ࡿ࡜࠸࠺ࠋ
㔠ග኱⚄ࡢ୺యᙧᡂ࡟๎ࡋ࡚☾๓ࡢ㆟ㄽࢆࡲ࡜ࡵࡼ࠺ࠋ㔠ග኱⚄ࡢಙ௮ୡ⏺࡟࠾࠸࡚ࡣࠊ⮬ࡽࡶ⚄ྡࢆྡ஌ࡿ࡯࡝࡟ࠊே࡜⚄࡜ࡢ㐃⥆ᛶࡀㄆࡵࡽࢀ࡚࠾ࡾࠊࡇࡢࡼ࠺࡞⌮ゎࡀᅛᐃ໬ࡋࠊࠕ኱ᩥᏐࡢ௚⪅ࠖ࡜࡞ࡗࡓ㔠⚄࡟୍య໬ࡍࡿࡼ࠺࡞ᙧ࡛᐀ᩍⓗ୺యࢆᙧᡂ
ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡶ࠶ࡾᚓࡓࠋࡋ࠿ࡋࠊ㔠⚄ࡣྠ᫬࡟⚅ࡿ⚄࡛ࡶ࠶ࡾࠊࠕซኵ࡛ࠖ࠶ࡿ㔠ග኱⚄࡟ࡣ㔠⚄ࡢᛣࡾࢆ㈙࠺᣺ࡿ⯙࠸ࢆ⌮ゎ࡛ࡁ࡞࠸ࠋ㔠⚄ࡣࠕ኱࠸࡞ࡿ௚⪅࡛ࠖ࠶ࡿ࡜ྠ᫬
࡟ࠊㄆ㆑ࡸศᯒ࡟ࡼࡗ࡚ᑐ㇟໬ࠊᅛᐃ໬࡛ࡁ࡞࠸ࡀࠊᜍࢀࡸ୙Ᏻࢆ࠿ࡁࡓ࡚ࡿࠕవⓑࠖ࡜࡞ࡗ࡚ࠊᅛᐃⓗ࡞୺యࢆ෌⦅ࡍࡿࡢ࡛࠶ࡿࠋ
ࡇࡢࡼ࠺࡞ࠕ኱ᩥᏐ㸭ᑠᩥᏐࡢ௚⪅ࠖ࡟ࡼࡿ☾๓ࡢ⊂⮬ࡢศᯒࡣࠊࡉࡲࡊࡲ࡞య㦂ࡸᅇᚰࢆ⿕ࡿ࡞࠿࡛ࠊಙ௮ୡ⏺ࢆᙧᡂࡋ࡚࠸ࡃ୺యࢆᥥฟࡍࡿࡢ࡟᭷ຠ࡞ᡭἲ࡛࠶ࡿ࡜ᛮ
ࢃࢀࡿࠋࠕぢ⚄ࡢᐇ㦂ࠖ௨㝆ࡢ⥘ᓥࡢᛮ⣴ࢆ⪃࠼ࡿୖ࡛ࡶཧ⪃࡟࡞ࡿ㒊ศࡀከ࠸ࠋ⥘ᓥ࡟࠾࠸࡚ࡶࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࢆ㏻ࡋ࡚ࡍ࡭࡚ࡢே㛫ࢆࠕ⚄ࡢᏊࠖ࡜ࡋ࡚ᤊ࠼ࡿどⅬࡀ⏕ࡲࢀ࡚࠾ࡾࠊ㔠ග኱⚄ࡢಙ௮ୡ⏺࡟㏻ࡎࡿ࡜ࡇࢁࡀ࠶ࡿࠋࡑࡋ࡚ࠊ⚄࡟ឤᛂࡋࡓ⥘ᓥࡣࠊ☾๓ࡢゝ࠺ࠕ኱ᩥᏐࡢ௚⪅ࠖ࡜ࡋ࡚ࡢ⚄࡟ἐධࡋ୍య໬ࡋࠊࡇࡢ⚄࡟ᇶ࡙ࡃᅛᐃⓗ࡞ᩍ⩏ࢆ⏕ࡳฟࡍࡇ࡜ࡶ࠶ࡾᚓࡓ࠿ࡶࡋࢀ࡞࠸ࠋᐇ㝿ࠊࠕぢ⚄ࡢᐇ㦂ࠖࢆᚓࡓ┤ᚋࡢ⥘ᓥࡣࠊࡇࡢయ㦂ࢆ⚄ேྜ୍ⓗ࡞⚄࡬ࡢឤᛂ࡜ᤊ࠼࡚࠸ࡓࠋࡋ࠿ࡋࠊࡑࡢᚋࡢ⥘ᓥࡣ⮬ࡽࡢ᐀ᩍయ
㦂ࡸయ㦂࠿ࡽᚓࡓ┿⌮ࢆㄒࡿࡇ࡜ࡢᅔ㞴ࡉࢆᐇឤࡋࡘࡘࠊ⮬ศ࡜ྠࡌయ㦂ࢆ㸦⮬ศࡼࡾࡶ༟㉺ࡋࡓ௙᪉࡛㸧ᚓ࡚࠸ࡓ࡜⪃࠼ࡿ࢟ࣜࢫࢺࡸዴ᮶ࡢᛮ᝿ࢆ೉⏝ࡋ࡞ࡀࡽࠊ⚄ேྜ୍ⓗ࡞ࠕ⚄࡜೰࡟ᴦࡋࡴࠖࡇ࡜ࡢ࠺ࡕ࡛ಶே᱁࡜ࡋ࡚೺㜚ࡋࠕ⚄࡜೰࡟ാࡃࠖࠕ⚄ࡢᏊࠖࡢ࠶ࡾ᪉ࢆࡶᶍ⣴ࡍࡿ୺యࢆゝㄒ໬ࡋࡼ࠺࡜ⱞᚰࡋࡓࠋࡑࡢ⤖ᯝࠊ⚄࡟ឤᛂࡋ⚄࡟⼥఍ࡍࡿ⚄ேྜ୍ⓗ࡞ࠕ⚄࡜೰࡟ᴦࡋࡴࠖ࠶ࡾ᪉࡜ࠊࡇࡢឤᛂࡢࡶ࡜࡛ಶே᱁ࡀ೺㜚ࡍࡿࠕ⚄࡜೰࡟ാࡃࠖ࠶ࡾ᪉ࡢ୪Ꮡࢆᶍ⣴ࡍࡿ⥘ᓥࡢ୺యࡀᙧᡂࡉࢀ࡚࠸ࡗࡓࠋࡇࡢ࡜ࡁࠊ☾๓ࡢゝ࠺ࠕᑠᩥᏐࡢ௚⪅ࠖࡣࠊゝㄒ໬ࡸㄆ㆑࡟ࡼࡗ࡚ᢕᥱ࡛ࡁ࡞࠸ࡀࠊࡲࡉ࡟⌧ᐇⓗ࡞ࡶࡢ㸦Réel㸧࡜ࡋ࡚཯᚟ⓗ࡟య㦂ࡉࢀࠊࡉࡲࡊࡲ࡞ឤᛂࢆ⥘ᓥ࡟୚࠼࡚࠸ࡓ⚄࡟ㄆࡵࡿࡇ
࡜ࡀ࡛ࡁࡼ࠺ࠋ⥘ᓥࡢ୺యᙧᡂࡢ㐣⛬࡛⥘ᓥࡀ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍ࡜ίᅵᩍࢆࠕ⚄Ꮚᩍࠖ࡜ࡋ࡚
㑅ᢥࡋࡓࡇ࡜ࡣࠊࠕᖐᒓ࡞ࡋ࡟ಙࡌࡿࠖࡀ᝿ᐃࡍࡿࡼ࠺࡞ࠊ୪ิⓗ࡟⨨࠿ࢀࡓㅖ᐀ᩍ࠿
ࡽ⮬⏤࡟ྲྀᤞ㑅ᢥࡍࡿࡇ࡜࡜ࡣ␗࡞ࡿࠋࠕᑠᩥᏐࡢ௚⪅ࠖ࡜ࡋ࡚ࡢ⚄ࢆ⿕ࡾ⥆ࡅࡿ࡞࠿࡛ࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝࡑࡢࡶࡢࢆ⦎ࡾୖࡆ࡚᐀ᩍⓗ୺యࢆᙧᡂࡋ࡚࠸ࡗࡓᖐ⤖࡜ࡋ࡚ࡇࡢ 2ࡘࡢ᐀ᩍࡀ㑅ࡤࢀࡓࡢ࡛࠶ࡿࠋ
ࡇࡢࡼ࠺࡟⪃࠼ࡓ࡜ࡁࠊ☾๓ࡢࠕ኱ᩥᏐ㸭ᑠᩥᏐࡢ௚⪅࡛ࠖࡣᤊ࠼ࡁࢀ࡞࠸⥘ᓥᱱᕝࡢ୺యᙧᡂࡢഃ㠃ࡶ㟢ࢃ࡟࡞ࡿࠋ㔠ග኱⚄ࡀ⚄࡜ࡢ୍య໬࡟ᇶ࡙ࡃᅛᐃⓗ࡞୺యᙧᡂࢆචࢀࡓせᅉࡣࠊ㔠⚄ࡀୡ⏺ࡢ୺ᐓ⚄࡜ࡋ࡚ᤊ࠼ࡽࢀࡿ࡜ྠ᫬࡟⚅ࡿ⚄࡛ࡶ࠶ࡗࡓࡇ࡜ࠊ
㔠⚄ࡢࠕ」ᒙᛶࠖ࡟ㄆࡵࡽࢀࡿࠋࡑࡋ࡚ࠊࡇࡢࠕ」ᒙᛶࠖࢆ⏕ࡳࡔࡋࡓࡢࡣࠊ㔠⚄࡟⚅ࡽࢀࡿ࠿ࡶࡋࢀ࡞࠸࡜࠸࠺ᜍࢀࡸ୙Ᏻ࡛࠶ࡗࡓࠋࡋ࠿ࡋࠊ⥘ᓥࡀయ㦂ࡋࡓ⚄⮬య࡟ࡣࡇࡢࡼ࠺࡞」ᒙᛶࡣ࡞࠸ࠋ⥘ᓥࡀ༢࡟⚄ேྜ୍ⓗ࡛ࡣ࡞࠸ᙧ࡛ࠕ⚄ࡢᏊࠖ࡜ࡋ࡚ࡢ୺యࢆ

87‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4ᙧᡂࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡀ࡛ࡁࡓࡢࡣࠊ⥘ᓥࡀဴᏛࡸㅖ᐀ᩍࡢᛮ᝿࡟ࡼࡗ࡚⮬ࡽࡢయ㦂ࡋࡓ⚄ࢆ」ᒙⓗ࡟ゝㄒ໬ࡋࡓ࠿ࡽ࡛࠶ࡗࡓࠋ๓⠇ࡲ࡛࡛ࡣࠊ⥘ᓥࡀ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝࢆࡁࢃࡵ࡚✚ᴟⓗࠊ⬟ືⓗ࡟ᒎ㛤ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡢ※Ἠ࡟࠶ࡿ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡢཷືᛶࢆᙉㄪࡋࡓࡀࠊࠕ኱ᩥᏐ㸭ᑠᩥᏐࡢ௚⪅ࠖ࡜࠸࠺ᴫᛕ࡛⥘ᓥࢆศᯒࡍࡿ࡜ࠊ⥘ᓥࡢゝㄝࡢࢲ࢖ࢼ࣑ࢵࢡ࡞ኚ໬ࢆ༑ศ࡟ᤊ
࠼ࡽࢀ࡞࠸ࡼ࠺࡟ᛮࢃࢀࡿࠋ᭱ᬌᖺࡢ⥘ᓥࡢᛮ᝿ࡣࠊࠕணࡀぢ⚄ࡢᐇ㦂ࠖࡢ๓ᚋࡢ⚄ேྜ୍ⓗ࡞᐀ᩍయ㦂⌮ゎࢆ౛እ࡜ࡍࢀࡤࠊ⥘ᓥࡢึᮇࡢ೔⌮ᛮ᝿࠿ࡽ୍㈏ࡋࡓᯟ⤌ࡳࢆ᭷ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࡀ 25ࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࢆ⿕ࡿࡇ࡜࡟ࡼࡗ࡚⥘ᓥᛮ᝿ࢆᙧᡂࡍࡿㅖᴫᛕࡢᕸ⨨ࡣ኱ࡁࡃኚ໬ࡋࡓࠋ⥘ᓥ࡟࡜ࡗ࡚᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡣゝㄒ໬ࡶศᯒࡶᅔ㞴࡞ࡶࡢࠊࣛ࢝ࣥࡢゝ࠺⌧ᐇⓗ࡞ࡶࡢࡔࡗ
ࡓ࡜ゝ࠼ࡼ࠺ࠋࡇࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡣࠊ☾๓ࡢゝ࠺ࡼ࠺࡞ᅛᐃⓗ࡛ไᗘⓗ࡞ࠕ኱ᩥᏐࡢ௚⪅ࠖࢆ⏕ࡳฟࡍࡢ࡛ࡣ࡞ࡃࠊㅖ᐀ᩍఏ⤫ࡢཿᬛࢆࣞࣇ࢓ࣞࣥࢫ࡜ࡋ࡞ࡀࡽࠊࡲࡉ࡟௚⪅ࡢゝⴥࠊ௚⪅࡜ࡋ࡚ࡢゝⴥࢆ⏝࠸࡚ࠊ⌮ᛶⓗᢈホࢆ஺࠼࡞ࡀࡽࡉࡲࡊࡲ࡞௙᪉࡛ࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖࢆゝㄒ໬ࡍࡿࡇ࡜࡬࡜㥑ࡾ❧࡚ࡓ 26ࠋᑡ࡞ࡃ࡜ࡶ⥘ᓥࡢ⏕๓࡟ࡣᅛᐃⓗ࡞⚄⌮ゎࡀᙧᡂࡉࢀࡎࠊᚎࠎ࡟௚ຊᛮ᝿࡟㏆࡙ࡃᙧ࡛ゝㄝࡣኚ໬ࡋ࡚࠸ࡁࠊྠ᫬࡟⥘ᓥࡢಙ௮⏕ά࡟ࡶᛕ௖ᐇ㊶ࡀྲྀࡾධࢀࡽࢀࡿࡼ࠺࡟࡞ࡗࡓࠋㅖࠎࡢ᐀ᩍఏ⤫ࢆཧ↷ࡋࡘࡘࡶࡑࢀࡽ࡟
ᅃࢃࢀ࡞࠸ᛮ᝿ࢆࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖ࡜࠸࠺ㄒࢆ㍈࡟ࡋ࡚ᒎ㛤ࡋࡓ⥘ᓥࡀࠊ㏆ゅᖖほ࠿ࡽࡶࡽࡗࡓぶ㮭ࡢ᭩ࡸ⤮ീࢆ㒊ᒇ࡟᥃ࡅࠊ኱ษ࡟ࡍࡿࡼ࠺࡟࡞ࡗࡓ 27ࠋࡇࡢࡼ࠺࡞⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍⓗែᗘࡢኚ㑄ࢆᤊ࠼ࡿࡓࡵ࡟ࡣࠊ⥘ᓥࡢゝㄝࡢኚ໬ࢆศᯒࡏࡊࡿࢆᚓ࡞࠸ࠋ☾๓ࡣࠊࠕ᐀ᩍゝㄝㄽࠖࡀ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝࡸ᐀ᩍᴫᛕࡢṔྐᛶࢆᣦ᦬ࡍࡿࡇ࡜࡟ࡼࡿࠕ┿⌮ࡢ┦ᑐ
໬࡜Ⓨ᫂ࡉࢀࡓゝㄝࡢⓎぢ࡜࠸࠺⣠ษࡾᆺࡢ⤖ㄽࢆ཯᚟ࡍࡿࠖ
㸦6㸧ࡶࡢ࡜࡞ࡗ࡚࠸ࡿ࡜
ᣦ᦬ࡋࠊࠕ᐀ᩍゝㄝㄽ࠿ࡽ᐀ᩍⓗ୺య໬ㄽ࡬ࡢ෌㌿᥮ࠖ㸦12㸧ࢆᶆᴶࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࠋࡑࡢࡓࡵࠊ
ᮏ✏ࡢ㆟ㄽࡣ᫬௦㘒ㄗⓗ࡛࠶ࢁ࠺ࡀࠊ⥘ᓥࡀᛮ᝿ࡢே࡛࠶ࡾࠊ⥘ᓥࡢಙ௮ࡶ▱㆑ே᐀ᩍ࡜ࡋ࡚ᤊ࠼ࡽࢀࡿࡶࡢ࡛࠶ࡿ࡞ࡽࠊ㔠ග኱⚄ࢆᑐ㇟࡜ࡋࡓศᯒ࡜ࡣ␗࡞ࡿᡭἲࡀồࡵࡽࢀࡿ࡛࠶ࢁ࠺ࠋ
࡛ࡣࠊ⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝࢆ࡝ࡢࡼ࠺࡞どゅ࠿ࡽศᯒࡍࡿࡢࡀ㐺ษ࡛࠶ࢁ࠺࠿ࠋ⚾ぢ࡛ࡣࠊࠕドゝࠖ࡜࠸࠺ᴫᛕࡀ┦ᛂࡋ࠸ࡼ࠺࡟ᛮࢃࢀࡿࠋ

25

䛣䛾Ⅼ䛻䛴䛔䛶䛿ὀ 12 䛾ᣋ✏䛷ㄽ䛨䛯䚹䛂ぢ⚄䛾ᐇ㦂䛃௨㝆䜒⌮ᛶⓗ䛺⪃ᐹ䛜ᨺᲠ䛥䜜䛯䜟䛡䛷䛿䛺䛟䚸䛂⚄Ꮚ䛾⮬ぬ䛃䜢㐺ษ䛻⾲⌧䛩䜛௙᪉䜢⌮ᛶⓗ䛻㏣ཬ䛩䜛ഃ㠃䛜䛒䛳䛯䛣䛸䛻䛴䛔䛶䛿௨ୗ䛾ᣋ✏䛷ㄽ䛨䛯䚹䛂⥘ᓥᱱᕝ䛻䛚䛡䜛ぢ⚄䛸ᢈホ䛃᐀ᩍ೔⌮Ꮫ఍⦅䛄᐀ᩍ䛸೔⌮䛅➨ 20 ྕ䚸2020 ᖺ䚸65䡚79 㡫䚹
27
䛣䛾Ⅼ䛻䛴䛔䛶䛿䚸ᒾ⏣ᩥ᫛䛂ίᅵᩍ䛻䛚䛡䜛ᅇᚰ䛸䛭䛾≀ㄒ䇷䇷㏆ゅᖖほ䞉⥘ᓥᱱᕝ䞉す⏣ኳ㤶䇷䇷䛃኱㜰ᩍ⫱኱Ꮫ⦅䛄኱㜰ᩍ⫱኱Ꮫ⣖せ㻌 ேᩥ♫఍⛉Ꮫ䞉⮬↛⛉Ꮫ䛅➨ 67 ᕳ䚸2019 ᖺ䚸57䡚72 㡫䜢ཧ↷䛾䛣䛸䚹
26

88

Tadayoshi FURUSO

The Discourse of Religious Experience as Testimony‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬

4. ࣜࢡ࣮ࣝࡢドゝㄽ⌧௦ࢻ࢖ࢶ࣭ࣇࣛࣥࢫဴᏛ࡛ࡋࡤࡋࡤࠕドゝ㸦témoignage, Bezeugung, testimony㸧ࠖࡢᴫᛕࡀ࡜ࡾ࠶ࡆࡽࢀࡿ 28ࠋ⥘ᓥࡣぢ⚄య㦂ࡀゝㄒ໬ᅔ㞴࡛࠶ࡿࡇ࡜ࢆࡋࡤࡋࡤ㏙࡭ࡘࡘࡶࠊ⮬ࡽࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࢆ᰿ᣐ࡟ࠊࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖ࡜࠸࠺┿⌮࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࠊࡉࡲࡊࡲ࡞᐀ᩍࡸ
ᛮ᝿ࢆ௓ࡋ࡞ࡀࡽゝㄝ໬ࡋ⥆ࡅࡿࠋࡇࡢゝㄝࡣ┿⌮ࡢṇᙜ໬ࡸ᰿ᣐ࡙ࡅ࡜࠸࠺ࡼࡾࡶࠊࠕドゝࠖ࡜࠸࠺ᵓ㐀ࢆࡶࡘㄒࡾ࡛࠶ࡿࡼ࠺࡟ᛮࢃࢀࡿࠋᮏ❶࡛ࡣࠊ࣏࣮࣭ࣝࣜࢡ࣮ࣝࡀ
ࠗグ᠈࣭Ṕྐ࣭ᛀ༷࠘㸦2000㸧 29࡛ヨࡳ࡚࠸ࡿドゝࡢศᯒࢆྲྀࡾୖࡆࡿ 30ࠋࡲࡎ࠾ࡉ࠼࡚࠾ࡁࡓ࠸ࡇ࡜ࡣࠊࣜࢡ࣮ࣝࡣドゝࢆࠊṔྐླྀ㏙ࡢࣉࣟࢭࢫࡢ➃⥴࡜ࡋ࡚ㄽࡌ࡚࠸ࡿࡇ࡜࡛࠶ࡿࠋࣜࢡ࣮ࣝࡣࠊேࠎࡢグ᠈ࡀドゝ࡜ࡋ࡚᭩ࡁ␃ࡵࡽࢀࠊࡑࢀࡀᩥ
❶ྐᩱ࡜࡞ࡾࠊゎ㔘ࡸㄝ᫂ࡀヨࡳࡽࢀࠊṔྐ࡜ࡋ࡚⾲⌧ࡉࢀࡿࠊ࡜࠸࠺ࣉࣟࢭࢫࡢጞࡲࡾ࡟࠶ࡿドゝࢆࡉࡋ࠶ࡓࡾၥ㢟࡟ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࡢ࡛࠶ࡿࠋࡋࡓࡀࡗ࡚ࠊࡇࡢドゝㄽࢆ᐀ᩍయ
㦂ゝㄝ࡟ᙜ࡚ࡣࡵࡿࡇ࡜ࡢ᫝㠀ࡣၥࢃࢀ࡞ࡅࢀࡤ࡞ࡽ࡞࠸ 31ࠋ࡜ࡣ࠸࠼ࠊࣜࢡ࣮ࣝࡀぢฟࡍドゝࡢ 3 ࡘࡢዎᶵࠊࡍ࡞ࢃࡕࠊ
ࠕ⚾ࡣࡑࡇ࡟࠸ࡲࡋࡓࠖ
ࠊࠕ⚾ࢆಙࡌ࡚ࡃࡔࡉ࠸ࠖ
ࠊࠕ⚾ࢆಙࡌ࡞࠸ࡢ࡞ࡽ௚ࡢே࡟⪺࠸࡚ࡃࡔࡉ࠸ࠖࡣ⥘ᓥࡢゝㄝ࡟ࡶࡼࡃᙜ࡚ࡣࡲࡿ࡜ᛮࢃࢀ
ࡿࠋࡲࡎࡣࡇࡢ 3 ࡘࡢዎᶵࢆ୰ᚰ࡟ࣜࢡ࣮ࣝࡢドゝㄽࢆࡈࡃ⡆₩࡟ࡲ࡜ࡵ࡚࠾ࡁࡓ࠸ࠋ
ࣜࢡ࣮ࣝࡀࡲࡎ㏙࡭ࡿࡢࡣࠊࠕドゝࡢ⌧ᐇᛶࡢ୺ᙇࡣࠊドゝࡍࡿ୺యࡢ⮬ᕫᣦ♧
㸦autodésignation㸧࡜ドゝࡢᑐ໬㸦couplage㸧࠿ࡽษࡾ㞳ࡏ࡞࠸ࠖ㸦204/253㸧ࡇ࡜࡛࠶ࡿࠋ
ࠕ⚾ࡣࡑࡇ࡟࠸ࡲࡋࡓࠖ
㸦j'y étais㸧࡜࠸࠺ྃࡣࠊドゝෆᐜ࡜ࡑࡢሙ࡟ドேࡀ࠸ࡓࡇ࡜ࡢ
⮬ᕫᣦ♧࡜ࡀ⥭ᐦ࡟⤖ࡧࡘ࠸࡚࠸ࡿࡇ࡜࠿ࡽࠊドゝࡉࢀࡓ㐣ཤࡢฟ᮶஦ࡢ⌧ᐇᛶࡀ⏕ࡳฟࡉࢀࡿࡇ࡜ࢆࠊࡋࡓࡀࡗ࡚ドゝࡣฟ᮶஦ࢆᐈほⓗ࡟☜ドࡉࡏࡿࡶࡢ࡛ࡣ࡞࠸ࡇ࡜ࢆ♧ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࠋドゝෆᐜࡣ ࠎ࡟ࡋ࡚࠿ࡘ࡚࠶ࡗࡓࡀ௒ࡣ࡞࠸㐣ཤࡢ஦᯶࡛࠶ࡾࠊドゝෆᐜ28௨ୗ䛾ㄽ⪃䜢ཧ↷䛾䛣䛸䚹ᮡᮧ㟹ᙪ䛂᐀ᩍဴᏛ䜈䇷䇷ドゝ䛸䛔䛖ၥ㢟⣔䛛䜙䠄1䠅䛃ி㒔ဴᏛ఍⦅䛄ဴᏛ◊✲䛅585 ྕ䚸2008 ᖺ䚸61䡚85 㡫䚹ྠ䛂᐀ᩍဴᏛ䜈䇷䇷ドゝ䛸䛔䛖ၥ㢟⣔䛛䜙䠄2䠅䛃ி㒔ဴᏛ఍⦅䛄ဴᏛ◊✲䛅586 ྕ䚸2008 ᖺ䚸1䡚23 㡫䚹
29Paul Ricœur, La mémoire, l'histoire, l'oubli, Paris, Seuil, 2000. 㑥ヂ䛿䚸ஂ⡿༤ヂ䛄グ᠈䞉Ṕྐ䞉ᛀ༷䠄ୖ䠅䛅᪂᭙♫䚸2004 ᖺ䚹ᮏ᭩䜢ᘬ⏝䛩䜛㝿䛻䛿ཎⴭ䛸㑥ヂ䛾䝨䞊䝆ᩘ䜢୸䜹䝑䝁䛻ධ䜜䛶グ㍕䛩䜛䚹
30ᮏ⠇䛻䛚䛡䜛䝸䜽䞊䝹䛾ᛮ᝿䛾䜎䛸䜑䛿௨ୗ䛾 2 䛴䛾ᩥ⊩䛻඲㠃ⓗ䛻౫ᣐ䛧䛶䛔䜛䚹ᮡᮧ㟹ᙪ䛂ドゝ䛛䜙Ṕྐ䜈䇷䇷ᑐヰ䛾⮫⏺䛻❧䛳䛶䇷䇷䛃䛄ேᩥ▱䛾᪂䛯䛺⥲ྜ䛻ྥ䛡䛶䇷䇷21 ୡ⣖ COE 䝥䝻䜾䝷䝮䛂䜾䝻䞊䝞䝹໬᫬௦䛾ከඖⓗேᩥᏛ䛾ᣐⅬᙧᡂ䛃➨ 2 ᅇሗ࿌᭩რ䠄ဴᏛ⠍ 2䠅䛅䚸2004 ᖺ䚸181䡚
202 㡫䚹ᕝཱྀⱱ㞝䛄⾲㇟䛸䜰䝹䝅䞊䞂䛾ゎ㔘Ꮫ䇷䇷䝸䜽䞊䝹䛸䛄グ᠈䚸Ṕྐ䚸ᛀ༷䛅䛅ி㒔኱ᏛᏛ⾡ฟ∧఍䚸2012 ᖺ䚹31Ώ㎶ඃ䛿䚸䝸䜽䞊䝹䛾ドゝㄽ䜢ᡭ᥃䛛䜚䛾୍䛴䛸䛧䛶䚸17 ୡ⣖䝣䝷䞁䝇䛾䝇䝳䝷䞁䛾ゝⴥ䜢⚄⛎䛾ドゝ䛸䛧䛶ㄞ䜏ゎ䛟◊✲䜢᪤䛻⾜䛳䛶䛔䜛䚹Ώ㎶䛿䚸䝸䜽䞊䝹䛾ドゝㄽ䛸䝇䝳䝷䞁䛾ゝⴥ䛸䜢᥋⥆䛩䜛䛯䜑䛻䚸䝆䝱䞁䠙䜲䞂䞉䝷䝁䝇䝖䛾䛂ဴᏛⓗయ㦂䛸⚄⛎ⓗドゝ䛃䠄2005䠅䛸䛔䛖ㄽ⪃䜢ᣢ䛱ฟ䛧䛶䛔䜛䚹cf. Ώ㎶ඃ䛄䝆䝱䞁䠙䝆䝵䝉䝣䞉䝇䝳䝷䞁䇷䇷 ୍୐ୡ⣖䝣䝷䞁䝇⚄⛎୺⩏䛾ගⰢ䛅៞᠕⩏ሿ኱Ꮫฟ∧఍䚸2016ᖺ䚸57䡚61 㡫䚹䛺䛚䚸Ώ㎶䛿䝸䜽䞊䝹䛾ぢฟ䛩 3 䛴䛾ዎᶵ䛾䛖䛱䚸᭱ึ䛾 2 䛴䛻╔┠䛧䛶䛔䜛䛜䚸⥘ᓥ䛾ゝㄝ䜢ศᯒ䛩䜛ሙྜ䛻䛿➨ 3 䛾ዎᶵ䚸䛂⚾䜢ಙ䛨䛺䛔䛾䛺䜙௚䛾ே䛻⪺䛔䛶䛟䛰䛥䛔䛃䜒㔜せ䛷䛒䜛䛸⪃䛘䜛䚹䛸䛔䛖䛾䜒䚸➨ 5 ⠇䛷ㄽ䛨䜛䜘䛖䛻䚸䛂⚄Ꮚ䛾⮬ぬ䛃䜢⮬ศ䜘䜚䜒䛖䜎䛟ㄒ䜚䚸ᐇ㊶䛧䛶䛔䜛䜻䝸䝇䝖䜔ዴ᮶䚸䛒䜛䛔䛿す⏣ኳ㤶䛺䛹䛾㐨཭䛛䜙Ꮫ䜃䛺䛜䜙䚸⥘ᓥ䛜」ᩘ䛾᐀ᩍఏ⤫䛻ᇶ䛵䛟ᛮ᝿䜔ᐇ㊶䜢῝໬䛥䛫䛶䛔䛟㐣⛬䛻䛿䚸䛣䛾➨ 3 䛾ዎᶵ䛜῝䛟㛵୚䛧䛶䛔䜛䛸ᛮ䜟䜜䜛䛛䜙䛷䛒䜛䚹89‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4ࡢṇᙜᛶࢆド᫂ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡀᅔ㞴࡞ሙྜࡶከ࠸ࠋドゝࡣࠊ⮬ศࡣࡑࡢሙ࡛ぢ⪺ࡁࡋࡓドே࡛௚⪅࡜ࡣ௦࡛᭰ࡁ࡞࠸Ꮡᅾࡔࠊ࡜࠸࠺ドேࡢ⮬ᕫᣦ♧࡟ࡼࡗ࡚ࠊ✲ᴟⓗ࡟ࡣ⮬ᕫᣦ♧ࡢࡳ࡟ࡼࡗ࡚ᨭ࠼ࡽࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࡢ࡛࠶ࡿࠋࡑࡋ࡚ࠊドゝࡣㄡ࠿ࢆ๓࡟ࡋ࡚⾜ࢃࢀࡿࡶࡢ࡛࠶ࡾࠊࡑࡢሙ࡛ぢ⪺ࡁࡋࡓࡇ࡜ࢆㄒࡗ࡚࠸ࡿドே࡜ࡋ࡚ࡢࠕ⚾ࢆಙࡌ࡚ࡃࡔࡉ࠸㸦Croyez-moi㸧ࠖ࡜࠸࠺௚⪅ࡢಙ࡬ࡢ࿧ࡧ࠿ࡅ
࡜࡞ࡿࠋࠕドゝࡀ᏶඲࡟☜ドࡉࢀࡿࡢࡣࠊࡶࡗࡥࡽドゝࢆཷࡅྲྀࡾཷࡅධࢀࡿ⪅ࡢࡇࡔࡲࡢࡼ࠺࡞ᛂ⟅࡟ࡼࡗ࡚ࡢࡳࡔ࡜࠸࠺ࡇ࡜࡟࡞ࡿࠋࡋࡓࡀࡗ࡚ࠊドゝ࡜ࡣ☜ドࡉࢀࡿࡔࡅ࡛࡞ࡃࠊಙ⏝ࡉࢀࡿࡢ࡛࠶ࡿࠖ
㸦205/253㸧ࠋࡶࡕࢁࢇࠊドゝࡣᚋ࡟ྐᩱ࡞࡝࡜✺ࡁྜࢃࡉࢀ࡚┿ഇࡀุᐃࡉࢀࠊఱࡽ࠿ࡢฟ᮶஦ࢆ☜ドࡉࡏࡿࡶࡢ࡜࡞ࡾ࠺ࡿࠋࡋ࠿ࡋࠊࡲࡎࡶ
ࡗ୍࡚ࡘࡢドゝࡣ⪺ࡁᡭࡀドேࢆドே࡜ࡋ࡚ಙ㢗ࡍࡿࡇ࡜࡟ࡼࡗ࡚ࠊドゝ࡜ࡋ࡚ཷࡅධ
ࢀࡽࢀࡿࡢ࡛࠶ࡿࠋᮡᮧ㟹ᙪࡶ㏙࡭ࡿࡼ࠺࡟ࠊࠕドゝࡣࠕ┿࠿ഇ࠿ࠖ࡜࠸࠺ၥ࠸ࡢᡭ๓
࡛ࠕಙࡌࡿ࠿␲࠺࠿ࠖࢆၥ࠺࡚ࡃࡿࠖ 32ࠋドே࡜ࡋ࡚ࡢಙ㢗ࡀᚓࡽࢀ࡞࠸࡜ࡁ࡟ࡣࠊࡑࡶࡑࡶドゝࡣドゝ࡜ࡋ࡚⪺ࡁධࢀࡽࢀ࡞࠸ࠋ௚ࡢドゝࡸྐᩱ࡟ࡼࡿドゝࡢ᳨ドࡣࠊドゝࡀドゝ࡜ࡋ࡚ཷࡅྲྀࡽࢀ࡚ࡣࡌࡵ࡚ᐇ᪋ࡋ࠺ࡿࠋࡉࡽ࡟ࠊドゝࡣドゝ࡜ࡋ࡚⪺ࡁᒆࡅࡽࢀࡓ࡜ࡋ࡚ࡶ␲࠸ࢆ࠿ࡅࡽࢀࡿྍ⬟ᛶࢆ᭷ࡋ࡚
࠸ࡿࠋࣜࢡ࣮ࣝ࡟ࡼࢀࡤࠊドゝ࡟ᑐࡍࡿ␲ᛕ࡟┤㠃ࡋࡓ࡜ࡁࠊドேࡣࠕ⚾ࢆಙࡌ࡞࠸ࡢ
࡞ࡽ௚ࡢே࡟⪺࠸࡚ࡃࡔࡉ࠸㸦Si vous ne me croyez pas demandez à quelqu'un d'autre㸧ࠖ࡜࿌ࡆࠊ⮬ࡽࢆ௚ࡢドゝࡸドே࡜ᑐỴࡍࡿㄽத✵㛫ࡢ࠺ࡕ࡟⨨ࡃࠋࡶࡕࢁࢇࡇࡢ஦ែࡣࠊ
ᮡᮧࡀᣦ᦬ࡍࡿࡼ࠺࡟ࠊࠕ⮬ᕫ⮬㌟ࡢドゝࡢ┦ᑐ໬ࢆ࠸ࡗࡓࢇཷࡅ࠸ࢀࡿ࡜࠸࠺ࡼ࠺࡞
ጇ༠⟇࡛ࠖࡣ࡞࠸ࠋ
ࠕࠕ⚾ࢆಙࡌ࡚ࡃࡔࡉ࠸ࠖ࡜࠸࠺ドゝࡢ࿧ࡧ࠿ࡅࡣỴࡋ࡚ࡑࡢຊࢆ⦆
ࡵ࡞࠸ࡢ࡛࠶ࡗ࡚ࠊࡔ࠿ࡽࡇࡑ⮬ࡽ㐍ࢇ࡛௚ࡢドゝ࡜ࡢ✺ࡁྜࢃࡏࡢሙ࡟ฟ࡚࠸ࡇ࠺࡜
ࡍࡿࠖ 33ࡢ࡛࠶ࡿࠋドேࡣࠊ⮬ࡽࡢドゝࢆሀᣢࡋࠊ␲࠸ࢆࡶࡗ࡚ㄝ᫂ࢆồࡵࡿேࠎ࡟⧞
ࡾ㏉ࡋドゝࡢෆᐜࢆㄒࡾࠊㄝ࡛᫂ࡁࡿࡇ࡜ࢆ♧ࡍࡇ࡜࡟ࡼࡗ࡚ࠊドゝࡢಙ㢗ᛶࢆቑࡑ࠺
࡜ࡍࡿࠋࡇ࠺ࡋࡓドゝࡢಙ㢗ᛶࠊᏳᐃᛶࡀඹྠయෆ࡛ඹ᭷ࡉࢀࠊไᗘ໬ࡉࢀࠊࢥࣔࣥࢭ
ࣥࢫ࡜࡞ࡗ࡚࠸ࡃࡇ࡜ࡀࠊ」ᩘࡢドゝࡢ㛫ࡢ୍⮴ࡸ୙୍⮴ࢆࡑࢀ࡜ࡋ࡚ᡂ❧ࡉࡏࠊグ㘓ᩥ❶ࡸྐᩱࡢᇶ┙ࢆᙧᡂࡍࡿࠋࡇࡢࡼ࠺࡞㆟ㄽࡣࠊᮡᮧࡶᣦ᦬ࡍࡿࡼ࠺࡟ࠊドேࡢ⮬ᕫᣦ♧࡟ᨭ࠼ࡽࢀࡓドゝࡀ᭱⤊ⓗ࡟බඹ✵㛫ࢆᙧᡂࡍࡿ࡜࠸࠺᝿ᐃࡀጇᙜ࡞ࡢ࠿ࠊ≉࡟ࠕドேࢆࠕ⮬ᕫࡢドゝࢆ࠸ࡘ࡛ࡶ⧞ࡾ㏉ࡍ‽ഛࡀ࡛ࡁ࡚࠸ࡿ⪅ࠖ࡜ࡋ࡚ᤊ࠼ࠊࡑࡇ࡟ドゝࡢࠕ㐨ᚨⓗḟඖࠖࢆㄞࡳ࡜ࡿ࡜࠸࠺ᙼࠝࣜࢡ࣮ࣝࠞࡢㄽࡢᒎ㛤ࡣࠊၥ㢟ࢆྵࢇ࡛࠸ࡿࠖ
34࠿ࡶࡋࢀ࡞࠸ࠋ࡜ࡣ࠸࠼ࠊࡇࡢ➨ 3 ࡢせ⣲ࡣࠊᕝཱྀⱱ㞝ࡀᣦ᦬ࡍࡿࡼ࠺࡟ࠊࠕドゝࡸドゝࡢሙ࡜࠸࠺ࡶࡢࢆࠊ♫఍࣭ඹྠయ࡜࠸࠺ᩥ⬦࡞࠸ࡋไᗘࡢ࡞࠿࡟࠾࠸࡚ᡂ❧ࡍࡿࡶࡢ࡜ࡋ࡚♧ࡍࠖ 35ࡶࡢ࡜ࡋ࡚ཷࡅ࡜ࡵࡿࡇ࡜ࡀ࡛ࡁࡿࠋ
32ᮡᮧ๓ᥖㄽᩥ䚸191 㡫䚹ᮡᮧ๓ᥖㄽᩥ䚸193 㡫䚹
34
ྠୖ䚹
35
ᕝཱྀ๓ᥖ᭩䚸215 㡫䚹
3390     Tadayoshi FURUSO

The Discourse of Religious Experience as Testimony‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬

5. ドゝ࡜ࡋ࡚ࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝ࡛ࡣࠊ⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝࡣࣜࢡ࣮ࣝࡢドゝㄽ࡟ࡼࡗ࡚࡝ࡢࡼ࠺࡟ศᯒ࡛ࡁࡿࡔࢁ࠺
࠿ࠋࡑࡢせⅬࢆ⡆₩࡟ゝ࠼ࡤࠊゝㄝ࡜య㦂ࡢ୍⮴ࡸㄒࡽࢀࡓෆᐜࡢ┿ഇࡀၥ㢟࡟࡞ࡿᡭ๓࡛ࠊゝㄝࡢ⪺ࡁᡭࡢࠕಙࠖࡢᒁ㠃࡟࠾࠸࡚ࡇࡢゝㄝࢆᤊ࠼ࡿࡇ࡜࡟ࡼࡗ࡚ࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝ࡟ࡋࡤࡋࡤࡲ࡜ࢃࡾࡘࡃၥ㢟̿̿ゝㄝࡢ⫼ᚋ࡟ゝㄝ࡟୍⮴ࡍࡿ᐀ᩍయ㦂࡞࡝᝿ᐃ࡛ࡁ࡞࠸ࡢ࡛ࡣ࡞࠸࠿ࠊṔྐⓗ࡞ㅖ᐀ᩍ࡟ᅃࢃࢀ࡞࠸㉸Ṕྐⓗ࡞᐀ᩍࡢᮏ㉁ࡀྵࡲࢀࡿ
ࡶࡢ࡜ࡋ࡚᐀ᩍయ㦂ࢆ᝿ᐃࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࡢ࡛ࡣ࡞࠸࠿ࠊ࡞࡝ 36̿̿ࢆᅇ㑊ࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡀ࡛ࡁࡿࠋ
⥘ᓥࡣࠕணࡀぢ⚄ࡢᐇ㦂ࠖ࡞࡝ࡢㄽ⪃࡛⮬ࡽࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࢆලయⓗ࡟ㄒࡾࠊㄒࡽࢀࡓ⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂࡟㛵ࡋ࡚㈶ྰ୧ㄽࡀᕳࡁ㉳ࡇࡗࡓࠋࡋ࠿ࡋࠊࡑࡶࡑࡶ࡝࠺ࡋ࡚⥘ᓥࡣ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡢලయⓗ࡞ෆᐜࢆㄒࡽ࡞ࡅࢀࡤ࡞ࡽ࡞࠿ࡗࡓࡢࡔࢁ࠺࠿ࠋࠕぢ⚄ࡢᐇ㦂ࠖࢆࡲࡉ࡟
ᚓ࡚࠸ࡓ᫬ᮇࡢ᭩⡆㸦1904 ᖺ 11 ᭶ 5 ᪥௜ࠊ㨶ఫᙳ㞝ᐄ㸧࡛᫂☜࡟㏙࡭ࡽࢀ࡚࠸ࡿࡼ࠺
࡟ࠊ⥘ᓥࡀㄽࡌࡓ࠸ࡇ࡜ࠊࡑࡋ࡚௚⪅࡟ఏ࠼ࡓ࠸ࡇ࡜ࡣࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡢෆᐜ࡛ࡣ࡞ࡃࠊ᐀
ᩍయ㦂ࢆ㏻ࡋ࡚⮬ᚓࡋࡓࠕぢ⚄ࡢ⛎⩏࡛ࠖ࠶ࡾࠊ⥘ᓥࡣࡇࡢ⛎⩏ࢆࠕఏ㐨ࠖࡍࡿ᪉ἲ࡟
ࡘ࠸࡚ᝎࢇ࡛࠸ࡿࠋࠕዴఱ࡟ࡍࢀࡤぢ⚄ࡢ⛎⩏㸦ከᑡ࡟࡚ࡶணࡢ⮬ᚓࡏࡿᡤࡢ㸧ࢆ᭱ࡶ᭷ຠ࡟ୡே࡟ఏࡩࡿࡇ࡜ࢆᚓ࡭ࡁ࠿ࡣṈ㡭ࡢ୍ၥ㢟࡟ೃ ໚ㄽㅝࡩᡤࡢ⣬ୖఏ㐨ࡢእ࡟㐨࡞ࡋ࡜ᛮ࡬࡝඼ࡢ᪉ἲࡀၥ㢟࡟࡞ࡾᒃೃஓࠖ
㸦9:215㸧ࠋ⥘ᓥ࡜࠸࠺࡜᐀ᩍయ㦂ࢆලయⓗ࡟ㄒࡗࡓㄽ⪃ࠕணࡀぢ⚄ࡢᐇ㦂࡛ࠖ᭷ྡ࡛࠶ࡾࠊ⥘ᓥࡢྠ᫬௦ࡢேࠎ࡟࡜ࡗ࡚ࡶ⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡢ᫝㠀ࡀࡉࡲࡊࡲ࡞㆟ㄽࢆ࿧ࢇࡔࡢࡔࡀࠊ⟶ぢࡢ㝈ࡾࠊ⥘ᓥࡀㄽ⪃ࡢ࡞࠿࡛⮬ศࡢయ㦂ࢆලయⓗ࡟グ㏙ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿ⟠ᡤࡣࠊศ㔞࡜ࡋ࡚ࡣࡑࢀ࡯࡝ከࡃ࡞ࡃࠊ⥘ᓥࡢㄽ⪃ࡢ୺せ࡞㒊ศࡣࠊࠕぢ⚄ࡢ⛎⩏࡛ࠖ࠶ࡿ࡜ࡇࢁࡢࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖࢆゎ᫂ࡍ࡭ࡃࡉࡲࡊ
ࡲ࡞᐀ᩍᛮ᝿ࡸဴᏛࢆ᳨ウࡍࡿࡶࡢ࡞ࡢ࡛࠶ࡿࠋࡑ࠺࡛࠶ࡿ࡞ࡽࡤࠊࡴࡋࢁయ㦂ࡢලయⓗ࡞グ㏙ࡣ⾜ࢃࡎࠊࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖ࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ㄝᚓⓗ࡟ㄽࡌࡿࡇ࡜࡟ὀຊࡍ࡭ࡁࡔࡗࡓࡢ
࡛ࡣ࡞࠸ࡔࢁ࠺࠿ࠋ
࡜ࡣ࠸࠼ࠊ⥘ᓥࡢᡭグࡸ᭩⡆ࢆㄞࡴ࡜ࠊ⥘ᓥࡣ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࢆዴᐇ࡟ㄒࡿࡇ࡜ࡢᚲせᛶࢆᙉࡃឤࡌ࡚࠸ࡓ࡜᥎

࡛ࡁࡿࠋඛ࡟ゝཬࡋࡓ᭩⡆࡟࠶ࡿࡼ࠺࡟ࠊࠕぢ⚄ࡢᐇ㦂ࠖࢆ⿕ࡿࡇ࡜࡟ࡼࡿ⥘ᓥࡢㄽ㏙ࡢ኱ࡁ࡞ኚ໬ࡢ୍ࡘࡣࠊ⥘ᓥࡢ࡞࠿࡛ࠕఏ㐨ࠖ࡜࠸࠺ၥ㢟ࡀ㢧ᅾ໬ࡍࡿࡇ࡜࡛࠶ࡗࡓࠋࡑࡋ࡚ࠊ
ࠕぢ⚄ࡢ⛎⩏ࠖࢆୡே࡟ఏ࠼ࡡࡤ࡞ࡽ࡞࠸࡜ឤࡌࡓ࡜ࡁࠊ
᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡢලయⓗ࡞ᥥ෗ࡀᚲせࡔ࡜⥘ᓥࡣ⪃࠼ࡓࠋࡑࡢ⌮⏤ࡣࠊ⮬ศࡀ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡢሙ࡟࠸ࡓࡇ࡜ࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡢドே࡛࠶ࡿࡇ࡜ࢆ⮬ࡽ♧ࡍࡓࡵ࡛࠶ࡗࡓ࡜⌮ゎ࡛ࡁࡿࠋࡶࡕࢁࢇࠊ
⥘ᓥ⮬㌟࡟࡜ࡗ࡚ࡣ⮬ࡽࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝࡢ⫼ᚋ࡟ࡣ⚄࡜ࡢඹᅾࡢᐇయ㦂ࡀᏑࡋ࡚࠸ࡓ
ࡇ࡜࡛࠶ࢁ࠺ࡀࠊ⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝࢆศᯒࡍࡿ❧ሙ࠿ࡽࡍࢀࡤࠊ⥘ᓥࡢゝㄝ࡟୍⮴ࡍࡿ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࢆ๓ᥦࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࡣ࡛ࡁ࡞࠸ࠋࡑࡇ࡛ᮏ✏࡛ࡣࠊ⥘ᓥࡢලయⓗ࡞య㦂ࡢㄒࡾࢆࠊ

36䛯䛸䛘䜀䚸௨ୗ䜢ཧ↷䛾䛣䛸䚹䝻䝞䞊䝖䞉䝅䝱䞊䝣䠄ⴱす㈼ኴヂ䠅䛂16 య㦂䛃ዟᒣ೔᫂┘ヂ䛄᐀ᩍᏛᚲ㡲⏝ㄒ 22䛅ยỈ᭩ᡣ䚸2008 ᖺ䚸380ࠥ410 㡫䚹91‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4ࠕ⚾ࡣ⚄࡜࡜ࡶ࡟ࡑࡇ࡟࠸ࡲࡋࡓࠖ࡜࠸࠺ドேࡢ⮬ᕫᣦ♧࡜࠸࠺ᙧ࡛ࠊ⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝ඲యࢆᨭ࠼࡚࠸ࡿ࡜⌮ゎࡋࡓ࠸ࠋࡑࡋ࡚ࠊ⥘ᓥࡢᛮ᝿ࡀ⮬㌟ࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂࠿ࡽ⏕ᡂࡍࡿドゝ࡛࠶ࡿ࠿ࡽࡇࡑࠊࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖࡢᛮ᝿ⓗ࡞ጇᙜᛶࡸ᫝㠀ࡀၥࢃࢀࡿᡭ๓࡛ࠊఱࡽ࠿ࡢࠕಙࠖࢆせồࡍࡿࠋ⥘ᓥࡢゝㄝࡣࠊ⥘ᓥࢆ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡢドே࡜ࡋ࡚ㄆࡵࡿゝㄝཷᐜ⪅ࢆᚲせ࡜ࡍࡿࠋࡋࡓࡀࡗ࡚ࠊ⥘ᓥࡢゝㄝࡣࠊఱࡽ࠿ࡢᩍ⩏ࡢᕸᩍ࡟ࡣࡳ࠼࡞࠸࡜ࡋ࡚ࡶࠊ⮬ࡽࡢゝㄝ࡟ᑐࡍࡿ௚⪅ࡢཷᐜࢆ࿧ࡧồࡵࡿゝㄝࡔ࡜࠸࠺㝈ࡾ࡛ࠊࠕఏ㐨ࠖ࡜ゝ࠸࠺ࡿࠋࡇࡢఏ㐨࡟࠾࠸࡚㔜せ࡞ࡢࡣࠊドே࡜ࡋ࡚ࡢಙ㢗ᛶ࡛࠶ࡿࠋ⥘ᓥࡢゝㄝࡢཷᐜ⪅ࡢ࡞࠿࡟ࡣࠊ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍࡸ௖ᩍ࡟ᖐᒓព㆑ࢆࡶࡘ⪅ࡶࠊ᐀ᩍ࣭᐀ὴ࡟ᖐᒓព㆑ࢆࡶࡓ࡞࠸㸦ࡶ࡚࡞࠸㸧⪅ࡶ࠸ࡓࠋࡋ࠿ࡋࠊ⥘ᓥ࡜␗࡞ࡿᛮ᝿ࡸయ㦂ࢆࡶࡕࠊ␗࡞ࡿ᐀ᩍⓗ࡞ᖐᒓព㆑
ࢆࡶࡘ⪅ࡓࡕࡶ⥘ᓥࡢゝㄝࢆཷᐜࡋࡓࡋࠊ⥘ᓥࡶࠕ⚄Ꮚᩍࠖࡢᩍ⩏ࢆ㐨཭ࡓࡕ࡟ᢲࡋࡘ
ࡅࡿࡢ࡛ࡣ࡞ࡃࠊࡴࡋࢁ㐨཭ࡓࡕࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡸ᐀ᩍⓗឤ᝿࠿ࡽᙳ㡪ࢆཷࡅ࡚⮬ࡽࡢᛮ᝿ࡸయ㦂ࢆ῝໬ࡉࡏࡓࠋ㐨཭ࡓࡕࡀ⥘ᓥࡢࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖࡢᛮ᝿࡟ඹឤࡋࠊ⥘ᓥ࡜࡜ࡶ࡟
ࡺࡿࡸ࠿࡞᐀ᩍⓗඹྠᛶࢆᙧᡂࡋ࡚ᙳ㡪ࢆཬࡰࡋྜ࠺ࡇ࡜ࢆྍ⬟࡟ࡋࡓࡢࡣࠊ⥘ᓥࡢドே࡜ࡋ࡚ࡢಙ㢗ᛶࡔࡗࡓ࡜ᛮࢃࢀࡿࠋ
ࡑࡢಙ㢗ᛶࢆ⏕ࡳฟࡋࡓࡢࡣࠊࣜࢡ࣮ࣝࡢゝ࠺ࡼ࠺࡟ࠕࡶࡋ⚾ࢆಙࡌ࡞࠸ࡢ࡞ࡽ௚ࡢ
ே࡟⪺࠸࡚ࡃࡔࡉ࠸ࠖ࡜௚ࡢドゝ࡬࡜ಁࡋࡘࡘࠊ⮬ࡽࡢドゝࢆ୍㈏ࡋ࡚⧞ࡾ㏉ࡍࡇ࡜࡟࠶ࡿࡼ࠺࡟ᛮࢃࢀࡿࠋࡇࡢࠕ௚ࡢே࡟⪺࠸࡚ࡃࡔࡉ࠸ࠖ࡜࠸࠺ഃ㠃ࡣ 2 ࡘ࡟ศࡅ࡚⪃࠼ࡽࢀࡿࠋ➨୍࡟⥘ᓥࡀࠕ⚄Ꮚᩍࠖ࡜ࡋ࡚㧗ࡃホ౯ࡍࡿ࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍࡸίᅵᩍࢆཧ↷ࡋ࡚᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝࢆᵓ⠏ࡋࡓࡇ࡜࡛࠶ࡿࠋ⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝࡣࠊ⮬ศ࡜ྠ㉁ࡔࡀࡼࡾ༟㉺ࡋࡓయ㦂ࢆࡶࡘ㸦࡜⥘ᓥࡀ⪃࠼࡚࠸ࡿ㸧࢟ࣜࢫࢺࡸዴ᮶ࡢゝㄝ࡟⪥ࢆഴࡅࡿࡇ࡜ࢆồࡵ࡚࠸ࡿࠋ⥘ᓥࡢሙྜࡣ⥘ᓥࡢドゝࢆࠊ⮬ࡽ࡜ᑐ❧ࡍࡿドゝ࡟✺ࡁྜࢃࡉࢀࡿሙ࡟᫹ࡍࡢ࡛
ࡣ࡞ࡃࠊྠࡌぢゎࢆࡶࡘ㸦࡜⥘ᓥࡀ⪃࠼ࡿ㸧ドゝ࡟✺ࡁྜࢃࡏࡿࡢࡔࡀࠊ࡜ࡶ࠿ࡃ⥘ᓥࡣࠊ⮬㌟ࡢゝㄝ࡜ྠ㢮ࡢࠊࡋ࠿ࡶ⮬㌟ࡢゝㄝࡼࡾࡶ༟㉺ࡋࡓ࢟ࣜࢫࢺࡸዴ᮶ࡢゝㄝ࡜ྠࡌ✵㛫࡟⮬ࡽࡢゝㄝࢆ⨨ࡁධࢀࡿࡇ࡜࡛ࠊ
ࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖࡢᛮ᝿࡬࡜ㄞ⪅ࢆᑟࡇ࠺࡜ࡋࠊ
⥘ᓥ⮬㌟ࡢయ㦂ࡸᛮ᝿ࢆ῝ࡵࡿࡇ࡜࡟ࡶ࡞ࡗࡓࠋ
ࠕ௚ࡢே࡟⪺࠸࡚ࡃࡔࡉ࠸ࠖࡢ➨஧ࡢഃ㠃ࡣࠊ௚ࡢ㐨཭࡟⪺࠸࡚ࡃࡔࡉ࠸ࠊ࡛࠶ࡿࠋ࡜ࡾࢃࡅす⏣ኳ㤶ࡢᏑᅾࡀ኱ࡁ࠸ࠋ⏕๓ࡢ⥘ᓥࡣす⏣ࢆ㧗ࡃホ౯ࡋࠊ↓ྡࡢす⏣ࢆ᪩ࡃ࠿ࡽୡ࡟⤂௓ࡋࡓே≀࡛ࡶ࠶ࡿࠋ➨ 2 ⠇࡛ゐࢀࡓ㞧ㄅห⾜ィ⏬࡟࠾࠸࡚ࡶす⏣ࡣ୰ᚰே≀ࡢ୍ே࡛࠶ࡾࠊ⥘ᓥࡢṚᚋࡶ⥘ᓥࢆះ࠺㐨཭ࡓࡕࡢ㛫࡛ 2 ᖺ௨ୖᅇぴࡉࢀࡓࣀ࣮
ࢺࠊࠗᅇぴ㞟࠘࡟࠾࠸࡚ࡶす⏣ࡣ⊂⮬ࡢぢゎࢆ᭩ࡁ⥆ࡅࠊ㐨཭ࡢᑛᩗ࡜ಙ㢗ࢆ㞟ࡵࡓࠋ⥘ᓥࡢࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖࡢᛮ᝿࡟ඹឤࡋ࡚ከࡃࡢ㐨཭ࡀ⥘ᓥࡢࡶ࡜࡟㞟ࡗࡓࡀࠊ⥘ᓥࡶࡲࡓᑛᩗࡍࡿす⏣ࡽࡢᛮ᝿ࡸᐇ㊶࡟ᙳ㡪ࡉࢀ࡚⮬ࡽࡢᛮ⣴ࢆ῝ࡵࡓࠋ㐨཭ࡓࡕࡣ⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡸ⥘ᓥࡢᛮ᝿ࢆᅛᐃⓗ࡞ࡶࡢ࡜ࡋ࡚ཷᐜࡋ࡚࠸ࡓࡢ࡛ࡣ࡞࠸ࠋࠕ⚄ࡢᏊࠖ࡜࠸࠺

92     Tadayoshi FURUSO

The Discourse of Religious Experience as Testimony‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬ᴫᛕ࡛ࡍࡽࠊ⥘ᓥ࡜す⏣࡜ࡢ㛫࡛㔜኱࡞୙୍⮴ࡀ࠶ࡿ 37ࠋࡴࡋࢁࠊ⥘ᓥ࡜㐨཭ࡓࡕࡣࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖࡢᛮ᝿ࢆ୰ᚰ࡟ࡺࡿࡸ࠿࡟ࡘ࡞ࡀࡗ࡚ࠊྛ⮬ࡀ⮬ࡽࡢᛮ᝿ࡸయ㦂ࢆඹ᭷ࡋ࡞
ࡀࡽࠊྛ⮬࡛ᛮ᝿ࡸᐇ㊶ࢆ῝ࡵ࡚࠸ࡗࡓ࡜ᤊ࠼ࡽࢀࡿࠋఱࡽ࠿ࡢᩍ⩏ࢆಙ௮ࡍࡿ㞟ᅋ࡛ࡣ࡞ࡃࠊྛ⮬ࡀ⮬ࡽࡢయ㦂ࡸᛮ᝿ࠊಙ௮ࡢドே࡜ࡋ࡚ࠊ㐨཭ࡓࡕࡢಙ࡟⮬ࡽࡢゝㄝࢆጤࡡࡿࡇ࡜࡟ࡼࡗ࡚ඹྠᛶࡣᡂ❧ࡋ࡚࠸ࡓࡢ࡛࠶ࡿࠋ
ࡲࡓࠊ⥘ᓥࡢゝㄝࡢ୍㈏ᛶ࡟ࡶὀ┠ࡍ࡭ࡁ࡛࠶ࡿࠋඛ㏙ࡢ㏻ࡾࠊึᮇࡢ೔⌮ᛮ᝿࠿ࡽᬌᖺࡢ᐀ᩍᛮ᝿࡟ᒎ㛤ࡍࡿ⥘ᓥࡢᛮ᝿ࡢ⌮ㄽⓗ࡞㒊ศࡣ࠾࠾ࡴࡡ୍㈏ࡋ࡚࠸ࡿࠋ᐀ᩍ࡟
ࡘ࠸࡚⌮ㄽⓗ࡟ࠊࡋ࠿ࡶὶ㯇࡞ᩥయ୍࡛㈏ᛶࢆࡶࡗࡓ᐀ᩍᛮ᝿ࢆㄒࡾ⥆ࡅࡓࡇ࡜ࡀࠊ᐀
ᩍࡸဴᏛࡢ⣲㣴ࡢ࠶ࡿㄞ⪅࡟ཷࡅ࠸ࢀࡽࢀࠊࠕ⚄Ꮚࡢ⮬ぬࠖࡢドே࡜ࡋ࡚ࡢಙ㢗ᛶࢆ㧗ࡵࡓࡢ࡛࠶ࡿࠋ
㸨ᮏ✏࡛ࡣ⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝࢆᤊ࠼ࡿࡢ࡟ࡩࡉࢃࡋ࠸ᯟ⤌ࡳࢆ᥈ồࡍࡿࡇ࡜ࢆ┠ⓗ࡜ࡋ࡚ 4 ࡘࡢᴫᛕࢆྲྀࡾୖࡆࡓࠋ᐀ᩍከඖ୺⩏࡜」ྜ᐀ᩍᖐᒓࠊ᐀ᩍⓗ୺య໬ㄽࡣࠊ⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝ඲యࡢศᯒ࡟⏝࠸ࡿ㝿࡟ࡣၥ㢟ࡀ⏕ࡌࡿ࡜⤖ㄽ࡙ࡅࡓࡀࠊࡇࡢ 3 ࡘࡢᴫᛕࡢᛮ᝿ⓗ࡞ព⩏ࢆྰᐃࡍࡿࢃࡅ࡛ࡣ࡞࠸ࠋᮏ✏࡛ࡣࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂ࡢ᰿※ⓗ࡞ཷືᛶࡸࠊ
⥘ᓥࡢ」ᩘ᐀ᩍ࡟㛵ࢃࡿ௙᪉ࠊ㐨཭ࡓࡕ࡜ࡢ㛵ಀᛶ࡞࡝ࢆ㋃ࡲ࠼ࡓୖ࡛ࠊ⥘ᓥࡢ᐀ᩍయ
㦂ゝㄝࡢศᯒ࡟ࡩࡉࢃࡋ࠸ᴫᛕ࡜ࡋ࡚ドゝࢆぢฟࡋࡓࠋࡶࡕࢁࢇࠊ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝࡢศᯒ୍⯡࡟ドゝᴫᛕࡀ᭷⏝࡛࠶ࡿ࡜ࡲ࡛ࡣゝ࠼࡞࠸ࠋドゝࡢᴫᛕࡀ⥘ᓥ௨እࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂ゝㄝࡢศᯒ࡟࡝ࡢ⛬ᗘ㐺⏝࡛ࡁࡿࡢ࠿ࠊࡉࡽ࡟⪃ᐹࡋ࡚࠸ࡃᚲせࡀ࠶ࡿࠋཧ⪃ᩥ⊩Cornille, Catherine. “Multiple Religious Belonging”, in D. Cheetham, D. Pratt, D. Thomas (ed.),Understanding Interreligious Relations, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013, pp. 324-340.
Hick, John. The Rainbow of Faiths: Critical Dialogues on Religious Pluralism, London, SCM Press, 1995.
㸦㛫℩ၨඔヂࠗ᐀ᩍࡀࡘࡃࡿ⹿̿̿᐀ᩍከඖ୺⩏࡜⌧௦࠘ᒾἼ᭩ᗑࠊ1997 ᖺ㸧Ricœur, Paul. La mémoire, l'histoire, l'oubli, Paris, Seuil, 2000. 㸦ஂ⡿༤ヂࠗグ᠈࣭Ṕྐ࣭ᛀ༷㸦ୖ㸧࠘᪂᭙♫ࠊ2004 ᖺ㸧῝⃝ⱥ㝯ࠗၨⵚ࡜㟋ᛶ̿̿㏆௦᐀ᩍゝㄝࡢ⏕ᡂ࡜ኚᐜ࠘ᒾἼ᭩ᗑࠊ2006 ᖺࠋྂⲮ໷⩏ࠕ↓᐀ᩍ⪅࡟ࡼࡿ᐀ᩍ࡜ࡢᑐヰ̿̿᐀ᩍࡢయ㦂࡜」ྜ᐀ᩍᖐᒓࡢどⅬ࠿ࡽ̿̿ࠖ୰ᮧ༤
Ṋ࣭ྂⲮ໷⩏࣭ᮏከ┿࣭ᒸᓮ⚽㯢ࠗ᐀ᩍࢆ㛤ࡃ̿̿᐀ᩍከඖ୺⩏ࢆ㉺࠼࡚̿̿࠘⪷බ఍ฟ∧ࠊ
2015 ᖺࠊ3㹼74 㡫ࠋ37㻌 す⏣䛸䛾ᛮ᝿ⓗ஺ὶ䚸す⏣䛸⥘ᓥ䛾ᛮ᝿ⓗ䛺ඹ㏻Ⅼ䛸ᕪ␗䛻䛴䛔䛶䛿௨ୗ䛷ㄽ䛨䛯䛣䛸䛜䛒䜛䚹䛂᐀ᩍయ㦂䛻ᇶ䛵䛟」ྜ᐀ᩍᐇ㊶䛾ㅖ┦䇷䇷⥘ᓥᱱᕝ䛛䜙す⏣ኳ㤶䜈䛃㱟㇂኱Ꮫᅜ㝿♫఍ᩥ໬◊✲ᡤ⦅䛄㱟㇂኱Ꮫᅜ㝿♫఍ᩥ໬◊✲ᡤ⣖せ䛅➨ 22 ྕ䚸2020 ᖺ䚸203䡚215 㡫䚹93‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4̿̿ࠕ᫂἞᐀ᩍ࣭೔⌮ᛮ᝿࡟࠾ࡅࡿ⥘ᓥᱱᕝࡢࠕಶே᱁ࠖࡢព⩏ࠖ᐀ᩍ೔⌮Ꮫ఍⦅ࠗ᐀ᩍ࡜೔⌮࠘
17 ྕࠊ2017 ᖺࠊ44ࠥ58 㡫ࠋ̿̿ࠕࠗᅇぴ㞟࠘ࡢ࡞࠿ࡢす⏣ኳ㤶㸦㸧̿̿ᇼ⡿ᗣኴ㑻࡜ࡢ㆟ㄽ࠿ࡽ୍̿̿ࠖ⇠ᅬ࣭ᐉග♫⦅ࠗග࠘1164 ྕࠊ2018 ᖺࠊ21㹼31 㡫ࠋ̿̿ࠕࠗᅇぴ㞟࠘ࡢ࡞࠿ࡢす⏣ኳ㤶㸦㸧̿̿ࠗᅇぴ㞟࠘࡜ࡣఱ࠿୍ࠖ⇠ᅬ࣭ᐉග♫⦅ࠗග࠘1171
ྕࠊ2018 ᖺࠊ14㹼21 㡫ࠋ̿̿ࠕ᐀ᩍయ㦂࡟ᇶ࡙ࡃ」ྜ᐀ᩍᐇ㊶ࡢㅖ┦䇷䇷⥘ᓥᱱᕝ࠿ࡽす⏣ኳ㤶࡬ࠖ㱟㇂኱Ꮫᅜ㝿♫఍ᩥ໬◊✲ᡤ⦅ࠗ㱟㇂኱Ꮫᅜ㝿♫఍ᩥ໬◊✲ᡤ⣖せ࠘➨ 22 ྕࠊ2020 ᖺࠊ203㹼215 㡫ࠋ̿̿ࠕ⥘ᓥᱱᕝ࡟࠾ࡅࡿぢ⚄࡜ᢈホࠖ᐀ᩍ೔⌮Ꮫ఍⦅ࠗ᐀ᩍ࡜೔⌮࠘➨ 20 ྕࠊ2020 ᖺࠊ65㹼79㡫ࠋ̿̿ࠕ⥘ᓥᱱᕝࡢ᐀ᩍయ㦂࡜᐀ᩍဴᏛࠖ᐀ᩍဴᏛ఍⦅ࠗ᐀ᩍဴᏛ◊✲࠘➨ 38 ྕࠊ2021 ᖺ 3 ᭶ห⾜ணᐃࠋ℈⏣㝧ࠕ᐀ᩍከඖㄽࠖᫍ㔝ⱥ⣖࣭ụୖⰋṇ࣭Ềከ㞞Ꮚ࣭ᓥⷵ㐍࣭㭯ᒸ㈡㞝⦅ࠗ᐀ᩍᏛ஦඾࠘୸ၿࠊ
2010 ᖺࠊ573㹼574 㡫ࠋ☾๓㡰୍ࠕኳⓚไᅜᐙ࡜వⓑࠖ᪥ᮏ᐀ᩍᏛ఍⦅ࠗ᐀ᩍ◊✲࠘89 ᕳ 2 ྕࠊ2015 ᖺࠊ193㹼216 㡫ࠋᒾ⏣ᩥ᫛ࠕίᅵᩍ࡟࠾ࡅࡿᅇᚰ࡜ࡑࡢ≀ㄒ̿̿㏆ゅᖖほ࣭⥘ᓥᱱᕝ࣭す⏣ኳ㤶̿̿ࠖ኱㜰ᩍ⫱኱Ꮫ⦅ࠗ኱㜰ᩍ⫱኱Ꮫ⣖せ ேᩥ♫఍⛉Ꮫ࣭⮬↛⛉Ꮫ࠘➨ 67 ᕳࠊ2019 ᖺࠊ57㹼72 㡫ࠋᕝཱྀⱱ㞝ࠗ⾲㇟࡜࢔ࣝࢩ࣮ࣦࡢゎ㔘Ꮫ̿̿ࣜࢡ࣮ࣝ࡜ࠗグ᠈ࠊṔྐࠊᛀ༷࠘࠘ி㒔኱ᏛᏛ⾡ฟ∧
఍ࠊ2012 ᖺࠋబࠎᮌ⿱ᏊࠕᕝྜಙỈࠖ஭ୖ㡰Ꮥ⦅ࠗ㏆௦᪥ᮏࡢ᐀ᩍᐙ 101࠘᪂᭩㤋ࠊ2007 ᖺࠊ54㹼55 㡫ࠋ䝻䝞䞊䝖䞉䝅䝱䞊䝣䠄ⴱす㈼ኴヂ䠅䛂16 య㦂䛃ዟᒣ೔᫂┘ヂ䛄᐀ᩍᏛᚲ㡲⏝ㄒ 22䛅ยỈ᭩ᡣ䚸2008 ᖺ䚸
380ࠥ410 㡫䚹ᓥⷵ㐍࣭Ᏻ୸Ⰻኵ࣭☾๓㡰୍ࠗẸ⾗᐀ᩍㄽ̿̿᐀ᩍⓗ୺య໬࡜ࡣఱ࠿࠘ᮾி኱Ꮫฟ∧఍ࠊ2019 ᖺࠋᮎᮌᩥ⨾ኈࠗ᫂἞ᛮ᝿ᐙㄽ㸦㏆௦᪥ᮏࡢᛮ᝿࣭෌⪃Ϩ㸧࠘ࢺࣛࣥࢫࣅ࣮ࣗࠊ2004 ᖺࠋᮡᮧ㟹ᙪࠕドゝ࠿ࡽṔྐ࡬̿̿ᑐヰࡢ⮫⏺࡟❧ࡗ࡚̿̿ࠖ
ࠗேᩥ▱ࡢ᪂ࡓ࡞⥲ྜ࡟ྥࡅ࡚䇷䇷21
ୡ⣖ COE ࣉࣟࢢ࣒ࣛࠕࢢ࣮ࣟࣂࣝ໬᫬௦ࡢከඖⓗேᩥᏛࡢᣐⅬᙧᡂࠖ➨ 2 ᅇሗ࿌᭩Ϫ㸦ဴᏛ
⠍ 2㸧
࠘ࠊ2004 ᖺࠊ181㹼202 㡫ࠋ̿̿ࠕ᐀ᩍဴᏛ࡬̿̿ドゝ࡜࠸࠺ၥ㢟⣔࠿ࡽ㸦1㸧ࠖி㒔ဴᏛ఍⦅ࠗဴᏛ◊✲࠘585 ྕࠊ2008 ᖺࠊ
61㹼85 㡫ࠋ̿̿ࠕ᐀ᩍဴᏛ࡬̿̿ドゝ࡜࠸࠺ၥ㢟⣔࠿ࡽ㸦2㸧ࠖி㒔ဴᏛ఍⦅ࠗဴᏛ◊✲࠘586 ྕࠊ2008 ᖺࠊ
1㹼23 㡫ࠋ⥘ᓥᱱᕝࠗᱱᕝ඲㞟࠘㸦」้∧㸧඲ 10 ᕳࠊูᕳ 2 ᕳࠊ኱✵♫ࠊ1995 ᖺࠋᏱబ⨾ⱥኴ㑻⦅ࠗᅇぴ㞟࠘඲ 7 ᕳ㸦ᮍฟ∧㸧ࠋΏ㎶ඃࠗࢪࣕࣥ㸻ࢪࣙࢭࣇ࣭ࢫࣗࣛࣥ̿̿ ୍୐ୡ⣖ࣇࣛࣥࢫ⚄⛎୺⩏ࡢගⰢ࠘៞᠕⩏ሿ኱Ꮫฟ∧఍ࠊ2016 ᖺࠋ94‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬

0HWDSKRULFDO,QWHUSUHWDWLRQVRI³.DO\Ɨ৆amitra”
in the Ga۬‫ڲ‬aY\ǌha-sǌtra
˨in English˩

Jianrong SHIAssistant Researcher, International Centre for Hua-yen Studies95‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

Abstract,Q ERWK 3ƗOL DQG 0DKƗ\ƗQD traditions, NDO\Ɨ۬amitra—a spiritual benefactor/friend,good companion—has been depicted as a crucial element which has the most decisive impact
upon one’s religious practice. Although the concept of NDO\Ɨ۬amitra is present in all Buddhist
traditions, a significant difference can be observed in the way it is symbolized. The aim of
this study is to analyze how the various features of NDO\Ɨ۬amitra are revealed through themetaphors in the Ga۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKD-VǌWUD ZLWKLQ WKH IUDPHZRUN RI WKH &RQFHSWXDO 0HWDSKRU
Theory. According to the cognitive linguistic view of metaphor, each of various metaphorspartially structures a concept and jointly provides a coherent understanding of the concept as
a whole. This paper investigates metaphors with NDO\Ɨ۬amitra as the target domain from twoangles: 1) it summarizes the source domains which are mapped to the NDO\Ɨ۬amitra; and 2)
examines the diversity of perspective takings, i.e. the prominent features in the source domainthat get mapped onto the target domain.
Through the analysis of the single target projected from multiple sources, this study
demonstrates that specific features in a source domain which are mapped onto NDO\Ɨ۬amitra
are mainly activated by a verb or verbal phrase in sentences. As for this linguistic category,the mapping relationships between NDO\Ɨ۬amitra and its multiple source domains in theGa۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKD FDQ EH FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ WKH IROORZLQJ VFKHPDV .$/<Ɩ৅$0,75$ ,6 $
*8,'( .$/<Ɩ৅$0,75$ ,6 $ 3527(&725 DQG .$/<Ɩ৅$0,75$ ,6 $
*(1(5$7257KHVHFRQFHSWXDOPDSSLQJVare grounded on a cognitive perspective that a
SXUSRVHIXO /,)( LV WKH XQLI\LQJ FRQFHSW RI D -2851(< ZKLFK RFFXUV LQ DOO %XGGKLVW
traditions and provides the basis for various metaphorical conceptualizations.

96Jianrong SHIMetaphorical ,QWHUSUHWDWLRQVRI³.DO\Ɨ৆amitra” in the Ga۬‫ڲ‬aY\ǌha-sǌtra‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬

0HWDSKRULFDO,QWHUSUHWDWLRQVRI³.DO\Ɨ৆amitra” in theGa۬‫ڲ‬aY\ǌha-sǌtra*
Jianrong SHI
Keywords:

NDO\Ɨ۬amitra, VKDQ]KLVKL, 0etaphor, Ga۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKD,&RQFHSWXDO0HWDSKRU7KHRU\

Introduction
The aim of this study is to analyze how the various features of NDO\Ɨ۬amitra are revealed
through metaphors in the Ga۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKD-VǌWUD (hereinafter referred to as Gv) within the
IUDPHZRUN RI &RQFHSWXDO 0HWDSKRU 7KHRU\ ,Q ERWK 3ƗOL DQG 0DKƗ\ƗQD WUDGLWLRQV
kaO\Ɨ۬amitra 3ƗOLNDO\Ɨ۬amitta, Ch. VKjQ]KƯVKu ၿ▱㆑) —a spiritual benefactor, goodcompanion— has been depicted as a crucial element which has the most decisive impact
upon one’s religious practice. Although the concept of NDO\Ɨ۬amitra is present in all
Buddhist traditions, a significant difference can be observed in the way it is symbolized.1
Visiting NDO\Ɨ۬amitras and seeking after their teachings is the theme of Gv. As a result,
WKLVVǌWUDLVIUHTXHQWO\UHIHUUHGWRDVWKHWH[WXDOHYLGHQFHIRUVKRZLQJWKHimportance of
NDO\Ɨ۬amitra on one’s spiritual path. In the course of search for the next spiritual counsel,
the seeker, Sudhana (Ch. 6KjQFiL ၿ㈈), several times contemplates manifold virtues of
NDO\Ɨ۬amitras, describing them by means of multiple metaphors.
Similes (Skt. XSDPƗ) and metaphors (Skt. UǌSDND) play an indispensable role in the
PRGHRIUHDVRQLQJ%XGGKLVWVFULSWXUHVHPSOR\,WLVRIWHQVHHQLQWKH3ƗOL&DQRQWKDWWKH
Buddha expounds a viewpoint (Skt. NƗUD۬Dۨ) by providing a simile (Skt. XSDPƗ),introducing it with the standard formula: “As to that, friend, I shall give you a simile, forsome wise men understand the meaning of a statement by means of a simile.” 2 Both*I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the reviewers for their comments which helped to
LPSURYH WKH TXDOLW\ RI WKH RULJLQDO PDQXVFULSW 0\ VSHFLDO WKDQNV WR 6DVKD /\DSLQD IRU FRUUHFWLQJ
English of this paper and her valuable suggestions.
1
Har Dayal, 7KH%RGKLVDWWYD'RFWULQHLQ%XGGKLVW6DQVNULW/LWHUDWXUH (London: Kegan Paul, Trench,
7UXEQHU &R/WG 'RXJODV(GZDUG2VWR3RZHU:HDOWKDQG:RPHQLQ,QGLDQ0DKƗ\ƗQD%XGGKLVP7KH*D۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKD-sutra (London and New York: Routledge, 2009), 25.
2 7KLVIRUPXODLFH[SUHVVLRQLQ3ƗOLWH[WVZLWKPLQRUYDULDWLRQVLVH[SUHVVHGDV³WHQDKLx XSDPDۨWH
NDULVVƗPL XSDPƗ\DSLGKHNDFFH YLxxǌ SXULVƗ EKƗVLWDVVD DWWKDۨ ƗMƗQDQWL” Friedrich Grohmann,³µ=Ku]KČ¶ZqLEu\ԁX]KuKXu—WiQWiQµ\ӿSu\GpMLČ¶´ࠕᬛ⪅ࠖᮍᚲ᭷ᬛ្——ㄯㄯࠕ௨㆜╣ᚓゎࠖ,ἲග > 'KDUPD/LJKW0RQWKO\@ -DQXDU\ 

97

Journal of World Buddhist Cultures‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Vol. 4

metaphors and similes are often used to make unfamiliar familiar, by taking a concrete
concept (source domain) to describe an abstract concept (target domain). 3 However, aconceptual domain can be presented from a number of different perspectives. When asubtle comparison reveals a hidden connection or resemblance, metaphor can make usreconsider a familiar concept or experience by disclosing some essential aspects of it.
,QGHHGLQWHUPVRIWKH&RQFHSWXDO0HWDSKRU7KHRU\ &07 ³PHWDSKRULVDVHWRIFURVVdomain mappings.”  It is customary to represent such mapping relationships with thenotation of A IS B. 5 For example, a journey is a conventional metaphor for life, and in
WKHFRQFHSWXDOPHWDSKRU/,)(,6$-2851(<WKHLQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHWDUJHWDQG
source domains can be illustrated in the following schema. 6
The source domain: JOURNEY

The target domain: LIFE

Traveler

The agent, person leading a life

Fellow-travelers

Friends, partners

The beginning of the journey

BirthThe end of the journey

Death

To reach destination

To achieve a goal

Crossroads

Dilemma, the necessity of choice

2EVWDFOH

Difficulties

Ups and downs (on the road)

Good and bad situation$GRSWLQJWKHYLHZRI&07WKDWHDFKRIYDULRXVPHWDSKRUVSDUWLDOO\VWUXFWXUHVDconcept and jointly provide a coherent understanding of the concept as a whole, 7 thispaper investigates metaphors with the NDO\Ɨ۬amitra as the target domain from the twoangles: 1) it summarizes multiple source domains which are mapped onto NDO\Ɨ۬amitra;and 2) examines the diversity of perspective takings, i.e. the prominent features in the3

J. I. Saeed, 6HPDQWLFV (London: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 1997), 303.
Zoltán Kövecses, /DQJXDJH0LQGDQG&XOWXUH 2[IRUG2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV 
5
,ELG
6
TKHVFKHPDLVUHYLVHGIURPGLDJUDPVRI(6XEERWLQD ³&21&(378$/0(7$3+25´6FR'LV,
accessed August 31, 2020, http://scodis.com/for-students/glossary/conceptual-metaphor/) and
Kövecses (/DQJXDJH0LQGDQG&XOWXUH, 116).
7
Lakoff and Johnson, 0HWDSKRUV:H/LYH%\ (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2003), 89.
98Jianrong SHIMetaphorical ,QWHUSUHWDWLRQVRI³.DO\Ɨ৆amitra” in the Ga۬‫ڲ‬aY\ǌha-sǌtra‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬source domain that get mapped.
This approach reveals a divergence in how the concept of NDO\Ɨ۬amitra is perceived
and metaphorical structured in early Buddhist texts and Gv; and allows to explore somepeculiar implications of the NDO\Ɨ۬amitras’ metaphorical imagery in Gv.
1. .al\Ɨ۬aPittakal\Ɨ۬amitra LQ3ƗOLLiterature and Chinese ƖJamas
Before we go into the subject, it would be helpful to have a brief overview of the
NDO\Ɨ۬amitta LQ3ƗOLOLWHUDWXUHZKLFKZHVKDOOODWHUFRPSDUHZLWKWKHXVHRIWKHFRQFHSW
in Gv. According to the study of Steve Collins, the term NDO\Ɨ۬amitta LQWKH3ƗOLFanon
often stands for “someone who acts in more or less specific ways as a ‘helper on thePath.’” 8 :LWKDFRPSUHKHQVLYHVXUYH\RIWKHXVHRIWHUPLQDOOPDMRU3ƗOLWH[WV&ROOLQV
divides the meanings of NDO\Ɨ۬amitta into three levels: 1) a simple sense, “in whichWUXVWZRUWKLQHVVUHFLSURFLW\DQGSHUKDSVDFRQVHTXHQWPXWXDOUHJDUGDUHH[WROOHG´ D
“Buddhicised” level, “in which such sentiments are set within the framework of Buddhist
morality,” and 3) a specifically Buddhist sense, applied “to someone who helps anotheron the Buddhist Path.” 9 0RUHRYHU&ROOLQVSRLQWVRXWWKDWWKHWHUPRINDO\Ɨ۬amitta canbe read as either a descriptive compound (Skt. NDUPDGKƗUD\D) or in a possessive format(Skt. EDKXYUƯKL). When NDO\Ɨ۬amitta is read as a descriptive compound, it refers to fourtypes of helpers 1) the Buddha, 2) other famous monks as exemplars, 3) any monk or
OD\SHUVRQZKRDGYLVHVDQGHQFRXUDJHVDQG WKHJLYHURIDPHGLWDWLRQVXEMHFW 10 In the
EDKXYUƯKL morphological interpretation, Collins cites a verse of the 7KHUDJƗWKƗ todemonstrate that NDO\Ɨ۬amitta can be read in EDKXYUƯKL sense meaning “one who has agood friend.” 11
Although Collins provides an elaborate analysis of NDO\Ɨ۬amitta, examples of its
metaphorical elaborations are lacking in his study. It is probable that the concept of
NDO\Ɨ۬amitta is rarely represented in a metaphorical way in the early canon. In fact, there
are two examples which can only be found in the Chinese ƖJDPDV. Firstly, in the
0DGK\DPD-ƗJDPD(Ch. =KǀQJƗKiQ-MƯQJ ୰㜿ྵ⥂) discourse 69, 6XWUDRI 7KLUW\6LPLOHV(Ch. 6ƗQVKt\-MƯQJ ୕༑╣䴻), 12 the Buddha compares sublime precious objects that a
8

6WHYH&ROOLQV³.DO\Ɨ৆DPLWWDDQG.DO\Ɨ৆DPLWWDWƗ´-RXUQDORIWKH3DOL7H[W6RFLHW\ XI (1987): 51.
,ELG, 51-53.
10 ,ELG., 63.
11
,ELG.
12
The discourse 69 only exists in the Chinese collections, translated by Gautama Saূghadeva (Ch.
4~WiQVƝQJTLpWtSy ▞᭎ൔఞᥦ፠ RIWKH(DVWHUQ-LQ'\QDVW\$FFRUGLQJWR%KLNNKXƖQDOD\R¶VVWXG\the 0DGK\DPD-ƗJDPD contains more discourses than the 0DMMKLPD-QLNƗ\D6HH%KLNNKXƖQDOD\RA&RPSDUDWLYH6WXG\RIWKH0DMMKLPD-QLNƗ\D (Taipei: Dharma Drum Publishing Corporation, 2010), 78.
999‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4king and his chief ministers possess to the factors which monks and nuns need for the
purpose of abandoning evil and cultivating the good. There is one simile pertaining to
NDO\Ɨ۬amitra 13 (Ch. VKjQ]KƯVKu):(1) 6ƗULSXWWD! Just like a king and his chief ministers have bathing helpers, who
FRQVWDQWO\>SURYLGHWKHVHUYLFHRI@FOHDQLQJWKHLUERG\6ƗULSXWWD,QWKHVDPH
way, monks and nuns shall consider NDO\Ɨ۬amitras as bathing helpers. If
PRQNVDQGQXQVDFKLHYH>WKHSHUFHSWLRQ@RI NDO\Ɨ۬amitras as bathing helpers,
they are able to abandon evil and cultivate the good. 
Lakoff and Johnson point out that the metaphorical structuring of concepts isnecessarily partial, i.e. there are a “used” part and an “unused” part in a metaphor. 15
Apparently, the source domain “having bathing helpers” is mapped to the advantages of
having NDO\Ɨ۬amitras; however, the simile does not to reflect the inferior status of bathing
helpers in the court. In this case, a NDO\Ɨ۬amitra is regarded as a spiritual assistant in
Collins’s third sense: “someone who helps another on the Buddhist Path.”
A different example occurs in the 0DGK\DPD-ƗJDPD GLVFRXUVH  7KH&ODULILFDWLRQRI'XNNKD (Ch. +pN·-MƯQJ ఱⱞ⥂), 16 ZKHUHD%UƗKPDQDVNVWKH%XGGKD
about how to look on a *SƗSDPLWUD (Ch. q]KƯVKu ᝵ ▱ ㆑ , a bad friend) and a*NDO\Ɨ۬amitra (Ch. VKjQ]KƯVKu). The short answer for this is that “one shall look on a*SƗSDPLWUD like the moon,” 17 and the identical source domain “the moon” is applied tothe target domain of *NDO\Ɨ۬amitra as well. Next, the Buddha distinguishes a*NDO\Ɨ۬amitra from a *SƗSDPLWUD as the waxing moon, while a *SƗSDPLWUD is like themoon in its waning phase. 18 The metaphor is explicated as the following:(2) %UƗKPDQ! Just like the moon in its waxing phase: the sliver of the new moon isbright, and its illuminated area is increasing day by day. Then the entire moonis lit up on the fifteenth day of the lunar month. In the same way, a
13+HUHDIWHUWKHDVWHULVN LQGLFDWHVDUHFRQVWUXFWHG6DQVNULWHTXLYDOHQWRIWKH&KLQHVHZKLFKKDV
not been attested by an original Indic manuscript.

Accentuation by the author. The original Chinese at T1.26.519 a 23-27:ࠕ⯊᲍Ꮚ㸟⊰ዴ⋤ཬ኱⮧᭷ἃᾎே㸪ᖖ౑Ὑᾎࠋ⯊᲍Ꮚ㸟ዴ᫝㸪ẚୣࠊẚୣᑽ௨ၿ▱㆑Ⅽἃᾎேࠋ⯊᲍Ꮚ㸟ⱝẚୣࠊẚୣᑽᡂᑵၿ▱㆑Ⅽἃᾎே⪅㸪౽⬟ᤞ᝵㸪ಟ⩦᪊ၿࠋࠖ
15
Lakoff and Johnson, 0HWDSKRUV:H/LYH%\, 52.
16
The same substances of this discourse can be found in three other Chinese parallels. See T2.99.25
c 3-D7E-FDQG7F-585 a 5.
17
The original Chinese at T1.26.660 a 17:ࠕᲙᚿ㸟␜や᝵▱㆑⊰ዴ᭶ஓࠋࠖ
18
The metaphor of *SƗSDPLWUD is explicated at T1.26.660 a 19-27.

100

Jianrong SHIMetaphorical ,QWHUSUHWDWLRQVRI³.DO\Ɨ৆amitra” in the Ga۬‫ڲ‬aY\ǌha-sǌtra‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬*NDO\Ɨ۬amitra accepts the Buddha’s teachings (Dharma and Vinaya) with a
FRQILGHQWPLQG7KHQKHREH\VYHQHUDWHV>WKH%XGGKD@IROORZV>WKHWHDFKLQJV@leans on attentiveness, practices in accordance with the Dharma. His faith, pureobservance of the precepts, erudition, generosity and wisdom are growing. At
some point, this *NDO\Ɨ۬amitra achieves the completion of all good virtues, like
WKH PRRQ RQ WKH ILIWHHQWK GD\ %UƗKPDQ ,Q WKLV ZD\ \RX VKRXOG ORRN RQ D
*NDO\Ɨ۬amitra like the moon. 19
2Q WKH PRRQ¶V MRXUQH\ IURP WKH QHZ WR IXOO PRRQ we see its illuminated part“growing” into a full moon circle. Referring to the four types of “helpers” classified by&ROOLQV WKH TXRWHG SDVVDJH VXJJHVWV WKDW D NDO\Ɨ۬amitra is an exemplar who
demonstrates how to grow and complete all virtues along the Buddhist Path. Applying
Lakoff and Johnson’s view to this case, the metaphor of “the moon’s waxing phase” refers
to the WKUHHPHWDSKRULFDOO\EDVHGPRGHOVRI&07LH/,)(,6$-2851(<7,0(,6$
029,1*2%-(&7DQG025(,6%(77(5 20 This metaphor represents two aspects ofthe concept of NDO\Ɨ۬DPLWUDFirstly, based on the metaphorical expressions of “increasing
day by day” (progress) and “to achieve the completion” (goal), a NDO\Ɨ۬amitra isconceptualized as a SUCCESSFUL TRAVERLER. Secondly, in respect of accumulationof virtues (content), a NDO\Ɨ۬amitra LVPHWDSKRULFDOVWUXFWXUHGDVD&217$,1(5 21
Either in the case of “bathing helpers” or “the moon’s waxing phase,” eachmetaphor can be used to manifest a specific aspect of NDO\Ɨ۬amitra. In the following
section I shall classify the source domains for NDO\Ɨ۬amitra in Gv. It is peculiar that in
Gv ³IXOO PRRQ´ DV D VRXUFH GRPDLQ DSSHDUV ZLWK FRQVLGHUDEOH IUHTXHQF\ KRZHYHUNDO\Ɨ۬amitra is never one of its target domains. 22 *LYHQWKDW7KHUDYƗGDDQG0DKƗ\ƗQD
19

Accentuation by the author. The original Chinese at T1.26.660 b 1-8:ࠕᲙᚿ㸟⊰ዴ᭶ึ⏕㸪ᑡኋ᫂῕㸪᪥᪥ቔ㛗ࠋᲙᚿ㸟ᡈ᫬᭶༑஬᪥㸪඼Ẋ㇔⁹ࠋᲙᚿ㸟ዴ᫝ၿ▱㆑᪊ዴ౗ṇἲࠊᚊᚓಙ㸪ᙼᚓಙᕬ㸪⪋᪊ᚋ᫬Ꮥ㡰ᜤᩗ㸪ᡤ⾜㞉㡰㸪❧᪊ṇᬛ㸪㊃ྥἲࠊḟἲࠋᙼቔ㛗ಙ㸪ᣢᡄࠊ༤⪺ࠊᗢᗄࠊᬛ្஼᚟ቔ㛗ࠋᲙᚿ㸟᭷᫬ᙼၿ▱㆑ၿἲල㊊㸪ዴ༑஬᪥᭶ࠋᲙᚿ㸟ዴ᫝␜やၿ▱㆑⊰ዴ᭶ஓࠋࠖ
20*HRUJH/DNRII³7KH&RQWHPSRUDU\7KHRU\RI0HWDSKRU´LQ0HWDSKRUDQG7KRXJKW, ed. Andrew
2UWRQy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 222; Lakoff and Johnson, 0HWDSKRUV:H/LYH%\DQG
21
Lakoff and Johnson propose that there is coherence between two aspects of a single concept. For
H[DPSOHWKH-2851(<DQG&217$,1(5PHWDSKRUVDUHXVed to focus in detail on different aspects
RIDQ$5*80(17 JRDODQGSURJUHVVYHUVXVFRQWHQW EXWLWLVSRVVLEOHLQVRPHFDVHVWRIRFXVMRLQWO\RQERWKWKH-2851(< SURJUHVV DQG&217$,1(5 FRQWHQW DVSHFWVRIDQ$5*80(176HH/DNRII
and Johnson, 0HWDSKRUV :H/LYH%\, 91-92.
22 There is an example which compares “the teaching of NDO\Ɨ۬amitra” to “the full moon”(T10.279.351 b 10-11); in most cases, the simile of “the full moon” is taken to indicate the flawless,
SHUIHFWLRQRI%XGGKDV¶YLUWXHV 7F2, T10.279.95 c 19 or T10.279. 385 c 20-21).

101‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4have different goals and emphasize distinct factors of the spiritual life, the mapping
relationships between NDO\Ɨ۬amitra and its source domains shall reflect a change in thevalues of a “helper on the Path” in *Y
2. The Data and Category of kal\Ɨ۬amitra Metaphors
The data for this study mainly come from Thomas Cleary’s English translation of the
Avataۨsaka-6XWUD known as 7KH )ORZHU 2UQDPHQW 6FULSWXUH Cleary’s translation is
VXSSRVHGO\IURPWKH&KLQHVHWH[WRIĝLNৢƗQDQGDEXWWKHTXRWDWLRQV from the last chapter,“Entering into the Realm of Reality,” used in our study suggest that the source text forthis part of Cleary’s translation is primarily P. L. Vaidya’s Sanskrit edition of Gv. The
same source-text reference is also indicated for “The Ten Stages” chapter of 7KH)ORZHU
2UQDPHQW 6FULSWXUH. 23 By comparing these three texts – ĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V &KLQHVH WKH
Sanskrit edition, and Cleary’s translation – we can consider Cleary’s work as “aWUDQVODWLRQRIG\QDPLFHTXLYDOHQFH´ZKLFKLVGHVLJQHGWRSrovide “the closest naturalHTXLYDOHQW WR WKH VRXUFH-language message.”  2QH SURPLQHQW JRDO RI WKH &RQFHSWXDO
0HWDSKRU7KHRU\LVWRUHYHDOWKHFRQFHSWXDOVWUXFWXUHVGHQRWHGE\OLQJXLVWLFH[SUHVVLRQV
This is an important factor in the adoption of Cleary’s translation in this paper, which is
SUDLVHG DPRQJ :HVWHUQ VFKRODUV RI %XGGKLVP IRU DQ HORTXHQW FRPPXQLFDWLRQ RI WKH
conceptual structures underlying the Chinese and Sanskrit. 25 This feature of Cleary’s
translation is elucidated by examples in section 2.2 of the current study.
Additionally, in order to compensate for the lack of annotation in Cleary’s
23:KHQ%KLNVKX'KDUPDPLWUDLQWURGXFHVKLVDQQRWDWHG(QJOLVKWUDQVODWLRQRIĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V³7KH7HQ
Grounds Chapter” (Ch. 6KtGu-S΃Q ༑ᆅရ), he gives an overview of the three available versions, andremarks: “Regarding this ‘Ten Grounds Chapter’ itself, Thomas Cleary’s translation is represented as
DWUDQVODWLRQIURPWKH&KLQHVHRIWKHĝLNৢƗQDQGDHGLWLRQRIWKHAvataۨsaka Sutra. However, it is nosuch thing. His translation of Chapter 26 which he calls ‘The Ten Stages’ chapter appears to instead
be a loose translation of the P. L. Vaidya Sanskrit edition of the 'DĞDEKǌPLND6ǌWUD.” See Bhikshu
Dharmamitra, 7KH7HQ%RGKLVDWWYD*URXQGV7KH$YDWDۨVDND6ǌWUD&KDSWHU (Seattle: Kalavinka
Press, 2019), 22.
Derived from traditional dichotomies between “sense-for-sense” and “word-for-word” translating,(XJHQH 1LGD DGYRFDWHV WZR EDVLF RULHQWDWLRQV LQ WUDQVODWLQJ IRUPDO HTXLYDOHQFH DQG G\QDPLFHTXLYDOHQFH1LGDGHILQHVWKDWDIRUPDOHTXLYDOHQFHWUDQVODWLRQLV³EDVLFDOO\VRXUce-oriented” and “itis designed to reveal as much as possible of the form and content of the original message.” In contrast,
DWUDQVODWLRQRIG\QDPLFHTXLYDOHQFH³DLPVDWFRPSOHWHQDWXUDOQHVVRIH[SUHVVLRQ´DQG³PXVWFOHDUO\reflect the meaning and intent of the source.” See Eugene Nida, “Principles of Correspondence,” in
7KH7UDQVODWLRQ6WXGLHV5HDGHUHG/DZUHQFH9HQXWL /RQGRQDQG1HZ<RUN5RXWOHGJH 
DQG
25)RUH[DPSOHDOWKRXJK%KLNVKX'KDUPDPLWUD¶VWUDQVODWLRQLVEDVHGRQĝLNৢƗQDnda’s Chinese, healso consults the surviving Sanskrit edition for translating some Chinese technical terms. He mentions:“… it was for the most part possible to trace the antecedent Sanskrit terms and then choose somewhat
more accurate English technical term translations than would have resulted from simply trying to
WUDQVODWHĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶VWHUPVGLUHFWO\IURP&KLQHVH´6HH%KLNVKX'KDUPDPLWUD7KH7HQ%RGKLVDWWYD
*URXQGV7KH$YDWDۨVDND6ǌWUD&KDSWHU

102

Jianrong SHIMetaphorical ,QWHUSUHWDWLRQVRI³.DO\Ɨ৆amitra” in the Ga۬‫ڲ‬aY\ǌha-sǌtra‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬

WUDQVODWLRQVRPHRI(QJOLVKTXRWDWLRQVZLOOEHVXSSOHPHQWHGZLWKIRRWQRWHVWRKLJKOLJKW
the parallels to Sanskrit *Y as well as its differences with ĝLNৢƗQDQGD V5I΁MLq-S΃Q ධἲ⏺ရ. 26
2.1 Data
8QOLNH WKH 3ƗOL WH[WV QXPHURXV NDO\Ɨ۬amitra-related metaphors can be found in Gv.
Among them are metaphors of NDO\Ɨ۬amitras themselves, of their instructions, virtues,
and the way of worshipping NDO\Ɨ۬amitras. When we narrow our focus on the
NDO\Ɨ۬amitra metaphors with multiple source domains, there are some significant
passages come into view. These are presented as follows.
The first set of NDO\Ɨ۬amitra metaphors occurs in Sudhana’s reflection prior to his
encounter with a laywoman Asha (Skt. ƖĞƗ, Ch. ;LǌVKČ ఇᤞ):(3) Seeing spiritual benefactors as teachers of the elements of omniscience, 27
seeing spiritual benefactors as eyes to see the sky of buddhahood. 28
The second set of metaphors we can find in the section where Sudhana expresses
his admiration of NDO\Ɨ۬amitras to a seer named Bhishmottaranirghosha (Skt.
%KƯৢmottaranirghoৢaত, Ch. 3tPTǌVKƗ ẝ┠▞Ἃ):  Looking upon spiritual benefactors as the door to omniscience because they
guide one on the true path, looking upon omniscience as coming from theteaching of spiritual benefactors because they lead to the stage of all-26

Due to the fact that there are considerable similarities between Vaidya’s Sanskrit edition of Gv andĝLNৢƗQDQGD V 5I΁MLq-S΃Q ධἲ⏺ရ, unlike “The Ten Stages” chapter Cleary’s “Entering into theRealm of Reality” chapter still has a significant degree of FRUUHVSRQGHQFHZLWKĝLNৢƗQDQGD V&KLQHVH
Hereafter, the references will be provided in the following order: the position in Thomas Cleary, 7KH)ORZHU2UQDPHQW6FULSWXUH$7UDQVODWLRQRIWKH$YDWDPVDND6XWUD (Boston & London: Shambhala
Publication, Inc., 1993); in the Sanskrit P. L. Vaidya ed., Ga۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKD-VǌWUD 'DUEKDQJD7KH0LWKLOD,QVWLWXWH DQGLQWKHĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V&KLQHVH7
27
According to our selected data, Cleary generally translates Sanskrit term VDUYDMxDWƗ as³RPQLVFLHQFH´+HUHWKHSKUDVH³WKHHOHPHQWVRIRPQLVFLHQFH´LVHTXLYDOHQWWR6DQVNULWVDUYDMxDWƗGKDUPH‫܈‬u. (Vaidya, Ga۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKD-VǌWUD ĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V&KLQHVHUHDGVDV³%XGGKDV¶IHDWXUHV´ &K
]KǌIyI΁ ㅖషἲ7D 
28
Accentuation by the author. For the original texts, see Cleary, 7KH)ORZHU2UQDPHQW6FULSWXUH$
7UDQVODWLRQ RI WKH $YDWDPVDND 6XWUD, 1208; Vaidya, LELG 7 D -13. According to theChinese text, there is one more metaphor which compares VKjQ]KƯVKu to MƯQM΃ ὠ⃽ “landing” (Skt.
*WƯUWKD ĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V&KLQHVHUHDGV³6SLULWXDOEHQHIDFWRUVDUHP\ODQGLQJVOHDGLQJLQWRWRWKHORWXV
pools of enlightenment.” (ၿ▱㆑⪅᫝ᡃὠ⃽㸪௧ᡃᚓධㅖషዴ౗ⶈ⳹ụᨾ7D- This metaphor can also be found in Buddhabhadra’s Chinese (T9.278.769 b 20-21).

103‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4knowledge, 29 looking upon omniscience as coming from the guidance of
spiritual benefactors because they lead to the jewel land of the knowledge ofthe ten powers, 30 looking upon omniscience as illumined by the torch of
spiritual benefactors because they produce the light of knowledge of the ten
powers, 31 looking upon spiritual benefactors as the path to omniscience
leading unbroken to the city of omniscience, 32 looking upon spiritual
benefactors as lamps on the way to omniscience because they show the level
and the uneven, looking upon spiritual benefactors as a bridge to omniscience
because the peril of falling is eliminated, 33 looking upon spiritual benefactors
as parasols of omniscience because they produce coolness by the power of greatlove, looking upon spiritual benefactors as streams of omniscience because
they give rise to great compassion,  looking upon the satisfaction of the visionof omniscience as coming from spiritual benefactors because they illumine theprinciple of the inherent nature of phenomena. 35
29

The preceding clause “looking upon omniscience as coming from the teaching of spiritual
benefactors” corresponds to Sanskrit NDO\Ɨ۬amitra-DQXĞƗVDQƯ-DGKƯQƗۨ VDUYDMxDWƗۨ saۨSDĞ\DQ; the
IROORZLQJFODXVHLVHTXLYDOHQWWR6DQVNUit compound word VDUYDMxDWƗ-EKǌPL-XSDQD\HQD. (See Vaidya,Ga۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKD-VǌWUD   ĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V &KLQHVH UHDGV ³6SLULWXDO EHQHIDFWRUV DUH YHKLFOHV WKDW WHQG
WRZDUGRPQLVFLHQFHEHFDXVHWKH\FDXVHPHWRDUULYHDWWKHVWDJHRI7DWKƗJDWD´ ၿ▱㆑⪅㸪๎᫝㊃ྥ୍ษᬛ஍㸪௧ᡃᚓ⮳ዴ౗ᆅᨾ7E-11)30
The phrase “coming from the guidance of spiritual benefactors” is interpreted from Sanskrit
NDO\Ɨ۬amitra-dƗsa-DGKƯQƗۨDQG³WKHMHZHOODQGRIWKHNQRZOHGJHRIWKHWHQSRZHUV´LVHTXLYDOHQWWR
Sanskrit GDĞD-EDOD-MxƗQD-UDWQDGYƯSD-XSDQD\HQD (Vaidya, LELG  ĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V &KLQHVH UHDGV“Spiritual benefactors are boats that tend toward omniscience, because they cause me to arrive at the⯪㸪௧ᡃᚓ⮳ᬛᑌὪᨾ7E-13).
jewel land of wisdom” (ၿ▱㆑⪅㸪๎᫝㊃ྥ୍ษᬛ⯪(Accentuation by the author.) It is worth noting the different representations of the source domain in
the three texts. Despite the fact that it is written as dƗsa (usually meaning “demon” or “slave”) in the
Vaidya Sanskrit edition, this does not fit the context. Cleary may consider it as a misreading of deĞa,DQGUHQGHUVLWDV³WKHJXLGDQFH´ĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V&KLQHVHUHDGVDV³ERDWV´ &KFKXiQ ⯪), related to the
Sanskrit word dƗĞa.
31,W LV REYLRXV WKDW LQ WKH 6DQVNULW HGLWLRQ DQG LQ &OHDU\ V WUDQVODWLRQ WKH DERYH WKUHH OLQHV DUHconstructed differently from the other sentences, while the Chinese text maintains a coherent
information structure. Due to the fact that NDO\Ɨ۬amitra is not the target domain in these three lines,
they are excluded from the following discussion.
32 7KH(QJOLVKFRXQWHUSDUW³OHDGLQJXQEURNHQWRWKHFLW\RIRPQLVFLHQFH´LVHTXLYDOHQWWR6DQVNULWak‫܈‬u۬۬a-VDUYDMxDWƗ-pura-SUƗSD۬DWƗ (Vaidya, LELG). The clause in ĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V &KLQHVH UHDGV DV
³EHFDXVHWKH\FDXVHPHWRHQWHUWKHFLW\RIQLUYƗ৆a” (௧ᡃᚓධᾖᵎᇛᨾ7E 
33
The clause “because the peril of falling is eliminated” corresponds to Sanskrit sarva-SUDSƗWDEKD\D-YLJDPDQDWD\Ɨ (Vaidya, LELG ĝLNৢƗQDQGD’s Chinese reads as “because they enable me to crossover perilous places” (௧ᡃᚓᗘ㞋᝵⹦ᨾ7E The clause “because they give rise to great compassion” corresponds to Sanskrit PDKƗNDUX۬ƗsaۨMDQDQDWD\Ɨ(Vaidya, LELG ĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V&KLQHVHUHDGVas “because they cause me to fulfill thewaters of great compassion” (௧ᡃ⁹㊊኱ᝒỈᨾ7E 
35
Accentuation by the author. For the original texts, see Cleary, 7KH)ORZHU2UQDPHQW6FULSWXUH$
7UDQVODWLRQRIWKH$YDWDPVDND6XWUD-1215; Vaidya, Ga۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKD-VǌWUD7E-21.

Jianrong SHIMetaphorical ,QWHUSUHWDWLRQVRI³.DO\Ɨ৆amitra” in the Ga۬‫ڲ‬aY\ǌha-sǌtra‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬

ThirdlyEHIRUH6XGKDQDYLVLWWKH%RGKLVDWWYD0DLWUH\DWZRPDVWHUV6KULVDPEKDYD
(Skt. ĝUƯVDۨEKDYD, Ch. 'pVKƝQJ ᚫ⏕) and Shrimati (Skt. ĝUƯPDWL, Ch. <΅XGp ᭷ᚫ),exhort him to approach spiritual benefactors with the following thoughts in mind:(5) Spiritual benefactors are mothers, giving birth to the family of buddhas; they
are fathers, producing great benefit; they are nurses, protecting us from all evils;
they are mentors, elucidating the learning of enlightening beings; they are
guides, 36 leading us into 37 the path of transcendence; they are physicians, 38
relieving us of the maladies of afflictions; they are like WKH+LPDOD\D0RXQWDLQV,
growing the herb of knowledge; 39 they are heroic warriors, protecting  usfrom all perils; they are ferrymen, ferrying us across the torrents of themundane whirl; they are helmsmen, delivering us to the treasure island ofomniscience. 
Furthermore, Shrisambhava and Shrimati deliver an expanded lecture, made up often formulations, on how to contemplate NDO\Ɨ۬amitras within an interrelated conceptual
framework. Each formulation, which is using parallelism, contains four factors:>SUDFWLWLRQHU@ KLPVHOI VSLULWXDO EHQHIDFWRUV their instructions and the practices.  2QHThe position of the final metaphor, “looking upon the satisfaction of the vision of omniscience…,” inSanskrit Gv is different from that in the Chinese texts. Cleary obviously follows the Sanskrit editionWRDUUDQJHLWLQWKHHQGRIWKLVVHWRIPHWDSKRUV,Q%XGGKDEKDGUD¶VDQGĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V&KLQHVHLWLV
located before the source domain “streams.” (See T09.278.699 c 15-16 and TE-20.)
Since NDO\Ɨ۬amitra is not the target domain in this line, this metaphor is excluded from the following
discussion.
36
The English term “guides” appears to be translated from the Sanskrit GDLĞLND(Vaidya, Ga۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKDVǌWUD ĝLNৢƗQDQda’s Chinese reads as “expert guides” (Ch. VKjQG΁R ၿᑟ7E 
37
The verbal phrase “leading us into” is interpreted from the Sanskrit avatara۬DWƗ (Vaidya, LELG).
ĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V&KLQHVHUHDGVDV³WKRVHFDSDEOHRIVKRZLQJXV´ &KQpQJVKt ⬟♧, LELG).
38
The English term “physicians” appears to be translated from the Sanskrit YDLG\D(Vaidya, LELG).
ĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V&KLQHVHUHDGVDV³JRRGGRFWRUV´ &KOLiQJ\Ư Ⰻ㓾7E 
39 7KH SKUDVH ³JURZLQJ WKH KHUE RI NQRZOHGJH´ LV HTXLYDOHQW WR WKH 6DQVNULW MxƗQD-R‫܈‬DGKLYLYDUGKDQDWƗ(Vaidya, LELG)ĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V&KLQHVHUHDGVDV³JURZLQJDOOKHUEVRIZLVGRP´ ቔ㛗୍ษᬛ⸩7E-c 1).

7KH(QJOLVKWHUP³SURWHFWLQJ´LVHTXLYDOHQWWo the Sanskrit ƗUDN‫܈‬a۬DWƗ(Vaidya, LELG ĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶VChinese reads as “exterminating” (Ch. WL΁QFK~ Ṣ㝖, LELG).

Accentuation by the author. For the original texts, see Cleary, 7KH)ORZHU2UQDPHQW6FULSWXUH$
7UDQVODWLRQRIWKH$YDWDPVDND6XWUD Vaidya, Ga۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKD-VǌWUD7E-c 3.
7KH(QJOLVKWHUP³RPQLVFLHQFH´LVHTXLYDOHQWWRWKH6DQVNULWVDUYDMxD-MxƗQD-MxƗQD(Vaidya, LELG).
ĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V&KLQHVHUHDGVDV³ZLVGRP´ &K]KuKXu ᬛ្7F In the Sanskrit Gv, these four elements are formed in the case of locative, i.e. ƗWPDQL,NDO\Ɨ۬DPLWUH‫܈‬u, DQXĞƗVDQƯ‫܈‬u and pratipatti‫܈‬XSee Vaidya, Ga۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKD-VǌWUD, 365-366.

105

Journal of World Buddhist Cultures‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Vol. 4formulation should suffice to illustrate the pattern of contemplating these four elements.
(6) Think of yourself as crossing over to the other shore, and think of spiritual
benefactors as boatmen; think of their instructions as a ford, and think of theirpractices as a boat. 
The metaphorical frame which summarizes the ten formulations is schematically
represented in Table 1.
Table 1. Concepts and metaphors of ten formulations 
Practitioner

Spiritual

Instructions

benefactors

Practicessickphysicians

medicines

getting rid of
diseasea traveler

guidesthe roadgoing to the landof the destination

one crossing
over to theother shore

boatmena forda boata farmerwater spirits

a rainripening of thecrops

a pauperthe givers of wealthwealthgetting rid ofpoverty 

mentorsarts

accomplishments

heroic warriors

attackYDQTXLVKLQJ
enemies

an apprenticea fearless
one





Accentuation by the author. For the original texts, see Cleary, 7KH)ORZHU2UQDPHQW6FULSWXUH$
7UDQVODWLRQRIWKH$YDWDPVDND6XWUD 9DLG\DGa۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKD-VǌWUD7F-26.
There is a mapping discrepancy: Cleary’s translation is corresponding to the mapping relationships
given in the Sanskrit text; LQ ĝLNৢƗQDQGD V WUDQVODWLRQ D IRUG &K GjRjQ ฿ᓊ) is mapped to thepractices, while a boat (Ch. ]KǀXMt ⯚刍) serves as instructions.
 For a complete description in the original texts, see Cleary, ,ELG-9DLG\DGa۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKDVǌWUD, 365-366; T10.279F-D

7KH (QJOLVK FRXQWHUSDUW ³JHWWLQJ ULG RI SRYHUW\´ LV HTXLYDOHQW WR 6DQVNULW GƗULGU\D-DSDQD\DQD
(Vaidya, Ga۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKD-VǌWUD, 366). ĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V &KLQHVH UHDGV DV ³DIIOXHQFH´ &K IUiR ᐩ 㤨 ,7F 
The English term “fearless” iVHTXLYDOHQWWR6DQVNULWDEKƯUX (Vaidya, LELG)ĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V&KLQHVH
reads as “fearful” (Ch. N΅QJE ᜍᛧ7D 

106

Jianrong SHIMetaphorical ,QWHUSUHWDWLRQVRI³.DO\Ɨ৆amitra” in the Ga۬‫ڲ‬aY\ǌha-sǌtra‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬a merchantship captains

treasure

obtaining treasures

a good son

parents

the familybusiness

perpetuation of thefamily businessa prince

the chief ministers
of a spiritual king 47

the precepts ofkingshipputting on theturban of truth
adorned with the
crest of knowledge
and overseeing thecapital of thespiritual
sovereign 

2.2 Category
Examples (3)-(6) and Table 1 demonstrate how the concept of NDO\Ɨ۬amitra is distinctly
depicted by multiple source domains, in spite of the repetition of some source domains
such as teacher/mentor, mother and father/parent, guide, physician, heroic warrior, or
KHOPVPDQVKLSFDSWDLQV%DVHGRQWKHVHPDQWLFIHDWXUH>VHQWLHQFH@ of these concrete
objects, the set of source domains mapping the single target domain NDO\Ɨ۬amitra arelisted in Table 2.
Table 2. The set of source domains
Semantic
featureThe source domains[± sentience]teacher/mentor (ƗFƗU\D), eyes (FDN‫܈‬u), mother (PƗW‫)܀‬, father
Sentient
objects(pit‫)܀‬, nurse (GKƗWUƯ), guide (GDLĞLND), physician (YDLG\D), thegivers of wealth(YDLĞUDYD۬a), heroic warrior (ĞǌUD), ferrymen[+sentience](GƗĞD), helmsmen/ ship captains (kar۬DGKƗUD), boatmen(QƗYLND), water spirits (EKXMDJHQGUD), parents (PƗWƗSLW‫)܀‬, the

7KH(QJOLVKSKUDVH³WKHFKLHIPLQLVWHUVRIDVSLULWXDONLQJ´LVHTXLYDOHQWWR6DQVNULWGKDUPD-UƗMDDJUD-DPƗW\D(Vaidya, LELG)ĝLkৢƗQDQGD¶V&KLQHVHUHDGVDV³WKHFKLHIPLQLVWHUV´ &KGjFKpQ ኱⮧,
7D 

The first English phrase “putting on the turban of truth adorned with the crest of knowledge” is
HTXLYDOHQW WR 6DQVNULW MxƗQD-UƗMD-maku‫ܒ‬a-alaۨNƗUD-GKDUPD-pa‫ܒܒ‬a-ĞLUR-EDQGKDQD; the next phrase“overseeing the capital of the spiritual sovereign” is translated from Sanskrit GKDUPD-UƗMDQDJDUDY\DYDORNDQD(See Vaidya, LELG). ĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V&KLQHVHUHDGVDV³WKLQNLQJRISXWWLQJRQWKHFURZQ
wearing the Royal garments, binding up the Royal turban, and sitting in the Royal palace” (ෙ⋤ෙ᝿ࠊ᭹⋤᭹᝿ࠊ⧚⋤⧉᝿ࠊᆘ⋤Ẋ᝿7D-11).

107

Journal of World Buddhist Cultures‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Vol. 4

chief ministers of a spiritual king (GKDUPDUƗMƗJUƗPƗW\D)Insentient
objects

door (GYƗUD), path (PƗUJD), lamp (SUDGƯSD), bridge (VHWX),
parasol (FKDWUD), stream (YHJD), the Himalaya 0RXQWDLQV[-sentience](KLPDYDWSDUYDWD)

Among of these sentient objects, there are two terms worth our attention: “thegivers of wealth” (Skt. YDLĞUDYD۬a) and “water spirits” (Skt. EKXMDJHQGUD). The Sanskrit
word YDLĞUDYD۬a stands for “a guardian of the north and lord of yakৢas,”  which is
HTXLYDOHQW WR3tVKƗPpQZiQJ ẝἋ㛛⋤ LQ ĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V WUDQVODWLRQ$FFRUGLQJ WR WKH
definition in $'LFWLRQDU\RI$VLDQ0\WKRORJ\ YDLĞUDYD۬a is associated with wealth inHinduism. 50 There is another case that depicts the target domain ERGKLFLWWD by means ofa similar metaphorical expression: “It [ERGKLFLWWD@LVOLNHthe god of wealth, because it
puts an end to all poverty.” 51 Considering the Hindu sense of “the god of wealth” and thegiven instances in which YDLĞUDYD۬a performs as an agent who gives wealth to paupers,
Cleary’s translation here, “the givers of wealth” evidently manifests the specified aspectof the metaphor.
Literally, the EKXMDJHQGUD means “serpent (Skt. EKXMDJD)-king (Skt. LQGUD),” which
is often rendered as OyQJZiQJ 㱟 ⋤ (“dragon king”) in Chinese. 52 The English
counterpart “water spirits” apparently doesn’t correspond to the literal sense of
EKXMDJHQGUD. However, when we examine the occurrences of OyQJZiQJ, “water spirits”
seems a well-grounded English translation. Some examples from the Avataۨsaka whichtake OyQJZiQJ as a source domain are given below:(7) 0XOWLSO\LQJWKHLU bodies, 53 they fill all lands,
Emanating pure light to remove the darkness of the world.
Franklin Edgerton, %XGGKLVW+\EULG6DQVNULW'LFWLRQDU\ (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953),
513.
50
David A. Leeming, $'LFWLRQDU\RI$VLDQ0\WKRORJ\ (New York: 2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV, 2001),
183.
51
Accentuation by the author. For the original text, see Cleary, 7KH)ORZHU2UQDPHQW6FULSWXUH$
7UDQVODWLRQRIWKH$YDWDPVDND6XWUD7KHWHDFKLQJRI0DLWUH\DDWWKHHQGRIGv is another rich
VRXUFHRIPHWDSKRUV,QKLVWHDFKLQJWR6XGKDQD0DLWUH\DSURYLGHVPRUHWKDQWKLUW\PHWDSKRrs for
ERGKLFLWWD.
52
The three Chinese parallels all have OyQJZiQJ as the corresponding term.
53$FFRUGLQJWRWKHFRQWH[W³2QFHWKHHQOLJKWHQLQJEHLQJVKDYHURXVHGWKHVXSUHPHDVSLUDWLRQ7KH\can…” (Cleary, 7KH)ORZHU2UQDPHQW6FULSWXUH$7UDQVODWLRQRIWKH$YDWDPVDND6XWUD WKH
agent of the action “mutiplying their bodies” is “the enlightening beings” (bodhisattvas). In this case,“dragon kings” serves as a source domain to map the target domain bodhisattvas.

108

Jianrong SHIMetaphorical ,QWHUSUHWDWLRQVRI³.DO\Ɨ৆amitra” in the Ga۬‫ڲ‬aY\ǌha-sǌtra‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬Like dragon kings producing great clouds,
They shower wonderful rains, filling and refreshing all. (8) They are in the position of preachers of the Teaching,
Like lions, like bulls, like majestic mountains;
They shower the sweet rain of the elixir of immortality,
Just as the water spirits fill the sea. 55(9) It [ERGKLFLWWDWKHGHWHUPLQDWLRQIRUHQOLJKWHQPHQW@LVOLNHthe chief water spirit,causing the clouds of the Teaching to shower. 56
In the Avataۨsaka, the OyQJZiQJ, or EKXMDJHQGUD, refers to a spirit who is capableof producing great clouds and bringing the rain. Cleary captures this feature by
SDUDSKUDVLQJ LW LQWR ³ZDWHU VSLULWV´ ZKLFK LV QRW HYLGHQW LQ WKH FDOTXH IURP &KLQHVH
“dragon king.”
In sum, the English expressions of “water spirits” and “the givers of wealth” areboth translated under a particular perspective, and the trigger of what a perspective istaken may be mainly attributable to the understanding of the context. In the same manner,
we regard the contextual meaning conveyed by sentences as an important factor forcomprehending what aspects of the source domain that get mapped. Based on the data
investigated, the mapping relationships between NDO\Ɨ۬amitra and its multiple source
domains in Gv can be characterized by tKHIROORZLQJVFKHPDV.$/<Ɩ৅$0,75$,6$
*8,'( .$/<Ɩ৅$0,75$ ,6 $ 3527(&725 DQG .$/<Ɩ৅$0,75$ ,6 $
*(1(5$725,QZKDWIROORZVZHDLPWRSURYLGHDQH[SODQDWLRQIRUWKHLQWHUUHODWLRQRI
the various metaphors via additional information revealed by the context.
3. Conceptual Metaphors and Their Linguistic Expressions
It is evident that there can be different correspondences between the source and target
domains. 57 As examples (3)-(6) illustrate, the target domain NDO\Ɨ۬amitra have several
domains as its source, while examples (7)-(9) show that a source domain EKXMDJHQGUDAccentuation by the author. For the original texts, see Cleary, 7KH)ORZHU2UQDPHQW6FULSWXUH$
7UDQVODWLRQRIWKH$YDWDPVDND6XWUDĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V&KLQHVHDWT10.279.93 a 23-.
55
Accentuation by the author. For the original texts, see Cleary, ,ELGĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V&KLQHVHDW
7E-15.
56 Accentuation by the author. For the original texts, see Cleary, ,ELG9DLG\DGa۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKDVǌWUD7E-7KH(QJOLVKSKUDVH³WKHFORXGVRIWKH7HDFKLQJ´LVHTXLYDOHQWWR
Sanskrit GKDUPD-PHJKDĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V&Kinese reads as “the rain of sublime teachings” (୍ษጁἲ㞵).
57 Kövecses claims: “The relationship of the source and the target is such that a source domain may
apply to several targets and a target may attach to several sources.” See Kövecses, /DQJXDJH0LQG
aQG&XOWXUH 120.

109‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

may apply to different targets, 58 such as bodhisattvas, preachers, and bodhicitta. In the
YLHZRI&07RQO\FHUWDLQDVSHFWVRIHLWKHUWKHVRXUFHRUWDUJHWGRPDLQDUHLQYROYHGLQ
metaphors. 59 ThXV PXOWLSOH VRXUFHV UHSUHVHQW PDQLIROG TXDOLWLHV RI D VLQJOH WDUJHW
domain; on the other hand, individual source domains are only meant to highlight certain
DVSHFWVRIWKHWDUJHWFRQFHSW+HUHDTXHVWLRQDULVHVKRZFDQZHGHFLGHZKLFKIHDWXUHVof the source domain have participated? Su suggests that there are correlations between
the proposition-schemas and their linguistic manifestations, such as noun, adjective or
verb. 60 In our case, we take the verbs (or verbal phrases) as a criterion for characterizing
conceptual metaphors.
As above-PHQWLRQHGLQVWDQFH  VKRZVHDFKVHQWHQFHFRQVLVWVRIDPDLQSKUDVH
“Looking up spiritual benefactors as [” and a clause of reason “because they \” Example(5) structures information with a main clause “spiritual benefactors are [” and an
DGMHFWLYH FODXVH ³>ZKR DUH@ \” While an antecedent in the main clause points out the
subject matter (i.e. what the source domain is), the clause at the end of sentence provides
GHVFULSWLYHGHWDLOVDERXWZKDWWKHFHUWDLQTXDOLW\RIWKHVRXUFHGRPDLQ[ possesses andwhat it can do. As a result of this, the information given by the adjective/adverbial clauseseems to be as important as the main clause/phrase. Su proposes that the linguistic
categories of noun, adjective, and verb point to three aspects in the source domain: theHVVHQFHWKHTXDOLW\DQGWKHIXQFWLRQ 61 When we examine the verbs or verbal phrases
used in our data, this linguistic category indicates how the particular function/aspect ofsource domain can benefit spiritual practitioners. These are presented forthwith.
3.1 .$/<Ɩ৅AMITRA IS A GUIDE
0F0DKDQ indicates that Gv provides a way for thinking of the positive portrayal of
buddhahood in terms of a SODFH or GRPDLQ rather than an abstract and intangible state ofconsciousness. 62 Under such conceptualizing circumstances, for one who has set his
mind on attainment of the Supreme Perfect Enlightenment (DQXWWDUƗVDۨ\DNVDPERGKL), 63
finding a guide is a necessary first step in the bodhisattva’s career.  Strictly speaking, a58

Kövecses calls the former case “the range of the target,” and the latter “the scope of the source.”,ELG., 121.
59
Lakoff and Jonson, 0HWDSKRUV:H/LYH%\, 10; Kövecses, /DQJXDJH0LQGDQG&XOWXUH 60
Lily I-ZHQ6X³:KDW&DQ0HWDSKRrs Tell Us About Culture?”, /DQJXDJHDQG/LQJXLVWLFV 3, no. 3(2002): 602.
61
,ELG., 603.
62
'DYLG / 0F0DKDQ (PSW\ 9LVLRQ 0HWDSKRU DQG 9LVLRQDU\ ,PDJHU\ LQ 0DKƗ\ƗQD %XGGKLVP(London: Routledge Curzon, 2002), 120.
63 This is synonymous with attainment of omniscience (VDUYDMxDWƗ).

$IWHU6XGKDQDDURXVHGWKHDVSLUDWLRQIRUHQOLJKWHQPHQWDQGDVNHG%RGKLVDWWYD0DxMXĞUƯWRVKRZKLPWKHZD\WRDWWDLQWKLVJRDOWKHILUVWSLHFHRIDGYLFHJLYHQE\0DxMXĞUƯLVWKDW³DWWHQGLQJDQGVHUYLQJ110

Jianrong SHIMetaphorical ,QWHUSUHWDWLRQVRI³.DO\Ɨ৆amitra” in the Ga۬‫ڲ‬aY\ǌha-sǌtra‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬guide cannot take people to a place where he has not been himself, thus only buddhas are
well-TXDOLILHGOHDGHUV+RZHYHUDFFRUGLQJWR6XGKDQD¶VIL[HGTXHVWLRQVthe emphatic
TXDOLW\RINDO\Ɨ۬amitras in Gv LVHTXLSSHGZLWKDSUDFWLFDOVROLGXQGHUVWDQGLQJof thebodhisattva’s path (ERGKLVDWWYDPƗUJD) and the bodhisattva’s conduct (ERGKLVDWWYDFDU\Ɨ).
,Q WKH FRQFHSWXDO PHWDSKRU .$/<Ɩ৅$0,75$ ,6$ *8,'( WKH VSHFLILF IXQFWLRQ RINDO\Ɨ۬amitras is signified by the following verbs or verbal phrases.
Table 3. Verbal expressions of GUIDES
The source domain

Verbs/Verbal phrases

eyes>FDXVH@WRVHH«

lamps

show…

mentors/teachers

elucidating…

the door

guide…

the pathleading to…

guidesleading into…

helmsmen/ship captains

delivering to…

The metaphorical conceptualization of “eyes” and “lamps” is closely related to ourvisual sense. Sweetser claims that verbs related to vision often develop abstract senses ofmental activity, and this development is based on the strong connection between thephysical nature of sight and knowledge. 65 Following this viewpoint, the mapping
features of eyes and lamps indicate that NDO\Ɨ۬amitras illuminate the teachings ofbuddhas and cause practitioners to see/understand them clearly. As for the verbal
expression “elucidating,” the metaphor of mentors/teachers indicates the same function.
The verbal expressions used in the metaphors of the door, the path, and guides not
only signify that NDO\Ɨ۬amitras as beings who have gained significant attainments on thespiritual path, but also imply that NDO\Ɨ۬amitras go ahead of a spiritual practitioner tolead on the way. In addition, the source domain “helmsmen/ship captains” is related tothe proposition-VFKHPD /,)( ,6$1 21*2,1* 92<$*( DQG WKH DGMHFWLYH FODXVH
“delivering us to the treasure island of omniscience” highlights that NDO\Ɨ۬amitras are ina responsible position, and they are capable of sailing passengers to the destination.
The way of thinking “buddhahood is a place” structures the imagery of the goal of
spiritual friends is the beginning, the logical course, for the accomplishment of omniscience.” See
Cleary, 7KH)ORZHU2UQDPHQW6FULSWXUH$7UDQVODWLRQRIWKH$YDWDPVDND6XWUD, 1178.
65
Eve Sweetser, )URP (W\PRORJ\ WR 3UDJPDWLFV 0HWDSKRULFDO DQG &XOWXUDO$VSHFWV RI 6HPDQWLF
6WUXFWXUH (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 33.

111

Journal of World Buddhist Cultures‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Vol. 4the spiritual life. When practitioners take their route to this aim, they may get lost or strayaway from the right path. Here, NDO\Ɨ۬amitras are conceptualized as experienced guides
that lead practitioners to approach the goal via elucidating the means to access theenlightening liberation they master.
3.2 .$/<Ɩ৅AMITRA IS A PROTECTOR
In the proposition-VFKHPD /,)( ,6$1 21*2,1*92<$*( ³IHUrymen” apparently
shares the same properties as “helmsmen/ ship captains,” but the post-head attributive
clause in example (5), “ferrying us across the torrents of the mundane whirl,” manifests
that the metaphor of ferrymen is tied closely with the proposition-VFKHPD6$06$5$,6
THE SEA. Because THE SEA is full of terrors and hazards, the main feature of ferrymen
PHWDSKRULV³WRVHFXUHSDVVHQJHUVIURPWKHGDQJHUVRQD92<$*(´
7KH PHWDSKRU RI ERDWPHQ LQ H[DPSOH   LV IXQFWLRQDOO\ HTXLYDOHQW WR that offerrymen. Although the informational structure of metaphors varies, in particular, there
are no adjective/adverbial clauses, the verbal phrases can be inferred from othercomponents of the sentence or vivid imagery of the nouns. Here, a practitioner should see
himself as one who is aiming for “crossing over to the other shore,” so the main featurein the source domain “boatmen” that get mapped maybe the function of “delivering
passenger (from the sea) to the shore.”
As specified by the descriptive information in the above examples, the source
domains “a bridge,” “the chief ministers,” “nurses,” and “heroic warriors” serve some
SURWHFWLYHIXQFWLRQV7KLVVHWRIPXOWLSOHVRXUFHGRPDLQVJLYHQLQ7DEOHUHSUHVHQWWKDWNDO\Ɨ۬amitras play a protective role “guarding practitioners from all perils” as well as“preventing them from all evils.”
Table 4. Linguistic expressions of PROTECTORSThe source domain

Linguistic expressions

ferrymenferrying across the torrents

boatmen>IHUU\LQJRYHUWKHVHD@

a bridgethe peril of falling is eliminatedthe chief ministers>SURWHFWLQJIURPDOOZURQJDFWLRQV@66

nursesprotecting from all evils

physiciansrelieving/getting rid of disease

66

This is deduced from the mapping relation between the target domain “instruction” and the source
domain “the precepts of kingship.” The chief ministers can take the precepts to advise the prince
against wrong actions.

112

Jianrong SHIMetaphorical ,QWHUSUHWDWLRQVRI³.DO\Ɨ৆amitra” in the Ga۬‫ڲ‬aY\ǌha-sǌtra

heroic warriors‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬protecting from all perils,WLVTXLWHREYLRXVWKDWPDSSLQJIHDWXUHVDUHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHSDUWLDOQDWXUHRI
NDO\Ɨ۬amitras and the circumstances a spiritual practitioner finds himself in. Additionally,
the preposition “from,” indicated by the Sanskrit declension ending “-D\Ɨ” 67 not only
manifests a starting point at which the action takes place, but also points to the state thata practitioner has being in or may fall into. 68 For example, the metaphorical expressions“the torrents” and “disease,” which can be classified as the dangers of the sea or a voyage,
FRUUHVSRQGWR$))/,&7,216RIVDPVDUDRU2%67$&/(6in bodhisattva’s path and tobodhisattva’s conduct. Take another example from the case where NDO\Ɨ۬amitra serves asa source domain to map the target domain ERGKLFLWWD.
(10) It [ERGKLFLWWD@LVOLNHDEHQHIDFWRUIUHHLQJ\RXIURPWKHERQGVRIWKHPXQGDQH
whirl. 69
When ERGKLFLWWD is conceptualized as NDO\Ɨ۬amitra, as in example (10), theprominent mapping feature of NDO\Ɨ۬amitra is the capability to liberate spiritual
pracWLWLRQHUV IURP 6$06$5$ 7KLV VHW RI PHWDSKRULFDO H[SUHVVLRQV LPSO\ WKDW D
practitioner is undergoing many difficulties along the bodhisattva’s route, and multiple
source domains emphasize the safeguarding or protective aspect of a NDO\Ɨ۬amitra.
3.3 .$/<Ɩ৅AMITRA IS A GENERATOR
2VWR FODLPV WKDW WKH SURWHFWLYH UROH LV UHLQIRUFHG E\ WKH PHWDSKRUV ³WKH JRRG IULHQGV(NDO\Ɨ۬amitras) are true mothers, fathers and nurses.” 70 However, when we look into
their verbal phrases, i.e. “giving birth,” “producing,” or “protecting” provided by
adjective or adverbial clauses, they suggest that only the source domain “nurses” points
to a protector. As Table 5 presents, the mapping features of this set of source domains are
distinguished by their creation verbs.

67

Vaidya, Ga۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKD-VǌWUD, 365.
Various states are often conceptualized as containers. This ontological metaphor is reflected bycommon English expressions such as: “He IHOOLQWR a depression” or “We’re RXWRI trouble now.” See
Lakoff and Johnson, 0HWDSKRUV:H/LYH%\, 30-32.
69 Accentuation by the author. For the original texts, see Cleary, 7KH)ORZHU2UQDPHQW6FULSWXUH$
7UDQVODWLRQRIWKH$YDWDPVDND6XWUDĝLNৢƗQDQGD¶V&KLQHVHDW7E-8.
70
2VWR3RZHU:HDOWKDQG:RPHQLQ,QGLDQ0DKƗ\ƗQD%XGGKLVP7KH*D۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKD-sutra, 27.
68

113

Journal of World Buddhist Cultures‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Vol. 4

Table 5. Linguistic expressions of GENERATORSThe source domain

Linguistic expressions

mothers

giving birth to the family of buddhas

fathers

producing great benefit

parents>HVWDEOLVKLQJDIDPLO\EXVLQHVV@

WKH+LPDOD\D0RXQWDLQV

growing the herb

water spirits>FUHDWLQJUDLQ@

the givers of wealth>JLYLQJWKHZHDOWK@

streams of omniscience>WR@give rise to great compassion

parasol>WR@produce coolness

The source domains “parasol” and “streams” are of particular interest, since these
metaphors highlight “great love” and “great compassion” of NDO\Ɨ۬DPLWUDVWe put themetaphor of parasol into this category on the basis of its verb “to produce;” also a parasol(Skt. FKDWWUD) may play a protective role, for the reason that “shelter” 71 is one of its aspect.
And the noun “coolness” indicates that NDO\Ɨ۬amitras relief spiritual practitioners from
WKH KHDW ZKLFK LV UHODWHG WR DQRWKHU VFKHPD$))/,&7,216$5( +($7 DV LV RIWHQ
indicated by the Chinese UqQ΁R ⇕᝽ (“feverish”). In brief, this group of metaphorsreflects that NDO\Ɨ۬amitras are not only competent but also willing to provide abundantspiritual means to practitioners.
Conclusion
It has been mentioned by Dayal that a NDO\Ɨ۬amitra is necessary, useful and valuable fora bodhisattva’s career at all time. 72 Dayal’s statement is grounded on a cognitive
SHUVSHFWLYHWKDWDSXUSRVHIXO/,)(LVWKHXQLI\LQJFRQFHSWRID-2851(<ZKLFKRFFXUVin all Buddhist traditions and provides the basis for numerous metaphorical mappings. In
such basic schema, a NDO\Ɨ۬amitra is commonly conceptualized as a GUIDE. There aredifferent types of guides corresponding
to a variety of journeys, such as a sea voyage or
spo
a desert trip, HWFHWHUD; moreover,r, tthe movement from an initial state to a final state is often
depicted as a treacherous course.
e The Gv placing the practitioner in various circumstances
reveals various ways of perceiving NDO\Ɨ۬amitras and how they can protect, inspire andtake care of spiritual needs of a practitioner.
In the current paper, we demonstrate that thee context provides important

71
72

00RQLHU-Williams, 6DQVNULW-(QJOLVK'LFWLRQDU\ 2[IRUG7KH&ODUHQGRQ3UHVV 
Dayal, 7KH%RGKLVDWWYD'RFWULQHLQ%XGGKLVW6DQVNULW/LWHUDWXUH, 63.

Jianrong SHIMetaphorical ,QWHUSUHWDWLRQVRI³.DO\Ɨ৆amitra” in the Ga۬‫ڲ‬aY\ǌha-sǌtra‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬

information for understanding what the prominent features in the source domain that get
mapped. The simile of “bathing helpers” in the 0DGK\DPD-ƗJDPDdepicts NDO\Ɨ۬amitras
as experts, skillful in helping to “abandon evil and cultivate the good.” The simile isanalRJRXV WR WKH FRQFHSWXDO PHWDSKRU .$/<Ɩ৅$0,75$ ,6 $ *8,'( RU $
3527(&725LQGv. However, the service bathing helpers provide to a king and his chief
ministers is not as vital as what guides, ferrymen, or physicians can offer. Anothermetaphor in the 0DGK\DPa-ƗJDPD which compares a NDO\Ɨ۬amitra to “the moon’s
waxing phase” brings in focus virtues that a NDO\Ɨ۬amitra grows and completes along theBuddhist Path. Even though there is the same verbal phrase “growing” in the metaphorical
H[SUHVVLRQVIRU*(1(5$725 the descriptive information in Gv puts an emphasis on thebenefits NDO\Ɨ۬amitras DUHUHDG\WRVXSSO\LQVWHDGRIWKHTXDOLWLHVWKH\ possess.
Taking into account the various features of NDO\Ɨ۬amitras, undoubtedly only
EXGGKDVSHUIHFWDOOWKHYLUWXHV2VWRpoints out that in Gv “most of the references mentionµJRRG IULHQGV¶ LQ WKH SOXUDO´ ZKLOH 3ƗOL DQG PDQ\ 0DKƗ\ƗQD VRXUFHV XVH RQO\ LWV
singular. 73 1HYHUWKHOHVV,ZRXOGDUJXHZLWK2VWR¶VFRQFOXVLRQWKDWGv’s guidance is toaccumulate “many good friends”.  The numerous NDO\Ɨ۬amitras personify endlessvariety of bodhisattva practices and attainments. Furthermore, the metaphors discussed
in the paper highlight manifold aspects of auspicious mentalities with which a bodhisattva
should approach a spiritual benefactor. From this perspective, it seems wise to imitate
what Sudhana performs: he attends different NDO\Ɨ۬amitras with purified devotional
attitude, rather than seeks for one perfect NDO\Ɨ۬amitra.

Bibliography$QƗOD\R%KLNNKX$&RPSDUDWLYH6WXG\RIWKH0DMMKLPD-QLNƗ\D. Taipei: Dharma Drum
Publishing Corporation, 2010.
Cleary, Thomas. 7KH)ORZHU2UQDPHQW6FULSWXUH$7UDQVODWLRQRIWKH$YDWDPVDND6XWUD.
Boston & London: Shambhala Publication, Inc., 1993.
&ROOLQV6WHYH³.DO\Ɨ৆aPLWWDDQG.DO\Ɨ৆DPLWWDWƗ´-RXUQDORIWKH3DOL7H[W6RFLHW\ XI(1987): 50-72.
Dayal, Har. 7KH%RGKLVDWWYD'RFWULQHLQ%XGGKLVW6DQVNULW/LWHUDWXUH. London: Kegan
Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd, 1932.
Dharmamitra, Bhikshu. 7KH7HQ%RGKLVDWWYD*URXQGV7KH AvataۨVDND6ǌWUD&KDSWHU
. Seattle: Kalavinka Press, 2019.
73


2VWR3RZHU:HDOWKDQG:RPHQLQ,QGLDQ0DKƗ\ƗQD%XGGKLVP7KH*D۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKD-sutra, 28.
,ELG

115

‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

Edgerton, Franklin. %XGGKLVW+\EULG6DQVNULW'LFWLRQDU\New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1953.
Grohmann, Friedrich 㸦㧗᫂㐨㸧. “‘=Ku]KČ’ ZqLEu\΅X]KuKXu—WiQWiQ ‘\΃Su\GpMLČ¶”ࠕᬛ⪅ࠖᮍᚲ᭷ᬛ្——ㄯㄯࠕ௨㆜╣ᚓゎࠖ. ἲග > 'KDUPD/LJKW0RQWKO\@ -DQXDU\ 
Kövecses, Zoltán. /DQJXDJH0LQGDQG&XOWXUH2[IRUG2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
/DNRII*DQG0-RKQVRQ0HWDSKRUV:H/LYH%\. Chicago: Chicago University Press,
2003.
Lakoff, George. “The &RQWHPSRUDU\7KHRU\RI 0HWDSKRU´,Q0HWDSKRUDQG7KRXJKW,HGLWHGE\$QGUHZ2UWRQ\-251. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Leeming, David A. $'LFWLRQDU\RI$VLDQ0\WKRORJ\. New York: 2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV,2001.
0F0DKDQ 'DYLG / (PSW\ 9LVLRQ 0HWDSKRU DQG 9LVLRQDU\ ,PDJHU\ LQ 0DKƗ\ƗQD%XGGKLVP. London: Routledge Curzon, 2002.
0RQLHU-:LOOLDPV06DQVkrit-(QJOLVK'LFWLRQDU\2[IRUG7KH&ODUHQGRQ3UHVV
Nida, Eugene. “Principles of Correspondence.” In 7KH7UDQVODWLRQ6WXGLHV5HDGHU, third
HGLWLRQ HGLWHG E\ /DZUHQFH9HQXWL -155. London and New York: Routledge,
2012.
2VWR, Douglas Edward. 3RZHU:HDOWKDQG:RPHQLQ,QGLDQ0DKƗ\ƗQD%XGGKLVP7KH
Ga۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKD-sutra. London and New York: Routledge, 2009.
Saeed, J. I. 6HPDQWLFV. London: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 1997.
Su, Lily I-ZHQ³:KDW&DQ0HWDSKRUV7HOO8V$ERXW&XOWXUH"´/DQJXDJHDQG/LQJXLVWLFV3, no. 3 (2002): 589-613.
6XEERWLQD ( ³&21&(378$/ 0(7$3+25´ 6FR'LV. Accessed August 31, 2020.
http://scodis.com/for-students/glossary/conceptual-metaphor/.
Sweetser, Eve. )URP(W\PRORJ\WR3UDJPDWLFV0HWDSKRULFDODQG&XOWXUDO$VSHFWVRI
6HPDQWLF6WUXFWXUH. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Vaidya, P. L., ed. Ga۬‫ڲ‬DY\ǌKD-VǌWUD'DUEKDQJD7KH0LWKLOD,QVWLWXWH

116‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬

Reimagining Ancient India in Modern Japan
Interactions between Buddhist Priests, Scholars, and Artists at Ajantaࠑin Englishࠒ

Paride STORTINI
PhD candidate, History of Religions,
The University of Chicago – Divinity School117‫ ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

Abstract
In the early twentieth century, the Ajanta caves became an essential destination not only
for Japanese artists interested in their wall paintings, but also for Buddhist priest-scholars andintellectuals who often joined them. The collaboration of these two groups of travelerspilgrims resulted in efforts to preserve and spread the knowledge of the murals, which also
became a source of inspiration for the production of new art at both secular and sacred places.
This article analyzes examples of Japanese artistic-religious co-travelling at Ajanta and links
WKH FXOWXUDO QHWZRUNV EHWZHHQ ,QGLD DQG -DSDQ IDFLOLWDWHG E\ 2NDNXUD .DNX]ǀ ZLWK WKHsignificance of the role that studies of ancient India played in developing modern scholarly
approaches to Buddhism. Specifically, it illustrates the expedition to Ajanta led by priestVFKRODU)XMLL6HQVKǀDQGWKHFROODERUDWLRQEHWZHHQWKH,QGRORJLVWSULHVW,]XPL+ǀNHLDQGWKH
painter Inoue Toshimasa. In addition, it presents two cases of echoes of Ajanta in visual
culture: tKH GHFRUDWLRQVRI<ǀNLVǀYLOODLQ1DJR\DDQGWKHDUWLVWLFSURGXFWLRQRInihonga
SDLQWHU 1RXVX .ǀVHWVX LQ -DSDQ ,QGLD DQG 1RUWK$PHULFD 7KHVH FRQQHFWLRQV VKRZ WKHimportance of including visual culture in the study of modern Japanese Buddhism andtransnational Buddhist modernism. In addition, the article argues that a combination ofIndology with the art of the Ajanta murals expanded Japanese Buddhist priest-scholars andintellectuals’ knowledge of India, providing them with a rich cultural repertoire for defining
forms of transnational identity and collaboration based on the idea of a shared Buddhist
heritage. However, the article also questions an idealistic approach to this transnational
aesthetics by revealing how the context of the artistic production did not include only
cosmopolitan encounters, but also the experiences of colonialism, migration, anddisplacement.

118

Paride STORTINI
Reimagining Ancient India in Modern Japan‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬

Reimagining Ancient India in Modern Japan
Interactions between Buddhist Priests, Scholars, and Artists at Ajanta*
Paride STORTINI
Keywords:$MDQWD,QGRORJ\7UDQVQDWLRQDO%XGGKLVW0RGHUQLVP<ǀNLVǀ
1oXVX.ǀVHWVX)XMLL6HQVKǀ,]XPL+ǀNHL

In a 1970s picture-ERRNWKHUHQRZQHGVFKRODURI%XGGKLVP1DNDPXUD+DMLPH ୰ᮧඖ(1912–1999) tells the life of Shakyamuni using illustrations modelled on the mural
SDLQWLQJVUHDOL]HGLQWKHVE\D-DSDQHVHDUWLVW1RXVX.ǀVHWVX 㔝⏕ྖ㤶㞷 (1885–
1973), at the Mulagandhakuti Vihara in Sarnath, India. In an explanation meant for thePRWKHUV ZKR ZRXOG UHDG WKH ERRN WR WKHLU FKLOGUHQ 1DNDPXUD VWUHVVHV WKH ZRUOG
significance of such images, as they represent the contribution of Japanese art inspreading the knowledge of the ‘spirit of Shakyamuni’ to the vast audience of visitors
who travel to the holy city of Varanasi and nearby Sarnath to learn about Indian culture.1
1DNDPXUD¶V FRQVLGHUDWLRQV DQG 1RXVX¶V PXUDOV LQ ,QGLD SRLQW WR DQ LPSRUWDQW
aspect of the history of modern Japanese Buddhism which only recently has started toreceive scholarly attention: the role of the circulation of images along transnational
netZRUNVWKDWOLQNHG-DSDQQRWRQO\WR(XURSHDQG1RUWK$PHULFDEXWDOVRWRRWKHU$VLDQFRXQWULHV 1DNDPXUD¶V FRPPHQW UHFDOOV DQ LPSRUWDQW DVSHFW RI WKH H[SHULHQFH RI
modernity for Japanese Buddhists: the reconception of their place in an expanded
worldview. While earlier research has focused on interactions between Japanese%XGGKLVWV DQG (XURSHDQ RU 1RUWK $PHULFDQ FXOWXUH VLQFH WKH 0HLML SHULRG 2 recent
research has pointed to the role that travel and intellectual networks in South Asian*This article was realized thanks to sources found during my stay as a guest at the Research Center
for World Buddhist Cultures of Ryukoku University. I am particularly indebted to Dake Mitsuya for
his advice while I stayed at the center, and to Fukuyama Yasuko, Micah Auerback, and Thomas
1HZEROGIRUGLUHFWLQJPHWRVRPHRIWKHVRXUFHV,DOVRDSSUHFLDWHWKHFRPPHQWVRIWZRDQRQ\PRXV
reviewers.
1
1DNDPXUD+DMLPH ୰ᮧඖ, Oshakasama ࠾ࡋࡷ࠿ࡉࡲ (Tokyo: Tamagawa Daigaku Shuppanbu,
1975), 155.
2
For earlier research, see James E. Ketelaar, Of Heretics and Martyrs in Meiji Japan: Buddhism and
its Persecution 3ULQFHWRQ1-3ULQFHWRQ8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV DQG-XGLWK6QRGJUDVVPresenting
Japanese Buddhism to the West: Orientalism, Occidentalism and the Columbian Exposition (Chapel+LOO1&8QLYHUVLW\RI1RUWK&DUROLQD3UHVV IRUPRUHUHFHQWUHVHDUFKRQWKHWRSLFVHH'DNH
Mitsuya ᔞ‶ஓ, Yoshinaga Shin’ichi ྜྷỌ㐍୍ DQGƿPL7RVKLKLUR ☐ᾏᑑᗈ, eds., Nihon Bukkyǀ
WRVHL\ǀVHNDL ᪥ᮏ௖ᩍ࡜すὒୡ⏺ .\RWR+ǀ]ǀNDQ2020).

119‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

countries had in the construction of modern Japanese Buddhism. 3
It was not only people and ideas that travelled along these routes: images too
circulated along the same networks and contributed to create an imaginaire of ancientIndian Buddhism that spread across continents. Japanese Buddhist priests and scholars
who visited India since the Meiji period often travelled in the company of artists, and theircollaboration led to artistic commissions. The aim of this article is to present theintersection of these scholarly and artistic reimaginations of India. In addition, it willshow the beneficial perspectives that accompany a methodological inclusion of visualsources in the study of religion, and, on the other hand, what art historians can learn fromconsidering religious-artistic networks.
1. Ajanta as a Modern Pilgrimage Destination for Japanese Buddhist Priests andArtists
In his memories of the days spent studying the Ajanta caves, the Bengali artist and etcher
Mukul Chandra Dey (1895–1989) recalls the deep impression made on him by a numberof Japanese with whom he shared an expedition in 1917. Among them were nihonga
painWHU$UDL.DQSǀ Ⲩ஭ᐶ᪉ (1878– DQGDUWKLVWRULDQ6DZDPXUD6HQWDUǀ ἑᮧᑓኴ㑻 (1884–1930), who had been sent there to copy the murals on behalf of the art
periodical Kokka ᅜ⳹, and who had met Dey during his 1916 travel to Japan in the
FRPSDQ\RI1REHOODXUHDWHBengali poet Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941).
Dey expresses admiration for the painstaking efforts of the Japanese who copied
the frescoes to preserve their memory. He points out that the Japanese artists are Buddhists,
and notices Arai’s attitude toward the murals: “having come at last to the altar, he bowed
many times to the large cross-legged Buddha, and afterwards took off his puttees, and by
undoing his sash let down his long white robes, so that now he looked like an artistmonk.” 4 The observation of the Bengali etcher reveals a potential interest in the Japanesevisitors to Ajanta that goes beyond the aesthetic: their Buddhist faith turns the travel
experience into a form of pilgrimage, and while their expedition was framed within thescientific endeavor, the motivations to preserve the frescoes could include religious
nuances.
In the early twentieth century, the Ajanta caves became an essential stop for
3
2NX\DPD1DRML ዟᒣ┤ྖ, “0HLML,QGRU\ǌJDNXVHL6RQR0LQDPL$MLDWDLNHQRPHJXWWH” ᫂἞༳ᗘ␃Ꮫ⏕ࠋࡑࡢ༡࢔ࢪ࢔య㦂ࢆࡵࡄࡗ࡚, ,QGRJDNX%XNN\ǀJDNX.HQN\ǌ 64, no.2 (2016): 1042–
1035; Richard M. Jaffe, 6HHNLQJ ĝƗN\DPXQL 6RXWK $VLD LQ WKH Formation of Modern Japanese
Buddhism (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2019).
4
Mukul Chandra Dey, 0\ SLOJULPDJH WR$MDQWD  %DJK 1HZ<RUN*HRUJH+'RUDQ &RPSDQ\1925), 47–53.

120

Paride STORTINI
Reimagining Ancient India in Modern Japan‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬Japanese intellectuals, artists, and priests who visited India. Very often they travelled
together, and in the company of British and Indian counterparts. The images and ideas
these different kinds of visitors produced were not disconnected, and together fueled an
imaginaire of India that affected the visual and religious culture of modern Japan.
The best known example of cultural connection between India and Japan in theearly twentieth century is the one between Tagore and the Japanese scholar Okakura.DNX]ǀ ᒸ಴ぬ୕ (1863–1913), who visited India in 1901. The network of artists andintellectuals they established between Tokyo and Calcutta—today’s Kolkata—had a deep
impact on the history of modern art in Japan and India, and much scholarship exists
regarding this connection. 5 Recent art historical research has contributed to consider theaesthetic aspect of the Indian imaginaire, expanding from the textual focus of Buddhist
priest-scholars’ interest. However, art historians have dedicated less attention to thecollaboration of the Japanese artists with Buddhist priests and scholars who were also
visiting India, or to the religious and intellectual background of this shared interest for
India. Recent publications by scholars of religion and of art have instead started to reveal
the networks between artistic and religious imaginations of India in modern Japan. 6
Knowledge of India through textual study and direct travel provided artists andBuddhist priest-scholars with a cultural repertoire for rethinking Asian and Japanese
identity while confronting the concepts of history, religion, and art that had come from
Europe since the beginning of the Meiji period. The pursuit of new knowledge on ancientIndia must be understood within the effort of Buddhist sects to build a scientificallydefined approach to the history of Buddhism. By mastering the tools of modern Indology
and comparative philology, Japanese priest-scholars could answer to the criticisms of East
Asian Buddhism that were often raised by Western scholars and redeployed for apologetic
purposes by Christian missionaries in Japan.
%RWK WKH ƿWDQL DQG +RQJDQML VHFWV RI -ǀGR 6KLQVKǌ ZHUH SLRQHHUV LQ WKHdevelopment of modern Buddhist studies and Indology, and sent young priests and
LQWHOOHFWXDOVVXFKDV1DQMǀ%XQ’\ǌ ༡᮲ᩥ㞝 (1849– DQG7DNDNXVX-XQMLUǀ 㧗ᴋ㡰ḟ㑻 (1866–1945) to study in Europe. However, as RicKDUG-DIIHDQG2NX\DPD1DRML
5 See for example Miriam Wattles, “7KH5\ǌWǀDQGWKH$HVWKHWLFVRI$IIHFWLYLW\,” $UW-RXUQDO
55, no.3 (1996): 48–56. Inaga Shigemi, “The Interaction of Bengali and Japanese Artistic Milieus in
the First Half of the Twentieth Century (1901– 5DELQGUDQDWK7DJRUH$UDL.DQSǀDQG1DGDODO
Bose,” Japan Review 21(2009):149–181.
6
Richard M. Jaffe, “Buddhist Material Culture, ‘Indianism,’ and the Construction of Pan-Asian
Buddhism in Prewar Japan,” Material Religion 2, no.3 (2006): 266–92; Jaffe, 6HHNLQJ ĝƗN\DPXQL;
Fukuyama Yasuko, “Japanese encounters with Ajanta,” in Indo-Japanese Joint Project for theConservation of Cultural Heritage, edited by Archeological Survey of India (Tokyo: 1DWLRQDO
Research Institute of Cultural Properties, (2010): 13–32, Micah L. Auerback, $Storied Sage: Canonand Creation in the Making of a Japanese Buddha (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2016).

121‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4have shown, Europe was not the only destination: many of these Japanese Buddhists alsoestablished networks of collaboration with local intellectuals and religious reformers inSouth Asia.
The Ajanta caves represented a shared destination for both kinds of travelers:
Japanese artists and Buddhist priests and scholars. The former valued the wall paintings
as one of the earliest and best preserved expressions of Indian art, which could provide
inspiration for a redefinition of modern Asian art. The latter were attracted by the
representations of Buddhist scenes and the monastic use of the complex. The twocategories of behavior were not necessarily distinguished, and likely fueled each other:
the spiritual value associated with the sacred place and content of representation called
for the efforts to preserve the paintings and spread their knowledge.
The intertwining religious and artistic interests for Ajanta is linked to the antiquityof the site and the exceptional status of the wall paintings. The caves contain the best
preserved examples of pictorial art of ancient India, and the investigation of the site has
provided important evidence both for art history and for the history of early Buddhism.
There are still debates around the exact chronology of the caves and on the identificationof the images of the wall paintings, but the general agreement is that they were built in
two phases, the earlier during the second century BCE, and a later one under the Vakataka
dynasty in the fifth century CE. 7 Although the association of the earlier and later phases
ZLWK+ƯQD\ƗQDDQG0DKƗ\ƗQD%XGGKLVPLVVWLOOTXHVWLRQHG 8 the wall paintings attracted
many Buddhists and scholars of Buddhism for their possibility to offer a lively portrait ofthe development of Buddhism in India.
Ajanta constitutes a unique place to consider the way ancient India was reconceived
to construct modern identities, and the Japanese priests and artists I am presenting in thisarticle participated in this reconception process where art and archeology intersected withtransnational Buddhist modernism. The caves were rediscovered in 1819, and their wall
paintings generated a mixed response in Victorian Britain: admiration for the aesthetic
quality, but also debate around their comparison with European art and association withmore criticized Hindu sculpture, often blamed for their representation of naked humanfigures. 9 Positing the murals as the origins of Indian art provided inspiration both for7
One of the most accredited chronologies is by Walter Spink, see his multivolume $MDQWD+LVWRU\and Development (Boston, Brill: 2006–2018).
8
6HH IRU H[DPSOH *UHJRU\ 6FKRSHQ ³The Ambiguity of AvalokiteĞvara and the Tentative
Identification of a Painted Scene from a MahƗyƗna 6ǌWUD at Aja৆৬Ɨ´LQFigments and Fragments of0DKƗ\ƗQD%XGGKLVPLQ,QGLD0RUH&ROOHFWHG3DSHUV (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2005):
278–298, and Richard S. Cohen, “DiscontenWHG &DWHJRULHV +ƯQD\ƗQD DQG 0DKƗ\ƗQD in Indian
Buddhist History,” -RXUQDORIWKH$PHULFDQ$FDGHP\RI5HOLJLRQ 63, no.1 (1995): 1–25.
9
On the reception of Indian art in Europe, see Partha Mitter, 0XFK0DOLJQHG0RQVWHUV$+LVWRU\RI

122

Paride STORTINI
Reimagining Ancient India in Modern Japan‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬European artists and at the same time for the rising construction of an artistic and cultural
identity of modern India. 10 Especially in the context of modernist movements in Calcutta
and Bombay—today Kolkata and Mumbai—the art of Ajanta was increasingly presented
as a counterpart to European classical or Renaissance art, and as a model to educate young
generations of Indian painters. 11 Japanese artists and Buddhist priest-scholars who
visited the caves participated in this global reimagination of ancient India by linking it toideas of Asian civilization and modern Japanese identity through the concept of a shared
Buddhist heritage.
One of the earliest Japanese expeditions to Ajanta was the one led in 1902 by priestVFKRODU )XMLL 6HQVKǀ ⸨ ஭ ᐉ ṇ (1859–1903). 12 +LV WUDYHO ZDV SDUW RI WKH ƿWDQL
expeditions, a series of three major archeological missions funded by the Honganji sect,which explored Buddhist sites in India and Central Asia. Fujii had been previously sent
to London in 1897 in order to learn about church-state relations, and also to explore theIndological knowledge produced by British scholars. While doing research at the Victoria
and Albert Museum, Fujii was struck by the reproductions of the Ajanta cave murals madeLQ WKH V E\ -RKQ *ULIILWKV –  DQG RQFH KH ZDV DVNHG WR MRLQ WKH ƿWDQL
expedition to India, he took the chance to lead a group of members of this expedition to
Ajanta in December 1902.
The travel account is short, but Fujii gives detailed information on the location of
the caves. He mentions the art, but he is also impressed by the nature and position of the
caves, the sound of falling water and the alternation of light and darkness which heassociates with the awe of a sacred place. 13 Interestingly, while Dey records the religious
attitude of a Japanese painter before a Buddhist image in the caves, a Buddhist priest likeFujii expresses stronger concerns with practical and geographical details of the mission,
crossing and inverting scholarly and religious purposes in approaching Ajanta.
During the exploration of the caves, Fujii was already suffering by an infection thatwould take his life on his way back to Europe the following year. His poor healthEuropean Reactions tR,QGLDQ$UW (1HZ'HOKL2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV).
10
Rupert R. Arrowsmith, ³µ$Q ,QGLDQ 5HQDVFHQFH¶ DQG WKH 5LVH RI *OREDO 0RGHUQLVP :LOOLDP
Rothenstein in India, 1910–11,” Burlington Magazine 152 (2010): 228–35.
11
See Tapati *XKD-Thakurta. The MakinJRID1HZ,QGLDQ$UW$UWLVWV$HVWKHWLFVDQG1DWLRQDOLVP
in Bengal, C. 1850–1920 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
12
For details on the art historical aspects of this expedition, see Fukuyama Yasuko’s previously
mentioned article.
13
See Fujii 6HQVKǀ ⸨஭ᐉṇ and Shimaji 'DLWǀ ᓥᆅ኱➼, $LEDL]HQVKǌ ឡᴝ඲㞟 (Tokyo: Morie
Shoten, 1906), 535–618, and Fujii 6HQVKǀ ⸨஭ᐉṇ, )XMLLVHQVKǀIndo reiketsu tanken nikki ⸨஭ᐉṇ࣭༳ᗘ㟋✰᥈ぢ᪥グ (Iiyama, Japan: Iiyama-VKL)XMLPXUDEXQJDNXNHQN\ǌNDL 22–26;
for more on Fujii’s life and travels see: Irisawa Takashi ධ⃝ᓫ³6XULUDQNDQRƿWDQLWDQNHQWDL´ ࢫࣜࣛࣥ࢝ࡢ኱㇂᥈᳨㝲, in 3ƗULJDNXBXNN\ǀEXQNDJDNX 17 (2003): 11–20.

123‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4conditions might have also been the reason why instead another member of the expedition,
6KLPDML'DLWǀ ᓥᆅ኱➼ (1875–1927), did most of the survey work. Once back in Japan,
Shimaji also published a number of articles on the archaeology of India, contributing to
the spread of interest in the Ajanta murals and concern for their preservation.
After the 1917 artistic expedition to Ajanta organized by the previously mentioned
art periodical Kokka, 14 another relatively unknown case of a priest-artist collaborationencouraged by shared travelling in India is the one between priest-VFKRODU,]XPL+ǀNHLἨⰾ⎆ (1884–1947) and painter Inoue Toshimasa ஭ୖ฼ṇ. 15 Izumi, who would
become the leading Indologist at Otani University, was introduced to the artist in 1919 in
Sri Lanka, and the two met again after Inoue completed his two-month survey work at
Ajanta. The collaboration between the two developed later in Japan, when Izumi used
Inoue’s sketches as illustrations for his publications on India, and organized an exhibitionof the copies of the murals at Otani University.16 Seven panels of Inoue’s reproductions
were acquired by the university and publicly shown there in 1924, together with 44
sketches and a number of photographs. The lecture that accompanied the exhibition
stresses the way in which Inoue’s copies were meant to allow the observers a veritably
in-person experience of being inside the caves. 17
Izumi and Inoue’s collaboration shows not only the lack of a barrier between thoseJapanese who visited India for pilgrimage and those who visited it for artistic inspiration.
It also points to the participation of Buddhist universities in the international effort topreserve and spread the knowledge of the Ajanta murals, which must be connected not
only to their value for art history, but to the development of Indology as a basis for modern
Buddhist studies. Izumi, like Fujii, does not approach Ajanta from the perspective of apilgrim, but uses the language of the scholar concerned with preservation of the art. He
does not claim the superiority of Inoue’s reproductions over those of the Western artists
based on his Asian identity or Buddhist faith, but on the choice of a technique that resulted

14

For more information on this expedition, see Fukuyama, “Japanese encounters with Ajanta.”
Shimane Kenritsu Iwami Bijutsukan ᓥ᰿┴❧▼ぢ⨾⾡㤋 (ed.), 7ǀN\ǀ*HLGDL%LMXWVXNDQVKR]ǀ
1LKRQNLQGDLELMXWVXQRPHLKLQWHQ0RULƿJDLWR<RQHKDUD8QNDLRFKǌVKLQQL.LNDNXWHQ ᮾி⸤኱⨾⾡㤋ᡤⶶ᪥ᮏ㏆௦⨾⾡ࡢྡရᒎ: ᳃㬑እ࡜⡿ཎ㞼ᾏࢆ୰ᚰ࡟: ௻⏬ᒎ (Iwami, Japan:
Shimane Kenritsu Iwami Bijutsukan, 2012), 109 and 131.
16 ,]XPL +ǀNHL Ἠⰾ⎆, Indo mandan ༳ᗘₔㄯ (.\ǀWR -LQEXQ 6KRLQ   ,W LV VLJQLILFDQW WR
QRWHWKDWWKLVDFTXLVLWLRQDQGH[KLELWLRQKDSSHQHGLPPHGLDWHO\DIWHUWKH*UHDW.DQWǀ(DUWKTXDNHRI
1923, that destroyed the copies of the murals made by the Kokka expedition, similarly to what
happened to previous British copies which were also lost in fires. This history of losing even the
reproductions of the murals might have inspired Izumi’s effort to preserve Inoue’s work.
17“Ajanta hekiga tenkan” ࢔ࢪࣕࣥࢱቨ␓ᒎや, in ƿWDQL 'DLJDNX 6KLQSǀ ኱㇂኱Ꮫ᪂ሗ 19,
1RYHPEHU
15

124

Paride STORTINI
Reimagining Ancient India in Modern Japan‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬in more faithful copies. 18
It is not only the personal networks between artists and priests travelling in India
which make the study of their interactions regarding Ajanta interesting. If we think of thevisual imaginaire of the ancient murals and their modern reproductions in connection to
the scholarship on Indology produced by priest-scholars such as Izumi, we can identify
resonances that expand the significance of India for modern Japanese culture beyond theBuddhist textual and doctrinal focus. For example, the lecture on the Ajanta caves whichaccompanied the exhibition of Inoue’s copies stresses the importance of the images not
only in terms of their reference to Buddhist narratives, but because of their richrepresentation of human beings, plants, and animals, and for the expressivity of bodily
movements and faces. 19
The Ajanta murals opened a window for modern Japanese Buddhists into a worldof living beings and nature that surrounded tales of buddhas and bodhisattvas. This
conception of a living Buddhism through visual imagination echoes the words of the
English poet Laurence Binyon (1869–1943) in his introduction to Mukul Dey’s accountof his pilgrimage to Ajanta: “here the divine is not divorced from the human, nor the spirit
from the body… If one were asked to put into one word the secret of these paintings—
the secret of their continuing power to impress and charm us—one might well answer
life.” 20 Izumi’s own Indological scholarship expanded the scope of knowledge from his
SUHGHFHVVRU1DQMǀ%XQ’\ǌ¶VIRFXVRQ%XGGKLVWWH[WVWRLQFOXGHDEURDGUDQJHRIWRSLFV
which stressed what modern Japanese could learn from the study of India. 21
If the richness in details and expressivity of bodies and nature of the Ajanta murals
suggested to certain observers the copresence of the human and the divine, some others
did not appreciate the sensuous quality of the aesthetics. This mixed reaction did notcharacterize only Victorian Britain, but also some of the Japanese visitors to the caves.
)RUH[DPSOHDVDOVRUHSRUWHGE\-DIIHWKH%XGGKLVWSULHVWRIWKHƿWDQLVHFW$NHJDUDVX
Haya ᬡⅲᩄ (1877–1954) visited Ajanta in 1926 but found in the aesthetic richness anelement that expressed the decay of Buddhism in ancient India, and was particularly
critical toward the presence of naked figures: “if you could accompany Shakyamuni to
Ajanta, he would frown on the images of embracing naked men and women on the18³ƿWDQLNHQN\ǌVKLWVXHNXUX$MDQWDQRKHNLJD\XLLWVXWRLZDUXUX´ ኱㇂◊✲ᐊ࡬᮶ࡿ࢔ࢪࣕࣥࢱ
ࡢቨ␓၏୍࡜பࡣࡿࡿ, in ƿWDQL'DLJDNX6KLQSǀ 16, September 5, 1924: 4.
19,]XPL +ǀNHL Ἠⰾ⎆, “Ajanta no hekiga” ࢔ࢪࣕࣥࢱࡢቨ␓, in ƿWDQL 'DLJDNX 6KLQSǀ 20,
1RYHPEHU
20 Dey, 0\3LOJULPDJHWR$MDQWD %DJK, 15–21.
21
See for example the broad range of topics in Izumi’s volume decorated with Inoue’s sketches: Izumi,
Indo mandan.

125‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4pillars.” 22
2. Echoes of Ajanta in Secular and Sacred Spaces
The presence of naked human figures inspired by the Ajanta murals has been a source of
FRQIXVLRQDOVRIRUWKHYLVLWRUVWR<ǀNLVǀ ᥭ㍤Ⲯ YLOODLQ1DJR\D 23 which constitutes asignificant example of the echoes that Ajanta had in Japan. In this section of the article, I
will show how the art of Ajanta became not only the focus of preservation concerns andscholarly study in Japan, but also a source of active reimagination for decorative arts at
secular and sacred spaces. The examples I present also reveal the transnational nature ofthis process of reimagination, based on the travels of Indian and Japanese artists and on
pilgrimage experiences of Japanese Buddhists in India.
The Ajanta-LQVSLUHG GHFRUDWLRQV DW<ǀNLVǀ YLOOD ZHUH UHDOL]HG LQ WKH V E\ Dyoung Indian artist, P. Hariharan (1905–1970), 24 FRPPLVVLRQHG E\ WKH RZQHU ,Wǀ-LUǀ]DHPRQ 6XNHWDPL ఀ⸨ḟ㑻ᕥ⾨㛛♸Ẹ (1878–1940), after he had been on apilgrimage to India. Suketami was the scion of a wealthy family of textile merchants from
WKHFLW\RI1DJR\D6LQFHWKH1910s Suketami hosted many young people from different
South Asian countries at his villa, and the artist Hariharan was among them. It was theencounter with the Burmese monk and independentist leader U Ottama (1879–1939)
during the latter’s visit to Japan in 1910 that motivated Suketami to foster relations
between Japan and South Asia. 25
In 1934 Suketami fulfilled his project of a pilgrimage to India. This travel was a
PDLQ VRXUFH RI LQVSLUDWLRQ IRU WKH GHFRUDWLYH VW\OH RI <ǀNLVǀ YLOOD HVSHFLDOO\ LQ WKHCKǀVKǀNDNX ⫈ᯇ㛶 building. Hariharan functioned as a guide for Suketami during thetravel, which was documented by the official photographer of the expedition: Hasegawa'HQMLUǀ 㛗㇂ᕝఏḟ㑻 (1894–1976). In addition to visiting the former guest-students
in Burma, meeting Tagore in Shantiniketan, and touring the Buddhist sacred sites, the22

1RPRWR7RZD 㔝ᮏỌஂ, $NHJDUDVX +Dya den ᭐ⅲᩄఏ (7RN\R 'DLZD 6KREǀ 4), 347.
Jaffe, 6HHNLQJĝƗN\DPXQL, 146.
23
$FFRUGLQJWRWKH132WKDWPDQDJHVWKHYLOODDQGSDUNWRGD\HDUO\QHZVSDSHUVGHVFULSWLRQVRIWKH
decorations misunderstood the naked figures with Hindu deities, and did not see the Buddhist
background of the -ƗWDND tales through their Ajanta visual rendition. <ǀNLVǀno kai ᥭ㍤Ⲯࡢ఍ (ed.),<ǀNLVǀWRSXNHWDPL<RPLJDHUXMDWVX]DND\DVǀJ\ǀVKDQRULVǀN\ǀ ᥭ㍤Ⲯ࡜♸Ẹ: ࡼࡳࡀ࠼ࡿᯇᆏ
ᒇ๰ᴗ⪅ࡢ⌮᝿㒓(1DJR\D)ǌEDLVKD, 2008), 121.
24
The P. of the name stands for “Palpu.” Hariharan studied pottery at Shantiniketan and moved toJapan in the 1930s to study Japanese ceramics. After moving back to India, he became director of ahandcrafts center and also fostered industrial collaboration between Japan and rural India. See“Handicraftsman P. Hariharan,” in Enlite, The national newsmagazine, September 27, 1969: 9–13.
25
On the life and philanthropic activities of Suketami see <ǀNLVǀno kai, <ǀNLVǀWRSuketami.

126

Paride STORTINI
Reimagining Ancient India in Modern Japan‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬

FRPSDQ\DOVRYLVLWHGWKH$MDQWDFDYHVLQ1RYHPEHU 26
The visit to Ajanta became the major inspiration for Hariharan’s decorations of the
XQGHUJURXQGURRPVLQWKH&KǀVKǀNDNXEXLOGLQJDVWKH<ǀNLVǀQRQSURILWRUJDQL]DWLRQKDV
shown by comparing the decorations with scenes and motifs of the Ajanta murals, andalso based on the photographic report of the pilgrimage. 27 The underground floor isequipped with a small stage that was used for theatrical performances, and also as a screen
to project the photos taken during the pilgrimage. The expedition’s photographer
Hasegawa published his photos in multiple volumes, and this, together with the many
exhibitions of the photos promoted by Suketami, turned the villa into a stage to spreadthe exotic imaginaire of India, within a surrounding of decorative elements that recalled
Ajanta. While the reproductions of the Ajanta murals at Otani University aimed atproviding a faithfulness to the originals for scholarly purposes, here we have an exampleof Ajanta inspiration for the production of a new visual culture within a private space. In
both cases the images were aimed at inspiring the Japanese audience and making themfeel closer to India.
While the influence of Ajanta on the Indian style of the underground rooms isevident, the mediation of other sources is also present: flower decorations inspired by
0XJKDO SHULRG DUW DV ZHOO DV D *RWKLF VW\OH QLFKH HQVKULQLQJ D IHPDOH ILJXUH LQ WKH
“meditation room.” The rest of the building, with rooms in Chinese and European style,further expresses Suketami’s cosmopolitan interests and the transnational networks thatallowed for the building’s construction. The composite nature of these decorations showsthat, despite the scholarly efforts to study Ajanta, the reimagination of India in modern
Japanese religious and visual culture was not the result of a scientific rediscovery of an
objective past, but a creative project that addressed contemporary international
connections between Japan, South Asia, and Europe.
,ILQWKHFDVHRI<ǀNLVǀLWZDVDQ,QGLDQDUWLVWZKRGHFRUDWHGD-DSDQHVHSULYDWH
space, the final example of the transnational reimagination of ancient India we will
examine is provided in the form of the work of a Japanese painter who decorated a modern%XGGKLVW WHPSOH LQ 6DUQDWK ,QGLD 1RXVX .ǀVHWVX 1RXVX, WKH VRQ RI D -ǀGR 6KLQVKǌ
priest, studied at the Tokyo School of Fine Arts, where his interest in Indian art was
encouraged by his interaction with artists who had followed Okakura to India. 28 Tagore’s
26)RUWKHSKRWRJUDSKLFDFFRXQWRIWKHSLOJULPDJHVHH+DVHJDZD'HQMLUǀ 㛗㇂ᕝബḟ㑻, Indo ༳ᗘ (Tokyo: Meguro Shoten, 1939, republished in 2013) and by the same author Busseki ష㋱ (Tokyo:
Meguro Shoten, 1941).
27<ǀNLVǀno kai, <ǀNLVǀWRSuketami, 63–126.
28
Biographical information are available in Kagawa-ken Bunka Kaikan 㤶ᕝ┴ᩥ໬఍㤋, Nousu.ǀVHWVXNDLNRWHQ7ǀ\ǀQRNRNRUR, Indo eno atsuki omoi 㔝⏕ྖ㤶㞷ᅇ㢳ᒎ: ᮾὒࡢᚰ࣭࢖ࣥࢻ࡬

127

‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4YLVLWWR-DSDQLQIXUWKHUUDLVHG1RXVX¶VLQWHUHVWDQGWKHIROORZLQJ\HDUWKH-DSDQHVH
artist left for a research trip to India. While there, he joined the Kokka expedition to Ajantaand contributed to the copying of the murals.
1RXVX¶VZRUNZDVQRWOLPLWHGWRWKHVXUYH\RIWKHDUWRI$MDQWDKHDOVRWXUQHGWKH
PXUDOVLQWRDQLQVSLUDWLRQIRUQHZDUWLQDIDVKLRQVLPLODUWRZKDW+DULKDUDQGLGDW<ǀNLVǀ(FKRHVRI$MDQWD¶VLQIOXHQFHLQ1RXVX¶Vlater artistic production found their way back to
India in the 1930s, when the Japanese painter was commissioned by the Mahabodhi
Society to decorate the newly built Mulagandhakuti Vihara in Sarnath with scenes of thelife of the Buddha (fig. 1). 29 In a booklet that includes photographic reproductions of
1RXVX¶VIUHVFRHVWKH0DKDERGKL6RFLHW\SUDLVHVWKHZRUNRI1RXVXIRU³EULQJLQJEDFN
to life the ideals of Buddhist art, that reached their climax at Ajanta.” 30<fig. 1> Shakyamuni leaving the palace on his horseGreat 'eparture  'etail from 1ousu .ǀsetsu¶s frescoes
at Mulagandhakuti Vihara, Sarnath, India.

ࡢ⇕ࡁ᝿࠸ (Takamatsu: Kagawa-ken Bunka Kaikan: 1986), 81–111.
29
1RXVXVWDUWHGWKHPLQDQGILQLVKHGLQ For an analysis of the wall paintings, see Dinah
Zank, “Painting the Life of Buddha at Sarnath: Transculturality, Patronage and an Artist’s Vision,” in
Ruptures and Continuities of Japanese Modernization. Perspectives on Japan’s Modern
7UDQVIRUPDWLRQSDSHUVIURPWKH)UHLH8QLYHUVLWlW%HUOLQ- 8QLYHUVLW\RI7VXNXEDMRLQWZRUNVKRSV,
edited by Freie Universität Berlin (Tsukuba: University of Tsukuba Press, 2016), 193–215.
30
1RVX.RVHWVXLife of Buddha in frescoes (Sarnath, Benares: The Maha Bodhi Society, 1939).

128

Paride STORTINI
Reimagining Ancient India in Modern Japan‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬:LWK1RXVX¶VZRUNLQ6DUQDWKZHVHHKRZWKH-DSDQHVHLQWHUHVWLQDQFLHQW,QGLD
expressed by the research efforts at Ajanta was redeployed to foster the resurgence of
Buddhist practice at a newly-built temple in India. The concerns expressed by Japanese
Buddhist priests and artists for the preservation of Ajanta became an integral part of themodernist reconstruction of Buddhism across Asia. The artistic reimagination facilitates
the intersection between a scholarly-defined investigation of the past and a re-enactment
in modern religious practice, dissolving barriers between art, religion, and scholarship.
While the artist Arai impressed Mukul Dey by bowing in front of the cave murals before
FRS\LQJWKHPWKHSRHW7DJRUHLQYLWHG1RXVXWRUHO\RQDVKDUHGGHYRWLRQWRWKH%XGGKDWRVXSSRUWKLVDUWLVWLFHIIRUWDQGUHDOL]HZKDW1RXVXKLPVHOIGHILQHG³VDFUHGIUHVFRHV´ 31
The continuity between effort toward studying and preserving ancient India,
reimagination of this past for artistic inspiration, and mission to promote Buddhism
internationally produced a further echo of Ajanta visual culture within the mediation of
1RXVX¶Vlater art. One of the last works realized by the painter is a series of scenes fromthe Buddha’s life modelled on his precedent work at Sarnath and commissioned by the%XGGKLVW SKLODQWKURSLVW 1XPDWD <HKDQ ἟⏣ᜨ⠊ (1897–1994) in the 1950s. 32 The
commission was SRVVLEOHWKURXJKWKHLUFRQQHFWLRQWRWKH,QGRORJLVW7DNDNXVX-XQMLUǀIn the post-::,,\HDUV1RXVX¶VIUHVFRHVDW6DUQDWKEHFDPHDVRXUFHRILQVSLUDWLRQ
for another example of the transnational reimagination of ancient India facilitated bycollaboration between Japanese artists and Buddhist priest-scholars. In 1952 Kubose*\RPD\ ஂಖ℩ᬡ᫂ (1905– ³*\RPD\´ LV WKH$PHULFDQL]HG IRUP KH FKRVH IRUhis name), head priest of the Chicago Buddhist Temple, commissioned the local JapaneseAmerican woodcarving artist Harry Koizumi (1909–1977) with the realization of scenesof the Buddha’s life to decorate the main hall of the temple. 33 Of the six wood panels.RL]XPLPDGHIRXUZHUHPRGHOOHGRQ1RXVX¶VIUHVFRHVLQ6DUQDWK ILJ. 2).

31

7KHGLDORJXHEHWZHHQ7DJRUHDQG1RXVXZDVUHSRUWHGE\WKHODWWHULQKLVZHOFRPLQJVSHHFKDWWKH
1LSpon Club of Calcutta in 1932, available online through the Mukul Dey Archives website: Satyasri
Ukil, ³.RVHWVX1RVX7KH-DSDQHVH$UWLVWZKR3DLQWHGDW6DUQDWK´
http://www.chitralekha.org/articles/kosetsu-nosu/kosetsu-nosu-japanese-artist-who-painted-sarnath.
The inauguration ceremony of the frescoes is described with the Japanese Buddhist term for theconsecration of images: the eye-opening ceremony (NDLJHQNX\ǀ 㛤║౪㣴).
32
7KH VHYHQ SDLQWLQJV 1RXVX managed to complete before his health deteriorated were recently
exhibited at Ryukoku 0XVHXPDQGDWWKH%\ǀGǀLQWHPSOH
https://www.byodoin.or.jp/news/special/post-15/.
33“Harry Koizumi executes carvings of Buddha’s life,” in Chicago Buddhist Church Bulletin, June
1952: 2.

129‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4<fig. 2> Shakyamuni leaving the palace on his horse (Great
Departure). Wooden panel carved by Harry Koizumi.
Buddhist Temple of Chicago (photo of the author).

,WZDV.XERVHWKDWGLUHFWHG.RL]XPLWR1RXVX¶VDUWIRULQVSLUDWLRQ.XERVH waslikely acquainted with it from the period of study he had spent in Japan in the late 1930s. 34
Kubose was a disciple of Akegarasu Haya, and he contributed to the promotion of thelatter’s trans-sectarian approach to Buddhism in the form of the temple he built in Chicago
in 1944, after the forced relocation from the West Coast during World War II. Despite
Akegarasu’s criticism of the Ajanta murals’ aesthetics I have previously mentioned, thereimagination of ancient Indian Buddhist sources in textual scholarship and visual culture
was the basis of the modernist construction of a trans-sectarian and transcultural
Buddhism as a world religion, the echoes of which reached 1950s Chicago through thecollaboration between a Buddhist priest and a Japanese-American artist. In the context of34

Kubose Dharma Legacy (ed.), 5HPHPEHULQJ6HQVHL5HY*\RPD\0.XERVH–2000 (Skokie,
IL: Kubose Dharma Legacy, 2001).

130

Paride STORTINI
Reimagining Ancient India in Modern Japan‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬the Chicago temple, the Ajanta-inspired imaginaire was deemed suitable to present
Buddhism as a cultural bridge that allowed for the postwar redefinition of JapaneseAmerican relations.
Conclusion
In the introduction, I reportHG1DNDPXUD+DMLPH¶VDSSUHFLDWLRQRIWKH6DUQDWKIUHVFRHVDV
a product of the modern internationalization and transcultural nature of Buddhism as aworld religion. With this article I wanted to show the centrality of India, especially the
Ajanta murals, in constructing the idea of Buddhism as a world religion, but also todemonstrate that this process was very much a creative one, built by recontextualizing
and reimagining the archeological remains of ancient Indian Buddhism. The collaborationof Buddhist priests, scholars, and artists made this process possible, and their interaction
with European and South Asian counterparts facilitated the circulation of these ideas.
However, the narrative of modernity as a coming together of different cultures andof redLVFRYHU\ RI VKDUHG URRWV DQG KHULWDJH ZKLFK 1DNDPXUD VWUHVVHV KLGHV FHUWDLQ
DVSHFWVRIWKLVKLVWRULFDOSURFHVV1DNDPXUDZDVDOVRDZDUHRIWKHZRRGSDQHOVPRGHOOHG
RQ1RXVX¶VIUHVFRHVLQWKH&KLFDJRWHPSOHDQGVXJJHVWHGKRZWKLVIXUWKHUVWHSLQWKH
travel of the images points to the existence of a shared spirit of humanity. 35 Yet the
wooden panels tell another story of transnational movement: one that is lesscharacterizable in terms of cosmopolitan encounters among intellectuals and artists.
Harry Koizumi learnt to carve wood while he was relocated in the internment camp of
Rohwer, Arkansas, during World War II, when Japanese-Americans were seen as a threat,
and their Buddhist faith served only as a further confirmation of their foreignness toAmerican culture. 36 The development of arts and crafts in the camps was, as Jane
Dusselier has argued, a way to express agency, redefine one’s identity, and survive thesense of loss and dislocation generated by their imprisonment. 37
The process of art production should not be understood as the expression of a preexisting spirit, but as a response to the specific historical context. Koizumi learnt wood
carving as a way to survive the experience of imprisonment. The reimagination of the
Indian past of Buddhism was integral to the construction of Buddhism as a world religion,
one that was espoused by Kubose in order to facilitate the integration of Japanese35

Kagawa-ken Bunka Kaikan, NoXVX.ǀVHWVXNDLNRWHQ, 6.
On Buddhism and the experience of Japanese-American internment camps see the recent volume:
Duncan R. Williams, $PHULFDQ 6XWUD $ 6WRU\ RI )DLWK DQG )UHHGRP LQ WKH 6HFRQG :RUOG :DU(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019).
37
Jane E. Dusselier, $UWLIDFWVRI/RVV&UDIWLQJ6XUYLYDOLQ-DSDQHVH$PHULFDQ&RQFHQWUDWLRQ&DPSV(1HZ%UXQVZLFN1-5XWJHUV8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV).
36131

‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 4

Americans. While the aesthetics of the scenes of the Buddha’s life are an echo of the
Ajanta imaginaire, the materiality of wood carving embodies the experiences of Japanese
PLJUDWLRQWR1RUWK$PHULFDGLVFULPLQDWLRQDQGGLVSODFHPHQWZKLFKDUHDOVRSDUWRID
transnational history of modern Buddhism.

Bibliography$UURZVPLWK 5XSHUW 5 ³µ$Q ,QGLDQ 5HQDVFHQFH¶ DQG WKH 5LVH RI *OREDO 0RGHUQLVPWilliam Rothenstein in India, 1910–11.” Burlington Magazine 152 (2010): 228–
35.
Auerback, Micah L. $6WRULHG6DJH&DQRQDQG&UHDWLRQLQWKH0DNLQJRID-DSDQHVH
Buddha. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2016.
Chicago Buddhist Church Bulletin. “Harry Koizumi executes carvings of Buddha’s life.”
June 1952.
&RKHQ 5LFKDUG 6  ³'LVFRQWHQWHG &DWHJRULHV +ƯQD\ƗQD DQG 0DKƗ\ƗQD LQ ,QGLDQ
Buddhist History.” -RXUQDORIWKH$PHULFDQ$FDGHP\RI5HOLJLRQ 63, no.1 (1995):
1–25.
Dake Mitsuya ᔞ‶ஓ, Yoshinaga Shin’ichi ྜྷỌ㐍୍ DQGƿPL7RVKLKLUR ☐ᾏᑑᗈ,eds., 1LKRQ%XNN\ǀWRVHL\ǀVHNDL ᪥ᮏ௖ᩍ࡜すὒୡ⏺.\RWR+ǀ]ǀNDQ
Dey, Mukul Chandra. 0\SLOJULPDJHWR$MDQWD  %DJK1HZ<RUN*HRUJH+'Rran
Company, 1925.
Dusselier, Jane E. $UWLIDFWV RI /RVV &UDIWLQJ 6XUYLYDO LQ -DSDQHVH $PHULFDQConcentration Camps1HZ%UXQVZLFN1-5XWJHUV8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
Enlite, The national newsmagazine. “Handicraftsman P. Hariharan.” September 27,
1969.
)XMLL6HQVKǀ ⸨஭ᐉṇ. )XMLLVHQVKǀ,QGRUHLNHWVXWDQNHQQLNNL ⸨஭ᐉṇ࣭༳ᗘ㟋✰᥈ぢ᪥グ. Iiyama, Japan: Iiyama-VKL)XMLPXUDEXQJDNXNHQN\ǌNDL)XMLL6HQVKǀ ⸨஭ᐉṇ DQG6KLPDML'DLWǀ ᓥᆅ኱➼. $LEDL]HQVKǌ ឡᴝ඲㞟. Tokyo:
Morie Shoten, 1906.
Fukuyama, Yasuko. “Japanese encounters with Ajanta.” In Indo-Japanese Joint Project
for the Conservation of Cultural Heritage, edited by Archeological Survey of India.
7RN\R1DWLRQDO5HVHDUFK,QVWLWXWHRI&XOWXUDO3URSHUWLHV  –32.
*XKD-Thakurta, Tapati. The Making of a New ,QGLDQ $UW $UWLVWV $HVWKHWLFV DQGNationalism in Bengal, c. 1850–1920. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Press, 1992.
+DVHJDZD 'HQMLUǀ 㛗 ㇂ ᕝ ബ ḟ 㑻 . Indo ༳ ᗘ . Tokyo: Meguro Shoten, 1939,

132

Paride STORTINI
Reimagining Ancient India in Modern Japan‫ ٳ‬Articles 2 ‫ٳ‬republished in 2013.
–––––. Busseki ష㋱. Tokyo: Meguro Shoten, 1941.
Inaga, Shigemi. “The Interaction of Bengali and Japanese Artistic Milieus in the First
Half of the Twentieth Century (1901– 5DELQGUDQDWK7DJRUH$UDL.DQSǀDQG
1DGDODO%RVH´Japan Review 21(2009):149–181.
Irisawa Takashi ධ⃝ᓫ. “Suriranka no ƿWDQL WDQNHQWDL´ ࢫࣜࣛࣥ࢝ࡢ኱㇂᥈᳨㝲.
3ƗULJDNX%XNN\ǀEXQNDJDNX 17 (2003): 11–20.
,]XPL+ǀNHL Ἠⰾ⎆. “Ajanta no hekiga” ࢔ࢪࣕࣥࢱࡢቨ␓. ƿWDQL'DLJDNX6KLQSǀ
1RYHPEHU
–––––. Indo mandan ༳ᗘₔㄯ.\ǀWR-LQEXQ6KRLQ
Jaffe, Richard M. “Buddhist Material Culture, ‘Indianism,’ and the Construction of PanAsian Buddhism in Prewar Japan.” Material Religion 2, no.3 (2006): 266–92.
–––––. 6HHNLQJĝƗN\DPXQL6RXWK$VLDLQWKHIRUPDWLRQRIModern Japanese Buddhism.
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2019.
Kagawa-ken Bunka Kaikan 㤶ᕝ┴ᩥ໬఍㤋. 1RXVX.ǀVHWVXNDLNRWHQ7ǀ\ǀQRNRNRUR
Indo eno atsuki omoi 㔝⏕ྖ㤶㞷ᅇ㢳ᒎ: ᮾὒࡢᚰ࣭࢖ࣥࢻ࡬ࡢ⇕ࡁ᝿࠸.
Takamatsu: Kagawa-ken Bunka Kaikan: 1986.
Ketelaar, James E. Of Heretics and Martyrs in Meiji Japan: Buddhism and its Persecution.
3ULQFHWRQ1-3ULQFHWRQ8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
Kubose Dharma Legacy (ed.). 5HPHPEHULQJ6HQVHL5HY*\RPD\0.XERVH–2000.
Skokie, IL: Kubose Dharma Legacy, 2001.
Mitter, Partha. 0XFK0DOLJQHG0RQVWHUV$+LVWRU\RI(XURSHDQ5HDFWLRQVWR,QGLDQ$UW.
1HZ'HOKL2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
1DNDPXUD +DMLPH ୰ᮧඖ. Oshakasama ࠾ࡋࡷ࠿ࡉࡲ. Tokyo: Tamagawa Daigaku
Shuppanbu, 1975.
1RPRWR7RZD 㔝ᮏỌஂ. $NHJDUDVX+D\DGHQ ᭐ⅲᩄఏ7RN\R'DLZD6KREǀ
1RVX.RVHWVXLife of Buddha in frescoes. Sarnath: The Maha Bodhi Society, 1939.
2NX\DPD1DRML ዟᒣ┤ྖ³0HLML,QGRU\ǌJDNXVHL6RQR0LQDPL$MLDWDLNHQRPHJXWWH´᫂἞ ༳ᗘ␃Ꮫ⏕ࠋࡑࡢ༡࢔ࢪ࢔య 㦂 ࢆ ࡵ ࡄ ࡗ ࡚ . ,QGRJDNX %XNN\ǀJDNX.HQN\ǌ 64, no.2 (2016): 1042–1035.
ƿWDQL'DLJDNX6KLQSǀ ኱㇂኱Ꮫ᪂ሗ. “Ajanta hekiga tenkan” ࢔ࢪࣕࣥࢱቨ␓ᒎや,1RYHPEer 10, 1924.
–––––³ƿWDQLNHQN\ǌVKLWVXHNXUX$MDQWDQRKHNLJD\XLLWVXWRLZDUXUX´ ኱㇂◊✲ᐊ࡬᮶ࡿ࢔ࢪࣕࣥࢱࡢቨ␓၏୍࡜பࡣࡿࡿ, 16, September 5, 1924.
6FKRSHQ*UHJRU\³7KH$PELJXLW\RI$YDORNLWHĞYDUDDQGWKH7HQWDWLYH,GHQWLILFDWLRQRI
D3DLQWHG6FHQHIURPD0DKƗ\ƗQD6ǌWUD at Aja৆৬Ɨ´Figments and Fragments of133‫ٳ‬2021.3 ‫ٳ‬Journal of World Buddhist Cultures

Vol. 40DKƗ\ƗQD %XGGKLVP LQ ,QGLD 0RUH &ROOHFWHG 3DSHUV. Honolulu: University of
Hawai'i Press (2005): 278–298.
Shimane Kenritsu Iwami Bijutsukan ᓥ ᰿ ┴ ❧ ▼ ぢ ⨾ ⾡ 㤋 (ed.). 7ǀN\ǀ *HLGDL%LMXWVXNDQVKR]ǀ1LKRQNLQGDLELMXWVXQRPHLKLQWHQ0RULƿJDLWR<RQHKDUD8QNDLRFKǌVKLQQL.LNDNXWHQ ᮾி⸤኱⨾⾡㤋ᡤⶶ᪥ᮏ㏆௦⨾⾡ࡢྡရᒎ: ᳃㬑እ࡜ ⡿ ཎ 㞼 ᾏ ࢆ ୰ ᚰ ࡟ : ௻ ⏬ ᒎ . Iwami, Japan: Shimane Kenritsu Iwami
Bijutsukan, 2012.
Snodgrass, Judith. Presenting Japanese Buddhism to the West: Orientalism,
Occidentalism and the Columbian Exposition &KDSHO +LOO 1& 8QLYHUVLW\ RI
1RUWK&DUROLQD3UHVV
Spink, Walter M. $MDQWD+LVWRU\DQG'HYHORSPHQW. 7 Volumes. Boston, Brill: 2006–2018.
8NLO 6DW\DVUL ³.RVHWVX 1RVX 7KH -DSDQHVH $UWLVW ZKR 3DLQWHG DW 6DUQDWK´
http://www.chitralekha.org/articles/kosetsu-nosu/kosetsu-nosu-japanese-artistwho-painted-sarnath.
:DWWOHV0LULDP³7KH5\ǌWǀDQGWKH$HVWKHWLFVRI$IIHFWLYLW\´$UW-RXUQDO 55, n.3(1996): 48–56.
Williams, Duncan R. $PHULFDQ6XWUD$6WRU\RI)DLWKDQG)UHHGRPLQWKH Second World
War. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019.
<ǀNLVǀ QR NDL ᥭ ㍤ Ⲯ ࡢ ఍ (ed.). <ǀNLVǀ WR 6XNHWDPL <RPLJDHUX 0DWVX]DND\D
VǀJ\ǀVKD QR ULVǀN\ǀ ᥭ㍤Ⲯ࡜♸Ẹ: ࡼࡳࡀ࠼ࡿᯇᆏᒇ๰ᴗ⪅ࡢ⌮᝿㒓.
1DJR\D)ǌEDLVKD
Zank, Dinah. “Painting the Life of Buddha at Sarnath: Transculturality, Patronage and an
Artist’s Vision.” In Ruptures and Continuities of Japanese Modernization.
Perspectives on Japan’s Modern Transformation: SDSHUVIURPWKH)UHLH8QLYHUVLWlWBerlin - 8QLYHUVity of Tsukuba joint workshops, edited by Freie Universität Berlin.
Tsukuba: University of Tsukuba Press (2016): 193–215.

134

Journal ofWorld Buddhist Cultures

Purpose of the Journal
The Research Center for World Buddhist Cultures at the Ryukoku University was established with theaim of forming an international research institute for Buddhism, which could respond to serious problems
of modern world. It is the important mission of the Center to accomplish a wide variety of academic projects
on Buddhism and thereby contribute to this increasingly globalized society. All knowledge is expected to
be transformed into information in such globalized society. Thus, since being established last year, theCenter also has aspired to publish an electronic journal and disseminate the research results widely in order
to attain its main purpose. They seem the indispensable devices for the Center to mutually interact withresearchers, Buddhists, and adherents of other religious traditions outside Japan, or to cooperate withforeign universities and research institutes.
In order not to miss the global trends of internationalization and informatization, the Research Center
for World Buddhist Cultures starts a new electronic journal, Journal of World Buddhist Cultures. In its
long history, the Ryukoku University has gradually accumulated the broad knowledge and characteristics
concerning Buddhism. The Center hopes to develop further and disseminate them actively all over theworld by means of this electronic journal, through which the Center will also attempt to encourageinternational intellectual exchange even more and seek the solution to various problems of the people
who live in contemporary society.
In contemporary society, a sense of values is significantly diversified and complicated, and we are
hardly able to recognize what is “true” indeed. Journal of World Buddhist Cultures will include not only
scholarly articles on Buddhism but also those which respond, as a kind of guide, to various urgent
problems that arise in every part of the world. Buddhism has been circulated all over the world over along period of time more than 2500 years. The Center will widely invite the papers in which this universal
religion is discussed from a “global point of view.”
In addition, Journal of World Buddhist Culture will also include the reviews of books on Buddhism,
records of lectures organized by the Center, and a wide variety of translation works. It especiallywelcomes a paper written in English. Through this electronic journal, the Center strongly hopes to form
the international platform for Buddhist Studies and contribute to their further development.

135

Objective of
the Research Center for World Buddhist Cultures,
Ryukoku University
1. Comprehensive Academic Research of Buddhism.
Our objective is to contribute to the advancement of academic research on Buddhist philosophy,
history, and culture and other relevant fields while searching for ways to respond to the problems
facing our modern world. By using effective and appropriate research methodology, we aim to explore
Buddhist topics that meet the needs and concerns of our modern world.

2. Interdisciplinary Research that Combines the Three Fields of “Humanity, Science,and Religion” and the Creation of a New Wisdom.
By combining the three fields of “humanity, science, and religion” we will explore the prospects ofcreating a new wisdom for the 21st century. We will aim at becoming a global research hub wherescholars both from Japan and abroad can converse and interact in order to provide guidelines that canhelp address social issues and global crises from the standpoint of Buddhism.

3. Building a Global Platform for Buddhist Studies.
By collaborating with universities and research institutions in Asia, America, and Europe, we will
carry out projects with overseas scholars, Buddhist priests, and academics of religion. We will thenpublish our research results through our website and publications and provide them in English andother languages. Also, by using the Information and Communication Technology (ICT), we willconnect ourselves with overseas universities and research institutions in real time in both the graduate
and undergraduate programs. In addition, we will build a system that can quickly respond to requests
from overseas research institutions who may ask for information about local historical sites by
employing various views from across the university.

4. Benefitting the Undergraduate and Graduate Schools’ Education with
the Research Results.
By collaborating with the curriculum for each academic area, we will aim at building an
integrated program that spans across the departments. We will also promote participation in
educational collaboration programs not only within our university but with other educational
institutions as well. We will recruit limited-term research fellows from the graduate and postgraduate programs in and outside of our university, providing research grants (scholarships) andpublishing their findings online or on print.

136

Significance of the Publication of Journal of World Buddhist Culturesin the Center

The

ResearchCenterfor World

Buddhist Cultures consists of following
three research divisions: Basic Research
Division, Applied Research Division, andInternational Research Division. Amongthem, the International Research Division
plays a central role for the publication ofthis electronic journal.

International Research DivisionThis division will be responsible for sharing information about the overall activities of the center tothe international community while continuing the project of translating and publishing Buddhist
canons and texts that were originally carried out by the Research Institute for Buddhist Culture. In
addition to the publication of E-journal and website management, the division will promote exchanges
with overseas scholars, other Buddhists, and religious specialists through the Information andCommunication Technology (ICT). The division will encourage collaboration with universities andresearch institutes in different parts of the world and engage in the sponsorship of international
symposiums that will invite scholars from overseas.
As religion becomes more global and multi-dimensional in contemporary society, there has been agrowing awareness of the need for inter-religious dialogue. The division will encourage theseconversations and interactions by collaborating with various religious research institutions abroad.
With the theme of “inter-faith education” the division will carryout research at institutions of higher
education.
In the international context of inter-religious dialogue this division will explore how Japanese
Buddhist ideology is viewed in the eyes of the outside world as well as what Japanese Buddhism canfurther contribute to inter-religious education. Through these activities, the division will work as itscore focus to not only develop young scholars to understand the importance of having an international
mindset but also to promote global interactions of scholars.

137

Authors’ Profiles
Mitsuya DAKE

Professor, Faculty ofInternational Studies, Ryukoku
University

Shin Buddhist Studies

Elif EMIRAHMETOGLU

Research Assistant, Berlin
Institute for Islamic Theology,
Humboldt University of Berlin

Islam, Buddh sm, Ibn al-‘Arabī,Comparat ve Theology

James L. FREDERICKS

Professor Emeritus, Loyola
Marymount University

Christian Comparative Theology,
Interreligious Dialogue, BuddhistChristian Studies

Tadayoshi FURUSO

Lecturer, Faculty of Sociology,
Ryukoku University

Philosophy of Religion, Religious
StudiesDavid MATSUMOTO

President, Institute of Buddhist
Studies
Former Professor, Contemporary
Shin Buddhist Studies

Shin Buddhist TheologicalStudies, The Study of Religious
Narratives

Jianrong SHIAssistant Researcher,International Centre for Hua-yen
Studies

Buddhist Chinese Linguistics,
Translation Studies

Paride STORTINIPhD Candidate, History of
Religion, University of Chicago,
Divinity SchoolIntellectual History and Visual
Culture of Modern Japanese
Buddhismᇳ ➹ ⪅ ୍ ぴ








ᔞ ‶ஓ
Elif EMIRAHMETOGLU James L. FREDERICKSྂⲮ ໷⩏David MATSUMOTO


㔚ሀ⼥


Paride STORTINI㱟㇂኱Ꮫᅜ㝿Ꮫ㒊ᩍᤵ

┿᐀Ꮫ





ࣇࣥ࣎ࣝࢺ኱Ꮫ࣋ࣝࣜࣥ
࢖ࢫ࣒ࣛ⚄Ꮫ◊✲ᡤࣜࢧ࣮ࢳ࣭࢔ࢩࢫࢱࣥࢺ

࢖ࢫ࣒ࣛᩍࠊ௖ᩍࠊ࢖ࣈ࣭ࣥ
࢔ࣛࣅ࣮ࠊẚ㍑⚄Ꮫ࣓࣮࣐ࣟࣚࣛࣜ࢘ࣥࢺ኱Ꮫ
⚄Ꮫ㒊ྡ㄃ᩍᤵ
࢟ࣜࢫࢺᩍ⚄Ꮫࠊ᐀ᩍ㛫ᑐヰ㱟㇂኱Ꮫ♫఍Ꮫ㒊ㅮᖌ᐀ᩍဴᏛ࣭᐀ᩍᏛ
⡿ᅜ௖ᩍ኱Ꮫ㝔Ꮫ㛗⌧௦┿᐀Ꮫඖᩍᤵ
┿᐀Ꮫࠊ᐀ᩍゝㄝㄽᅧ㝿⳹ᄫ◊✲୰ᚰຓ⌮◊✲ဨ₎ヂ௖඾ゝㄒᏛࠊ⩻ヂᏛࢩ࢝ࢦ኱Ꮫ⚄Ꮫ㒊᐀ᩍྐ༤ኈ
ㄢ⛬

138

㏆௦௖ᩍᛮ᝿ྐ࡜ࣦ࢕ࢪࣗ࢔
࣭ࣝ࢝ࣝࢳ࣮ࣕ

Editorial Board

Editorial Committee Member
Eiji HISAMATSU㸦Editor-in-Chief㸧Masahiro ASADA

Syoryu KATSURA

Chisui SATO

Sinryo TAKADA

Masaaki NOHNIN

Mitsuya DAKE

Eisho NASU

DenQis HIROTA

Akira MIYAJI

Yusho WAKAHARA

Ichido KIKUKAWA

ஂᯇⱥ஧㸦⦅㞟㛗㸧

ῦ⏣ ṇ༤

᱇ ⤂㝯

బ⸨ ᬛỈ

㧗⏣ ಙⰋ

⬟ோ ṇ㢧

⦅㞟ጤဨ

ᔞ ‶ஓ

㑣㡲 ⱥ຾

ᘅ⏣ ࢹࢽࢫ

ᐑ἞ ᫛

ⱝཎ 㞝᫛

⳥ᕝ ୍㐨

Assistant Editor
Ichido KIKUKAWA

Chihiro SAKA⦅㞟ࢫࢱࢵࣇ
⳥ᕝ ୍㐨

ᆏ ▱ᑜ

139

Research Center for World Buddhist Cultures, Ryukoku University

Journal of World Buddhist Cultures ~ Vol. 4 ~March 15, 2021
EditorResearch Center for World Buddhist Cultures, Ryukoku University Editorial Committee

Publisher

Research Center for World Buddhist Cultures, Ryukoku University
125-1 Daiku-chǀ, Shichijǀ-dǀri ƿmiya
Higashi-iru, Shimogyǀ-ku, Kyoto 600-8268
Hakuakan (Research Center for World Buddhist Cultures)
Phone Number

domestic㸸 075-343-3812

international㸸+81-75-343-3812
E-mail: rcwbc-ejournal@ad.ryukoku.ac.jp
URL: http://rcwbc.ryukoku.ac.jp

Printer

Kawakita Printing Co., Ltd.

© 2021 by Research Center for World Buddhist Cultures, Ryukoku University, JapanAll rights reserved.