High-Energy Multimessenger Emission
from Supernovae

Kohta Murase (PSU/IAS/YITP)
August 7 2023
ICRC Satellite Workshop

Why Transients?
1. Pointing & timing → reducing atmospheric backgrounds
2. Dominant sources ≠ brightest sources
3. Still viable as the dominant origin
4. Flares/bursts → more target gs → enhanced n production→ Good opportunities to find rare bright transients even now
IceCube 2018 ScienceDiversity of High-Energy Transientssupermassive black holes

massive stellar deaths

compact mergers(promising GW sources)
KM & Bartos 19 ANRPS
Meszaros, Fox, Hanna & KM
Nature Rev. Phys. 19

Neutrinos: Unique Probe of Cosmic Explosions~10 MeV neutrinos from supernova
thermal: core’s grav. binding energy- supernova explosion mechanism- progenitor- neutrino properties, new physics
Super-K detect ~8,000 n at ~10 MeV (at 8.5 kpc)

GeV-PeV neutrinos from supernova?
non-thermal: shock dissipation- physics of cosmic-ray acceleration- progenitor & mass-loss mechanism- neutrino properties, new physics
IceCube/KM3Net detect ??? n at TeV

is not
expected
ntacceleration
CR acceleration
is notexpectedbecause
becausethe
the CRCR
meanmeanfree freepathpath
is muchshorter
onlessis muchshorterthan
thanthethe dede&!'%&!'%
Diffusive
Shock
Acceleration
inSupernovae?
ngth.
However,as theshock
propagatestion
length.
However,as theshock
propagatesinin thethephotons
can stream
aheadof theshock,and
andphophonscan streamout outaheadof theshock,
nergy
can longer
no longer
supportshock(i.e.,(i.e., shock
shock
!"#$%
can nosupportthetheshock
!"#$%
out).
After
the
breakout,forwind-like
CSM
proAfter the breakout, for wind-like CSM prohe shock will become collisonless and CR acceleraock will become collisonless and CR acceleraan be efficient (Murase et al. 2011; Katz et al. 2011;
efficient
et al. 2011;
al. 2011;
yama
et al.(Murase2013). Recently,
MuraseKatz
et al.et(2011)
con2013).between
Recently,al. (2011)deta al.
collision
the Murase
SN ejectaetwith
a CSM conshell
llisionbetweenthe may
SN beejectawith a and
CSM
shell
und
that
CR protons
accelerated,furtherthatCR
the protons
protons may
may experiencestrongandpioniclosses remnant (Cas A)
hat
be accelerated,furthersupernova
elastic
pp collisions,producing strong
gamma-rays
andneuhe protons
may experience
pioniclossesFigure 1. The schematic pi• collisions,Youngsupernova“remnants”:
Thus,interaction-poweredSNemay be interestingpp
producing gamma-rays
and neuscenario.
celeratorsand high-energy/multi-messenger
emitters.
FigureThe schemati
believed
toberesponsible
for
CRs
up
to
the
knee 1.
regions, interaction-powered SNe may be interestings work,diffusive
we continue
our studyof theacceleration
possibility of the
scenario.
shock(Fermi)tors and high-energy/multi-messenger
emitters.
hermal emission from the shock interaction of a SN emourthewepossibilityof theNaively,
early
CRofandHE
neutrino
production
are Thenegligibled, wein• acontinuedense CSM.
Instudy
particular,
focus
on thesecvelocity.
total dissipa
ly emission
from
the
shock
interactionofaSNemelectrons
expectedfrom thesame
pp the Sedov time
mostandof positronsenergy isin a kinetic
form
until
Mcs
1
dense
CSM.
In
particular,
we
focus
on
the
sec3
ons
that
give
rise
to
neutrinos
and
gamma
rays.
Imporvelocity.
The
total
diss
E
=
ex. uniform ISM: CR energy ∝ dissipation energy∝Mt + M 2 M
ej (
d
ej
cs
we showthese secondaries
can emit
trons
andthatpositrons
expected fromthe detectablesame pp• But
aredifferent
1
MM
cs cs
rotronradiation
at high-frequency
radiorays.
wavelengths
at giverisesituations
to neutrinos
and
gamma
ImporEd ≈=Eej , M
MM
++
Mcs
when
circumstellar
material
existsing mm/submm
andFIR bands.
Mcs 2
ej ej
how
that
these
secondaries
can emit (CSM)
detectableonent
hs in

ture
owly
s is
owly
dust
the

12

SN 2010jl (IIn)Fransson et al.

Margutti et al.

SN 2014C (Ib->IIn)

Margutti et al. 16

44

10L ∝ t−3/(n−2), n = 7.6

log Lbol (erg s−1)

43

10

42

10

Fransson+14 ApJ
41

10

10
100
log(Daysfirst 2014detection)
The Astrophysical Journal,
781:42after(17pp),
January 20

1000

Ofek et al.

Figure 6. Bolometric light curve for the SN ejecta, excluding the dust echo.
The dashed lines show power-law fits to the early and late light curves used toconstruct the density distribution of the explosion. Note the pronounced breakin the light curve at ∼320 days. The dashed lines
give power-law fits to the31−14
luminosity
10 before and after the break (see Section 4.5 for a discussion).
(A color version of this figure is available in the online
journal.)91

Ofek+14 ApJ

Flux [erg cm −2 s−1 Å −1 ]900

Evidence of Strong Interactions w. Dense CSM

120

1.75 × 1043 (t/100 days)−0.536 erg s−1 and a final steep decay
L(t) = 8.71 × 1042 (t/320 days)−3.39 erg s−1 after day 320.
390
Ofek et al. (2014) estimate the bolometriclight curve by−15
10
assuming a constant bolometric correction of −0.27 mag to the
R-band photometry. With this assumption, they find a flatter
light curve with L(t) ∝ t −0.36 for the same explosion date as
we use here. The reason for this difference is that the R-band
978decays slower than most of the other bands,
as can be seen from
Figure 2. The bolometric light curve will therefore be steeper
OIII
than theR-bandlight
curve.
−16OII
HeI OI Hα HeI
CaII
Hγ
Hβ
Figure 4. Temperature and radius of a blackbody that best fits the Swift-UVOT
10 slope depends on the assumed shock breakout date. Ofek
The
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
observations as a function of time. Observations made more than 500 days after
et al. (2014) discuss this based
the light curve
maximum light are excluded, as they are significantly affected by the hostRest on
wavelength[Å] and find a likely
F IGgalaxy. 10.—light
Thisandplotwesummarizes
thehave
key andunique observational
of SN
2014C
do not yeta reference
image of thefeatures
host. Thegraylineover the electromagnetic spectrum. Central Panel: X-ray (redrange
of 15–25 days before I-band maximum, corresponding andradio (7.1 GHz, blue stars) evolution of SN 2014C compared to a sample of Ibc SNe from Margutti et al. (2014b) and Soderberg et al. (2010). SN
Figure 2. Selected visible-light spectra of SN 2010jl. The number near eachshows
a power law
fittedto the intemperaturedata.luminosities until late times, a signature of the continued shock interaction with very dense m
toJD
2,455,4692,455,479.
Using
2,455,469
instead
of
our
shows
an
uncommon,steadyincrease
X-ray
and
radio
spectrum marks its age in days (see Table 2). The last spectrum taken on day
cssun

IIn, SLSN-II: strong interactions w. dense wind or CSM (M ~0.1-10 M)

in the environment. Upper panels: The optical bolometric luminosity of SN 2014C is well explained at early times by a model where the source of ene

Evidence for “Confined” CSM around Progenitors
early spectroscopy(Yaron+ 16 Nature Phys.)

CSM
no CSM

SN 2013fs

light curve modeling(Forster+ 18 Nature Astronomy
see also Morozova+ 17 ApJ)

• May be common even for Type II-P SNe
dMcs/dt~10-3-10-1 Msun yr-1 (>> 3x10-6 Msun yr-1 for RSG)
• Confined CSM (Rcs <~ 1015 cm): mass ejection or inflation

Multimessenger Emission from Interacting SNe
KM, Thompson, Lacki & Beacom 11, KM & Thompson & Ofek 14
wind/shell

wind/shellejectaSN

Star

shockskinetic energy → thermal + non-thermal via shocks

π → ν µ + ν µ + ν e (ν e ) + e
0
π → γ +γ±p + p → Nπ + X±

dense environments = efficient n emitters (calorimeters)Cosmic-Ray Origins?
SNe IIn as the origin of CRs above the knee?
diff. flux dJ/dE · E2.5 / (m-2 sr -1 s-1 eV1.5)

1017

EAS-TOP (Astrop.Phys.10(1999)1)
Tibet-III, QGSJET 01 (ApJ678(2008)1165)
GAMMA (ICRC 2011)
IceTop (arXiv:1202.3039v1)
TUNKA-133 (ICRC 2011)
Yakutsk (NewJ.Phys11(2008)065008)
KASCADE-Grande, QGSJET II (Astrop.Phys.36(2012)183)

knee

2nd knee

Apel et al. 13 APh

Akeno (J.Phys.G18(1992)423)
AGASA (ICRC 2003)
HiResI (PRL100(2008)101101)
HiResII (PRL100(2008)101101)
AUGER (arXiv:1107:4809)
AUGER AMIGA infill (ICRC 2011)

1016

1015
KASCADE, all-part., QGSJET II (see Appendix A)
KASCADE, light (p), QGSJET II (see Appendix A)
KASCADE, medium (He+C+Si), QGSJET II (see Appendix A)
KASCADE, heavy (Fe), QGSJET II (see Appendix A)

ankle-like feature

KASCADE-Grande, all-part., QGSJET II (this work)
KASCADE-Grande, light (p), QGSJET II (this work)
KASCADE-Grande, medium (He+C+Si), QGSJET II (this work)
KASCADE-Grande, heavy (Fe), QGSJET II (this work)

10

15

10

16

1017

10

18

primary energy E/eV

It seems that we need Galactic sources that
can accelerate CRs beyond the knee

Figure 11: The all-particle spectrum obtained in this work based on an unfolding of KASCADE-Grande measurements, and the spectrum obtained in [32] basedon an unfolding of KASCADE measurements (see Appendix A), are compared to spectra determined by other analysis methods of our collaboration [10] or otherexperiments (see legend for references). Additionally shown are some elemental spectra representing different mass groups (see legend). The error bars denotestatistical uncertainties, error bands the systematic ones (the latter ones are only shown for the results of this work, as well as for the results obtained by the alternative
analysis methods of our collaboration [10]).

The all-particle spectrum, which suffers in this work fromuncertainties of the contributing elemental spectra and whichis structureless within the given uncertainties, agrees with that
determined in an alternative analysis of the KASCADE-Grande
data [10], where a small break-off at about 80 PeV was found18.
Furthermore, both KASCADE-Grande all-particle spectra arecompatible with the findings of most of the other experiments.

data [3]. The energy where this knee-like structure occurs conforms to the one where the break-off in the all-particle spectrum is observed. Hence, the findings in this work and in [3]demonstrate the first time experimentally that the heavy knee
exists, and the kink in the all-particle spectrum is presumablycaused by this decrease in the flux of heavy primaries. The
spectral steepening occurs at an energy where the charge de-

SN IInZirakashvili & Ptuskin 16 APhicant✓pp c
D
D HigherRRw
7−1 −1 nR(27) ⌘
& 2.0 × 10 sR16 (Vs /5000 km s ) . N =tdyn ≈
whmH
mHcess,
R02 R
Vs
0
5 9
' 1.8 10
⇥ 10GeVcm
Then, the maximum energy is (Murase et al. 2011)• Quasi-parallel, Bohm limit
nantly lo2
1/2⇥ 1015 gtically
cm 1thi)
EpM ≈ 3.0 × 107 GeV εB,−2 D∗1/2 (Vs /500021kmwheres−1 ) . D⇤ = D/(3(28)
22radius characterizing the photons
CSM ra2
Note that the Larmor radius (rL ) of protons is smaller than the
ity of the
As noted, a faster componentosystem size (R), where the protons are confined.
fraction.
atedearlier,andthekinetic
lumin
E
=3
PeV
At small1R and/or large 06gy
D, the maximum energypp
is=1
limitedmaxbyσB
1/(κ BH
for
dissipation
attheforwardsho
10jl
energy losses. The pp cooling time of protons is expressed as

CR Acceleration in Interacting SNe?

log(Mcs(<R))

2 3
T=c/Vs
tp−BH
&42
L
=
2⇡%
R
V
'
2.4
⇥
10
1
s
cs
06jd
s s
tacc=t2 pp
0& 7.4 × 106 s D∗−1
R16 , 08iy
(29)
tpp =
κpp σpp ncs c⇥ R2 w (V /s,15s

≈ 0.5 is the proton inelasticity. Equating tp−acc and tpp
where κ pp -1
23
where Rs is the shock radius angives (Murase et al. 2011)
tacc=tdyn
24
locity, respectively. The bolomet
09ip
1/2−1 3 (used for thermal SN
25
luminosity
EpM ≈ 1.1 -2
× 107 GeV εB,−2 D∗−1/2 R16 (V06jc
/5000
km
s
).
(30)
s
26
and/or X-ray bands) is expressed
Before CRs propagate in a galaxy,theyneed &
toOfekescapefrom
KM, Thompson
14
MNRAS
The neutrino and gamma-ray e
the system-3without significant losses (e.g. Caprioli, Blasi & Amopticaldepth of ine
14 Murase
14.5 &
15Yamazaki
15.5 2010;
16 the16.5e↵ective
17
17.5
18
ato 2009; Ohira,Drury2011).
While
log(R [cm])f , which is estimated to be

⌫

⌫
E⌫2 ⌫
D
Ẽ⌫ & 5 ⇥ 1050Ẽ erg
504
2
&
5
⇥
10
erg
⌫
200 Mpc 200 Mpc
10 erg cm
10 4 erg cm 2

2

Shock Dynamics& Time-Dependent Model
1

5
w)

3
w◆ ✓

◆2
◆2
,
D
E⌫ ⌫ µDẼ⌫µ & 5 ⇥ 10 Ẽ⌫µerg& 5 ⇥ 10 4 erg
velocity
24 erg 200
2Mpc 200distribution
51 erg, 10
Mpc
erg
cm
10
cm
SN ejecta:
E
~
10
M
~
10
M
ej
ej
sun
3
5

Rs = X(w, )D50

10(

3
w)

5)]

2(

w)

w

[4⇡(

✓
E

2(

✓

ej 50E⌫ M
⌫µej
2

4)(

3) ]

◆2 ✓t

2(

1

w

-7
-5
E
(>V
)
∝
2(
w)Vej -Vej
ej
ej
[3(
3)]

1
faster-velocity
are decelerated earlier
1
1 components
1Ẽ
⇡
fp E in⇠crSN
RcrejectaẼ⌫µ ⇡ fp E⌫µ⇠cr Rcr
8
8
✓ ◆
◆
✓
E
Ṁ
1
50 E
w
'
6.3
⇥
10
erg
⇠
R
1
50
cr,1
CSM parameter
where
cr,1
51 R
' 6.3 ⇥D10= erg
⇠cr,1
5
⇥
10
ergcr,151
4⇡V
w5 ⇥ 10

erg

dVs

2
2
2
M
=
4⇡R
[%
(V
V
)
%
(V
V
)
]
Equation of motion
sh
ej
ej
s
cs
s
w
s
dVs
2
2
2 dt
Msh
= 4⇡Rs [%ej (Vej Vs )%cs (Vs Vw ) ]dt→ self-similar solution before the Sedov-Taylor-likedeceleration(Chevalier 82)
3
5
1

Rs = X(w, )D3
shock radius) = [(3w)(4Rs =1 X(w, )D
w)]

w

1

w)]
[10(
5)]
Kinetic luminosity
w

2(

[10(
3
w)

5)] 2(

[4⇡(

1

2(
E
ej
3

w)

w

w)

4)(

w

[4⇡(

Eej2(

Mej 2(
4)(

3) ]

1

Mej 2(
5
w)

t

3) ]

[3(

w6w

Ld = 2⇡%cs Vs3 Rs2 / t
D=

w)

Ṁw
4⇡Vw

3
w

1

w)

,

w

[3(

3)]

15+2
w

t

w2(

3
w

,

w=2 for a wind CSM
d~10-12 for
5 stars

3)]

2(

w)

5
w)

Ṁw by photon (opt, X, radio) observations
parameters for dynamics: determined
D=

Ic
Ib
Ibc-pec
IIb
IIn
II-L
II-P

14.9
7.1
4.0
10.6
8.8
6.4
48.2

+4.2/−3.8+3.1/−2.6+2.0/−2.4+3.6/−3.1+3.3/−2.9+2.9/−2.5+5.7/−5.6

Ibc (all)Ibc+IIb

26.0
36.5+5.1/−4.8+5.5/−5.4

Diversity of Core-Collapse Supernovae

our
stud
ria fo
some
diver
erup
ject
than
faste
Less
and

Smith+ 11 MNRAS
Wheeler 90
Ic
14.9%
Ib
7.1%

II-P
48.2%

Ibc-pec 4.0%

IIb
10.6%
II-L
6.4%

IIn
8.8%

Core-Collapse SN Fractions
Figure 1. Relative fractions of CCSN types in a volume-limited
sample from LOSS. This is slightly different from the fractions
quoted in Paper II, in order to better suit the aim of this paper
as explained in the text. The main difference is that we exclude
SNe in highly inclined galaxies because of extinction effects, andwe reorganise the class of SNe Ibc-pec (namely, we moved broadlined SNe Ic from the “Ibc-pec” category to the “Ic” group).

← Betelgeuse
2

OBSERVED CCSN FRACTIONS

Figure 1 shows a pie chart illustrating the relative fractionsof different types of CCSNe derived from LOSS. These values are taken from the volume-limited fractions of all SN

“SNe
nece
vary
rive
pec”
such
these
since
shed
overa
our s
agree
find
in la
al. (2
(∼13
We a
wher
that
ment
for m
ing r
relat
diffe

meta
are c
sider
the L
CCS
Z" (
of M
host
note

Neutrino Fluencelog(E2  [GeV cm-2])

First prediction of HE neutrinos from SN w. confined CSM (KM 18 PRDR)
7
all flavor
6d=10 kpc
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
KM 18 PRDR
-6
10-1
100
101

IIn
II-P
II-L/IIb
Ibc

thick: s=2.2
thin: s=2.0
102

103
104
E [GeV]

105

106

107

Fluence for an integration time at which S/B1/2 is maximal(determined by the detailed time-dependent model)

42light curve41log(E LE [erg s-1])

40
39

IIn
II-P
II-L/IIb
Ibc

KM 18 PRDR
w. pre-SN mass loss

38
37
36

w.o. pre-SN mass loss

35
34
33

log(Nµ<t )expected #of nµ tracks(w. V=1 km3)

32
7103
6
5
4

IIn
II-P
II-L/IIb
Ibc

tonset
104

105
t [s]

106

107
d=10 kpc

3~100-1000 events
for typical CCSNe

2
1
0

background(atm. + astro)

-1
-2
-3
3
10

4

10

5

10

t [s]

10

6

7

10

Key Points• Testable & clear predictions (no need for jets, winds, shocks in a star)
free parameters: eCR & s (typical values: eCR~0.1 & s~2.0-2.3)• Time window:
duration ~ calorimetry (fpp~tdyn/tpp>1)
e.g., ~days to weeks for SNe II (II-P/II-L/IIb), ~hours (Ibc), ~months (IIn)• Energy range:
IceCube/KM3Net: TeV-PeV (even Glashow resonance anti-ne & nt events)
Hyper-K/IceCube-Upgrade/KM3Net-ORCA: GeV-TeV＊ Type II cases: rather different from the Type IIn case
II-P/II-L/IIb/Ibc: shock is collisionless & Mcsm << Mej
IIn: shock can be radiation-mediated & Mcsm could be larger than Mej→ more complications (limitation of self-similar, ejecta deceleration,
radiative shock, other relevant processes (Coulomb collisions etc.)…
※ ns from breakout from envelope (previously studied) : largely suppressed (see KM+19 ApJ)

Implications• Astrophysical implications
a. Pre-explosion mass-loss mechanisms
How does a dense wind/shell form around the star ?
b. PeVatrons
Are supernovae the origin of CRs up to the knee energy at 1015.5 eV?
c. Real-time observation of ion acceleration for the first time
How are CR ions accelerated?
d. Best targets for multi-energy neutrino & multi-messenger astrophysics
MeV ns & possibly gravitational waves, followed by GeV-PeV ns
optical, X-rays, radio waves, and gamma rays (up to ~Mpc by Fermi)• Particle physics implications – large statistics
flavor studies, BSM searches (neutrino self-interactions,
neutrino decay, oscillation into other sterile states etc.
cf. more lucky examples?
Betelgeuse: ~103-3x106 events
Eta Carinae: ~105-3x106 events

Detectability of “Minibursts”- CCSN rate enhancement
in local galaxies (ex. Ando+ 05 PRL)
- Neutrino telescope networks are
beneficial for nearby SNe at Mpc- II (CCSM): detectable to ~3-4 Mpc
IIn: detectable to ~10 Mpc

Kheirandish & KM 22

AMES (Astrophysical Multimessenger Emission Simulator)
Purpose:Tool for “observers” to generate n and broadband EM
light curves and spectra- “Source dependent” python module (GRB, SNe, TDE, AGN)
- Physics processes based on C++- Standard model parameters determined by EM data
Current status:
GRB (GRB leptonic afterglow): already public
https://github.com/pegasuskmurase/AMES-GRBAfterglow

SN (interacting SNe/pulsar-powered SNe): readySN model templates:
https://github.com/pegasuskmurase/ModelTemplates/tree/main/SNHEMM

8w.o. SN plateau emission

7
G\Q

6
EUHPV

5
OF

4

ȖȖ

&RX

3

,&

2

V\Q

1
0

8

6

7

8

9

10 11 12log(E [eV])

13

14

167

15

G\Q

6
log(t [s])log(t [s])Fate of g & e±: Electromagnetic Cascade

EUHPV

5
OF

4

ȖȖ

&RX

3

V\Q
,&

2
1
0

w. SN plateau emission

6

7

8

9

10 11 12log(E [eV])

13

14

15

16

Multi-Wavelength Non-Thermal Spectrap± → e±synchrotron

p0 → gg

KM 23

II (CCSM)
IIn
II-P
II-L/IIb
Ibc

log(E FE [erg cm-2 s-1])

-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-10
-11
-12
-13
-14
-15
10-6

p± → e±inverse-Compton

10-3

100

103

106
E [eV]
synchrotron self-absorption photoelectric
free-free absorption
absorption

109

1012

1015

gg→e+ematter attenuation

Example: SN 2023ixf
Hiramatsu+ 23

Jacobson-Galan+ 23- M101 @ 6.9 Mpc- Optical
dMcs/dt~10-2-10-1 Msun yr-1
Rcs ~ a few x 1014 cm- X-raydMcs/dt~(0.3-1)x10-3 Msun yr-1
Rcs ~ 1015 cm- Radio
VLA detection at ~30 dGrefenstette+ 23

Multi-Messenger Spectra & Light Curves
KM 23
neutrino & gamma-ray fluences

multi-messenger light curves

-2

-10

ν
γ
-3

-12
-1

log(E FE [erg s ])log(E2 φ [GeV cm-2])

ν 1 TeVγ 1 GeVγ 100 keV
γ 100 GHz

-11

-4

-13
-14
-15

-5

-16
-17

-6

-18
-19

-7

•
•
•
•

10-1

100

101

102
103
E [GeV]

104

105

106

107

-20
105

106

t [s]

Neutrino: consistent w. IceCube nondetection
Gamma: consistent w. Fermi LAT nondetection
X: consistent w. bremsstrahlung emission
Radio: perhaps explaining VLA detection?

107

Example: SN 2010jl

The Astrophysical Journal, 797:118 (40pp), 2014 December 20

44

log Lbol (erg s−1)

R

10

3

(10 K)

(10

3

0
15

eff

43

1000
4

1

cm) T

L ∝ t−3/(n−2), n = 7.6

1500

2

15

10

2000

dust

16

cm)

Tdust (K)2500

Rphot (10Fransson et al.

10

shock power

42

10Fransson+14 ApJ

5
41

0

10

Days after first detection

3

10

100
log(Days after first detection)

1000

Figure 6. Bolometric light curve for the SN ejecta, excluding the dust echo.
The dashed lines show power-law fits to the early and late light curves used to-aof the explosion. Note the pronounced break
construct the density distribution
0in the light curve at ∼320 days. The dashed lines give power-law fits to theluminosity before and after the break (see Section 4.5 for a discussion).
(A color version of this figure is available in the online journal.)

2

L

dust

−1

(1042 erg s )• L = L t (a~0.54-0.56)• “Data-driven” evolution ofrcs, Rs, Vs
1.75 × 10 (t/100 days)
erg s and a final steep decay
L(t) •= 8.71× 10 (t/320 days)
erg s after day 320.
Time-dependent
Ofek
et
al.
(2014)
estimatethebolometriclight curve by
Ofek et al. 14 ApJ (see also Moriya et al. 13 MNRAS)
Figure 5. Blackbody temperature, radius, and luminosity for the dust component
assuming modelinga constant bolometriccorrectionof −0.27
fromt=20
dmag to theand radius and effective temperature for the SN component for the epochs in
R-band photometry. With this assumption, they find a flatter
Figure 4.
light curve(breakout)
with L(t) ∝ t
forsame explosion
tothet=250
d date as(A color version of this figure is available in the online journal.)
1
0
6
4
2

0
0

43

100

200

300 400 500 600
Days after first detection

700

800

900

42

−0.536

−0.36

−1

−3.39

−1

Gamma-Ray Limits on SNe IIn
KM, Franckowiak, Maeda, Margutti & Beacom 19 ApJ-1.5

 (observed)
 (emission region)
95% CLFermi-LAT2-2log(E  [GeV cm ])

-2
-2.5

no Bethe-Heitler
spherical CSM-3-3.5
SN 2010jl

-4

-2

-1

0

1
2
log(E [GeV])

3

4

5

Interesting limits: ep<0.05-0.1 (w. weak dependence on CR index)
brighter SNe or more SN samples or improved sensitivity

Gamma Rays: Fermi-LAT Stacking Searche Astrophysical Journal, 807:169 (15pp), 2015 July 10

The Astrophysical Journal, 807:169 (15pp), 2015 July 10

Ackermann et al.

• 0.1-300 GeV• 147 IIn samples(PTF in 2008-2012)• Time windows
1 month, 3 month, 1 yr
• Highest TS=14.4 (10bt)
Ackermann et• comparable upper limits

Ackermann+ KM 15 ApJ

Gamma-Ray Detection Prospects
KM, Franckowiak, Maeda, Margutti & Beacom 19 ApJ-4

2010jl-like (1 GeV)
2010jl-like (30 GeV)
2014C-like (1 GeV)
2014C-like (1 TeV)

log(EFE [GeV cm-2 s-1])

-5
-6
-7
-8

CTA (30 GeV)

-9

Fermi (1 GeV)

-10
-11
0.01

CTA (1 TeV)

0.1

1
d [Mpc]10100• Single SN: detectable up to ~10-50 Mpc• Statistical approaches should also be powerful

SN Ibc with Confined CSM?
Kashiyama et al.

-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8

se

ay

00

-9

1d

30

2
-2
log(Eν φν [erg cm ])Kashiyama, KM+ 13 ApJL

Total
pγ
pp
ANB

c

-10

0

1

2

3

4
5
6
log(Eν [GeV])

7

8

9

Figure 2. Energy fluences of neutrinos from a trans-relativistic shock breakout
using the same parameters as in Figure 1. We set !CR = 0.2 and DL = 10 Mpc.
Lines represent a contribution from the photomeson production (dashed), theinelastic pp reaction (dotted), and the total (solid). The dotted-dashed lines show
the zenith-angle averaged atmospheric neutrino background (ANB) within acircle of deg for ∆t = 3.0 × 103 s (thick) and ∆t = 1 day (thin).
(A color version of this figure is available in the online journal.)• SN 2010bh (LL GRB 100316D) : D*~0.01 & Rcs~1014 cm• Detectable by IceCube up to ~10 Mpc
The signal is above the zenith-angle-averaged atmospheric neu• Detectable by CTA up to ~100 Mpc
trino background (ANB; dotted-dash lines; thick one for tγ ∼3
3 × 10＊durations and thin one fordepends
one day). The number
muon
eventson Vejof &Rcs

Take Away
- Development of the time-dependent model for high-energy
neutrino/gamma-ray emission from different classes of SNe- Type II: ~1000 events of TeV n from the next Galactic SNe- SNe as “multi-messenger” & “multi-energy” neutrino source
Ln

MeV n
thermal

GeV-PeV nshock
GeV-TeV n?
wind~10 sec~0.1-1 daytimeDiversity of High-Energy Transientssupermassive black holes

massive stellar deaths

compact mergers(promising GW sources)
KM & Bartos 19 ANRPS
Meszaros, Fox, Hanna & KM
Nature Rev. Phys. 19

tion of surveys covering large volumes was designed to find numerous distant type Ia SNe forcosmological use. These observed relatively small
fields of view to a great depth, placing most of theeffective survey volume at highredshift (5).
-23
LuminousSNeAnalternative
method for surSLSN−I
veying a large volume
of sky is
explanations
w. radioactivity-22
SLSN−II
toI usewide-field
instruments
to
for
and
II
often
have
difficulty
SLSN−R
SLSN
threshold-21
cover a large sky area with relSN IIn
atively shallow imaging. With
SN Ia
-20
most of the survey volume at
SN Ib/c
low redshift, one can conduct an-19
SN IIbefficient untargeted survey for
SN II−P
nearby SNe. Such surveys pro-18
vided the first well-observed ex-17
amples of SLSNe, such as SN
1999as (6), which turned out to-16
be the first example of the extremely 56Ni-rich SLSN-R class-15(7), and SN 1999bd (8) (Fig. 2),
which is probably the first well-14
Gal-Yam 12 Science
documented example of the SLSN-13
II class (9).
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Further important detections
Days from peak
resulted from the Texas Superg. 1. The luminosity evolution (light curve) of supernovae. Common SN explosions nova Survey (TSS) (10) (text S2).
ach peak luminosities of ~1043 ergs s−1 (absolute magnitude > −19.5). Super- On 3 March 2005, TSS detectedminous SNe (SLSNe) reach luminosities that are greater by a factor of ~10. The SN 2005ap, a hostless transient
ototypical events of the three SLSN classes—SLSN-I [PTF09cnd (4)], SLSN-II [SN at 18.13 mag. Its redshift was z =06gy (12, 13, 77)], and SLSN-R [SN 2007bi (7)]—are compared with a normal 0.2832, which indicated an ab-

SN-I classes are more common, whereas the SLSN-R class is
ins of the extreme luminosity emitted by SLSNe are a focus ofownloaded from www.sciencemag.org on January 31, 2013

Absolute magnitude (mag)Luminous Supernovae as Long-Duration Transients• SLSN-I (hydrogen poor) – energy injection by engine?
• SLSN-II (hydrogen) – circumstellar material interaction

The Blue
PS1-MDS
Fast
OpticalTransients
Transients
Pan-STARRS1 Medium Deep Survey (PS1-MDS) for Rapidly Evolving and Luminous Transients Drout+14
et al.
Drout+ 14 (see also Arcavi+ Drout
13 etc)he Astrophysical Journal, 794:23 (23pp), 2014 October 10

ü t1/2 < 12 day --- rapidly evolving
than anyevolving
SN type (<10 day)• Rapidly• Luminous
brightü Lpeak ~ 1042-43 erg s-1 --- luminousas bright &SNe
ü Tpeak ~ a few 104 K --- blue • T ~ a fewx104 K (blue)• Unlikely
be Ni-poweredü No line blanketing --- not poweredby thetoradioactive
decay•--Star-forming
regionüabsolute
HostGal.
= starforming
relatedmassivegure 1. PS1
magnitude,rest-frame,light curves
for gold sample Gal.
transients.
Circles
represent griz todetections
and trianglesstars
represent 3σ upper limits.
ertical dashed lines indicate epochs when spectroscopic observations were acquired. The gray shaded region is the R-band Type Ibc template from Drout et al. (2011),• ~4-7%ofcore-collapse
ormalized toü
the peakmagnitude rateof the PS1-MDS
transient.
Event
~
4-7
%
of
core-collapseSN--not rare
A color version of this figure is available in the online journal.)
SNe (not so rare)
P1

Margutti+ 19 ApJ

Pulsar/Magnetar-Driven Supernovae“Rapidly rotating pulsars” are popularly invoked to explain some SNe Ibc
super-luminous supernova (SLSN)

fast blue optical transient (FBOT)

ultra-stripped supernova (USSN)

The Astrophysical Journal, 850:18 (9pp), 2017 November 20

magnetar w. B~1014 G
Nicholl et al. 13 Nature
Fang, Metzger, KM+ 19 ApJ

pulsar w. B~3x1012 G
Hotokezaka, Kashiyama & KM 17 ApJ

requirement: rotation energy is converted into thermal energy

GeV-TeV Neutrinos from Pulsar/Magnetar-Driven SNe- Neutron-loaded outflows from highly magnetized protoneutron stars- Bulk wind acceleration → neutron decoupling → neutrino production- No cosmic-ray acceleration is necessary(KM, Dasgupta & Thompson 14 PRD)

neutrondecoupling

nucleons(protons+
neutrons)

wind acceleration

neutrons must dissipate
via np collisions
startermination
shockGeV-TeV Neutrinos from Pulsar/Magnetar-Driven SNe- Neutron-loaded outflows from highly magnetized protoneutron stars- Bulk wind acceleration → neutron decoupling → neutrino production- Power-law spectrum as a result of time integration (w.o. cosmic rays)
Carpio, Bhattacharya, Ekanger, KM & Horiuchi 23
KM, Dasgupta & Thompson 14 PRD

Hyper-K for a Galactic SN
5.0

=2

4.5

P
N

.51

1015

4.0

preliminary

2.5

P

1014

2.0

P
10

N)

3.0

1.5

N < 0.1

1.0
0.5
0.0
°0.5

13

100

101
Pi [ms]

°1.0

log(

Bdip [G]3.5

PeV-EeV Neutrinos from Pulsar/Magnetar-Driven SNe- (UHE) CRs could be accelerated via magnetic dissipation in the wind zone
- Efficient n production should occur in hour-day-week time scales- n signals arrive earlier (n alerts): followed by supernova optical emission
flux suppression
due to hadronic
cooling of mesons

spin-down

Carpio, KM, Reno, Sarcevic & Stasto 20 PRD
KM, Meszaros & Zhang 09 PRD

AT 2018cow @ 60 Mpc

Fang, Metzger, KM+ 19 ApJ

PeV-EeV Neutrinos from Pulsar/Magnetar-Driven SNe- (UHE) CRs could be accelerated via magnetic dissipation in the wind zone
- Efficient n production should occur in hour-day-week time scales- n signals arrive earlier (n alerts): followed by supernova optical emission
flux suppression
due to hadronic
cooling of mesons

spin-down

Carpio, KM, Reno, Sarcevic & Stasto 20 PRD
KM, Meszaros & Zhang 09 PRD

low-mass NS-NS merger

Diversity of High-Energy Transientssupermassive black holes

massive stellar deaths

compact mergers(promising GW sources)
KM & Bartos 19 ANRPS
Meszaros, Fox, Hanna & KM
Nature Rev. Phys. 19

together with prompt gamma-ray emission outside the star,
identical to the scenario expected from classical GRBs
[29,30,57].
Another interpretation of LL GRBs which has received
attention is the shock breakout emission model, where theing from the jet acting as a relativistic piston. In particular,
we focus on scenarios which may produce LL GRBs.
Under the current constraints imposed by the IceCube
analyses mentioned above, such LL GRBs are attractive as
the originators of the diffuse VHE neutrino flux (i) because

HE Neutrinos from Choked Jets in Type Ibc SNeOrphan Neutrinos

Precursor Neutrinos

Prompt Neutrinos

Emerging Jet
Shock Breakout

low-power

high-power

Stall Radius

Stall Radius

Choked Jet

ExtendedMaterial

Choked Jet

ExtendedMaterial
CE

Progenitor
Core

ExtendedMaterial
CE

Progenitor
Core

CE

Progenitor
Corefrom Senno, KM & Meszaros 16 PRD

FIG. 1. Left panel: The choked jet model for jet-driven SNe. Orphan neutrinos are expected since electromagnetic emission from thejet is hidden, and such objects may be observed as hypernovae. Middle panel: The shock breakout model for LL GRBs, wheretransrelativistic shocks are driven by choked jets. A precursor neutrino signal-isMarginally
expected since thechokedgamma-ray emission
jets: from the shock
breakout occurs significantly after the jet stalls (e.g., Ref. [26]). Right panel: The emerging jet model for GRBs and LL GRBs. Bothtrans-relativistic&
neutrinos and gamma rays are produced by the successful jet, and both messengers
can be observed as SNe
prompt emission.

low-luminosity (LL) GRBs

(Toma+07, Nakar 15, Irwin & Chevalier 16)
083003-2- Low-power choked jets may
contribute to the IceCube flux
without violating GRB limits

from Cano+ 17 Adv. Ast.

(KM+ 06 ApJL, Gupta & Zhang 07 APh,KM & Ioka 13 PRL, Denton & Tamborra 18 ApJ
Carpio & KM 20 PRD)

e
,
r
e
t
,
s

together with prompt gamma-ray emission outside the star,ing
the jets, acting
as aandrelativistic
piston.
particular,
tdurfrom≈ 1800
θj ¼ 1,ðρ=1000
Gpc In yr
Þf cho ∼ 20.
identical to the scenario expected from classical GRBs
weon scenarios
may produce
LLbreakout
GRBs. time,
Byfocuschoosing
a durationwhichtime smaller
than theUnder
the current
constraints
imposedby the IceCube
we obtain
a spectral
cutoff due
to the neutrino
attenuation [29,30,57].
inanalysesmentioned
above,
such
LL
GRBs
are
attractiveasthe progenitor star, as expected in Ref. [11]. For a 75 M⊙ Another interpretation of LL GRBs which has received
attention is the shock breakout emission model, where thethe originators of the diffuse VHE neutrino flux (i) because

HE Neutrinos from Choked Jets in Type Ibc SNe

BSG, we choose the parameters Liso;48 ¼ 2; Γj ¼ 70;
θOrphanand tdur ≈ 2000 s, in which theneutrino
spectrumj ¼ 0.2,
Neutrinos
Precursor
Neutrinos
Prompt Neutrinos
extends to the higher-energy regions. The associated ratedensity is ðρ=1000 Gpc−3 yr−1 Þf cho ∼ 6. In this case, neutrino attenuation is weak and the suppression is caused
mainly by pion and muon cooling. We also point out that theneutrino flavor ratio is not exactly ≈1∶1∶1 thanks to matterhigh-power
low-power
effects in the neutrino oscillation, and a νe excess is expectedin the 10–100 TeV range. This could help us explain theadiffuse neutrino flux suggested by the shower analysis ismthan that from the upgoing muon neutrino analysis.
h fromhigher
Senno, KM & Meszaros 16 PRD
e FIG. 1. Left panel: The choked jet model for jet-driven SNe. Orphan neutrinos are expected since electromagnetic emission from theis hidden, and such objects may be observed as hypernovae. Middle panel: The shock breakout model for LL GRBs, where, jettransrelativistic shocks are driven by choked jets. A precursor neutrino signal-isMarginally
expected since thechokedgamma-ray emission
jets: from the shockt breakout occurs significantly after the jet stalls (e.g., Ref. [26]). Right panel: The emerging jet model for GRBs and LL GRBs. Bothtrans-relativistic&
h neutrinos and gamma rays are produced by the successful jet, and both messengers
can be observed as SNe
prompt emission.
e
low-luminosity (LL) GRBs
Emerging Jet

Shock Breakout

Stall Radius

Stall Radius

Choked Jet

ExtendedMaterial

CE

Progenitor
Core

ExtendedMaterial

CE

Progenitor
Core

CE

Progenitor
Core(Toma+07, Nakar 15, Irwin & Chevalier 16)

e
s
a
e
V.
e
s

y

Choked Jet

ExtendedMaterial

083003-2- Low-power choked jets may
contribute to the IceCube flux
without violating GRB limits

Carpio & KM 20 PRD(KM+ 06 ApJL, Gupta & Zhang 07 APh,KM & Ioka 13 PRL, Denton & Tamborra 18 ApJ
Carpio & KM 20 PRD)Powerful Stacking Searches
Stacking analyses on 386 SNe Ibc w. 10 yr IceCube data

S
B-C
GR

=

E
B-P
GR

 = 2.0
ULGRB-CS


=
2.0

5
2.

=

LLGRB-PE

3.0

LL



Chang, Zhou, KM & Kamionkowski 22
see early limits Senno, KM & Meszaros 18 JCAP
Esmaili & KM 18 JCAP

UL

ttn
-A
RBLPG

Senno et al.
(2018)



=

LP
=
GR
2.5
BAt
tn

3.
0

• Present constraints: Ecr<1051-1052 erg (if all SNe emit ns)• Future: readily improved w. more SNe (especially w. Rubin)• Spectral templates are important (NOT power laws!!)

Summary of Energy & Time Window
TeV-PeV

TDE

X, optical, radio

GeV-PeVinteracting
SNeg , X, optical, radio

breakout

pulsar-driven
SN

GeV-TeV

TeV-EeVg , X, optical, radio

GeV-PeVchoked-jet
SNHE
neutrino

g , X, optical, radio

breakout

GRB

GeV-PeVPeV-EeV

MeV

radio, optical, X, g

promptafterglow

min

hour

elemag.

day

week

month

year

time

What Do We Need?
Targets: long-duration HE n/short-duration GeV-TeV n transients• Multimessenger coincident searches (e.g., AMON events)
would be powerful for subthreshold events• Neutrino multiplet followups would also be useful• Optical: spectroscopic information is relevant(SN brokers would be useful)• Better hard X/g-ray sky monitors needed(ex. >~10 times better than Swift for LL GRBs)• Coincidences w. UV transients may also help
(ex. ULTRASAT)• Radio facilities may also help
(ex. DSA-2000, ngVLA)

Ongoing “Multi-Messenger” Attempts
Light(electromagnetic)

IceCube• AMON• SciMMA 5160 PMTs
1 km volume• Astro-Colibri
86 strings
I

Neutrino (weak force)
IceCube Lab
50 m

3

I
I

I 17 m PMT-PMT

spacing per string
1450 mSwift

I 120 m string

spacing
I Angular resolutiono⇠1

I Completed 2010

2450 mDeep Core

2820 mIceCubeEiffel Tower
324 m

ANTARES

HAWC
N. Whitehorn, UW Madison

VERITAS

Cosmic-ray(strong force)

Gravitational wave
(gravity)

Advanced-LIGO

IPA 2013 - 4

Auger

Don’t miss interesting n & GW events- Realtime coincident searches- Prompt data-sharing for follow-ups

Yoshida, KM+ 22 ApJ
Multiplet signal (0.03 Rsn)

Multipletscoincident
closest SNe

The Astrophysical Journal, 937:108 (11pp), 2022 October 1- Need for long-duration multiplet alerts
lower FAR (< 1/yr)
likely to be low redshifts if SN-like- Discriminating optical transients is a key- Sensitivity: ~(30-3000) Gpc-3 yr-1
more improved w. KM3Net/IceCube-Gen2~4 coincident
SNe w. a 23 mag
sensitivity limitSummary
TransientsDiversity, SNe are among the most promising targets!
Interacting-supernovae
Next Galactic SN: multi-energy n source (>10-100 HE ns in IceCube)
SNe within a few Mpc: neutrino telescope networks + particle detectors
Wind-driven SNe
GeV-TeV ns from neutron-loaded outflows: detectable for Galactic SNe
PeV-EeV ns by accelerated ions: testing the UHECR origin
Jet-driven SNe
Still viable as the dominant origin of the all-sky neutrino flux
Stacking searches w. more samples especially with the Rubin era
Strategic multi-messenger searches
Multimessenger coincident searches (e.g., AMON)
Neutrino multiplet followups