AGEING IN JAPAN.
DOMESTIC HEALTHCARETECHNOLOGIES.
A Qualitative Interview Study on
Care Robots, Monitoring Sensor Systems,
and ICT-based Telehealth Systems.
Report. May 2018.

Susanne BruckschFranziska Schultz

Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

Contact:
Dr. Susanne Brucksch (DIJ), Project Leader
brucksch@dijtokyo.org

ドイツ日本研究所
Deutsches Institut für Japanstudien
German Institute for Japanese Studies (DIJ)
7-1 Kioicho
Jochi Kioizaka Bldg. 2F
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102 0094
Tel: +81 3 3222 5077
Fax: + 81 3 3222 5420
www.dijtokyo.orgiAgeing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

Ageing in Japan.
Domestic Healthcare Technologies.
A Qualitative Interview Study on
Care Robots, Monitoring Sensor Systems,
and ICT-based Telehealth Systems.

ReportSusanne BruckschFranziska Schultz

Tokyo, May 2018ii

Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

Preface and Acknowledgement
This report presents findings of a joint research project between the Leiden Asia Centre and
the German Institute for Japanese Studies (DIJ). The project was initiated and financially
supported by Leiden Asia Centre under their research scheme “Aging Japan: Leading theway into the future”.
The project on “Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies in Japan” wasconceptualised and conducted at the German Institute for Japanese Studies (DIJ). DIJ also
prepared this report, partially under its research scheme of “The Future of Local Communities
in Japan. Risks and Opportunities in the Face of Multiple Challenges”.
We are particularly grateful for the valuable comments on an earlier version of the manuscriptby Professor Kasia Cwiertka, Professor Franz Waldenberger and Dr. Barbara Holthus. Ourgrateful thanks are extended to Dr. Michel H.C. Bleijlevens, Dr. Kazue Haga, Ms Rie Masuda,
Ms Junko Sakurai, Ms Miki Akaike, Ms Josine Schouwstra and Ms Anne-Sophie König for
giving advice or providing research assistance at various stages of the project. We also wish
to acknowledge the great administrative support offered by Ms Elisabeth Jakubassa.
We would like to express our great appreciation to the following institutions and organisations
for their assistance with the collection of our data or for allowing us to visit their workplacesor laboratories: Robot Safety Center, Mobilika, Panasonic Age Free, Sekisui House, Fukui
Prefecture, Iida City and all the interlocutors, who shared their valuable expertise andknowledge, which greatly enhanced the research.

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Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

Contents
1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1
2 General Situation of Ageing and Long-Term Care ............................................................. 2
2.1 Japan’s demographic challenge .................................................................................. 3
2.2 Care Policies and Living Situation at the End of Life in Japan .................................... 5
2.3 The Long-term-care Insurance (LCTI) in Japan .......................................................... 7
2.4 Care technologies and their coverage under LTCI .................................................... 11
3 Case Studies of Domestic Healthcare Technologies........................................................ 16
3.1 Research Design ........................................................................................................ 17
3.2 Care Robots and Robotic Care Devices .................................................................... 21
3.2.1 Background: Defining Care Robots and Robotic Care Devices .......................... 22
3.2.2 Material Dimension .............................................................................................. 24
3.2.3 Social Dimension ................................................................................................. 28
3.2.4 Financial and Regulatory Dimension ................................................................... 33
3.3 Monitoring Sensor Systems ....................................................................................... 37
3.3.1 Background .......................................................................................................... 37
3.3.2 Material Dimension .............................................................................................. 38
3.3.3 Social Dimension ................................................................................................. 40
3.3.4 Financial and Regulatory Dimension ................................................................... 41
3.4 ICT-based Telehealth Systems .................................................................................. 43
3.4.1 Background .......................................................................................................... 43
3.4.2 Material Dimension .............................................................................................. 47
3.4.3 Social Dimension ................................................................................................. 50
3.4.4 Financial and Regulatory Dimension ................................................................... 51
4 Summary and Conclusion ................................................................................................. 54
References ........................................................................................................................... 58

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Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

1 Introduction
Japan is confronting a fast ageing population. In 2015, 26 percent of the population wereaged 65 years or older. The share is expected to rise to 30 percent in 2025 (CaO 2017).
Ageing implies increasing public expenditures on long-term care. Between 2000 and 2016,
Japan’s public contributions to long-term care insurance tripled. They are expected to double
again by 2025 (MHLW 2015c: 12, 38). Japan is facing these challenges in the context of an
extremely weak fiscal condition. In addition, lack of healthcare professionals and nursing staff
for the elderly has become a severe problem. This holds especially true for regions outsideof the large agglomerations.
The Japanese government defined a number of policy priorities to cope with these pressing
issues. These include measures that contribute to the prolongation of healthy life to reducethe dependence of the elderly population on long-term care and to enable elderly and otherpeople with disabilities, long-term illnesses or physical conditions to continue living at home.
The overarching goal is the reduction of costs.
Government support of domestic care technologies represents a central pillar among these
efforts. It is expected that technological advances and innovation in the field of domestic care
will not only help the elderly, but will also reduce the financial burden of medical and longterm care and alleviate the shortage of care professionals by-

allowing for more long-term care at home,-

reducing the number of nursing and caregiving staff needed to provide long-term care,-

improving the working conditions of care workers by alleviating the physical strains
involved with long-term care,-thus, making it easier to attract new care workers.

The present study explores emerging domestic healthcare technologies in Japan. Based on
secondary sources, the next chapter describes the demographic and related challenges inmore detail, outlines respective government policies and gives an overview of the country’s
long-term care insurance (LTCI) scheme and the domestic care technologies covered by thesystem at present. Chapter 3 then presents the results of case studies that examined thedevelopment and use of high-tech solutions including ICT-based telehealth systems,
monitoring sensor systems and care robots. Two case studies specifically looked at
implementations in peripheral regions, where ageing and labour shortages are most severe.

1

Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

The research was guided by the following questions:•

Material Dimension: What kind of domestic healthcare technologies can be foundin Japan? What stage of development or implementation can be observed?

•

Social Dimension: What added value do domestic healthcare technologies
generate from the perspective of users and developers?

•

Financial and Regulatory Dimension: What financial and regulatory requirements
do domestic healthcare technologies face?

We therefore not only looked at the technical viability of specific solutions (material
dimension), but also considered developer motivation and user acceptance (social
dimension) and economic viability as well as compliance with safety requirements (financial
and regulatory dimension). By moving beyond the technical characteristics, we were able totake into account the embeddedness of technology in specific social, economic andregulatory environments and to assess the actual practicality of solutions.
The research project “Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies” was launched,because the speed and intensity of Japan’s demographic change, the innovative capacities
of Japanese companies and the political priorities set by the Japanese government makeJapan a leading case for exploring emerging solutions of domestic care technologies. Given
the limited time and financial resources available, we can only offer partial and preliminary
results, leaving important aspects to be answered by future research. We neverthelessexpect the results of our study to be of relevance beyond the case of Japan, as many
European governments are evaluating the potential of domestic healthcare technologies in
the context of rapidly ageing populations.

2 General Situation of Ageing and Long-Term CareIn this chapter, we will describe in more detail (a) the demographic challenges Japan faces
with regard to long-term care and (b) the institutional framework provided by the public
insurance system and by national as well as prefectural and local policies. This backgroundinformation is needed to understand the context, which defines the needs and financial andregulatory constraints for the development and application of domestic care technologies.

2

Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

2.1 Japan’s demographic challenge
In 2016, about one-quarter of Japanese people were aged 65 and over. According to medium
estimates, about 30 per cent of the Japanese population will be 65 or older in 2025 (CaO
2017). More precisely, there will be about 15 million people between 65 and 74 years of age
and 22 million people aged 75 or over. Statistically 5.8 people aged between 20 and 64
supported one person over 65 in 1990, the figure was 2.2 in 2016. In 2025, barely 1.9 people
on average will carry the financial burden for one elderly person. In 2060, one elderly person
is expected to be supported by just 1.4 people of working age in 2060 (CaO 2017). Giving
the rising number of elderly people in need of care, the demand for professional caregivers
is expected to rise in Japan (see Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1: Number of professional workers in long-term care in Japan
2,450,000

2025

2,290,000
1,760,0002015

1,720,000
2012
1,490,000
2000

estimateddemandcare workers
available

550,0000

500,000

1,000,000

1,500,000

2,000,000

2,500,000

3,000,000

Source: MHLW 2014a, p. 15.
As shown in Figure 2.1 above, the number of long-term-care professionals increased from
550,000 in 2000 to almost 1.5 million in 2012 (MHLW 2014a: 15). The Ministry of Health,Labour and Welfare (MHLW) estimates that the number will further rise to 2.29 million in
2025. In comparison, the MHLW anticipated the need for 2.45 million long-term-care
professionals in the very same year, which would imply a shortage of 160,000 people.
However, in its latest update in 2015, the MHLW estimated the demand for professional care
workers in 2025 to be 2.53 million and the actual supply at 2.15 million, implying a gap of
380,000 care workers (MHLW 2015a: 15).

3Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

Ageing and labour shortages are most severe in peripheral regions (Zenshukyo 2015, seealso Matanle and Rausch 2011) 1 . In 2010, 29.6% of the population in Akita (Northern
Honshū) was aged 65 and over, followed by 29.1% in Shimane (Western Honshū) and 28.8%
in Kōchi (Shikoku) (SME Agency 2014: 100). An ageing society passes through two phases:in the initial phase, the proportion and number of elderly people increases. During the latter
phase, the overall population declines. In those communities in Japan with the highest
proportions of elderly, such as the municipalities of Kosaka, Kamikaori and Fujisato in Akita
Prefecture in Northern Honshū, the latter phase of demographic change has already started.
Moreover, emigration from these communities accelerates the process of shrinking and its
social and economic consequences (SME Agency 2014: 96, 104). The vicious cycle ofageing, shortages of care workers, declining tax revenues and growing public expenditures
puts extreme pressure on these municipalities.
Figure 2.2: Frequency of measures taken by prefectural and local governments 2

Source: SME Agency 2014, p. 93.

1 Peter Matanle and Anthony S. Rausch provide with their anthology Japan’s Shrinking Regionsin the 21st Century: Contemporary Responses to Depopulation and Socioeconomic Decline(2011) a broad overview of the various challenges faced by shrinking regions throughout
Japan and their responses.
2 Note: (1) The above figure shows priority measures that were selected as the most importantmeasure taken in response to issues in local communities, from among each respondent’s top

4

Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

Figure 2.2 shows the various kinds of measures taken by prefectural and local governments
to fight these trends. The priority of municipalities is to revive the regional economy and to
invite firms to locate in their regions (35.9%). In contrast, the goal of ensuring a decent life
for elderly residents ranks low for local governments (7.4%) or is non-existent for prefectural
governments (0.0%). Although Japanese communities have made various efforts to improve
the quality of life for their residents, these projects are not primarily targeted at elderly andfrail residents (SME Agency 2014: 93). Most local governments seem to hope that improving
the economic conditions will turn the vicious cycle into a virtuous one and thus indirectly
improve the provision of care and a decent life for the elderly population.

2.2 Care Policies and Living Situation at the End of Life in Japan
In Japan, public expenditures for LTCI soared from 3.6 million yen in 2000 up to 10.4 trillion
yen in 2016. According to recent estimates, expenditures are expected to reach 21.0 trillion
yen in 2025 (MHLW 2015c: 12, 38). It is obvious, that many measures undertaken by thegovernment and local communities focus on cost reduction. Health maintenanceprogrammes are seen as an important means in this respect. Government programs givestrong priority to increasing the autonomy and promoting an active lifestyle of elderly people
besides institutionalised care for frail ones (CaO 2012, 2014, 2016a; MHLW 2015b; MOF
2016).
Measures that increase the ability to provide domestic care constitute another important
policy priority. In fact, the majority of Japan’s population at the age of 55 years and above
wishes to stay at home until the end of their lives (CaO 2012: 8; see also Figure 2.3). In
comparison, a quarter said they wished to stay in hospital, including hospices, whereas justunder one-tenth of respondents preferred nursing homes. In other words, the Japanesepolicy objective of providing care at home coincides with individual preferences. However,
the expectation that such care could be provided by family members seems less realistic.
Still, a considerable proportion of respondents preferred institutionalised care. However,there is a surprising discrepancy between female respondents (51.8%) and male
respondents (37.6%) (CaO 2012: 8). In other words, expectations regarding institutionalisedcare remain high, especially among elderly female respondents.

three responses. (2) “Other” responses by prefectures include “employment creation”, “industrial
promotion”, “integrated and comprehensive support of management and finance” and“promotion of SMEs”.

5Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

Figure 2.3: Preferred places to live at the end of life (2012, n=1919 people)

Source: CaO 2012, p. 8.
In reality, however, the majority of Japanese people nowadays still stay in hospital at the endof their life, as shown in Figure 2.4 below. In 2014, 75.2% of people spent the end of theirlife in hospital and a mere 12.8% at home. In contrast, in 1951, 82.5% of people died at homeand only 9.1% in hospital (MHLW 2015b). The recent numbers are obviously in conflict withboth individual preferences and public policy goals (compare Figures 2.3 and 2.4).
Figure 2.4 attests to the phenomenon of social hospitalisation (shakaiteki nyūin) prevalent inJapan among residents of high ages (70+). According to Campbell (2014: 58–59) “theJapanese government” made “medical care essentially ‘free’ for people aged 70 and older,
by reducing their co-payment from 30 or 50 percent to zero” in the early 1970s. In otherwords, the high number of people spending the end of their life in hospital with “little or no
medical justification”, instead of in long-term-care facilities or at home, has become apressing issue for many municipalities in Japan. Apart from the financial aspect, hospitals
are inappropriately equipped for long-term care services in terms of space, personnel andtheir qualifications, food supplies, daily routines and activities (MOF 2016).

6

Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

Figure 2.4: Shift in places where the end of life is spent

Source: MHLW 2014b.
For instance, there is insufficient infrastructure and assistance for bathing, eating, privacy,
entertainment and mobility in hospitals compared to what is offered in elderly care homes
nowadays. Hence, the admission into hospitals of a large group of aged people without
medical justification means that they occupy an expensive and inadequate infrastructure
designed for acute medical treatment and ill suited to provide long-term care services. The
situation has contributed to the surge of unnecessary medical expenditures. At the sametime, it raised expectations among elderly people of receiving adequate care at the end of
their life in hospital rather than in elderly care facilities.

2.3 The Long-term-care Insurance (LCTI) in Japan
Healthcare insurance for all started in Japan in 1958 (kokumin kenkō hoken) and welfare
measures for the elderly in the 1960s, when just 6% of the population were 65 years or older.
The system was strongly community-based, but provided similar welfare measuresthroughout Japan, encompassing free access to physicians, a national fee schedule, homes
for elderly people and homecare services. At that time, the Japanese state covered the costs
for professional caregivers (hōmu herupā) or day care services (dei sābisu) (Campbell,
Ikegami and Tsugawa 2014: 19; MOF 2016). However, the newly established healthcare was7Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

soon confronted with several challenges. One aspect was that elderly people and theirfamilies could not choose their caregiving services. All care services available were assigned
and provided by municipalities. The quality of care services remained rather low, as there
was no competition between different service providers at local level (MOF 2016).
Additional financial pressures were put on the public system after a pre-election promise by
the ruling party LDP to cover the medical expenses of the elderly by the state. The law was
implemented right before the first oil shock in 1973, causing a surge in healthcare spending
ever since. In the end, the decision triggered a growing number of long-term stays in hospitals
by elderly residents without medical need. During the 1980s, aged people being looked afterin hospitals on a long-term basis increasingly became a social problem (MOF 2016).
Naturally, public spending on long-term care continued to rise. Because the government was
unable to withdraw favourable policies, it started to manage expenditures by changing theformula to cross-subsidise between various insurers and by capping fees for treatment,
devices and drug dispensing. Nevertheless, health expenditures continued to rise andreached 10.2% of GDP in 2013 (Campbell, Ikegami and Tsugawa 2014: 23, OECD 2018a).
With the proportion of elderly people in the Japanese population at more than 12% during
the early 1990s, the central government decided to launch a programme called the “GoldPlan” – or the “Ten-Year Strategy for Health and Welfare of the Elderly” – to support longterm-care services in private homes at local and regional level. However, the Gold Plan also
proved to be expensive, because it “promised a doubling or tripling of programmes for frail
people, all administered by local governments and paid for from tax revenues” (Campbell
2014: 59). The mandatory LCTI was finally enacted in 1997 and introduced in 2000, when
17.3% of the Japanese people were aged 65 or older (MOF 2016, MHLW 2002).
Currently, the MHLW intends to introduce a “community-based integrated care system”(chiiki hōkatsu kea shisutemu). One main target is to move towards healthcare services
administered at the local level. More specifically, the system is meant to combine medical
and long-term care services to generate synergies regarding workforce, services andinfrastructure, as well as to avoid unnecessary spending (MHLW n.y. (a)). Under this policy,
municipalities and prefectures alike emphasise health maintenance and homecare services
as means to reduce public expenditures.
At present, the municipalities play multiple roles in Japan’s healthcare and long-term caresystems (Campbell 2014: 58–63; Campbell, Ikegami and Tsugawa 2014: 16–17, 24). Theirfunctions include:8Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies-

acting as insurer in the LTCI and in the healthcare system for elderly, self-employed,
non-employed and retired residents,-

investing in the care infrastructure and institutions,-organising institutional care as well as home- and community-based care services,-

certifying the level of care at regional integrated support centres,-

deciding on criteria for allowances on care services and assistive devices,-monitoring the number and activities of for-profit and non-profit care providers.

As shown in Figure 2.5, 50 percent of the long-term care expenditures are financed bypremiums collected from the primary insured people age 65 and the secondary insured groupage 40 to 64. The other 50 percent are paid out of tax revenues at the local, prefectural andnational level. Municipalities in their function as long-term care insurer reimburse necessary
treatments up to 80–90% with a subsequent co-payment of 10–20% by the recipient.
Figure 2.5: Structure of the long-term-care insurance system

Source: MHLW 2016b, p. 8.
To receive care services requires a certification based on a statement by medical
professionals and a procedure conducted by municipalities (see Figures 2.5 and 2.6). If theneed for care is certified (yō-shien no nintei), a recipient is eligible for long-term care,rehabilitation or preventive measures. The application must be made at regional integrated
support centres (chiiki hōkatsu shien sentā) with a national standardised questionnaire

9Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

evaluating activities of daily life (Campbell 2014: 58). People aged 65 or over or patients
between 40 and 65 with special disorders, which are specified by the MHLW (2016b), arealso eligible for homecare services. A trained care manager (kea manejā or kaigo shien
senmon-in) visits the residents at their home to assess the necessary level of support (stage
1 or 2) or the level of care (stages 1 to 5) (see Campbell 2014: 63, MHLW 2016b). The caremanager also suggests necessary services based on this assessment, ranging frominstitutional care to community-based and in-home services such as visits, day care or night
services (see Figure 2.6).
Figure 2.6: Procedure for assessing an individual’s need for long-term-care services

Source: MHLW 2016b, p.10.
Services are divided into preventive measures (yobō) and long-term care (kaigo). There are
day care services provided by prefectures or communities. There are also group homes(gurūpu hōmu) maintained by municipalities, which offer rehabilitation measures for
inpatients and outpatients. Furthermore, prefectures or municipalities also support mobile
rehabilitation services at home according to the level of support or care needed. Homecare
services can entail “bathing, dressing, toilet use, transferring in and out of bed and chair,urine and bowel continence, and eating” (Campbell 2014: 58). Recipients can receive
consultation and advice from a trained care manager for an individual care plan or for
prevention measures and choose between services from for-profit and non-profit careproviders at local level.

10Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

An increasing amount of services is available to support daily routines and autonomy foraged residents in their homes. In our interviews, we confirmed that developers of domestic
healthcare technology take this explicitly into account (see chapter 3 below). Subsequently,
homecare appliances and networks have increasingly become included under the
reimbursement scheme of the LTCI. Therefore, we need to cast some light on the aspect of
how far homecare appliances are integrated under this scheme to learn about possible
institutional or financial constraints impeding the implementation of homecare technology.

2.4 Care technologies and their coverage under LTCI
Finding a suitable definition for domestic care technologies is a difficult matter. Nevertheless,a basic distinction can be drawn between medical devices and assistive devices. Medical
devices usually require stricter approval standards regarding safety, efficacy and patient’s
benefit, which implies higher regulatory constraints as far as their certification, liability,
usability or exportability is concerned with the effect of potentially lowering the expected
return on investment for manufacturers. In the following, we briefly introduce definitions usedin Japan and the EU starting with medical devices. 3 We then address the question ofcoverage of domestic care technologies under Japan’s LTCI.

Medical Devices in Japan and the EU
Japan and the EU are members of the International Medical Device Regulators Forum(IMDRF, known as the Global Harmonization Task Force on medical devices, GHTF, until
2011). This voluntary forum with the aim “to discuss future directions in medical device
regulatory harmonization” formulated harmonised definitions in 2012 in its final document as
the GHTF, GHTF/SG1/N071:2012 (IMDRF n.y., IMDRF/GHTF 2012: 6). According to thisdocument, medical devices are “any instrument, apparatus, implement, machine, appliance,
implant, reagent for in vitro use, software, material or other similar or related article, intended
by the manufacturer to be used, alone or in combination, for human beings, for one or moreof the specific medical purpose(s).” As “specific medical purpose(s)” are listed: 4

3 There are additional complexities when it comes to defining when a device can be considered

to be a care robot, monitoring sensor system or telehealth network. We address these aspects
separately in the respective case study sections.
4 According to this document, a medical device is one that does “not achieve its primary
intended action by pharmacological, immunological or metabolic means, in or on the human11Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies-

diagnosis, prevention, monitoring, treatment or alleviation of disease,-diagnosis, monitoring, treatment, alleviation of or compensation for an injury,-

investigation, replacement, modification or support of the anatomy or of aphysiological process,-supporting or sustaining life,-

control of conception,-

disinfection of medical devices,-

providing information by means of in vitro examination of specimens derived fromthe human body.

In Japan, medical devices (iryō kiki) are similarly defined “as such machinery and appliances(kikai kigu nado), which are either used for diagnosis, medical treatment or prevention of
diseases of humans and animals, or which aim at influencing the structure or function of thehuman or animal body (but excluding products of regenerative medicine etc.) […]” according
to the Yakkihō (DSSMI, PMDA, Art. 2 § 4). 5 To be recognised and/or certified as medical
equipment, a device has to undergo various evaluation(s) regarding quality (hinshitsu), safety(anzensei) and effectiveness (yūkōsei) conducted by the Pharmaceutical Affairs and Medical
Device Agency (PMDA).
In contrast, EU regulations regarding medical devices and their certification in the EU arebased on directives, which need to be enforced case by case by national authorities or courts(MEDDEV 2010: 1–5, 11, 42–43) 6. According to the EU Medical Device Regulation (MDR,
2017/745) Art. 2 § 1, medical devices are defined as “any instrument, apparatus, appliance,

software, implant, reagent, material or other article intended by the manufacturer to be used,alone or in combination, for human beings for one or more of the following specific medical
purposes” (EUR-Lex n.y.). The specific medical purposes can be found in the respective
document.

body, but which may be assisted in its intended function by such means” (IMDRF/GHTF
2012: 6). Please refer to the same GHTF document for further specification and national
jurisdiction.

5 Yakkihō means Iyakuhin iryō kiki nado no hinshitsu, yūkōsei oyobi anzensei no kakuho nado ni

kan suru hōrei (Act to Secure the Quality, Effectiveness and Safety of Pharmaceuticals andMedical Devices). The law was last revised on 1 April 2016.
6 MEDDEV is a set of EU rules for medical devices that specify current EU regulations,assessment and approval for the manufacturer, clinical evaluation and classifications, etc. and,most prominently, the use of the CE mark.

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Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

Assistive devices in Japan and the EU
Cowan and Turner-Smith (1999: 325–326) level criticism at the excessive use of the term“assistive technology”, which is increasingly employed to describe devices and systems thatare “associated with the reversal or amelioration of the declining capacities of older people”.
Originally, this was an umbrella term for various technologies beyond the context of longterm care or independent living of older people, although nowadays it encompasses any
healthcare device, telecare or “gerontechnology” (WHO Centre for Health Development 2004:
10).
Japan distinguishes between assistive equipment and specified assistive equipment. The
former is defined as “equipment to aid activities in daily life and for functional training, toassist independence in activities of daily living”, whereas the latter is "provided for use inbathing or toilet visits”, according to the MHLW (2009: 21, 2011: 1, official translation). Bothare again subdivided in two categories:a) assistive equipment for preventive long-term care (kaigo yobō fukushi yōgu) or
assistive equipment (fukushi yōgu),b) specified assistive equipment for preventive long-term care (toku-tei kaigo yobōfukushi yōgu) or specified assistive equipment (toku-tei fukushi yōgu).
The aspect of functional assistance for homecare purposes, prevention and autonomy during
daily activities is not explicitly limited to aged people. However, there is also the indication
for long-term care, which implies elderly residents as the major target group and long-termcare insurance as the primary source for reimbursement.
In contrast, the Joint Research Centre (JRC) of the European Commission lists “assistive
technologies” among various types of homecare devices and systems, such as “technologies
for independent living services that include generic information and communication
technology (ICT) products”, “smart homes” and “technology-based healthcare/homecare/wellness services” (Carretero 2015: 13). According to the JRC, “assistive technology”
include voice recognition software, text telephones, accessible keyboards, speech
recognition software (…), intelligent electric magnifiers and reading lenses, otherdevices which help the user to drive a car or to participate in sports […], and memory
aids on smart phones or tablets. These technologies also include robots, which help
older people with physical disabilities to carry out daily life activities or to recover or
maintain some capacity. These robots can be prosthetics that replace lost or
damaged parts of the body; mobility aids i.e. non-prosthetic technology which
replaces or extends the functionality of a leg or an arm; robots for individual training,

13

Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

exercise and rehabilitation; and robots that carry out logistical and cleaning tasks,and can also be used for personal care (Carretero 2015: 11).
As in the case of medical devices, the definitions provided by the EU of assistive technologies
were more detailed.
Finally, we think the JRC’s definition of technologies for independent living services is worth
mentioning, too. It extends to ICT-based telehealth systems that are insufficiently addressedin the realm of assistive devices. The JRC refers to them as “all kinds of technology, including
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) that empower older adults to manage
their daily life themselves despite their frailties and with quality of life. They also improve theorganisation of care provision and increase the productivity and quality of long-term caredelivery” (Carretero 2015: 4). We apply this definition in our case studies of the ism-Link
network in Iida City (Nagano Prefecture) and the Fukui Medical Net in Fukui Prefecture.

Coverage by the LTCIThe MHLW and other public entities subsidise the development of a large number of caredevices. However, to be actually used, these medical and assistive devices need to be rented
or purchased from the National Advisory Committee for Assistive Devices (Zenkoku fukushi
yōgu senmon sōdan inkyōkai, ZFSSK). These care devices have to be designated before
their rental or purchase are financially covered under the LTCI (see MHLW 2009, 2011).
Table 2.1 gives an overview of devices currently reimbursed under the LTCI. Apart from therequirement of being “designated”, the price level for expensive devices has recently becapped to avoid excessive financial burdens (ZFSSK n.y.). 7 This poses a challenge forcompanies, because the price decides about the future return on their investments in R&D.
Low price levels will necessarily reduce R&D efforts.

7 The price-setting mechanism for healthcare devices by the MHLW is rather complex and cannot

be explained further in this report. However, Chapter 5 “Controlling Health Expenditures by
Revisions to the Fee Schedule in Japan” and Chapter 6 “The Political Economy of the Fee
Schedule in Japan” in the volume entitled Universal Health Coverage for Inclusive andSustainable Development: Lessons from Japan (2014), edited by Naoki Ikegami, include an indepth discussion of this topic.

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Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

Table 2.1: List of examples of devices available for rental and reimbursed under the LTCI
Rental service


wheelchair or normal electric wheelchair that is used for care; electric cushion in cases where it belongs to
the wheelchair/is part of it; only covered if the elderly person cannot walk on their own



special bed with side rails; side rails for bed if they can be attached; mattress in cases where it belongs tothe bed/is part of it; beds are eligible if they allow the back or feet of the user to be inclined; beds are eligible
if the mattress can be steplessly adjusted; only covered if the elderly person cannot get up/move on theirown or is bedridden

air cushion to prevent bed sores, only air cushions that can handle body/air pressure, have air-coolingfeatures and cannot be damaged by water; only covered if the elderly person cannot walk on their own

seat cushion to support good posture, if it enables people to easily shift their seating position; not covered
if it only helps them to maintain their position; only covered for bedridden people

hand rail, ramp if no construction is requiredmobility aids/walking assistant that has a hard, stable handrail/frame surrounding the user, must havefour wheels and be used/held with hands when walking; automatic walking assistants are covered if they
fulfil these conditions (also if they assist braking/walking uphill)

walking aids, only special types of crutchessensor for monitoring elderly people suffering from dementia (sends message if the person goes outside),
only covered for people who have been certified as suffering from dementia/memory loss etc.

lift excluding hinge, only lifts that do not require structural alteration for installation; only covered if theelderly person cannot get up on their own

automatic excretion machine only if its use is easy for care recipients/families and parts (e.g. receiver,tube, tank) can be easily replaced by them if necessary; only covered if the elderly person needs help to go
to the toilet (certification after assessment)

Source: ZFSSK n.y.
As far as “robotic devices” are concerned, the ZFSSK (n.y) offers a rental service for smart
wheelchairs or normal electric wheelchairs. The general functionality and safety are decisive
factors for whether devices are included in the fee list. For example, a hospital-type bed forhomecare can be rented if it has side rails, or if side rails can be attached to it. Additionally,
beds are only eligible for financial support if they allow the back or the feet of the user to be
inclined and if the mattress can be steplessly adjusted. Another example are mobility aids,
which can be rented under LTCI on the condition that they are equipped with a hard, stable
handrail or frame surrounding the user. Furthermore, they must have four wheels and be
held with both hands by the user when walking. Automatic walking assistants which canbrake and slow down the pace while walking downhill or assist walking uphill will also be
reimbursed if they fulfil the above-mentioned specifications. Respective features proved
essential in the certification of the robot assist walker RT.1 and its later models, which werefirst excluded and later included in the fee list (see chapter 3.2).

15

Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

Finally, there are several devices that the ZFSSK offers for purchase under the LTCI forhygienic reasons or in cases where they are designated as special assistive devices by the
MHLW (see MHLW 2009, 2011). However, the classification as special assistive devices andtheir inclusion under the fee list depend on the assessment by the ZFSSK. For instance, theadvisory committee sells and redistributes care products that include robotic care devices,such as automatic excretion machines, as well as non-robotic care appliances, such as
hinges that can be attached to lifts or bathtubs or bathing aids.
Table 2.2: List of devices offered for purchase
Available for purchase

toilet: (non-)flushing and Japanese/Western style types are covered if they can be used insingle/separate rooms; coverage depending on the costs

automatic excretion machine (criteria: see above)

bathing assistance tools, e.g. chairs (higher than 35 cm that can be reclined), beltsbath tub: must be simple and not require construction/structural alteration, must be filled with air or
foldable to be easily moved, no hard materialhinge that can be attached to a lift, appropriate for lifting elderly people

Source: ZFSSK n.y.
There are many criteria, which both robotic and non-robotic care products such as transfer
assistance lifts, wheelchairs and automatic excretion machines or monitoring sensor systems
must fulfil to be covered by the LTCI. Naturally, priority is given to support robotic caredevices that are safe and easy to use and to repair. However, as our case studies showed,
even if a device is safe, easy to use and more efficient in supporting elderly people in theireveryday lives, it will not be included under the LTCI, if it does not comply with all the criteria
specified by the ZSSK (see chapter 3.2 for further detail).

3 Case Studies of Domestic Healthcare Technologies
This chapter introduces our case studies of prevalent types of domestic healthcaretechnologies in Japan: care robots, monitoring sensor technology and ICT-based telehealthsystems. As mentioned above, the case studies were guided by the following researchquestions:•

Material Dimension: What kind of domestic healthcare technologies can be foundin Japan? What stage of development or implementation can be observed?

16

Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies•

Social Dimension: What added value do domestic healthcare technologies
generate from the perspective of users and developers?

•

Financial and Regulatory Dimension: What financial and regulatory requirements
do domestic healthcare technologies face?

The first two questions address the material dimension, i.e. the functionality and design ofrespective devices. The third question looks at the social dimension. It comprises the
motivation of the developer and manufacturer and the acceptance of the technology by users.
The last question considers the financial and regulatory dimension, i.e. the regulatory andfinancial constraints manufacturers face when selling their technical solutions. Before
presenting the results of the case studies, we briefly explain the research design.

3.1 Research Design
This research is based on statistical sources, interview studies and a comparison of three
types of domestic healthcare technologies. The qualitative interviews and various on-site
visits were conducted between March and July 2017.

Selection of domestic care technologies
Our goal was to cover different types of technologies. Specifically, we wanted to focus on thethree dominant types of domestic healthcare technology in contemporary Japan, which
fulfilled the following two core criteria:-

applicability in the context of healthcare,-practicability to be used in private homes.

In addition, we took into account the level of advancement of the technology, its stage ofdevelopment or implementation and its level of diffusion. Our investigation led us to choose
the following three dominant technologies for our case studies:-care robots,-monitoring sensor systems,-

ICT-based telehealth systems.

17Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

Selection of cases and interview partners
Within the given time restrictions, we wanted to conduct at least one case study for each typeof technology. We also wanted to include implementations in peripheral regions. The choiceof cases finally depended on the accessibility to the field, i.e. on the willingness of potential
interview partners to meet with us and answer our questions. Regarding the field of carerobots, 8 we excluded devices, which provide merely a communication function. Althoughthese devices are strongly supported by the Japanese government and have received wide
scholarly attention within Japan and abroad (see Robertson 2017, Sone 2017, Wagner 2010
and 2013), they are in many cases still under development, and seem to be predominantly
used in institutionalised care facilities.
Figure 3.1: Willingness to use robotic care devices (N = 2,602 nursing facilities, Tokyo)
Communication robots

45.7%

Monitoring devices

77.7%

Mobility aids

72.7%

Transfer aids

69.2%

32.8%

19.4%
10.4% 10.1%

Yes

No

12.4%

12.8%

15.0%

13.9%

Don't know

2.0%
1.8%
2.2%
2.0%

No answer

Source: Tokyo Metropolitan Government 2016, p. 20.
Also important for our selection was the fact, that they are ranked lowest (45.7%) byprofessional caregivers in comparison to other devices that they are willing to use in their
daily care work (see Figure 3.1). We finally chose care robots from the field of smart mobility
aids, which have a very high acceptance rate according to the same survey (Figure 3.1). Our
study covers the wheelchair-bed Reshone by Panasonic, the assist walker RT.1 by the
RT.Works and the Tsurube B lift, which can be attached to a hospital-type bed (see Chapter
3.2 for further detail).

8 See Chapter 3.2.1 for an in-depth definition.

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Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

Table 3.1: List of interview partners and/or on-site visitsInterview partner
National Institute ofAdvanced Industrial
Science and Technology(AIST)
Mobilikademonstration of RT.1
assistive walker
On-site visit to a transfer
lift attached to hospitaltype bed for homecare
Panasonic(Age-Free Business
Unit)
Sekisui House, Ltd.
Fukui Medical Net

Fukui Prefecture

ism-Link of Iida City

Position and function of interviewee(s)Date of interview / on-site visit
Care Robots and Robotic Care Devices
representative
24 March 2017(researcher, engineering science)
Tsukuba City, Ibaraki Prefecture
Robot Innovation Research Center / Robot
Safety Center
representative (sales person)

01 May 2017Tokyo

bedridden elderly person
caregiving spousecare manager
representative (developer, engineer)

28 June 2017
Kamakura City, Kanagawa
Prefecture
12 July 2017
Tokyo

Monitoring Sensor Systems
manager (developer, engineer)
ICT-based Telehealth systems
Fukui Medical Association
 executive board member representative of planning department
Fujitsu (Healthcare Systems)
Fukui Prefecture (Prefectural
Administration)
Fukui Prefecture (Prefectural Government) representative of healthcare andwelfare unit
 project manager
Iida City Municipal Hospital representative of regional medical
collaboration unit representative of regional medicine
department
Iida City Healthcare Welfare Unit

28 July 2017
Koga City, Ibaraki Prefecture
27 April 2017a
Fukui City, Fukui Prefecture

27 April 2017b
Fukui City, Fukui Prefecture
24 July 2017
Iida City, Nagano Prefecture

As for monitoring sensor systems (mimamori sensā), we were able to conduct one interview
with a developer in the field and were able to visit Sekisui House, one of the largest privatehouse builders in Japan and manufacturer of smart house solutions. Regarding ICT-based
telehealth systems, we were able to conduct interviews and undertake on-site visits in thecities of Iida, Nagano Prefecture, and Fukui, Fukui Prefecture. Both are located in the
peripheries of Japan.
The case studies were carried out between March and July 2017. Due to difficulties inaccessing the field and time constraints, we mainly conducted interviews with developers
and implementing organisations together with on-site visits or demonstrations. Table 3.1 lists

19Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

the interview partners and on-site visits undertaken for this project. Apart from them, weanalysed additional published and unpublished documents we obtained for each of thecases.

Interview guide
The interviews were based on a semi-standardised list of questions (Table 3.2). Items
referred to the material dimension (features and functions), the social dimension (motivation
by developers and acceptance by users) and the financial and regulatory dimension.
Nevertheless, the interviewees were encouraged to provide freely additional insights fromtheir experiences with the respective domestic care technology.

We discussed the research design including the interview guidelines with experts fromhealthcare science, practitioners and Japan experts and revised it accordingly.
Table 3.2: Basic structure of interview guide
Codes
O
M1
M2
M3
M4

S1
S2

Opening part

Questions

Material Dimensiono characteristic features of the device or system (e.g. purpose, stage of development or
implementation, maintenance, usability, added value regarding conventional solutions andsimilar devices)o special preconditions required to operate the device or system (e.g. domestic living
environment, third-party assistance, infrastructure)o users’ benefit (imagined users/target group, feedback on users' needs and expectations,concerns, complaints about difficulties or malfunctions, trials)o level of comprehension of the device or system (e.g. users, families or supporters, training,
after-sales support)
Social Dimension (stakeholders)o development process of the device or system (e.g. motivation, initiator, collaborator andsupporter)o implementation process (e.g. further interest groups, motivation, type of support)

R2

Financial or Regulatory Dimension
o financial requirements of the device or system (e.g. financiers, ownership, reimbursement
by health insurance or long-term-care insurance, financial support, subsidies, sponsorship,
time requirements and manpower, or professional assistance to operate the system)o institutional requirements (e.g. regulation)O

Closing part

R1

In the following, we present our findings by closely following the answers we received in theinterviews. We will report on the user feedback that manufacturers gained through field tests

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Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

and demonstrations of their homecare technology in order to respond to the third researchquestion (social dimension). In presenting the cases, we follow the basic structure of theinterview guide addressing the material and social dimensions as well as financial andregulatory dimension separately. This enhances the comparability between the different
types of devices.

3.2 Care Robots and Robotic Care Devices
Our interviews confirmed that the understanding of care robots is ambiguous. This is the
major reason why we examine this point in detail at the beginning of this chapter. Next, we
focus on the robotic wheelchair-bed Reshone, developed and commercialised by PanasonicAge Free, and the Robot Assist Walker RT.1, developed by enterprise RT.Works anddistributed by the company Mobilika.
Apart from the case studies, we were also able to conduct an interview at the Robot Safety
Center (seikatsu shien robotto anzen kenshō sentā) in Tsukuba City, Ibaraki Prefecture. This
centre develops and conducts tests and certification procedures on safety (anzen-sei) andeffectiveness (yūkō-sei) of various categories of care robots and robotic care devices before
they are allowed to be introduced to the market. The centre was a valuable source of
information regarding the current situation of care robots in Japan (e.g. stage of development,
practicality, regulatory constraints). The centre has approved robots, promoted bygovernmental organisations such as NEDO and AMED, two Japanese robot project, as well
as devices from several manufacturers such as Panasonic Age Free or the Robot Assist
Walker developed by RT.Works (interview, 24 March 2017). 9 In addition, we gained insightsfrom an on-site visit at a private home in Kanagawa Prefecture regarding the Tsurube series
B-set lift (Tsurubē shirīzu B-setto, short: Tsurube B) produced by Moritoh Corporation. The
on-site visit to the private house and the interview at the Robot Safety Center provided
additional insights for the second research question (stage of development) and the third andfourth one (added-value and constraints).

9 In addition, the representative of the Robot Safety Centre mentioned other robotic care devices,such as the Walking Assist from Honda, the autonomous delivery robot HOSPi from Panasonic,
the HAL suit from Cyberdyne, the transfer assistance robot SASUKE from MUSCLE Corp., theautomatic excretion processor produced by several different companies or the bedside watercloset from TOTO (interview, 24 March 2017).

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Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

3.2.1 Background: Defining Care Robots and Robotic Care Devices
The understanding of what constitutes a care robot remains ambiguous between experts andthe public. The definition and images of robots seem to be influenced and change over timeand vary across disciplines as well as the language used – in our case English and Japanese.
It also depends on the expectations of laypeople and popular images created by the mass
media. This aspect was emphasised during the interviews and we decided, therefore, todiscuss it first.
Commonly shared attributes of robots are that they possess a CPU (central processing unit)
and an actuator, which is responsible for moving and controlling a mechanical system.
Moreover, the interviewee at the Robot Safety Center expressed the opinion that there might
be images of robots in Japan that differ from those prevalent in European countries or theUnited States. Nevertheless, he stated that he was frequently asked by laypeople if an object
such as a bed or wheelchair, which does not look like a robot, was still supposed to be one.
Furthermore, he argued that automotive machines such as cars have recently been“robotised” as well. This could be a reason, in his opinion, why the definition of robots could
be increasingly extended to devices such as vending machines or assistive equipment suchas automatic excretion machines (interview, 24 March 2017).
According to the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW) in Japan, a robot is defined
as an intelligent mechanical system that entails the following three technological elements:a) sensor unit: function of sensing information ( 情報を感知: センサー系, jōhō o kanchi:sensā-kei),b) intelligence-control unit: function of interpreting information (判断し: 知能・制御系,
handan shi: chinō-seigyō-kei),c) drive unit: function of performing tasks (動作する: 駆動系, dōsa suru: kudō-kei).
The ministry stated that “subsequent devices can be called care robots [kaigo robotto] if they
are utilised in the context of healthcare” (MHLW 2016a). Care robots fulfil the function ofassistive devices similarly specified by the MHLW and the European Commission (see AIST
n.y. (a) and Chapter 2.4 for detail). However, the use of the term kaigo robotto lacks clarity
because, in Japanese, there is no distinction between care robots and robotic care devices,whereas there are two different terms in English.
On the other hand, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO 2014)
distinguishes between robots and robotic devices, according to its standard ISO
13482:2014(en). This technical standard was strongly influenced by the Japanese Ministry
for Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) and NEDO and Japanese care robots were among

22

Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

the first devices certified under this standard (METI 2014a, METI 2014b). According to theISO, a robot contains an “actuated mechanism programmable in two or more axes with adegree of autonomy … moving within its environment, to perform intended tasks” (3.2), whilerobotic devices refer to an “actuated mechanism fulfilling the characteristics of an industrial
robot or a service robot…, but lacking either the number of programmable axes or the degreeof autonomy” (3.3). In this context, autonomy is understood as the “ability to perform intended
tasks based on current state and sensing, without human intervention” (3.1). These
specifications strongly resemble the three elements listed in the MHLW definition of kaigo
robotto, which also includes the feature of autonomy.
Furthermore, the same standard on “Robots and robotic devices – Safety requirements for
personal care robots” specifies the categories of (3.4) service robots, (3.5) mobile robots,(3.13) personal care robots, (3.14) mobile servant robots, (3.15) physical assistant robots
and (3.15.1) restraint-type physical assistant robots, as well as (3.16) person carrier robots.
Against the backdrop of domestic healthcare, the category of personal care robots with its
subsequent categories (3.14), (3.15), (3.15.1), and (3.16) are of most interest for this report.
More precisely, these categories are defined according to the standard ISO 13482:2014(en)as follows:-

A personal care robot is a “service robot […] that performs actions contributing
directly towards improvement in the quality of life of humans, excluding medical
applications”, (e.g. typical types of personal care robots include mobile servant robot,
physical assistant robot and person carrier robot) (3.13).

-

A mobile servant robot is a “personal care robot […] that is capable of travelling toperform serving tasks in interaction with humans, such as handling objects or
exchanging information” (3.14).

-

A physical assistant robot is a “personal care robot […] that physically assists auser … to perform required tasks by providing supplementation or augmentation of
personal capabilities” (3.15). The sub-category of a restraint-type physicalassistant robot is defined as “physical assistant robot … that is fastened to a humanduring use” (e.g. wearable suits or non-medical physical assistance exoskeletons)(3.15.1).

-

A person carrier robot is “personal care robot […] with the purpose of transporting
humans to an intended destination” (3.16).

Specifically, devices such as (a) transfer aids (ijō kaigo), (b) mobility aids (idō shien), (c)toileting aids (haisetsu shien), (d) monitoring systems (mimamori) as well as (e) bathing aids

23

Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies(nyūyoku shien) are all listed as care robots on the Japanese website on “robot care” (seeAIST n.y. (a) and Chapter 2.4). However, these assistive technologies encompass
predominantly robotic care devices for the purpose of disabled and aged care, which are
distinguished more clearly under the ISO definition than in the MHLW definition on kaigo
robotto (care robots) or on the Japanese website on robot care.
For the purposes of this report, our understanding of care robots will be restricted to an
actuated mechanism programmable in two or more axes, which senses information andinterprets it, and which autonomously performs the intended tasks for the purpose of carewithout human intervention. We differentiate care robots from robotic care devices according
to the ISO definition, as the former are “programmable in two or more axes with a degree of
autonomy” and the latter are “lacking either the number of programmable axes or the degreeof autonomy“. Moreover, we do not consider monitoring sensor systems as care robots or
robotic care devices in the narrower sense because they are not a device equipped with adrive unit conducting movements, but are closer to an ICT system. We, therefore, classify
monitoring sensor systems as a different type of technology and examine them in Chapter
3.3. Hence, we have chosen smart mobility aids such as the RT.1, transfer aids such as the
Tsurube B lift and hybrid categories such as the robotic wheelchair-bed Reshone as
representative and recently developed robotic devices in the context of domestic healthcare.

3.2.2 Material Dimension
First, we present results regarding the material dimension. Specifically, we document
information about the technical features and functionality for a homecare setting of thetransfer assistant lift Tsurube B, the wheelchair-bed Reshone, and the Robot Assist Walker
RT.1.

The transfer assistance lift Tsurube B
We need to keep in mind that female caregivers conduct most care work in Japan (seeCampbell 2014: 61) and that lower back pain is one of the most frequent occupational
diseases in professional long-term care. For instance, 42.4% of male and 56.6% of female
outpatients suffered from lower back damage, according to the “Basic survey of Japanesepeople’s lifestyles” (Kokumin seikatsu kiso chōsa) published by the MHLW (2017b: 19). This
underlines the need for transfer aids to prevent an additional burden on caregiving staff whenmoving bedridden or frail people.

24

Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

Picture 3.1: Transfer assistance lift Tsurube B-set attached to a hospital-type bed.
© Susanne Brucksch
Lifts seem to be not yet common in most nursing homes and private houses in Japan, since
they are frequently considered to need too much space (on-site visit, 28 June 2017). Instead,caregiving relatives and nursing staff have to lift disabled people themselves, which easily
leads to back damage and psychological stress (interview, 12 July 2017). In comparison, thetransfer assistance lift Tsurube B, produced by the company Moritoh Corporation, wasdesigned to lift people out of their beds and into a chair or wheelchair alongside (Moritohn.y.). The lift Tsurube B can be used for a weight up to 100 kg, and is installed next to a
hospital-type bed (see picture 3.1). It needs about 1 to 2 metres radius to be able to turn 360
degrees. The distributor installed the lift and explained its functions to the patient’s family
during our visit. The installation and the introduction of the device took only two hours (onsite visit, 28 June 2017). The device is easy to us and fulfils its function of allowing the transfer
of a bedridden person with only one person assisting, and represents, therefore, a lowthreshold device regarding acceptance by users in need of this kind of homecare.

25

Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

The robotic wheelchair-bed Reshone by Panasonic Age Free
The manufacturing company Age Free, a subsidiary of Panasonic, founded in 1998, hasdeveloped and distributed robotic care devices, such as digital mirrors for rehabilitation to
train elderly people’s cognitive skills, toileting and bathing aids, hand rails, unit baths (factoryproduced bathroom modules) and entire rooms that are barrier-free. They display theirproducts in showrooms and in care centres such as in Kanagawa Prefecture. Until 2016, AgeFree has been steadily growing and its sales at the time of the interview totalled 3.4 billion
yen (interview, 12 July 2017; Panasonic n.y. (a), n.y. (c)). Apart from developing care robots
and making them available for rent or purchase, Panasonic Age Free offers a number ofother services, such as operating almost 130 care shops (kaigo shoppu) throughout Japanto sell or rent out their products, care centres with outpatient care and “short stays” (shōtosutei) and houses with apartments to host elderly people. According to the interviewee, theyalso offer a repair service for products in private households at their shops (interview, 12 July2017).
As for care robots, the company mainly focuses on devices providing mobility or person
carrier assistance. Panasonic Age Free has been developing robotic care devices for over
20 years with different purposes and to be used in both private households and care centres(interview, 12 July 2017). At present, the best-selling product is the robotic wheelchair-bed
Reshone, 10 which they literally call an “uprising assist robot” (rishō ashisuto robotto). The
main feature of Reshone is moving a bedridden person into an upright position bytransforming into a wheelchair, which then allows the user to move around the house (seepicture 3.2 and 3.3). The wheelchair-bed is about 90 cm wide and designed to look like anormal bed or wheelchair, easy to use and space-saving (interview, 12 July 2017; Panasonicn.y. (b)).
According to a developer from Age Free, transfer robots are used to move elderly people, astransfer is difficult and lifts are seldom used in Japanese care facilities. Instead, caregivers
have to move bedridden people by their own physical strength from bed to wheelchair andoften with the need of multiple caregivers. Age Free actively started to advertise this careproduct in March 2017 (interview, 12 July 2017).

10 The developer derived the name Reshone from the Japanese word rishōne combining thecharacters for “getting-up” and “sleeping”. Alongside “Reshone”, the company also uses thealternative romanisation of “Resyone”, which does not clearly convey the correct pronunciation
in English. This is why we prefer the former spelling for the wheelchair-bed (Panasonic n.y. (c)).

26Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

Picture 3.2: Reshone as a bed.

Picture 3.3: Transformed into a wheelchair.

© Susanne Brucksch
In addition, the bed turned out to be faster at transferring people than a lift. The same tasks
could be conducted by the care recipients themselves in a quarter of the time needed
previously. Therefore, the interviewee evaluated the bed as a case of “best practice”, as itincreased efficiency in terms of time, reduced physical stress and the human resources
required and raised quality of life and personal autonomy (interview, 12 July 2017; Panasonicn.y. (b)). In fact, Reshone received the Best Practice Award for Introducing Care Robots
2016 (Kaigo robotto dōnyū kō-jirei hyōshō jigyō 2016) (ATA 2016: 10).

Robot Assist Walker RT.1
In contrast to the person carrier robot produced by Panasonic Age Free, which supports thetransfer of elderly people who are no longer able to walk, the company Mobilika distributes
mobility aids and walking assistive devices to people still able to walk. One of their appliancesis the walking assistance robot RT.1 (hokō ashisuto robotto RT.1). Model RT.1 received the
7th Robot Prize in Japan in 2016. The subsequent model RT.2 obtained the Good DesignAward 2017 (Good Design Award, n.y.; Mobilika 2017a; Robot Award n.y.). The awards
indicate the readiness for market and significance of the devices as assessed by an external
jury. Accordingly, among all the care robots in Japan certified by the Robotic Safety Center,
the walking assistant RT.1 was obviously one of the best-selling devices, as about 3,000
assistive walkers had already been sold throughout Japan at the time of the interview,according to the representative (interview, 24 March 2017).

27

Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

Picture 3.4: Robot Assist Walker RT.1 in operation.

Picture 3.5: RT.1 folded for storage at home.

© Susanne Brucksch

The RT.1 was advertised as easy to operate, with its location easy to track by an integrated
GPS system. The assistive walker entails 6-axis motion sensors and 4 wheels with separate
engines and weighs about 10 kilos, which makes it easy to carry (see picture 3.4 and 3.5).
The device also monitors stride length and number of steps (interview, 1 May 2017).
Moreover, the device brakes automatically if one hand stops holding the handles. It is able
to inform nursing staff or families via ICT network data if its user falls or collapses and about
the charging state of the batteries. What is more, the assistive walker collects data that canbe uploaded and stored on a server, only accessible to registered users. If technical problems
occur, the distributor is informed via an automatic message (Mobilika 2017b; RT.Works n.y.).

3.2.3 Social Dimension
After examining the material features of the robotic care devices examined, we cast light on
the social dimension in this section. We received statements about the engineers’ motivation
for the development of the devices, the various stages of designing an adequate device andvarious quotes regarding users’ feedback. Because the interview at Panasonic Age Free
generated most output, we present mainly the narrative concerning the process ofdevelopment of the wheelchair-bed Reshone.

28

Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

Purpose of development
Basically, interviewees identified Japan’s ageing population and the need to support the livesof elderly people at home as their main incentive for doing R&D in the field of homecare
appliances. In their opinion, this situation has been also the main driving force for thegovernment to support the development and use of care robots. Therefore, the main goal
expressed by developers of care robots was to support elderly people regarding everyday
situations and rehabilitation and to thereby assist both caregivers and recipients (interviews,
24 March 2017 and 12 July 2017). In this way, care robots and robotic care devices areperceived as a means to achieve healthcare and long-term care policy goals to allow disabled
and frail people to continue living as independently as possible.
Development efforts also aim at easing the physical burden and the psychological stress ofcare personnel and families. Against the backdrop of a growing labour shortage, developers
encompass approaches to make care services more efficient with the use of their devices(interview, 24 March 2017). For instance, a sanitary installations manufacturer developed an
automatic excretion device with the explicit goal to reduce stress for caregivers and theirfamilies, as caregivers would not have to get up during the night, if elderly people wereassisted to use the toilet independently (interview, 24 March 2017). According to theinterviewee, the motivation of developers was fuelled and ideas for assistive devices could
be specified based on experiences during on-site visits to private households or nursing
homes. Engineers developing the devices were able to reconsider the necessity andpracticality of their concepts in a homecare context and the various aspects and tasks ofcaregiving (interview, 24 March 2017).

Developing the transfer assistance robot Reshone by Panasonic Age FreeThe representative of the Robot Safety Center emphasised that a device needs acceptanceby users, as well as approval by regulatory authorities. Especially if the robot will be used inpublic, it has to be designed to look like ordinary clothing, such as tights, or an assisting
device, rather than a robot. Consequently, the interviewee explained, the social setting andintended service design of an envisioned robotic device should be considered first, before
the engineering of the mechanical design was conducted (interview, 24 March 2017).
Otherwise, it is highly likely to fail to become widely accepted and successfully implemented.
In the case of Reshone, the developing team at Panasonic Age Free first designed a
prototype, which was designed as a transfer assistance robot (TAR). This transfer robot wasdeveloped between 2005 and 2010 with financial support from the government. It consisted29

Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

of a scaffold structure with two pillars directed towards the front. The caregiver was supposed
to carry a bedridden person while standing between these arms facing the care recipient.
However, the original transfer assistant robot turned out to be too bulky, occupying up to
more than two metres of space to turn and additional space for storage when not in use.
Therefore, the TAR became considered impractical for homecare settings and elderly homes
alike (interview, 12 July 2017).
The TAR was also never sold as a commercial product because developers faced safety
problems when carrying and transferring bedridden people. What is more, developers did
not come up with a belt to hold the carried person attached tightly enough to the transfer
component. In addition, there were mounting problems with weight distribution and thestability of the construction. Consequently, caregiving staff and recipients did not perceive
the prototype as safe (interview, 12 July 2017). Therefore, the subsequent version of atransfer assistance robot already resembled a robotic bed (robotikku beddo). The model was
operated by pressing buttons. However, the Robot Safety Center was not able to issue acertification for this prototype, as users could have accidentally trapped their fingers whenpressing these buttons. This was why the developing team at Panasonic Age Free had toredesign the wheelchair-bed a number of times (interview, 24 March 2017).
Eventually, a prototype was tested in care homes in Denmark, as a frequent target country
for several Japanese manufacturers of robotic care devices. The interviewee reported thatthe prototype received positive feedback from many users there, because the device could
be operated individually by the user and contributed to their autonomy (interview, 12 July2017). Based on this positive feedback, the developers at Panasonic Age Free continued
development with a fully automated wheelchair in mind. Eventually, one more prototype was
exhibited at the International Home Care and Rehabilitation Exhibition in 2009 in Tokyo,
receiving repeatedly positive feedback from disabled people, despite having been primarily
targeted at elderly people. After developing a transfer robot designed as a bed or awheelchair, developers at Panasonic Age Free came up with the idea of integrating the twodifferent categories into one assistive device by inventing their best-selling device Reshone,which can be both bed and wheelchair (interview, 12 July 2017).

Obtaining feedback on the transfer assistance lift Tsurube B
The transfer assistant lift attached to a hospital-type bed was developed by Moritoh for a
purpose similar to that of the wheelchair-bed. The three users of the lift called Tsurube B
reported they had used the lift to move the bedridden person out of bed and into a wheelchair.

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Specifically, the spouse felt relieved by being enabled to assist her 95-year-old husband totransfer from his bed into the wheelchair, particularly when no second caregiver was present
to help. As the bedridden man’s ability to move on his own was restricted, he mentioned
during the visit that everyday life “became easier” (raku ni natta) (on-site visit, 28 June 2017).
Nevertheless, the private home we visited was exceptionally spacious and the hospital-type
bed with the attached lift was already installed in the living room, occupying a lot of space.
In confined Japanese residential houses, the installation of a transfer lift might be somewhat
more difficult.
The user’s feedback about the device was rather positive. In addition, his spouse said that
there was nothing in particular about the lift that needed further improvement. She
emphasised the importance of inclining the wheelchair by 45 degrees when lifting the carriedperson from bed to wheelchair. Furthermore, she explained that she could still use the
Tsurube B, as she could incline the wheelchair as necessary when lifting her husband frombed to wheelchair. Finally, the caregiving spouse especially expressed concerns about whatmight happen in case of a power failure during use, especially at the point when thetransferred person is being moved (on-site visit, 28 June 2017). In addition, even thoughtransfer by the lift appeared comfortable and easy to handle for the patient and the caregiving
spouse, the inclination of the wheelchair and the necessary use of the sling-seat may leavesome room for some improvement.

Obtaining feedback on the robotic wheelchair-bed Reshone
Representatives from Panasonic Age Free and the Robotic Safety Center stressed theimportance of learning users’ needs from experiencing actual situations of long-term care innursing facilities and private households. More precisely, they stressed that surveys among
general customers were less efficient in gaining insights, because general questionnaires
would only reproduce answers referring to typical images of robots, but would not lead todevices applicable for healthcare purposes (interviews, 24 March 2017 and 12 July 2017).
Most customers of Age Free are from medical support and healthcare businesses. PanasonicAge Free offers training on their devices to nursing and care staff in order to raise awarenessof robotic care devices as useful tools. The interviewee stated that this training seemed tobe necessary because the nursing and care staff were frequently concerned that they would
not benefit from such devices but saw them rather as only taking up space (interview, 12 July2017).

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The interviewee pointed out that there are young people, particularly young men, who
generally think robots are fun (interview, 12 July 2017). However, care workers preferredrobots which do not resemble “popular images” of robots such as humanoid or entertaining
companions, but which are “normal” and “appropriate” within the setting of long-term careand homecare (see also Chapter 3.1). Having said that, the interviewee explained thatcaregivers and care recipients simply wanted a convenient device and that care robots were
specifically designed with those involved in caregiving in private households or careinstitutions in mind (interview, 24 March 2017). The developer at Panasonic Age Free also
reported that user feedback for care robots always included requests for the safety of thedevices (interview, 12 July 2017).
In addition, they conducted internships in care homes to understand the problems faced byusers of homecare robots and robotic care devices. They conducted tests with the robotic
bed Reshone in an actual care home. Afterwards, a survey among 118 care workers who
had used the wheelchair-bed for three months was conducted. The care workers reported
up to 70% less back pain and psychological stress, as they were no longer forced to lift
bedridden people themselves (interview, 12 July 2017).
Consequently, the various feedback led to the decision to design products at Age Free toadapt the design and colour scheme of the Reshone wheelchair-bed to a brown pattern thatstrongly resembles living room furniture, and to limit the number of buttons (easy to use) toensure low-threshold usage in the stressful working environment of professional caregiving(on-site demonstration, 12 July 2017). Product design was thus clearly altered during thedevelopment process in accordance with users’ needs.

Obtaining feedback on the robot assist walker RT.1
As mentioned earlier, the Robot Assist Walker RT.1 collects data that can be uploaded andstored on a server. However, the interviewee mentioned briefly that some aged users did notwish their children to have access to all information stored by the device, e.g. information on
going to different supermarkets near their homes or other aspects of an autonomous life
(interview, 1 May 2017). More precisely, some users reportedly expressed the wish to keep
sufficient freedom of action and privacy without their relatives interfering. Accordingly, theinterviewee repeatedly emphasised the feature that only registered users had access to thedata collected by the assistive walker (interview, 1 May 2017). Subsequently, RT.Works
seems to have abandoned the GPS function and wide collection of personal data for theirsubsequent model RT.2. There is merely the sensing function to detect the user’s movement

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and the surface as well as the individual configuration of physical assistance, speed andbraking (RT.Works n.y.). Although the collection and storage of personal data are frequently
intended to enhance functionality for users, they are not always appreciated and may evenbecome an obstacle to users’ acceptance.

3.2.4 Financial and Regulatory Dimension
Users and developers alike mentioned the importance of device safety and the necessary
certification of care robots’ security as a crucial precondition for wide acceptance, official
approval as healthcare or assistive devices and for the export of care robots and robotic caredevices. In other words, both aspects influence the distribution of care robots and robotic
care devices under the LTCI and onto the healthcare market. Therefore, the next section
discusses the issue of financial and regulatory requirements as they were reported during
the interviews in some more detail.

Financial promotion for care robots
Against the backdrop of the importance of LTCI, there is the need to pay particular attention
to how far the robotic care devices are included in the reimbursement list. As the income ofmost aged people is limited, they rely heavily on the LTCI reimbursement system. For
instance, users of the transfer assistance lift Tsurube B in private households do not have tobear the full costs for renting the device themselves. As the care manager and caregiving
spouse explained, the users only had to make a co-payment of about 3,600 yen per month,as 80% of the rental fee was covered by long-term-care insurance in their case (on-site visit,
28 June 2017; Moritoh n.y.).
In comparison, the walking assistant robot RT.1 by Mobilika is not covered by the insurance,
as it does not have the required U-shaped handles with a frame surrounding the user likeconventional rollators. The representative of Mobilika stated that the RT.1 Assist Walker istherefore directed to customers with higher incomes who do not need reimbursement fromtheir LTCI insurance (interview, 1 May 2017). Therefore, the usual customers for RT.1 weremainly people with savings, aged between 80 and 90. At the time of the interview, several
dozen RT.1 Robot Assist Walkers had been sold in Chiba, Tochigi and Gunma Prefectures
within two years. In some cases, two people shared one walking assistive robot, as morethan one user can be registered. The original price for purchasing RT.1 in 2014 had been
about 250,000 yen. It had fallen to about 230,000 yen at the time of the visit (interview, 1 May
2017). As for advertising the robot, Mobilika launched campaigns in newspapers, department

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stores and at relevant exhibitions. The interviewee stated that care managers learned about
new devices best at exhibitions. However, because they are often too occupied with nursing
and caregiving duties, they do not have sufficient time to attend such events frequently(interview, 1 May 2017).
Meanwhile, RT.Works was able to place a subsequent model on the market, which isavailable at a price of about 120,000 yen. In contrast to the RT.1, the new model RT.2 meetsthe criteria of a U-shape handle grip, foldability and privacy concerns of users, place for a
shopping bag and a seat for one person weighing up to 100 kg. Similarly, the RT.2 hassensing and braking functions that automatically support people walking uphill by slowly
pulling them if necessary, and slowing down by employing brakes automatically when
walking downhill (Mobilika 2017c). Consequently, the RT.2 has been accepted under the
LTCI device list for reimbursement and can be rented for about 1,000 yen per month(interview, 1 May 2017; RT.Works n.y.). Whereas the interviewee mentioned that walking
aids could be technically improved by employing more ICT and GPS technology, walking
assistance devices with these functions were not covered by Japanese care insurance atthe time of the interview (interview, 1 May 2017). GPS and ICT technology can lead to data
security concerns. They might also be perceived as too technology-laden. It might have been
for this reason why developers at RT.Works decided to withdraw the GPS and ICT function
for RT.2.
We observed a similar development in the case of the transfer assistance and person carrier
robot developed by Panasonic Age Free. The next generation of the robotic bed, which isnamed Reshone Plus, became included in the LTCI reimbursement list, because it wasadapted to meet the specific criteria of the relevant device categories (interview, 12 July
2017; Panasonic n.y. (b)).

Safety requirements for the usage of care robots in Japan
While the healthcare market might be limited due to the LTCI fee list requirements and thedisposable income of the target groups, the regulatory constraints can pose a far stricter
hurdle to the commercialisation of healthcare products, as they regulate the approval ofvarious devices regarding their safety, effectiveness and benefit to patients in Japan. The
representative of the Robot Safety Center stated that, in principle, a care robot can be
regarded as a medical or assistive device and standards for review by the centre are basedon those for medicine or medical devices. As the interviewee added, the Japanese certifying
authority PDMA (Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency) has some standards that
apply to care robots as well, although their standards are not made specifically for robots

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Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies(interview, 24 March 2017). Nonetheless, the fact that most care robots might be
combinations of the two categories of devices makes safety regulations difficult to apply insome cases (see Chapter 2.4 for further details).
Furthermore, many care robots developed in Japan are outside the scope of ISO standards
or standards of other international certifying bodies such as the German TÜV, as they arerecognised neither as medical devices nor as assistive technology. Therefore, various
manufacturers in Japan refer to different standards at present. In response to this situation,
the Robotic Safety Center decided to employ the ISO standards generally and developed its
own additional test procedures and certification methods that could be applied for by
manufacturers but are not mandatory in Japan (interview, 24 March 2017; Robot Safety
Center n.y.). For instance, whereas Reshone can function as either bed or wheelchair, at the
beginning it was not clear whether existing regulations for hospital-type beds or wheelchairs
for long-term care would be met (interview, 24 March 2017). Nevertheless, the representative
stated that Reshone would now meet the safety standards of robots in Japan as well as
Panasonic’s own safety standards. It has been recognised as a safe robot by ISO standard(ISO 13482:2014; METI 2014a, 2014b) as the first device in the category of personal carrier
robots (interview, 12 July 2017; Panasonic n.y. (b)). Nevertheless, we still observe a needfor further standardisation in the field of care robots and robotic care devices for homecare
purposes. More precisely, the lack of standardisation represents a severe hurdle forsuccessful commercialisation of newly developed care robots.

Supply and export
Some interviewees reported that there have been requests to export care robots from Japan.
However, they explained that difficulties regarding safety regulations and certifications
needed to be clarified (interviews, 24 March 2017 and 12 July 2017). Japanesemanufacturers face the problem that there is no globally harmonised definition of “robot
safety” (interview, 24 March 2017). Differing legal requirements pose a hurdle to exporting
assistive devices to other countries such as the EU market. For instance, the robotic bed
Reshone was developed at first for the Japanese market only (interview, 12 July 2017). One
interviewee estimated that about 80% of care robot manufacturing companies in Japan
mainly target domestic customers, because they do not want to bear the high costs for an
ISO certification process (interview, 24 March 2017).
Similarly, there have been inquiries from potential customers from Asian countries as well as
requests from Denmark, Germany and other countries expressing interest in purchasing

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robotic care devices such as the wheelchair-bed Reshone or the assistive walker. PanasonicAge Free has the long-term goal to export Reshone. Therefore, the company has madeefforts to receive the necessary CE mark required in the EU market (interview, 24 March2017). Japanese companies need to acquire certifications under regional or internationalsafety standards in the near future to be able to secure their markets abroad.
We can observe that the regulatory framework of safety standards and universal coverageof health insurance in Japans exerts a strong influence on the design of homecaretechnology, as devices have to meet regulatory and safety requirements to be approved forreimbursement under the LTCI scheme. Even though first and second generation devices
did not meet the necessary criteria of the LTCI reimbursement list, developers in our twocases studies launched subsequent models that they had modified according to the required
prerequisites and made them at the same time more cost-effective. This adaptation process
forms a necessary condition for the successful diffusion within Japan. In addition,internationally harmonised standards are of high relevance, too, as they support the accessto international markets.
Summary: Care Robots and Robotic Care Devices
Background• ambiguity in the perception and definition of care robots• a clear distinction between care robots and robotic care devices is missing in the Japanese language
Material Dimension• objective: support for caregivers and recipients to reduce physical and psychological stress• transfer lift Tsurube B: provides assistance for moving bedridden people from a bed into a wheelchair
and is available under the LTCI fee list for rental but difficult in less spacious Japanese houses• wheelchair-bed Reshone: provides a hybrid device for transfer and mobility to bedridden people in a
homecare setting and requires less space than separate bed and wheelchair• assist walker RT.1: provides mobility assistance by monitoring motion and controlling brakes, adjusting
to the user’s needSocial Dimension• precondition: learning users’ needs from experiencing care work in nursing/care facilities and privatehouseholds• added-value: robotic care devices reduce physical burden and mental stress of caregivers worrying
about being able to carry out care work
• user feedback: users seem to prefer care robots that are easy to use, space-saving and do not resemble
typical humanoid or animaloid robots with communication functions but are “appropriate” within thehomecare setting (like a piece of furniture)
Financial and Regulatory Dimension• globally harmonised standards for robot safety are lacking, which inhibits the export of care robots• some robotic care devices do not yet meet the specific preconditions to be reimbursed under the LTCI
(but the manufacturers introduced subsequent models accepted under the LTCI)• various governmental subsidies and grants support the development and use of care robots

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3.3 Monitoring Sensor Systems
This chapter presents the results of an interview and an on-site visit relating to monitoring
sensor systems (mimamori sensā). The interview was conducted with a developer at Sekisui
House, a company that employs sensor technology in their smart house solutions.

3.3.1 Background
Whereas the definition of the MHLW regarding assistive equipment remains rather narrow,
the Joint Research Center (JRC) of the European Commission lists smart homes and genericinformation and communication technology (ICT) products, services and applications
together with assistive technologies that are targeted to support the “independent living of
aged people” (see Carretero 2015: 11 and Chapter 2.4). Accordingly, monitoring sensor
systems in smart houses and other ICT-based appliances should be considered in the fieldof domestic healthcare technology. In Japan, “monitoring sensor systems for homecare
purposes” (zaitaku kaigo-gata mimamori shien kiki) are one type of technology that employs“robot technologies with sensors and external communication functions to monitor elderly
and other people in private homes” for the purposes of maintaining health and domestic
healthcare (AIST n.y. (b)). According to the same source, monitoring systems might possess
the following characteristics:-

Monitor multiple rooms at the same time.

-

Be usable in bathrooms.

-

Work in the dark.

-

Not be solely dependent on care-receivers’ voluntary actions for help (e.g., pressing
a button or calling out for help).

-

Not require the care-receiver to carry or wear a device with them.

-Send an alarm to the caregivers when the care-receiver falls.

-

Send information about the care-receiver to the caregivers after detecting changes
in indicators that are set by the manufacturer to monitor the daily life pattern or
health of the care-receiver.

-

Have the potential to provide a platform to monitor people with dementia throughenhanced functions and additional devices and software.

Although such systems employ robot technology, we distinguish monitoring sensor systems
from care robots and robotic care devices; because they are not devices equipped with adrive unit performing movements (see Chapter 3.2.1 for further details).

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A number of Japanese manufacturers have made efforts to come up with sensor
technologies and smart housing solutions specifically directed to elderly yet healthy
residents. 11 Sekisui House is one of these and one of Japan’s largest house building
companies. It recently developed a Smart Healthcare House with a monitoring sensor
system. Cowan and Turner-Smith (1999: 334) describe smart houses as follows:‘Smart Housing’ is a term used to describe the electronic and computer-controlled
integration of many of the devices within the home. […] It allows the integration ofenvironmental controls for effective control of a building, either by deliberate control
or automatically. This includes door and window openers, curtains and blinds,
heating, lighting, security devices including motion sensors and video surveillance,
telephone and communication, water taps, cooker, bed warming. Monitoring ofactivities can even be extended to daily health checks, for example an instrumented
toilet has been developed to measure heart rate, temperature, and nutrition […].
Located in Osaka, Sekisui House equipped their smart houses with sensor technology toregulate room climate and to monitor the vital data and daily activities of residents of thesehouses. The smart house project originated in the Home Energy Maintenance System(HEMS) produced by the company and intended to control electric power consumption within
private houses (Sekisui House 2017; Nikkei 21 May 2015). The Smart Healthcare House
clearly resembles the description of smart housing above, with its roots in an energy systemthat has been broadened to a new field of application.

3.3.2 Material Dimension
To elaborate on the important functions of the Smart Healthcare Houses, the interviewee
referred to the large number of people who prefer to live at home until the end of their lives,
along with the number of deaths from excessive heat and sudden deaths while taking a bath,

11 For instance, the medical device corporation Nihon Kohden, located in Tokyo, has developeda monitoring system named Sukoyaka to offer a service of monitoring elderly residents (kōreisha
mimamori sābisu) by automatically measuring their vital data at home. The system monitors
users’ daily activities and illumination and temperature inside the building, and is able to detectboth accidents and illnesses of users by distinguishing between twenty different types of
illnesses such as depression, lifestyle-related diseases or cancer (Nihon Kohden 2015; Nihon
Kohden, n.y.). On the other hand, the business and home security company Secom, located inTokyo and being one of the largest security service providers in Japan, offers an all-round safety
service using sensor technology directed to one-person households of elderly people (Secom2018).

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which are particularly prevalent among the age group of 65 years or older in Japan (interview,
28 July 2017). More precisely, in 2013, 1,077 people died because of excessive natural heat(netchūshō) in Japan. Almost 80% of these were 65 years or older (65–79 years: 351 people,
and 80 years or over: 482 people), of whom more than 85% died in their own homes. An
investigation by the MHLW showed that 4,866 people died in 2014 through drowning in theirbathtub at home suffering a “thermal shock” after entering the hot bath, compared to 2,870
people in 2004. In 2014, the age group of 75–84 years old was the largest (2,106), followedby those aged 85–94 (1,359) and those aged 65–74 (894) (MHLW 2015b). Most of these
deaths by drowning occurred in winter because of excessive changes in temperature, butwere not limited to this season. It is thought that the Japanese bathing style of immersing
oneself up to the shoulders in hot water is one of the major causes of this type of death,particularly among elderly people (Consumers Affairs Agency 20 January 2016: 1–2). Sekisui
House targeted this age group in particular with their Smart Healthcare House, as it is thegroup most affected by sudden death at home. Accordingly, the company intended to provide
automatic functions to lower the likelihood of these accidents.

Picture 3.6: Patch-type sensor attached to thePicture 3.7: Screen with bio-information of smart

skin at the chest.

house residents.

© Susanne Brucksch
Sekisui House’s Smart Healthcare House employs two ways of sensing the bio-informationof its residents and the living environment within the house, as the interviewee explained.
One encompasses several sensors detecting information on the living environment and inhouse activities from afar. The other device is a patch-type sensor that is attached directly
onto the skin of the residents (see picture 3.6). This patch-type sensor records heartbeat,sleeping hours and other vital data. Based on the bio-information collected, the dialoguesystem displays details on the current state of health, as well as automatically generating

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recommendations for health promotion and disease prevention, for example, on a screen in
the living room or at other terminals (Sekisui House 2017; Nikkei 21 May 2015, see picture3.7). The Sekisui House monitoring sensor system can clearly be classified as homecaretechnology alongside with several other health related functions.

3.3.3 Social Dimension
In this section, we document statements about the engineers’ philosophy for developing amonitoring sensor system and various kinds of feedback reported by users.

Developing the Smart Healthcare House
The interviewee expressed the philosophy that smart houses have the ability to tackle
important societal problems, such as global warming or healthy ageing. He stressed the roleof private houses as a long-term investment for house buyers. That is, conceptualisinghouses as a material structure for a sustainable living environment often over generations
and helping people to live healthily until the end of their lives (interview, 28 July 2017). In
other words, we can clearly observe that Japan’s fast-ageing society also prompted Sekisui
House to invest in R&D activities targeting aged people and searching for solutions in thefield of homecare technology.
The engineering team at Sekisui House developed a monitoring sensor system and patchtype sensor for their Smart Healthcare Houses without collaborating closely with researchersor other manufacturers. However, a medical expert at Nara Medical University assisted withthe analysis and interpretation of the vital data collected from residents at the beginning of
the project. The interviewee explained that medical expertise was required during thedevelopment process to assess the type and accuracy of the collected bio-information
intended to indicate the health condition of residents (interview, 28 July 2017). To sum up,there are some challenges when it comes to sensor technology monitoring personal healthdata: the system provider has to guarantee reliability and accuracy during the detection of
bio-information and for the automatically generated health recommendations.

Obtaining feedback on the Smart Healthcare House
The interviewee stressed that the development team at Sekisui House conducted ademonstration project of the monitoring sensor system (kenkō mimamori jissho shiken) in2015 in Japan. A few hundred people participated in these experiments. The main target

40Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

group consisted of people in their sixties and seventies as potential residents of smart houses(interview, 28 July 2017). Participants “were able to get used to using the tablets better thanwe expected”, and “most participants seemed to enjoy using such digital devices” (interview,
28 July 2017). However, the interviewee also mentioned that experiments with the HEMS
showed that the system led to a gradual loss of interest of residents after a short period.
Users did not regularly pay attention to the information displayed. For that reason, Sekisui
House added other content to the system, such as animated characters communicating withusers to attract more attention (Sekisui House 2017; Nikkei 21 May 2015). Overall, theparticipants responded rather positively to the Smart Healthcare House during thedemonstration project.
The engineers had to overcome several challenges during the development of their Smart
Healthcare House. The company concluded after one year that they would put a halt to thispilot project despite such positive user feedback. The reasons were twofold: firstly, collecting
vital data only during the daytime was not sufficiently effective to detect possible illnesses.
The data did not reveal marked differences in the bio-information during daytime activities.
The outcome could have been different, if vital data had been collected during daytime
activities and sleeping periods and compared. Therefore, at the time of the interview, thedevelopment team at Sekisui House planned to extend data collection to night and sleeping
time in the near future (interview, 28 July 2017).
Secondly, the development team received user complaints about some cases of rashes anddiscomfort caused by the patch-type sensor attached directly to the skin on their chest. For
that reason, the company began to develop a contactless type of sensor that could detectbio-information of residents as precisely as the patch-type sensor (interview, 28 July 2017).
The interviewee also reported on the development of sensor systems monitoring elderly
people who increasingly live without contact to their neighbourhood. He also noted userconcerns about data security, although he did not mention that any particular data security
issues had occurred at Sekisui House. Potential buyers were also concerned about theirprivacy to be interfered with by family members, IT providers or healthcare services(interview, 28 July 2017). In other words, we encounter here issues similar to those in thefield of care robots and robotic care devices. Hence, monitoring sensor systems have to finda balance between supporting an autonomous way of living at home while at the same time
protecting the privacy and personal data of their users.

3.3.4 Financial and Regulatory Dimension
This section discusses the issue of financial and regulatory requirements as reported during

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the interviews. The interviewee stated that deciding which bio-information could be utilised
to indicate changing health condition and to generate automatic recommendations for theprevention of potential diseases was challenging (interview, 28 July 2017). Unless theaccuracy and reliability of health data detection by the monitoring sensor system can beensured, the user might lose interest in a smart health solution, or the corporation might evenbe held liable for consequences resulting from misleading health recommendations.
Several users responded that the automatic health recommendations were too general and,
therefore, less useful in contributing to the detection or prevention of specific diseases. Theinterviewee explained that these expectations by smart house residents are undermined by
the fact that Sekisui House as a manufacturing company is by law not allowed to offer too
specific recommendations. Medical diagnosing and treatment in Japan are strictly regulated
under the Medical Practitioners’ Act (ishi-hō) (interview, 28 July 2017). The act states, “noperson except a medical practitioner shall engage in medical practice” Chap. IV Art. 17 and“no medical practitioner shall provide medical care or issue a medical certificate orprescription without personally performing an examination” Chap. IV Art. 20 (Medical
Practitioners' Act [1948] 2007). Consequently, the Smart Healthcare House offers amonitoring sensor system that makes either too vague recommendations, which are of little
value, or too specific recommendations, which may result in liability cases or run into conflictwith legal stipulations. Especially the regulatory constraint limits the possibility of valuable
recommendations, and, consequently, the commercialisation of a wide spectrum of thedomestic healthcare features integrated in smart houses.
Summary: Monitoring Sensor Systems
Background• Sekisui House employed a monitoring sensor system in their Smart Healthcare House that originated in
the Home Energy Maintenance System (HEMS) developed for their smart houses
Material Dimension• vital data of users (e.g. heartbeat, breathing rhythm, sleeping hours and other bio-information) werecollected with remote and patch-type sensors that were attached to the skin
Social Dimension• philosophy: ageing and health topics could be addressed by smart house solutions• medical expert at a Japanese university assisted with the analysis of the bio-information• Sekisui House conducted a demonstration project in 2015 in Japan• users found the use of tablets enjoyable• issue: the patch-type sensor did not receive positive feedback but the company had plans to develop a
contactless type of sensor
Financial and Regulatory Dimension• discrepancy: recommendations cannot be too specific, since they may not substitute for a diagnosis bya medical professional, as this is strictly regulated under the Medical Practitioners’ Act in Japan

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3.4 ICT-based Telehealth Systems
In this section, we present findings from two interviews and on-site visits relating to ICTbased telehealth systems. Cowan and Turner-Smith (1999: 325) describe telehealth systems
as one type of assistive technology relevant in the context of “reversal and amelioration of
the declining capacities of older people”. One of our case study involves the Fukui Medical
Net in Fukui Prefecture. The other case concerns the so-called ism-Link network of Iida Cityand the neighbouring Shimoina District in Nagano Prefecture. Both networks link thehomecare domain with the domain of institutional healthcare at community and prefecturallevel through information and communication technology (ICT). The two case studies offereda valuable opportunity to study the introduction of telehealth networks in the wider context ofdomestic and local healthcare in Japan including the acceptance and concerns of healthcare
professionals, patients and their relatives.
Fukui Prefecture and Iida City are both located in peripheral regions of Japan, which can becharacterised as being affected by particularly rapid ageing, declining populations andshortages of financial resources and workforce, particularly in medical and long-term care.
The two cases are particularly worth examining, because they highlight the pivotal role ofmunicipalities in the provision of healthcare and long-term care services (see Chapter 2.1
and 2.3 for further detail).

3.4.1 Background
The introduction of ICT-based telehealth systems is one measure implemented by local andprefectural governments in the context of “Regional Integrated Care Systems” (chiiki hōkatsu
kea shisutemu), with support from the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW; see
Chapter 2.3 for further detail). Although the MHLW’s definition of assistive equipment
remains rather unspecific, the Joint Research Center (JRC) of the European Commission
lists telehealth technologies together with other kinds of assistive technologies (seeCarretero 2015: 11 and Chapter 2.4). More precisely, because telehealth covers the meaningof medical, long-term and domestic care, the term is most applicable in the context of ICTbased networks employed in regional care systems integrating medical and long-term care
at a regional level in Japan. Subsequently, Carretero (2015: 11) defines telehealth as follows:
Telehealth or disease management applications deliver services from a healthcare
provider to a citizen, from one health professional to another, or between citizens andfamily members (Stroetman et al., 2011). Telemedicine and telehealth are similar and in

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many documents appear as the same concept, but the former refers to services
delivered by physicians only, and the latter to services provided by health professionals
in general, including nurses, pharmacists, and others (WHO, 2009). In this framework oflong-term care needs, home telehealth refers to a range of support, typically including
not just clinical (medical) monitoring and intervention, but also a broader range ofhomecare support that more traditionally falls within the scope of social/homecare
services (Empirica, WRC and European Commission, 2010).
In contrast, the term telemedicine is still far more common than telehealth. Carretero (2015:12) also points out the factor of geographical distance, which plays a crucial role in theimplementation of such kinds of networks in peripheral regions. Therefore, we quote his
definition of telemedicine as follows, as it is also more precise in terms of defining thetechnical particularities:
Telemedicine is defined by the WHO as “the delivery of healthcare services, where
distance is a critical factor, by all healthcare professionals using information andcommunication technologies for the exchange of valid information for diagnosis,
treatment and prevention of disease and injuries, research and evaluation, and for thecontinuing education of healthcare providers, all in the interests of advancing the healthof individuals and their communities” (WHO, 1998). Telemedicine involves securetransmission of medical data and information, such as biological/physiologicalmeasurements, alerts, images, audio, video, or any other type of data needed forprevention, diagnosis, treatment and follow-up monitoring of patients (European
Commission, 2009).
Consequently, we can understand by the term telemedicine particularly the linkage ofinstitutions in the domain of medical care, including hospitals, clinics, rehabilitation centres
and aftercare at home. For the sake of completeness, the term telecare should be mentioned,
too. Telecare refers particularly to the domain of long-term and long-term care, and can be
described as the “the provision of social care from a distance using telecommunications”(Carretero 2015: 12). Nevertheless, we decided to use the term ICT-based telehealth system
for the Fukui Medical Net and Iida City’s ism-Link, rather than the more frequently used termsof telemedicine and telecare. Moreover, we follow the meaning of the above-mentioned
definition for the ICT-based networks examined, as they have already been broadened fromthe medical domain to that of long-term and domestic healthcare.

44Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

Fukui Prefecture
Fukui is a prefecture located on the Japan Sea with a coastline and mountainous areas close
to the Japanese Alps, but not far from the major industrial centres of Osaka and Nagoya.
Fukui Prefecture can be characterised as a peripheral region characterised by rapid ageing
and population decline (see figure 3.1). For instance, two representatives of the prefectural
government drew attention to a demographic development heading toward a peak of within
20 years, when about 23% of all inhabitants in Fukui Prefecture will be 75 years of age orolder (interview, 27 April 2017b; see also Fukui Prefectural Government 2018a: 8). This
coincides with the peak of aged people who will be certified for long-term care, about 10% of
all inhabitants and about 23% of all people aged 65 years and above. Residents aged 75
and above are known to be most prone to fast-deteriorating physical conditions and therefore
will most likely require a large amount of healthcare spending.
Fukui Prefecture has the highest number of working couples in Japan, which implies an
obstacle when relying solely on domestic care conducted by spouses and relatives. This is
why many elderly and other people with disabilities, long-term illnesses or physical conditions
are frequently looked after in nursing homes and long-term care facilities. Nevertheless, theprefectural government intends to counteract this trend and to keep healthcare spending onsuch facilities low with its policy of "no new facilities" (shinki zero). In contrast, programmes
to promote domestic healthcare have been expanded, such as the implementation of the
Fukui Medical Net (interview, 27 April 2017b; see also Fukui Prefectural Government 2018a:
22, 41–42).
Figure 3.1: Demographic forecast for Fukui Prefecture (changes between 2015 and 2030)

Source: Based on data received during the interview (27 April 2017).

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Iida City
Iida City and the Shimoina District with its 14 communities have 103,023 and 61,233
inhabitants respectively (see JGDC 2017). 12 In 2014, there were about 31,300 inhabitants in
Iida City aged 65 and over, and 6,101 people registered for long-term care. We found 21
facilities targeted at aged people, with 586 professional staff employed. Even though no
precise data were available regarding future demand, the municipal government of Iida City
drew attention to the shortage of professional care workers, the growing financial burden andthe planned increase in caregiving staff over the next few years. At present, 32% of the
population in Iida City is aged 65 or over. The numbers of medical experts, nursing staff andcare providers do not match the need for medical treatment and professional long-term carefor the local population (Iida Municipal Government 2015: 1–2, 11, 33, 43–44). Moreover,there are only a limited number of hospitals, care facilities and care organisations, and they
are mainly located in the city centre (interview, 24 July 2017). Iida City faces a particularly
fast ageing and declining population similar to Fukui Prefecture and many other peripheral
regions in Japan with detrimental consequences for the provision of care services and local
fiscal conditions.
The representative of the municipal government explained that it is for this reason that Iidais searching for ways to support the local community and to sustain the municipal caresystems (interview, 24 July 2017). As in other communities and regions, the local governmentof Iida City had been asked by the MHLW to implement a “Regional Integrated Care System”
for medical and long-term care. Alongside other measures, the prefectural government
launched the ism-Link project, an ICT-based system for telehealth services, to achieve theabove-mentioned goal. Ism-Link interlinks health institutions and homecare services in Iida
City and the neighbouring Shimoina District (interview, 24 July 2017). Located in the southernpart of Nagano Prefecture within the Japanese Alps region, this area can be characterised
as one with sharp contrasts between the urban centre of Iida City and the rural andmountainous areas of the surrounding district. The urban–rural divide implies different levelsof access to healthcare services and homecare support for aged residents and requires
different approaches to secure an adequate provision of medical and long-term caresolutions.

12 Shimoina District consists of 14 communities with their respective local administrative bodies.
Precise data on healthcare infrastructure were not available. Therefore, we only present
information provided by Iida City.

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3.4.2 Material Dimension
Here we document information about the technical features and functionality of both ICTbased telehealth systems, namely the Fukui Medical Net in Fukui Prefecture and the ismLink of Iida City.

Fukui Medical Net
The Fukui Medical Net was introduced in 2014, first at Red Cross hospitals, because of theirlarge size and high number of patients (interviews, 27 April 2017a and 27 April 2017b).
According to the interviewees, the reason that medical professionals together with theprefectural government of Fukui Prefecture decided to introduce the system was todifferentiate clearly between and simultaneously interlink acute treatment at hospitals, on the
one hand, and after- and long-term care at home provided by nursing or long-term careorganisations, on the other (interview, 27 April 2017a).
Figure 3.2: Basic scheme of the Fukui Medical Net

Source: Based on information received during the interview (27 April 2017).
The Fukui Medical Net has been used for a variety of services, for instance, to share apatient’s record and medical images, as well as for the exchange of information regarding acare recipient’s daily life and health condition (interview, 27 April 2017b, see figure 3,2). As

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for its interaction with other devices, access to health records within the telehealth network
is only possible from terminals such as tablets or stationary computers that have beenregistered with the system and with a valid ID and password. As for security requirements,
the interviewees explained that all patient records in the Fukui Medical Net are gathered in
an autonomous data centre based on the highest data security technology available in Japan.
According to the interviewees, there are also plans to enable data access on the movethrough various kinds of portable terminals in future (interview, 27 April 2017a; see also Fukui
Iryō Jōhō Kanren Shisutemu Un'ei Kyōgikai n.y. (a), (b)). Furthermore, the representative of
Fujitsu, the corporation providing the basic ICT infrastructure for the telehealth network,
explained that Fukui Medical Net is based on SS-MIX2 (Standardised Structure Medical
Information Exchange). The MHLW seems to have taken action to implement SS-MIX2 as
the default standard for the storage of medical records in Japan (interview, 27 April 2017a;
see also MHLW n.y. (b), Nikkei BP 2 February 2016). This would allow for the connection ofdifferent telehealth systems and exchange of health records between different regions ofJapan.
Before the introduction of the Fukui Medical Net, each hospital or healthcare institution
managed their patients’ records mainly by themselves (interview, 27 April 2017b).
Consequently, medical practitioners, nursing staff and caregiving professionals did not haveaccess to the patients’ full health history; similar medical examinations might be conducted
several times, and collaboration between different health institutions was limited. At present,
about 280 private support centres, 80 mobile nursing stations, 280 care-manager stations,
270 insurance pharmacies and 560 medical institutions are registered to interlink with eachother via the Fukui Medical Net. Among them, 19 hospitals were disclosing health information(jōhō kaiji byōin) to registered organisations in 2017, while other healthcare institutions were
granted restricted access for browsing and reading such health records (etsuran iryō kikan). 13
Recently, day-care centres and nursing homes have also been encouraged to register withthe telehealth system (interviews, 27 April 2017a and 2017b; see Fukui Iryō Jōhō Kanren
Shisutemu Un'ei Kyōgikai n.y. (b), (c), (d)). Hence, the Fukui Medical Net increasingly allows
various health institutions in the region to share a growing number of health records and evento bridge the institutional borders between the domains of medical care and long-term anddomestic healthcare.

13 The precise number of health institutions with reading permission was not given on the
homepage of the Fukui Medical Net.

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Ism-Link network of Iida City
The ism-Link network is a similar ICT-based telehealth system used to share healthinformation among registered medical institutions, rehabilitation centres, sanatoriums,
nursing homes, day-care centres, homecare organisations, family members treating patientsand care recipients. For instance, health records stored within ism-Link contain information
on patients’ health history, medical examinations, blood test results, treatment records,
medical images such as X-rays, CT or MRI scans and caregiving measures provided byhealthcare professionals. Similarly, patient records can be accessed by registered healthinstitutions with portable or stationary terminals such as PCs, laptops, or tablets through asecure pathway (interview, 24 July 2017; CaO 2016b: 6–7).
Figure 3.3: Basic scheme of the ism-Link network of Iida City and the Shimoina District

Source: Based on information received during the interview (24 July 2017 and IMH 2011).
According to the interviewee, the main purpose of the network was to link medical and longterm care institutions in Iida City and the Shimoina District and to strengthen the exchangeof health information between them. Accordingly, the ism-Link was supposed to make theexchange of health records more efficient and faster by saving time for medical consultationand prescription of treatment between medical practitioners and caregiving professionals(interview, 24 July 2017). This connection implies the bridging of geographical distances
between specialised hospitals located in the urban centre in Iida City and the provision of49

Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

professional care at home in more remote places. 16 hospitals disclosed health information(jōhō kaiji byōin) to other registered organisations, while 54 healthcare institutions were
granted restricted access for browsing and reading health records (etsuran iryō kikan) in2014 (IMH 2014, see figure 3.3 for further details). While 11,823 patients and 85 healthcare
facilities participated in the ism-Link network in 2016, the number of participants has grown
further to 16,512 residents and 179 facilities out of about 250 healthcare institutions in theregion at the time of the interview. Most recently, a pharmacist association and a dentist
association joined the network (interview, 24 July 2017; CaO 2016b: 6–7). In other words,
about one tenth of the inhabitants of Iida City and the Shimoina District had joined the ICTbased telehealth network ism-Link by the time of the interview, and further increases can be
expected.

3.4.3 Social Dimension
In this section, we explore the social dimension. We document the motivation for the
implementation of the two telehealth networks, the partnerships to establish the complex ICT
infrastructure and feedback, particularly from healthcare professionals, about the acceptanceamong patients and care recipients.

Fukui Medical Net
The representatives of Fukui Medical Net and the prefectural government of Fukui Prefecturereported that Fujitsu was chosen as partner to provide and develop a suitable ICT
infrastructure for the envisioned telehealth system because the corporation provided themost compatible technology to meet the technical requirements. Fujitsu offered the only
system available at that time that was able to display different types of health data andmedical images stored on diverse terminals and screens of the various participatingorganisations (interview, 27 April 2017a). For this reason, the relationship between thesteering committee of the telehealth network, the various healthcare institutions, theprefectural government and Fujitsu reached the level of a close collaboration including joint
R&D activities.
However, the steering committee of the Fukui Medical Net also received complaints fromparticipating healthcare organisations. According to the interviewees, some care workers
expressed discontent about the administrative workload, as more time is required to input,
store, update and exchange health information via the telehealth system (interview, 27 April

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2017a). One of the interviewees expressed the opinion that medical, nursing and elderlycare professionals in the participating organisations could achieve an efficient level of literacy
in using the Fukui Medical Net only if they used the telehealth system on a regular basis(interview, 27April 2017a). This shows, that some hurdles need to be overcome before thefull scope of user acceptance and added value in terms of time efficiency can be achieved.

Ism-Link network of Iida City
The municipal government of Iida City purchased the ICT technology for its telehealth systemfrom NEC, a corporation providing ICT network solutions, in 2009 (interview, 24 July 2017).
Thereafter, the basic infrastructure of ism-Link was implemented to share health information
between different organisations via the network. However, we did not observe a close
collaboration between Iida City and NEC as in the case of the Fukui Medical Net. The
relationship with NEC had the quality of a business partnership (interview, 24 July 2017).
Similar to the users of the Fukui Medical Net, some healthcare professionals reportedly
expressed hesitation about using the ism-Link network pro-actively. One of the interviewees
offered the explanation that older generations often stick to conventional means ofcommunication that they are most used to, such as telephone and facsimile (interview, 24
July 2017). This again underlines the necessity of organising adequate training and ease ofoperation in order to raise acceptance among users and to achieve sufficient literacy in andregular use of the system.

3.4.4 Financial and Regulatory Dimension
This section highlights issues related to financial and regulatory requirements as reported
during the interviews. Privacy and data security were mentioned in both case studies alikeas a critical issue for gaining wide acceptance for telehealth networks. With the rise of ICTbased systems, questions of vulnerability, surveillance and control regarding such criticalinfrastructure automatically emerge.

Fukui Medical Net
Initially, the Fukui Medical Net was subsidised by the prefectural government. Morespecifically, Fukui prefecture provided a fund from tax revenues, which was used forinvestment in the necessary ICT infrastructure and the financing of terminals, such as

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stationary computers or tablets, at the participating health institutions (interview, 27 April
2017b; see also Fukui Prefectural Government 2018b: 18)14. Whereas the running costs of
the Fukui Medical Net were paid from membership fees of participating health institutions,amounting to 3,000–4,000 yen per month, it was intended to reduce the fees as much as
possible in the near future (interview, 27 April 2017a). In contrast, all expenditures related tothe healthcare of patients and long-term care recipients incurred in the context of thetelehealth system were reimbursed under the national health or the long-term care insurance(interview, 27 April 2017A).
Regarding the regulatory constraints, there are different types of participating healthcare
institutions with different permissions on data access and disclosure, which are specified bynational laws and by their registration with the telehealth system as mentioned above(interview, 27 April 2017b). Every registered facility can access only such health informationas has been determined by the occupational status of each healthcare professional and byrelated permissions (interview, 27 April 2017a). Patients have to give prior permission toeach health institution or medical practitioner gaining access to their health records within
the Fukui Medical Net (interview, 27 April 2017a). Surprisingly, the interviewees stated that
there were barely any concerns from patients and care recipients. Only two patients out ofseveral hundred thousand people had not allowed their health records to be exchanged via
the telehealth system (interview, 27 April 2017a). This implies a high level of confidence
among patients, care recipients and their relatives regarding privacy and data security inrelation to the Fukui Medical Net.

Ism-Link network of Iida City
The MHLW strives to enable communities such as Iida City to implement regional systems
for integrating medical and long-term care (see Chapter 2.3). Against this backdrop, theinterviewees explained that this was one major reason why Iida City had received financial
and administrative support from the central government and why it started to collaborate with

14 Official numbers were not available for the Fukui Medical Net and Iida City’s Ism-link networkon how much financial support each received from the central government. Nevertheless, the
MHLW has subsidised the introduction of ICT-based telehealth systems throughout Japan, forexample, via the “Regional Medicine Revitalisation Fund” (chiiki iryō zaisei kikin) or the “General
Securement of Domestic Medical and Long-Term Care Fund” (zaitaku iryō kaigo sōgō kakuho
kikin) (e.g. MHLW 2012: 12, MHLW / Fujitsu 2017: 38–44). These financial resources camefrom tax revenues and were distributed to prefectural governments, which redistributed themamong local communities after receiving applications.

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neighbouring communities (interview, 24 July 2017). The municipal government of Iida Cityand the local administrative bodies of the neighbouring Shimoina District decided to financethe operation and maintenance of the ism-Link network fully through tax revenues.
Registered health institutions and caregiving organisations were only required to pay internet
charges to their local internet provider (interview, 24 July 2017; CaO 2016b: 6). In contrast
to the Fukui Medical Net, there seem to be no further costs resulting from investment,
operation or maintenance of the ism-Link network.
As in the case of the Fukui Medical Net, national laws in Japan specify which occupationalgroup in a healthcare institution has permission to access what type of personal data, patient
records or medical information. The ism-Link network is based on national guidelines on data
security launched by the MHLW to secure technical requirements on data security inhealthcare institutions (interview, 24 July 2017; see also MHLW 2017a). Again, each patientor care recipient has to grant prior permission regarding the storage and disclosure of his or
her data within the ism-Link network and has the opportunity to withdraw the permission later
if necessary. According to the interviewees, almost all patients agreed to participate in the
ICT-based telehealth system (interview, 24 July 2017).

Summary: ICT-based Telehealth Systems
Background• objective: increased shift of healthcare services from institutionalised care towards domestic healthcare• purpose: to address rising healthcare spending and shortages of healthcare professionals in peripheral
regions such as Iida City and Fukui Prefecture
Material dimension• interlinking medical and long-term-care services by ICT-based telehealth technology, including thehomecare context• access possible from registered terminals• concern: potential fragmentation of telehealth infrastructure among various regions in Japan
Social dimension• precondition: linkage between public administration, ICT company, health institutions and MHLW
• decentralise implementation, management and maintenance to local or regional level• issue: appropriate training among healthcare professionals is required to enhance literacy and efficiency
Financial and Regulatory Dimension• initial investment for telehealth infrastructure and terminals mainly covered by subsidies from MHLW
and the central government• personal permission required for every health institution to feed in and access health data

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4 Summary and Conclusion
The research project “Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies” was launched,because the speed and intensity of Japan’s demographic change, the innovative capacities
of Japanese companies and the political priorities set by the Japanese government makeJapan a leading case for exploring emerging solutions of domestic care technologies.
The research project comprised two parts. The first part analysed the Japanese demographic,
fiscal and legal context relevant for the development and implementation of domestic caretechnologies. The second part consisted of case studies looking into the three most prevalent
domestic care technologies in terms of stage of development and implementation. These
were (1) care robots and robotic care devices, (2) monitoring sensor systems and (3) ICTbased telehealth systems. In the following, we summarise the main findings for each part.
Analysis of secondary sources confirm that the Japanese government puts high priority tothe prevention or at least delay of elderly people’s dependence on long-term care in order totackle rapid ageing, lack of care workers and growing public expenditures. The triple
challenges of providing and financing care and of securing qualified professionals areespecially severe in Japan’s peripheral regions.
The promotion of domestic healthcare through technical advances represents a central
measure taken by the government to cope with these challenges. The Long-Term Care
Insurance (LCTI), by which in principle all elderly residents in Japan are insured, defines
categories according to which expenses for homecare solutions will be covered by the
insurance. The system therefore sets important financing conditions and regulatory
constraints for developers and manufacturers of domestic healthcare technologies. As
insurers of long-term care, municipalities perform a central role in the provision of long-termcare.
Our case studies were structured along the following dimensions and research questions:•

Material Dimension: What kind of domestic healthcare technologies can be foundin Japan? What stage of development or implementation can be observed?

•

Social Dimension: What added value do domestic healthcare technologies
generate from the perspective of users and developers?

•

Financial and Regulatory Dimension: What financial and regulatory requirements
do domestic healthcare technologies face?

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Material Dimension
The interviews showed that developers fully share the public goal to assist elderly and otherpeople in Japan with disabilities, long-term illnesses or physical conditions to enable them tocontinue living in their homes into higher ages. Similarly, the expansion of domestic
healthcare and health maintenance appears to decision-makers to be one promisingmeasure among others to cap healthcare spending and tackle labour shortages by fostering
technical homecare solutions. Another common goal in the field of care robots and monitoring
sensor systems was to make long-term care more efficient in terms of financial and humanresources. In other words, rising healthcare expenditures and shortages of professional care
workers appear to be drivers for directing public and private R&D investment into the field ofdomestic healthcare technology.
The devices and systems developed for the homecare sector show a much higher variety
than initially assumed. More precisely, Japan, being predominantly associated withentertaining robots, offers a far wider spectrum of assistive technologies in the field ofdomestic healthcare technologies. In the case of robotic care devices and monitoring sensor
systems, the results showed that the perspectives of caregivers and care recipients were toa wide extent taken into account. We also found that several devices and systems had
already achieved a high level of practicality in the context of daily healthcare practices, suchas the assist walker RT.1, the transfer aid Reshone, and ICT-based telehealth systems inperipheral regions. To conclude, these examples suggest that Japan’s rapid ageing,
shortage of professional care workers and financial pressures are very likely to not only
generate further R&D efforts, but also push the adaptation and diffusion of domestic
healthcare technologies.

Social Dimension
Practicality is an enhancing factor, while the complexity of the device or system is an
inhibiting factor with regard to the successful implementation of healthcare technologies.
Training of target groups can at best partially resolve technical complexity. Although not all
devices examined have yet been successfully implemented, developers gained wide
experience through various experiments and trial rounds. Each development team utilised a
network of healthcare facilities and private homes to gain practical experience of thehomecare context and to obtain important feedback from users. Basically, safety, ease ofuse, saving space, security and privacy were crucial points expressed by target groups todevelopers of care robots and monitoring sensor systems. In particular, caregivers seem to55

Ageing in Japan: Domestic Healthcare Technologies

feel relieved by the help of transfer assistance aids, which free them from the mental stressand physical burden of lifting bedridden people. Moreover, care robots received morepositive user feedback when they were not recognised as stereotypical robots but were
designed as normal care equipment or furniture. Similarly, to the care robot cases,
representatives of ICT-based telehealth systems reported that caregiving staff in particularshowed hesitation to adopt newly established ICT-based telehealth networks. They drewattention to the need for appropriate training as a precondition for the successful adoption of
the system. In general, busy care work leaves little room for dealing with too complex
systems and appliances. In contrast, the monitoring sensor system was targeted at smarthouse buyers with the idea of combining healthcare with enjoyable information features.
However, more R&D is needed to increase the comfortableness of the sensors employed,
and to achieve a sufficient level of accuracy and reliability in detecting bio-information.

Financial and Regulatory Dimension
Against the backdrop of an ageing population and rising healthcare costs, the Japanese
government introduced measures to support the daily routine of elderly people throughdomestic services as well as emphasising health maintenance and preventive measures,
namely care robots, monitoring sensor systems and ICT-based telehealth systems.
Especially ICT-based telehealth systems were installed to sustain an adequate level ofhealthcare infrastructure in peripheral regions of Japan. All care robots discussed in thisreport received public financial support. However, the monitoring sensor system investigatedreceived less governmental attention and, thus, less financial support in comparison to carerobots. One major hurdle for successful commercialisation is the integration into national
health and/or long-term-care insurance. For instance, the latter reimburses rental service
fees or the purchase of homecare devices by up to 80 or even 90%. Whether a device iscovered or not is based on criteria that range from safety, effectiveness and level of care.
Developers face high safety and security expectations from their caregiving and carereceiving users. They have to comply with strict standards to receive approval for theirtechnology from authoritative bodies in Japan, if they enter the domain of healthcare. The
categorisation as assistive devices or as medical devices may result in additional safety
requirements. Regulations may also restrict the functionality of technical solutions. For
instance, the monitoring sensor system of the Smart Healthcare House collecting bioinformation faced regulatory constraints by the Medical Practitioners’ Act, which prevented
the system from generating more detailed health recommendations. Similarly, the robotic
care devices possessed some monitoring feature, GPS function or units for collecting data

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from their users. Here, the manufacturer responded to user concerns about privacy bylimiting access to registered users, in the case of the robotic assistive walker RT.1, and aswitch-off function, in the case of the subsequent model RT.2. The same aspect is prevalent
in telehealth systems, which deal with sensitive data of their patients. They manage data
security and privacy through limited access by strict user registration, patients’ priorpermission to feed in their records and different levels of access based on professional status
and regulatory requirements.
In closing, we would like to emphasise that the results of these case studies can only offer
preliminary and partial insights. Further research on health, technology, homecare
appliances and telehealth in Japan is needed to grasp more fully the wide scope of activities
and to keep pace with continuing new developments. Besides further empirical work, future
research will also need to be complemented by more theoretical input from the social
sciences and humanities to better conceptualise and analyse aspects of innovation
governance, regulation, marketing of technology and user acceptance.

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