ponkanpi-sos

Among the cultural assets the Ainu people have created and passed on is the tradition of oral literature
which was developed in various forms and styles. As opposed to the reading of written texts ofliterature, such oral literature produces a richness in artistry and entertainment for the audience whothen transmit such traditions to the following generations. In contrast to written literature, evenperformances of the same tales characteristically vary greatly depending upon the reciters, occasions,the timing of performances, the aesthetics of the recitation technique as well as on expressions
generated ad lib during the recitation and performance.

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Introduction to Ainu Oral LiteratureWithin the wider spectrum of orally performed Ainu literature, in addition to such tales as are foundin folklore, mythology and legend, there appear genres and styles of various sorts including songs,riddles, words exchanged in the formal course of salutations and greetings and prayers. This
handbook sheds lights on Ainu oral literature focusing on that literature which is representative ofstories.

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Under the assimilation policies, including education in Japanese, which were enforced from the Meiji
era onward, the Ainu language has gradually disappeared from daily use. This disappearance has
resulted in much less opportunity for the performance of the Ainu literary tradition and in the almost
entire loss of the ability to perform or to appreciate the literature on the part of the Ainu people.
People had spontaneously and naturally recited various sorts of oral literature during ritual occasions
and among gatherings of adults, but we may suppose many of those adults dared not to teach the Ainu
language to the children. As has been the case with other ethnic groups, the advent of alternative
forms of entertainment, most notably radio and television, reduced the opportunities for children tohear the tales recited by their parents or grandparents. Despite the cultural changes of the times, somepeople made written records of tales they have memorized and the tales they had heard from theelderly people living in the communities. Elderly people responded collaboratively to such initiatives
as these, and therefore the tradition of reciting various stories did not entirely cease in their daily lives.

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In recent years, the climate surrounding oral literature has changed as seen in the increasingly renewed
need to revive the Ainu language. Educational programs for studying Ainu language and culture
provide venues where the tales are used as textbooks and guidebooks for learning. Furthermore, theAinu oral literature has come to be performed for the public. Ainu language dictionaries andhandbooks for introductory language courses have been published and tapes of tales are used forlearning. In addition, tapes of stories which have been collected over a period of many years havebeen released in serial form.

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Ainu oral literature is performed using different styles of recitation. Some tales are sung to melodies
while others are recited in a relative monotone similar to ordinary speech, and the content of thefolkloric tales varies greatly. The categories of oral literature are designated in almost the same mannerin various regions. There are, however, different ways of categorizing material according to content
and furthermore, varying Ainu words are used to designate and describe respective categories amongdifferent regions.
Ainu oral literature in which stories are related is broadly divided into three general categories, namely
those of "heroic epics," "mythic epics" and "prose tales." This handbook describes each of the three
categories in accordance with this classification by genre.

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?@@?@@?@@@@@@@@?@@@@@@@@The term "yukara" may be relatively well known as a word referring to Ainu oral literature. The word
"yukara" presumably derives from "yukar," which is one of the terms referring to the heroic epics.
As discussed in this handbook, there are various categories in the oral literature of the Ainu people andthe Ainu words used in referring to the respective categories are different. The heroic epics, forinstance, are designated differently depending on region and they are called "sakorbe" in one region
while termed "hawki" in another region.
Therefore, we can argue that the use of the word "yukar" when referring to Ainu oral literature as awhole, or presenting the term "yukar" as being representative of Ainu oral literature may not be
entirely appropriate.

9The main text is sung to a short repetitive melody and each reciter has his or her own melody. Eventhough the reciters have memorized the tale by listening to others, they may perform using their own
personal melodies, and the melody could shift to another melody in the middle of the recitation. The
reciter and the listeners tap out the time by beating blocks of hand-held wood while seated. The
listeners, and occasionally the reciter as well, interject short, rhythmical exclamations at certain pointsof story development in the song.
The heroic epics are usually long, lasting a few hours or even longer, although some are as short asseveral minutes.

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Among the well-known epics are the tales which deal with a young boy with the superhuman ability offlying in the sky, diving into the sea and cleaving his way under the earth. His life, adventures,courtships and battles are spoken using first person narration.
In such stories as these, vignettes of heroes' everyday lives are also presented. These include, forinstance, a battle scene depicted over and over in fiery and passionate language which can cause thehands to sweat. The heroic epics are characterized by many spectacular, stirring and thrilling stories.
However, not all of these tales fall into the category of heroic stories from the viewpoint of content.
Some are about a married couple who led a discontented life while young but who came to live
together happily eventually.

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The main text is sung to a short, roughly defined, repetitive melody for each story. The mythic epics
are characterized by persistently repeated refrains which are uttered between the lines. Choruses are
specifically connected with each tale, as shown in the example on page 19 in which "ateyateyatenna
tenna" appears as a refrain.
The refrains to be inserted may differ even in tales with more or less the same content if they are
narrated by different reciters who live in different regions. One may speculate that these refrains, inmany cases, are onomatopoeic, featuring the sound of the cry of the "kamuy", a leading character ofsome stories, and the meanings of these refrains are often not understood. The recitation of the tales
takes from a few minutes to more than one hour depending upon the individual tales.
In view of content, the mythic epics deal mostly with "kamuy" of all sorts including "kamuy" of faunaand flora, and thunder or illness. They appear as speakers using first person narration, introducing
vignettes of their experiences in the world of "kamuy" as well as in the world of human beings.
These tales teach people the proper mindset and attitude with which they should be prepared for
dealing with animals, plants and natural phenomena, and present the wisdom they should learn toacquire. In addition to these tales which have an educational purpose, some stories describe the deeds
and emotions of "kamuy".

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According to Ainu belief, a spirit is believed to dwell within every single being.
Ainu people have faithfully worshiped "kamuy" as referring to much of what was deeply involved intheir daily lives. This includes fauna, flora, fire, water and utensils for daily use, as well as natural
phenomena and other forces which are beyond human control. The term "kamuy" is often translated
into "Kami(God)" in Japanese, yet the Ainu word for god is not necessarily identical to the Japanesecounterpart in its semantic context. This handbook, therefore, uses the Ainu term "kamuy" withouttranslating it except for quotations from reference sources.

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The texts of the tales in this category are recited in prosaic diction which is close to everyday
conversation, in a relative monotone, although some are spoken with emphasis on distinct modulation.
Some tales are as short as ten minutes while others may last a few hours.
Prose tales are characterized, from the aspect of content, by the rich variety of heroes and heroines andby the synopses. The leading roles in some tales are given to human beings who speak about their own
experiences and their relations with "kamuy", while in other stories "kamuy" speak of their own
experiences where the content is very similar to that of mythic epics. Superhuman boys appear as
leading characters in some tales just as in the heroic epics.
Many tales in which human beings play leading roles seem to be highly educational, teaching theattitudes and values people need to embrace. The characters ultimately lead happy lives after having
overcome hardships and dangers of all sorts, while humans and "kamuy" whose natures are evil arepunished.
Besides the tales cited above, there are some tales which are designed to transmit to following
generations events of historic importance to their community and the experiences of predecessors ofimmediate kinship to them. These are also spoken in the same recitation manner as prose tales.

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