OSIPP Discussion Paper: DP-2017-E-003

Relationships between Parental Involvement and Academic
Achievement among Elementary and Middle School Students
October 15, 2017

Midori Otani
Ph.D. in Osaka School of International Public Policy (OSIPP)【 Keyword 】 Parental Involvement, TIMSS, Elementary school, Middle school,
Mathematics, Science, Japan【JEL Codes】I21【Abstract】This study investigates how parental involvement is associated withacademic achievement by comparing the associations of parental involvement acrossthree criteria: elementary and middle school (school level), male and female (gender),and math and science (subject). Also, it examines whether students' attitudes towards
the subjects and academic aspiration mediate the relationship. A nationally
representative sample of elementary and middle school children in Japan (1,884 female
students and 140 schools and 1,894 male students and 139 schools in fourth grade, and1,812 female students and 133 schools and 1,789 male students and 131 schools ineighth grade) from Trends International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2011
was used for the analysis. Results show that parental involvement is associated withstudents’ educational outcome. Students’ attitude and aspiration mediate the associations
between parental involvement and academic achievement. The associations between
parental involvement and academic achievement vary according to the school level,
gender, and the subjects. Especially, different association between monitoring types of
involvement and achievement is found between elementary and middle school.
Acknowledgments: I would like to thank Hisakazu Matsushige, Tetsuya Matsubayashi,
and Tsunehiro Otsuki of Osaka University for their helpful comments.
Correspondence: Midori Otani
Osaka School of International Public Policy, Osaka University, 1–31 Machikaneyama,
Toyonaka, Osaka 560–0043, JAPAN.
E-mail: m.otanimidori@gmail.com
11. Introduction
Enhancing children’s academic achievement is an important concern for parents, teachers, andpolicymakers. To achieve higher achievement, it is essential to identify the factors that influence
it. Parents are essential in children’s daily lives and they play a significant role in theirchildren’s education. Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1995) states that parental involvement
influences educational outcome through three mechanisms: modelling of school related
behaviours and attitudes, reinforcing specific aspects of school learning, and instruction. Also,
researchers actively encourage parental involvement to increase academic performance (e.g.,
Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005; Blazer, 2009; Galindo and Sheldon, 2012).
Academic research, however, does not agree on the effects of the relationship. While there arestudies that conclude that home-based parental involvement in children’s education has positive
impacts on school achievement (e.g., Wang and Sheikh-Khalil, 2014; Pong, 1997; Fantuzzo etal., 2004; McNeal, 2015; Castro et al, 2015), other studies show insignificant or negative
associations (e.g., Domina, 2005; Shumow and Miller, 2001; Shumow et al., 2011; Galindo and
Sheldon 2012), or mixed results (McNeal, 1999, 2014; Zhan, 2006; Fan, 2001; Ginsburg andBronstein, 1993; Sui-Chu and Willms, 1996; Lee and Bowen, 2006). The discrepant results are
attributed to several factors such as different measures of parental involvement, disregard forschool levels (e.g., elementary and middle school) and gender, failure to capture indirect effectsof parental involvement, and the inclusion of different school subjects within a single variable
for academic outcome (e.g., Math and Reading). Understanding how parental involvement isassociated with academic achievement will inform and help policymakers and schools to design
more effective parental involvement strategies. Therefore, the estimates of its relations should
be as accurate as possible.
The present study examines the associations of parental involvement (monitoring andcommunicating) with mathematics and science achievement using data from Trends
International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2011. The unique contribution of this2

study is that it addresses the gaps pointed out above and obtain better estimators by comparing
the associations of parental involvement across three criteria: elementary and middle school(school level), male and female (gender), and math and science (subject). Results show thatparental involvement is associated with students’ educational outcome. Students’ attitude andaspiration mediate the associations between parental involvement and academic achievement.
The associations between parental involvement and academic achievement vary according to
the school level, gender, and the subjects. Especially, different association between monitoringtypes of involvement and achievement is found between elementary and middle school: theassociations of monitoring and achievement and attitudes are more significant among
elementary than middle school students, which suggests that elementary students reap more
benefits more from it.

2.

Definition of Parental Involvement
Parental involvement includes a range of practices by the parent toward their children that are

intended to promote the latter’s motivation and educational achievement such as discussing
school with children and monitoring children’s progress. Parental involvement ismultidimensional, and that has made it difficult to define it (Hill and Taylor, 2004). For example,
Epstein (2001) suggests six categories of involvement: parenting, communicating, volunteering,learning at home, decision making, and collaborating within the community. Grolnick and
Sowiaczek (1994) describe three categories of involvement: behaviour, cognitive-intellectual,and personal.
Most commonly, parental involvement is categorised in home-based and school-based
involvement (e.g., Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler, 1997; Galindo and Sheldon, 2012; Deslandes
and Bertrad, 2005; Green and Walker, 2007; Pomerantz et al., 2007; Anderson and Minke, 2007;
Dauber and Epstein, 1989; Shumow and Miller, 2001). School-based involvement includes
practices taking place at school; for example, attending school events and conference, and3

volunteering. Home-based involvement is related to practices taking place outside of school
such as learning activities at home, reviewing the child’s work, monitoring their progress,
helping them with homework, and discussions about school events (Hoover-Dempsey andSandler, 1997; Pomerantz et al., 2007).
The present study adopts the home-based versus school-based categorization. However, sinceschool-based involvement can be dramatically affected by external reasons which cannot be
controlled by this study (e.g., nonflexible work schedule of parents), it is not used as a measureof parental involvement. Home-based involvement does not have such related problems andshould be a better indicator of the actual outcomes. In this study, home-based involvement
includes communication with children about schoolwork (communicating) and monitoring their
homework (monitoring). Communicating and monitoring are commonly used as measures ofparental involvement (e.g., McNeal, 2014; Sui-Chi and Willms, 1996). They are examined bothas part of multidimensional index and as separate variables. This is because even thoughparental involvement is a multidimensional, the inclusion of too many measures (e.g., checking
children’s homework to talking about school) could make it hard to interpret its effects.

3.

Literature Review
Even though a number of studies investigated the erelationships between parental

involvement and academic achievement, five important gaps that prevent a more comprehensive
understanding of the matter remain unaddressed: 1) previous studies use different definitions ofparental involvement, 2) previous studies do not take school subjects into account separately, 3)previous studies do not consider school levels, 4) previous studies do not consider mediation
effects, 5) previous studies do not consider gender difference. The details about those gaps inliterature are discussed below.

3.1 Associations of Home-based Parental Involvement and Academic Achievement
A number of studies have examined the relationships of home-based parental involvement
4and educational achievement, showing inconsistent results. While some studies showed apositive association between the two (e.g., Wang and Sheikh-Khalil, 2014; Pong, 1997;
Fantuzzo et al., 2004; McNeal, 2015; Castro et al, 2015), other studies showed insignificant,negative, (e.g., Domina, 2005; Shumow and Miller, 2001; Shumow et al., 2011; Galindo and
Sheldon 2012), or mixed results (McNeal, 1999, 2014; Zhan, 2006; Fan, 2001; Ginsburg andBronstein, 1993; Sui-Chu and Willms, 1996; Lee and Bowen, 2006). For example, Wang andSheikh-Khalil (2014) found that home-based involvement is positively associated with GPA. On
the other hand, Shumow and Miller (2001) reported a negative association between home-based
parental involvement and GPA and academic achievement. Finally, Shumow, et al. (2011) did
not find a significant relationship between home-based involvement and science grades.
One possible reason for the inconsistent results is that studies employ different measures anddefinitions of parental involvement. While some studies used a single measure of parental
involvement (e.g., Domina, 2005) or a measure composed of similar types of involvement (e.g.,Pong, 1997; Sui-Chu and Willms, 1996; Fan, 2001; Jung and Zhang, 2016; Plunkett et al., 2009),
others used an index that includes various types of involvement, from setting aside time forchildren to do homework to visiting museums (e.g., Galindo and Sheldon, 2012; Wang andSheikh-Khalil, 2014). Using a measure that includes various types of involvement make it
difficult to interpret the precise effects of a particular measure (Sui-Chu and Willms, 1996) and it
can also bring different results.
In addition to this, the results are also likely to differ depending on the subjects. For example,
parental monitoring of homework is positively associated with a reading achievement, but isnegatively or not significantly associated with a mathematics achievement (Zhan, 2006; Sui-Chu
and Willms, 1996). Therefore, it is also important to take into account the outcome variables tounderstand the effects of parental involvement precisely.

53.2 School Level
How parents get involved and the effects of their involvement may differ depending on thechildren’s school level (Hill and Taylor, 2004; Patall et al., 2008). For example, middle school
students preparing for high school entrance exams, and elementary school students learning
basics are likely to receive different types of involvement. Also, compared to elementary school
students, middle school students are more developed cognitively and have a higher sense of
efficacy, hence their need for direct parental involvement decrease (Hill and Tyson, 2009).
Likewise, when children get older, they become more peer-oriented and less interested in
accepting obvious help (Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler, 1995).
Considering these results, the effects of parental involvement are likely to change according
to the developmental changes. Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1995) claim that parental
involvement must be appropriate for the child's development stage and be perceived as
appropriate by the child to have a positive impact. In other words, the effects of monitoring maychange according to school level because the necessity of direct involvement for older children
decreases over time. The problem is that previous studies bundled data of children frommultiple school levels, making it impossible to identify these differences. Comparing results ofdifferent studies that analysed samples of children from a single school level could be a solution,but, this task is unpractical given that definitions and measurements differ dramatically acrossstudies. Due to the reasons above, it is still unclear how parental involvement is associated withachievement across school levels.
There are only a few studies that investigated the association between parental involvement
and academic achievement across the different school levels and they show different associations
at different school levels. Muller (1998) found that talking about school with children is
positively associated with mathematic scores in eighth grade but is insignificant for tenth grade.
He also found gender-based differences: talking about school is associated positively with mathscores of female tenth graders but negatively with the score of male tenth graders. However, the6studies did not examine indirect effects of parental involvement on the score. On the other hand,
Núñez et al. (2015) examined both direct and indirect effects of parental involvement inhomework at different school levels and found different associations according to different
school levels. Student homework behaviours (time spent on homework completion andhomework time management) mediate the association between parental involvement inhomework and academic achievement in middle and high school but not in elementary school. In
addition to this, homework support was positively and directly associated with academic
achievement at middle and high school but not at elementary school. However, their measurementof academic achievement is composed by several different subjects, which makes unclear how
the associations of parental involvement vary across school subjects. The same can be said ofgender differences.

3.3 Students’ Attitude and Aspiration
Grolnick et al. (1991) suggested parental involvement has an impact on children’s attitudes andmotivation toward school rather than directly on academic achievement. Researchers argue thatparents transmit their values to children by their involvement in activities with their children(e.g., Eccles et al., 1983; Grolnick and Slowiaczek, 1994). In other words, parent-childcommunication regarding education conveys the importance of schooling to the child (McNeal,
1999, 2014). When the parents talk to or ask their children about school, children are likely to
notice the importance of it since their parents show interests toward it, and it is associated withthe children’s attitude towards education.
In fact, a number of empirical studies support the positive relatiions of parental involvement
and children’s attitude and motivation (Ginsburg and Bronstein, 1993; Simpkins et al., 2015;
Spera, 2006; Gonzalez et al., 2002; Frenzel et al., 2010; Grolnick and Slowiaczek, 1994; Grolnick
et al, 1991) and educational aspiration (Hill et al., 2004; Berzin, 2010; Hill and Wang, 2015;
Frostick et al., 2016; McNeal, 2015). For example, Spera (2006) found that parental monitoring,7

defined as checking homework and keeping track of children’s activities, is positively associatedwith their interest in school classes. Likewise, Simpkins et al. (2015) found that parental
involvement in scientific subjects positively predicted the value adolescents placed on it. Hill andWang (2015) found that monitoring, defined as providing clear and consistent guidelines andmaintaining knowledge about youth’s activities, is positively associated with educational
aspiration.
In addition to this, accumulated research suggests that attitudinal and motivational variables
such as attitude towards a subject (Lipnevich et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2002), enjoyment (García
et al., 2016; Villavicencio and Bernardo, 2013), domain-specific values (Steinmayr andSpinath,2009), intrinsic motivation (Lloyd and Barenblatt, 1984) , and educational aspiration(Leung et al., 2010; Jung and Zhang, 2016) predict academic achievement and grades positively.
For example, García et al. (2016) found that enjoyment of mathematics predicted mathematics
achievement positively among upper elementary school children. Also, Singh et al. (2002) foundthat mathematics attitude and interest predicted mathematics achievement positively, and science
attitude and interest is indirectly associated with science achievement positively throughenhancing academic time. Based on these findings, parental involvement is likely to be
associated with academic achievement indirectly through affecting the children's attitudes and it
is important to take these effects into account.
Some studies investigated the indirect associations of parental involvement and academic
achievements through students’ motivational resources, behaviour, and aspiration (Grolnick andSlowiaczek, 1994; Gottfried et al., 1994; Hill and Wang, 2015; Jung and Zhang, 2016; Grolnick etal., 1991; Wang and Sheikh-Khalil, 2014; Núñez et al., 2015). These studies largely foundindirect positive effects of parental involvement through the mediating factors. For example,
Wang and Sheikh-Khalil (2014) found that parental involvement is associated with GPA
positively through enhancing educational engagement. Jung and Zhang (2016) found indirect
effects of parental involvement on academic achievement through educational aspiration.
8However, most studies did not examine how associations differ across different school levels.
How children perceive parental involvement may differ at different school level because ofdifferent senses of efficacy, different needs for direct parental involvement, and different
cognitive development. Therefore, the associations between parental involvement, attitudes, andachievement may also differ at different school levels.

3.4
Students’ Gender
It is likely that perception of parental involvement and its associations also vary among maleand female children. Children face a number of unique developmental challenges especially intheir adolescence and gender affects how they manage all of these challenges (Perry and Pauletti,2011). For example, Frydenber and Lewis (1991) found that there is a difference between theways in which boys and girls cope with demands and stress; girls seek more social support and are
more likely than boys to focus on relationships. Also, girls experience higher pressure anddemands from school than boys (Wiklund et al., 2012).
Few studies have focused on gender differences between parental involvement and academic
achievement (Muller, 1998; Moon and Hofferth, 2016；Jung and Zhang, 2016). For example,
Muller (1998) found that female students’ learning of mathematics at grades 10 to 12 areassociated more closely with verbal interaction and supportive involvement, whereas the malestudents’ gains are associated with social control and guidance. Moon and Hofferth (2016)
found that parental involvement at home benefited boys’ reading and mathematics score but it
did not have the same benefit for girls throughout all early elementary school years. However, theindex of parental involvement used in the study was composed by items focused on only dailyliving activities such as frequency of telling stories and playing games, and not school related
involvement. Jung and Zhang (2016) examined 8-12 years old children and found that parental
involvement, defined as the frequency of parental involvement in selecting courses, school
activities, and things children study in class, predicted academic achievement positively among
9

girls but did not find the significant direct associations for boys.

4.

Purpose of the Present Study
The present study intends to address the gaps pointed out in the previous section by examining

students in elementary and middle school separately utilising the same measurement ofhome-based parental involvement. Also, the study takes into account the indirect effects ofparental involvement and examines whether students’ educational attitude and aspiration mediate
the associations between home-based parental involvement and mathematics and scienceachievements. It also investigates male and female students separately. This study uses two
measures for parental involvement: communication with children about schoolwork(communicating) and monitoring their homework (monitoring). Data for these two are takenfrom questionnaires that asked children about the frequency that they experience these
involvements.
This study is organised around the following three research questions. 1) Do students’ attitude
and aspiration mediate the associations between home-based parental involvement and academic
achievement? 2) How the associations vary between elementary and middle school? 3) Are theassociations of parental involvement different between males and females? Based on theliterature, it is hypothesised that parental involvement is associated with academic achievement
positively through affecting student’s attitude and aspiration (Figure 1) and that the associations
would vary by the school level. Previous studies suggest that middles school students need lessdirect assistance compared to elementary students. Therefore, it is hypothesised that monitoringtypes of involvement is more significantly associated with elementary school students than
middle school students. Also, since studies show that female children seek more social support(Lewis, 1991) and experience higher pressure and demands from school than boys (Wiklund etal., 2012), it is expected that communicating types of involvement would be more significantly
associated with females than males.

10

5.

Method
5.1 Data
This study uses the Japanese sub-sample from Trends International Mathematics and Science

Study (TIMSS) 2011. The survey was conducted by the International Association for the
Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). TIMSS is an international assessment of student
achievement in mathematics and science in the fourth and eighth grades. It also collects a wide
range of information from students, teachers and school principals. This study uses the Student
and the School questionnaires. A two-stage random sample design was employed to collect the
sample. Schools were sampled in the first stage and, from each school, one class was selected in
the second stage. After deleting missing data, the data of this study arrived at a sample of 1,884
female students from 140 schools and 1,894 male students from 139 schools in fourth grade,and 1,812 female students from 133 schools and 1,789 male students from 131 schools in eighth
grade.

5.2 Variables
Academic Achievement

Mathematics and science achievement is the mean score of student’s achievement inmathematics and science from the five plausible values. Plausible values are academic
achievement scores which are created based on item response theory. In TIMSS 2011 each
student responded to only a portion of the assessment item pool. Therefore, the TIMSS scaling
approach uses multiple imputation (plausible values) methodology to obtain students’ scores(Foy et al., 2011). As a result, five plausible values were produced for each student.

Attitudes toward Mathematics and Science
Attitudes towards mathematics include six questions and attitudes towards science include
seven questions from the student questionnaire. All of the questions began with “How much do
you agree that…?” and the questions were: “you enjoy learning mathematics/science?”; “you11

wish you did not have to study mathematics/science?” (inverse); “mathematics/science isboring?” (inverse); “you learn many interesting things in mathematics/science?”; “you likemathematics/science?”; “it is important to do well in mathematics/science?”; and “read about
science in your spare time?”. Answer categories were coded as follows: 1 = disagree a lot, 2 =disagree a little, 3 = agree a little, 4 = agree a lot. As for the third and the fourth question, theanswer categories were coded inversely. Based on the questions, factor analysis was conducted
separately for each gender and school levels. Factors with an eigenvalue greater than 1 wereretained and it yielded a one-factor solution for all the groups and labelled as attitudes towardmathematics and attitudes toward science.

Educational Aspiration
The measure of educational aspiration was based on the question “How far in your education
do you expect to go?” that was asked only to eighth graders. The responses are categorizedaccording to years of schooling that students want to pursue as follows: 1 = lower thansecondary school, 2 = technical college or junior college, 3 = university, 4 = graduate school.

Home-based Parental Involvement
As measures of home-based parental involvement, four questions from the student
questionnaire that asked students to rate their perception of their parents’ home-based
involvement were used. The questions were asked and labelled as follow: “How often do yourparents ask you what you learned in school?” (Ask); “How often do you talk about yourschoolwork with your parents?” (Talk); “How often do your parents make sure that you set aside
time for your homework?” (Time); and “How often do your parents check if you do yourhomework?” (Check). Answer categories were coded as follows: 1 = Never or almost never, 2 =once or twice a month, 3 = once or twice a week, 4 = every day or almost every day.
Based on this, two component variables were also created. Among the four questions, Ask and
12

Talk are more correlated (0.55 for female and 0.52 for male fourth graders and 0.62 for female
and 0.6 for male eighth graders), as well as Time and Check (0.49 for female and 0.42 for malefourth graders and 0.73 for female and 0.67 for male eighth graders). Therefore, two composite
measures were created by principal component analysis: Communicating (Ask and Talk) andMonitoring (Time and Check). The correlation between the variables of parental involvement isshown in Appendix (Table A.1).

Control Variables
Several student and school variables were included in the models to control statistically forimportant background factors. The measure of socioeconomic status (SES) used in this study
includes a number of books and materials related to educational well-being at home and thehighest level of education completed by parents. The questions were answered by students. The
number of books at home was coded as follows: 1 = 0-10 books, 2 = 11-25 books, 3 = 26-100
books, 4 = 101-200 books, 5 = more than 200 books. Index of possessions at home was createdthrough adding eleven questions that ask if students have a specific item that is relevant toeducational well-being (e.g., a computer and a desk for his/her own etc.). Since the distribution of
addition of the eleven questions is not normal but truncated, a dummy variable was created tocapture the effect of external value and it is labelled as Possessions at home 11. The highest levelof education completed by the mother and father was asked but only to eighth grade students.
Binary variables were created for each educational level for both the mother and the father. Morethan 30% of students in the sample did not know one of their parents’ highest levels of education.
Since it is too large to drop from the data, a dummy variable was created as unknown instead ofdropping them from the data. It enables to control effects of parents’ educational level while
keeping the students that do not know it in the sample.
Studies show that children who are younger at school entry tend to perform worse
academically (Lee and Fish, 2010; Kawaguchi, 2011). In Japan, school starts in April and13children enter first grade of elementary school if, and only if they have completed six years oflife by April 1 of that year. In this study, in order to take into account for the effects of being
younger in the classroom, a dummy variable was created for students born between January 1
and April and coded as 1 = yes and 0 = no.
Experiences of being bullied include six questions from the student questionnaire. All of thequestions began with “During this year, how often…?” and the questions were: “were you madefun of or called names at school?”; “were you left out of games or activities by other students at
school?”; “did someone spread lies about you at school?”; “was something stolen from you at
school?”; “were you hit or hurt by other student(s) at school?”; and “were you made to do things
you didn't want to do by other students at school?”. Factor analysis was conducted with thequestions separately for each gender and school levels. Factors with an eigenvalue greater than
1 were retained and it yielded a one-factor solution for all the groups. The variable is used tocontrol attitudes towards mathematics and science and educational aspiration since previous
studies show that experience of being bullied is negatively associated with academic motivation(Skues et al., 2005: Young-Jones et al., 2015)
The total enrolment of students was divided into hundreds. A Percentage of students from
economically disadvantaged homes was coded as follows: 1 = 0 to 10%, 2 = 11 to 25%, 3 = 26 to50%, 4 = more than 50%. The immediate area in which the school was located was labelled as
location of school and coded as follows: 1 = small town, 2 = medium size city, 3 = suburban, 4 =urban. The income level of the school's immediate area was coded as follows: 1 = low, 2 = middle,
3 = high. Class size is the number of students in the class. Different types of schools (only foreighth grade) were coded as follows: 1 = private/national, 0 = public. All the questions wereanswered by a school principal. School-P is a variable that shows the average of the level ofschooling of the parents whose children study in the same school. The variable was created by
the following steps. First, level of schooling of both the mother and the father were coded
according to the following scores: 1 = elementary school or did not complete any school, 2 =14lower-secondary school, 3 = upper-secondary school, 4 = junior college, 5 = university orcollege, and 6 = graduate school. Second, the score of both parents were summed up and theaverage of those numbers was presented for each school. A variable for missing value(unknown) was created and not considered in the calculation of School-P.
All the control variables are used to control students’ grade, attitude and aspiration except forexperiences of being bullied that is only used to control attitude and aspiration. SES variables
are also used to control parental involvement.

5.3 Estimation Method
Due to the sampling procedure used in TIMSS 2011, a weighted generalised multilevelstructural equation model analysis (with an ordered logit link for estimating eighth graders
educational aspiration) was conducted by Stata 14 to analyse the associations of parental
involvement and educational outcome. Since the data structure is hierarchical, students withinsame school may share similarities and it must be considered in the analytic methods. Multilevel
model examines the variance between individuals and groups and it gives accurate estimate
when examining nested data (Heck and Thomas, 2015). Generalised structural equation
modelling (GSEM) is a version of structural equation modelling (SEM) that allows for broader
applications. SEM can depict relationships among variables by using various types of models
and testing patterns of relationships among a set of observed and latent variables (Schumacker
and Lomax, 2010). OLS regression is limited in that and it does not allow for simultaneous
examination of multiple mediational chains (Bryan et al., 2007). SEM, on the other hand,examines direct and indirect associations simultaneously and tests multiple mediators, multiple
dependent variables, complex mediational chains, and specific indirect associations within thosecomplex chains (Bryan et al., 2007; Gunzler et al., 2013). Instrumental variables (IV) could be
another option, but in order to use IV, the structure of the model has to be decided beforehand.
SEM allows the examination of complex structured models more flexible. Below is the15equations used for the estimation:

𝑌𝑖𝑗 = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1 𝑆0𝑗 + 𝛽2 𝑃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛽3 𝐴𝑖𝑗 + 𝛽4 𝐸𝐴𝑖𝑗 + 𝛽5 𝑋1,𝑖𝑗 + 𝛽6 𝑍1,0𝑗 + 𝜀𝑖𝑗(1)𝑃𝑖𝑗 = 𝜃0 + 𝜃1 𝑋2,𝑖𝑗 + 𝜏𝑖𝑗(2)

𝐴𝑖𝑗 = 𝛾0 + 𝛾1 𝑃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛾2 𝑋3,𝑖𝑗 + 𝛾3 𝑍2,0𝑗 + 𝑢𝑖𝑗(3)

𝐸𝐴∗𝑖𝑗 = 𝛿0 + 𝛿1 𝑃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿2 𝑋4,𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿3 𝑍3,0𝑗 + 𝜖𝑖𝑗(4)

1 𝑖𝑓 𝐸𝐴∗𝑖𝑗 ≤ 𝜇1
2 𝑖𝑓 𝜇1 < 𝐸𝐴∗𝑖𝑗 ≤ 𝜇2
𝐸𝐴𝑖𝑗
3 𝑖𝑓 𝜇2 < 𝐸𝐴∗𝑖𝑗 ≤ 𝜇3∗
{ 4 𝑖𝑓 𝜇3 < 𝐸𝐴𝑖𝑗

Where:
𝑌𝑖𝑗 = mathematics and science achievement of student i in school j
𝛽0𝑗 , 𝜃0 , 𝛾0 and 𝛿0 = intercept
𝑆0𝑗 = latent variable (random intercept) of school which varies at the school level, which isconsistent within school
𝑃𝑖𝑗 = parental involvement
𝐴𝑖𝑗 = adolescents’ attitudes towards mathematics and science
𝐸𝐴∗𝑖𝑗 = latent variable of adolescents’ educational aspiration, whose values determine what theobserved ordinal variable 𝐸𝐴𝑖𝑗 equals
𝐸𝐴𝑖𝑗 = adolescents’ educational aspiration (only for eighth grade)
𝑋1,𝑖𝑗 = vector of the student level control variables for Eq. (1)𝑋2,𝑖𝑗 = vector of the student level control variables for Eq. (2)𝑋3,𝑖𝑗 = vector of the student level control variables for Eq. (3)𝑋4,𝑖𝑗 = vector of the student level control variables for Eq. (4)𝑍1,0𝑗 = vector of the school level control variables for Eq. (1)16𝑍2,0𝑗 = vector of the school level control variables for Eq. (3)𝑍3,0𝑗 = vector of the school level control variables for Eq. (4)𝜀𝑖𝑗 , 𝜏𝑖𝑗 , 𝑢𝑖𝑗 , and 𝜖𝑖𝑗 = residual term

The direct and indirect associations are all examined in a single model (Figure 2) by using Eq.
(1), (2) and (3) for fourth grade and by using Eq. (1), (2), (3) and (4) for eighth grade. 1 𝛽1 is
automatically constrained to be 1. Such constraints are automatically supplied by Stata 14 to
identify the latent variable. The final models were decided among converged models based on
Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) (Akaike, 1987). The AIC measure is used to compare models
with different numbers of latent variables. It aims to identify those models that represent a goodcompromise between model fit and model complexity and selects most relevant variables toprevent overfitting (Garamszegi and Mundry, 2014; Sauerbrei et al., 2007). Lower values for
AIC indicate a better model fit. Therefore, some control variables that are not important are
dropped from the model based on the AIC. The results did not change significantly from themodels that use all the variables (see Appendix from Table A.2 to A.10 for the detailed results).
Each value of AIC for the final models are as follows: Model 1(71668), Model 2 (71686), Model
3 (72815), Model 4 (72826), Model 5 (70166), Model 6 (70176), Model 7 (71672), Model 8(71696), Model 9 (164053), Model 10 (169972), Model 11 (142262), Model12 (142348), Model
13 (139422), Model 14 (139405), Model 15 (164742), and Model 16 (171096) 2.

5.4 Descriptive Statistics
Table 1 (for fourth grade) and 2.2 (for eighth grade) provides the weighted descriptive

statistics for each grade. It shows that parents of elementary school children are more involved
1

Estimation of similar models are also conducted and the results are consistent with the final one.
Models 1 to 8 estimate fourth graders and models 9 to 16 estimate eighth graders. Models 1 to 4 and 9 to 12
estimate for mathematics. Model 5 to 8 and 13 to 16 estimate for science. Odd number models use the four types of
involvement (Ask, Talk, Time and Check) and even number models use the aggregated parental involvement(Communicating and Monitoring). Model 1, 2, 5, 6, 9, 10, 13, and 14 estimate males and the 3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12 estimate
females.
217

in their children’s education. The difference is especially clear for the frequency of checking if
their children do their homework: parents of elementary school children do it more frequently
than parents of middle school children. Among the four types of involvement, checking
homework is the most frequent type of involvement in elementary school. For middle school,talking about schoolwork is the most frequent type of involvement. Descriptive statistics showthat parents change types of involvement according to their children’s school level. Also,
parents ask about what their children learned in school and about school work more frequently
to female than to males. As for mathematics and science achievement, means of male students’achievements are higher than female’s in both elementary and middle school.

6.

Results
Results are discussed at 5% significant level.

Fourth Grade
The results for mathematics achievement are illustrated in Figure 3 for male students andFigure 4 for females (the detailed results are shown in Table 4). The results for scienceachievement are illustrated in Figure 5 for males and Figure 6 for females (the detailed results
are shown in Table 5). Results show that parental involvement is associated with mathematics
and science achievement directly and also indirectly through attitude for both males and females.
Also, the associations are partly different between males, females and the subjects.
Largely, Communicating type of involvement such as Talk and Ask is associated with attitude
positively. That is when more parents ask children about what they learned in school and talkabout their schoolwork, children have more positive attitudes towards the subjects. On the other
hand, positive and direct associations are found between Monitoring type of involvement suchas Check and achievement That is children gain higher achievement when their parents checktheir homework more. Some of these types are also associated with attitude. Time is positively

18

associated with mathematics and science attitude of male students. Also, it is positively
associated with female students’ science achievement. In addition to this, Check is positively
associated with female students’ science attitude and Monitoring is associated with scienceachievement for both males and females. However, negative associations are also found.
Communicating and Talk are negatively associated with achievement except for female students’mathematics achievement (model 3) (see Figure 4).
As for the control variables, some differences are found especially between males andfemales. Measures of socioeconomic status are largely associated with achievement andattitudes. Number of possessions at home is positively associated with achievement andattitudes except to science attitudes of females. Number of books at home is positively
associated with achievement and female students’ attitude. It may indicate that females benefit
more from books. As for other control variables, children born between January 1 and April 1
are negatively associated with achievement. However, it is positively associated with malestudents’ science attitudes. Experience of being bullied is negatively associated with female
students’ attitudes and male students’ mathematics attitudes. Total enrolment of students is
positively associated with male students’ attitudes. Location of school is positively associatedwith mathematics achievement. That is when school is located in a bigger city, students gethigher achievement. Income level of school area is positively associated with achievement andmale students’ science attitudes. Interestingly, larger class size is negatively associated withmale students’ attitudes, however it is positively associated with female students’ mathematics
achievement.

Eighth Grade
The results for mathematics achievement are illustrated in Figure 7 for males and Figure 8 forfemales (the detailed results are shown in Table 6 for males and Table 7 for females). Also, theresults for science achievement are illustrated in Figure 9 for males and Figure 10 for females19(the detailed results are shown in Table 8 for males and Table 9 for females). Results show thatparental involvement is indirectly associated with mathematics and science achievement
through attitude and aspiration for both males and females. Also, the associations are partly
different between males, females and the subjects.
Talk and Communicating are positively and significantly associated with attitude. That iswhen more parents ask children about what they learned in school and talk about theirschoolwork, children have more positive attitudes towards the subjects. Talk andCommunicating are also positively associated with aspiration except that Talk is not
significantly associated for females. Monitoring and Check are positively associated with malestudents’ mathematics attitude and female students’ science attitudes. However, negative
associations are also found. Monitoring is negatively associated with male students’mathematics achievement and Check is negatively associated with female students’ mathematics
achievement.
As for the control variables, associations are largely similar between gender and subjects.
Socioeconomic measures are associated with achievement, attitude and aspiration. Number ofpossessions at home is positively and significantly associated with achievements, attitudes andaspiration except for male students’ achievement and female students’ science attitude. Numberof books at home is positively associated with achievements and aspiration. Also, it is positively
associated with science attitudes. As for educational level of parents, largely, parents graduatedhigher than university is positively associated with aspiration. However, fathers graduated juniorcollege is negatively associated with aspiration and mathematics achievement. Mothers
graduated junior college is differently associated with males and females: it is positively
associated with male students’ achievement whereas negatively associated with female students’
aspiration. Children born between January 1 and April 1 are negatively associated with malestudents’ achievement. Attending private or national school is positively associated withaspiration and males students’ mathematics achievement and attitudes. School-P is positively
20associated with male students’ achievement. That is male students gain higher achievement
when the average of the level of schooling of the parents whose children study in the sameschool is higher. Higher income level is positively associated with female students’ aspiration.
Experience of being bullied and class size is not significantly associated even though there aresome associations in fourth grade.

7.

Discussion
This study investigated the associations of home-based parental involvement and academic

achievement and how the association differs across three criteria: elementary and middle school(school level), male and female (gender), and math and science (subject). Also, it examined how
students’ attitudes and educational aspiration mediate the relationships between parental
involvement and achievement. Results show that parental involvement is associated withstudents’ educational outcome at both fourth and eighth grade regardless of gender and thesubjects. Students’ attitude and aspiration mediate the associations between parental
involvement and academic achievement. However, the associations between parental
involvement and academic achievement vary according to the school level, gender, and thesubjects.
How monitoring types of involvements (Time, Check and Monitoring) are associated with theachievements differ between elementary and middle school. In elementary school, it isassociated with the achievements both directly and indirectly through the attitudes. On the other
hand, in middle school, it is positively associated with the achievements through the attitudes
and aspiration. It may be attributed the fact that the fourth and eighth graders are at different
developmental stages. Studies show that the levels of understanding of the purpose of doing
homework are different depending on children’s developmental stages (Warton, 1997; Xu,
2005). For example, Warton (1997) reported that when grades 2, 4 and 6 are asked whether itmatters if someone else does all their homework, they generally agreed that they should

21

complete their own homework. However, their understanding of responsibility was not clear
among younger students. More grade 6 children than younger children gave an internal
justification such as they will not learn if someone else does their homework. Although someyounger children answered the same, they are also likely to give an external justification such as
the teacher would not like it if someone else does their homework. This indicates that younger
children have not completely developed an understanding of the purpose of doing homework.
It is likely that children in elementary and middle school may perceive parental monitoring of
their homework differently because of the different levels of understanding regarding the very
purpose of doing homework. Since older students are more likely to understand the meaning of
doing homework diligently, they might perceive the importance of education through theirparents’ monitoring activities, which in turn, enhances their attitudes. On the other hand, sinceyounger children are less likely to have the same kind of understanding, monitoring will also
influence achievement directly. In other words, they would write their homework because of
external reasons such as to please their teachers and/or avoid parental reprehension, which
would result in higher achievement without improving their attitudes. Finally, as hypothesised,
the relations of monitoring and achievement and attitudes are more significant among
elementary than middle school students, which suggests that elementary students reap more
benefits more from it.
Overall, as for the patterns of the effects of parental involvement, more similarities are foundbetween gender and the subject even though some differences are also found. As for thedifferences, in fourth grade, monitoring types of involvement are more associated with attitudes
in science compared to mathematics. Also, females benefit slightly more from parental
monitoring than males and males benefit slightly more from parental communicating thanfemales. In eighth grade, Check and Monitoring are associated with mathematics attitudes formales, but not for females and science attitudes for females, but not for males. Also, Talk is
associated with male students’ aspiration but not females. Most of these differences are difficult22

to interpret. However, contrary to what was hypothesised, it shows that communicating types of
involvement are more significantly associated with males than females.
Some negative associations are also found only in the direct relationships between parental
involvement and achievement. Talk and Communicating are negatively associated withachievement in elementary school. Among middle school students, Check is negatively
associated with female mathematics achievement. Monitoring is negatively associated with malemathematics achievement. Negative association between monitoring and mathematics
achievement is consistent with previous studies (Zhan, 2006; Sui-Chu and Willms, 1996).
Negative associations between parental involvement and academic achievement are also foundin other previous studies (Lee and Bowen, 2006; Shumow and Miller, 2001; Milne et al., 1986)
For example, Milne et al. (1986) found that parental homework help is negatively associatedwith achievement and suggested that parent provide help when their children are not doing wellacademically. The negative associations found in this study can be explained in the same way. It
is likely that the parents tend to communicate or monitor their children more when their children
are not doing well academically.
The results of the study suggest the importance of taking into account school level, indirect
associations of parental involvement, types of involvement, and students’ gender to understandhow parental involvement is associated with academic achievement. Therefore, investigating
parental involvement without considering these factors may fail to capture the true mechanismof parental involvement. Also, the present study examines only the associations of parental
discussion and monitoring. Further studies need to investigate the associations of other types of
involvement on achievement for a better understanding of its mechanisms.

Limitation
Because of lack of data, the present study is unable to control the education level of parents offourth grade students. For the same reason, this study could not examine subjects other than23mathematics and science. Different associations might be found when other subjects, such as
English, are investigated and compared with the results of mathematics and science. Also,
different patterns of gender differences might be found in different subjects. Therefore, further
studies using data that includes other subjects are recommended.
Additionally, concerning the explanation for the negative association of parental involvement,
it is not possible to analyse whether a problem of inverse causal relationship explained in theprevious section applies to this case since cross-section data is used in the study. Likewise, eventhough it is also possible that parents get involved more when their children are good atmathematics and science and have higher educational aspiration, it was impossible to analysesuch causality in this study because the data used in the present study does not include
information of previous grades and achievements. Further study using panel data is needed inorder to test the causal relationships.

8.

Conclusion
This study investigated the associations of home-based parental involvement and academic

achievement and how students’ attitudes and educational aspiration mediate the relationships
between parental involvement and mathematics and science achievement. Samples of
elementary and middle school children were analysed separately and according to gender andtwo different subjects (mathematics and science). The analyses were conducted by using aweighted generalised multilevel structural equation model. Results show that parental
involvement is associated with students’ educational outcome. Students’ attitude and aspiration
mediate the associations between parental involvement and academic achievement. The
associations between parental involvement and academic achievement vary according to theschool level, gender, and the subjects. The notable difference is found between elementary andmiddle school: in the former, positive and significant associations of monitoring types
involvement (parents making sure children set aside time for their homework and checking

24homework) with academic achievement are found in both directly and indirectly (throughenhancing attitudes towards subjects). In the latter, the positive and significant associations of
the same types of involvement with achievement are found indirectly. Also, the associations ofmonitoring and achievement and attitudes are more significant among elementary than middle
school students, which suggests that elementary students reap more benefits more from it. The
results of the study suggest the importance of taking into account school level, indirect effects ofparental involvement, types of involvement, and students’ gender to understand how parental
involvement is associated with academic achievement. Also, given the findings that the parental
involvement, parental communicating and monitoring, are associated with both elementary andmiddle school students’ educational outcome positively, schools and policy makers may need todevelop policies to encourage parental involvement.

25

Figure 1 Hypothesised Model

26

Figure 2 Model of the Associations of Parental Involvement and Adolescents’ Educational
OutcomeControl variables are omitted from the figure to facilitate visualization27

Model 1

Model 2

Figure 3 Model 1 and 2
SEM depicting mediation effects of academic attitude between parental involvement andmathematics achievement for fourth grade male students. Solid lines represent positive associations
and dotted lines represent negative associations. Only significant paths (p<.05) are shown.

Model 3Model 4

Figure 4 Model 3 and 4
SEM depicting mediation effects of academic attitude between parental involvement andmathematics achievement for fourth grade female students. Solid lines represent positive
associations and dotted lines represent negative associations. Only significant paths (p<.05) are
shown.

28

Model 5

Model 6

Figure 5 Model 5 and 6
SEM depicting mediation effects of academic attitude between parental involvement and scienceachievement for fourth grade male students. Solid lines represent positive associations and dottedlines represent negative associations. Only significant paths (p<.05) are shown.

Model 7

Model 8Figure 6 Model 7 and 8
SEM depicting mediation effects of academic attitude between parental involvement and scienceachievement for fourth grade female students. Solid lines represent positive associations and dottedlines represent negative associations. Only significant paths (p<.05) are shown.

29

Model 9

Model 10Figure 7 Model 9 and 10
SEM depicting mediation effects of academic attitude and aspiration between parental involvement
and mathematics achievement for eighth grade male students. Solid lines represent positive
associations and dotted lines represent negative associations. Only significant paths (p<.05) are
shown.

Model11

Model 12Figure 8 Model 11 and 12
SEM depicting mediation effects of academic attitude and aspiration between parental involvement
and mathematics achievement for eighth grade female students. Solid lines represent positive
associations and dotted lines represent negative associations. Only significant paths (p<.05) are
shown.

30

Model 13

Model 14

Figure 9 Model 13 and 14
SEM depicting mediation effects of academic attitude and aspiration between parental involvement
and science achievement for eighth grade male students. Solid lines represent positive associations
and dotted lines represent negative associations. Only significant paths (p<.05) are shown.

Model 15

Model 16

Figure 10 Model 15 and 16
SEM depicting mediation effects of academic attitude and aspiration between parental involvement
and science achievement for eighth grade female students. Solid lines represent positive associations
and dotted lines represent negative associations. Only significant paths (p<.05) are shown.

31

Table 1 Weighted Descriptive Statistics for Fourth Grade(Female: N= 1,884 students and 140 schools, Male: N= 1,849 students and 139 schools)
FemaleVariable

Mean or % Std. Dev.

Mathematics achievement
Science achievement
Parental involvement(Ask)Parents ask a student what you learned in school(Talk)A student talks about schoolwork with parents(Time)Parents make sure that a student set aside time for homework(Check)Parents check if a student does homework
Attitudes toward mathematics
How much do you agree that...
you enjoy learning mathematics?
you wish you did not have to study mathematics?*
mathematics is boring?*
you learn many interesting things in mathematics?
you like mathematics?
it is important to do well in mathematics?
Attitudes toward science
How much do you agree that...
you enjoy learning science?
you wish you did not have to study science?*
you read about science in your spare time?
science is boring?*
you learn many interesting things in science?
you like science?
it is important to do well in science?
Number of books at home
Possessions at home (a computer, a desk etc.)
Possessions at home11
Children born between January 1 to April 1
Experiences of being bullied
During this year, how often …
were you made fun of or called names at school?
were you left out of games or activities by other students at school?
did someone spread lies about you at school?
was something stolen from you at school?
were you hit or hurt by other student(s) at school?
were you made to do things you didn't want to do by other students at school?
Total enrolment of students (in hundreds)
Location
Percentage of students from economically disadvantaged home
Income level of school's immediate area
Class size
Note: *Answer categories are inversed

32

Male

Min

Max

Mean or % Std. Dev.

Min

Max

586.63557.76

64.32
55.45

349.93345.58770.85725.99592.14565.8668.79 330.10 752.99
60.12 330.32 724.71

2.67
2.93
2.25
2.97

1.01
0.99
1.26
1.19

1
1
1
1

4
4
4
4

2.52
2.70
2.23
3.03

1.05
1.03
1.25
1.16

1
1
1
1

4
4
4
4

2.84
3.29
3.11
2.88
2.69
3.43

0.86
0.77
0.83
0.84
0.99
0.73

1
1
1
1
1
1

4
4
4
4
4
4

3.06
3.32
3.18
3.02
3.01
3.37

0.91
0.84
0.86
0.88
0.98
0.82

1
1
1
1
1
1

4
4
4
4
4
4

3.34
3.48
1.97
3.42
3.28
3.19
3.32
2.73
7.88
0.05
0.25

0.75
0.68
0.86
0.71
0.81
0.89
0.78
1.04
1.80

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0

4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
11
1
1

3.55
3.53
2.19
3.45
3.40
3.42
3.28
2.79
8.04
0.07
0.23

0.70
0.72
0.96
0.77
0.82
0.81
0.86
1.09
1.80

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
0
0

4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
11
1
1

2.20
1.63
1.54
1.37
1.61
1.41
4.17
2.28
1.61
1.89
27.54

1.10
0.89
0.85
0.72
0.92
0.75
2.27
0.94
0.73
0.46
6.79

1
1
1
1
1
1
0.17
1
1
1
4

4
4
4
4
4
4
11.1
5
4
3
39

2.48
1.74
1.83
1.49
2.00
1.55
4.00
2.30
1.62
1.89
27.22

1.12
0.96
1.02
0.84
1.09
0.88
2.30
1.00
0.71
0.46
6.77

1
1
1
1
1
1
0.17
1
1
1
7

4
4
4
4
4
4
11.1
5
4
3
39

.

Table 2 Weighted Descriptive Statistics for Eighth Grade(Female: N= 1,812 students and 133 schools, Male: N= 1,789 students and 131 schools)
Variable
Mathematics achievement
Science achievement
Parental involvement(Ask)Parents ask a student what you learned in school(Talk)A student talks about schoolwork with parents(Time)Parents make sure that a student set aside time for homework(Check)Parents check if a student does homework
Academic aspiration
Attitudes toward mathematics
How much do you agree that...
you enjoy learning mathematics?
you wish you did not have to study mathematics?*
mathematics is boring?*
you learn many interesting things in mathematics?
you like mathematics?
it is important to do well in mathematics?
Attitudes toward science
How much do you agree that...
you enjoy learning science?
you wish you did not have to study science?*
you read about science in your spare time?
science is boring?*
you learn many interesting things in science?
you like science?
it is important to do well in science?
Number of books at home
Possessions at home ( a computer, a desk etc.)
Possessions at home11
Highest level of education completed by mother
University, college, or Graduate school
Junior college
High school or below
Unknown
Highest level of education completed by father
University, college, or Graduate school
Junior college
High school or below
Unknown
Children born between January 1 to April 1
Experiences of being bullied
During this year, how often …
were you made fun of or called names at school?
were you left out of games or activities by other students at school?
did someone spread lies about you at school?
was something stolen from you at school?
were you hit or hurt by other student(s) at school?
were you made to do things you didn't want to do by other students at school?
Total enrolment of students (in hundreds)
Location
Type of school
School-P
Income level of school's immediate area
Percentage of students from economically disadvantaged home
Class size
Note: *Answer categories are inversed

FemaleMean or % Std. Dev. Min

Max

Male
Mean or % Std. Dev. Min

Max

568.79555.19

76.89
67.83

307
329

820
751

575.50564.73

83.08
73.98

162
143

828
795

2.38
2.68
2.00
2.13
5.70

0.98
0.94
1.11
1.16
1.54

1
1
1
1
0

4
4
4
4
9

2.29
2.39
1.97
2.16
5.72

0.97
0.96
1.10
1.15
1.89

1
1
1
1
0

4
4
4
4
9

2.34
2.57
2.52
2.20
2.17
3.24

0.86
0.88
0.81
0.77
0.91
0.75

1
1
1
1
1
1

4
4
4
4
4
4

2.63
2.86
2.74
2.45
2.48
3.32

0.92
0.91
0.89
0.87
0.98
0.79

1
1
1
1
1
1

4
4
4
4
4
4

2.58
2.59
1.43
2.69
2.50
2.37
2.89
2.91
7.82
0.03

0.84
0.87
0.65
0.83
0.88
0.93
0.88
1.22
1.57

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0

4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
11
1

2.94
2.95
1.72
2.97
2.80
2.78
3.14
3.00
7.83
0.05

0.87
0.87
0.80
0.84
0.89
0.94
0.85
1.27
1.72

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
0

4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
11
1

0.45
0.27
0.37
0.19

0
0
0
0

1
1
1
1

0.38
0.20
0.35
0.27

0
0
0
0

1
1
1
1

0.39
0.08
0.32
0.29
0.23

0
0
0
0
0

1
1
1
1
1

0.39
0.09
0.29
0.32
0.25

0
0
0
0
0

1
1
1
1
1

1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
0.45 11.1
1
4
0
1
6.33 9.42
1
3
1
4
16
46

2.34
1.41
1.65
1.30
1.83
1.39
3.49
2.23
0.09
7.49
1.80
1.87
29.90

2.04
1.37
1.43
1.12
1.34
1.27
3.62
2.33
0.10
7.55
1.85
1.82
30.16

33

1.00
0.68
0.71
0.36
0.76
0.58
2.30
0.97
0.77
0.58
0.85
5.60

1.12
0.73
0.87
0.63
1.07
0.73
2.25
0.94
0.72
0.57
0.91
5.55

1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
0.45 10.1
1
4
0
1
6.33 9.42
1
3
1
4
16
46

Table 3 Results for Factor Analysis
Fourth grade
Male
FemaleFactor1
Factor1

Eighth grade
Male
FemaleFactor1
Factor1

Attitudes toward Math
How much do you agree that...
you enjoy learning mathematics?
you wish you did not have to study mathematics?*
mathematics is boring?*
you learn many interesting things in mathematics?
you like mathematics?
it is important to do well in mathematics?

0.921
0.572
0.659
0.707
0.907
0.389

0.896
0.601
0.676
0.687
0.901
0.389

0.877
0.526
0.650
0.789
0.907
0.339

0.886
0.569
0.717
0.750
0.876
0.289

Attitudes toward Science
How much do you agree that...
you enjoy learning science?
you wish you did not have to study science?*
you read about science in your spare time?
science is boring?*
you learn many interesting things in science?
you like science?
it is important to do well in science?

0.843
0.628
0.428
0.666
0.726
0.882
0.529

0.872
0.645
0.402
0.699
0.682
0.892
0.432

0.881
0.594
0.477
0.717
0.812
0.901
0.470

0.874
0.662
0.453
0.714
0.744
0.874
0.396

0.699
0.680
0.671
0.524
0.637
0.620

0.685
0.682
0.643
0.509
0.569
0.639

0.697
0.663
0.670
0.428
0.714
0.676

0.728
0.679
0.642
0.353
0.545
0.592

Experiences of being bullied
During this year, how often …
were you made fun of or called names at school?
were you left out of games or activities by other students at school?
did someone spread lies about you at school?
was something stolen from you at school?
were you hit or hurt by other student(s) at school?
were you made to do things you didn't want to do by other students at school?
*Answer categories are inversed

34

Table 4 Results for Fourth Grade (Mathematics)
Male
VARIABLES

Model 1
Achievement AttitudeAsk-0.0447(1.583)-4.801***(1.721)-0.244(1.358)2.813**(1.398)

Talk
Time
Check

0.0364(0.028)0.0871***(0.028)0.0436**(0.021)-0.00816(0.021)

Communicating
Monitoring
Mathematics attitude
Possessions at home
Possessions at home11
Number of books at homeChildren born between January 1 and April 1

20.15***(1.658)4.049***(1.174)-15.29**(6.148)14.21***(1.607)-16.34***(3.550)Experiences of being bullied
Total enrolment of students (in hundreds)
Location of school
Income level of school area

4.491**(1.814)16.33***(3.305)Class size
% of economically disadvantaged students
Random intercept of school
Constant
Observations
Robust standard errors in parentheses

1(0)
484.8***(13.090)
1849

FemaleModel 2
Achievement Attitude

0.0574***(0.015)0.0308(0.026)0.0877*(0.052)-0.0673***(0.023)0.0366**(0.015)-0.0695*(0.036)-0.115*(0.069)-0.0183***(0.006)-0.0712(0.057)0.00854(0.297)1849

Model 3
Achievement Attitude-2.771(1.751)-3.450*(1.795)1.348(1.379)3.100**(1.388)-3.665***(1.192)2.231*(1.287)20.04***(1.660)4.033***(1.176)-15.49**(6.112)14.28***(1.626)-16.34***(3.531)5.121***(1.927)14.47***(3.455)-2.491(2.847)1(0)485.2***(13.310)1849

0.0525*(0.029)0.129***(0.028)0.0356*(0.020)-0.0134(0.021)

0.0924***(0.021)0.0303*(0.018)0.0580***(0.015)0.0299(0.026)0.0879*(0.053)-0.0700***(0.023)0.0372**(0.015)-0.0704*(0.037)-0.114(0.069)-0.0184***(0.006)-0.0710(0.058)0.415(0.313)1849

17.82***(1.736)
3.697***(0.994)-7.295(5.754)13.79***(1.746)-16.04***(3.318)0.0508***(0.015)-0.118(0.109)0.0786***(0.026)-4.620***(1.318)3.835***(1.297)17.77***(1.730)3.302***(0.919)13.69***(1.733)-16.00***(3.320)-0.149***(0.029)-0.00837(0.014)3.780**(1.756)10.19***(3.304)0.629**(0.314)0.135***(0.023)0.0182(0.020)0.0516***(0.015)-0.119(0.111)0.0811***(0.026)-0.149***(0.030)3.901**(1.754)10.22***(3.291)0.637**(0.316)-0.0730*(0.039)1(0)484.3***(14.420)1884-1.145***(0.144)
1884

Note: AIC for Model 1 = 71668, Model 2 = 71686, Model 3 = 72815, and Model 4 =72826.

35

Model 4
Achievement Attitude1(0)
482.1***(12.970)1884-0.787***(0.138)1884

Table 5 Results for Fourth Grade (Science)
Male
VARIABLES

Model 5
Achievement Attitude

Ask

0.442
(1.458)-3.904***(1.507)1.642(1.148)0.988(1.205)

Talk
Time
Check

-0.00300(0.026)
0.0631**(0.027)0.0525**(0.022)0.0295(0.021)

Communicating
Monitoring
Science attitude
Possessions at home
Possessions at home11
Number of books at homeChildren born between January 1 and April 1

6.105***(1.271)
3.422***(0.980)-13.67**(5.713)14.96***(1.442)-22.30***(3.007)

Experiences of being bullied
Total enrolment of students (in hundreds)

0.0479***(0.016)-0.0927(0.099)0.0442*(0.024)0.112**(0.051)-0.0215(0.023)0.0302**(0.014)

Location of school
Income level of school area

11.26***(3.160)Class size
% of economically disadvantaged students
Random intercept of school
Constant
Observations
Robust standard errors in parentheses*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

1(0)483.3***(9.964)
1849

FemaleModel 6
Achievement Attitude-0.155***(0.054)-0.0146**(0.006)-0.0976*(0.057)-0.0550(0.284)1849

Model 7
Achievement Attitude-0.545(1.471)-3.800***(1.457)2.652**(1.163)0.889(1.255)-2.444**(1.087)2.321**(1.153)6.037***(1.290)3.437***(0.983)-13.68**(5.643)14.95***(1.443)-22.35***(3.007)2.695(1.647)
10.72***(3.083)1(0)474.6***(10.230)1849-0.0332(0.026)0.0886***(0.025)0.0167(0.020)0.0419**(0.021)

0.0448**(0.020)0.0700***(0.020)0.0479***(0.016)-0.0910(0.099)0.0433*(0.024)0.113**(0.051)-0.0238(0.023)0.0305**(0.014)-0.155***(0.054)-0.0147**(0.006)-0.0972*(0.057)0.321(0.275)1849

7.266***(1.288)2.875***(0.851)

13.59***(1.418)-21.53***(2.732)0.0265*(0.014)0.197**(0.091)0.0606***(0.020)0.0673(0.052)-0.0801**(0.033)0.0197(0.017)8.579***(3.119)-0.123(0.081)-3.105***(1.100)3.087***(1.194)7.142***(1.307)2.950***(0.836)13.60***(1.418)-21.51***(2.730)8.015***(3.097)0.444*(0.259)-0.0440(0.044)1(0)491.5***(8.009)1884-0.640***(0.243)1884

Note: AIC for Model 5 = 70166, Model 6 = 70176, Model 7 = 71672, and Model 8 =71696.

36

Model 8
Achievement Attitude

0.0394*(0.022)0.0490**(0.020)0.0241*(0.014)0.203**(0.091)
0.0614***(0.020)0.0657(0.052)-0.0804**(0.032)0.0209(0.017)-0.119(0.081)-0.0405(0.044)1(0)475.6***(9.686)1884-0.315(0.236)
1884

Table 6 Results for Eighth Grade (Male: Mathematics)
Male
Model 9VARIABLES
Ask
Talk
Time
Check

Model 10

Achievement

AttitudeAspiration

2.752(2.237)0.923(2.524)-1.531(2.047)-1.658(1.812)-0.00888(0.034)0.105***(0.030)0.0213(0.034)0.0655**(0.030)0.110(0.079)0.237***(0.071)0.0750(0.067)-0.0281(0.074)

Ask

Achievement

AttitudeAspiration

0.0655***(0.020)0.0710***(0.023)0.237***(0.048)0.0408(0.050)0.254***(0.026)2.560(1.655)-2.675**(1.350)25.10***(1.696)31.83***(2.185)
1.839(1.272)0.0903***(0.014)0.259***(0.035)

Communicating
Monitoring
Mathematics attitude
Aspiration
Possessions at home

24.97***(1.658)31.67***(2.190)1.804(1.287)

0.0920***(0.014)0.258***(0.035)

Communicating

0.172***(0.018)Possessions at home11
Number of books at home

6.414***(1.496)0.139***(0.047)

Ref: High school or below
Mother: Higher than University
Mother: Junior college
Mother: Unknown

10.05**(4.511)-8.589*(4.775)

Father: Higher than University
Father: Junior college
Father: Unknown
Children born between January 1 and April 1-17.38***(6.657)-5.145(4.519)-13.70***(4.419)Experiences of being bullied
Total enrolment of students (in hundreds)

Location of school
Private or national school
School-P

5.741*(3.165)36.16***(12.870)
12.03**(5.382)

Income level of school area

Class size

Constant
Observations
Standard errors in parentheses*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

0.168***(0.064)-0.102(0.091)0.109*(0.060)0.0348(0.029)-0.0190(0.017)0.0334(0.037)
0.197**(0.098)0.104(0.080)0.0373(0.056)-0.0106(0.007)% of economically disadvantaged students

Random intercept of school

0.0610(0.055)1(0)361.9***(40.780)
1789-1.188***(0.368)1789

6.402***(1.488)0.711***(0.217)-0.255(0.215)0.271(0.165)1.129***(0.182)-0.758***(0.220)0.328*(0.175)10.04**(4.528)-8.559*(4.795)-17.42***(6.576)-5.268(4.523)-13.43***(4.437)0.139***(0.047)0.0609(0.055)0.167***(0.065)-0.106(0.090)0.110*(0.060)0.0361(0.029)-0.0170(0.017)0.159*(0.083)0.896***(0.200)0.146(0.107)0.134(0.114)5.773*(3.316)33.84***(11.490)
15.09**(6.346)-4.347(5.847)-0.0201(0.013)-0.360(0.662)1(0)360.5***(45.910)
1789

1789

Note: AIC for Model 9 = 164053 and Model 10 = 169972.

37

1789

0.212**(0.093)0.0990(0.079)0.0417(0.057)-0.0100(0.007)-0.700**(0.345)1789

0.687***(0.216)-0.253(0.215)0.261(0.167)
1.143***(0.184)-0.766***(0.218)0.334*(0.179)-0.112(0.117)-0.0202(0.029)0.170**(0.084)0.854***(0.212)0.151(0.108)0.150(0.120)-0.0170(0.013)1789-1.402***(0.144)1789

Table 7 Results for Eighth Grade (Female: Mathematics)
FemaleVARIABLES
Ask
Talk
Time
Check

Achievement

Model 11
AttitudeAspiration-3.892*(2.116)2.127(2.267)2.731(2.158)-4.237**(1.958)0.00992(0.035)0.159***(0.036)0.00161(0.029)-0.00145(0.028)0.0217(0.069)0.134*(0.074)0.0830(0.063)-0.0987(0.064)

Communicating
Monitoring
Mathematics attitude
Aspiration
Possessions at home25.26***(1.485)29.20***(2.213)4.751***(1.162)0.0765***(0.014)9.558***(1.419)0.0398*(0.022)Possessions at home11
Number of books at home
Ref: High school or below
Mother: Higher than University
Mother: Junior college

5.454(3.761)

Mother: Unknown
Father: Higher than University
Father: Junior college

14.55***(4.053)-18.20***(5.397)0.125*(0.069)-0.0799(0.077)0.131*(0.068)0.127*(0.072)0.147(0.107)

Father: Unknown
Children born between January 1 and April 1-7.486*(3.902)

Experiences of being bullied
Total enrolment of students (in hundreds)

0.237***(0.033)-0.501(0.398)0.155***(0.050)1.318***(0.229)-1.025***(0.219)0.551***(0.193)
1.109***(0.155)-0.706***(0.207)0.258(0.174)-0.263**(0.118)

Achievement

Model 12
AttitudeAspiration-1.146(1.128)-1.488(1.223)25.42***(1.510)29.42***(2.249)4.822***(1.172)0.114***(0.025)-0.00167(0.021)0.111**(0.044)-0.0189(0.047)0.0761***(0.014)9.473***(1.426)

0.0412*(0.022)0.240***(0.033)-0.504(0.396)0.151***(0.050)5.415(3.791)13.47***(4.469)-18.08***(5.426)-2.423(4.141)-7.310*(3.923)-0.0191(0.030)0.137*(0.073)-0.0862(0.077)0.152**(0.076)0.106(0.085)0.152(0.106)-0.0480(0.078)1.316***(0.228)-1.023***(0.217)0.542***(0.192)
1.112***(0.155)-0.705***(0.208)0.255(0.172)-0.262**(0.119)-0.0204(0.031)

1.519(1.404)1.583(1.404)

Location of school
Private or national school

8.784(12.070)

School-P
Income level of school area

-0.0653(0.042)14.77***(4.829)% of economically disadvantaged students
Class size
Random intercept of school
Constant
Observations
Standard errors in parentheses*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

0.463(0.847)1(0)382.9***(29.560)
1812-0.00757(0.008)-0.546*(0.316)1812

Note: AIC for Model 11 =142262 and Model12=142348.

38

1.576***(0.262)0.167(0.114)0.357**(0.141)0.0869(0.101)-0.0174(0.016)

1812

8.864
(12.340)-0.00800(0.008)1.573***(0.267)0.167(0.114)0.351**(0.143)0.0869(0.101)-0.0174(0.016)-0.0750(0.289)1812

1812-0.0673(0.042)14.42***(5.066)0.454(0.854)1(0)376.8***(29.460)
1812

Table 8 Results for Eighth Grade (Male: Science)
Male
VARIABLES
Ask
Talk
Time
Check

Achievement

Model 13
AttitudeAspiration

1.052(2.255)-0.335(2.171)
0.0919(1.840)0.133(1.837)0.0115(0.033)0.127***(0.034)0.0387(0.030)0.00455(0.029)0.108(0.079)0.233***(0.071)0.0744(0.067)-0.0245(0.076)

Communicating

0.258***(0.035)0.546(1.461)0.278(1.270)22.90***(1.822)27.01***(1.910)1.628(1.198)0.139***(0.047)8.780***(1.301)

Monitoring
Science attitude
Aspiration
Possessions at home
Possessions at home11
Number of books at home

22.91***(1.816)27.08***(1.927)
1.239(1.206)7.070(9.471)8.774***(1.311)

0.0425**(0.018)0.114(0.166)0.0472**(0.020)

Ref: High school or below
Mother: Higher than University
Mother: Junior college
Mother: Unknown

10.94***(4.047)-9.894***(3.692)Father: Higher than University
Father: Junior college

0.102*(0.060)-4.733(5.669)Father: Unknown
Children born between January 1and April 1

0.0790(0.059)-10.78***(3.587)0.0761(0.058)0.0583(0.049)

Achievement

0.709***(0.217)-0.259(0.215)0.270(0.165)1.135***(0.184)-0.754***(0.219)0.338*(0.177)-0.103(0.120)10.81***(4.116)-9.880***(3.719)Model 14
AttitudeAspiration

0.0945***(0.022)0.0357(0.022)

0.237***(0.048)0.0408(0.050)0.0457***(0.017)0.101(0.169)0.0486**(0.021)0.259***(0.035)0.0667(0.059)0.128**(0.060)-4.442(5.553)-10.80***(3.614)0.0860(0.058)0.0556(0.049)0.139***(0.047)0.687***(0.216)-0.253(0.215)0.261(0.167)
1.143***(0.184)-0.766***(0.218)0.334*(0.179)-0.112(0.117)

Experiences of being bullied
Total enrolment of students (in hundreds)
Location of school
Private or national school
School-P

4.778**(2.363)
15.42(12.350)
14.90***(3.988)-0.0199(0.019)-0.0419(0.043)0.0976(0.092)

Income level of school area

0.157*(0.083)0.897***(0.202)0.147(0.108)0.133(0.115)-1.120(1.155)5.216**(2.391)
12.27(12.640)
16.00***(4.121)% of economically disadvantaged students
Class size
Random intercept of school
Constant
Observations
Standard errors in parentheses*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1-0.00763(0.009)1(0)335.5***(32.470)
1789-0.553**(0.274)1789

Note: AIC for Model 13 = 139422 and Model 14 =139405.

39-0.0156(0.020)-0.00905(0.008)-0.0202(0.029)0.170**(0.084)0.854***(0.212)0.151(0.108)0.150(0.120)-0.0170(0.013)0.508(0.487)1789

1789

0.206*(0.122)-0.100*(0.055)-0.0200(0.013)

1789

1
(0)
333.2***(31.810)1789

Table 9 Results for Eighth Grade (Female: Science)
FemaleVARIABLES
Ask
Talk
Time
Check

Achievement-3.302*(1.867)0.347(2.112)
3.223*(1.903)-2.427*(1.432)Model 15
AttitudeAspiration-0.0565*(0.031)0.177***(0.034)0.0185(0.029)0.0625**(0.027)

Achievement

0.0782***(0.021)
0.0663***(0.018)0.111**(0.044)-0.0189(0.047)0.217***(0.031)-1.999*(1.212)0.359(1.210)19.83***(1.480)28.73***(2.140)4.162***(1.110)0.0164(0.018)9.328***(1.339)0.125***(0.022)0.240***(0.033)-0.504(0.396)0.151***(0.050)2.927(4.483)
5.801(4.057)0.0905*(0.054)

Monitoring

Aspiration
Possessions at home

19.57***(1.514)28.67***(2.169)4.077***(1.108)0.0194(0.017)9.399***(1.344)0.119***(0.022)2.931(4.472)
6.104(4.049)0.0754(0.055)

Possessions at home11
Number of books at home
Ref: High school or below
Mother: Higher than University
Mother: Junior college
Mother: Unknown
Father: Higher than University

0.127(0.083)4.924(3.091)

Father: Junior college
Father: Unknown
Children born between January 1and April 1-2.973(3.199)-0.0474(0.066)-0.0809(0.051)

Communicating

0.0192(0.069)0.134*(0.074)0.0829(0.063)-0.0963(0.064)

Communicating

Science attitude

Model 16
AttitudeAspiration

Talk

0.236***(0.033)-0.516(0.397)0.159***(0.050)1.347***(0.228)-1.037***(0.218)0.563***(0.195)
1.151***(0.150)-0.735***(0.204)0.280(0.172)-0.263**(0.119)0.140(0.086)5.384*(3.146)-2.761(3.198)-0.0651(0.067)-0.0764(0.052)0.158***(0.022)

1.316***(0.228)-1.023***(0.217)0.542***(0.192)
1.112***(0.155)-0.705***(0.208)0.255(0.172)-0.262**(0.119)Experiences of being bullied
Total enrolment of students (in hundreds)

0.669(1.050)Location of school-0.103***(0.038)

Private or national school

1.700***(0.251)

School-P
Income level of school area

13.22***(3.827)% of economically disadvantaged students

0.0563(0.074)0.0719(0.061)

Class size
Random intercept of school
Constant
Observations
Standard errors in parentheses*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

1(0)403.2***(10.280)
1812-0.997***(0.298)1812

0.433***(0.141)0.0727(0.101)-0.0137(0.015)1812

Note: AIC for Model 15 = 164742 and Model 16 =171096.

40

10.62***(3.692)

1812

1
(0)
398.1***(11.770)
1812-0.120(0.141)-0.0774(0.0620)
0.0964(0.081)
0.0423(0.062)-0.190(0.506)
1812

1.573***(0.267)0.167(0.114)0.351**(0.143)0.0869(0.101)-0.0174(0.016)1812-1.039***(0.177)1812

Appendix
Table A. 1 Correlation for the Variables of Parental Involvement
Fourth grade males
Ask
Talk
Time
Check

Ask
1
0.52230.3772
0.279

Talk

Time

Check

1
0.33310.293810.4266

1

Talk

Time

Check

Communicating1
0.4357

Monitoring

Communicating
Monitoring

Communicating1
0.4317

Monitoring

Communicating
Monitoring

Communicating1
0.4406

Monitoring

Communicating
Monitoring

Communicating1
0.4454

Monitoring

Communicating
Monitoring

1

Fourth grade females
Ask
Talk
Time
Check

Ask
1
0.54890.37870.293

10.35190.28951
0.4925

1

Talk

Time

Check

1

Eighth grade males
Ask
Talk
Time
Check

Ask
1
0.59690.36620.34541
0.3836
0.34371
0.6698

1

Talk

Time

Check

1

Eighth grade females
Ask
Talk
Time
Check

Ask
1
0.62480.4156
0.35661
0.3844
0.336510.73091

41

1

Table A. 2 The Paths of the Parental Involvement that Changed Significance When Estimating
Models with All the Variables
Significance ofthe final model

Significance of the modelwith all variables

4th Male
Check → Mathematics achievement (+)

5%

10%

8th Male
Monitoring → Science achievement (-)

10%

5%

Variables

Note: The table shows the paths of parental involvement that had changes at the level which they are
significant. Except for the two paths shown in the table above, results of estimations using all thecontrol variables did not differ from the final results. Estimation results are presented in Appendix
from Table A.3 to Table A.10. In the cases that full model estimations failed to converge, somevariables had to be dropped.

42

Table A. 3 Results for Fourth Grade with All the Control Variables (Male: Mathematics)
Male
VARIABLES

Model 1a
Achievement

Ask
Talk
Time
Check

Attitude

0.360

0.0365(1.602)(0.028)-4.951***0.0872***(1.697)(0.028)-0.156

0.0437**(1.374)(0.021)2.551*-0.00850(1.419)(0.021)Ask

Time

Model 2a
Check

Talk

Communicating
Monitoring
Mathematics attitude

19.47***

Possessions at home

4.296***

0.0599***0.213***

0.138***

0.0956***0.188***(1.176)(0.016)(0.030)(0.028)(0.033)(0.028)-14.85**-0.0389

0.115

0.00326-0.261

0.124(6.177)(0.094)(0.207)(0.227)(0.203)(0.171)14.34***

0.03120.109**

0.122***

0.122**

0.0735(1.617)(0.026)(0.045)(0.046)(0.049)(0.051)-16.68***0.0879*(1.709)Possessions at home11
Number of books at homeChildren born between January 1 and April 1(3.530)Experiences of being bullied(0.052)-0.0672***(0.023)

Total enrolment of students (in hundreds)
Location of school
Income level of school area
Class size
% of economically disadvantaged students
Random intercept of school
Constant
Observations-0.01420.0367**(1.312)(0.015)2.942-0.0695*(2.443)(0.036)12.16***-0.115*(4.349)(0.069)0.365-0.0183***(0.514)(0.006)0.302-0.0715(3.154)(0.057)

Achievement

1

(0)

(0)
-0.0113(20.570)(0.299)

1849

1849

1849

1849

Robust standard errors in parentheses*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

Note: AIC for Model 1a = 126356 and for Model 2a = 105220.

43

1849

1849

Communicating Monitoring-3.634*** 0.0926***(1.188)(0.021)2.149*
0.0301*(1.281)(0.018)19.92***(1.652)4.026*** 0.0603*** 0.157***(1.174)(0.017)(0.019)-14.81**-0.0350
0.0577(6.113)(0.094)(0.106)14.30***
0.03030.0668**(1.623)(0.026)(0.030)-16.29*** 0.0880*(3.518)(0.053)-0.0699***(0.023)0.466
0.0373**(0.789)(0.015)3.836*-0.0704*(2.033)(0.037)
11.23***-0.114(4.150)(0.069)0.130-0.0184***(0.390)(0.006)-2.496-0.0713(2.666)(0.058)1
483.3***

Attitude487.9***(14.270)0.397(0.313)

1849

1849

0.0853***(0.019)-0.0954(0.130)0.0901***(0.029)-1.602*** -0.921***(0.144)(0.131)
1849

1849

Table A. 4 Results for Fourth Grade with All the Control Variables (Female: Mathematics)
FemaleVARIABLES

Ask
Talk

Model 3aAchievement

Attitude-3.143*0.0532*(1.747)(0.029)-3.204*0.128***(1.776)(0.028)

Time

1.527

0.0348*(1.431)(0.020)Check

2.913**-0.0127(1.375)(0.021)Ask

Time

Model 4a
Check

Talk

Communicating
Monitoring
Mathematics attitude

17.33***

Possessions at home11
Number of books at homeChildren born between January 1 and April 1

Attitude-4.605***0.134***(1.317)(0.023)3.840***

0.0179(1.294)(0.019)17.75***(1.724)
Possessions at home

Achievement(1.738)3.685***

0.0509***0.189***

0.149***

0.104***

0.124***

3.689***

0.0503***(0.971)(0.015)(0.030)(0.029)(0.033)(0.029)(0.992)(0.015)-5.999-0.120

0.106

0.367

0.0436

0.466**-7.526-0.110(5.667)(0.110)(0.229)(0.240)(0.233)(0.219)(5.774)(0.110)13.96***

0.0788***0.0893*0.172***

0.124**

0.130***

13.74***

0.0805***(1.734)(0.026)(0.051)(0.051)(0.050)(0.049)(1.745)(0.026)-16.25***-0.00451-16.04***-0.00666(0.045)(3.326)(3.352)
Experiences of being bullied-0.149***(0.029)Total enrolment of students (in hundreds)-0.469(0.046)-0.150***(0.029)-0.00683

1.184-0.00595(0.953)(0.017)(0.866)(0.017)

Location of school

2.119-0.0101

2.738-0.0143(2.674)(0.036)(1.989)(0.035)

Income level of school area

12.93**

0.00907

10.23***

0.0125(6.527)(0.066)(3.796)(0.065)0.903**-0.00139

0.463-0.00207(0.453)(0.007)(0.329)(0.007)4.291-0.06821.529-0.0631(4.461)(0.045)(2.618)(0.045)Class size
% of economically disadvantaged students
Random intercept of school

1

1

(0)
Constant
Observations(0)

470.8***-1.113***478.3***-0.563**(21.070)(0.267)(16.000)(0.264)

1,884

1,884

1,884

1,884

1,884

Robust standard errors in parentheses*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

Note: AIC for Model 3a = 128190 and for Model 4a = 72832.

44

1,884

1,884

1,884

Table A. 5 Results for Fourth Grade with All the Control Variables (Male: Science)
Male
Model 5a

VARIABLES

Ask
Talk
Time
Check

Achievement

Attitude

0.674(1.466)-4.268***(1.493)1.824(1.148)0.756(1.201)-0.00324(0.026)
0.0634**(0.027)0.0526**(0.022)0.0296(0.021)Ask

Model 6a

Time

Check

Talk

Communicating
Monitoring
Science attitude
Possessions at home
Possessions at home11
Number of books at homeChildren born between January 1 and April 1

5.810***(1.288)3.588***(0.973)-13.37**(5.782)14.85***(1.441)-22.20***(2.998)Experiences of being bullied
Total enrolment of students (in hundreds)
Location of school
Income level of school area
Class size
% of economically disadvantaged students
Random intercept of school
Constant
Observations
Robust standard errors in parentheses

0.217(0.991)
1.882(1.904)10.08***(3.428)-0.0417(0.395)-0.0776(2.309)1(0)480.3***(14.230)1849

0.0478***(0.016)-0.0927(0.099)0.0438*(0.024)0.112**(0.051)-0.0215(0.023)0.0293**(0.014)0.00792(0.031)-0.158***(0.057)-0.0144**(0.006)-0.100*(0.059)0.213***(0.030)0.115(0.207)0.109**(0.045)0.138***(0.028)0.00328(0.227)0.122***(0.046)

0.0956***(0.033)-0.261(0.203)0.122**(0.049)0.188***(0.028)0.124(0.171)0.0735(0.051)

Attitude-2.422**(1.078)2.248**(1.147)5.941***(1.295)3.455***(0.981)-13.27**(5.654)14.89***(1.441)-22.19***(3.007)0.0447**(0.020)0.0701***(0.021)0.825(0.681)2.235(1.736)7.080**(3.352)-0.183(0.302)-3.505(2.142)1(0)488.8***(11.920)-0.0623(0.281)
1849

Achievement

1849

1849

*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

Note: AIC for Model 5a = 234199 and for Model 6a = 199969.

45

1849

1849

1849

Communicating Monitoring

0.0478***(0.016)-0.0910(0.099)0.0430*(0.024)0.113**(0.051)-0.0238(0.023)0.0298**(0.014)0.00655(0.031)-0.157***(0.056)-0.0146**(0.007)-0.0994*(0.059)0.157***(0.019)0.0577(0.106)
0.0668**(0.030)0.0853***(0.019)-0.0954(0.130)0.0901***(0.029)0.315(0.273)-1.602***(0.144)-0.921***(0.131)

1849

1849

1849

Table A. 6 Results for Fourth Grade with All the Control Variables (Female: Science)
FemaleVARIABLES

Ask

Model 7aAchievement

Attitude-0.899-0.0326(1.474)(0.026)Talk-3.518**0.0879***(1.462)(0.025)

Time

2.859**

0.0164(1.203)(0.020)0.699

0.0420**(1.238)(0.020)

Check

Ask

Time

Model 8a
Check

Talk

Communicating
Monitoring

Achievement

Attitude-3.184***0.0392*(1.101)(0.022)

3.206***

0.0488**(1.187)(0.020)Communicating

Science attitude

6.820***

6.986***

Possessions at home

2.998***

0.0267*

0.195***

0.168***

0.106***

0.147***

3.066***

0.0244*0.145***(0.886)(0.014)(0.028)(0.029)(0.029)(0.028)(0.884)(0.014)(0.016)

Possessions at home11-1.3090.196**-2.0960.202**(5.137)(0.091)

Number of books at home

13.77***

0.0604***0.0906*0.176***

0.125**

0.133***(1.436)(0.021)(0.050)(0.052)(0.050)(0.049)Children born between January 1 and April 1-21.68***0.0670-21.73***0.0653(2.751)(0.051)(2.750)(0.052)(1.245)Experiences of being bullied(1.305)(5.310)(0.091)

13.62***

0.0612***(1.422)(0.021)-0.0799**-0.0801**(0.033)
Total enrolment of students (in hundreds)
Location of school
Income level of school area
Class size
% of economically disadvantaged students
Random intercept of school(0.033)-0.6370.0211-0.671

0.0227(0.792)(0.019)(1.114)(0.019)2.459-0.000224

2.672

3.19e-05(2.135)(0.037)(1.868)(0.038)8.256-0.123

6.137*-0.120(5.134)(0.085)(3.566)(0.085)-0.00306

0.410-0.00232

0.591*(0.330)(0.007)(0.331)(0.007)-0.382-0.0447-2.654-0.0416(3.812)(0.045)(2.406)(0.045)1

1(0)Constant(0)476.6***-0.578*474.6***-0.234-0.987***(16.560)(0.338)(12.640)(0.323)(0.140)

1,884

1,884

1,884

1,884

1,884

1,884

1,884

Robust standard errors in parentheses*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

Note: AIC for Model 7a = 238375 and for Model 8a = 204006.

46

1,884

1,884

Table A. 7 Results for Eighth Grade with All the Control Variables (Male: Mathematics)
Male
VARIABLES
Ask
Talk
Time
Check

Achievement

AttitudeAspiration

2.571(2.259)1.280(2.525)-1.221(2.012)-1.821(1.834)-0.00819(0.035)0.104***(0.030)0.0208(0.033)0.0665**(0.030)0.108(0.079)0.233***(0.070)0.0798(0.068)-0.0272(0.076)

Model 9a
Ask

Time

Check

Talk

Achievement

AttitudeModel 10a
Aspiration Communicating Monitoring

2.605(1.668)-2.319*(1.333)24.97***(1.652)31.30***(2.294)2.023*(1.228)-1.001(10.940)
7.064***(1.558)0.0650***(0.021)0.0722***(0.023)

0.236***(0.048)0.0405(0.050)0.0922***(0.015)-0.0210(0.139)-0.000863(0.021)0.252***(0.036)0.160(0.374)0.139***(0.047)0.107***(0.023)0.145(0.140)0.107***(0.031)

0.0654**(0.028)0.0769(0.186)
0.0989***(0.026)0.744(5.365)9.806*(5.680)-8.630*(4.837)-18.31**(7.270)0.510(4.672)-5.115(4.835)-13.78***(4.372)-0.0125(0.080)0.0649(0.078)-0.00535(0.085)-0.108(0.093)0.179**(0.073)0.117(0.075)-0.0143(0.049)0.0348(0.029)-0.0187(0.017)0.0385(0.037)0.227**(0.111)-0.0279(0.053)0.116(0.086)0.0357(0.056)-0.0113(0.007)0.687***(0.217)-0.251(0.216)0.260(0.167)-0.775***(0.222)
1.145***(0.185)0.336*(0.179)-0.114(0.117)0.0754(0.094)0.0692(0.100)-0.140(0.099)-0.142(0.142)0.178**(0.091)-0.0788(0.102)0.227**(0.102)-0.0363(0.117)0.283***(0.107)0.00708(0.136)0.0351(0.090)-0.220**(0.098)-1.269***(0.163)
1,789-0.853***(0.196)
1,789

Communicating
Monitoring
Mathematics attitude
Aspiration
Possessions at home
Possessions at home11
Number of books at home

25.04***(1.623)31.32***(2.331)
1.864(1.243)-0.629(10.720)
6.975***(1.577)

Ref: High school or below
Mother: Higher than University

0.607(5.476)
Mother: Junior college
10.11*(5.699)Mother: Unknown-8.892*(4.825)
Father: Higher than University
0.545(4.679)Father: Junior college-19.18***(7.363)
Father: Unknown-5.267(4.838)Children born between January 1 and April 1 -14.37***(4.330)Experiences of being bullied
Total enrolment of students (in hundreds)
Location of school
Private or national school
School-P
Income level of school area
% of economically disadvantaged students
Class size
Random intercept of school
Constant-0.856(1.305)4.249(3.422)36.96***(9.954)11.30**(5.360)
3.195(4.744)
1.554(3.941)-0.377(0.648)1(0)
378.0***(45.310)
1,789

0.0935***(0.016)-0.0199(0.140)0.000751(0.021)0.250***(0.037)0.184(0.372)0.139***(0.047)0.144***(0.037)0.0543(0.220)0.135***(0.048)0.153***(0.036)0.290(0.253)0.165***(0.045)0.142***(0.035)-0.152(0.234)0.150***(0.040)0.0599(0.041)
0.213(0.294)0.0987***(0.038)-0.00496(0.081)
0.0635(0.078)0.00324(0.085)0.176**(0.073)-0.105(0.094)0.111(0.075)-0.0129(0.048)0.0346(0.029)-0.0182(0.017)0.0355(0.037)0.221*(0.113)-0.0247(0.053)0.113(0.085)0.0345(0.056)-0.0106(0.007)0.707***(0.218)-0.256(0.216)0.268(0.165)
1.143***(0.186)-0.768***(0.224)0.339*(0.177)-0.107(0.119)-0.0666(0.144)0.132(0.150)-0.310*(0.159)0.240*(0.133)-0.247(0.189)-0.0696(0.154)0.295**(0.144)0.0380(0.150)-0.0343(0.146)0.212(0.135)-0.0762(0.237)-0.163(0.153)0.241*(0.135)-0.0717(0.165)0.417**(0.168)-0.0120(0.137)-0.0455(0.206)-0.448***(0.161)0.403***(0.153)-0.0804(0.163)0.333**(0.156)
0.0419(0.126)
0.0946(0.201)-0.177(0.137)-1.035**(0.468)1,789-0.0211(0.029)0.165*(0.086)0.834***(0.231)
0.153(0.106)0.140(0.141)-0.0157(0.103)-0.0166(0.013)

1,789

1,789

1,789

Standard errors in parentheses*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

Note: AIC for Model 9a = 124803 and for Model 10a = 103708.

47

1,789

1,789

-1.341(1.299)5.023(3.425)32.75***(11.710)14.72**(6.016)-0.0348(5.340)0.682(3.910)-0.191(0.695)1(0)356.1***(49.280)
1,789-0.564(0.473)
1,789-0.0202(0.029)0.170**(0.085)0.846***(0.228)0.148(0.105)0.144(0.140)-0.0130(0.102)-0.0170(0.013)

1,789

Table A. 8 Results for Eighth Grade with All the Control Variables (Female: Mathematics)
FemaleModel 11a
VARIABLES
Ask
Talk
Time
Check

Achievement

AttitudeAspiration-3.2260.00832

0.0212(2.142)(0.035)(0.070)2.050

0.159***

0.133*(2.247)(0.036)(0.073)2.494

0.00279

0.0813(2.101)(0.028)(0.064)-4.586**-0.000645-0.0964(1.931)(0.027)(0.065)Ask

Model 12a
Time

Check

Talk

Communicating
Monitoring

Achievement

AttitudeAspiration Communicating Monitoring

0.110**-0.732

0.113***(1.182)(0.025)(0.044)-1.842-0.000335-0.0182(1.236)(0.021)(0.047)

Mathematics attitude

24.93***

25.28***(1.508)(1.535)

Aspiration

28.96***

29.23***

Possessions at home

4.800***

0.0762***0.238***

0.157***

0.170***

0.157***

0.0652*4.801***

0.0770***0.241***

0.118***

0.0789***(1.301)(0.015)(0.033)(0.040)(0.044)(0.041)(0.038)(1.310)(0.015)(0.033)(0.027)(0.027)(2.218)Possessions at home11
Number of books at home

(2.234)4.006-0.0582-0.501-0.160-0.209-0.0203

0.163

2.936

-0.0582-0.504-0.118(7.849)(0.145)(0.399)(0.288)(0.240)(0.309)(0.304)(7.915)(0.147)(0.397)(0.173)(0.226)10.09***

0.0415*0.155***

0.143***

0.102**

0.0534

0.0977**9.650***

0.0421*0.151***

0.0857***

0.0613**0.0858(1.439)(0.023)(0.050)(0.038)(0.042)(0.043)(0.043)(1.419)(0.023)(0.050)(0.025)(0.029)Ref: High school or below
Mother: Higher than University
Mother: Junior college
Mother: Unknown

0.924

0.127*

1.322***

0.177

0.153

0.09570.07421.508

0.132*

1.320***

0.114

0.0680(4.697)(0.075)(0.227)(0.154)(0.141)(0.143)(0.167)(4.695)(0.074)(0.227)(0.099)(0.108)4.851-0.0734-1.030***-0.217-0.126-0.173-0.1534.398-0.0810-1.028***-0.108-0.119(4.441)(0.078)(0.219)(0.149)(0.158)(0.134)(0.172)(4.400)(0.078)(0.217)(0.100)(0.106)2.945

0.159**

0.549***-0.449**-0.352**-0.05360.08232.892

0.155**

0.540***-0.294**0.00421(5.682)(0.076)(0.192)(0.180)(0.179)(0.159)(0.154)(5.675)(0.076)(0.191)(0.120)(0.111)

Father: Higher than University

13.73***

0.112

1.112***-0.00687

0.112

0.109

0.053913.38***

0.111

1.115***

0.04510.0609(4.737)(0.087)(0.157)(0.115)(0.123)(0.135)(0.135)(4.754)(0.086)(0.157)(0.077)(0.097)

Father: Junior college-17.06***0.148-0.705***

0.281

0.156

0.118

0.147

-16.46***0.152-0.704***0.147

0.0906(5.410)(0.108)(0.207)(0.176)(0.188)(0.176)(0.178)(5.419)(0.107)(0.208)(0.121)(0.130)Father: Unknown
Children born between January 1 and April 1-2.040-0.0401

0.262-0.1510.0755-0.0537-0.0720-2.640-0.0466

0.259-0.0267-0.0406(5.304)(0.081)(0.176)(0.139)(0.141)(0.130)(0.136)(5.302)(0.079)(0.174)(0.088)(0.094)-7.164*-0.0299-0.268**-7.033*-0.0277-0.267**(0.057)(0.119)(4.006)(0.057)(0.119)(3.949)Experiences of being bullied-0.0195-0.0197(0.030)Total enrolment of students (in hundreds)
Location of school
Private or national school
School-P
Income level of school area
% of economically disadvantaged students
Class size
Random intercept of school(0.031)0.0557-0.001940.01330.667

0.000167

0.0151(1.279)(0.014)(0.034)(1.316)(0.014)(0.034)0.156

0.0168-0.0391-1.855(2.947)(0.039)(0.076)(3.056)17.27

0.07591.620***

13.80

0.0786

1.621***(10.760)(0.137)(0.274)(11.920)(0.133)(0.277)1.485-0.0998**

0.170

1.577

-0.0973**

0.169(3.535)(0.050)(0.118)(3.871)(0.047)(0.118)13.74***

0.0701

0.338**

13.36**

0.06050.331**(5.265)(0.076)(0.148)(5.698)(0.075)(0.150)4.791

0.01400.0911

4.263

0.01540.0912(4.011)(0.049)(0.100)(4.055)(0.047)(0.100)0.756-0.0108-0.01850.866-0.0107-0.0188(0.773)(0.010)(0.018)(0.811)(0.010)(0.018)1

Random intercept of school(0.076)1(0)Constant-0.0416(0)364.9***-0.362357.4***

0.0875-0.961***-0.795***(35.310)(0.443)(37.980)(0.427)(0.201)(0.185)

1,812

1,812

1,812

1,812

1,812

1,812

1,812

1,812

1,812

Standard errors in parentheses*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

Note: AIC for Model 11a = 127038 and for Model 12a = 88858.

48

1,812

1,812

1,812

Table A. 9 Results for Eighth Grade with All the Control Variables (Male: Science)
Male
VARIABLES
Ask
Talk
Time
Check

Achievement

AttitudeAspiration

0.619(2.337)0.325(2.253)0.586(1.811)-0.133(1.804)0.0140(0.034)0.122***(0.035)0.0390(0.030)0.00605(0.029)0.108(0.079)0.233***(0.070)0.0798(0.068)-0.0272(0.076)

Model 13a
Ask

Time

Check

Talk

Communicating
Monitoring
Science attitude
Aspiration
Possessions at home
Possessions at home11
Number of books at home
Ref: High school or below
Mother: Higher than University
Mother: Junior college
Mother: Unknown
Father: Higher than University
Father: Junior college
Father: Unknown
Children born between January 1and April 1

22.92***(1.706)26.78***(2.049)1.187(1.175)5.599(9.800)8.969***(1.384)-0.870(4.306)
12.60***(4.710)-9.590**(4.552)-0.305(4.359)-6.517(6.249)-0.977(4.473)-11.22***(3.587)

Experiences of being bullied
Total enrolment of students (in hundreds)
Location of school
Private or national school
School-P
Income level of school area
% of economically disadvantaged students
Class size
Random intercept of school
Constant
Random intercept of school
Standard errors in parentheses*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1-0.526(1.195)3.779(2.510)16.82*(10.030)
9.278**(4.333)0.158(4.153)-0.819(3.756)-0.473(0.619)1(0)402.2***(38.050)
1,789

0.0442**(0.017)0.120(0.165)0.0503**(0.020)0.250***(0.037)0.184(0.372)0.139***(0.047)0.147***(0.033)0.168***(0.033)0.133***(0.032)0.0712*(0.037)0.135***(0.048)0.164***(0.045)0.150***(0.040)0.0983***(0.038)-0.0233(0.071)0.0809(0.081)-0.0337(0.077)0.140**(0.066)-0.0155(0.081)0.107(0.070)0.0585(0.048)0.000439(0.026)-0.0152(0.021)-0.0357(0.043)0.206*(0.118)-0.0980(0.063)0.0265(0.078)0.00561(0.054)-0.00740(0.008)0.707***(0.218)-0.256(0.216)0.268(0.165)
1.143***(0.186)-0.768***(0.224)0.339*(0.177)-0.107(0.119)-0.0658(0.144)0.131(0.150)-0.309*(0.160)0.239*(0.133)-0.245(0.190)-0.0699(0.154)0.301**(0.143)0.0338(0.150)-0.0293(0.146)0.205(0.136)-0.0658(0.238)-0.165(0.154)0.237*(0.135)-0.0683(0.167)0.414**(0.168)-0.00972(0.137)-0.0515(0.209)-0.447***(0.161)0.406***(0.154)-0.0843(0.164)
0.338**(0.155)0.0401(0.126)0.105(0.200)-0.178(0.136)

0.0577(0.603)
1,789-0.0211(0.029)0.165*(0.086)0.834***(0.231)
0.153(0.106)0.140(0.141)-0.0157(0.103)-0.0166(0.013)

1,789

1,789

1,789

Note: AIC for Model 13a = 232999 and for Model 14a = 198764.

49

1,789

1,789

Achievement

AttitudeModel 14a
Aspiration Communicating Monitoring

0.516(1.464)0.325(1.267)23.02***(1.727)26.86***(2.013)
1.321(1.164)5.054(9.989)9.098***(1.368)0.0935***(0.022)0.0367*(0.022)

0.236***(0.048)0.0405(0.050)0.0447***(0.017)0.111(0.166)0.0501**(0.020)0.252***(0.036)0.160(0.374)0.139***(0.047)0.107***(0.023)0.145(0.140)0.107***(0.031)

0.0654**(0.028)0.0769(0.186)
0.0989***(0.026)-0.725(4.234)12.39***(4.664)-9.449**(4.532)-0.200(4.350)-5.627(6.227)-0.996(4.439)-10.71***(3.612)-0.0355(0.071)0.0838(0.081)-0.0397(0.077)0.142**(0.066)-0.0224(0.082)0.108(0.070)0.0529(0.048)-0.000626(0.026)-0.0150(0.021)-0.0325(0.043)0.213*(0.117)-0.102(0.063)0.0287(0.077)0.00677(0.055)-0.00794(0.008)0.687***(0.217)-0.251(0.216)0.260(0.167)1.145***(0.185)-0.775***(0.222)
0.336*(0.179)-0.114(0.117)0.0754(0.094)0.0692(0.100)-0.140(0.099)0.178**(0.091)-0.142(0.142)-0.0788(0.102)0.227**(0.102)-0.0363(0.117)0.283***(0.107)0.0351(0.090)0.00708(0.136)-0.220**(0.098)-1.269***(0.163)
1,789-0.853***(0.196)
1,789-0.796(1.209)4.962*(2.546)
10.74(11.120)
11.98***(4.535)-2.694(4.254)-1.238(3.661)-0.344(0.668)1(0)383.5***(39.590)
1,789

0.510
(0.587)1,789-0.0202(0.029)0.170**(0.085)0.846***(0.228)0.148(0.105)0.144(0.140)-0.0130(0.102)-0.0170(0.013)

1,789

Table A. 10 Results for Eighth Grade with All the Control Variables (Female: Science)
FemaleModel 15a
VARIABLES

Achievement

Attitude

Ask
Talk
Time
Check

Aspiration-2.859-0.0564*

0.0212(1.869)(0.031)(0.070)0.185

0.175***

0.133*(2.042)(0.034)(0.073)2.791

0.02010.0813(1.902)(0.029)(0.064)-2.445*0.0624**-0.0964(1.478)(0.027)(0.065)Ask

Model 16a
Time

Check

Talk

Communicating
Monitoring

Achievement

AttitudeAspiration Communicating Monitoring

0.110**-1.7720.0766***(1.174)(0.021)(0.044)0.178

0.0647***-0.0182(1.206)(0.018)(0.047)

Science attitude

20.41***

20.36***(1.482)(1.477)

Aspiration

28.57***

28.78***

Possessions at home

4.020***

0.02230.238***

0.157***

0.170***

0.157***

0.0652*4.111***

0.02140.241***

0.113***

0.0820***(1.182)(0.019)(0.033)(0.040)(0.044)(0.041)(0.038)(1.196)(0.019)(0.033)(0.025)(0.027)

Possessions at home11

3.846-0.0381-0.501-0.160-0.209-0.0202

0.163

3.160

-0.0344-0.504(7.881)(0.136)(0.399)(0.288)(0.240)(0.309)(0.304)(7.931)(0.137)(0.397)

Number of books at home

9.679***

0.121***

0.155***

0.143***

0.102**

0.0534

0.0977**9.365***

0.123***

0.151***

0.0857***

0.0613**(1.352)(0.022)(0.050)(0.038)(0.042)(0.043)(0.043)(1.340)(0.022)(0.050)(0.025)(0.029)(2.153)(2.137)

Ref: High school or below
Mother: Higher than University
Mother: Junior college
Mother: Unknown
Father: Higher than University
Father: Junior college
Father: Unknown
Children born between January 1and April 1

3.200

0.09851.322***

0.177

0.153

0.09570.0742

3.745

0.106

1.320***

0.114

0.0679(4.714)(0.077)(0.227)(0.154)(0.141)(0.143)(0.167)(4.715)(0.077)(0.227)(0.099)(0.108)5.796-0.0120-1.030***-0.217-0.126-0.173-0.1535.403-0.0218-1.028***-0.108-0.119(4.195)(0.069)(0.219)(0.149)(0.158)(0.134)(0.172)(4.219)(0.069)(0.217)(0.101)(0.106)

3.173

0.136

0.549***-0.449**-0.352**-0.05360.0823

2.989

0.133

0.540***-0.292**0.00291(4.430)(0.086)(0.192)(0.180)(0.179)(0.159)(0.154)(4.415)(0.086)(0.191)(0.119)(0.111)

4.197-0.000805

1.112***-0.00687

0.112

0.109

0.05394.216-0.00610

1.115***

0.0446

0.0613(3.969)(0.062)(0.157)(0.115)(0.123)(0.135)(0.135)(3.979)(0.061)(0.157)(0.077)(0.097)1.907

0.0359-0.705***

0.281

0.156

0.118

0.147

2.317

0.0422-0.704***0.147

0.0903(5.882)(0.102)(0.207)(0.176)(0.188)(0.176)(0.178)(5.909)(0.101)(0.208)(0.121)(0.130)-1.415-0.0482

0.262-0.1510.0755-0.0537-0.0720-1.594-0.0607

0.259-0.0273-0.0402(4.706)(0.081)(0.176)(0.139)(0.141)(0.130)(0.136)(4.692)(0.081)(0.174)(0.088)(0.094)-2.596-0.0836-0.268**-2.580-0.0792-0.267**(0.051)(0.119)(3.233)(0.051)(0.119)(3.210)Experiences of being bullied-0.000103-0.00185(0.027)
Total enrolment of students (in hundreds)
Location of school
Private or national school
School-P
Income level of school area
% of economically disadvantaged students
Class size
Random intercept of school(0.028)0.09469.51e-05

0.01330.717

0.00168

0.0151(1.116)(0.017)(0.034)(1.159)(0.018)(0.034)-0.04160.235-0.0909**-0.0391-0.381-0.0882*(2.236)(0.044)(0.076)(2.250)(0.045)(0.076)9.304-0.0768

1.620***

5.406-0.0858

1.621***(8.318)(0.172)(0.274)(8.804)(0.176)(0.277)1.310-0.0541

0.170

1.319

-0.0564

0.169(2.923)(0.069)(0.118)(3.124)(0.071)(0.118)8.577**

0.09000.338**

8.506**

0.08110.331**(4.205)(0.080)(0.148)(4.231)(0.081)(0.150)0.712

0.05840.0911

0.784

0.05590.0912(3.420)(0.063)(0.100)(3.537)(0.063)(0.100)-0.2490.00475-0.0185-0.2460.00378-0.0188(0.609)(0.012)(0.018)(0.633)(0.012)(0.018)1

1(0)Constant(0)407.5***-0.832398.8***-0.282-0.931***-0.817***(28.420)(0.622)(30.380)(0.629)(0.187)(0.185)

1,812

1,812

1,812

1,812

1,812

1,812

1,812

1,812

1,812

Standard errors in parentheses*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1

Note: AIC for Model 15a = 236617 and for Model 16a = 202366.

50

1,812

1,812

1,812

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