lA置Rl,
Conf-

mS 0 0l

S E S SION Ii
STATUS〇F
mDIATl〇N EDUCATl〇N
IN
SEVERAL C〇UNTRIE S

TUESDAY, AUGUST24

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2005 -0 0 l'Catch Them Young Strategy' for the EthicalEducationon Radiation Technology: A Concept of 7 'Es'
A.L. Bhatia 1
Radiation Bio1ogy Laboratory
University of Rajasthan
Jaipur 302004;India-

It is the ethics which makes human to make the justifiable use o f radiation;there arealways two sides o f coin;the benefits in the use o f ionising radiation and radionuclide
should weigh with the risk. Radiation techno1ogy has both, the advantages anddisadvantages with certain shortcomings;however abandonment ofany techno1ogy at thisjuncture may be threat to human civilization. There should always be a rapid evolving
process in the deve1opment of techno1ogy and so in radiation techniques for thesustenance o f human welfare. Hence a strategy''is intended to be proposed andformulated through this Conference;some in depth and deep rooted engravings on theyoungminds are proposed which are going to be the part of an enlightened citizens andpolicy makers o f tomorrow who could justifiably implement the right and better use ofradia tion techno1ogy. Thus nowhere it could be taken as theliberaluse ofdouble edged

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The proposed strategy in the presentation wi11emphasize on educationalpolicy fromlight
1earning activities in the classroom to a shortterm a n d l o n g lasting impact for the
young children through plannedlessons which could make a mind etchingluminouspart o f their curriculum.Ethics is an engrave on the minds which are formed after
pro1onged exposure ofstimuli to brain through receptor organs by various wayslike by aregular'dinner table chats','company chat on playground'and'off: hour chat by teacher'or by self experience. Radiation educationleading to ethics certainly can not be by self
experiences-however the narration,pictures and movies on some o f incidenceslike thatofHiroshima and Nagasaki should be very often and religiously given and shown to themworld wide. Animpressive and'sugar coated'informalways ofradiation education isneeded.

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The principle of 7 E s i. e. how exposure to experiences,education,enrichment ofknowledge,elimination of fear and engravings in mind lead to ethics for radiation
which wi11give us enlightened citizens, policy makers andleaders. Author wi11advocate
the inclusion ofcertainlessons in curriculum whereby child should cultivate rationality of
the use o f radiation and eliminate fear against radiation. This would enable adolescent
brains to permeate the judiciousleamingleading to the formation of their mindset andrelated behaviour.The psychologicaland socio1ogicalimpact ofradiation education withthe possible questions in the minds ofaugust audience andluminaries are also intended tobe discussed. The1ogics based upon the adolescent brain and age related behavioral
manifestations wi11further advocate the proposed strategic and premeditated theoryon
ethicaleducation on the use ofradiation techno1ogy.

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1 Professor and Head: a rmbhaCil sancharnet.in; a r ,i ndIaIbhati a (1imvaholl.co .
TeL:0091 l 4 l 27ll304;0091 l 4 1 2711158;009l 1 4 l 5064287

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INTR〇DUCTI〇N
It is the ethics which m akes human to make the justifiable use of radiation;therearealways two sides of coin;the benefits in the use o f ionising radiation and radionuclide
should weigh with therisk. Radiation techno1ogy has both,the advantages anddisadvantages with certain shortcomings;however abandonment ofany technology at thisjuncture may be threat to human civilization. There should always be a rapid evolving
process in the deve1opment of techno1ogy and so in radiation techniques for thesustenance of human welfare.Hence a strategy is intended to be proposed andformulated throughthis Conference;some in depth and deep rooted engravings on theyoung minds are proposed whichare going to be the part of an enlightened citizens andpolicy makers of tomorrow who could justifiably implement the right and better use ofradiation technology. T h u s nowhere it could be taken as theliberaluse of double edged
sword.

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l.l T h e Nature and Scope of Risksand Benefits

The requirement that research be justified on the basis of a favorable risk/benefit
assessment,bears a c1ose relation to the principle o f beneficence, j u s t a s t h e moral
requirement that infor med consent be obtained is derived primarily from the principle ofrespect for persons.

The term"risk"refers to a possibility that harm may occur.However,when expressions
such as"sma11risk"or "high risk"are used,they usua11y refer(often ambiguously)both tothe chance(probability)of experiencing a harm,and the severity(magnitude)of theenvisioned har m.
The term"benefit"is used in the research context to refer to something of positive value
related to health or welfare.Unlike risk","benefit i s not a term that expresses
probabilities.Risk is properly contrasted to probability of benefits,and benefits areproperly contrasted with harms rather than risks of harm.Accordingly,so ca11ed risk/
benefit assessmentsare concemed with the probabilities and magnitudes of possible
harms,and anticipated benefits(Figure1).Many kinds of possible harms and benefits
need to be taken into account.There are,for example,risks of psychologicalharm,
physicalharm,1egalharm,socialharmand economic harm,and the corresponding
benefit s While the mostlikely types of harms to research subjects are those ofpsycho1ogica1or physicalpain or irljury,other possible kinds should not be over1ooked.

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田sks and benefits of research may affect the individualsubjects,the families of theindividualsubjects,and societyatlarge(or specialgroups of subjects in society).
Previous codes and Federalregulations have required that risks to subjects be outweighedby the sum ofboth the anticipated benefit to the subject,ifany,and the anticipated benefit
to society in the form of knowledge to be gainedfrom the research.In balancing thesediff el rent elements,the risks and benefits af lfecting the immediate research subject wi11
norma11y carryspecialweight. 0 n the other hand,interests,other than those ofthe subject,
may on some occasions be sufficient by themselves to justify the risks involved in the
research,solong as the subjects'rights have been protected.Beneficence thus requiresthat we protect against risk of harm to subjects,and also that we be concerned about the
1oss ofthe substantialbenefits that might be gained from research.

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l.2Role of Agencies

Now the ICRPguidelinesare
any risk; must be keptthat ″
much s m a11er t han t hat fromother hazards″ an d ″thepro ba b前ty ? deve1oping
rad iation dependent d iseases,characteristica11y cancers, isdirectly proportiona1l to thed ose received .That is,there
is no threshold.By thelate
1970s the question had
become o n e a s t o what is'reasonable'.Utilitarian costbenefit analysis was invogue. The key questions
were seen as: How many
1ives wi11be saved?What w加 it cost?Protect society,it wasthought,andthe individua1
wi11be protected.But by the time the1990sarrived the emphasis had changed.A concem
for individualrisk was uppermostAnimportant question was that of inequity. I t was not
acceptable i f a single individualwas at highrisk even ifthe population atlarge wererelatively safe.Standards must therefore address the question ofthe individualrisk.

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N o w that we are in the2000s the focus has become one o f looking at individualrisks,
sometimesfrom single sources.Butthe threshold effect is sti11debated.The French
Academy(the reporter notes the dependence of French industryupon nuclearpower andofFrench militaryprestige upon nuclearweapons)hasproduced a reportthat says such athreshold exists.In the U S Senate,Sen.Pete Domenici has introduced a resolution
demanding recognition of such athreshold by bodies such as ICRP.Yet,says,ICRP,
there is no threshold.2-

It is the ethics which makes human to make the justifiable use of an inventorylike
radiation and radioactive substances.Thereare2sides of coin the benefits in the use ofionising radiation and radio nuclides shouId weigh theriskWhile irradiation ofhumans
in medicaland other researches can present certain calculable risks,such irradiation,
when properly contro11ed, carries a sma11er risk to health than many chemicals,
pharmaceuticals and other agents in common use.The InternationalCommission on
RadiologicalProtection(ICRP),established i n 1 9 2 8 b y the IntemationalCongress ofRadiology,haspublished comprehensive recommendations on the protection ofman fromionising radiation,including recommendations on exposure in the context of medica1
research.In addition,the World Health Organisation published a report on the use ofionising radiation and radionuclides on human beings for medicalresearch,training andnon medicalpurposes.

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One of the actions of InternationalRadiation Protection A g e n c y ( I R P A ) on the
Executive Councilf l:・om Hiroshima was to operate a forum for discussion of differentw w w .pugwash.org/reports/nw/nw11.htm The Effectsof Low LevelRadiation Reportof the
British Pugwash Group18April2000;Chair:Sebastian Pease Rapporteur:Peter Nicholls,British Instituteof Radiology,London,UK
2 http://

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Codes of Ethics with a view to preparing a proposalfor adoption in Madrid. This
proposalprepared is based on the common elements of the Codes adopted by the U S
Health Physics Society, The U K Societyfor RadiologicalProtection and theAustralasian Radiation Protection Society. Note hasalso been taken of the Canadian
Radiation Protection Association Code o f ProfessionalEthics where its coverage wassimilarto that ofthe other Codes.It is commendable that societies and individualIRPA
Membersare encouraged to review the proposaland make comments or suggestions.
Though,the principles have been primarily intended to aid members o f IRPA Associate
Societies in maintaining a p r o f e s s i o n a l l e v e l o f ethicalconduct, however theirsignificance and relevance can not be safely ruled out in policy making.They are to be
regardedasguidelines using which members may determine the proprietyof theirconduct in a11relationships in which theyare exercising their professionalexpertise. 1f
there is reaso n to betieve that a m em ber had breac hed this Code of [ Ethics / Ethica1
Conduct], t he ,S:o cietyto which the m em ber be1longs [sha11/sho uld1 investig.ate a n d [ takeappr op ・iate measu ・e.s. / if su bstaniiated t he m e mber may 1be require d to fo( rfteit
nem6e ・,,あ1p がthe ,1ocieりa d o / /ft/ 』 ] . ''3
.

,
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l.3Present Scenario of Use of Radiation Technology

Renewable energy sources other than hydro have high generating costs butare suitable
for sma1lintermi ttent 1oad electricity demand.Nuclear power generaL ion is an establishedpart ofthe world's electricity m i x providing over16%ofworld electricity 4 (cf. coa140%.
oil10%,naturalgasl5%and h y d r o & o t h e r l 9 % ) . l t is especia11y suitable forlarge scale,base 1oad electricitydemand.

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A totalof 438nuclearpower plants were operating around the world at the end of 2000,
according to datareported to the IAEA's Power Reactor Inf ol rmation System.

Asia is the only region in the world where electricity generating capacity and specificaliynuclearpower is growing significantly. I n East and South Asia there are currently about
100 nuclearpower reactors in operation,20under construction and plans to build about afurther forty. T h e greatestgrowth in nuclear generation is expected in China, Japan,SouthK.orea andlndia. India is a pioneer in developing the thoriumfuelcycle,and has severa1
advanced fiaciiities reiated to this.5j

I n India ] 4units in operation( .5GWe), 8under construction,5planned or proposed,
also5research reactors. lndia has achieved independence in its nuclearfuelcycle.
However,nuclearpower currently suppliesless t h a n 4 % o f electricity in India.Theunits
under construction are due for completion by2010.Afurther five unitsare planned or
proposed.In contrast with NorthAmerica and most of Westem Europe where growth inelectricity generating capacity and particularly nuclearpower hasleve11ed out,a numberof countries in East and Southeast Asiaare planning and building new power reactors tomeet their increasing demands for electricity.

3 [IRPA

Code ofEthics(Draft1 June2002][Ethics/EthicalConduct](Draft2〇ctober2003)]

4 http://www.uic.com.au/nip07.htm

5Asia's N tlclearEnergy Growth,Nuclearlssues Briefing Paper2,November2003;
http://www. uic.com.a l」/nip07 .htm

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Power
〇ther
Power
Power
Reactors
Research Stages o1
Reactors Reactors
PlannedReactors the Fue ]
Under
in
or
Cycle
〇peration Construction
Proposed
Japan

53

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17+1

S. Korea
N.Korea

18

2

8

2
1

10

13

2

ChinaNNC 8

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China
Taipower

6

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India

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8

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Philippines
Thailand
VietnamBangladesh
Malaysia

rotal

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Nuclear Power i n Asia,and Involvement with the Nuclear FuelCycle
101

54operable,2under construction Key: U M
Ulr anium Mining, C Conversion, EE nric hm ent F F F uetFlabricat i o n R
Reprocessing,WM
Waste
il r s pent fue1
Management faci/i/t言s f oa w ay f ,o 1 reacio ・.f.

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Figure 2: Nuclear Share
Electricity Generation in2003

̲

7 Asia's NuclearEnergyGrowth,Nuclearlssues Briefi ng Paper2,
November2003; n ttp:/ ハ ww . uic.com .a l」1 nipu .ntl11

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2. ISSUES 〇F ETHICS A N D M〇RALS

Law and morals don't always meet,new area,old questions or newarea with newquestions?Does the medium bring new ethicalquestions to bear?e.g.securityand safety;
we have the same information(and possibly more)but the problems comefrom easier
handling of that information.Ethics is the study of morals whichare the(right or good)
habits which people have in a society(1at. Mores).Applied ethics tries to simplify thequestions of ethics/morals so that they can be discussed.Ethics have been and are sti11(albeit to alesser degree)used to formulate policies in societies.Therefore the aim(s)of
Ethics are the good ofthe people to understand what it would be-meta ethics,to build asystem to solve how to get there,to apply the system(s)to actualquestions coherently andconsistently and to aid us in our moralproblems.

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2.1Ethics for Radiation

Why ethics for radiation technology is needed?Any Technology has advanced fasterthan ethicalvalues,morals andlaws and it warrants discussion between relevant parties,
ethicists, professionals, 'inte11igentsia', organization representatives, politicians,
media, 'normal' people,etc.And so is with the techno1ogy using radiation andradioactivity.Therefore for the advancement of radiation techno1ogy both ethicists andprofessionals(i.e. users and policy makers)are needed to understand both to be able todiscuss rationa1ly(and emotiona11y,at that)the-Ethics and-Techno1ogy whereby theconceptualand usage muddles could be avoided.Professionals can provide the necessary
facts of the details and Ethicists can clarify the questions so that discussion is possible
whereby users at one juncture have better understanding with generalpublic.This
understanding is highly desirable for the growth of techno1ogy and deve1opment of any
country. A t this point the Darwinism should be evaluated with a view of selfevolving
process of countries and races.As SocialDarwinism says that some individuals
or'races'based on some of their featuresare'better'than others and thus ought befavoured above others.Howto measure these traits?What to do withthoseless'good'in
term of deve1oped and developing and underdeveloped countries.

- -2.2 '7 Es' Ruled Ethics for Radiation Use

Guidelinesare hereby recomnended as7rules on the basis for ethics on use of radiation
and radiation techno1ogy.

I. ElementaryRuIe:The use of radiation technology should be usefulto society.
II. Experiment Rule:Experiments should be based on animalresearch. Nofurther
experimentation ifdeath or disability occurs.

m. Evasive Rule:Nounnecessaryphysica1or psycho1ogicalharm tothe subjects andstudents.

I V . Economic Ruleto the benefits.

In radiation techno1ogy the risk involved should be proportiona1

E m ployee Rule:Protect the worker/employee or any subject from har m. 0VI

E t h i c a l R u l e : P o l i c i e s should be prepared by highly quali fied scientists withethicalbackground only.

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VIi. E limination R u l e : T h e researcher must be prepared to discontinue the experimentin the event of any results untoward to the society .

˜d I hereby make an eloquent appealfor action.The rules require continuous dia1ogue.
Assessment o f r i s k s a s a percentage of naturalbackground may be the most useful.This
then also enables us to consider the question ofenvironmentalradiation protection policy
an area which current human focused guidelines do not address. Because theenvironment is not one of individuals,suchrisksare direct and not statisticalin nature.
What w i l l b e the eff el ct on oaktrees?0r she11fish?Note that some organisms are much
1ess sensitive to radiation than are human beings(cockroaches are the famous example)
but others more so(including some plants and perhaps trees).

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2.2.l T h r e e fundamentalprinciples:But justifying acceptablelevels of radiation
involves invoking more than science;it is also a matter of policy into which technica1
radio1ogicalissues are but a minor input.At the moment a l l w e can say technica11y that:-●

Keep radiationas1owasreasonably practicable to minimise1ong term effects

・ Justify a11exposure by considering the benefits●

Keep allexposure withinlegallimits

2.2.2 L i m i t s : T h e guideline should be set to prevent acute effects and to provide alega1
backstop. Just exceeding alimit is not a l i f e or death matter but it does show that safety
needs to be given the rightleve1of management priority.Safety should be achieved bygaining the trust of people by an honest approach on therisks of radiation,discussing
safety openly. T h i s is done with regularstafftraining,working with Trades Union
appointed Safety representatives and regularmeetings with representatives ofthe1oca1
community. The abilityto empathisewith t h e f u l l c r o s s section of society,frommanaging directors to shop stewards to concemed members ofthe public is a key quality
ofradio1ogicalprotection specialists.

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2.2.3People should have dialogues together: Peoplef l:・omallradiation organisations
and businesses should meet with common man together,to provide a forum for radiation
safety issues to be debated in a proper scientific manner.Iwi1llikely to have2aspects,
one,scientific which is the correct way to proceed and another philosophicalwhich havedifferent value systems.However,victorythrough ethics hasone motto that the benefitsof working andliving with radiation wi11always outweigh therisks .The necessityfor
such a meet is that many people worried on account ofradiation and its eff 1ects;theyare
confused by the contradictions also.For example,diagnostic x rays and therapeutic
gamma raysare considered good whereas radioactive wastesare bad.We believe that tohelp workers,patients and the public dealsafely and rationallywith radiation,they should
understand something about it.Radiation Education Forumcan do this independent ofboth the nuclear industryand anti nuclearprotest groups.

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3. S T R A T E G Y
3.l ''Catch Them Young Strategy'':
From that we are a1l humans, certain
intersubjective nor ms fo11ow.A11humans subscribe to certain normativefacts,1ike'protect your young',tryto maximize your own survival'etc.Teaching anything new ortransferring a thought or an idea to a youngster is fareasier than teaching or transferring
to a grown up.Westem nations are fu1ly aware of this fact and have fu11y
developedprogrammes for energy awareness and environment for schoolkids.In India- 75 -76 --J A E R I Conf-

2005 001

the samekind o f detailed attention or concentration to inculcating the values ofenvironment protection and nuclear energy islacking. From these fo11ows the need to act
socia11y by the morals ofthe society which can be seen as basis for a11deve1oping societythat is the societymaking the best and'optimal'and'rationale'use of technologylike
those of radiation which is based on the psycho1ogicaland socio1ogicalimpact ofradiation education with the possible questions in the minds of august audience and1uminaries need to be addressed at this juncture. The1ogics based upon the adolescent
brain and age related behavioralmanifestations wi11 further advocate the proposed
strategic and premeditated theoryon ethicaleducation for the use ofradiation techno1ogy.

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N o w what is most important that a strategy f o r some in depth and deep rooted
engravement on the young mind needs to be chalked out and formulated through thisConference which could produce the enlightened citizens and policy makers oftomorrow
who couldjustify the right and better use ofradiation and radionuclides.

The principle of 7 E s i.e. how exposure to experiences,education, enrichment ofknowledge,elimination of fearand engravings in mind lead to ethics for radiation
which wi11give us enlightened citizens,policy makers andleaders.Author wi11advocate
the inclusion ofcertainlessons in curriculum whereby child should cultivate rationality of
the use of radiation and eliminate fear against radiation.This would enable adolescent
brains to permeatethe judiciousleamingleading to the formation of their mindset andrelated behaviour(Figures3and4).

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Figure3:
ramidalRepresentation of Strategy ofRadiation Education

Most schools consider these
topics as a "chore imposed
from"above"to be"got overwith" .Not only at schoolbut
also at home these topics
deserve to be given more
attention and a gentle emphasisbyparents. 0 f
courseGovemment plays a key role ineducation and awarenessasit
a1one has the resources tomobiiize such programmes and run awareness programmes country wise.

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3.2Proposed Strategy:The author intends to propose through his presentation a shortterm and1ong 1asting impact educationalstrategy for the young children with certain
proposedlessons which could make a'1ight'part oftheir studies.Strategy includes-

1. Classroom but burdenfree activities involving the use of Geiger Mu11er Counter,,microwave,radio waves andfu11spectru m of light,its energy and its relationshipwith thefrequency.
2. Use o f RadioPharmaceuticals involves the use o f medicineslabe11ed with aradionuclide in order to evaluate their biokinetic behaviour.In some instances theradionuclide may be administered separatelyfrom the medicine.
3. Radiography ofthe subject may sometimes be necessarytoassess the action ofthe

medicine,particularly where medicines affecting bone metabolismare involved.

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4. Diagnostic applications:Most of such research is incidentalto the irradiation ofpatients in the course of diagnosis and treatment,but it wi11sometimes benecessaryto evaluate normalsubjectsaswe11.The establishment o f medicalandbiologicalreference values based on an adequate selection of known normal
subjects provides standards against which abnorm alities can be judged.
5. 〇ther Uses: This category covers studies in physiology, pathology andanthropo1ogy and includes studies on volunteers involvingthe use of compounds
1abe1led withradioactivityto investigate,for instance,iron absorption,the fate offood additives and pesticidesthatare swal1owed or inhaled.
6. Models ofNuclear Power Plants,X rays,PIimaryIdea on Dose dependent Effects--

Figu r e 4 : 7 E s Circle
for
Radiation
Education Strateglr
Interactions: Questions
in normative ethics,or
the
study
of
', pM1osophicalide因 about
1 : right,
virtueand, happiness,including the
1 question,"Whybemora1?"are verymuch
heeded upon to discuss.
Introduces students tocommunication
andconflict resolution ski1ls
pertinent to healthcare.
C)rther topics include an
overview of ethicaltheories and current tegalancl ethicalissues in healthcare(specifically in oncology).
L

Difficult interactions are not unique to science,butthe dynamic of the research setting
provides a distinct context for such relationships to develop.lnteraction tothe scientificresearch endeavour should not be appalling.The NationalAcadeinies should issue many
reportsand publicationson responsible conduct inradiation science.Readfi・ee online orpurchase in bulk.

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4. S H〇RT T E R M A N D L〇NG LASTING IMPACT--

4.1Imprinting Role of Brain:Neuro1ogically it can be hypothesizedthatthe term
mind is an abbreviation of il1 definedgroups of mentalactivities,memory,emotions,inte1ligence and behaviour.Anatomica11y such activitiesare govemed by certainareasof
the brain.Thesearefrontalneocortex,1imbiclobe,hypothalamus and upper brain stem.
Atthe core ofthese structuresliesthe medialforebrain bundlethe complex set ofascending and descending fibresthat connectthese structures rostral y and caudally.

i4.2Adolescent Brain: ]lmpressions and engravement of new and newerleamings in
m i n d a r e t h e results of formation of new and newer connectivities of neurons,
qualitatively and quantitativelyaswe11asformation of new proteins. B u t it isa11
depending on the types and qualityof stimuli being fed to the young brain throughsensoryorgans or one can say exposure tothe atmosphere createdaround him.The bare
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fact should not ignored that more strenuously you put afact in this developing brain more
it gets disenchantedfrom that veryleaming. It is also to be included in his curriculumthat he or she should cultivate rationality,eliminate feartowards radiation only then hewi11be able to per meate the rightlearning in his mind fiorming his behaviour.
Recent developments in brain research provide scientific support to the theories on thelimitations of youth's decision making.The deve1opment of a child's brain to adulthood
hasbeen traced.It is foundthat biologica11y,adolescents do not havethe same abilitiesas
adults to controltheir actions and make sound decisions(Researchers at UCLA,Harvard
MedicalSchoolandthe NationalInstitute ofMentalHealth).However,a process ca1led"myelination" a normalhealthy adolescent brain deve1ops during adolescenceas
researchers have discoveredthroughneuroimaging techno1ogy.

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The General Strategy for Radiation Education

Figure5:

The brain's maturation process continuesthroughadolescence and is not complete unti1
the early20's.Thearea not yetfully refined and focused inthe adolescent mind is called
the prefrontalcortex.The prefrontalcortex isthelargest section ofthe brain,s1owest to
develop,and undergoes the mostdrastic changes during adolescence.The prefrontal
cortex is responsible for complexthinking.It allowsthe mind to organize,perform
abstractthinking,prioritize,anticipate consequences,controlimpulses and conformbehavior accordingly.

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Thefrontal1obes play important roles in a varietyofhigher psychologicalprocesses 1ike
planning,decision making,impulse contro1,1anguage,memory,and others(Figure6).
There is mounting evidence that neuronalcircuitryinthefrontallobes is shaped andfine
tuned during adolescence,andthat experience plays a prominent role inthese changes

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To compensate forthe underdeve1opment of the prefrontalcortexthe adolescent brain
relies heavily on anotherarea ofthe brain ca11ed the amygdala,which creates a tendency
to react on instincts.
Pubertalincreases in gonadalhormonesare a hallmark of adolescence,although there is
1ittle evidence for a simpleassociation ofthese hormones withbehavioralchange duringadolescence.Prominent deve1opmentaltransform ations are seen in prefrontalcortex and1imbic brain regions of adolescents across a variety of species,alterationsthat include anapparent s h i f t i n t h e balance between
mesocorticaland mesolimbic dopamine
systems.

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Figure6:The FrontalLobe of Brain-

Deve1opmenta1 changes in 由ese
stressor sensitive regions, which are
criticalfor attributing incentive salienceto drugs and other stimuli,1ikely contribute to the unique characteristics of adolescence9.

Deve1opmentaltransformations ofthe adolescent brain may have been evolutionarilyadvantageous in promoting behavioraladaptations to avoid inbreeding and to facilitate
thetransition to independence.These braintransformations may also alter sensitivityofadolescents to a number of alcoholefliects,leading perhaps in some cases to higher
intakes to attain reinforcing effects.These features o f t h e adolescent brain mayalso
increasethe sensitivityof adolescents to stressors,further escalatingtheir propensityto
initiate anyuse.Additionalinvestigationsare needed to resolve whether ethanoluse
duringadolescence disrupts maturationalprocesses in ethanol sensitive brain regions l o.
It's no wonderthattheadolescent years thetransition between childhood andadulthood can bethe most sensitive time in a person'slife.Indeed,although physica1
strengthand reaction times peakinthese years,morbidityand mortalityincrease by300%
in this g roup.11,l 2

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4.3EnvironmentalInfluence:Much o f t h e behavior characterizing adolescence isrooted in biology,interminglingwithenvironmentalinfluences to cause teens to
assimilate the surrounding,take more risks,and experience wide swings in emotion.

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9 Spear LP. (2002)The adolescent brain and age related behavioralmanifestations. Neurosci Biobehav
Rev.24(4):417 63.

lo.Spear L P. (2002):The adolescent brain and the college drinker:biologicalbasis ofpropensity tof se!toatnert
d misuse alcohol. J Stud AlcoholSup p l ( l 4 );71 - 8l :̲
Woo j lol so Foa 」 ti n:http://www rwJiorg/ index jsp
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li

1ll l tl.

l 2 l 1l it !l l : // 'l
1,; l em . 0l-ljJ・〇n September18 20,2003,expertsgathered In New York to addressthe changes and challenges ofl m ent.・ Vulnerab前ties and 〇pportunities.The
adolescence at a meeting called Adolescence Brain De e1top、'

conference was hosted in co1laboration with the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation and the Tobacco
Etio1ogyResearch Network,with supportfi・om the NationalInstitutes ofHealth.

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Whether this kind of instability may be of any use? Yes. A physica11y mature body and a
sti1l maturing nervous system may be of great use for imprinting severalethical facts andmoralvalues. T h e interaction ofbiologicalchanges and environmentalchallenges makes
adolescence a time of increasedvulnerability and provide a great opportunityto thepolicy makers.The adolescent brain is built toleam,amassing more knowledge in highschooland college than at any other time.With the right dose of guidance andunderstanding, adolescence can be a relatively smoothtransition. And for mostindividuals,that's exactly the case,with the majorityof teens getting through thosedifficult years just fine.

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5.THE ETHICS 〇FRADIATI〇N STUDY P REREQUISITE
Ethicaland phi1osophicalissuesarising in and from the health care system.Problems andconflicts in society are generally being posed by interpersona1,professionaland teacher
students relationships.Questions dealingwiththe right toleam andleave,the right todiscardare thelimitations in implementation our strategy.

--

The multi dimensionalnature of study and complexities in providingRADIATION
information to diverse populations required streamlining. Students' self awareness,knowledge,and skills addressed through discussions of readings,videos and practice
exercises.
5.1Integrityand Trust:Theseare the hallmarks of the scientific discovery and use oftechnology.Being objective is criticalto this process,because communicating one's
research to the scientific community is at the heart of what keeps science alive.It's also
the principalway that scientists m ake their reputations,get jobs and promotions,and
obtain sustained research support.In the current climate of radiation research,ethicaleducation hasbecome trickier than ever.Therefore efforts need to be more collaborative.
Institutions need to be more aggressive intuming radiation knowledge into products.

Even though universities,professionalsocieties,and joumalpublishers have radiation
policies and ethicalguidelines outlining the standards that researchers should strive for,no one is adequately prepared to dealwithdisputes.When problems doarise,the systemst加 relies on trust thatthose involved wi11act responsibly. Althoughthe researchcomm urtity agrees tha t high elhicall stlmdards are worthy goats, fe w 可 these Junilorm e mbers (f the scientjfic comm u nity receipe any explicittrailning o l pub licaaon
practices andmores. Instead,theyare expected to absorb their respective disciplines'
standards by osmosis.Teaching ethics to researchers is not the key point "ethics a ・ecaught, ◆tottaught,"one saying goes.Rather,many thinkthe focus needs to be on
helping researchers to be prepared to work through problems together so that everyone inpublic involvedwillbe satisfiedwith the outcome. But it is not true.Agencies shouldhave dialogues directly withpublic and it only possible when they have clear
fundamentals the seeds ofwhich were sown during their teenage years.

、

,

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,

5.2Discourse on Radiation Ethics:Talking to one's trainees about radiation ethics is
1iketalking to one's children about something boring. Topics suchasthe use ofradiationand nuclearpower in the public place may be experienced as highly personalandpotentia1ly embarrassing and generally thought to be restricted to only intuition and work
place.Afurtherpara11elbetw,een radiation education and sex education is that ifnot given
good information and opportunities to get answers to their questions,not only children

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but adults too wi11certainly pick up potentia11y damaging misinformation and sharermsunderstandi n●

Knowledge on the radiation techno1ogy exerts many pressures on beginning andexperienced ones alike.A11parts of the research system have a responsibilityto
recognize and respond to these pressures.Institutions must review their own
policies,foster awareness of radiation ethics,and ensure that researchers areaware ofthe policies thatare in place. A n d researchers should constantly be awareof the extent to which ethica11y based decisions wi11influence their successas
nuclearscientists.

・ Radiation Scientists should seek to advance nuclearscience,understand the1imitations oftheir knowledge,and respect the truth.They should ensure that theirscientific contributions,and those o f their co11aboratorsare thorough,accurate,
and unbiased in design,implementation,and presentation.
,●

Guidelines should be offered not in the sense that there is any immediate crisis in
ethicalbehaviour,but ratherfrom a conviction that the observance ofhigh ethica1
standards is so vitalto the whole scicntific enterprise t h at a definition of thosestandards should be brought to the attention ofa11concerned.13

Surely many problems can be ameliorated by a constant awareness ofthe specialdutyof
faculty to foster the inte11ectualgrowth and independence oftheir students,by a habit ofgenerosity in giving as much credit to their contributions as is consistent with realistic
appraisa1 and bM the meticu1ous observation of strict standards o f citation and,acknowledgment.4

6. J〇INT EFF〇RTS F〇R QUALITY 〇F L I F E

Radiation Society should provide a broad forumfor ethica1,1ega1,socia1,and other issues
related to nuclearscience and technology(Figure7),including the online Professiona1
Ethics Reports.Hence it becomes not only the ethicalbut socialand politicalissues tod e a l w i t h . A s shown inthe Figure quality oflife ofindividua1,societyand politydepends
o n 4 o t h e r factorslike system quality,accountability,rights and obligation and ethics.
Accountability,liability&controlare related to fo11owing issues:

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●

●

●

Ethicalissues:who is morally responsible for consequences ofabuse ofradiationenergy or power cut?

Socialissues:what should societyexpect and a11ow?

Politicalissues:to what extent should govemment owe the responsibility?Where
does it fai1?

When it comes to quality of life,it should have fo11owing major issues

l3

14

●

centraIizationvs.decentralization●

rapid change:reduced response time to competition-

modi「icd h tl p://pubs.acs.org/insl ruct/ethic2000.pdf
Written in19311l b y l l e n un 1 vef sity president Donald Kennedy,who is now editor in c hiefof Science

、-

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・ maintaining boundaries:famiiy,work,1eisure・ dependence andvulnerability●

crime&abuse vs.rationale&optimaluse●

employment:trickle down technology;reengineeringjob1oss●

equity&access:increasing racial&socialclass cleavages●

healthrisks-

Figure7:an improvementof quality of life: theEthicalSocialand
PoliticalContributions

Assessment of R i s k s a n d
Benefits:The codes consistof rules, some general,
others specific that guidethe investigators or thereviewers of research intheir work.Such rules often
are inadequate to covercomplex situations;at times
they come into conflict,andthey arefrequently difficult
to interpret or apply.Broader ethicalprinciples wi11provide a basis on which specificrules may be formulated,criticized and interpreted. Theassessment presents bothan
1E pportunityand a responsibilityto gather systematic and comprehensive information.

,

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APPENDIX
Questions in the minds of August Audience and Luminaries
1.

What is the need to have such a strategy in the wake of large exposure of knowledge to publicthrough various meanslike media,availabilityof such materiale.g.brochures,leaflets,booklets
etc.,available in plentyofnumbersand beingfi eely circulated by various agencies-

Answer:Suchliterature is primarily meant for adultsand computer i11iterates. By this time it is mainly
confined to either media or researchers.
2.

Media people take such educationalmaterialto this may be adequate.

Answer:Yes,they do so but primarily they themselves do not understand the intricacy of techno1ogica1
deve1opment with radiation and radioisotopes due tolack of primaryradiation knowledge.Secondly,
generalpublic and common man is hardly interested in such materia1.Thirdly such materialis reached to
public only in the wake ofunusualsituations or in any untoward incidencelike Chernobylaccidents or any
sensationalstories related toleakage of radioactive materials or theftof any diagnostic or therapeutic
medicalinstrument(may be out of ignorance).〇r during the movement by people which also includes
research ofepidemio1ogicalimportance,e.g.tubercu1osis and silicosis surveys and case fiinding work in thefield of industrialmedicine and occupationalhealth.

-3.

Whether such education to children on radiation is notredundant?

Answer:Ethics resultsfrom engravings of the minds which arelaid down after pro1onged exposure ofstimuli to brain either by a regular'dinner table chats','company chat on pla:1l ground'and'off ' hour chatwith their teachers'or by self experience.Certainly the self experiences in case ofradiation education can
not be considered a safe mean.However the narration,pictures and movies on some of incidenceslike thatofHiroshima and Nagasaki should be veryoften and religiously given and shown to t h e m . I advocate only
an impressive and'sugar coated'informalways ofeducation.

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4.

How much and whatpart it should consist ofnormalones?

Answer:From V I to Vm Standard Classes,the moraleducation is being taught g1oba11y but formally andthat too with marks carrying weightage.It makes a routine reading for them without much impact on theirb r a i n . I believe halfofthis curriculum should now be devoted to techno1ogy and ethics part and halfofthe
this technology ethics(i.e.1/4ofthe totalcurriculum)should be dedicated to an informaldeliverance o fradiation education and ethics.

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5.

Radiation is Utility - or a problem?

Utilityis hardto measure and hard to defiine . I f 1 0 ' 0 0 0 people gain utility (what ever it might then be)fi om killing one,is it right?Ifl0'000 people gain utility fi・om ignoring one persons IPR's in their digita1
media,is it right?
'

6.

Whatkind ofprinciple fits in we11on the use ofradiationtechno1ogy?

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Utilitarianism!Itstates:'

Greatest amount ofgood to greatest amount ofpeople
Utilitarianism Act:Do what maximizes good in a given situation,good willfollow

Good does not necessarily equalhappiness.
'

Hospitals and health care aretypicalareasof implementation for utilitarian thinking

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2.2

How to balance the future i n a smallcountry withhuge traditions of nuclear applications:the Swedish example
Imre Pazsit

Chalmers University of Techno1ogy
Department of Reactor Physics
SE 41296Goteborg,Sweden-

l. Introduction:some historicaI facts

To understand the way how the Swedish energy situation and in particular the nuclear
energy sector has reached its present status,it is worthtaking a short historicalperspective.
As is known and w i l l b e described in more detail,the two main sources of electricity
generation in Sweden are hydro power and nuclear power,in a roughly equalshare.The
build up ofhydroelectric power was completed first,and the nuclear capacity was built up
afterwards.The building ofhydroelectric stations started inlarger scale in thel930's,andthe main surge of work was completed during the1950s and60's.Nuclear power,whosebuild up started in an industrialscale in thel970's,was considered as an energy altemative
already immediately after WW I I . I n the1950's and60's a broad nationalprogram wascreated for research in and development ofnuclear science and technology.This haslead tothe creation of a very strong nuclear industry in two ways:Sweden has the highest value fornuclearly generated kWhrs per capitain the world,and it is the sma11est country(byinhabitants)which has a capacity o f building nuclear reactors.

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The fact that nuclear energy was taken as an option,and indeed became one of the mainenergy sources,had a few different reasons. Firstly,there has been traditionally a strong
interest in research in nuclear physics in Sweden.The first,relatively sma1] cyclotron was
built already in1938at the NobelInstitute in Stockholm,capable ofaccelerating deuteronst o 7 M e V . A f t e r the Second World War,more ambitiousplans emerged.The Nobel
Chemistry Laureate The(Theodor)Svedberg(with whom thelate Yoshio Nishina hadscienti fic contact)was one ofthe driving forces to build a more powerfulcyclotron for the
production of radionuclides.An interesting circumstance is that the funding for the
cyc1otron came as a donation firom the Goteborg textile magnate GustafWerner,who was
the richest person in Sweden at that time.His company offered to finance a cyclotron,in
the hope that the quality of synthetic fibres can be improved by neutron irradiation,as hewas told by The Svedberg.

,.

This interest in nuclear science got a substantialampli fication by the intemationa1
enthusiasm on the perspectives ofpeacefulapplications ofnuclear power as a new and very
effective,cheap and clean source of energy. 〇ne has envisaged a strong increase in energy
demand in the post war industrialboom,and nuclear power seemed to be a very strong
candidate.Since Sweden does not have naturalresources of fossilfuels in any appreciable
extent,nuclear seemed to be a good altemative for an energy policy that did not make the

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country dependent on foreign suppl iers.Being self supporting,and hence not being
dependent on different alliances,was an important feeling in post war Sweden,which moreorless managed to conduct a neutrality policy for a1ong period. Also,there are ratherlarge
resources of uranium in the Swedish soil,and according to the originalplans these would
be used in Swedish reactors.Later it tumed out that it was easier and simpIer to buy
enriched uranium from abroad,and Swedish uranium was never used for energy production-

Already in the years after WW I I an Atomic Committee was initiated by the govemmentfor the exp1oration of the potentials of nuclear science and technology,with speci fic
govemmentalfunding. T h e non alliance policy also had the effect that Sweden was in a
relatively comfortable situation to share information on nuclear technology with othercountries,or to get hold of nuclear techno1ogy and materials.The first Swedish research
reactor,R1,was built with Norwegian heavy water and French uranium,and it was started
up nearly exactly50 years ago(in July1954).During the1970's and80's,Sweden has
completed the world's most intensive nuclear energy program:12reactor units were built ina country of(then)8million inhabitants.9out ofthese reactors were built by the Swedishcompany A SEA Atom.

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One can also wonder how a country with the size of Sweden could afford deve1oping areactor manufacturing industry . Construction of a nuclear reactor is a very resource
demanding industry,both in terms ofexpertise and advanced technology.However,nuclear
technology is not the onl y case where such a question could be put.ln the history ofmodem industrialSweden,a few strong,centralized industries played the m可or role.
Sweden has,for instancetwo car manufacturers,Volvo and SAAB,which is also unusual
for a country of Sweden's size.

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Developing a nuclear industryto such an extent required of course highly quali fiedtechnicalpersonne1.Some ofthem made a signi ficant intemationalcareer.The devotion of
Sweden to the nuclearline(and partly its position as a non a11ied country)is also
underlined by the fact that two ofthe GeneralSecretaries ofthe IAEA were Swedes:Sigvar
Eklund and Hans Blix.

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One can summarize by saying that the interplay of many beneficialcircumstances put
Sweden into the nuclear track with the goalof peacefulutilization of nuclear energy andtechno1ogy at a very early stage ofnuclear development in Europe.
2. The immediate past and the present energymix in Sweden

Sweden has,per inhabitant,the fourthlargest energy consumption in the world,after
Norway,Canada and Iceland.This is a consequence of an energy(and electricity)
demanding industry,and a cold cIimate.Since the share ofnuclear electricity generation ishigh in Sweden,around45%,whereas two ofthe other three countries,Norway and Iceland,
do not have nuclear power,and in Canada nuclear stands only for a b o u t 1 0 % o f a11
electricity generation,these facts together put Sweden into the position of largest nuclear
energy producer per inhabitant.There are severalcountries with a percentage of nuclear

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electricity that is higher than that of Sweden,such as France with a b o u t 7 5 % , b u t theconsumption ofelectricity per capita is muchless in those countries.
Some statistics are shown in the two tables be1ow. Table I shows the production in absoluteterms(GWh per year),whereas Table II and Fig. l . s h o w the relative contributions ofthe
domestic energy types(imports not included)for the past few years.The values natura1ly
fluctuate from yearto year,but there is alargerjump between1999and2000 which willbe
explained soon.

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Table l Electricityconsumption in Swedenl998 200l.

GWh

Hydro power
Nuclear power
Fossillmportl998
73,82970,5009 , 915
6 , 102l999
70862
70.200
9350
8456

2000
77.84854,772
8,797

18 , 308

2001
7 8,558
69,211
9,489
11 , 135

TabIe Ii. Relative contribution of the various energytypes
Hydro power
Nuclear power
Fossil

1998
48%
46%
6%

l999
47%
47%
6%

2000
55%
39%
6%

200l
50%
44%
6%

% % % % % % %0 0 0 0 0 0
6 5 4 3 2 1 0■Hydro power■N uclear power
口Fossil

1998

1999

2000

2001

F i g u r e l. Relative share of the electricityproduction forms

Fig. 2.shows the geographic position ofthe reactors,as wellas other nuclear facilities in
Sweden.Theselatter include a nuclear fuelfactoryof Westinghouse Atom(formerly ABB
A t o m ) t w o research reactors at the Studsvik site,the centralinterim storage facility forspent fuelat Oskarshamn,and the finalrepositoryfor radioactive waste(medium andlow
1eve1)at Forsmark.The site of the first power reactor at Agesta,Stockholm,which-

2005 -0 0 l

JAERI Conf--- - -̲produced a totalof 50 M W for partly centralheating and partly electricity generation,and
which was decommissioned in1972,is not shown.The firstlarge power reactor went on
the grid in1972,and thelast two inl985.Barsebac k l w a s closed down in1999.This has
its roots in the public opinion and the politicalsituation in Sweden as described be1ow.

'

f ol

l
t

●l

,・,- ・ ,o,, , n・,,,l, ,,oo

-

1

・

., lr:,ro ・;lr,L 1 ,oal ,w ・,1l- l f fo'

l11l1! ◆',・l・!1ll1l・̲ ̲ ̲ l- - -j一 コf llpp,,,。,, ・: ?

B , ,::n 2

l

;1

◆

-一

一,
l

一一

基?解?

i1

', ,

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護識 , 講望i'lll

Figure2. An overview ofthe nuclear faciIities in Sw,eden

3. Nuclear power as a poli ticalissue in Sweden
Even before more than halfofthe12reactors totally installed were completed,the nuclear
debate was started in Sweden.This in itselfwas not unique,similar trends could beobserved in many other industrialized countries using nuclear power.The specialwith theSwedish case was that nuclear power has become not only a public,but to a muchlarger
extent also a politicalissue.The position ofthe parties for or against nuclear power became
an important and decisive question in elections,and itled to fal1of govemmentstwice inthe pre l980 period.After the Three Mile Island accident in the U S in1979,this situationand the increasing opposition resulted in a nationalvote(referendum)in March1980 on the
future use ofnuclear power in Sweden.The referendum was unique in the sense that there
was no option available for the continued use,not to mention extension of nuclear power.
Allaltematives available aimed at phasing out nuclear power,the onl y diffierence being in
howfast this should happen.

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The outcome of the referendum was that no more than the already planned12reactors
should be built.At that time6units were already in operation,and another6being build orjust about to be started up.Further,accordingto the vote,nuclear power must be phased out
on the1ong run and replaced by renewable energy sources.The existing reactors can beusedaslong as they are safe and economica1.The phasing out has to be achieved in such a
way that the welfare and emp1oymentlevels must be maintained.The referendum did not
specify any date for the phasing out of nuclear power,i.e.when the above goals with theavailability of altemative energy sources can be secured.The govemment set2010 as thedeadline after the referendum in1981.There were severa1,and partly contradictory reasonsfor setting this date,but one strong belief,emphasized by the opponents ofnuclear power,
was that clean,cheap,and abundant/renewable energy w 加 be available to replace nuclear
by that time.Interestingly,fusion power was claimed to be one ofthe main candidates.
The aftermaths ofthis referendum have been influencing the Swedish energy politics sincethen.Although after1980,the intensity ofthe public debate and the politicalsigni ficance ofthe question have reduced,the Chemobylaccident hasput back the nuclear debate in thepo 価calscene.The reaction firom the public was strong,but,remarkably,quite short.The
ratio in the public opinion between opponents/proponentsleveled out already the year after.
The politicalconsequences were much1ongerlasting and signi ficant.0ne consequence of
the accident was a decision on the accelerated phase out,proposed by the reigning Social
Democrat Party and accepted in Parliament in1988.According to this plan the firsttwo
reactor units should be closed down already i n 1 9 9 5 96.This proposition,designated as
non withdrawable ,was withdrawn already at the next election.

-

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A more peculiar post Chemobyldecision,actually verylittleknown outside Sweden,wasthe so called Brain wash paragraph or ban on free thought ,i.e.§6in the Law on
Nuclear Techno1ogy,Law1987:3.This item in the Law declares that any activity,whose
expressed purpose is tolead to the construction o f a new reactor unit in Sweden,including
economicalcalculation,is criminaland violation of itleads to prosecution at a1ow court.
Although thelaw does not explicitly forbid studying new technologies and performing
research on new reactor as1ong as the purpose is not related to building a new reactor in
Sweden,such a l a w has obviously signi ficant negative consequences on the govemmentalfi」nding of research in nuclear engineering,and the attractiveness of the field to young
bright students.

--

A l o n g and complicated period fol1owed during t h e 1 9 9 0 ' s . I n l 9 9 l a so called New
Energy Policy waslaunched by govemment and accepted in Parliament.The main purpose
was the strengthening the research efforts on altemative energy sources.Changes ofgovemment and an officialcanceling ofthe accelerated phase out fo11owed.From the view
ofpublic opinion,the majority has been permanently infavour ofcontinued use ofnuclear
power,with about20%ofthe population being in favour ofbuilding new reactors(which,of course,is in conflict with Swedishlegislation due to the§6mentioned above).Mainly
due to the recognition ofthe fact that no significant step towards a naturalphase out was
taken(i.e.aging ofthe reactors,obvious abundance ofaltemative energy forms as predicted
and requested in the1980 nationalvote,or a strong opposition in the public opinion),the

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Parl i ament made a decision i n 1 9 9 7 t h a t nuclear power can be phased out without theful fi11ing of the conditions of the referendum.This is the Law on Nuclear Phasing O ut,
which means that the nuclearplants can be c1osed down based on solely politicalarguments,
even ifthey are safe,economica1,and no alternative energy forms are available.
Shortly thereafter,a Parliament decision was taken,by the help of the n e w l a w , o n thec1osing down of Barseb1lic k l b y the end o f J u n e 1 9 9 8. The closing down was postponeddue to an appealofthe utility Sydkraft which runs the reactor to the High Court,but fina1ly
the reactor was closed down o n 3 0 November1999.0ne reason for selecting the Barseb11ick
reactor to be c1osed down(in comparison with other reactors)was the permanent pressure
from the Danish politicians,who pointed out the geographicalc1oseness of Barseb1lick to
Copenhagen.(No such protests were raised when the site was selected for the construction,in consultation with Denmark).
As is seen in Table1,the energy imports increased immediately thereafter.Part of thedecreased energy production is covered by imported Danish electricity from coal fired
power plants.

-

The Parl iament commissioned the Govemment to close down also the second unit at theBarseb1lick site.However,this was connected to certain conditions,namely that the energy
produced or purchased to replace the fa11out of Barseb1lic k 2 s h o u l d be produced in anenvironmenta11y friendly way,such that the emission of greenhouse gases should notincrease.Those conditions have not been ful fi1led yet,so Barseb1lic k 2 i s in operation,and
there is no designated date for its c1osing down.The negotiations around this q uestion are
actua11y being made in a wider setting,which wi11be described soon.

-

Concurrent with the c1osing down of Barseb1lick 1,the Parl iament also cancel ied the date2010 for the complete phase out ofnuclear power.This haslead to a new and significant
opening in the energy policy which, together with several important concurrent
intemationalevents,altered the energy scene,as willbe described be1ow.

-

4. The recent situation and future prospects

The immediate consequence ofthe abandoning ofthe date2010 was that the first time sincelong,the nuclear industry could prepare for a period of operation much1onger than thegradually shrinking space ofabout one decade orless until2010.The planned investments
include,among others,also a power upgrade at severalof the operating units.Severa1
power plants have recently applied for power upgrade at the safety authority.A11thisdeve1opments mean not only investments and hardware upgrades,but also a1ong term needof highly qualifiedlabour for the nuclear industry. A s in many other countries,due tocutting budgets for universities and institutes of techno1ogy,the support for nuclear
engineering education was permanently decreasing. Due to the above mentioned 111 6,very
little funding was available from science councils for research in nuclear engineering.

-

In this situation the nuclear industry took responsibility for sponsoring both education andresearch atthe main Swedish universities(The RoyalInstitute ofTechno1ogy in Stockholm,-J A E R I Conf

2005 -0 0 l

Chalmers University of Techno]ogy,and Uppsala University).The Swedish Centre for
Nuclear Techno1ogy(SKC)was founded, whose task is to distribute research andeducationalfunds for universities,primarily to the above mentioned three establishments
1from the nuclear industry and the safety authority(SKI).In2000,6 year contracts weresigned between SKC and thelocalcentres at the threelargest universities,in the frame ofwhich partly support was given to certain pos面ons,and partly to PhD projects.The support
for thelecturers and professors was also meant to support undergraduate education.

-

Approximately at the beginning of the a bove procedure,signi ficant changes took place in
the intemationalnuclear arena.An energy survey performed in the USA,ordered by the
President in1997,resulted in the conclusion by the Department ofEnergy,DoE,that on themedium1ong term,nuclear is one of the most important and promising energy sources
because nuclear reactors have an exce1lent operating record,and are generating electricity
in a reliable,environmentally sa fe,and affordable manner without emitting noxious gases
into the atmosphere .Thus DoE started up the so called Nuclear Energy Research Initiative(NERI).This means,among others,increased financialsupportto university researchgroups.It has also initiated the Generation IV Nuclear Energy System Initiative ,whose
purpose is to elaborate the next generation types of nuclear power plants,that wi1lexcelinsafety,economy,waste management and non proliferation points ofview.

--

Further aspects came from the plans of the transition to hydrogen as an energy carrier,instead ofoi1or petro1.The recent deve1opment offuelcells,running on hydrogen,makes
this option a realistic possibility in the immediate future.Production of hydrogen inamounts that would supply the whole transport industry(to replace oilproducts whichhydrogen)requires practica1ly a doubling of the electricity(or corresponding thermalenergy)generation.Many arguments can be said in favour ofnuclear energy as the sourceof hydrogen,atleast in the U S A . F o r instance the most effiective way of producing
hydrogen is high temperature catalytic dissociation. High temperature nuclear reactors arevery suitable for that purpose,and indeed such reactors are being studied and planned,
among others,in the US.

--

1n addition to the recent developments in the US and the countries taking part in the socalled Generation IV IntemationalForum ,signi ficant changes have occurred also in thec1oser neighbourhood of Sweden. In2002,Finland has decided to build one more, fifth,
reactor unit.The question of building a fifth plant has been discussed during nearly two
decades now,but before2002it has never passed Parliament and/or govemment.The
AREVA and Siemens consortium has been awarded by TV0,the utility,a contract to build
an EPR(European pressurized water reactor)nuclear power plant,and the preparations forthe construction have been started. In addition,Finland was the first Nordic country to
decide on the site o f a n underground spent fuelrepository. B o t h decisions were passed in
Parliament,and hence are approved through a democratic process.

-

These developments on the intemational scene have natura1ly affected the Swedish
situation.The technicaldevelopments in nuclear techno1ogy,the increasing consciousness

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about the greenhouse effect,but also the increased globalthreat since11 September2001,
1ead to a re evaluation ofthe views,opinions andlong term policies.

From the public point o f view,since the beginning of the1990's,the publ ic opinion has
been constantly in favour ofcontinued use ofnuclear power,in which the consciousness ofthe greenhouse problem and development of nuclear technology and safety has played arnajor role. Alarge m可ority of the pop ulation is in favour of continued use of nuclear
energy in the near future;a clear majority exists for thelong term use ofnuclear power,and
about20%ofthe population is in favour ofbuilding more nuclear reactors.

-

This fact is nevertheless not reflected in the pol icy of the reigning SocialDemocrat party,
whose standpoint is sti11a rhetoric repetition of the results of the nationalvote,taken
approximately25years ago.The only exception on the politicalscene is the LiberalParty,
which recently announced its support for building new nuclear powerplants in Sweden .
Due to the changed intemationalsituation,both the technicaldevelopments and therenewed interest in nuclear power in the US,the1onger than planned(i.e.beyond2010)
operation ofthe Swedish plants,as we1las due to the increased globalhot from terrorism,
the Ministry ofEnvironment has designated an inquiryby an independent expert group into
the safety ofthe Swedish nuclear installations assuming along term operation.The inquiry
found that the safety is satisfactory despite the increased threat situation.0n the other hand,the first time since its creation,the suitability and feasibility ofthe formerly mentioned§6in the Law on Nuclear Techno1ogy was severely questioned by a govemment appointed
group. I was explicitly recommended by the finalreport ofthe inquiry that this paragraph
be abolished.

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To achieve a consolidated energy pol icy situation with thelong term operation of nuclear
plants in Sweden,the Govemment has appointed a specialnegotiator,Bo Bylund,director
ofthe Road Infrastructure Institute,with the task ofelaborating guidelines for thelong term
operation ofnuclear plants in Sweden.The ultimate goalofthe negotiations is the phasingout nuclear power but without any negative effect on economy and environment.The idea
was to find an agreement between industry and govemment which regulates the conditionsof long term phasing out by having in mind the German modeI .These negotiations are
currently on going. Severalearlier deadlines for the achieving of the agreement havealready passed.The question of whether Barseback 2should be closed down,and in thatcase w h e n , w a s also included into these negotiations.It tumed out that to reach an
agreement which is appealing to both sides is not an easy task.The replacement of theextensive nuclear production with a better altemative has just tumed out to be morecompIicated than it had appeared.

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〇ne can summarize by saying that the future of nuclear power in Sweden, just as in theprevious decades,is not predictable in detail.It is however ratherlikely that nuclear power
remains a signi ficant contributor of electricity production in the coming decades,either at
the same or an increasedlevel,in the frame of a l o n g term agreement and consensus-

between industry and govemment.

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Epiiogue

After the end of the conference,some facts happened that are worth mentioning in
addendum to this paper.The above mentioned negotiations between the government andthe industry on the conditions of along term phasing out ofnuclear power broke d o w n . 0 n
4 0 c t o b e r the appointed negotiator,Bo Bylund,announced a fi naldead1ock in thenegotiations. Shortly thereafterthe three party coalition with the reigning SocialDemocrats
together with the LeftParty and the Centre Party announced that they plan ordering thec1osing down the reactor Barsebac k 2 d u r i n g 2 0 0 5. The recentlegislation makes thepoliticalforcing ofthe closing down possible,even ifthe earlier necessary conditions on
the availability of renewable energy to replace the reactor are not ful filled.The politicalscene is divided on this plan.This can be seen by the factthat even among the members ofand voters to the SocialDemocrat party, a n overwhelming malJ ority are against this plan.
This notwithstanding,on 16December the Govemment announced the decision that
Barseb11ick2shallbe shut down by the end ofMay2005.

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At the same time the nuclear industry fol1ows up the plans for the power upgrade program.
Most ofthe10 reactor units,that wi1lbe in operation after the summer of2005,plan power
upgrades,and severalof them have already applied ofpermission and the safety authority,
the Swedish Nuclear Power Inspectorate.The sum of these power upgrades is actua11y
signi ficantly higher than the electric power ofBarseback2(615MWe).Hence,in the1ong
run,Sweden's nuclear capacity willincrease and gets modemized,despite the closing downo f Barsebac k 2.

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Radiation Education i n Japan- Present situation a n d h o w it should be i n the future 学校における放射線教育の在り方と 日本の現状
Minoru EDA
江田稔

Graduate Schoo1of EnvironmentalSciences,Aomori University
青森大学大学院環境科学科教授〒030 0 9 4 3 青 森 市 幸 畑 2 3 1 T e l 0 1 7 7 3 8 2 0 0 1

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Abstract
Although there are wide uses ofradiation in various area in Japan,pupils arelessliterate about
radiation than those of advanced countries.

Radiation education h a s been implemented m a i n l y i n socialstudies a n d science i n
1ower secondary schools a n d upper secondary schools i n J a p a n , b u t f e w periods were
a11ocated for i t.
I n 2 0 0 2 , t h e n a t i o n a l c u r r i c u l u m h a s reformed a n d radiation education c a n be
carried o u t also i n the n e w content free subject'Period for Integrated Study'which isset for fostering pupil's problem solving abilities.
0 n the other hand, teachers'experiences i n teaching radiation a r e not still
sufficient,nor c u r r i c u l u m i s undeve1oped so far.
I n order to cope w i t h the energy, e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s s u e s , p o p u l a t i o n a n d foodproblems i n the f u t u r e , i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o promote radiation education by raisingteachers'sk 加 s through the cooperation ofschools a n d societyl.
1 放射線教育の意義
学校における放射線の意義は次のような点にある。
(1) 身 の 回 り に も 存 在 す る ェ ネ ル ギ ー の 一 つ で あ る こ と放 射 線 は 身 の 回 り に も 存 在 す る ェ ネ ル ギー の 一 つ で あ る に も か か わ ら ず 、 そ の 存 在 を
知 ら な い 生 徒 が 多 い 。 い ろ い ろ な 種 類 の ェ ネ ル ギ ー の 変 換 を 学 習 す る 中 で 、 放射線のエ ネ ル ギー と い う も の が あ る こ と を 理 解 す る こ と が 大 切 で あ る 。
(2) 医 療 ・ 工 業 ・ 農 業 、 原 子 力 発 電 等 で 広 く 利 用 さ れ て い る こ と
日本では、医療、工業、農業、原子力発電等広い分野で放射線が利用されているにもかかわらず、生徒の基礎知識は少ない。それらの基礎知識を習得することが大切である。
(3) 安 全 な 管 理 が 必 要 で あ る こ と放 射 性 物 質 は 安 全 な 管 理 が 必 要 で あ る こ と を 理 解 し 、 安全管理にっいての基礎的な知識を身に付けることが大切である。
(4) 平 和 利 用 が 大 切 で あ る こ と-

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2. 放 射 線 教 育 で 身 に 付 け る 資 質 ・ 能 力
放射線教育では、 単 に 放 射 線 に つ い て の 知 識 を 覚 え れ ば よ い と い う も の で は な く 判
断力や表現力などを身に付けさせる必要がある。 放射線教育を通して身に付けさせるべき資質・能力はどのようなものが考えられるだろうか。
文部科学省の 「環境教育指導資料」 ) の中には 「環境教育」 を 通 し て 身 に 付 け さ せ る 資
質 ・ 能 力 と し て 次 の ( 1 ) ˜ (5)が上げられている。 筆者は放射線教育についても、 この五項目がそのまま当てはまると考える。

'(1) 間題解決能力
放射線について疑問をもち、調べたり、探究したりする能力を育てる。このためには、
課題解決型の学習を推進することが有効である。

(2)

数理的能力

放 射 線 の 強 さ や 働 き を 数 量 的 に と ら え る 能 力 を 育 て る 。 このため主に数学や理科の学習と関連させて進めることが大切である。

(3)

情報処理能力放 射 線 に つ い て の 情 報 を 収 集 ・ 分 析 ・ 整 理 す る 能 力 を 育 て る 。 こ の た め に は 、 コンピ
ュ ー タ や イ ン 夕一 ネ ッ ト な ど 情 報 通 信 ネ ッ ト ヮ ー ク の 利 用 が 有 効 で あ る 。
(4) コ ミ ュ ニ ケ ー ション能力
放射線について意思を伝えたり合意形成したりする能力を育てる。 このためには、 発
表や討論を行うことが有効である。
(5)

環境を評価する能力

放 射 線 と 環 境 の か か わ り に つ い て 評 価 す る 能 力 を 育 て る 。 こ の た め に は 、 実験や観察
な ど フ ィ ー ル ド ワー ク が 効 果 的 で あ る 。

3. 放射線教育の困難点
学校で放射線教育を行おうすると様々な困難に直面する。その主な点は以下のようなことである。

指導要領に記述が少ない
学習指導要領この数十年にわたり内容の過密と授業日数減少のため削減され続けて き た 。 こ の た め 小 ・ 中学校段階での放射線にかかわる内容も削減され、 教科書にも記載が少なくなりしたがって学習機会が少ないという現状がある。

(1)

放射線は目に見えない、実験が困難
放射線は目に見えない上に、 それを検出するには特殊で高価な装置が必要である。
これは放射線教育の大きなネックになっている。

(2)

(3)

放射線の利用には価値対立的議論がある

原子力の利用、 放射線照射食品などに つ い て は 賛 否 両 論 が あ る 。 こ の た め 教 師 は ど
ちらかといえば消極的になりがちである。
4. 学 校 に お け る 放 射 線 教 育 の 実 態
2002年に(社)日本原子力文化振興財団は全国の小・中・高校の教師から任意抽出した 約 5 0 0 人 の 回 答 者 の ア ン ケ ー ト調査によって放射線教育の実態を調べた 2) 。 そ の 結果は以下のようになっている。

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FiglTeachers'attitude toward teaching radiation
図1から分かることは、放射線について積極的に教えたい又は教えてもよいと答えた
教師が 7 0 % を 越 し て い る こ と か ら 決 し て 否 定 的 な 教 師 が 多 い わ け で は な い と い う こ と である。

F i g. 2

Teachers'experiences about teaching radiation

図 2 か ら 分 か る こ と は 、 放射線について教えた経験をもつ教師が60%いることである。
この割合が多いか少ないかの判断は難しいが、 半 数 を 超 え て い る と い う こ と は ま ず は 満 足と言つてよいだろう。

2005 -001

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How many periods have you taught about radiation?
(Teachers'Experiences)m l l nr
than 2h,oa

No Re:pMse

Fig.3

10

20

0%
4

0
3

0

的

60

70

的

Periods for teaching radiation

図3から分かることは、教えた経験があるといっても約70%は年間1時間以内であるということである。

Fig.4

Related topics i n teaching radiation

図 4 か ら 分 か る こ と は 、 放射線について教えるときは、 それぞれの学校がある地域の原子 力 発 電 所 に 関 連 さ せ て 教 え る こ と が 最 も 多 い と い う こ と で あ る 。 ま た 、 放射線の危険性(約60%)だけでなく、有益性(約45%)も教えているということである。

5. 総 合 的 学 習 で 行 わ れ て い る 放 射 線 教 育 の 主 な 内 容
新 し く 始 ま っ た 「 総 合 的 な 学 習 の 時 間 」 では、 生 徒 や 学 校 の 判 断 で 横 断 的 、 総 合 的 な テ-J A E R I Conf

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ーマ で 課 題 追 究 学 習 が で き る よ う になった。放射線教育は環境学習の中で行われる可能性が高いので環境学習の多寡が放射線教育の実施状況に反映すると考えられる。
図5は、 2002年に文部科学省が中学校の 「 総 合 的 な 学 習 の 時 間 」 で ど の よ う な テ ー マ を 設 定
し て い る か を 調 べ た 結 果 で あ る 3)。

Fig.5

The proportion of themes set for the'Period for Integrated Study'

図 5 か ら 分 か る こ と は 、 中学校において 「環境」 と い う テ ー マ を 設 定 し た 学 校 の 割 合 は
約 4 0 % 前 後 で あ る 。 こ れ は 文 部 科 学 省 が 示 し た 四 つのテ ー マ 例「国際理解」 「情報」 「環境」
「福祉・健康」の中では「福祉・健康」に次いで2番日に多い数字である。
た だ し 、 1 学 年 と 3 学 年 を 比 較 す る と 学 年 が 上 が る に つ れ て テー マ と し て 設 定 さ れ る 割 合が 減 る の は 受 験 勉 強 へ の 対 応 と 考 え ら れ る 。 環 境 教 育 の 重 要 さ を 考 え る と 今 後 、 高学年で減らないよう対策を考えていく必要があろう。
「総合的な学習の時間」 の 中 で 一 部 の 学 校 で 行 わ れ る よ う に な っ た 放 射 線 教 育 に か か わ る
学習活動としては次のような内容がある。
(1) 原子力発電所の見学(2) 霧箱の実験(3) 「 は か る 君 」 で自然放射線を検知(4) 放射線に関するビデオや講演の視聴
こ の よ う な 活 動 は ( 社 ) 放 射 線 振 興 協 会 等 の 民 間 団 体 の 支 援 に よ り 少 し ずっ広 が っ て きて い る 。 今後の課題は、 こ れ ら の 体 験 を 単 発 的 な イ ベ ン ト と し て 終 わ ら せ る の で は な く 、
一連の放射線教育のカリキュラムの一環として位置づけることである。
6. 理科学習指導要領の中における放射線の扱い-

6 1中学校における放射線の扱いの変遷

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放射線についての学習内容は学習指導要領の中で示されてきたが、それぞれの時代背景を反映して以下のように変遷してきた。
(1)

昭和50年代以前

理科学習指導要領には 「放射性元素の原子は、 放 射 線 を 出 し て 、 ほかの原子に変わる こ と 」 と述べられていた。 教科書にはかなり詳しい説明がなされ放射線による写真フイ ルムの感光やシンチ レ ー シ ョ ン の 実 験 が 記 載 さ れ て い た 。

(2)

昭和50年代以後

学習内容の過密と授業時間数の削減から学習内容の軽減が行われた。 昭和50年代以後
現在の学習指導要領 4) までは「人間が利用しているエ ネ ルギ 一 源 に は 、 水 力 、 火 力 、 原 子 力 な
どがあること」とされ、 「放射線」という言葉は消え、原子力という用語だけが放射線とのかかわりをもつ用語として残された。
こ れ を 受 け て 、 現 在 の 中 学 校 理科の教 科 書 (束京 書 籍 )の原子 力 の説 明 は次 のように 記述されている。
「原子力発電: 原子力発電では、燃料として放射線を出す物質が用いられる。放射線は、医療技術や農作物の改良などに利用され、 生活に役立つている反面、 人体や作物などに大量に当たると危険なので、常に厳しく監視して、安全を確保する必要がある。また、万一、事故が 起 き た と き の 放 射 能 汚 染 の 防 止 や 、 使用済み核燃料の安全な処理など、 今 後 さ ら に研究して解決しなければならない問題が残されている。」
放射線という用語が一応関連事項として登場している。
学校では、 この記述に基づきどの程度肉付けして教えているか明確ではないが、 恐
らくごく簡単な説明で終わっているものと推測される。
もう一つの問題は学習指導要領が 「 観 察 、 実験に基づき〇〇を理解する」 こ と が 基
本 と な っ て い る こ と で あ る 。 このため、放射線のように実験の困難な内容は指導内容と な り に く い 。 筆者は、 例 え 実 験 や 観 察 が 困 難 で あ っ て も 、 放 射 線 と い う 言 葉 を 中 学
校理科指導要領に入れることを提案したい。

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6 2 高等学校理科学習指導要領における放射線の扱い
高 校 で 放 射 線 に つ い て や や 詳 し く 扱 う の は 「物理」 で あ っ た 。 中学校で放射線が扱わ
れ な い に も か か わ ら ず 高 校 で は 一 部 の 生 徒 だ け が 選 択 す る 「物理」 で 学 ぶ と い う 不 十 分
な 教 育 課 程 で あ っ た 。 現行の教育課程の改訂が進められていた2000年に J C 0 事 故 が 起
こ り 、 当時の有馬朗人文部大臣から放射線にかかわる内容の充実が緊急に指示された。
その結果、 次 の よ う な 改 善 が 行 わ れ た
(1)
(2)
(3)

「 理 科 総 合 A 」 に放射性同位体、 α 、 β 、 γ 線 の 性 質 を 追 加 し た 。
「物理 II 」 で 「 臨 界 」 「 中 性 子 」 を 追 加 し た 。
「化学I」で放射性同位体を追加した。

そ の 結 果 、 多 く の 生 徒 が 履 修 す る 「理科総合A」 で 放 射 線 の 基 礎 知 識 を 学 習 す る こ とと な っ た 。 2004年度の 「理科総合A」 の履修率を教科書の販売数から推測してみると、「理科総合A」の教科書販売数は90 . 4万冊で全国の1学年の高校生数は127万人で

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あ る こ と か ら 、 理 科 総 合 A の 履 修 率= 9 0 . 4 / 1 2 7 = 7 1 %と な り 、 およそ70%の生徒は放射線の基礎的な知識を学んでいることになる。
7. 放射線教育推進の方策

今後、 放 射 線 教 育 を 推 進 し て い く た め に は 、 次 の よ う な 点 に 重 点 を 置 く こ と が 大 切 で ある。

(1) 先進的教師の育成
意 欲 あ る 教 師 の 発 掘 と 育 成 が 極 め て 大 切 で あ る 。 ま ず 、 リ ー ダー と な る 教 師 や 学 校 を育て、 彼 ら が 中 核 と な っ て 広 め て い く こ と が 効 果 的 で あ る 。
(2) 体 験 的 な 学 習 の 重 視
実験・観察、実習、見学など体験に基づく理解が何より大切である。そのためには、
手軽に測定できる器具の普及と供給が求められる。
(3) 学び方の習得
放射線に関する知識の習得にとどまらず、情報の収集・整理、討論の仕方、合意形成の仕方、 発 表 の 仕 方 な ど を 学 ぶ こ と が 大 切 で あ る 。

(4)

教科間・教師間の連携
複 数 の 教 科 に ま た が る 教 科 横 断 的 な 学 習 の 推 進 が 大 切 で あ る 。 そ の た め に は 、 様々
な教科や教師どうしの協力が欠かせない。 また、 地域の人材・施設との連携も重要である。
(参考文献)
1) 「環境教育指導資料一中学校・高等学校編」p18,文部省,1991
2) 「 放 射 線 と い う 言 葉 に 関 す る 意 識 調 査 」 日本原子力文化振興財団,2002
3) 「学校教育基本調査」文部科学省,2002
4) 「 中 学 校 学 習 指 導 要 領 」 文 部 科 学 省 , 1 9 9 9-JAERI Conf

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2.4 A Stud y of ProfessionalCompetence for RadiologicalTechnology
Department Students in Taiwan Area--

Kai YuanCheng,Ph.D. 1 ,Bor Tsung Hsieh,Ph.D. ' ,W.Huang 、 Ph.D. 2
Graduate Institute ofRadio1ogicalScience
1

ChungTai Institute o f Health Sciences&Techno1ogy,TaiChung City,Taiwan,R.0.C
2Chung Yang Christian University,Taiwan,R.0.C.

Abstract:
Recently,so many medicalinstitutions established and the increasing use of thehigh technologicalmedicalimaging equipment,it makes radio1ogicaltechno1ogy
become the main instrument for the medica1 diagnostic and radiation therapy.
However,the medicalradio1ogicaltechnologists play the important role to operate a11
the related radiologicalmachines. Ifthey do not use the machines adequately,it wi11
increasethe patients'radiation absorbed dose. Then,the whole society health may be
influenced. Therefore,constructing the professionalcompetence of the medica1
radio1ogicaltechno1ogists is an important course.
The purpose of this research are:(1)to constmct the index of professiona1
competence with radiologicaltechno1ogy students,(2)to discuss the professiona1
competence for the graduatesfrom the department of radio1ogicaltechno1ogy to be thereference for the Ministry of Examination for the license test of radio1ogical
techno1ogists,(3)to provide the direction of the radiologicaltechno1ogy department
deve1opment 。

Keywords: ProfessionalCompetence,RadiologicalTechno1ogy

Introduction:-

Ever since1996,the domestic technica1 vocationaleducation system has been
conducted the reform practicesasthe junior co11eges whichaimed to educating
domestic junior(middle)technicaltalents in earlier years have been reorganized into
technicalinstitutes or even into technicaluniversities,with such act making thestructure of technica1 vocationaleducation system integratedgradua11y(for students
trained under technica1 vocationaleducation system,on the other hand,it indicates thewider channe1of for technicaleducation). However,what is the position fortechnica1 vocationaleducation? What is the difference ofprofessionals trained under
the career and technicaleducationfrom those educated under generalfour year co11eges?
Currently,domestic technicaleducation system and generalfour year co11ege education

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have three and six institutes/universities respectively instituted with radio1ogica1
techno1ogy department about which while there is sti11short ofthe related research andreport featuring educationalgoa1,curriculum planning and issue of position;Yuanpei
Institute of Science and Techno1ogy(formerly knownasYuanpei Junior Co1lege)and
ChungTai Institute of Health Sciences and Techno1ogy(formerly knownasChungTai
Junior College),both under the technica1 vocationaleducation system,have instituted
the radio1ogicaltechno1ogy program at the five year program on a basis of the juniorco11ege since1965to train professionalradiologicaltechno1ogists. After both Yuanpei
and Chung Tai were reorganized into institute of techno1ogy in1998,the two institutes
started to institute the two yearprogram by offering students graduated from five year
junior co11ege a channeltofurther their studies and eam bache1or degrees;nevertheless,there sti111acks related research and report conceming the educationalgoalandcurriculum design for radio1ogicaltechno1ogy department as we11as the issue regarding
the position for students graduating from radio1ogicaltechno1ogy department under thetechnica1 vocationaleducation system.
With the change ofthe society and reform ofthe educationalsystem,there appears
changes for educationalgoalset by institute oftechnology as wel1;technica1 vocationa1
education in earlier years aimed to educating students'professionalski11s required fortheirfuture career and guiding them to develop their careers after graduation,and theeducationalgoalfor institute oftechno1ogy and universityoftechno1ogy,however,puts
emphasis on offering students holistic education featuring humanistic cultivation andbasic academic competency,in hope o f f urther guiding them to pursue an advanced
study oriented academic goa1;the issue conceming Ifthe orientation of educationa1
goalfor technical vocationaleducation,however,would have any effect on the intention
by radio1ogicaltechnology education to train students' professionalcompetency? issti11worthy offurther discussion.
The professiona1 field of medica1 radio1ogy covers diagnostic radio1ogy,
radiotherapy and nuclearmedicine with the entire medicalgroup consisting ofradio1ogist,radio1ogicaltechnologist,nurse,medicalphysicist,and file personne1,
among which radiologica1 techno1ogist who is good at operating radio1ogica1
instruments or radioactive materialto be in great demand;in a retrospection of thedeve1opment of domestic radio1ogy education,there had no any formaleducation forthis subject from1951to1965during which radio1ogicalpersonnelwere trained under
the radio1ogicaltraining class held by NationalTaiwan University Hospitaland Taipei
Veterans GeneralHospita1. Not unti11965and1966,did Y¥uanpei Junior Co11ege(currently Yuanpei Institute of Science and Technology)and ChungTai Junior Co11ege(currently ChungTai Institute of Health Sciences and Techno1ogy)start to establish
radio1ogicaltechno1ogy department respectively,heralding an era for the forma1
education of radio1ogica1 techno1ogy in Taiwan, subsequently fol1owed by theradiologicaltechno1ogy department by NationalYang Ming University,Kaohsiung
MedicalUniversity,Chang Gung University and Tzuchi Institute with an aim to

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educating bache1or degree radio1ogicaltechno1ogist,thus helping enhance the wholeradiological technology education. Ever since the three junior co11eges werereorganized into institute oftechno1ogy,the urgent issuearising out o f a recruitment ofstudents for the radio1ogicaltechnology department in four yeardivision of the juniorco11ege appears as the one that vocationalschools(senior industrialand vocationalhighschools)have not instituted radiologicaltechnology program that might impossible torecruit students 16rom the upstream schools directly when conducting the recruitment for
four year division of the junior co11ege. In term o f the background of basic medicine
for students majoring in nursing and background of electricity for electronics ma1j or
students,the three institutes decided to enroIlstudents for radio1ogicaltechno1ogy
departments,halffrom nursing and electronicsgraduates respectively. Even thepractice is sti11in a probationary stage,planning for the four yeartechno1ogy programof the three institutes sti111acks common consensus. For recent years,many scholars
have been delving into generalissues conceming radio1ogicaltechno1ogy,with theissues featuring Survey and Planning for Human Power of RadiologicalTechno1ogists(Hsu,Shih Tsung,1984), Survey of Training and Supply for Human Power forRadio1ogicalTechnology (Sung,Wen Chuan et a1.,1999), Analysis of Education,
Examination and Emp1oyment System for Radio1ogicalTechno1ogy (Chen,Fu Du,1987), Deve1opment for Medica1 Science & Phar maco1ogy Education underTechnica1 V,ocationalEducation Sy stem (Chen,Chao Yang et a1.,2000), Practice forStudents under Cooperative System (Cheng,Kai Yuan et al.,2001),and Advice for
Human Power Policy ofMedicalRadio1ogicalTechno1ogy (Chen,Fu Du,2001);withregarding to constructing the index of radio1ogicaltechno1ogy students'professional
competency,there is sti1lin want ofrelatedarticles and reports for in depth discussion.
In s u m , i f it would be ef fiective to construct and explore into the index ofradio1ogicaltechno1ogy students' professionalcompetenc;y, i t mightguide the planningof deve1opment and educationalgoalfor curriculum of radiologicaltechno1ogy
education correctly.
This research aims to constructing the index of radio1ogicaltechnology students'
professionalcompetency,in hope ofbenefiting to the three institutes in the deve1opmento f radio1ogicaltechno1ogy department and curriculum design as wellasofferingreference basis to education training and career plann ing for domestic radio1ogica1
techno1ogy and nationa1 examination for professionals and techno1ogists. This
research expects to achieve the fo1lowing three goals:(l)Construct the index ofradio1ogicaltechno1ogy students'professionalcompetency.
(2)Discuss the professionalcompetency those radiologicaltechnology students shallbe
possessed,in hope of offering reference basis for guiding students in their careerplanning and preparing them in nationalexaminations for professionals andtechno1ogists held by M inistryof Examination of Examination Yuanof R.0.C.
(3)Discuss the professionalcompetency those radio1ogicaltechno1ogy students sha1lbe
possessed,so as to offer reference bases covering direction of deve1opment,

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curriculum planning,emp1oyment of teachers with professionalism for radio1ogica1
techno1ogy department and purchase o f teaching facilities,etc.,in hope of of lieringreference to the radio1ogicaltechno1ogy departments for the curriculum amendment
in thefuture with the analysis and suggestion ofresults for the integralresearch.

Methods:
A series of questionnaires for this researchare conducted by emp1oying Delphi
Method which adopts methods pooling experiences,opinions and suggestionsfrom
experts and scholars,fol1owed by an analysis o f a11information and datato produce
usefulresults whichare servedasreference for principles of policy. Delphi Methodfeatures an anonymous correspondence questionnaire that co11ects,analyze and induce
experts and scholars'opinion fo11owed by making one questionnaire,with repeatedprocess in co11ecting and analyzing a11information to achieve the unanimous conclusion.
This method works ideally to avoid some factors,suchastime schedule and selection ofvenue,for participants when they must conduct the face to face communication anddiscussion to achieve a unanimous agreement during thetraditionalpolicy making
course;help prevent expertsfrom being intervened when fi11ing in questionnaire
separately;enhance experts and scholars'sense ofparticipation.
This research takes questionnaire as a major methodwith its design in conducting
survey on44subjects includingf u11 time professors ofradio1ogicaltechnologyfi:・o m six
universities/institutes and radio1ogicaltechno1ogy experts at some hospitals in Taiwan.
In open ended questions,the first questionnaire, The First Questionnaire in Delphi
Method for Index of Radio1ogicalTechnology Students'ProfessionalCompetency
provides experts and scholarswith specious room f o r t hinking. A majority of 44questionnaires were retumedasexpected,and,eventually,a totalof 34were co11ected
after numerous fo11ow ups through telephone that makes a response rate of 77.3%.
According to interviewees'opinions collectedf 1rom the retumed questionnaires,index
of radio1ogicaltechno1ogy students'professionalcompetency can be classi fied into
three categories:(1)Basic competency,(2)professionalcompetency,(3)humanistic
cultivation. Moreover,69indexes of professionalcompetency are sorted out to beedited into the second questionnaire, The Second Questionnaire in DelphiMethod forIndex ofRadio1ogicalTechno1ogy Students'ProfessionalCompetency which wasthen
mailed to the34experts and scholars who retumed the first questionnaire;eventua11y, a
tota1of 30 questionnaires for the second oneare retumed,making a response rate of
8 8 % , w i t h the experts and scholars'opinionsfrom those30 questionnaires conducted
the preliminarystatisticalanalysis with the SPSS that extends the origina169indexes ofprofessionalcompetency to76ones which are then edited intothe third questionnaire,
The Third Questionnaire in Delphi Method for Index of Radio1ogicalTechnology
Students'ProfessionalCompetency . Opinions from the second questionnaire andimportant quantified analysis dataare enc1osed to the third questionnaire,off el red tothose experts and scholars who have participated in the third questionnaire to make

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them decide if they need to adjust each i t e m f r o m which consensus index ofradiologicaltechno1ogy students'professionalcompetency is constructed after a series
of integrated co11ection,arrangement and analysis; fina11y,a tota1of 29questionnaires
are co11ected(achieving a response rate of 96.7%),achieving the whole Delphi Method.

Results and Discussion:
Members of this researchthen conducted SPSS statisticalanalysis on quantified
items ticked by experts and scholars from those29retumed questionnaires. Among
those29interviewees,threewith seniority up to five years, five with seniority f r o m 6 ˜
l 0 years,and21with a minimum of 10 years of seniority;on the aspect of educational
background,two with dip1omasconferred by junior co11eges,twelve with bache1or
degrees,and fifteen with master or doctoraldegrees;in terms of occupation,twelve ofthemare doctors, fiveare professors,and threeare medicalphysicists in hospitals,andnineare radiologicaltechno1ogists.
ong thetwenty four indexes of professionalcompetencylisted by Category
One Basic Competency inthis research,a m inim u m o f 58%(17/29)interviewees thinkthat English,anatomy and cross sectionalanatomy are veryimportant;among the forty
seven indexes ofprofessionalcompetencylisted by CategoryTwo Basic Competency inthis research,a minimum of 52%(15/29)interviewees think that radiation physics,
radiation safety,X ray principle and techno1og;y,computed tomography principle andtechno1ogy,magnetic resonance imaging principle and techno1ogy,ultrasound principle
and techno1ogy,radio1ogicalequipmentAnger camera principle and technology,
SPECT principle and techno1og;y, P E T principle and techno1og;y,nuclearmedicine
equipment,extemalbeam radiation therapy principle and techno1ogy,brachytherapy
principle and techno1ogy,treatment planning,radiotherapy equipment,medicalimage
processing principle and techno1ogy,qualityassurance theoryofradio1ogicaleq uipment,
qualityassurance theoryofnuclearmedicine equipment,and qualityassurance theoryof
radiotherapy equipmentare veryimportant indexes of professionalcompetency forradiologicaltechno1ogy students;besides,52%(l5/29)among these intervieweesthinkthat psychology is one veryimportant index of competency in the five indexes ofprofessionalcompetencylisted by CategoryThree Humanistic Cultivation in thisresearch.

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Results of analysis given above indicate that in addition to complete clinica1
taining,professionalknowledge and techno1og;y,English and psycho1ogy are inevitablefor one exce11ent radio1ogicaltechno1ogy student. As most ofradio1ogicaltechno1ogy
students would serve in radiology related departments in hospitalin the future,radio1ogicaltechno1ogists sha11be enterprising enough to absorb a11kinds of new
medicalknowledgefrom a varietyof newspapers and periodicals that English
competency is required,in addition to the above professionalskillsasradio1ogica1
techno1ogists have great opportunityof facing patients directly during their service inhospitals,the need for them to establish good interpersonality with patients andtakes

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the concept of taking patients as your relatives are significant issue that makes
psycho1ogy considered by those interviewees as one of indexes o f professiona1
competency for radio1ogicaltechno1ogy students.
There sti11has no related research and report working in in depth exp1oration into
the construction of the index of radio1ogica1 techno1ogy students' professiona1
competency,and results ofthis research can:( 1 ) 0 f f e r reference to curriculum planning for radio1ogicaltechno1ogy department as
we11 as work 因 indexes o f radio1ogica1 techno1ogy students' professiona1
competence,in hope of enabling students to possess competency required for theircareer.

-( 2 ) 0 f f e r reference basis for guiding students in their career planning and preparing
them in nationalexaminations for professionals and techno1ogists held by Ministryof Examination o f Examination Yuan ofR.0.C.

This research emp1oys Delphi Method to conduct three questionnaire surveys on
selected radio1ogicalexperts. Even it is a time consuming task on the edition,delivery,
fo11ow up by telephone and retum for the questionnairesaswe11as some interviewees
can hardly fi11in three questionnaires patiently that causes the1oss ofquestionnaire,and
results ofthis research are quite satisfactory.

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References:-

1. Kai Y¥uan Cheng, The curriculardeve1opment ofradio1ogicaltechno1ogy

education ,The symposium on educationalprogram and curriculum deve1opment of

medicaltechnology in Japan and R.0.C.,Dec.21˜22,2000(in Chinese)
2. Kai Yuan Cheng,et a1.,The conference ofthe results in executing the plan ofbuilding the educationalpartnership in techno1ogicaleducation system ofthe
academic year2000(in Chinese)--

3. Chen Fu Du, Analysis ofeducation,examination and emp1oyment system forradiologicaltechnology,published by theassociation ofradio1ogic techno1ogists,
R.0.C. (in Chinese),-

4. Chen Fu Du, Advice for human power policy ofmedicalradio1ogicaltechno1ogy ,,published by NationalHealth Research Institute,2001(in Chinese)-

5. Chen Chao Yang et a1, Deve1opment for medicalscience&phar maco1ogy

education under technicalvocationaleducation system ,published by Ministryof
education,2000(in Chinese)-

6. Hsu Shih Tsung, Survey and planning for human power ofradio1ogica1

technologists ,published by ChungTai junior co11ege,1984(in Chinese)-

7. Sung Wen Chuan,et a1, Survey oftraining and supply for human power forradio1ogicaltechno1ogy ,Hospita1,32:5,10,73˜81,1999(in Chinese)

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2.5 PUBLIC EDUCATI〇N THR〇UGH SAFETY CULTURE DEMONSTRATI〇N
WaraponWANITSUKSOMBUT

Bureau ofRadiation Safety Regulation,0f fice ofAtoms for Peace
Bangkok,Thailand

Abstract1

The activities relating to nuclear energy have been world widely opposed against.
because there have existed scars in the past;atomic bombs and a few accidents innuclear facilities . It cannot be denied that the most eff el ctive education ofpubli,; isthrough Medias such as news or documentary on newspaper and television. 0nce
such cases appeared to public. it is difficult to erase the bad pictures from thei1memory . Since education for public is mainly depending on media、 it is recommended
putting harder efforton dissemination of information on regulation and regulatory
function to public . The regulatory function of each country is the key of safe
utilization ofnuclear energy . Since prime responsibility ofmaintenance and operation
are rested on the operators . To achieve the goa1of safety,regulatory authority's task
n o w is emphasized on encouraging operators of nuclear facilities to implement theirsafety culture . This wi11reduce the probability of unwanted events and therefore
raising credit ofnuclear energy .
Introduction

Thailand is a non nuclear energy country;we do not have nuclear power. Though thecountry starts nuclear program at the same age as Japan and Korea,we could notreach that stage . Some said that it is due to unstable of govemment;others said that itis due toless understanding of public on nuclear energy . But radiation techno1ogy is
we1ladopted in the country . Modern equipment utilizing radiation techno1ogy appears
in almost everywhere,in hospitals. in industry and in researchlaboratories . Thailand
has enacted a l a w ca11ed Atomic Energy For Peace Act,1961 . Under the Act,several
Ministerialregulations werelaying out necessary elements for regulating the use ofionizing radiation. Thailand is also a member ofIntemationalAtomic Energy Agency .
After the accident involving Cobalt-60 source happened in February2000,theregulations have been revised to the updated information provided on safety andsecurity ofradiation sources .
Public Information through Media in the Accident-

Cobalt 60 is the most usefulradioactive materialutilizing for cancer treatment orradiotherapy . There was a question we got after the accident that if it is suchdangerous materialit should not be imported in the country . From that question,
revealed us with the situation that public has verylittleknowledge of Nuclear
Technology, n o use to mention of nuclear power . Ever more,remedialactions takenon the accident was badly cr通cized by newspapers .
l Responsibility for the content of this paper rests with the author:it does notnecessarily reflect the views ofher employer .

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RadiologicalProtection and Safetyof Radiation Sources

Radiation hazard was we11recognized for a1ong time . In every practice emp1oying
radiation,there must be existing radiation protection programme. This has been
guided by severalintemationa1organizations;BEIR,ICRP,and IAEA . Recently,11Principles arelaid down by the IAEA in the document on Radiation Protection and
the Safety ofRadiation Sources(1) . The principles divide into four groups;Principles
for Practices, Principles for intervention、 Implementation Principles, andInfrastructure for Protection and Safety . IAEA eventua11ylaunch a rule that any
assistance required from IAEA wi11not be approved without radiation protection
infrastructure in the requested member country . In this way,safety in the operation of
nuclear technology is guaranteed . The infrastructure for protection and safety is
includedlegalframework and responsibility within thelegalframework. Inlega1
framework,1egislation and regulatory authority has to be established . Responsibilities
ofother relevant authorities must aIso be clearly document in thelegalframework.
Responsibilities and functions of RegulatoryBody(2)In order to fulfi11 its statutory obligations,the regulatory body sha11define policies,
safety principles and associated criteria as a basis for its regulatory actions. The
functions ofregulatory body are:ｻ

To assess applications for authorizations of practices and to issue,renew andalter authorizations as appropriate .
To inspect authorized practices to confirm that regulatory requirements arebeing met.
1,
To enforce the regulatory requirements where non compliance with therequirements are found .ｻ
To encourage the deve1opment of a safet、
1 culture .

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Encouragement of SafetyCulture(2)Safety culture is the attitude of individuals and organizations to radiation protection
and safety issues. Where there is a good safety culture,such issues receive
appropriate attention without the intervention of the regulatory authority . The needfor a good safety culture has been demonstrated by accidents such as the Chemoby1
nuclear power plant accident,where poor safety culture was found to be one of thecontributing factors thatled to the accident.
Thelicensee,registrant or emp1oyer is responsible for the deve1opment of safety
culture at a practice . The regulatory authority cannot impose safety culture,but itshould encourage the deve1opment ofthe following safety culture characteristics:

・Commitment 0 f workers,authorized persons and the regulatory authority tosafety .
Accountabilitv
cofa11individuals for protection and safety,including those atsenior managementleve1.
Positive attitude:s to safety which include a willingness to question andleam,and to discourage complacency on safety issues .
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Communication on safe ty issues throughout the organization by the authorized
persons,

By deve1oping these characteristics,a good safety culture should be established andmaintained. This should ensure a safe working environment and in turn, a v o i d
accident situations .

I nfluence of the Regulatorybody(3)In the interests of promoting safety culture in organizations under its jurisdiction,theregulatory body should consider the fo11owing :ｻ
A11owing someflexibility,within the constraints ofnationa11egislation,fororganizations to manage for safety and deve1op aims and goals that exceed
1egalrequirements.ｻ
Targeting inspection ef fort to areas ofrisk and recognizing that some plants
may have eff el ctive safety management systems. At these plants,sufficient
inspections ofcontrolprocesses and selective inspections of consequences tothe plant may be adequate as a regulatory too1.ｻ
Not seeking to a11ocate blame in the investigation ofincidents,and avoiding
inappropriate punitive action for reporting incidents.ｻShowing the reasoning behind regulatory controls,e.g . by publishing them.ｻ
Establishing predictability and stability in the regulatory process .ｻ
Trying to agree on appropriate technicalground rules for safety cases andassessment methodo1ogies.
)> Having regular dia1ogue with organizations and encouraging open ness indealings.
Training inspectors to communicate with the public on nuclear safety issues in
a comprehensible manner .ｻTraining inspectors in safety management(including safety culture)andhuman factors.ｻ
Encouraging inspectors to interact with workers at the facility and to be visible
to them .

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Public Information(3)Public should have information on safety culture deve1opment in nuclear instaliation.
Dissemination of the information could be done by both sides; operators andregulators . Communication of information on safety performance to externalgroups
can assist in deve1oping confidence in its safety . However,the information must be
prepared and disseminated by competent staffin order to minimize misinterpretation.
Some organizations hold routine meetings,often referred to as'loca11iaison meetings',
with representatives of their1ocal community and 1oca1 governnent to share
information about activities and performance. Sub groups can be formed to dealwith
environmenta1 and emergency planning issues. The meetings often include
representatives from the regulatory bodies in order to assure the1ocalcommunitythat
there is an independent perspective .

-In addition to1oca11iaison meetings. some organizations publish regular newsletters
containing information on safety related matters. The background,consequences and-J A E R I Conf

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corrective actions applicable to any signi ficant safety abnormality can be included . In
some instances where a newsletter is used as a channe 1 o f communication theinformation is picked up by the wider media(newspapers,radio,television)to reporton events at the nuclear insta11ation. This practice can result in a more factualandlessemotionalreporting of an abnormality.

̲Conclusion

Public acceptance of nuclear techno1ogy could be improved by successfu11y
implementation of safety culture . In the case ofcobalt 60 accident in Samut Prakam,
regulatory body had applied effective mitigation measures. A sma11 group of
overexposure persons were exposed before the accident was discovered . If safety
culture has been frequently demonstated,public confusion and misunderstanding
could be minimized .

-References:
1 . SAFETY FUNDAMENTALS,RADIATION PROTECTION AND THE
SAFETY 0 F RADIATION SOURCES,SAFETY SERIES N o. 120,IAEA,
1996

2. MODULE3 . 1I〇NIZING RADIATION LEGISLATION AND
REGULATIONS,DISTANCE LEARNING 0 N RADIATIONPROTECTION,IAEA,2004.
3 . DEVELOPING SAFETY CULTURE I N NUCLEAR ACTIVITIES,PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS T 0 ASSIST PROGRESS,SAFETY
出PORTS SERIES No . 11,IAEA,1998
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Radiation and Environment I m pact StudiesAwarenessDr.Boniface Ekechukwu* Prof.Dato. Dr.Ir.Mohd.Zohadie Bardaie*
FacuIty of Engineering *Universiti Putra Malaysia,
43400 Serdang,Selangor,Malaysia
e mail:boni̲eke@yahoo.com,-

Abstract

Radiation,which is simply defined as energy,that travels in the form of waves orparticles has both positive and negative effects on humans.This has necessitated a carefu1
study on how to create awareness on the'two edge sword' . Since radiation cannot be
removed from our environment we,however,reduce our risks by controlling our
exposure to it through various ways.Understanding radiation and radioactivity wi11help
us make informed decisions about our exposure.Many different types of radiation haverange ofenergy that form electromagnetic spectrum.Their sources include nuclear power
plants,nuclear weapono,and medicine.0thers include,microwaves,radar,electrica1
powerlines,cellular phones,and sunlight'and so on.However,the radiation used innuclear power,nuclear weapons,and medicine has enough energy to break chemica1
bonds,and is referred to as'ionizing radiation',which is dangerous tolife. Because ofthis negative eff el ct of radiation there is common fear and myths related to radiation,
radioactivity,uranium mining and milling,and the nuclear industry . This radiation
education and energy environmentaleducation attempt to dispelthe common fears andmyths relating to them in so far as there is perfect protectionfrom harmfulexposure andabuse.The design of an integrated unit of study for radiation and environmentalenergy
uses arts of language,1ife ski11s,ski11designs,socialstudies and mathematicalski1ls increating understanding and abilities necessaryto do scienti fic inquiryby the students
without abuse or danger.The education unit is designed to assess materials for,factual
information and appropriate language and identi fication of potential bias inenvironmentaleducation materials and evaluate materials in perspective of culturalandethnic upbringing.

--l.0 Introduction

If the uses of radiation and radioactivity arelimited to nuclear weapons there willhave
been no need for radiation education forum . Radiation and radioactivityare becoming
indispensable in modem technology for savinglives and improving the quality ofhuman
life. They are not only used for medicaldiagnoses and treatments in savinglives they arealso used in Nuclear power production,researches and appIications in different areas ofscience and technology

̲However,the indispensability of radiation and radioactivity in the field of scienti fic
technology has been a prope11ing force forfurther research to solve the risky aspect andfearfulside of the techno1ogy. T h e negative and disastrous use of nuclear energy

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including accidentaloccurrences in nuclear power plants is posing a serious treat to theuse of nuclear technology. T h e possible health hazard caused by rays of ionizing
radiation requires urgent solution.
What are the fundamentalproblems to be solved by radiation education?〇ne would
suggest that it is to give correct information about radiation in order to reduce the scaring
factor among working personneland advise them on how to be protected even when there
is nuclear accident.It is therefore,important to search and define clearly the new

direction in radiation education.
2.0 Background Studies

U S Federalgovemment(2002) Fact Sheet:Guidance for Responding to Radiologicaland
Nuclear Incidents U.S.Department of State,Washington,D.C.has described theprincipalradionuclides for which the DILs were developedas(1)nuclear reactors(I 131;
Cs 1 3 4 + C s 137;Ru 1 0 3 + R u 106)(2)nuclearfuelreprocessingplants(Sr 90;Cs 137;
Pu 2 3 9 + A m 241),(3)nuclear waste storage faci 価es(Sr 90;Cs 137;Pu 2 3 9 + A m241),(4)nuclear weapons(i.e.,dispersalofnuclear materialwithout nuclear detonation)(Pu 239),(5)radioisotope thermoelectric generators(RTGs)and(6)radioisotope heater
units(RHUs)used in space vehicles(Pu 238).".Unesco:IntemationalInstitute for
EducationalPlann ing(l967)presented methods for educationaleffectiveness. It also
described conditions for success in education. The North American Associationfor
EnvironmentalEducation has described guidelines for environmentaleducation withrespect to nuclear technology. Theassociation attempts to dispelthe common fears andmyths related to radiation,radioactivity,uranium mining and milling,and the nuclear
industry. It also encourages educators and students to form their own opinions about
these issues based upon investigations ofthe availablefacts and to consider ways tolive
in harmony with the powerfulforces released by nuclear energy .Theassociation argued
with such an emotionally charged,controversialtopic,we as educators have a
responsibilityto present a"balanced"view ofthe issues,to a11ow our students to form
their own opinions .Kruger,P.G.(1940)hasanalyzed some bio1ogicaleffects ofnuclear
disintegration products on neoplastic tissue.He gave various ways for nuclear techno1ogy
applications. Many authors have expressed their views in relation with nuclear
technology applications especially on medicaluses and it's side effects.

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3.0 Methodologyand Design Procedures
The radioactivity is the property of some atoms that spontaneously radiate energy as
particles or rays.When these energy particles arelodged inside the body the intemalorgans are exposed as the radionuclides decay.Atoms are either stable or unstable.Ifthe
forces among the particles that makeup the nucleus are balanced then the atom is stable.
But if these forces are unbalanced the atom is unstable. When the atom isl m1ba1liiiiced/un stab1 it is also radioactive.When the atom is radioactive the nucleus has
an excess of intemalenergy.Radiation takes place when the nucleus is throwing away
the excess of intemalenergy.Exposure to radiation is believed to be capable ofcausing
serious illness,and even death.The threat ofaccidents in nuclear power technology and
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the possibiiity that nuclear materials could get into the wrong hands have contributed
substantially to public fears about this nuclear technology.Even the normaloperation o f anuclear power plant creates1ow levelradioactive waste.

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3.1.0 Radiation Protection

Risks from Nuclear Accidents are possible through(1)Radioactive Accident(2)Contamination of Human F o o d ( 3 ) A n d AnimalFeeds(4)Contamination of physica1
objects.

Sources of Exposure and Deposition Mechanisms: In any nuclear accident, theradioactive plume results i n t w o types of deposition . Namely dry deposition and wet
deposition. The dry deposition is the airbome plume while the wet deposition is theliquid effluent dispersal.The basic pathways of human exposure to contamination
resultingfrom nuclear accidents of any kind include:extemalexposure,absorption,
inhalation and ingestion. (1)ExtemalExposure includes radiation shine in immediate
accidentlocation,plume cloud,andground. (2)Absorption (DermalDeposition(3)Inhalation exposure includes Plume Inhalation and Re suspendedground deposition
inhalation. (4) Ingestion exposure includes: Primary Ingestion from surface
contamination, Secondary Ingestion of contamination via pathways to humanconsumption such as the forage cow milk pathway,and TertiaryIngestion ofcontamination via indirect pathways to human consumption,e.g. the incorporation ofcontaminated whey into processed foods and their redistribution to markets in areas
unaffected by ground deposition.Primaryingestion comesfrom raw agro foods such as
leafy green vegetables etc.Secondarycontamination comes mainly from processed foods
1ike milk etc.High risk exposure occurs at early time ofthe accident through Inhalation
ofplume by extemalexposure to the plume and Absorption due to contamination of skinand clothes and physica1 materials.High risk exposure also occurs through extema1
exposure from ground deposition.It also occurs throughPrimary and secondary ingestion
ofcontaminated food and water.It extends to Absorption due to contamination of c1othes
and re contamination of skin fromground contamination and Inhalation ofre suspended
ground deposition.

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3.2.0 Protection Against exposure

In any nuclear accident,there aretwo fundamentalprotective maj ors against exposure
namely evacuation and sheltering. Allsituations are characterized by the following safety
precautions:Controlto the contaminated area,Controland sheltering of livestock,
Controland sheltering of animals i f n o t already evacuated,Food and water controls,
Decontamination effiorts,and Relocation.
3.2.lEvacuation

Personsliving in the vicinityof any nuclear facility during a major nuclear accident have
only one viable option:evacuation to an un affected area.

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3.2.2Sheltering:

The first thing to do by the people staying near the nuclear accident zone is to seek
immediate shelter far away from the area. In thelikely event that no stocked fa11out
shelter is available,the safest option is usua11y sheltering within one's own residence.
Dust mask is necessary ifsomeone is outside and has not been able to seek shelter yet,orfor some urgent reason must go outside during plume passage. A simple particulate
respirator(dust mask)is an essentia1 firstline ofprotection against inhaIing plume pulse
particulates As soon as you reach shelter,c1ose a11windows and doors to minimize
inhalation of passing plume.
3.2.3Shielding

Barriers of lead,concrete or water give good protection from penetrating radiation suchas gamma rays. Radioactive materials are therefore often stored or handled under water,or by remote controlin rooms constructed ofthick concrete orlined withlead.
3.2.4Reduction of exposure time

For people who must be exposed to radiation in addition to naturalbackground radiation
because oftheir work,the dose is reduced and the risk ofillness essentially eliminated by
1imiting exposure time.
3.2.5Distance

When you are further away from radiation source,the intensity of radiation decreases
with distance from its source.
3.2.6Containment

Radioactive materials are confined and kept out of the environment.Radioactive isotopes
for medicaluse,for example,are dispensed in closed handling facilities,while nuclear
reactors operate within closed systems with multiple barriers,which keep the radioactive
materials contained.
3.2.7NecessaryActions to Take
Avoid using surface water supplies and rainwater. Avoid exposure of chiidren tocontaminated surface water (puddles and rain)andground contamination.Avoid tracking
inground deposition:remove contaminated clothing and footwear.Avoid consumption offoods contaminated with surface deposition,especia1lyleafy vegetables with foliar
contamination.Also avoid fruits,which are difficult to wash and food which rapidly bio
accumulates contamination,such as mushrooms and sea vegetabIes.Avoid consuming
foods subjected to secondary ingestion pathway contamination.Use food products
produced and/or packaged prior to plume passage whenever possible.Shelterlivestock
and pets;use uncontaminated feeds.Avoid exposure to surface ground contamination by

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staying indoorsasmuchaspossible. Cover garden sites with tarps prior to plume passagei f t i m e permits.Utilizegreens grown in agreenhouse situation whenever possible.
Package,box or bag contaminated c1othing and footwear and remove from immediate
vicinity of theliving quarters ifpossible.Due to filtering and/or diluting allsubsurface
water sources and most public drinking water,sources willremain relatively safe after
most types ofnuclear accidents.In the days after a nuclear accident,ifyou have avoided
inhalation of the passing plume and if you can avoid extensive exposure togrounddeposition,your principalpathway ofexposure wi1lbe the ingestion pathway.
3.3.0 Design Procedures for Awareness

Radiation education has come up in our time as a challenge to educationaladministrators,planners and educationalorganizers throughout the entire world.In order to solve thisgreat cha1lenge posed by radiation effect,allcontro11ers of education must come out witha definite direction and understanding about the radiation.There should be a defined
objective in five component directions.
(1)The first component direction is on the research aspect.
(2)The second component direction is on content and teaching method.
(3)The third component direction is on system ofcommunication and evaluation.
(4)The fourth component direction is on training provisions for teachers.
(5)The fifth component direction is on establishment ofvarious contro11ing bodies.
The first component being research aspect means that there should be emphasisand promotion on research about radiation and radioactivity. T h e experts should
concentrate their researches on those aspects ofradiation and radioactivity,which form atreat t o l i f e . T h e results o f the researches should be made available to teachers.The
teachers should rely on thelatest research findings made by the experts i n the field of
nuclear technology.

The second component is on the direction of the content and teaching method.The
content of radiation education should be clearly determined based on the new researchfindings.The method of imparting theknowledge on the students derived.
The third component is on the aspect of system of communication and evaluation.
The important facts should be simplified to the understandingleve1of the students.
Important research findings,which are capable of correcting the negative perception of
nuclear technology, should be simplified to understandingleve1of the students.
Evaluation of students should be more on the simplified new research findings.This willencourage effort and concentration on the new research findings.

The fourth component is on the provision of trainings to teachers.Training forteachers should be being organized on regular basis to educate them on thelatest researchfindings on nuclear technology.The teachers should have good understanding ofthe newresearch findings and be able to simplify and impart them on students.

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The fifth component direction demands the creation of intemationalassociation forradiation education.This intemationalassociation should have variouslevels for effective
controland administration.See figurelbellow.There should be a world centralbody,which controls and coordinates the research activities in nuclear technology.Various
continentalbodies fo11ow this world centralbody. T h e continentalbodies should be
responsible to the world centralbody in research contro11ing and coordinating.The thirdlevelis on various countries.They should have nationalbodies that report to thecontinentalbody. T h e creation of this intemationalassociation with variouslevels ofcontroland administrative bodies wi1lnot only disseminate new research findings but
also create awareness for radiation education.
InternationalAssociation for radiation education

Figure1:F1owchart for Awareness Creation

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3.4Nuclearpower plants

One of the chalienges in the nuclear power plant maintenance is how to predict
phenomena related to corrosion.These include stress corrosion cracking and activity
build up. I t includes deposition of activated corrosion products onto the surfaces of thereactor cooling system.In nuclear power plants the temperature ofthe cooling water andthe pressure should be being monitored.A good choice ofthe materialmust be made forthe components in contact with the cooling water. This is because oxygen in water canreact with the outermostlayers of these metals,forming a thin oxidelayer that slows
down further corrosion.Example of the materials includes stainless stee1or nickelbase
a11oys.Minor a11oys added to the steelmay enhance the protectiveness of thelayer.
Corrosion effects are produced from the thin metaloxidelayer by flowing ofthe coolingwater.The corrosion eff el ctsare activated as they pass through the core ofthe reactor,and
can be deposited in inner surface of the pathway. Stress and corrosion may enhance
growth of cracks in metallic materials.More research is needed in order to develop
accurate methods for predicting the progress of any phenomena relating to cracking due
to corrosion and stress.We therefore,advocate in addition that development ofinte1ligent
sensors be made for the purpose of detecting any form of crack in the nuclear power
plants.For protective measure against accident in nuclear power plant,there should be a
new research direction on various types ofintelligent sensors,which could be fitted in all
around the nuclear power plant.The inte1ligent sensors wi11be capable of detecting any
possibility ofaccident occurrence before it happens.

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4.0 Conclusion

This work has shown basic protection ma1j ors against exposure during nuclear accident.
Evacuation o f people from the accident vicinity and shelteringthem in a1ocation far
away from the accident zone or unaffected area are the fundamentalprotection against
the risk of exposure.Alllivestock and a11usefulobjects and materials should be
evacuated to avoid contamination.A simple particulate respirator(dust mask)is very
essentialfor protection against inhaling plume pulse particulates.For shielding radiation,
concrete,water or barriers of lead,are good protections from penetrating radiation suchas gamma rays.For nuclear workers who must be exposed to radiation in addition tonaturalbackground radiation due to the nature oftheir work,the dose is reduced and thedanger of sickness essentia1ly eliminated by reducing time of exposure.The nuclear
workers should aIso try to be at a distantfrom the source in order to reduce the intensityof radiation.Radioactive materials are confined and kept out of the environment.
Radioactive isotopes are dispensed in c1osed handling facilities,while nuclear reactors
operate within c1osed systems with many barriers,which are capable of containing theradioactive materials.More researches are encouraged especially toward inte11igent
sensors for detecting any possible occurrence of accident in nuclear techno1ogy.
Researches are also encouraged in the aspect of materials used in the nuclear industries.
Awareness creation is very important to a11.Establishment of intemationalassociationand corporation for the propagating of radiation education wi11be very usefulto
humanity in this age and next generation.

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BibIiography-

Al ie n , B . J . , D . E. Moore,B.V.Harrington:Progress in neutron capture therapy forcancer.Plenum Press,New York London1992.

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Archambeau, J.0.:The effect of increasing exposures of the10B(n,a)7Li reaction on theskin ofman.Radio1ogy94(1970),178 187.

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A s b u r y , A . K . , R . G. 〇jeman,S.L.Nielsen,W.H.Sweet:Neuropatho1ogicalstudy offourteen cases of malignant brain tumor treated by boron 10 slow neutron captureradiation. J . Neuropath. expt.Neurol.31(1972),278 303.

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Australia,Environment Protection(Nuclear Codes)Act1978
http://www.arpansa.gov.au/rad̲health.htm-

Bemard,R.G.Zamenhof (ed.):Neutron beam design,development and performance forneutron capture therapy.Plenum Press,New York London1990.

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Coderre, J.A., J.D.Glass,P.Micca,R. G.Fairchild:Neutron capture therapy formelanoma.Basic Life Sci.50(1989),219 232.
Coderre, J . A ., J . D. Glass,R. G. Fairchi id , U. R o y , S . Cohen,I. Fand:Selectivetargeting
ofboronophenylalanine to melanoma for neutron capture therapy.Cancer Res.47(1987),

Constantine,G.,H. J.Delafield,D. Ross:Neutron spectrum characterization of theHB7
beam in the HFR,Petten.Materials Physics&Metallurgy Division HarwellLaboratory,
Reactor PhysicsNote169,1989.

Eric J Hall, (1998)Radiation and Life,New York,
Fairchild,R.G.,F.Wheeler,D.Slatkin, J.Coderre,P.Micca,B.Laster,S.B.Kahl,P .
Som,1.Fand:Recent developments in neutron capture therapy.Strahlenther.0nko1.165(1989),343 347.

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Fairchild,R. G . , V. P.Bond:Current status of ''B neutron capture therapy:enhancementof tumor dose via beam filtration and dose rate,and the effects of these parameters on
minimum boron content:a theoreticalevaluation.Int. J.Radiat.0nco1.Biol.Phys.11(1985),831 840.

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Farr,L.E.:Neutron capture therapy:years of experimentation years of reflection.BNL
47087,Brookhaven NationalLaboratory1991.

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Gabe1,D.:Goals of the European Coliaboration on Boron Neutron Capture Therapy. I n :Allen,B. J . , D . E . M o o r e , B . V . Harrington(ed.),Progress in neutron capture therapy forcan 3cer.Plenum Press,New York London1992,p.31 36.

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Garber,D. J . , R . R . K i n s e v : N e u t r o n cross sections,3rd ed. BNL 325,Brookhaven
NationalLaboratoryl976.

Harling,0.K., J . A . B e m a r d , R . G. Zamenhof:Neutron beam design,development,and
performance for neutron capture therapy.Proc.ofan intemationalsymposium.March29
31,1989,Cambridge,Massachusetts.Plenum Press,New York London,1990,p.1 353.

- --Kruger,P.G.: S o m e bio1ogicalef lfects of nuclear disintegration products on neoplastic
tissue.Proc.nat.Acad.Sci. US26(1940),181 192.

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Martin,R. . F .,G.D'Cunha,M.Pardee,B. J . A lien:Induction of double strand breaks
fo1lowing neutron capture by DNAbound Gd l57.Int. J.Radiat.Bio1.54(1988),205 208.

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Moss,R. L.,F . Stecher Rasmussen,K.Ravensberg,G.Constantine,P.Watkins:Design,
construction and installation of an epithermalneutron beam for BNCT at the highflux
reactor in Petten.In:A11en,B. J . , D . E . M o o r e , B. V.Harrington(ed.):Progress inneutron capture therapy for cancer.Plenum Press,New York London1992,P . 63 66.

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Materials:Guidelines for Excellence, htt // www4.nau .edu/eeo t)/urco/l atio.htm
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Sauerwein,W. , 1 . Heselmann,F.Pbl ier, J. Rassow,H.Szypniewski,C.Streflier,H.Sack:
Neutron capture reactions in a d(14)+Be fast neutron beam.In:Allen,B. J ., D . E. Moore,
B. V.Harrington(ed.):Progress in neutron capture therapy for cancer. Plenum Press,
N e w York London1992,p. 199 202.

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Slatkin,D.N.: A history.of boron neutron capture therapy of brain tuinours.Brain 114(1991),1609 1629.

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Unesco:IntemationalInstitute for Educationalplanning(1967)Hol iand BreumelhofN.V
Amsterdam:United States Food and Drug Administration.(March5,1997).

Uranium information centreltd.(2002)Melbourne,Australia
http://www.ansto.gov.au/info/reports/radboyd.html
US Federalgovemment(2002) Fact Sheet:Guidance for Responding to Radiologicaland
Nuclear Incidents U.S.Department of State,Washington,D.C.
http://travel,state. gov/nuclear̲incidents.htm1

United States Food and Drug Administration.(March5, 1997)
Revised Fda Radioactive Contamination Guideline
http://www.epa.gov/radiation/cleanup
Zah1,P.A.,F.S . Cooper, J. R.Dunning:Some in vivo eff el cts of 1ocalized nuclear
disintegration products on transplantable mouse sarcoma. Proc.natl.Acad. Sci. U S 2 6(1940),589 598.

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2.7 P hysics teachers' nuclear in service training in Hungary
SandorUlljvari

Comelius Lancz1os Gymnasium,Szekesfehervar,Hungary
When I wasa child,at schoolwe had to make pictures or schoolcompositionswiththetitle Whatwi11the year2000 belike? We had futuristic ideas: many peoplewi11live inM ars,our cars will fly,there w i l l b e etemalpeace on the Earth,the cancer wontdangerous

any more, we'llbe able to producepure unlimited energy, allthepeoplewilllive morethan
hundred years.

This magic date is here now,here is the moment ofthetruth.
What do we have?Wehave fast computers,Intemet, big jets,lotsof cars,we have very

effiective weapons, g1obaleconomy. 0 n t h e other hand we have ozone hole,we havedestroying rainf ol rests,we have AIDS and weare afraid ofg1obalwarming.Ithinkthe balanceis neitherpositive,nor negative.Butthe most signi ficant phenomena is the veryquick change
oftechno1ogy, o f knowledge,the accelerating time(George Marx). 0nething is sure:Therole of science,andthe role of science education remain veryimportant〇ur Country,Hungaryis a verysma11country. T h e countryoccupies a territoryof

about93000 squareki1ometres. It hasapopulation ofabout10 mi11ion.Wehave good soils
for crops and vegeteables but because ofthe agricultura1overproduction a1loverthe world it

is difficult to find any market. Unfortunately wehave no mineralresources,there are only a-

few oil we1ls,we have no diamond and gold mines.
I f w e want to competewith the world's countries we can only rely on people,humanunderstanding and creativity. The teacher hasto bring to the surf:ace,unearth this creativity
and he/she must hasto develop the foundtalent

Teaching of science subjects, amongthem physics,demandsrevision and renewa1

sy11abuses and methods. It is a banalityto talk aboutthe rapid increase of factualknowledge,
abuot the progress of science at a quick pace. In our countrythe shiftof socialsystem adds tothesethings. Thesethings cause anxietybecause the filture is uncertain and our knowledge islimited.
But the experiences show that hard times cultivate cleverpeople, geniuses. There is another thing against fear that who becomes a teacher,hasto be always renewed.He/she hasto-J A E R I Conf

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be renewed because he/she hasto face clever young people ful l o f criticalsensehas to hand

his/her knowledge over to them.
The theme of this conf111lrence is the nuclear education. But please allow me tosay

some words about the past.I wouldlike to talk about,how the modem physics got to-

Hungarian schools, whatkinds of methods the physics teachers used for their in service

training and what wastheir success by these methods.

Leon Ledermanwrites about Martians in his book The God Particle :These extraterrestrials achievedgreat results in science,they had strange,even fantastic

ideas. Because they could notleam Englishwithout an alien accent,they claim to be

Hungarians. Such Martians were Edward Teller,Eugene Wigner, Jonhvon Neumann,
Theodor von Karmin,Leo Szilard. Nevertheless they became suspectbecause allthey arrived
inAmerica 16rom the same district of Budapest and moreover severa1of them attended thesame grammarschoo1. (Past decade two more joined this exclusive club: John C. Harsanyi,
economic Nobellaureate and George Olah,chemicalNobellaureate. )The man whoasthe Minister ofPublicEducation established the basis of the Martians 一

the grammarschools of Budapest,himself was a worthy of them physicist,Baron Roland
Eotvos. Everyphysicist and physics teacher knows his incredibily accurate gravitational
measurements,the torsionpendulum made by him.

Oewiew Eotvos'scientific achievement is not my presenttask.
Morethan hundred years ago,in1891Roland EOtvOs invited mathematics andphysics teacherswiththe aim of founding a societyforthe study of a continous self-

education.

ms Mathematics and Physics Societylater adopted its founder's name;and isthe present
EOtvOs Society.

We,Hungarian physicists and physics teachers believethat organization of a selfeducation
forumthe PhysicalSociety(1891), establishment of EOtvos Co1lege(1894)andthe first-

Hungarian teacher training workshop(1905)are also veryimportant partof hislife work.
Due to this activitythe physics teachers can have the most active professionallif el and they

have the best contactswiththe scientistsand universityprofessors.

A n!sIorica」 examp l e lor me connecIion or moc[e m science ana eaucauon.

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At the end of 1895 Conrad Rontgen,Rector of Wurzburg Universitydiscovered X rays. The

first newspaperarticle about this discovery was published in Wienna early in1896.

Hungarian NaturalScientific Joumalreported onthis discoveryin January1896. Thisarticle-

was i11ustratedwith an X ray photograph made at Budapest University. The photographdepicted Roland EOtvos'hand.

-0 n 1 8 t h JanuaryX rays were produced also at grammarschoolof a provincialtown. The-

photograph was published in the schoolyearbook. The schoo11eavers(17 18years old)took-

partin making X rays photographs.
VirgilKlatt,agrammarschoolteacher from Pozsony(the teacher ofto be NobelprizewinnerPhilip Lenard)worked out experimenta11y photoluminescent materials which were used formaking fluorescent screen.
Secondaryschoolphysics teachers were so enthusiastic that on their own initiative they-equipped X raylaboratories in physics equipment stores. I n t w o towns sickpersons had been
examined for decades in theselaboratories.The creator of one oftheselaboratories, Josephus-

Ireneus Karoly took part in above mentioned first Hungariantrainingsseminar(1895).The X

raylaboratoryestablished on money co11ected by him already worked in December 1896
(one yearafter discovery!).

Unfortunately today we cannot hope for such a direct connection between science andeducation.But everyteacher who wants to do his job wellhas to inquire about contemporary

scientific problems,mainly because his/her students are much more interested in the future-then in the past. This demandsapermanent self education from a1lofus.

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t'n vsics teacnersi n service traini n gl in l-i l.1 n gar ,1

In 1985the Hungarian govemment decided onthe teacher in service training refonn. I t

introducedthe system of intensive courses. According to this plan everyteacher has totake-

part in an in servicetraining at a given time for a year. The courses endedwithathesis, and-an examination. Depending on their resultsthe participants received wage increase.

一

c ear pn vsicsiniensive course

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Physics teachers had apossibilityto be absorbed in a topic on the nuclearphysics
intensive course of Nuclear Physics Departement at Eotvos University. Thiskind oftraining

wasexciting, i t evoked the teachers'1arge interest.
Though nuclear physics was not bom these days nevertheless,now it represents the mostadvanced technology, i n connection with environmentalprotection and energysupply. The-

students'experienced interestalso motivates the teacher to be we11 infom ed ofthis field.
The curriculum was the fo11owing:- Nuclearphysics theoretical iectures

10 hours

Nucleonics

10 hours

Nuclearenergetics

10 hours

Radioprotection

20 hours

Nuclear demonstration experiments

10 hours

Nucleonics and radiatation protection measurements

40 hours

100 hours

Topics of laboratorypractice--

Dosimetry

Measuring thermalneutron fhlx in active zone of reactor
Neutron activation analysis

Nuclearspectroscopy
Computationalsimulation
Practicalreactor operation
Lectures weregiven by professors of EotvOs Universityand TechnicalUniversity.

Practicemostly was carried out inthe reactor ofthe TechnicalUniversityin Budapest.The

greatest experience forthe teachers was the praxis in the operation of swimmingpooltype
reactor. Wehad possibility start,run and stop a reactor.

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The course ended with a ground 1evelexamination on radiation protection contro11ed by state.
The participants of courses after their succesfulexaminations received Geiger counters andsimple radioactive sources for their schools as a present. The high popularityofthis course is

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due to the teachers good connectionwith the University, with its Nuclear Physics

Departement.We often go back with our studentsfor schoolexcursionsto see the reactor.

Some dissertationsof the course:
Simulation of neutron scatteringwithcomputer

Investigation of cosmic radiationwitha Geiger counters in coincidence

Measuring oflead content inair
Observation of acid rain
Indoor radon survey

Radon in myvi1lage

Investigation ofheavymetalcontent ofleaveswith snapshots of gamma
spectrum
The teachers took specialvisits inpower plants,1aboratories,mines,depositsof

nuclear wasts, universities or research institutes.

Nuclearexcursions
Not only the participants of course,butthe interested Hunganan teachershadpossibiiityto

see Chemobiland Three Mile Island,

the teachers and the best stl.ldentsvisited the

1aboratories ofCERN,we sawthe heavywater IEactoryin Tumu Severin,in Romania and wewent down to themine ofuranium in Hungary.
I wouldlike to mention an interesting and we11establishedtraining form of Unversityof

Debrecen.Each yearone teacher can work at the Nuclear Research Institut getting a researchscholarship. W i t h a consultant's help he/she can engage in a real,daily research,he/she cansolve a part of research problem.After one yearthe sponsored teachergives an account of
his/her finished work.Ifthis account has a quite highlevelthe theache「hasan opportunityto

improve it onasa PHD.

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From these nuclearteachers a country wide networkhas been created not only for inservice

training of secondaryschoolteachers,but for the dissemination of actualinfiormationaswell.

For example:Intendedlocation of radioactive waste deposits,C02green house situation,

intemationalagreements and manifests about S 0 2 , N O X , C〇2,nuclear releasesfuture
1imitations,software for energyproduction,environmentalmodels and risk education.

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Atleast in half of the counties this network is alive,organizes seminars,visits the nuclear

plant. Eight years ago these teachers formed the Teacher Branch of Hungarian Nuclear

Society. Nowadays the most importanttask of the Teacher Branch is to organize the Leo
Szilard Nuclear Physics competition.
The startof l.eo Szilard co m t)etit1 on

At the centenaryof Leo Szilard,in 1998the EotvOs PhysicalSocietyproposed a countrywide

student competition of secondaryschoolgraduates in nuclear physics.
The interest exceeded a1lour hopes. Each year over400students participate from dozens ofschools,from allover the country.
(This means more than onepercent of secondaryschoolgraduates of the year. )Even someyoungerstudents fromgrades8,9,10,11(oftheage13,14,15,16)participate.

e ecl ] n R し ompeunon :s

l) l

L

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From the selecting competitions-organized1oca11y inthe schools those hadthe chance to

go to the finalcompetition, who solved o v e r 6 0 % o f the problems. (For j uniors below theage of 16a success rate o f 4 0 % w a s the threshold for participating the finalcompetition. )Fi nal compe t Mions

The finalcompetitions are arranged in Paks,in the EnergyIndustryColiege of the Nuclear
Power Plant.
At finalcompetition

the solution often more demandingtheoreticalproblems(in2hours),,,

one computerassisted problem(1hour)Bemutatniegyet!!
one experimentalproblem(2hours)are the tasks.

Aboutthe results of competition

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The encouraging fact is that these tasks are not exaggerated:each problem was solved

perfectly we1lby a one ortwo students.
The success rate:above60%at senior students,near t o 5 0 % a t j u n i o r students.
About the selective power of theLeo Szilard Competion:inlast year one of thewinners-

brought home also a medal fio m the IntemationalPhysics Student 01ympiad.
The competition is made more attractive by the fact that in each year the 四 best litudents et5

f ree ent!1anceto the Hungarim universities.
The organizers

The Leo Szilard Student Competition is organized by an unselfish group of professors

representingleading Hungarian universities and teacher training co11eges,ft!rthermore ofsecondaryschoolteachers,under the umbrella ofthe Eotvos PhysicalSocietyand Hungarian
NuclearSociety.
Autumnuniversities

0 n George Marx professorsinitiative in 1972was bom the tradition of autumnuniversity.

The themes of these universities were energy,environ ment, globalproblems. The issues

showed that we had to find connectionswith other naturalsciences. These meetingshadlessparticipants, generally about100 of the most active and innovative Hungarian physics
teachers.
Titles of the Autm n n Universities were:-

Energyand education
Nuclear energy(Visiting the nuclear power plant in Paks,measuring here)
AfterRio 's environment conference
G1obalwayofthinking , g1obalresponsibility
The Gaia mode1-

Life in physics physics inlife(biophysics)

Famouslecturersfrom abroad and the most famous Hungarian professors spent time together
with the physics teachers.
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2005 -001

Not only physics teachers took part in these programs but bio1ogy and chemistryteachers

were interested as we11.This kind of training gave the experiences of realscientificconferences to the participants.

Refierences・、 、

̲Papp, Katal1n .・ liuc1lear 一「,eacher Tralnlng iln Hungary, lrl.' Energy E d,ucatfion,
Proceed ings, 1998, /eszpre m Hungar;y',Radn6tf,Kata /ln. A 角lzlka tanta增y he/yzete6s fef /esztes1 llefadata l Flzlkal Szemfe

2003

・

'

foth, fsther.・ Mode/ Maklng and feachlng of ffementaりQuantum Mechan cs ln.
Structure of Matter ln the SchoolRolandE,0tv'os P hyscs/ Society, 1979. Budapest

-

'

˜

'

Uリv6n, Sandor.・ Voluntaリ ln S e ce「falnlng of Physlcs feache応 ln the unganan
P hyslca/ Soclety 1l0 0 y:ears of E)(pe 7ence, ln. /ntemationa/ Confenence on Phyics
E ducatl 1lon, Proceedings 199 5, /Vanjlng
'

'

'

'

'

˜

-

Vastagh, Geo電e. Radon Monltof lng ln unganan Schoofs, ln. /klしlkl Maku wa ku,
P的ceedlngs1992,8udapest
'

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J A E R I Conf-

2.8 Nuclear Electrica Experience Related to the Public Information
About Nuclear Energyand Its Benefits for Development of Society
Author:Mariana Vatamanu
Societatea Nationala Nuclearelectrica S A
Bucharest Romania-

Abstract:

Recent events in Canada and Italy and the prediction for similarincidents to be
produced in other high developed countries have highlighted public concerns about thenation's energy policies.The blackout that afliected much o f Ontario and thenortheastem United States hasfocused attention on the adequacy and securityofthe
everyone elect1icitysupply .Meanwhile,gasand oilprices have soared across thecontinents and this is a verystrong motivation forthe countries govemments to
a11ocate financingfunds 1for a range ofpolicy initiatives related to the Kyoto Protoco1,
reminding to a11ofus about the need to make changes to the way in which we generate
and use energy,in order to reduce the possibility of anthropogenic climate change andother types ofdamage to the environment.

The people of a1lover the world are concemed about the potentialfor g1obalwarm ing.
Thereare also concems about the health effectsassociated with the use of fossilf uels
(smog and other forms of po11ution).What altemative forms of energy are there?And
could we help to solvethese problems by changing the way we use energy in industry,
for transportation,and in our dailylives?Govemment policies in theseareasare
incomplete,and the generalpublic needs much more inf ol rmation i f a consensus is to
evolve about the necessarychanges in energy use in our society.
'

Nuclearelectrica has developed a strategy of public infor mation,fo11owing the basic
objective principles ofcomnunication to inform the public aboutthe facts on diff el rent
aspects and events produced on nuclear field not only within Romanian territorybuta11
over the world.

The elements needed by a communication planare strictly fo11owedas:
clearobjectives
the audience according to the objectives
the message to be communicated
a communication plan with goals for each audience in order to achieve the objectives・ evaluation ofthe results to be included infuture planning
It has been demonstrates that a quick access to information is mandatoryfor publiccredibility, s o that the generalprinciples as:
the respect forthe public
to pay attention to allthe m2ilj or interest problems and fears ofthe publicalarge degree oftransparency toward inhabitants ofRomania
the respectfor the opponents'opinions
the qualityand content ofthe messages

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2005 -001

・ initiative in information supply
are strictly observed during the action taken by our company for public
communication,deve1oped by means ofmass media, publicationsasbooks,
pamphlets,presentation ofevents related to nuclearprogram deve1oped by ourcompany Nuclearelectrica.
,

We have deve1oped a verymeticu1ous program for publ io information through different
methods:specialpresentation in the school,visits organized for children and l heirteachers and parents on Cemavoda siteannual exhibitions with paintings having
nuclearthematic,performed by children and organized by our company during Nuclear
Energy Days and IntemationalSymposiums about NuclearEnergy(awardsare given tochildren for specialpaintings,etc.).
The specific aspects of a good collaboration with the pressare represented by the
propagation of the relationshipswith reporters, simplicity and knowledge of being
original.

-

The relationship with mass mediaare generaliy deve1opedthrough:elaboration of the
programs;

support documentation for radio and television

initiating some radio programs,quizzes,eventuallylive talking tothe
1isteners;
initiating some TV programs on various topics mutua11y set outwith theprograms editors;
issuing press releases for a prompt iniol rmation ofthe public related tosome events occ mfed during the operation of the subsidiaries reporting
to Nuclearelectrica NationalCompany SA;
adopting an off el nsive attitude at the presslevelby publishingarticles
on CemavodaNPP operation,reliability,safety,economic,ecologica1
and socialadvantages,on radioactivityand so o n a s w e l l a s interviewing
scientific,medicalpersonalities,specialists involved in the nuclear power
program,Romanian operators,representatives of the nuclearregulatory
body and so on;
・ organizing initiating courses on nuclear power for media representatives.
The main actions takenwith view to inform promptly the pubiic:
・ prompt press releases and interviews on diff el rent subject of interest in the centra1

-

press
press conferences on site and at the headquarters
radio programs,so ca11ed nuclear radio p加sradio and TV roundtables

・・ initiating courses for joumalists about

the historyof nuclearenergy andCemavoda NPP,nuclearpower generation,CANDU type reactor presentationsafety aspects,technica1 and economicalperformance, waste management,
radiationlevels,visits ofthe plant.
,

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Main text:

The success of anyactivitydepends on the waythe problem is technically dealtwith,
andthe support ofthe people 二::> an efficient publicinformation and communication
policy.

--Societatea Nationala NuclearelectricA S A S N N S A represents a Romanian state
owned stock company,established in Julyl998,fo1lowingthe restructuring ofRENEL,
the fon ner centralized Romanian Utilityand includesthree mainbranches:ｻ"CNEProd",operating Unit#1CemavodaNPP(CANDU6Type))''・ "CNE Invest",including Units#2to5,actually in chargewiththecompletion o f U n i t # 2 ( C A N D U 6 ) ｻ"FCN Pitesti ,thenuclearfuel factorythat suppliesthe nuclearfue1
for CemavodaUnit#1and withminor changes can doublethe production
the plant is qualified byAECL and ZPI CanadaasCANDU6Nuclear
FuelSupplier

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M oldalla.l ''l1

The totalrevenue of S N N S A in2002was about US$115Million,having a s1taffof
about2400 employees atthe end ofFebruary2003.
Cemavoda Ulm t I NPP is operated
based on techno1ogy transfer processfrom
Canada(CANDU6nuclear reactor),Italy(BOP)and United States(TG):mservice since Decem ber2, 1996
gross capacity.・ 706,5 M W,e,・
provid,es ˜10 % of the annua,1l e,1lectricltyoutput ofR om anla'
Cernavoda Ulnlt 2 N P P is under completion and S N N S A manages,togetherwith
AECL Canada andANSALD0 Italy,the construction work at:
The u nit is ˜ 68%complete,mam equlpmentprocured,・・ Scheduled temf(or start? .・ 2006

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ProlJect M anagement Contract s igned on May 2001,・
F C N P itesti Produces nuclearfuelfor CemavodaNPP,at its subsidiaryin Pitesti;
use.s1 naturalUranium dio)clde,f ,om a R om an ian suppl ier-

二Inthe year 1991

̲

mta,m

,a ,o a r

g1

ll

●1l

i1

- started in Romania the first Public h f ormation program

The presentation wi1lfocus onthe Romanian nuclearutilityexperience in public
Mormation,considering the authors'position on differentlevels ofcommunication,and
direct involvement inthe major information campaigns organized by SNN
The nuclearpower hasproved itspotentialto contribute substantia11y to electricity
supply and to compete withthealtematives sources,to satisfy the need of more andmore power consumption inthe world.Neverthelessthe implementation of nuclear
powerprojects raises socialconcems.
The socialacceptance ofnuclearenergy can be approached bytwo ways,one based onincreasingthe publictrust andthe other is based onthe techno1ogy deve1opment.
Thetrust based approach is referring to the public capability to decide whom and how
totrust dif fierent groups ofpeople involved in a way or in another in nuclearprogramand dealingwithany issues ofnuclearpower.

The approach based on technology explanation hasin view to makethe public to decidealone i f t h e technology is acceptable,based on the understanding ofarguments andevidences provided bythe experts.The intemationalexperience demonstratesthat al1
effortsto improve acceptabilityof nuclearpower based onthe techno1ogyarguments
have failed andthat onlythe approach based on publictrust wassuccessfu1.
The communication strategies suitable?r nuclearpowerarethose consideringthe
publicasan equalpartner for dialogue.The Aarhus Convention,now in force inRomania,provides an adequateframework for development ofpublictrust,based on the
dia1ogue and partnership.
The main obstacle f(or a rapid growth of nuclearpower isthe anxiety,distrust andlackof enthusiasm ofthe public versus this energy source.The public attitude regardingthe
nuclearenergy varies in function o f t h e geographicalarea,being identified three
categories.Inthe west,the public hasa critica1or hesitant attitude.In the east,the-

JAERI Conf-

2005 0 0 l

communist experience induced to the public a listless and tiredness attitude.In the fareeast and in the south the public shows awareness and interest.
The variability in time ofpublic opinionasconcerns the nuclearenergy is i11ustrated byits status in the U S A . I f i n the first years ofthe nuclear era the public wasambivalent,
after theThree Miles Islands accident(1979)in the U S A and the Cemobylaccident(1986)inUkraine,the malj ority oftheAme ricans opposed to erection of new nuclearpower plants,
even ifthey accepted the nuclear energy as an important altemative onlong term.Now
the situation tends to be more we11 balanced.
The apparently paradoxicalbehavior ofthe public can be understood i f w e have in viewthe nuclearenergy history, t h e communication deficiencies and thelack of trust in
authorities and the techno1ogic progress.The distrust was feed by the1ow involvement
ofthe public in decision making in this field.

-

The nuclear energy is reflected in the public consciousnessascliches.The first cliche
represent s the atomic mushroom produced by exp1osions in Hiroshima and Nagasaki,
or by the nuclearweapons tests which fo1lowed,and by the radioactive c1oud produced
at Cemoby1.The impression produced by this cliche is so strong that many people areconvinced that the nuclear power plants may exp1odelike an atomic bombs.
Another cliche refers to the vulnerabiiityof nuclearenergy in front of terrorist attacks.
The idea that the nuclear materials may fa11in the terrorists hands,or that the sabotage
actions may severely aff el ct the safetyof nuclear insta11ations is easily accepted by the
public and regarded as a realpossibility.
The handling,conditioning and disposa1ofradioactive wastes are the main objection inalltalks about nuclear energy. T h e subject of nuclearwastes is difficult to debate
because the public regards these activitiesasunwanted and that the only the altemative
is to oppose.
Surprisingly,the industrydid nottried,untilrecently,to struggle against these cliches
by promoting a more realistic image.
The govemmentalpolicy in this field was based on mistakenassumptions that the
public is ignorant and irrationa1,and that its education and inf ol rmationassures a better
acceptance of nuclearenergy.Gradua11y,the scientific community began to understandthe necessity of a more consistent involvement of the public in decision making
regarding the nuclear energy.

The socialacceptabilityis essentialfor redefinition of nuclearenergy role in the modem
society. T h e basic understanding of the socialattitude versus the nuclearenergywi11
enable us to highlight the economic and eco1ogicalbenefits ofthis energy source.
Thereare two approaches to explain the acceptabilityof nuclearenergy:one based on
the techno1ogy and another one based on trust.
The technology basedargument explains the socialacceptance of nuclear energy as aresult ofthe cumulated eff ol rt to build more safe power plants and the public information
programs on the risks and merits ofthis techno1ogy.

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The altemative for the way based on technology is that based on trust.This w ay is basedon the ob、servation tllat the lp ublic is not actua11y trying lo form a n d independent opinion
conccrning ho w w e l l th e tec11 ll ology wi1llikely perioml. b u t rather istrying to deci(1lewhich, gro u p ofpeopIe 1o trusi conceming how it should bc managed.
Thc nlem bers o f the r)ublic try to tl nderstaf ld at the baslclcvclonly the issues、:

consideredasvita1 but the nuclearenergy is not included.A11non vitalissuesare
accer)led fu l l ctio n of t heir benefits and thc tr Ll st in t heir managers.
The Society do not see the n uclcar electrlci ly as a basic issue. an,〔1 the frequent negative
sl:g nals lrom the me(i i :a are r L aso n s for anxietv . T he fact i h at t1le present nuclear power
planl s have no impacl on public he1l lth is exciting nobod , . T h e free of incidents
operation history ofnuclearpla l l tsls a necessarybui not a sufficient argamel l t 1 o obtal n
the socialsuppo lt The social support for nuclear energy may increasc as thc p ublic
understand its active role in avoiding crisis in power systems,noticed in thelast years,
in reducing the green house emissions and in diversifying its applications in economy
and socia1 life. Therefore, the socialacceptability is affected by three factors:
1ech no1ogy cl ualit y , organization co m pelcnce an(i espec ial lly public trust in users of thattechno1ogy .The nuclear en ergy acceptabili l y should be assessed within alarger conte i1o f p ublic concemlor environ m ental rlrotection.

、,

A t t h e Europeanleve1,the Aarhus Convention gave to the public the right toinformation,to access injustice,and to be involved in making the decisions that aff el ct
the environment,suchasthe nuclearenergy .
The involvement o f the public in such decisions is vitalfor sustainable deve1opment
policy.

Additiona11y,the involvement is one of the ways to improve the trust and implicitly,thesocialsupport for nuclearenergy.
The involvement of the public in making the decisions that aff el ct the environment,bothin the home countryand in neighboring countries became atthe Europeanlevela
requirement,according to CouncilDirectives97/11/EC and85/337/EEC.At the sametime,the Convention on environ mentalimpact assessment in the trans boundarycontext,
adopted at Espoo on Febr tl ary25thl991,elll.ceeds the tlra Tlework olthe Europea n Union,
providing ciear explanations for the mini m a!content of the environ menta!impact
assessment(EIA)submitted to public debate,as we11as public consultation proceduresin the potentia11y affected zones,outside the territoryofthe polluting party.

、

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The main obstacle:anxiety,distrust andlack of enthusiasm of the public.
The public attitude varies infunction ofgeographicalarea:
West:a criticaland hesitant attitude;
East:alistless and tiredness attitude induced by the communist
experience;
Fare East and South:awareness and interest.
The public perception ofthe nuclearenergy problems,in generaland of
nuclearpower,in particular,is generated by thelack of sufficient
information in the domain,communication deficiencies,lack of trust in
authorities and techno1ogy progress.
The public fearfor their health;the main reasons:the radiation and the1atest one the waste.

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Cliches:

the atomic mushroom and weapons tests
fear ofterrorist attacks or sabotage actions-

The technology basedargument:more sa1fe power plants and the public information
programms on the risks and merits ofthis techno1ogy

The s1ogan of this way to obtain the socialacceptabiiity: if you wouldknow w ha1l 1know, youwi11 1l)el ieve w hat l bel ieve ''But this approach hasfew effects in changing the rejection attitude of the public
The altemative for the way based on techno1ogy is that based ontrust
The members of the public tryto understand at the basicleve1only the issues
considered as vita1,but the nuclear energy is not included.Allnon vitalissuesare
acceptedfunction oftheir benefits and the trust in their managers.

The Society do not see the nuclear electricity as a basic issue
The free of incidents operation historyof nuclearplants is a necessarybut not a
sufficientargument to obtain the socialsupport.Thefact that the present nuclear
power plants have no impact on public health is exciting nobody

The socialsupport for nuclearenergy may increase asthe public understand its
active role in avoiding crisis in power systems,in reducing the gl:・een houseemissions and in diversifying its applications in economy and sociallife
The socialacceptabilityis aff el cted by three factors: techno1ogy quality,
organization competence and especia11y public trust in users ofthat techno1ogy.
THE STATUS 〇F PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE 〇F NUCLEAR PR〇GRAM
DEVEL〇PMENT I N R 〇 M A N I A

The nuclear energy program wasinitiated in Romania in the80's by means of a politica1
decision.The authoritative regime of that period granted no role to the public andenve1oped the nuclear program infu11secrecy.The secrecy veilwas removed only after
the revolution in1989,when wasfound out that the involvement ofpoliticalfactors in
implementation ofthe nuclearproject had extremely negative eff el cts.Reconsidering thenuclearprogram,on the unanimously accepted bases in developed countries andintemationa1organizations,enabled us the completion of the first unit of Cemavoda
NPP and supply ofelectricitysince1996.The main issue changed at that time includes
the removalof secrecy and starting a new relationship with the public.
This new attitude versusthe public materialized in few actions:
A better relationship with mass media,including visualmedia;● .Publishing of information materials about nuclearactivities,issues andprospective

・

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・ .0rganizing seminars and symposia and cooperation with professiona1
・
・

・

・
・

and industrialorganizations promoting nuclearenergy
The open doors policy
Actions for the new generation
Public participation in decision making and extension of this approach?or neighboring countries
Information ofdecision makers at1oca1or nationa11eve1
The use ofintemalcommunication instruments-

The cooperation with mass media wascarried on better and better,both partners could
have the initiative.As the cooperation improved,the different issues of nuclear energy
were most adequately reflected by mass media.In these days the mass media interestfor nuclearissues is1ow and circumstantia1.In the same time,this positive aspectreflects the maturityand professionalism of Romanian nuclearindustrymanagement.

--

Another important communication tool,due to the nuclearenergy specificity,is theorganizing of seminars for journallsts,toexplain the ba s lc lp rocesses in nuclear plants.
(irantlng i nterview 1i or participation in dcbates, some o1 the l n online,at nal io1l a ] o r
1ocalstationsare communication toolswith positive impact on the public.A specia1
attention was given to crisis communication,a good example being the period of dry
out in August-September2003,when the regularmeetings with mass media enabled
us to operatively inform the public on this phenomenon and its consequences.In thisway the decision to shut down the CemavodaNPP U n i t l w h e n the Danube reached theemergencylevelwas understood and accepted without any negative comments.
'--

A basic communication toolwasthe public inf ol rmation about allissues of nuclear
energy .
During thelast10 years a whole series of good qualityand accessibilityinformative
materials waspublished.These materials dealt with the important issues of nuclear
energy:radiations and the public health,environmentalprotection,nuclear accidents,
the nuclear energy advantages,etc.The informative materials were prepared byprofessionals from na clear i nd l l str y or from NGOs andargued both pros and anti
opinions.〇f course. when the anti nuclear positlons we l e bascd on u l l foundcd anduntruc arg tl m ents. t he experlslro m SNN or from l1)f o n tl clear N (、J 〇s took l1)osit1on. basedon solidarguments.

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A modem toolfor public information is Intemet,and our company has its own site
available to the public,together with other web pages dedicated to nuclear activities andissues and many ofthese sites are available in Romanianlanguage:
http://www.nuclearelectrica.ro
http://www.cne.ro
http://www.aren.ro
http://nuclearinfo.ro
nup .l/ ハ:vvl,- -. ec l1l o.o rg / oa s,11/ n a :s,e ro.ll t lT、、-

Other important method for communicationwith the publicare seminars and symposia
organized with different subjects regarding the nuclearpower. 〇n this way istransmitted information for some target public categories such as:medicalworkers,

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2005 001

industryand research professionals,administration staff,etc.In this respect,thecooperation between Nuclearelectrica NationalCompany and the professionalandindustrialassociations suc h as the Romanian Association NuclearEnergy,theRomanian Atomic Forum,the Romanian NationalCommittee for World Energy Forumor the Romanian Radioprotection Society is veryimportant,their professionalism
increasing the trust in the messages given to the public.
The open doors policy is the most usefulmeans for improving the trust and increasing
the socialacceptability of nuclearenergy.Anybodylike it may visit the Cemavoda
nuclearplant and may see that the nuclearenergy is clean,safe and efficient.The
visitors ofa11agesare more numerous,this proving the fact that the public overtaken the
period ofobsessions and distrust.
In many occasioris the plant received foreign visitors which have noticed and positively
mentioned the high techno1ogicaland manageria11eve1,comparable with that ofdeveloped countries.

It should be noticed that after the September11th2001events in New York,many
countries gave up the open doors policy. I n Romania,like in other European countries(e.g.Spain),the visitors access at Cemavoda NPP was maintained,and we have200
250 Romanian and foreign visitors per year.The Cernavoda public infor mation center
wi11be an element ofattraction and an increased number ofvisitorsare expected.

-

In relationwith the young generation,we stressed the fact that the nuclearenergy isclean,non po11uting andwithout impact on the environ ment.A particularinterest wasnoticed between1ow age pupils for the drawings contest on the relationship nuclear
energy and environment.

-

Another vitalcomponent of the relationship with the public is the involvement andparticipation. The public involvement in making the decisions with impact onenvironment and public heathis going to become a generalpractice at the European
1evel,and alegalrequirement in our country.
The Aarhus and Espoo conventions ratified by Romania and the requirement of theaccession process in the European Union regarding the implementation of the aquis,
outlined thelegalframework for public involvement in the decision making process fornuclearobjectives.
The environmentalregulations have provisions for public debates,and the1ocalpublic
begins to involve himselfmore and more,1ike in the Cemavoda Unit2and the Interim
Spent FuelDryStorage Facility.
The1ocalpublic is genera11y for the nuclearprogram,because is better informed andtmsts in the plant management.The opposition groupsare genera11y intemationa1
environmentalorganizations with very1ow1ocaland nationalaudience.
The messages reach the nationaland1ocaldecision makers by through the publisheddocuments.

The on site visits and meetings,especially at Cemavoda,with top decision makers,
provided the opportunity for direct contacts with the realities and needs of the nationa1
nuclearprogram,as we11as the implementation ofthe right decisions.

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In the same time,the intemalcommunication is an important toolfor a goodL1nderstanding by a11s ia f f o f t h e managerialdecisions,and ofthe processes,as we11as aconml unication way w i l1) fam通ies of the employs and their friends,w1 th partners(subcontrac1ors. su ppliel s, e t c ) . I n til is respect we publish per1odica11y informatlon
bl l lletins or dedicated publications for spccial e, vents(emergency exercises,outages,etc.).
・

C〇〇PERATI〇N WITH THE CIVIL S〇CIETY

Areasand methods of cooperation:f O rga n izing symposi ,u ms and seminars,main sponsor for The Romanian Energy:l )ays'' - Z E N aJld t he ' 'Intema i ionalSymposium on Nuclear Energy 一 SIEN,
organized by t he Romanian ''NuclearEnergy Association.
、/ inviting N( ]0 s to participate to public debates
Sending representatives to managing boards o f A RIIN a nd ROMATOM
Publishingarticles in Energia Nucleara''.the magazine issued by AREN and
R〇MATOMｻ,・・

The Society do not see the nuclear electricityas a basic issue
Thefree of incidents operation historyof nuclearplants is a necessarybut not a
sufficientargument to obtain the socialsupport.The fact that the present nuclear
power plants have no impact on public health is exciting nobody
T]l e socialsupport for nuclearenergy may i l icrease as the public understand its

active role in avoiding crisis in power systems.in reducing thegreen houseemissions and in diversifying its applications in economy and socia11ifeｻ
The socia1 acceptabiiit y i s affected by three factors: techno1ogy quality,
1 t in users ofthat technology .
organi11ation competence a f d especia11y pub1lc trus
R S R P i s a professional association o1 the Roma n ian specialists in radiation protection
field,is an independent,non profit and nongovemmenta1organization.
* RSRPwas founded in M a y 3 0 , 1 9 9 0 a s a organization for scientific information inradiation protection to public.
* RSRPis IRPA Associate Society since1992and is member ofthe CentralEuropean
Association ofIRPA Associate Societies since2000.
* RSRPaims are to:protect population and radiation workers against the harmfuleffects of ionizing
radiation;
develop and makeknown t he scientlfic,technica1,medicalandlegalaspects ofradiation protection on a nationwide scale;ity in t he b enefit/risk analyses for the ioni zing radiation uses.
imply the civilsoci、* R S R P h a s a preserlta l lonleaflet that can be obtained fll・om the e mailaddress:
cmilu@ispb.ro and has a Web page hosted at:
田 .ispb.ro/rsrp.htm.
.

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RSRPorganized annualiy nationalconferences with the subjects on radiation
protection of the human population and environment with the participation of the
Romanian specialists,specialistsfrom many countries,environmentalNGOs,1ocal
authorities,students and other interested peoples.
RSRPspecialists published many books a n d l e aflets infor ming public about
radioactivity and the potentialrisks for environment and human health,presenting
concepts about radiation protection,impact of radiation on day by day population
1ife,medicalirradiation ofpopulation,etc.
RSRPpublished years before a Bu11etin for interested NGOs about the fo11owing
subjects:radioactivity of atmospheric deposition,radioactivity o f water and milk
and exposure dose at the height of l m from the soil.
A l o t o f news about the Radiation Protection and the RSRPactivities where
inserted in the review ca11ed The Courier ofPhysics
RSRP,through its specialists organized few Press Conferences on Radiation
Protection and participate a t 6 T V or Radio broadcastings on uses ofnuclearenergy,
radiation protection ofhumans and environment,the radioactivityof misce11aneous
foods,etc..
By participation of the RSRPmembers at different activities organized by mass
media,environmentalNGOs,etc.,a massive implication of the specialists in
Radiation Protection in actualproblems about peaceful u s e s of nuclearenergy(nuclear energetic,nuclear medicine,etc.)wasachieved and possible risks in caseo f n o n use ofallrecommended radiation protection were presented.

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The RSRPspecialists published alot ofarticles in the centra1orloca1 news press on
the radiation protection subjects andare involved in the on going events treating
population radiation issues.
The point ofview ofthe RSRPregarding the peaceful uses ofnuclearenergyaswe1l
as the improvement of the citizens capabilities to take decisions regarding thenuclearactivities in Romania is presented at diff el rent conf el rences and symposiums
organized in Romania and abroad
The presence ofthe professionalwomen,organized into associationslike Women in
Nuclear(WIN)could bring an important added value to the pro nuclear'civi1
society'contribution fior better informing the public.They may act under theumbre11a of the nuclearprofessionalsociety,or could be set upasindependent
organizations.
The goa1of the group is to inform the public objectively on the use of nuclear
energy and application on nationaland intemationalleveland to deve1op dia1og withthe public
other goalis to emphasize and support the role that women can and do have in
addressing the public's concems about nuclear energy,nuclearapplication andnucleartechno1ogy●
The target audience ofthis organization is:
Public,Femaleleaders
Localpolicy makers
Health professionals
Academic's and women's associations

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J A E R I Conf

2005 -001

C〇NCLUSI〇N●

Ali target audiencels importanli n buiiding t h e con fidence. but some categories
deserve specialattention.considering the today priorities, of t h e company:o Local public,includinglocalauthorities-as far thc anti nuclearN(iOsstarted a strong campaign against Cemavoda2andfilrther deve1opment
ofthe site
o 1v用ss m eoia represen Iauves, increasing the co operation with 1oca1
newspapers,as we11as with the nationa1ones
o Politicians,considering this year elections,and the re drafting process ofthe politicalstrategies of different parties
o Improving the intemal com m unication deve1oping INTRANET and
EXTRANET cha n neis. aad ex tending socialevents inside the company
A better socialacceptability of nuclear energy may be obtalned through asustained effort to improve the pt1t)lic trust,using tools ais diversified as possible;

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The public inforrnation and public participationare the two main components ofthe communication process, the accent fol1owing to be changed frominformation to participation;r●

Public communication must be professionalized and planned so that each target
group be treated in a specific manner;

According to our experience. at this moment the target groupsare1oca!
co m m unities,mass media representatives and decision makers,but we can nol
neglect the intema1 communication which is important for loca1 public
involvement;-

Company has enoughflexibility to re define the target audience,considering
possible future reallocation ofpriorities

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