Gender differences in well‐being overthe life course: a case in Japan
Takako sodei
Ochanomizu University, Tokyo ,Japan1

Changes in life satisfaction by age in the West• According to the previous studies in Western nations, life
satisfaction over the life course shows U shape, in which
30’s is the lowest. Blanchflower,D.G. and A.J.Oswald(2004) ”Well‐being over Time in Britain and the USA,” Journal of Public
Economics,88,pp1359‐1386. Friｊters,P et.al(2001) “The Value of Reunificationin Germany: An Analysis of Changes in Life Satisfaction, Tinbergen Institute.

• Based on cross‐sectional analysis data, Esterlin pointed
out that the relation between life satisfaction and agevaried. Easterlin,R.A.(2001) “Income and Happiness : Toward a UnifiedTheory,” Economic Journal,111,pp.465‐484.

2

Changes in life satisfaction by age in Japan• The result of the Osaka University COE Study(2004)
showed that feeling of happiness declined with aging, inwhich 30’s was the highest. Fumio Ohtake et.al. Happiness in Japan,
Nihonhyoronsha, 2010.

• However, the recent survey on life satisfaction conductedby Cabinet Office showed U shape, in which 40’s and 50’s
were the bottom.
• Such differences may be caused by the way of asking
questions.
3Satisfaction with the present life bygender and age
(%)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
100malefemaleSource:Cabinat Office :Survey on People’s Life ,20134

Mid‐life crisis• 40’s and 50’s are difficult time for both men and women. In
general, men are in a position of middle‐management who
are given pressures from the top and the bottom. In Japan,
the suicide rate is the highest among men in their early 50’s.
• Many women experience “the empty nest syndrome,” aftertheir children have grown up and also menopause.
• In Japan, 50’s is the most difficult time for the family budget
because of the high cost of sending children to college oruniversity and also repaying mortgage.

5

the Burden of the Sandwich Generation• Recently, young people do not or cannot find adecent job. They depend on their parents even after
they have graduated from college.
• In addition to supporting the grown‐up children, themiddle‐ aged are responsible for taking care of theparents who live longer and longer. Average life
expectancy at birth for male was 79.94, and forfemale was 86.41 in 2012.
6

Marital Satisfaction• Life satisfaction of Japanese females is higher thanmales, which is similar to other countries.
• However, their marital satisfaction is very low(thelowest in their 40’s); that is, though they are satisfied
with their daily life, they are not satisfied with theirhusband.
• Gap between husband and wife caused by lack tocommunication often results in so‐called “mature‐
age divorce.”
7

Average point of Marital Satisfaction
by age and gender
3.4
3.3
3.2
Chinese male3.1

Chinese female
Japanese male

3Japanese female
2.9
2.8(age)

China Family Survey 06 : National Family Research of Japan 03
8Percentage of divorce by the leｇthof living together

Source:Ministry of Health and Labour;Vital statistics

9

Difficulties in Old Age• In old age, especially after the death of the spouse,
women face financial difficulty and men face social
isolation.
• In the gender role segregated society like Japan,
there is a norm that men should work outside homewhile women should stay at home.
• Most Japanese women work now, but they workshort period of time with low wage, which makes
their old‐age pension very low. Average old‐age
pension for female is about a half of that for maleeven if they worked until the retirement age.

10

Social Isolation of Japanese Old Men• Compared with other countries, Japanese old people
have less social contact, especially among males.
• Until recently typical Japanese employed men spend
most of their time at work and they have no place athome(often they are called “big trash”) as well as incommunity.
• After retirement, they are likely to be isolated, which
often cause “isolated death.” People are found deadafter several days or weeks.
11Do you have close friends whom you
can rely on other than your family?
100
90
N.A.

80
70

both male and female

60
50

friend of the different
gender40

friend of the same gender30
20

no one100
Japan

Germany

Source: Cabinet Office ;Cross –national comparison of life and attitude of theelderly ,2010 ,males and females over 60

12Frequency of communication (otherthan greeting) with neighbors
100
90
80
70

N.A.

60

almost none50

once a week40

2～3times a week30

4～5times a week20

almost everyday

100
Japan

Germany

Source: Cabinet Office ;Cross –national comparison of life and attitude of theelderly ,2010 ,males and females over 60

13How often do you have contact with otherpersons( by gender and living arrangements)?
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
50

once in 2～3 days
once a weekless then once a weeksource: Cabinet Office ;Survey on Housing and Living Environments of theElderly 201014

Percentage of those who rarely
contact with neighbors by gender andliving arrangements
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6420
total

male living female
alone
livingalone

malecouple
onlyfemale
coupleonlymale otherfemaleothersource: Cabinet Office; Survey on Housing and Living Environments of theElderly 201015

Percentage of those who have no one
to rely on when they are in trouble
25
20
15
10
50
total

male living female
alone
livingalone

malecouple
only

femalecoupleonlymale otherfemaleothersource: Cabinet Office ;Survey on Housing and Living Environments of theElderly 201016

The number of “isolated death” at theapartments managed by Urban
Renewal Organization
700600500400
under 65300

over 65

20010002000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Source: Urban Renewal Organization: Annual Report17

Solving the Problems in Old Age• In order to solve the poverty of older women andsocial isolation of older men, gender role segregatedsocial structure and norms should be abolished.
• Equality at work as well as at home will eventually
solve such problems.
• The gender role segregated norm is deeply rooted in
the patriarchal stem family system which China,
Germany and Japan have the common tradition.
• It will be attained through socialization process fromchildhood.
18