Introduction

Since the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
was held in Stockholm in 1972, much research has been done toalarm the international community of global environmental risks.
Following the conference, numerous actions were taken to solve theglobal environmental issues on local, national regional and world levels.
Nearly all of these actions began as scientific evaluations and forecaststhat simulated related aspects of the natural environment. Then, some
restrictions of ecosystem services utilization are set in management and/or conservation of natural resources. Many people know about the risksof widespread environmental problems, and we have a lot of data andinformation on natural environments around the world, however, theircircumstances are growing worse.
We searched for alternative ways to discussing global environmental
degradation based on ordinary people’s viewpoints. We investigated
how daily activities can help solve environmental issues in rural areas
where there is a lot of nature. Yet the people who live in rural zone ofdeveloping countries want to lead very convenient lives without deep
thinking about the environment. Our challenge is to establish a way toimplement regional sustainable development that takes regional culturesand environmental features into account, in order to meet local residents’hopes and interests.
Given the emphasis of recent regional development activities on1

Introduction

utilizing local characteristics, the scale and types of resources used andthe nature of the activities are extremely diverse. That said, we found thatefforts which have been able to continue sustainably and expanded inscope share the following elements: (1) A local community uses resource
unique to the region; (2) Resource users understand the importanceand take care of the environment that supports the resources used, and(3) A balance is struck between using and caring for resources and the
supporting environment, which is evaluated by outside entities.
We believe these shared components are essential to sustainable
development, and use the term“Area-capability”(AC) to refer to theset of factors that comprise these elements. We developed a conceptual
map showing the relationship between these three aspects, which werefer to as the Area-capability Cycle (AC Cycle). We believe that the setof factors included in AC and the AC Cycle will be useful as a checklist
when developing proposals for regional development and revitalization
activities, assessing the balance between use and care, and clarifying thestandpoint and role of each stakeholder when evaluating projects. The
principles behind AC are discussed in detail below.

2Introduction

Area-capability Cycle

Development
a User Communityrceouzation of R
Utili
es
e
iv

Effe
ct

New Utilization
Development

Improved Status

Enhanced Capability

Driving
Forces● Primary production● Biomass, Pollution● Material ﬂow● Biodiversity● Social Capital● Economic Linkage● Compliance, Autonomy● Management

Hopes
PridesCar

Care Activities

ef

User CommunityemsResource

or E c osyst

Understand the Importanceof Caring for the habitats
and primary productions ofresources3

Cultivating Interestin the Ecosystem

Area-capability (AC):Preconditions forsustainable regional
developmentof a local community that utilizes a local
1 Existence
resources unique to the region
In AC, regions are revitalized by pinpointing the strengths andidentifying products and lifestyle that are unique to a given region,
and utilizing these in the local community. In other words, rather than“dealing with each of the problems facing a given region individual,”
the approach is taken to revitalize regions by increasing opportunities to
conduct regional activities using local resources, which, as a result, leads
to resolution of individual problems.
Resource utilization involves three things: (1) the (re-)discovery of a
local resource, (2) the development (introduction) of a new technology/
system, and (3) the formation of a community. These three areinterrelated, and it is just as likely for resource utilization to begin with
the introduction of new technology as it is to begin with the formationof a community. That said, it is important that a single user community
is organized for a single local resource and that the community remains
open to the local community (in other words, any local resident is able
to freely join or leave the community at any point in time). When local
residents discover a local resource on their own, a sense of ownershipis fostered, and utilization of the resource as a community ensurestransparency.

4Area-capability (AC)users understand the importance of and take2 Resource
care of the environment that supports the resource
utilized

In addition to community-centered resource utilization, what is
important in terms of AC is that the members of the resource user
community “care” for the resource and the environment that supports it.
Biological resources are often said to be renewable resources. In reality,
however, any resource will deteriorate and eventually be exhausted if it
is unilaterally exploited. In AC, “care” entails three factors: 1) having aninterest in and being concerned about the well-being of the resource andthe environment or ecosystem that supports it, 2) understanding theimportance of and taking steps to preserve the resource and environment,
and 3) actually carrying out conservation activities. The reason why weuse the term “care” here rather than “resource management,” which
implies restricting the use of a given resource, is because we feel that“being concerned about” and directly “treating” the environmentthat supports the resource are important aspects of the resource users’
relationship with the resource. Furthermore, we intentionally use theterm “care” because we feel that it is important that the resource users
perceive the resource and supporting environment not as something to
be managed but, rather, as something integral to their own lives.

5

Area-capability (AC)a balance between utilizing and caring for
3 Striking
resources and the supporting environment that can beevaluated by outside entities

Before AC activities that include both the utilization and care forresources can begin, it is necessary to generate anticipation and interest insuch new activities among the local residents. In terms of the AC Cycle,
we refer to this as “incentive.” No community revitalization can occur
if this incentive does not exist. Furthermore, even if there is incentive
and activities are started, in order for the activity to be sustainable, there
must be a “driving force.” We believe that this driving force consistsof “pride and sense of camaraderie regarding the activity and love of
the region.” Energizing this driving force accelerates the AC Cycle andincreases the vitality of the activity.
In order to energize the driving force for regional development, it isimportant for individual participants in the resource user community
to feel that their lives have been enriched by using the resource inquestion. Here, “enrichment” does not simply mean financial gain
but, rather, includes the formation of a foundation for the discovery
of other resources, the formation of new user communities, and thedevelopment of diverse AC Cycles. At the same time, it is important thatthe state of the resource and the supporting environment (≒ ecosystem)be improved through “care,” and for this to be widely known. This is6

Area-capability (AC)because local activities that are harmonized with the environment not
only increase the pride and confidence of the participating residentsbut, also, contribute to regional branding. To this end, it is necessary tohave outside researchers and experts evaluate the improvements in the
resource and environment. This is the aspect of AC in which industrygovernment-academia cooperation is most important.
The importance of industry-government-academia cooperation has,of course, been pointed out before now. In the AC Cycle, the role andposition of each contributor—industry (resource user community),
government (public sector), and academia (experts)—can be clearly
demarcated, and cooperation can proceed while understanding thedifferent positions of each contributor. Accordingly, when designing
regional activities, it is also important to plan for coordinating withand having objective evaluation performed by outside experts. Alongwith the fundamental principle of local resource utilization by local
communities, we believe that one of the important elements of AC is theestablishment of system for coordinating government, outside experts,
and local communities.

7

Case 1Japan

Dolphin watchingin Itsuwa-Machi in Amakusa City,
Kumamoto Prefecture
ItsuwaKumamoto

Amakusa

Dolphin watching in Itsuwa-Machi was the brainchild of Hidenori Nagaoka,
who moved to Itsuwa in 1993. Nagaoka, who was moved by seeing dolphinsfirst hand, proposed dolphin watching to local fishermen as a means ofcommunity revitalization. The Itsuwa area had always been home to several
hundred bottlenose dolphin, and their presence was taken for granted by the
local residents, so no one had even considered the idea that they could be a
tourism resource. In fact, to the fisherman, the dolphins, which ate the same
fish they were after, were even considered enemies. For this reason, only fivefishermen agreed in the beginning to offer dolphin watching tours. However,as the number of tourists steadily grew from year to year, the residents began
to recognize that the dolphins were a resource for tourism, and the number ofindividuals engaging in dolphin watching businesses and gift shops increased.
If we consider these changes in terms of the AC Cycle, the new means of8

Case 1resource utilization in the form of dolphin watching led to the creation of a
new community of fishermen and tourist business operators, and the dolphins
went from being ubiquitous enemies of fishing to an important local resource
for Itsuwa. In addition, the transformation of dolphins into a resource caused
fishermen to dramatically change their feelings toward dolphins and to deepen
their understanding of the dolphins’ ecology. Furthermore, the fishermen havemade an effort to ensure a high rate of encounters with dolphins by taking
steps to care for the dolphins and their habitat. This, in turn, has contributed
to the branding of sustainable dolphin watching.

New Souvenir shops
and industry

Eco-tourisms

START● Dolphin
Resource

Involvement ofother sectors

Collaboration ofFisherman and Tourism

Driving
ForcesEco-friendly
Evaluationfrom outsides● Increase incomes● New jobs
User Community
Interests on Dolphin
was cultivatedCare of Dolphin
habitats
Monitor Dolphin
behaviors

9Case 2Village-based set-net fishingin Rayong Province, Thailand
ThailandRayongGulf of Thailand

The adoption of set-net fishing technology in Rayong Province, Thailand
is a prime example of the creation of a new community as a result of new
resource utilization enabled by the introduction of outside technology. Small
scale fishing in the form of basket fishing and spear fishing and commercial
fishing using round haul netter boats had long been practiced in the area,
which resulted in conflicts regarding coastal fishing rights. In order to reduce
conflicts among fishermen and to gather information needed for resource
management, an international organization named the Southeast Asian
Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC) headquartered in Bangkok,
Thailand decided to introduce set-net fishing technology modeled after thevillage-based set-net system used in Himi City, Japan. To introduce set-net
fishing, the SEAFDEC staff first contacted local small-scale fishermen andcreated a fishermen’s organization to manage the set-net, after which they
provided technical support and materials to the fishermen’s organization. The
catch in the first year was not very good. However, the catch was improved

10

Case 2the following year thanks to the provision of technical instruction and betterfishing gear. A cooperative sellers’ market synced to the fishing operations
was established, and the economic foundation and management skills were
strengthened. As a result of this support, by the third year, there was no longer
a need to rely on subsidies or research funds. Similarly, in terms of personnel,
the set nets could be managed entirely by the fishermen’s organization. In thiscase, the introduction of set-net fishing transformed large fish and various
fish species that were previously inaccessible to the shore-based small-scale
fishermen into a local resource for the user community of set-net fishermen.
This new resource utilization, in turn, has become the driving force for asustainable community. The cooperative marketing and fishing operations havestrengthened local human resources and have stimulated interaction among
local residents, opening up the possibility for other activities. These community
activities have since spawned tourism and environmental education programs
based around the set nets.
Involvement of
Other sectors
Community
Fish Market

Tourism Activity

Post
HarvestTechnology

Improvement of
Trading System

Establishment of
Fishers Community

Set-Net Installation
by SEAFDEC

START● New Target
SpeciesResource

Managemant Skill
Operational Skill

Driving
Forces
Hopes
Prides● New Markets● Decrease conﬂicts
User Community
Cultivate interest
for Ecosystem

Enviornmental andFood Web estimation
Fishery Statistical
data collection11

Case 3Japan

Tiger prawn aquaculturein Lake Hamana
Shizuoka
Nursery tanks
for fingerlings at
fisheries research
institute of Shizuoka
Prefecture

Lake Hamana

During Japan’s period of rapid of economic growth in which the nation was
fixated on the growth of heavy industry, much of the seashore was landfilled
and reclaimed. With the loss of spawning and breeding grounds, natural
fisheries resources (supply services and fundamental services provided by coastal
ecosystems) deteriorated rapidly. To compensate for the lost reproductive
capacity of the coastal ecosystem, the government decided to stock (raise andrelease) fish species important to the fisheries industry. This was the start of theaquaculture. Aquaculture research centers were established in each prefecture
and began breeding and releasing hatchery-raised fish. In Shizuoka Prefecture,
an aquaculture research center was established on Lake Hamana, which began
stocking tiger prawns in 1980. The tiger prawn stocking program, whichbegan as a top-down public works project, was not accepted by the local
fishermen and received absolutely no cooperation from the local residents
who did not believed stocking would be effective. Undaunted, the staff of
the Shizuoka Prefecture Aquaculture Research Center persisted in collecting
data for resource evaluation, researching aquaculture technology, conducting
environmental surveys to identify suitable stocking sites, and continued to12Case 3breed and stock tiger prawns, if only in small quantities. The young people of
Shirasu village, who had watched the center’s efforts in their own community,
began to cooperate. With local support, the stocking of hatchery-raised tiger
prawns increased dramatically. In turn, the increased harvest of small prawns
resulting from this mass stocking opened the eyes of local fishermen to thepotential of stocking prawns and led more and more fishermen to participate
in each successive release. This series of changes aptly illustrates the AC Cycle:
the obvious effectiveness of stocking heightened the fishermen’s interest in the
resource and supporting environment and promoted understanding of theimportance of caring for the resource.
Thereafter, fishermen in the Lake Hamana area solidified as a community
through the stocking of tiger prawns, and even went on to revise fishingregulations and improve distribution methods to more effectively use thetiger prawns, which they themselves had stocked. It is because so many local
residents have come to participate and take action of their own accord that thecommunity has succeeded in augmenting its resource.
Improvement ofmarket accessibility

Involvement ofother sectors

Stop small
prawn catch

Unify Fishermen
Associations

Driving
Forces
Hopes
Prides● Increase prawn
stock
Resource● Increase incomes● Decrease conﬂicts
User Community

START
Release Juveniles
by govermental project
Release Juveniles
by Fishermen

Environmental
Monitoring
by Fishers

13

Collaboration of Fishers
and Researchers

Using the AC Cycle
as a Development
Index
AC Cycle
Enhancethe Health of
the Ecosystems

Sustainable
Development of
Rural Societies

Up to this point, we have discussed the principle underlying AC and the
AC Cycle. As can be seen from the cases above, one AC Cycle can be
drawn for each local resource. In other words, for a region with multiple
resources, as many AC Cycles can be drawn as there are resources.
Meanwhile, in the case of AC, one user community is responsible forthe use of one local resource. For this reason, the existence of many AC
Cycles means the existence of the same number of local user communities.
Since each community is open to the people in the region, it is possible
for new members to join an existing community and for members ofa given community to leave whenever they choose. Furthermore, anindividual may participate in multiple communities. Such changes
notwithstanding, the existence of multiple communities means that
individuals have that many more opportunities to interact and exchange
information with others, which should facilitate cooperation among
local residents in various contexts.
In other words, we believe the number of AC Cycles is an indicator of
the abundance of local resources in a given region and, at the same time,
an indicator of the potential for various types of cooperation. As such,
we suggest that the number of AC Cycles could be used as an index forregional development.

14

Supplementary Information

GLOSSARY
Local resources
In AC, emphasis is placed on resources

resource. In Himi City, Toyama Prefecture,

in a given region and that are related to

set-net fishing is considered a part of

the natural environment or culture of

the local culture and is being used as a

the region. The dolphins of Itsuwa (wildmeans for invigorating the local economy.

animals) and the tiger pawns in Lake

A community centered around the fixed

Hamana (fisheries resources and stocking)nets has been formed through cooperation

are prime examples of local resources thatbetween set-net manufacturers,

are directly connected to a region’s natural

distributors, processors, and fishermen.

environment and culture (livelihood). The

In this case, the set-net fishing operation

set-net fishing (technique/system) being

itself can be considered the local

used in Rayong Province, Thailand is an

resource. Ease of living in a town, neighborexample of a new means of resource

relationships, or roadside stations, which

utilization introduced from the outside.

have recently received much attention

In this case, a fisheries resource that had

as potential catalysts for regional

not previously been used (or could notrevitalization, could become the focal

be used) was rendered usable as a local

point for the formation of communities.

resource through the introduction of new

If that is the case, they could also betechnology.

local resources. That said, in the case of

Local resources in the context ofrural villages (agricultural, mountain, andAC link people together to create local

fishing villages), the bounty of nature iscommunities, and comprise all of themost likely to become the source of aobjects and elements that are used by

local resource. As such, we believe thatmembers of the community. In the case ofan effective strategy for identifying a local

the fixed nets, for example, the technique

resource is to first look among the various

itself can be thought of as a local

ecosystem services provided by nature.

Local communities
Typically, neighborhood councils andcoincide with these administrative

administrative districts serve as the basis

divisions. Local communities comprisefor local communities. In terms of AC,

the group of individuals that utilize andhowever, communities do not necessarilycare for a given local resource. It is also15

Supplementary Information

GLOSSARY

important that members of the community

to reside in a given area. Finally, multiple

communicate with each other on a daily

local resources can exist in a given region,basis. As such, in a society with advanced

and the identification and utilization of as

IT and communication technology, it may

many of these local resources as possible

not be necessary for community members

enhances the region’s overall potential.

Region ≒ Area
The goal of AC is sustainable regional

The extent of a region can vary depending

development. As explained above,“region”

on the nature of the local resource or thein the context of AC does not necessarily

local community. In addition, an individual

coincide with administrative divisions or

can belong to multiple local communities.

traditional villages. We believe that“region

We believe that the modalities of different≒ area”should be defined as the area inresources and the different ways in which

which residents are able to gather, work

individuals interact with these resources

together, and improve their lives throughwill lead to the creation of new“regions.”

the utilization and care of a local resource.

References
Satoshi ISHIKAWA, Dec. 2009, Challenging Project for sustainable use of coastal fisheries
resources in Southeast Asia- New concept “Area Capability”. JSPS – NRCT Seminar 2009,
Proceeding :52-53.
Satoshi ISHIKAWA, Mar. 2010, Utilization and management of fisheries resources in coastal
area of Thailand, International Cooperation in Agriculture, Vol.11, 125-135 (in Japanese).
Satoshi ISHIKAWA, Dec. 2012, Co-design, Co-produce of local people, researchers, andgovernments for sustainable rural development in Southeast Asian Coastal zone. Proceedingof the 4th Tohoku University G-COE 4th forum “Interface between Science and Policy”,
Sendai, Miyagi.
Satoshi ISHIKAWA, Mar. 2014, Decision-making process at local coastal communities basedon scientific information on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Abstract of Symposiumby The Ecological Society of Japan “Global and regional integration of social-ecologicalstudy toward sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystem services”, Kagoshima University,
Kagoshima.

16

Kazuo WATANABE, Jun. 2014, The Area Capability Index: Measuring the Potentialityof Coastal Area in Southeast Asia. Abstract of spring meeting of the Japan society forinternational development, 62p, June 2014, Doshisha University, Kyoto.
Satoshi ISHIKAWA, Sept. 2014, How can researchers contribute to promote local institutional
ecosystem governance in the coastal zone of Asia?. Proceeding of JSPS Symposium Program“Long-term Sustainability through Place-based, Small-scale economies”, The Center forJapanese Studies, UC Berkeley.
Satoshi ISHIKAWA, Oct. 2014, Capability for resource managements in tropical coastal
areas. Abstract of the symposium of the Japanese Agricultural Systems Society, “System
Approaches to Solve the Environmental Problems in the Global Scales”, Kyoto University,
Sakyo-ku, Kyoto (in Japanese) .
Satoshi ISHIKAWA, Dec. 2014, International dissemination of “Tsukuru-Gyogyo”- A casestudy of shrimp stock enhancement in Philippines. BIOSTORY 22: 62-63 (in Japanese).
Satoshi ISHIKAWA, Kazuo WATANABE, Hiroshi FUSHIMI, Hisashi KUROKURA,
Takafumi ARIMOTO, Mar. 2015, Area-capability enhancement for fisheries village
development, Program and Abstract of the Japanese Society of Fisheries Science spring
meeting 2015, 154p, Minato-ku, Tokyo.
Satoshi ISHIKAWA, Kazuo WATANABE, Yasuyuki KONO, Mar. 2015, Coastal development
based on Area-capability cycle, Program and Abstract of the Japanese Society of Fisheries
Science spring meeting 2015, 181p, Minato-ku, Tokyo.
Satoshi ISHIKAWA, Kazuo WATANABE, April 2015, Concept design of Area-capability andArea-capability cycle. Project interim Report of Coastal Area Capability Enhancement inSoutheast Asia of RIHN, pp: 3-11 (in Japanese).
Satoshi ISHIKAWA, Kazuo WATANABE, Yuttana THEPAROONRAT, Taweekiet
AMORNPIYAKRIT, Nopporn MANAJIT, Nakaret YASOOK, and Sukchai
ARNUPAPBOON, Jun. 2015, Balancing Fishery Resource Utilization and Conservation
for Environmental Sustainability and Socio-economic Stability. Fish for the People 13(1):13-20. ISSN:1685-6546.
Satoshi ISHIKAWA, Mina HORI, Hisashi KUROKURA, 2015, A strategy for fisheries
resources management in Southeast Asia: A case study of an inland fishery around Tonle
Sap Lake in Cambodia. Aqua-BioScience Monographs, (in press).
Participating Organization*in random order(Overseas) Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC), Training Department inThailand, Aquaculture Department in Philippines, Secretariat in Thailand/ Faculty of Fisheries,
Kasetsart University, Thailand/ Eastern Marine Fisheries Research and Development Center (EMDEC)
Department of Fisheries. Thailand/ University of Philippines, Visayas, Philippines/ Aklan State
University, Philippines(in Japan) Hokkaido University/ Miyagigakuin Women’s University/ Yamagata University/ Universityof Tsukuba/ Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology/ The University of Tokyo/ Seijo
University/ National Research Institute for Fisheries Science/ Tokai University/ Tokoha University/
Kyoto University/ Research Institute for Humanity and Nature/ Kochi University/ Hiroshima University/
Fukuyama University/ National Fisheries University/ Kagoshima University/ National Museum of
Nature and Science/ Okinawa Prefectural Museum & Art Museum/ Nishio City Office/ Higashihazu
Fisheries Cooperative/ Ishigaki City Office17

● A utho r s
Satoshi ISHIKAWA
Dr (Agriculture). Associate Professor, Research Institute for Humanity andNature (RIHN)
Dr. Ishikawa conducts studies for harmonization between ruraldevelopment and conservation of ecosystems in coastal area of Japan,
Thailand, Philippines, and Cambodia. He has many academic achievements
in phylogeography, fisheries science, and area study.

Kazuo WATANABE
Dr (Agriculture). Senior Project Researcher, Research Institute for Humanity
and Nature (RIHN)
Dr. Kazuo Watanabe conducts interdisciplinary studies which focus oninteraction between socio-economical changes and natural resource
utilizations in rural area. His main research area is Thailand, Laos, Indonesia
and Philippines and academic background is agronomy, geo-informatics
and area studies.

Coastal Area Capability Enhancement in Southeast Asia
Research Project named“Coastal Area Capability Enhancement inSoutheast Asia”under RHIN seeks the new regional development
approach based on balancing utilizations of natural resources with cares
for sustainability by users’community.
Visit our website to learn more about our project and contact us.

http://www.chikyu.ac.jp/CAPABILITY/

Area-capability: Promoting the Use of Local Resources
Inter-University Research Institute Corporation, National Institutes for the Humanities
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature
457-4 Motoyama, Kamigamo, Kita-ku, Kyoto, 603-8047, Japan
Edited by“Coastal Area Capability Enhancement in Southeast Asia”Project
10 November 2015
©2015 S. Ishikawa & K. Watanabe

Cover design by
Kaoru TAKAKURA
Design by
Saki HONMA

ISBN 978-4-906888-19-1