Northeast Asian School Systems:
The school systems in Northeast Asia generally follow the 6-3-3 system torefer to six years for primary level, three years for lower secondary level, andanother three years for upper secondary level. Compulsory education generally
reaches up to the lower secondary level.
Curriculum reforms have occurred in many countries in Northeast Asia inview of the changing social, political and economic environments. While government policies on human rights education have largely been put in place, theirimpact on curriculum reform has not been as much as expected.
Thus the challenge at present is on the means to bridge the gap between
government human rights education policies and the curriculums that are being
implemented at the school level.
China
In China, the education system is divided into four categories: basic education,
vocational education, higher education, and adult education.1
Basic education includes pre-school education, primary education and regular secondary education. Pre-primary education caters to children in the 3-5 years
age group (three-year program either full- or part-time) and is offered in kindergartens and preschool classes. Preschool education (one-year program before
primary education) is not compulsory.
The nine-year compulsory education program, which is required by the
Education Law of the People’s Republic of China,2 covers primary and lower secondary education; the entry age is normally at six years old. In most provinces,the program is organized into six years of primary and three years of lower secondary education; in other provinces the 5 + 4 pattern is still followed.
Upper secondary education lasts three years (general senior middle school)
and is for students having passed the entrance examination. At the end of the
program, students sit the ‘general ability test’ administered by provincial authorities and, if successful, receive the senior middle school graduation certificate.
Higher education at the undergraduate level includes two and three-year junior colleges (sometimes also called short-cycle colleges), four-year colleges, anduniversities offering programs in both academic and vocational subjects. Many
colleges and universities also offer graduate programs leading to the master’s or
Ph.D. degree.3

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HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS

Table 1. Structure of the education system

Source: UNESCO, World Data on Education, 7th Edition, 2010/11

The Chinese government has been undertaking education reform and promoting quality education since the 1990s.4 In 2001, the Ministry of Education issued the Curriculum for Basic Education Reform Compendium (Draft),5 marking
a new general and comprehensive round of curriculum reform. Subsequently, thecurriculum reform at upper secondary school started to get implemented gradually, from only four provinces in 2004 to more than half of the whole country
at present. Under this radical educational reform, a credit system has been introduced at the upper secondary level. In order to complete the program, students
must have accumulated a total of 144 credits (116 for compulsory subjects and 28
for electives). Table 2 lists the details of credits for compulsory subjects.

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northeast asian school systems

Table 2. The curriculum structure for common upper secondary school
Area

Subject

Compulsory
Credits (116 in
total)

Elective
Credits

Language andLiterature

Chinese10

English10

Mathematics

Mathematics

10

Humanities andsocial science

Thought and Politics

8

On the foundation of compulsory
courses, provide
selective modules
in the frame ofeach area and level

History

6

Science

Geography

6

Physics

6

Chemistry

6

Biology6

Technology

Technology

8Art

Art, music or painting

6

Physical educationand health

Physical educationand health11

Practical
Activities

Research Learning

15

Community Service

2

Social Practice6

Source: Fujian Education Bureau6 (one of the first ten provinces adopting the curriculum reform)

As shown in Table 2, there is no course with the explicit name of “humanrights.” However, some of the human rights ideas are implied in the course on“Thought and Politics”, the same with “Morality and Society” for primary schooland “Thought or Morality” for lower secondary school. For instance, in the
Curriculum Standard of Morality and Society for primary school students set by
the Ministry of Education, the topic of “my school life” required the students
to understand the practical meaning of equality and democracy by the community life at school and inside the classroom.7 Besides, according to CurriculumStandard of Thought and Morality for lower middle school students, three topics
are included in the teaching content: ego; other people, community and me;
country, society and me. The third topic, “the law and order,” contains discussion

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HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS

on constitution, rule of law, environmental law, the implementation of law, theconsciousness of citizenship, and individual rights.8
As the educational reform proceeded, local governments and schools havetaken several measures to reach the goals of curriculum reform, among whichsome provide the space and possibility to incorporate the idea of human rights.
In 2006, lower middle schools in Zhejiang Province set up a selective course of“basic legal knowledge” aiming to promote the awareness of individual rightprotection.9
The first National Human Rights Action Plan of China for the 2009-2010 period provides the system for implementing the plan on human rights educationin the Chinese school system:
state will actively rely on the present systems of compulsory education, secondary education, higher education and vocational education, training organizations
in state agencies, as well as the media, including radio, television, newspapers,
magazines and the Internet, to carry out education in human rights in various
forms in a planned way, popularizing and spreading knowledge of the law andhuman rights.10

The National Human Rights Action Plan further explains what should bedone to realize the action plan:- Gradually increasing the content of the law and human rights in courses of secondary and elementary schools. By making good use of the courses of
Ideological and Moral Standards, China will foster students’ awareness of the obligations and rights of citizens, tutoring them in the ideas of democracy, rule oflaw, freedom, equality, fairness and justice, as well as a healthy concept about
interpersonal relations, collectivism, nation and society.
- Human rights education in secondary and elementary schools will be conducted in a flexible and vivid way in line with the characteristics of students at
young age. Through varied and vivid activities after class, students will receive
education in human rights from first-hand experiences and build up a healthy
personality. The reform of teaching and school management will be energeticallypursued, and a democratic, equal, and interactive relationship will be advocatedbetween teachers and students, encouraging students to participate in the democratic management of the class and school, so as to enhance their awareness of
democracy, rule of law and human rights through experiencing an equal anddemocratic relationship.
- In senior high schools, besides human rights education of a general nature, education in the “basic rights and obligations of citizens” stipulated in theConstitution and knowledge of international human rights will be carried out.

The second National Human Rights Action Plan of China (2012-2015) follows up on the first action plan by stating that “China will strengthen human44northeast asian school systems

rights education in primary and middle schools [by making] sure that humanrights knowledge is integrated into relevant courses and included in the legal
education curriculum.”11
Significantly, the second action plan provides for a broader approach to human rights education by stating that it “…will also carry out human rights promotional activities that suit juveniles, promote school management [according
to] law and democratic administration, and create an education environmentthat honors human rights.”12
The report on the assessment of the implementation of the National Human
Rights Action Plan of China (2009-2010) explains how human rights education
has been integrated into the curriculums of the basic levels of the school system
in China:
Knowledge about laws and human rights has been included in China’s nineyear compulsory education. The course “Morality and Life” at the elementary
education stage leads children to respect and cherish life, and get to know aboutchildren’s rights. The course “Ideological and Moral Standards” at the junior highschool stage introduces 17 items concerning laws and human rights, as well as
the Law on the Protection of Minors. While in senior high schools, the course“Ideology and Politics” summarizes citizens’ rights and duties as stipulated in theConstitution, and international conventions on human rights.13

Studies on human rights teaching in Guangzhou province in 2012 initiallyrevealed that there was no course named “Human Rights Education” in the schools
in the province. Yet, contents related to human rights, such as “Self-respect”,“Right to recreation and leisure”, “Right to life”, “Right to participation” and“Rights and obligations” etc. are implied in the two courses on Moral Education,“Virtue & Life” and “Virtue & Society”, respectively designed for students ofGrades 1 to 2, and Grades 3 to 6.
“Virtue & Life,” a course designed for students of Grade 1 & Grade 2, is acomprehensive, activities-oriented course based on children’s life, aiming at
virtue shaping, developing the will to explore and life-loving education. The
course is based on three axes, and consists of four parts. The three axes arechildren and oneself, children and the society and children and nature. The fourparts are: to lead a healthy and safe life, to lead a happy and proactive life, tolead a responsible and considerate life, and to lead a creative life. There are four
textbooks respectively used for the two semesters in Grades 1 and 2. No words
such as “right” and “obligation” have been used in them.

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HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS

Hong Kong14
Normally in Hong Kong, students attend primary and secondary education before heading to university, and may choose to attend kindergarten before primary education. The Hong Kong government has provided nine years of free anduniversal primary and lower secondary education through public sector schools
since 1978.
Starting from September 2009, a new secondary education system has been
implemented, which changes from the seven-year secondary education andthree-year tertiary education system, to a six-year secondary and four-year tertiary education system. The new secondary education system is further divided
into three years of lower and another three years of upper education.
Primary and lower secondary education is fundamental education and compulsory by legislation. Upper secondary education is also provided free but is notcompulsory through public sector schools (i.e., extending the free education to
twelve years). In addition to some core mandatory subjects required by Education
Board (EDB), the schools can choose some other subjects, such as Moral and Civic
Education in lower secondary education. For the upper secondary education,
there are four core subjects, namely Chinese, English, Mathematics and LiberalStudies. It also requires students to specialize in a number of subjects, dependingon the students’ choices and academic results. A public examination, the Hong
Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) is held at the end of the secondary education to assess students for entry to tertiary education. Table 1 provides
the details of the subjects being taught in schools at different education levels.
Table 1. School Subjects
Primary and Lower Secondary

Upper SecondaryCore subjects

Chinese; English; Mathematics;
Personal, Social and Humanities; Science; Technology; Arts;
Physical Education; General
Studies

Chinese; English; Mathematics; LSCore subjects
depending on
the school

Moral and Civic Education;
Religious Studies

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northeast asian school systems

Table 1. School Subjects (Cont’d)Primary and Lower Secondary
Elective subjects

Upper Secondary
Chinese Literature; Literature in
English; Chinese History; Economics;
Ethics and Religious Studies; Geography; History; Tourism and Hospitality Studies; Biology; Chemistry;
Physics; Integrated Science; Combined Science; Business, Accounting
and Financial Studies; Design andApplied Technology; Health Management and Social Care; Technology and Living; Information andCommunication Technology; Music;
Visual Arts; Physical Education

Human rights education was one of the focuses of Civic Education in the1996 Guidelines, with the objective of helping students understand the importance of democracy, liberty, equality, human rights and the rule of law.15 It was
still reasonable to expect that the 1996 Guidelines would form a basis to bringabout positive developments in human rights education, even though the guidelines have been criticized for not being systematic and for having been compromised by incompatible political forces and ideologies without addressing someof the embedded conceptual conflicts, such as the compatibility of education for
democracy, human rights education, and national education.16
However, the document “Learning to Learn - The Way Forward in
Curriculum”17 published in the 2001 Curriculum Reform shifted Civic Education
to Moral and Civic Education, which unfortunately marked a step backward forhuman rights education. In response to a Legislative Council (LegCo) member’squestions on human rights education, the government claimed that the themes
and topics on human rights education had been updated in the 2001 Curriculum
Reform. It further stated that topics such as “human rights,” “democracy” and“rule of law” were systematically and comprehensively incorporated.18 However,the detailed contents of the Moral and Civic Education show a totally different
picture. Human rights education remains a part of Moral and Civic Education, but
no longer one of its focuses. There are five paramount values in Moral and Civic
Education, including national identity, a positive spirit, perseverance, respect forothers and commitment to society and nation. Contents related to personal andinterpersonal education, family education and moral education were given muchhigher priority than human rights education and education for democracy. Sucha shift of focus can be further reflected by the most recently revised Moral and47

HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS

Civic Education curriculum in 2008, in which caring and integrity are added tothe paramount values.
Opportunities for Human Rights Education
There is no doubt that the promotion of human rights education in Hong Kong,both in schools and at the community level, is facing a number of difficulties
and obstacles originating from the government, the school and also from society. However, there are actually some improvements that can bring favorable
opportunities for human rights education in Hong Kong. The most prominent
opportunity is probably the implementation of Liberal Studies (LS) as a new core
subject in upper secondary study.
According to the “Liberal Studies: Curriculum and Assessment Guide” (LSGuide), the aims of LS in upper secondary education include: 19(1) to enhance students’ understanding of themselves, their society, theirnation and the human world and the physical environment;(2) to enable students to develop multiperspectives on perennial and contemporary issues in different contexts (e.g., cultural, social, economic,
political and technological contexts);(3) to help students become independent thinkers so that they canconstruct knowledge appropriate to changing personal and social
circumstances;(4) to develop in students a range of skills for lifelong learning, including
critical thinking skills, creativity, problem-solving skills, communication
skills and information skills;(5) to help students appreciate and respect diversity in cultures and viewsin a pluralistic society and handle conflicting views;(6) to help students develop positive values and attitudes towards life, sothat they can become informed and responsible citizens of the country,
society and the world.
While human rights are not explicitly mentioned in the aims of LS, thetype of citizens that LS aims at is similar to that of human rights education.
Therefore it is expected that there is room for human rights education within theframework of LS. A further look at the content of LS reveals themes, issues and48

northeast asian school systems

questions within the units that can be used for human rights education.20 Table
2 lists the basic curriculum framework of LS.
Table 2. Contents of Liberal Studies
Units of Study

Independent Enquiry Study

Self & Personality Development
Module 1: Personal Development and Interpersonal RelationshipStudents are required to conduct an Independent Enquiry Study (IES) making useof the knowledge and perspectives gained
from the three Areas of Study and extending them to new issues or contexts. To help
students develop their IES titles, the following themes are suggested:•
Education•
Media•
Religion•Sports•
Arts•
Information and communication technology

Society & Culture
Module 2: Hong Kong Today
Module 3: Modern China
Module 4: Globalization
Science, Technology & Environment
Module 5: Public Health
Module 6: Energy, Technology and Environment

The three Areas of Study (“Self & Personality Development,” “Society &Culture” and “Technology & Environment”) are inter-related. They cover six
modules including “Personal Development and Interpersonal Relationship,”“Hong Kong Today,” “Modern China,” “Globalization,” “Public Health,” and“Energy, Technology and Environment” that raise various key questions.21 The
concepts of human rights, or various human rights issues, can be embedded into
different themes under different modules. In “Quality of Life” under the moduleof “Hong Kong Today,” students are required to choose directions in maintaining
and improving Hong Kong residents’ quality of life. In response to this question,“rights-based” concepts derived from various international human rights instruments can be used as one of the directions. The “Rule of law and sociopoliticalparticipation” is also under the module of “Hong Kong Today.” Students needto study Hong Kong residents’ participation in political and social affairs, theirrights and responsibilities and respect for the rule of law. The Basic Law, Hong
Kong Bill of Rights and various international human rights instruments should
be included in this area.
In the “China’s reform and opening-up” under the “Modern China” module,
students are asked about the impact of the reform and opening-up and the overall development of the country and on people’s life. Students can again introduce international human rights standards and the issues about the ratificationand implementation of various international human rights treaties by China.
In the theme of “Science, technology and public health” under the module of49

HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS“Public Health,” when discussing the extent of the enhancement of science andtechnology on the development of public health, individuals’ rights to public health services can be discussed. Through the shared concepts of “Multiple
Citizens and Multiple Identities” in “Hong Kong Today,” “Modern China” and“Globalization,” students also have the opportunity to explore human rights as
global ethics. There are also opportunities for the inclusion of human rights in“Energy, Technology and Environment.” The requirement for students to conduct an Independent Enquiry Study (IES) on topics such as media, education,
religion, sports and arts allows the inclusion of human rights principles.22
LS emphasizes students’ construction of knowledge and recommends the “issue based approach” and “experiential learning.” It is suggested that students
study and evaluate issues and information from a variety of perspectives and various points of view, and favor learning outside the classroom. These approaches
are also considered to be effective by human rights educators.23
However, LS cannot fully replace human rights education. There is still a
gap between the types of citizens expected from LS and human rights education
respectively. One of the important aims of human rights education (cultivating students to become “transforming agents” for the protection and improvement of human conditions) is largely neglected in LS. The recommendation ofparticipatory learning strategies in LS is to “enable students to achieve certain
learning that are difficult to attain through classroom learning alone and “to provide opportunities so that students can explore the community through observation, surveys, interview and various forms of fieldwork.”24 Again, this is different
from human rights education that aims to cultivate students as “transforming
agents.”25
Some teaching approaches in human rights education emphasize the role ofstudents as “transforming agents.” For instance, critical pedagogy,26 transformative learning27 and emancipatory transformation28 are some important components of human rights education, but they may not be covered in LS. It is suggested that these pedagogies take a more critical position in emphasizing the needfor critical perspectives in the dominant discourse. The lack of a critical positionand perspective in LS may tend to homogenize controversial issues and ignore
diversities, resulting in various forms of discrimination and violations of humanrights.29 In addressing these concerns, students “should be motivated to develop
a critical consciousness of problems, to analyze them, to make their cause explicit, to attempt to explore solutions and change conditions to discover what
is possible in confronting and taking action to solve the problem.”30 However,these elements are missing in the LS.
Fortunately, despite the gap between human rights education and LS, there is
still a room for human rights education within the framework of LS. Leung Yanwing argues that civic education in Hong Kong schools will be entering a fourth50

northeast asian school systems

stage, which can be named Civic Education through LS, where an “action-poor
HRE” can have a place.31
Japan
The Japanese education system follows the 6-3-3-4-year system. The different
levels and types of school (up to secondary level) under the system are listed
below:32
a. Nine-year compulsory education
1. Primary/Elementary Schools (Shogakko) – six years, from six
years old
2. Lower Secondary Schools (Chugakko) – three years, fromtwelve to fifteen years oldb. Upper Secondary Schools (Koto-gakko) – three years, students may go tothis level, and normally take entrance examinations.33
c. Secondary Schools (Chuto-kyoiku-gakko)
In April 1999, a new type of six-year secondary education school, called“Secondary School” was introduced into the school system. Secondary schools
combine lower and upper secondary school education in order to provide lower secondary education and upper secondary general and specialized education
through six years. The lower division in the first three years provides lower secondary school education and the upper division in the latter three years gives
upper secondary school education.
d. Schools for Special Needs Education, etc. (Tokubetsu-Shien-gakko)
Special Needs Educations are schools for children with comparatively severe
disabilities and aim at giving education suited to their individual educational
needs. Those schools comprise four levels of departments, namely, kindergarten,
primary, lower secondary and upper secondary departments. (The primary andlower secondary are compulsory education.) After the school system was turned
into the current system that permits schools to accept several types of disabilities
in 2007, this new implementation is gradually spreading.
Special Needs Education is provided also in regular schools. Special classes are
small classes for children with comparatively mild disabilities that may be established in regular primary and lower secondary schools. It may also be established
as a branch class in a hospital for sick children.
There is another program of resource rooms (in regular primary and secondary schools) where children with disabilities who are enrolled in and studying
most of the time in regular classes may visit resource rooms few times a week toreceive special instruction.
In 2006, the Basic Act on Education was revised and the objectives of education was restated to include:34

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HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS

•
•

•
•
•

Attainment of wide-ranging knowledge and culture, cultivation of a richsensibility and sense of morality, and development of a healthy body
Development of the abilities of individuals, fostering a spirit of autonomy and independence, and emphasizing the connections between careerand practical life
Fostering an attitude of valuing justice and responsibility, mutual respect
and cooperation, equality between men and women, and a civic spirit
Fostering an attitude of respecting life and nature, and contributing to
the protection of environment
Fostering an attitude of respecting our traditions and culture, loving thecountry and region that nurtured them, respecting other countries, andcontributing to world peace and the development of the international
community.

The revision of the law also includes the change in educational content.
One change refers to enhancement of moral education which has the following
components:35• Focused teaching based on developmental stage (“Don’t do what isn’tright, follow rules” [Primary], participate in formation of society, etc.
([Lower secondary])• Promote experiential activities (Primary/Lower secondary)• Inspire young pupils through the use of biographical and nature-oriented
teaching materials (Primary/Lower Secondary)• Enhance leadership through the use of teachers that promote moral education (Primary/Lower secondary)• Each secondary school should make its comprehensive plans of moral
education.
The 2008 Basic Plan for the Promotion of Education, based on the 2006 revised Basic Act of Education, provides the basic directions of education measures.
One of these directions, the “Materialization of society-wide commitment toimprove education,” has the component of “creating an environment for lifelong learning.” One of the measures provided is the promotion “human-rights
education and learning opportunities to respond to social issues,” explained asfollows:36
The government is promoting human-rights education, inside and outsideschool, to raise people’s level of consciousness about human rights. Also, the government is promoting learning opportunities especially to respond to importantsocial issues, such as the formation of a gender-equal society, a life-work balance,
issues of consumers, financial matters, laws, energy issues, etc. that people needto learn as members of society.

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northeast asian school systems

MEXT determines the Courses of Study as broad standards for all schools,
from kindergarten through upper secondary schools, to organize their programsin order to ensure a fixed standard of education throughout the country.
The Courses of Study have generally been revised once every ten years. The
Courses of Study for primary and lower secondary schools were revised in March
2008 and those for upper secondary schools and schools for special needs education, in March 2009. The new Courses of Study continue to aim to nurturein students “Zest for life” based on the educational principles expressed in therevisions to the Basic Act on Education. The new Courses of Study increase classhours in Japanese language, social studies, mathematics, science, and foreign languages with an emphasis on balancing the attainment of knowledge and skill
with thinking capacity, decisiveness, and expressiveness.37
Under the revised Course of Study, there is a period for Integrated Studies. For
the primary schools, this period has the following over-all objectives:38
To enable pupils to think in their own way about life through cross-synthetic
studies and inquiry studies, while fostering the qualities and abilities needed tofind their own tasks, to learn and think on their own, to make proactive decisions, and to solve problems better. At the same time have them acquire the habits of studying and thinking, cultivating their commitment to problem solving
and inquiry activities in a proactive, creative and cooperative manner.

While each school determines the specific objectives of the period ofIntegrated Studies, MEXT provides the guidelines for the content such as thefollowing:39(2) Taking into account the circumstances of the local community, schooland pupils, each school should conduct educational activities that abound iningenuity such as cross-synthetic studies that cross over the boundary of subjects
and periods, inquiry studies and studies based on pupils’ interests and concerns.
xxx(5) Learning activities should be conducted in the light of the conditions ofeach school: for example, learning activities about cross-synthetic tasks, includinginternational understanding, information, environment, welfare/health, learning activities about tasks based on pupils’ interests and concerns, and learning
activities about tasks depending on characteristics of the local community andthe school such as people’s lives, traditions and culture of the local community.
xxx(9) Based on the objectives of moral education listed in Subsections I-2
of Chapter 1 “General Provisions” and in Subsection I of Chapter 3 “Moral
Education”, instructions concerning the content listed in Subsection II of Chapter

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HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS

3 “Moral Education” should be given appropriately. The instructions should bein accordance with the characteristics of the period for integrated studies andshould be related to the period for moral education.

In view of the scant mention of human rights education in the educational
policies, educators see the Integrated Studies as the most possible place for learning and teaching human rights. Some consider moral education as a vehicle forhuman rights education. There is a question, however, on whether or not thecurrent definition of moral education would allow the proper discussion of human rights.
Korea40
Korea has a single-track 6-3-3-4 system which maintains a single line of schoollevels in order to ensure that every citizen can receive primary, secondary, andtertiary education without discrimination and according to the ability of each
student.
The existing education act was replaced by the Basic Education Act, thePrimary and Secondary Education Act, and the Higher Education Act in 1998.
The Primary and Secondary Education Act covers education issues dealing withpre-school, primary and secondary education while the Higher Education Act
pertains to matters related to higher education.
Article 9 of the Basic Education Act stipulates that “Schools shall be established to provide preschool, primary, secondary and higher education.” According
to Article 2 of the Primary and Secondary Education Act, “The following typesof schools shall be established for preschool, primary and secondary education.”
1) Kindergartens
2) Primary Schools, Civic Schools3) Middle Schools, Civic High Schools
4) High Schools, Trade High Schools5) Special Schools6) Miscellaneous Schools.
The Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development oversees
the national school curriculum, as designated by Article 23 of the Primary andSecondary School Education Law, in order to ensure equal educational opportunity for all and maintain the quality of education. The national curriculum andregional guidelines accord flexibility to individual schools in accordance with theparticular characteristics and objectives of each school.

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northeast asian school systems

The national curriculum is revised on a periodic basis to reflect the newly
rising demands for education, emerging needs of a changing society, and newfrontiers of academic disciplines.
Curriculum standards serve as the basis for educational contents at eachschool and for textbook development. The government has undergone sevencurriculum revisions to meet national and social needs as well as to keep up withthe changes in consideration of various factors related to research development.
To prepare students for the 21st century, the era of globalization and knowledge-based society, the Seventh Curriculum attempts to break away from thespoon-fed and short-sighted approach to education of the past towards a new
approach in the classroom to produce human resources capable of facing newchallenges. Study loads for each subject has been reduced to an appropriate level, while curriculums that accommodate different needs of individual students
were also introduced. Independent learning activities to enhance self-directed
learning required in the knowledge-based society have either been introduced or
expanded.
Thus, the Seventh Curriculum is a student-oriented curriculum emphasizing
individual talent, aptitude, and creativity, unlike the curriculum of the past. The
Seventh Curriculum consists of the Basic Common Curriculum and the Selected
Curriculum at the secondary school level. The Seventh Curriculum covers ten
years from the first year of primary school through the first year of secondary
school.
The 2009 revised curriculum is established and declared in order to upgrade
the Seventh Curriculum. The purposes of the Korean education are to form ofindividual character under the humanitarian ideal, to lead life with independent
living ability and qualities of a democratic citizen, and to contribute the realization of the democratic country and the prosperity of humankind. Based on theideals of education, the 2009 revised curriculum describes the desired images ofan educated person as follows:41• A person who seeks the development of individuality and builds careers
as the basis for the growth of the whole personality• A person who exhibits creativity for new ideas and challenge beyond
fundamental capacity• A person who leads elegant life on the foundation of cultural literacy andplural values• A person who participates in the development of community with consideration, and sharing as a citizen who can communicate with the world.
The Seventh Curriculum consists of the Basic Common Curriculum andthe Selected Curriculum at the secondary school level. The Seventh Curriculum

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HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS

covers ten years from the first year of primary school through the first year of
secondary school.
During the 11th and 12th grades in secondary school, students are given theopportunity to choose the curriculum and courses they wish to take so that they
may benefit from education that facilitates their future path.
In 2011, the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology came up with aplan on changes in the school system. Two items in the plan are the following:42
a. Creative Classes
An intensive course completion system, which reduces the number of required
courses to be completed in each semester, will be introduced in order to alleviate study load. Also, block-time system will improve learning efficiency. The
Ministry will operate subject-based classroom system, enhance school’s autonomy in setting up curriculum, and adopt elective subject courses for all gradesin [secondary] school as a part of its effort to support level-differentiated andcustomized courses that take into account students’ career paths and aptitudes.
The Ministry will also revise school curriculum to significantly reduce study load
which is heavily focused on cramming in information. Instead, the new curriculum will enable students to improve core competency though school education.
b. Democratic Education Focused on Experience and Practice
The Ministry will encourage students to take the lead in school events andclub activities so that they can plan and manage major school event such as
graduation and entrance ceremonies, school festivals, and presentations. It will
also expand students’ participation in enacting and revising school regulations,
thereby creating a culture where students voluntarily comply with the regulations. Students will experience democratic education through various resources
and programs such as “Teen court” provided by government agencies. Also, the“I love Korea” school campaign will be supported and expanded, and model
schools will be named after Korea’s famous figures.
Mongolia43
The Mongolian education system includes pre-school education (kindergarten)and general secondary schools (primary, lower and upper secondary). Schools
for the primary, lower and upper secondary levels generally do not exist separately. The Mongolian Law on Education (2002) mandates that every Mongolian
regardless of “ethnicity, language, race, gender, socioeconomic status, wealth,employment, position, religion and personal values” has a right to receive education in her/his native language (Article 5.1.4) and must attend basic education

56

northeast asian school systems(Article 6.3) provided by the state free of charge as required by the Constitutionof Mongolia (Article 6.2).44
Pre-school education (kindergarten) is not compulsory and caters to children
aged three to six years. According to the latest education reform plan, Mongolia
will shift to a twelve-year education system (6+3+3) from 2008-2009 academic
years. Primary education covers a period of six years for pupils aged six to elevenyears and is compulsory. Lower secondary education is the final stage of compulsory schooling and lasts three years (age group 12-14, grades 7-9), when certification of non-complete secondary education is granted. Upper secondary school
consists of grades 10 and 12 for sixteen to eighteen year-old students.
Upper secondary education is not compulsory; however, it is a prerequisite
for college admission. The school year consists of thirty-four working weeks at
the primary level, thirty-five weeks at the lower secondary level, and thirty-six
weeks at the upper secondary level. Graduates from Grade 9 (last year in thelower secondary education) can join technical and vocational training schools.
Higher education in Mongolia is provided by universities, colleges and institutes
for mostly four to five academic years.
The education system is centralized and the Ministry of Education, Culture
and Science (MECS) and its implementation units, such as local education departments, have the primary responsibility for educational policy, curriculum
design and practice at the local level.
The comprehensive revision of the national educational standards in 2004 isa significant action taken by the government, which includes a complete revisionof all curriculum areas for primary and secondary schools. With the completechange in the national educational standard of History and Social Studies forprimary and secondary levels, human rights and citizenship are studied both directly and indirectly from the primary schools up to upper secondary educationlevels. The Educational Standard of History and Social Studies approved by MECS
incorporates an independent “Human Rights Domain” throughout the key learning areas of social science and citizenship classes at all stages of schooling. The
standard consists of four basic content domains such as Rule and law, Rights
and responsibilities, Government, and Applied law. “Content domain” refers toa core knowledge system, which develops from simple to complex throughout
primary and secondary levels.
Regarding the current educational policy, the Educational Standard of
History and Social Studies at primary and secondary levels cover three main subjects: history, citizenship and social studies. At the primary level, history, citizenship and social studies are integrated into one subject entitled “People andSociety.” Starting from secondary level, there are independent classes like History
and Citizenship. Accordingly, human rights topics are taught from 1st to 11th
grade in relation to age and psychological development of students. This is an

57

HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS

important step forward. Table 3 presents the subjects and total hours of the curriculum for social studies.
Table 3: Core Curriculum for Social Sciences
and Citizenship in Primary and Secondary Schools45

Uppersecondary
Education

Lower
secondary
Education

Primary Education

Level

Grade

Subject

Hour

Grade 1

People and Environment

34

Grade 2People and Environment

34

Grade 3People and Environment

34

Grade 4People and Society

36

Grade 5People and Society

36

Grade 6

Citizenship-I

37

Grade 7

Citizenship-I

37

Grade 8

Citizenship-II

37

Grade 9

Citizenship-II

37

Grade 10Social Studies-I

57

Grade 11Social Studies-I

114

Grade 12n\a-Total Hours

211

111

171

It is important that human rights topics are incorporated into the standard
curriculum of the school system. The primary vehicle for teaching and learning about human rights is incorporated within the Civics stream of the Social
Sciences learning area. Citizenship studies, as an independent subject in Grades
6-9 at the secondary level, includes general knowledge of human rights, freedom,
equality, principles of democracy, the Constitution, crime, the judiciary, the economic system and civil responsibilities.
Following the 2006 amendments to the Law on Primary and Secondary
Education, the secondary education school system was converted from an eleven-year to a twelve-year schooling system starting at the 2008-2009 academic
year onwards. As a result of this transition, major reforms took place in the education sector, including revision of the primary and secondary educational standards and curriculums.
This fundamental change in the educational standards has been bringing innovations in subject content, curriculums, teaching methodologies and textbooks
for teachers and students. Since the curriculums are changing from being highly58

northeast asian school systems

standardized to a more flexible and locally relevant ones under the Education
Law of 1995, schools and teachers can use a certain part of the curriculums forteaching whatever they see fit. This provides an excellent opportunity for willingteachers to teach citizenship, human rights and democracy. Also, there is a big
opportunity to appropriately incorporate teaching and learning about humanrights into other subjects like History, Arts, Mongolian and foreign languages,
literature and other curriculums.
TaiwanStudents may study, under the current education system, for up to twenty-two
years, which includes two years of preschool education, six years of primary education, three years of junior secondary school, three years of senior secondary
school, four to seven years of college or university, one to four years for a master’s
degree and two to seven years for a doctoral degree. 46
Below is the current structure of the education system in Taiwan:

59

HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS

Compulsory Education
A nine-year Compulsory Education system was put into effect in 1968, of which
six years are for primary education and three years are for lower secondary school.
To offer more diverse opportunities for lower secondary school students, technical arts education is included as well. Practical classes allow students to better
understand future vocation and career choices. Compulsory education will be
extended to twelve years in 2014.
UPPER Secondary School and Vocational Education
This category includes upper secondary schools and vocational secondary schools
and consists of three years of schooling. Upper secondary school includes “ordinary upper secondary schools,” “comprehensive upper secondary schools,”“magnet upper secondary schools,” and “experimental upper secondary schools.”
Vocational secondary schools offer a special curriculum with general secondary
school courses as well as classes in practical skills, classes in industry-related subjects, and cooperative education programs, all designed in line with the various
needs of students for a balanced vocational education.
Special Education
Special education institutions are established for students with mental and/or
physical disabilities, and offer education at the levels of kindergarten, primaryschool (six years), lower secondary school (three years), and upper or vocational
secondary school (three years). Moreover, schools not exclusively dedicated to
special education may also offer special education classes. Additionally, there
are also resource rooms in universities to guide and to support students withdisabilities.
Curriculum Reform
The education reform measures during the 1990s can be summarized into thefollowing seven points:47
1. Advocacy of the idea that education itself is a human right. This fundamental understanding of education consists of several points such as
free and compulsory education; equal opportunity to higher education;
promotion of respect for human rights and fundamental liberties of individuals; enhancement of understanding between various nations, ethnicities and religious groups; the prior right of parents to decide on how
to educate their children; and positive discriminatory care and measuresfor children with special needs.

60northeast asian school systems

2. Improvement of the educational opportunities of the disadvantaged or
the minorities and de-regulation of the established education system.
The disadvantaged are divided into four groups: the indigenous people,
female and sexual orientation, minority, students with special needs(physical or psychological), and people with distinct dialects.
3. Raising of the percentage of students going to school at every level.
4. Adjustment in the ratio of the number of students going to comprehensive schools to that of students going to vocational schools. In otherwords, allowing more students to be able to go to comprehensive schools
and universities.
5. Change and increase in access to higher education, in addition to the traditional way of entrance examinations. Students are able to access higher
education through more ﬂexible ways rather than the conventional single channel - taking examination. In this way, they may enjoy happierlife in schools.
6. Planning to extend the compulsory education from nine years to twelve
years. Regretfully, this measure so far has never been fulfilled due to budgetary problem.
7. Raising the quality of education by increasing budget for education.48
This education reform in some sense built an environment where humanrights education could take its root. In spite of this, learning about and forhuman rights in the school system for the Taiwanese remains a short history.
Human rights education is on the list of seven important issues of the Taiwanesenational curriculum guidelines (Grade 1-9) - Curriculum Guidelines (G 1-9 CG),49
which can be seen as an outcome of education and curricular reform (Ministry of
Education [MOE], 2003).
Until the G1-9CG was implemented in 2001 human rights education has
never been introduced formally in school. However, the implementation of the
new curriculum guidelines does not guarantee the success of human rights education in schools. Since G1-9CG1 provides that important issues should be taught
in cross-curricular way, not as an independent subject, there was a concern thatsome of these important issues (including human rights) would be ignored anddisappear. Especially under the pressure of credentialism, students were driven
to put their efforts and concentration on the learning of ‘basic subjects’, e.g.,literacy, numeracy, natural science and social studies.
Basic Description of Human Rights Educationin the School Curriculum50
There is no single subject called human rights education. However, it is integrated into social studies, citizenship education and moral education. Some hidden

61

HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS

curriculum and extracurricular activities also touch on the themes of self-esteem
and respect for human dignity, which are the spirit of human rights. Although
the teaching of human rights is important, it is unnecessary to specify humanrights education as a course because it should not be taught merely as a subject.
Instead, it should lead to an understanding of and sympathy for the conceptsof justice, equality, dignity, rights and democracy. Such understanding should
include both affective and cognitive domains. Thus, schools should provide allkinds of opportunities for students to experience affective support for learningand to express their feelings through drama, art, music, creative writing and other media (Council of Europe, 1985).
Partly due to the authorities’ fear of too many rights for students, the school
curriculum stresses the notion of responsibilities. And partly because of the culture of competitive examinations, the cognitive domain is stressed as the essential part of all subjects. Thus the human-rights-related curriculum and activities
have not offered enough opportunities for students to enjoy human rights inreal life. To some extent, teachers and students understand and accept the valuesof human dignity, especially when related to respect for the old and protectionof the weak. However, there is a need to broaden the students’ experience andlink those traditions with the idea of human rights. It is necessary to clarify themeaning of human rights and to base the culture of human rights on the valuesof human dignity. Legal documents and universal statements on human rights,
and the theory and history of human rights must be emphasized in the school
curriculum. Human rights concepts must not only be taught, but also practiced
and applied in the school and community.
Another part of the human rights education curriculum includes the historyof human rights, legal documents and statements on human rights, and basic human rights theory. The intention is not to train students to become experts, butrather to enable them to develop and think about and act on their relationships
with others. The content of human rights is not only concerned with knowledgeof the great documents and theory of human rights but also with everyday life
in and outside the school. It is essential to relate the abstract statements in legal
instruments to children’s school life so that they will better understand theirown and others’ rights. It is therefore essential to provide a school environment
respectful of human rights and to allow students to learn, practice and apply
human rights principles in the school setting. After all, action is an importantelement in human rights education and it makes human rights more meaningful
to students.
In sum, the framework of the human rights education curriculum includes
the culture and content of human rights. In order to develop appropriate materials and activities, the teachers themselves must have a concrete idea of human62northeast asian school systems

rights. We must therefore develop training programs for teachers and a curriculum as the first step to implement human rights education.
Endnotes
1 Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, “Brief Introduction of the development of Chinese Education,” available at www.moe.edu.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/
moe_163/200408/2692.html, accessed on 3 March 2013.
2 Article 18, Education Law of the People’s Republic of China, available at www.moe.edu.cn/
publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_2803/200905/48457.html, accessed on 3 March 2013.
3 China Education and Research Network, “Education System in China,” available at www.edu.
cn/20041203/3123354.shtml, accessed on 3 March 2013.
4 CPC Central Committee and State Council on deepening education reform and the decision
to promote quality education, available at www.edu.cn/zong_he_870/20100719/t20100719_497966.
shtml, accessed on 3 March 2013.
5 Ministry of Education of People’s Republic of China, “Curriculum for Basic Education Reform
Compendium (Draft),” available at www.gov.cn/gongbao/content/2002/content_61386.htm.
6 Fujian Education Bureau, “Curriculum reform for common senior middle school,” available at
http://www.fzedu.gov.cn/xzzq/gzkg.htm, accessed on 3 March 2013.
7 Ministry of Education of People’s Republic of China, “Curriculum Standard of Morality andSociety,” 2011, available at http://mat1.gtimg.com/edu/pdf/edu/xkb2011/20120130155656698.pdf,
accessed on 3 March 2013.
8 Ministry of Education of People’s Republic of China, “Curriculum Standard of Thought andMorality,” 2011, available at http://mat1.gtimg.com/edu/pdf/edu/xkb2011/20120130155714299.pdf,
accessed on 3 March 2013.
9 “New curriculum reform: spreading more than half the nation,” People’s Daily Online, available at http://liuxue.people.com.cn/GB/6170762.html, accessed on 3 March 2013.
10 “National Human Rights Action Plan of China (2009-2010),” The Information Office of
the State Council, or China's Cabinet, 13 April 2009. Full text available at: http://english.gov.cn/official/2009-04/13/content_1284128.htm
11 The Information Office of the State Council, or China’s Cabinet, published the National
Human Rights Action Plan of China (2012-2015) on 6 December 2012. See http://www.chinadaily.
com.cn/cndy/2012-06/12/content_15494392.htm.
12 Ibid.
13 V. Human Rights Education for the Public, “Assessment Report on the National Human
Rights Action Plan of China (2009-2010),” in www.chinahumanrights.org/Messages/China/t20110714_768567_26.htm.
14 Text taken from Yiu-kwong Chong, Hiu-chung Kwok, and Yuk-kai Law, “Addressing Human
Rights Education Deficits in the Changing Political Order in Hong Kong,” in The State of Human Rights
Education in Northeast Asian School Systems: Obstacles, Challenges, Opportunities (Osaka: HURIGHTSOSAKA, 2010).
15 Education Department, Guidelines on civic education in schools, 1996.
16 Leung Yan-wing, “Back to Square One: The ‘Re-depoliticizing’ of Civic Education in HongKong”, available at www.ied.edu.hk/epa/sri/doc/4_a.ppt. Last updated on 29 June 2009. Website visited on 22 February 2010.
17 Education Department, “Learning to Learn – The Way Forward in Curriculum, 2001” atwww.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?langno=1&nodeID=2877. Website visited on 21 June 2010. Website visited on 21 June 2010.
18 Hong Kong Government’s press release on “Human Rights Education,” 9 July 2008 at www.
info.gov.hk/gia/general/200807/09/P200807090204.htm.

63

HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS
19 Para 1.4, Curriculum Development Council and Hong Kong Examinations Assessment
Authority, “LS: Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Secondary 4-6)” (“LS Guide”), 2007, available atwww.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/EN/Content_5999/ls_final_e_070508.pdf.
20 Critical Review of HRE, page 148.
21 LS Guide, pages 14-15.
22 Critical Review of HRE, pages 148-149.
23 Meintjes 1997 and Tang 2006 in Critical Review of HRE, page 149.
24 Para 4.3.5, LS Guide.
25 Leung Yan-wing, “An ‘action-poor’ human rights education: a critical review of the development of human rights education in the context of civic education in Hong Kong” (Action-poor HRE),
Intercultural Education, 19/3, June 2008, page 238.
26 Giroux 1983 in Action-poor HRE, page 238.
27 Mezirow 1997 in Action-poor HRE, page 238.
28 Freire 1972 in Action-poor HRE, page 238.
29 Magendzo 2005, Nazzari, McAdams, and Roy 2005 and Tibbitts 2005 in Action-poor HRE,
page 238.
30 Magendzo 2005 in Action-poor HRE, page 239.
31 Action-Poor HRE, page 239.
32 Text based on Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, “Overview,”
available at www.mext.go.jp/english/introduction/1303952.htm.
33 In addition to full-day courses, there are also part-time and correspondence courses. Fullday courses last three years, while both part-time and correspondence courses last three years or
more. The last two courses are mainly intended for young workers who wish to pursue their upper
secondary studies in a flexible manner in accordance with their own needs. All these courses lead toa certificate of the upper secondary education.
In terms of the content of teaching provided, the upper secondary school courses may also beclassified into three categories: general, specialized and integrated courses. General courses provide
mainly general education suited to the needs of both those who wish to advance to higher educationand those who are going to get a job but have chosen no specific vocational area.
Specialized courses are mainly intended to provide vocational or other specialized education for
those students who have chosen a particular vocational area as their future career. These courses may
be further classified into: agriculture, industry, commerce, fishery, home economics, nursing, sciencemathematics, physical education, music, art, English language and other courses.
Integrated courses were introduced in 1994. These courses offer a wide variety of subject areasand subjects from both the general and the specialized courses, in order to adequately satisfy students’ diverse interests, abilities and aptitudes, future career plans, etc.
Text based on Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, “Overview,” available at www.mext.go.jp/english/introduction/1303952.htm.
34 MEXT, Basic Plan for the Promotion of Education (Provisional translation) July 1, 2008, at
http://www.mext.go.jp/english/lawandplan/1303463.htm.
35 Ibid.
36 Chapter 3: Measures to be implemented comprehensively and systematically for the next
five years, “Basic Plan for the Promotion of Education (Provisional translation) July 1, 2008,” at www.
mext.go.jp/english/lawandplan/1303482.htm.
37 “Improvement of Academic Abilities (Courses of Study),” available at www.mext.go.jp/english/elsec/1303755.htm.
38 Elementary and Secondary Education Bureau, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology (MEXT), “The Revisions of the Courses of Study for Elementary andSecondary Schools,” available at www.mext.go.jp/english/elsec/1303755.htm.
39 MEXT, Chapter 5 the Period of Integrated Studies, pages 1-2, available at www.mext.go.jp/
english/elsec/1303755.htm.
40 The discussion in this section is drawn from the website of the Ministry of Educational
Science and Technology. See http://english.mest.go.kr/enMain.do.
41 See www.ncic.re.kr/nation.kri.org4.inventoryList.do64northeast asian school systems
42 Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology, “Major Policies and Plans for 2011,” document available at http://english.mest.go.kr/web/1717/site/contents/en/en_0275.jsp
43 The discussion in this section is based on edited excerpts of Altangerel Choijoo, “Human
Rights Education in Mongolian Schools,” The State of Human Rights Education in Northeast Asian School
Systems: Obstacles, Challenges, Opportunities (Osaka: Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center,2010).
44 Amgaabazar, Gerelmaa. 2005. World Bank Draft Policy Brief on the Mongolian Drop Out Rate
(unpublished).
45 This table is taken from National Education Standard of History and Social Studies: Primary andSecondary Education, 2005 - Decree #164 of the Minister of Education, Culture and Science, 20 May
2005.
46 The discussion on the school system of Taiwan are based on “An Educational Overview,”
Ministry of Education (Taiwan), at http://english.moe.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=13738&CtNode=2003&
mp=2.
47 Ruyu Hung, “A Decade of Human Rights Education in Public Schools in Taiwan,” The Stateof Human Rights Education in Northeast Asian School Systems: Obstacles, Challenges, Opportunities (Osaka:
Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center, 2010) pages 90-91.
48 Hwang, J-J. 2000. “On Taiwan’s education reform: a policy-oriented analysis” in Educational
Policy Forum 3 1, 26-53. (Original text in Chinese)
49 Grade 1-9 Curriculum Guidelines, 九年一貫 課程綱要。
50 Discussion taken from Mei-Ying Tang, “Human Rights Education in Taiwan: The Experienceof the Workshops for Schoolteachers,” Human Rights Education in Asian Schools, volume 2, available atwww.hurights.or.jp/archives/human_rights_education_in_asian_schools/section2/1999/03/humanrights-education-in-taiwan-the-experience-of-the-workshops-for-schoolteachers.html

65

Government Policies:
Government support for human rights education has been influenced byinternational initiatives (such as the United Nations Decade for Human Rights
Education [1995-2004] and the World Programme on Human Rights Education
and Training) as well as by local needs and demands. Government responses
range from adoption of national action plans on human rights in general or onhuman rights education in particular, to enactment of law on human rights education, to establishment of institutions supporting human rights education, topublication of materials to support human rights educators. Local government
initiatives on human rights education also exist as discussed in another sectionof this resource material.
The support of the government is most crucial in mainstreaming humanrights education in all fields of education (formal, informal, non-formal). But
it is absolutely crucial in the formal school system in view of the government’s
mandate on the formal education of the people.
China
The Chinese Ministry of Education has established three human rights educationand training bases in three Chinese universities, namely, China University of
Political Science and Law, Nankai University and Guangzhou University. These
Centers are mandated toa. Conduct research on human rights theories as well as on specificissues;b. Provide human rights courses in universities, including compulsory
and optional modules;c. Provide human rights education in primary and secondary schools;
d. Provide human rights training to state officials, especially tolaw-enforcers;e. Provide human rights knowledge to the general public;f. Compile human rights textbooks; andg. Carry out international cooperation and exchange on human rights.

67

HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS

They were established in compliance with the National Human Rights Action
Plan for China (2009-2010) that provides:1
A number of institutions of higher learning which started human rights education earlier than others will be designated as the bases for human rights education and training.

Under the second National Human Rights Action Plan for China (2012-2015),
the government will give more attention to these Centers and will establish five
more Centers by 2015.2
The second National Human Rights Action Plan for China (2012-2015) provides several policy statements supporting human rights education, namely,3
•

•

•

•

•

•

68

China will carry out extensive human rights education and training invarious forms, and promote human rights awareness and publicize human rights knowledge throughout the Chinese society.
China will include human rights education in the training programs ofcivil servants to strengthen human rights education and training for civil
servants. The state supports human rights research institutes in their efforts to develop teaching materials for training in human rights and participate in the training work.
China will strengthen human rights education in primary and middle
schools. The state will make sure that human rights knowledge is integrated into relevant courses and included in the legal education curriculum. It will also carry out human rights promotional activities that suit
juveniles, promote school management [according to] law and democratic administration, and create an education environment that honors
human rights.
China will encourage institutions of higher learning to offer public courses and specialized courses on human rights, support the development ofrelated disciplines and majors, and encourage studies on human rights
theories.
China will encourage and promote the publicity of human rights knowledge in enterprises and public institutions, and develop corporate cultures that honor and protect human rights.
China will encourage the dissemination of human rights knowledge via
the media. It will enhance human rights awareness among the whole
populace to create a human rights culture.

government policies

The implementation of the National Human Rights Action Plan is guided by
the following:4•••

In the process of implementing the Action Plan, China will respect andgive full play to the public’s initiative and creativity. It will innovate thesocial management mechanism and promote the constructive role ofNGOs [non-governmental organizations] in human rights protection.
China will make the Action Plan an important part of human rights education and training, and effectively raise people’s consciousness in implementing the Action Plan.
China will encourage the mass media to play a positive role in the publicizing, implementation and supervision of the Action Plan.

Japan
In support of the United Nations Decade for Human Rights Education (19952004), the Japanese government established on 15 December 1995 the Promotion
Headquarters for the Decade (HQ). The HQ, in turn, adopted on 4 July 1997
the National Plan of Action on Human Rights Education (1997-2004). The plan
pays special attention to the promotion of human rights education not only inschools but also in private corporations and the society in general. It provides
for the development of human rights programs for professional groups such as
public servants, teachers, members of the police, personnel of the Self-Defense
Forces, medical professionals, social care workers, and journalists. It highlights
the rights of women, children, the aged, persons with disabilities, Buraku people, Ainu people, foreigners, persons with HIV/AIDS, and former convicts. It
also emphasizes the need to support the work of the United Nations in assisting the development of human rights education programs in developing countries. In December 2000, the Diet (Japanese parliament) enacted “The Law on the
Promotion of Human Rights Education and Human Rights Awareness-raising.”
As required by this law, the “Basic Plan for the Law on the Promotion of Human
Rights Education and Human Rights Awareness-Raising” was adopted in March
2002. This new plan was meant to supplement the 1997 plan.5 Since 2002, theJapanese government has been issuing its annual White Paper on Human Rights
Education and Awareness-Raising that describes various human rights education
activities and initiatives undertaken in each year.6
The Ministry of Education of Japan has issued the “Approaches to Teaching
Human Rights Education” report. Several reports have been issued in the years
2004, 2006 and 2008. The third report (2008) is the first systematic document
on human rights education compiled by the Ministry of Education consisting69

HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMSof two parts: teaching methods and practices; and practical cases with in-depth
information. Some people appreciated that the report reflected the experience ofanti-discrimination education (Dowa education), but others criticized the reportdue to the fundamental principles of human rights not being well expressed andother reasons. The third report states in its introduction the “hope [that it] will
be widely used in schools and education boards nationwide,” and in its conclusion expresses its sincere “hope that this will give momentum to realize a society
respecting human rights.”7
The Ministry of Justice manages the Human Rights Volunteers system withmore than 14,000 volunteers appointed all over Japan. One of the functions of thecommissioners is the holding of human rights education activities. The commissioners are members of the National Federation of Consultative Assemblies of the
Civil Liberties Commissioners. As part of the celebration of the Day of the Civil
Liberties Commissioners on June 1 of every year, which commemorates the enforcement day of Civil Liberties Commissioners Law (June 1, 1949), the National
Federation of Consultative Assemblies of the Civil Liberties Commissioners undertake nationwide campaign on human rights awareness.
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs reported that[O]fficials engaged in human rights protection and Civil Liberties
Commissioners work together to disseminate and enhance the concept of respectfor human rights to the general public. They use various methods to conduct
these activities, including sponsoring symposia, lectures, discussion meetings, debates and films; participating in various events; television/radio/cable broadcasting; placing announcements in newspapers and notices in PR [public relations]magazines; distributing pamphlets and other printed materials; putting up posters, banners and signboards; touring with PR vehicles, and holding exhibitions.8

Korea
The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology of Korea revised the “Standard
Curricula for Qualification Training, which is applied to the training courses required to qualify for the positions of headmasters, vice-headmasters and teachers, to include the contents of human rights in the Standard Curricula in 2009.
Furthermore, with regard to the in-service training of teaching personnel, in its“Major Directions for Training of Teaching Personnel published in February 2011,
the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology encouraged the educational
offices in municipalities (Cities and Provinces) to create their own programs ofhuman rights training for the teaching personnel under their jurisdiction.9 Table
1 provides information on training for teachers and school administrators.

70

government policies

Table 1. Human rights education/training for teachers and school
administrators by education/ training providers10
Year 2010

Year 2011

Classification

No. ofcoursesNo.
ofclasses

No.
of
hours

No. ofparticipants

No. ofcoursesNo.
ofclasses

No.
of
hours

No. ofparticipants

Providers undercity orprovince
education
offices

188
courses

218

606

15,625263
courses

321

799

25,241

Providersannexedto universities/colleges

10 universities/colleges

32

236

6,609

15
universities/
colleges

33

235

6,398

Total

198

250

842

22,234

278

354

1,034

31,639The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology made human rights
training a mandatory criterion for the qualification training for headmasters,
vice-headmasters and teachers and both the public interest in students humanrights and student human rights ordinances and the public awareness about thesignificance of human rights education have been raised, consequently pushingup the demand for human rights education. However, the tendency is that theeducation or training institutions are usually giving one-off courses on humanrights with limited effects. In this light, it is necessary to develop programs of human rights training and education which are offered on a regular and continuous
basis, to customize the human rights education programs to the target groups
and to bring forth qualified human rights trainers.11
Mongolia12
The State Great Hural (Parliament of Mongolia) adopted the National Human
Rights Action Programme (NHRAP) in October 2003. The NHRAP sets out thedirection and methods of 1) broadening and making efficient the participation ofstate organizations, civil society (particularly, local self-governing organizations,non-governmental organizations [NGOs], and the mass media) and the private
sector in strengthening state efforts to guarantee human rights and freedoms.
It also encourages citizen’s initiatives on this task; and creates mechanisms to71

HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS

ensure human rights protection, prevent violations, and provide remedies whenrights are infringed.
The NHRAP justification and goal include “reform [of] the system, content
and methodology of education, and [the teaching of] skills necessary to enjoy
and protect one’s rights by promoting public awareness on human rights and legal protection.”13 The NHRAP has provisions on the role of the National Human
Rights Commission of Mongolia (NHRCM) and NGOs in human rights education, and on specific human rights education and training activities.14
The “child-friendly school” project started in Mongolia in 1999. Since thattime, UNICEF, the Government of Mongolia, and other stakeholders have been
active partners in implementing this initiative. The Ministry of Education,
Culture and Science developed a policy document entitled “Policy Frameworkfor Promotion of Child Friendly Schools” in 2004 to promote child rights inevery school.15 This policy document includes basic principles, framework of activities, implementing strategies and administration support, assessment and its
indicators.
The child-friendly schools (CFS) program in Mongolia is designed to address
the country’s challenges in primary and secondary education. The first step of
the “Childfriendly school” initiative in Mongolia was UNICEF ‘s project titled“Primary Education and Community Participation” which was implemented
during the 1999-2002 period. Thirty-five schools from fifteen provinces were involved in this project. The activities under this project mainly focused on enhancing teachers’ and parents’ knowledge and attitude on human rights education and promote equal opportunities at school activities. Also, the pilot schools
had school self-assessment and implemented their respective school development plans for child-friendly schools.
The NHRCM has been implementing the project “Human Rights Educationin Secondary School” with the support of UNESCO since 2005. The objective of
this project is to evaluate how human rights are taught in secondary schools,
develop proposals and recommendations to the relevant authorities, and develop
minimum qualification standards for the teachers of human rights. The main
findings from the evaluation showed that human rights education is still unsatisfactory at the national level. Recommendations for future action based on
lessons learned throughout the study were developed and disseminated to therelevant stakeholders, government authorities and the public.
The NHRCM has published a number of plans and reports relating to humanrights education and promotion. A Strategic Plan 2007-2011 (NHRCM, 2006) includes both general and specific strategies to promote and protect human rights.
Goal 1, and specifically its Objective 3 (Establish and strengthen a human rights
training framework at all levels of education) identifies a clear need for education72

government policies

about and for human rights. The NHRCM was able to set targets and indicatorsthat could be used to improve human rights education generally.16
The Teachers Standards establish criteria to assess the performance of teachers on rights-based learning. It is a useful tool to develop and implement professional development programs and to create a monitoring mechanism to measure
the performance of human rights education at the school level. Also, it can beused by education administrators to provide financial incentives (bonuses) toteachers based on performance results, and to improve the quality of the teachers’ instruction. The NHRCM developed a minimum qualification standard forteachers who are teaching human rights. See the section on teachers in this resource material for the full text of the Teachers Standards.
TaiwanHuman rights education in the Taiwanese school system has been receiving support from the government through a number of projects since 1997. Below is asummary of the various projects and related activities held with the participationof relevant government agencies and non-governmental institutions.
Table 2: Significant Events Promoting Human Rights Education in Public
Schools in Taiwan17
Time

Significant Human Rights Education Events

1997

Workshops on Developing Human Rights Education Materials18 and Workshops of Human Rights Educators19 undertaken collaboratively by Ministryof Education (MOE) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs)

1998

Human rights education was taken into consideration as part of the new
curriculum guidelines at the initial stage of their formation. On the same
year, from March to June, eight half-day Workshops on Developing Curriculum and Materials for Human Rights Education20 undertaken withtwenty-five in-service teachers taking part21

2000

Seed Teachers’ Workshops on Human Rights Education22 held in Taipei,
Kaoshung and Kimen with a total number of participants around 150

April, 2001

Human Rights Education Committee (HREC)23 commissioned by the Ministry of Education (MOE) to undertake projects

April, 2001

MOE started to implement the Project on Human Rights Education(PHRE)24 and called for proposals on several themes: Content Analysis of
Textbooks,25 Comparison between Human Rights Related Issues,26 Comparative Research on Human Rights Education in Different Countries,27
Survey on Human Rights Consciousness of K1-12,28 International Conference on Human Rights Education,29 and Seminar on Human Rights Education Policy30

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HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS

Table 2: Significant Events Promoting Human Rights Education in Public
Schools in Taiwan (Cont’d)
2003

Human Rights Education Information Center,31 with the support the
Department of Elementary Education of MOE, started to issue electronicnews on human rights education

2005

Human Rights Education Committee (HREC) reorganized and replaced by
the Human Rights Education Advisory Group (HREAG)32

2005

HREAG collaborated with the National Institute for Compilation andTranslation33 to conduct two projects on human rights education award of
excellence to publications of original works or translations

2005-2007

Project on Friendly Campus Human Rights Education Model School34 undertaken during 2005-2007 period. In 2005, 46 schools were selected as
the model schools, in 2006, 56, in 2007, 36. After review and assessment,
the schools were awarded as first, second and third placers, their experiences documented and records stored as valuable data for more studies
and as models for other schools to copy.

2006

Educational Fundamental Act35 amended to prohibit corporal punishment
in school

2007

Human Rights Education Information Center and Human Rights Resource
and Advisory Center were combined into Human Rights Education Advisory and Resources Center,36 with four goals: 1) To undertake studies onpolicies and curriculums related to human rights education; 2) To collectdocuments and materials related to human rights education; 3) To provide
advice on human rights education affairs, and 4) To enhance and improve
human rights education.

February
2008.

The Advisory and Counselling Group of Human Rights Curriculum andPedagogy (ACGHRCP)37 organized with the assistance of the Department
of Elementary Education of MOE,38 with the aims of providing advice toeducators of human rights in school, and building a bridge between policymakers in the central office and educators in the local areas.

The Ministry of Education (MOE) established the Human Rights Education
Advisory and Resources Center in 2007 with the aim of integrating the resourcesthat facilitate studies on human rights and promote human rights education.
The Center created a database of relevant human rights publications and teaching materials for public use, and actively encouraged networking among the human rights educators. The Center will attempt to deepen the linkage between
theories and practice, provide the resources for non-governmental organizations(NGOs) to build up their theoretical knowledge and, most importantly, translate
their practical experiences into materials for human rights education.39

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government policies

The Center implements the following activities:
a. Database for Human Rights Education
A web-based database for human rights education was set up as the first step.
Information regarding books, periodicals, teaching materials and audio-visual
aids can be obtained on the website. For the longer-term plan, it will build a human rights library open to the academic community and the public. Besides, theCenter will cooperate with international academic institutions and NGOs suchas the International Human Rights Education Consortium and the Asia-Pacific
Human Rights Information Center (HURIGHTS OSAKA) in collecting the teaching materials and syllabuses.
b. Integrating the resources for promoting human rights education
Drawing upon the resources at Chang Fo-Chuan Center for the Study of
Human Rights, the Human Rights Program as well as the Consortium for the
Education of Human Rights, Peace and Development, the Center aims at helping
design a more comprehensive plan regarding human rights education in Taiwan.
c. Helping MOE promote human rights education
The Center will help MOE build up criterions for monitoring human rights
education program in the local governments and schools.
d. Professional Consultation
An open hotline and email address were created so that government officials,
school and the public can easily consult with the Center regarding human rights
education.
In order to promote human rights education and build the bridge between
the central government and local educators, the Advisory and Counseling Groupon Human Rights Curriculum and Pedagogy (ACGHRCP) was organized in 2008
with the assistance of the Department of Elementary Education of the Ministryof Education. ACGHRCP recruited scholars from different universities, expert
teachers and leaders of NGOs to help school teachers implement human rights
education by integrating human rights knowledge, skills and attitude into thecurriculum and pedagogy.40
ACGHRCP undertakes many activities as follows:
1. Hosting of panel discussions in different learning areas
2. Offering counsel and advice on human rights to teachers
3. Hosting annual conferences
4. Organizing in-service teacher training activities, such as reading groups,
workshops, seminars
5. Providing training programs for the leaders of the working team in every
county6. Providing training programs or seminars for members of the working
team in every country.

75

HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMSACGHRCP also translates international teaching materials into the Chinese
language. It has translated the ABC-Teaching Human Rights: Practical Activities forPrimary and Secondary Schools, and the Human Rights Education Series publishedby Minnesota University. In 2009, the Ministry of Education recruited primary and secondary school teachers to organize the Professional Community of
Human Rights Educators in every county under the guidance of ACGHRCP. The
Professional Community of Human Rights Educators aims to promote humanrights education through a bottom-up approach yet supported by the local educational bureau. It has five main tasks:
1. Prepare members to become competent human rights educators
2. Prepare other teachers in the local communities to become human rights
educators
3. Develop human rights materials and pedagogy
4. Facilitate the development of a human rights culture on campus
5. Organize appropriate activities and events such as workshops, readinggroups or seminars.
Other Institutions
Human rights education receives support from other institutions that have been
mandated by law to promote human rights. These institutions have been established as human rights institutions. In Northeast Asia, Korea and Mongolia
have their respective national human rights institutions: National Human Rights
Commission of Korea (NHRCK),41 and the Mongolian National Human Rights
Commission (NHRCM).42 In Hong Kong, there is a similar institution called theEqual Opportunities Commission (EOC).43 These institutions have human rights
education programs for the school system.
They develop teaching and learning materials on human rights, provide
training for teachers and school administrators, organize activities for young
people (many of whom are students), undertake research to help further develop
the existing human rights education programs and activities. They also submit
policy recommendations to the government regarding human rights in generaland human rights education in particular.
NHRCK recently offered three online programs to help the teachers’ “… selfstudy on human rights: “Human Rights + for Teacher, “Gender Discrimination
Prevention and “Disability Discrimination Prevention.”44 In order to “promote
human rights education in universities and colleges and foster leading universities or colleges in human rights education research to serve as a hub for local networking for human rights education research,” NHRCK signed Memorandumsof Understanding on Human Rights Promotion” with ten universities across thenation.45

76

government policies

Similarly, EOC launched an e-learning program for teachers under the “Equal
Opportunities Begin At School” project. This is a new web-based training program
designed specially for teachers and developed jointly by the Equal Opportunities
Commission and the Education and Manpower Bureau.46
The Japanese government, on the other hand, established the Center for
Human Rights Education and Training in 1987 as a foundation that supports
and promotes education and public information on human rights. It undertakes
activities relating to education and public information, training, surveys and research, data collection and dissemination.47
Table 3. National institutions, offices and bodies with human rights functions48
State

NHRI/
GeneralHuman
RightsBody

China----------

National Working Committee onChildren and Women under theState Council

National Working Committee on Persons with
Disabilities under the StateCouncil (mainland China)

Hong
Kong SAR---------------------------

Equal Opportunities Commission

Japan----------

Headquarter onChildren andYouth Issues –Office of thePrime Minister

Gender Equality Bureau,
Cabinet Office

Human Rights Bureau,
Ministry of Justice
Human Rights Commissioners

Korea

National
Human
RightsCommission of
Korea

National Human
Rights Commission of Korea
Ministry of Gender Equality &FamilyNational Human Rights
Commissionof Korea
Ministry of
Gender Equality & Family

National
Human
RightsCommission ofMongolia

National Authority for Children

Mongolia

Child Rights
Commission

Women’s
Rights Commission---------

Other Institutions------------------77

HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS

Table 3. National institutions, offices and bodies with human rights functions(Cont’d)TaiwanPresidential
Advisory
Committee on
Human
RightsChild Welfare
Bureau, Ministryof Interior R.O.C

Departmentof Gender
Equality, Executive Yuan

Consumer Protection
Committee, Executive
Yuan
Department of Social Affairs, Ministry of Interior
Domestic Violence andSexual Assault Prevention
Committee, Ministry ofInterior

Note: NHRI – National Human Rights Institution

Additionally, several international human rights treaties have been ratified
by the countries involved, see Table 4. These international human rights treaties
generally provide the obligation to promote the specific human rights involved.49
Table 4. Ratification of core international human rights treaties50
State

ICERD

ICCPR

ICESCR

CRC

CEDAW

CAT

ICRMW

CRPD

China

√

Signature

√

√

√

√

---------

√

Japan

√

√

√

√

√

√

---------

Signature

Korea(South)

√

√

√

√

√

√

----------√

Mongolia

√

√

√

√

√

√

---------√Note:
ICERD - International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
ICCPR - International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
ICESCR - International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
CAT - Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
ICRMW - International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Membersof Their Families
CRPD - Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

78

government policies

Endnotes
1 IV. Education on Human Rights, National Human Rights Action Plan of China (2009-2010),
available at http://english.gov.cn/official/2009-04/13/content_1284128.htm
2 V. Human Rights Education, National Human Rights Action Plan for China (2012-2015), available at www.china.org.cn/government/whitepaper/2012-06/11/content_25619807.htm
3 Ibid.
4 VI. Implementation and Supervision, National Human Rights Action Plan for China (20122015), in www.china.org.cn/government/whitepaper/2012-06/11/content_25619860.htm.
5 Kenzo Tomonaga, “The National Human Rights Education Program in Japan: Some Notes,”
FOCUS Asia-Pacific, issue 30, December 2002, available at www.hurights.or.jp/archives/focus/section2/2002/12/the-national-human-rights-education-program-in-japan-some-notes.html
6 Kenzo Tomonaga, “WPHRE and Human Rights Education Law in Japan: Implications for
the Japanese Local Governments ,” FOCUS Asia-Pacific, issue 57, September 2009, available at www.
hurights.or.jp/archives/focus/section2/2009/09/wphre-and-human-rights-education-law-in-japanimplications-for-the-japanese-local-governments.html
7 Text based on “Ministry of Education of Japan Announces the "Approaches to Teaching
Human Rights Education" (Third Report) to Relevant Entities,” available at www.hurights.or.jp/archives/newsinbrief-en/section1/2008/05/ministry-of-education-of-japan-announces-the-approachesto-teaching-human-rights-education-third-rep.html
8 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (First andSecond Report), available at www.mofa.go.jp/policy/human/race_rep1/article7.html.
9 National Human Rights Commission of Korea, Progress Report on the Implementation of theWorld Programme for Human Rights Education in the Republic of Korea, report submitted to theUnited Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, undated, page 5.
10 Ibid., page 5.
11 Ibid., page 6.
12 The discussion on the Mongolian government support for human rights is drawn from
Altangerel Choijoo, “Human Rights Education in Mongolian Schools,” The State of Human Rights
Education in Northeast Asian School Systems: Obstacles, Challenges, Opportunities (Osaka: Asia-Pacific
Human Rights Information Center, 2010).
13 Annex to Resolution number 41, 2003 of the State Great Hural, paragraph 11.
14 Articles 1 and 2, NHRAP.
15 Decree 190 of the Education Minister, May 2004.
16 Altangerel Choijoo, “Human Rights Education Program of the National Human Rights
Commission of Mongolia,” Human Rights Education in Asian Schools, vol 11, (Osaka, HURIGHTSOSAKA, 2008), page 21.
17 Edited text of Table 1 in Ruyu Hung, “A Decade of Human Rights Education in Public Schoolsin Taiwan,” The State of Human Rights Education in Northeast Asian School Systems: Obstacles, Challenges,
Opportunities (Osaka: Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center, 2010) page 92.
18 Workshop on Developing Human Rights Education Materials, 人權教育教材編輯工作坊.
19 Workshops of Human Rights Educators, 人權教師工作坊.
20 Workshop on Developing Curriculum and Materials for Human Rights Education, 人權教育
課程與教材發展工作坊.
21 Tang Meiying, “Teachers’ training on human rights education: accomplishments and difficulties,” Journal of Taipei Municipal Teachers College, 36 (1), 189-212. (Original text in Chinese)
22 Seed Teachers’ Workshops on Human Rights Education, 人權教育種子教師工作坊.
23 Human Rights Education Committee (HREC). 人權教育委員會.
24 Project on Human Rights Education (PHRE), 教育部人權教育實施方案.
25 Content Analysis of Textbooks, 教科書人權教育內容分析.
26 Comparison between Human Rights Related Issues, 人權相關議題資料彙整計畫.
27 Comparative Research on Human Rights Education in Different Countries, 世界各國推動學
校人權教育之比較研究.
28 Survey on Human Rights Consciousness of K1-12, 高中職以下人權意識調查研究.

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HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS
29 International Conference on Human Rights Education, 人權教育國際研討會.
30 Seminar in Human Rights Education Policy, 人權教育政策研究研討會.
31 Human Rights Education Information Centre, 人權教育資訊站.
32 Human Rights Education Advisory Group (HREAG), 人權教育諮詢小組.
33 National Institute for Compilation and Translation, 國立編譯館.
34 The Project of Friendly Campus Human Rights Education Example School, 友善校園人權教
育示範學校計劃.
35 Educational Fundamental Act, 教育基本法.
36 Human Rights Education Advisory and Resources Centre, 教育部人權教育資源暨諮詢中心。
37 The Advisory and Counselling Group of Human Rights Curriculum and Pedagogy(ACGHRCP), 教育部人權教育課程與教學輔導諮詢小組.
38 Department of Elementary Education of MOE, 教育部國民教育司.
39 Text taken from Human Rights Education Advisory and Resources Center, http://hre.pro.
edu.tw/.
40 Text taken from hre-tw.blogspot.com.
41 Visit the website of the National Human Rights Commission of Korea (www.humanrights.
go.kr/english) for more information on its programs and activities on human rights education.
42 Visit the website of the National Human Rights Commission of Mongolia (www.mn-nhrc.
org/eng) for more information on its programs and activities on human rights education.
43 Visit the website of the Equal Opportunity Commission of Hong Kong (www.eoc.org.hk) for
more information on its programs and activities on human rights education.
44 National Human Rights Commission of Korea, op cit.
45 Chonnam National University (2006); Yeungnam University (2007); Inha University (2007);
Hanyang University (2007); Korea University (2007); Ewha Womans University (2007); Chonbuk
National University (2007); Chungnam National University (2008); Pusan National University(2008); and Gyeongsang National University (2008). Ibid., page 3.
46 "Equal Opportunities Begin At School" can be accessed at http://equaled.hkedcity.net.
47 Visit www.jinken.or.jp for more information on the Center for Human Rights Education andTraining.
48 This table is a revised version of the table on national human rights mechanisms in several
countries in Asia published in Jefferson R. Plantilla and Salbiah Ahmad, editors, Law, Jurisprudence
and Human Rights in Asia (Kuala Lumpur: SIRD, 2011), pages 340-341.
49 “Since the R.O.C Taiwan is not a member state of the UN, the instrument of ratification or accession cannot be deposited at the UN and therefore the elements for international treaties to become
effective in the State are incomplete. To address this issue, the R.O.C has drafted the “Conclusionof Treaties Act” and the “Provisional Act Governing the Incorporation of Multilateral Conventions
into Domestic Laws” to guide the practice before the R.O.C can reinstate its representation at theUN. It is expected that these Acts will provide a solution to the issue of not being able to deposit the
instruments of ratification, accession, acceptance and approval after signing international treaties.
For example: Act to Implement the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and theInternational Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, promulgated on April 22, 2009.”
Based on www.humanrights.moj.gov.tw/mp205.html.
50 As at 13 February 2013, United Nations Treaty Collection, http://treaties.un.org/Pages/
Treaties.aspx?id=4&subid=A&lang=en. This table is a revised version of the ratification table forSoutheast Asia in Jefferson R. Plantilla, “ASEAN and Human Rights,” FOCUS Asia-Pacific, 53/2008,
page 6.

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Local Government Initiatives:
Human rights education in the school system benefits from the initiatives
at the local level particularly with the support of the local government. Several
examples in Northeast Asia show that local government support is an indispensable part of the learning and practice of human rights by the young, as well as
the general public.
A. Children‘s Free Talk1
Tsurugashima City, about 45 kilometers north of Tokyo, has a population of
69,000. Formerly a rural area, it experienced rapid urbanization. Its population
shot up since 1965. Its administrative status changed from village to town in1966 then to city in 1991. Libraries and other social education facilities (staffedwith qualified social education officers, librarians and other personnel) were established considering the milieu of the people’s daily lives. This environment
contributed to active learning by the people, and their high awareness throughthese activities led to community-building based on people’s participation.
The City ensures various forms of people’s participation in social education,such as in the management councils of public halls and community centers.
But prior to 2000 no such system for people’s participation existed in the area ofschool education or administration of educational policies as a whole. The creation of the Education Council (composed of representatives of schools, education administration, parents, and people in general) in 2000 enabled the people
to pay attention to the participation of children.
Children as small community builders
In 2001, the Board of Education in the City identified children as ‘small community builders,’ and placed child participation issue as its focus. The conceptof children as ‘small community builders’ means that they are actors as well as
partners for cooperation in community building at present and are also responsible for community building in the future. The idea is in line with results of theSpecial Session of the United Nations (UN) General Assembly on Children in
2002.2
Based on this idea, the City started in 2002 the annual “Children’s Free Talk”
as a way to ensure expression of views and participation by children, as well as toreceive views on the City’s “Basic Principles on Education.”

81

HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS“Children’s Free Talk” is an initiative to incorporate the views of the children
in the development of educational policies. It involves children from 4th grade
primary school up to senior secondary school. Ten to twenty children participate each time on a continuing basis. The experience shows that for children to
become active participants as ‘small community builders,’ public relations andawareness-raising alone are insufficient. And for child participation to take root,building upon small initiatives such as this is essential.
New competencies of adults
UNICEF, which globally advocates child participation based on theConvention on the Rights of the Child, states that in order to promote child participation, “adults must develop new competencies of their own.”3 Adults “mustlearn how to effectively elicit the views of children and young people and to recognize their multiple voices, the various ways children and young people express
themselves, and how to interpret their messages, both verbal and non-verbal.”
Further, they “must ensure that there is opportunity, time and a safe place forthe opinions of children and young people to be heard and given due weight.” Itsees the need of adults involved with children to develop their “own capabilities
to respond appropriately to the messages and opinions of children and young
people.”One of the characteristics of “Children’s Free Talk “ is its emphasis on the roleof the facilitator, who has expertise and techniques in child participation. A facilitator elicits the views of children and promotes their participation. Tsurugashima
City sees the role of the facilitator as someone who creates an environment inwhich each participant can express what she/he is thinking, organizes various
views based on the agreement of the participants, and assists them in forming
new ideas. While facilitation is a very engaging task it still respects the independence of the participants in all situations. The facilitator, therefore, is key
to making children express their views, and it is not an exaggeration to say thatthe success of child participation initiatives depends on him/her.4 That the importance of the facilitator is recognized is due to the City’s climate of respect forexpertise in education.
This does not mean that the initiative is dependent on outside facilitators.
The Board of Education staff, who have been participating in the “Children’sFree Talk”, compiled a document on how adults can be involved with children to
promote their participation. It provides eleven points such as the importance ofadults waiting without giving instructions or assistance until the children themselves become aware and start to act, and recognizing that children can learn
from mistakes.

82local government initiatives“We want to talk more”
With the adults’ “waiting and assisting” drawing forth the strength of thechildren, they (children) started to act on their own, voluntarily initiating discussions in the “Children’s Free Talk.” Children with disabilities also participate.
Through continued involvement of members of the Education Council and local
government officials and the building of trust with children, their (children’s)
voices such as “we want to talk more,” or “once a month is not enough,” can beheard. Many municipalities face the problem of non-participation of children
even in organizing events for them, or the decreasing number of participating
children over time. In “Children’s Free Talk,” this problem does not exist. On thecontrary, the children are asking, “When is the next meeting?” and they have somuch fun during the discussions.
A number of proposals have been directly incorporated in the “Basic Principles
on Education” from the discussions in “Children’s Free Talk” such as cutting thenumber of times the students clean the classrooms so that more time can be allotted to play, development of curriculums and schools based on the children’s
evaluation, adoption of measures to make the children themselves realize the significance of child participation, promotion of participation of children as official
members of school councils, and study of the possibility of on-site inspection ofschools by children from other schools.
The primary schools in Tsurugashima City have already started to cut thefrequency of school cleaning to create more time for children to play. Children
welcomed the move saying, “we can play as much as we want,” and “the teacher
started to tell us stories.” School has become a “fun place.” Child participation
on a school-wide basis has also started to take place, such as festivals in whichchildren’s groups were the main organizers.
The case of Tsurugashima City, which fulfills child participation without local ordinances, indicates that child participation is possible in any municipality.
Even though there is probably declining birth rate, there are children in any village, town or city. It is now the adults’ turn to change so that they can support
the participation of children.
B. Kawasaki Child Rights OrdinanceWith the ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, local governments in Japan started to “compile various measures focused on child rights.” A
city in Hyogo prefecture enacted in December 1998 the “Kawanishi City Child
Rights Ombudsperson Ordinance” in response to the incidents of bullying including those resulting in suicide.5 The ordinance established an independent
body for consultation and redress, and was meant to work closely with childvictims.6

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HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS

Kawasaki City Ordinance on Child Rights
Following the Kawanishi city example, the Kawasaki City in Kanagawa prefecture enacted the Ordinance on the Rights of the Child on 21 December 2000
(Kawasaki City Ordinance No. 72), and revised it on 29 June 2001. Its preambularparagraphs state, among others, that7[E]ach and every child is an individual human being, who has unique worthand dignity. The child wishes that his/her individuality and difference from others be accepted and that respect be given to what he/she naturally is.
The child is a full subject of rights. Under the international principles including the best interest of the child, non-discrimination and respect for the viewsof the child, his/her rights shall be guaranteed comprehensively and in reality.
These rights are indispensable for the child to realize him/herself and lead a lifeof his/her own with human dignity.

Thus, the Ordinance considers children as “partners, who form society withadults”:
As members of the present society and as responsible actors of the future society, children have specific roles to play through the involvement in the design
and formation of society as well as the right to participate in society. For this andother purposes, society shall be open to children.

List of Rights
The Ordinance defines a child in accordance with the definition under theConvention of the Rights of the Child. It has a chapter on “Important Rightsof the Child as a Human Being” and lists rights, though not including all therights provided in the Convention of the Rights of the Child. Following are thelisted rights:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

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The right to live in security (Article 10)
The right to be natural and comfortable self (Article 11)
The right to protect him/herself and to be protected (Article 12)
The right to enrich him/herself and be empowered (Article 13)
The right to make decisions by him/herself (Article 14)
The right to participate (Article 15)
The right to receive support in accordance with individual needs (Article 16).

local government initiatives

Responsibilities
It has provisions on the responsibilities of the local governments, parents, officials of educational institutions, community and employers as in the following:• The city government of Kawasaki has the responsibility of respecting andguaranteeing child rights (Article 3);• Parents and guardians have the responsibility to
1. Protect the rights of the child (Article 17)
2. Support the upbringing of the child (Article 18)
3. Not to inflict corporal punishment on, or abuse, the child (Article
19)• Officials of educational institutions have the responsibility to:
1. Improve the growing and learning environment of the child (Article
21)
2. Establish and maintain arrangements for safety management(Article 22)
3. Prohibit abuse and corporal punishment (Article 23)
4. Prevent bullying (Article 24)
5. Appropriate handling of the documents and other information on
the child (Article 25).
The Ordinance has provisions on the role of the community being the “place
where the child grows up and which enriches his/her relationships together withthe home, growing and learning institutions and cultural and sports facilities.”
The city government is required to• “seek for community planning aiming at the improvement of childrearing and educational environments where children’s activities can beundertaken in safety, so that the rights of the child can be guaranteed in
the community.”• “make efforts in the community to develop organizations, in which children, their parents, institution personnel and other residents spontaneously undertake consultation and other activities on child-rearing andeducational environments in the community, and to provide support totheir activities.”
Child Participation
The Ordinance also has a chapter on child participation. One feature of this chapter is the organization of “Kawasaki Children’s Conference.” This conference• “shall be administered through voluntary and spontaneous initiatives bychildren”

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HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS•“may shape common views of the participating children in agreed ways
and submit them to the Mayor.”

The City Mayor “and other executive bodies shall respect such views of theChildren’s Conference.” (Article 30(4)). Also, the City government “shall makeefforts to make arrangements for children’s participation in and hearing children
on the establishment and administration of the City’s facilities for children’suse.” (Article 34).
The City government implemented the Ordinance by setting up mechanisms
such as the “Kawasaki City School Education Promotion Conference” and the“Kawasaki City Children’s Forum.” As one report states8
A school education promotion conference (consisting of teachers, guardians,
local residents and students) was established in every primary, junior and seniorsecondary schools in the city through which students take part in school management. The Kawasaki City Children’s Forum is a committee that proposes children’s views and opinions to the Kawasaki city government.

There seems to have also been an impact on the human rights awareness ofthe children. A 2005 survey of ”four thousand five hundred children between
eleven and seventeen years old in 2005 showed 72.9% of the respondents said
they had a sense of self-approval.” And many local legislative bodies enacted
their respective child rights ordinances.9
C. Child Friendly Cities10
The initiatives in the cities of Tsurugashima and Kawasaki relate to the promotion of “child friendly cities” in Japan following the UNICEF program on thesame concept. The experiences of the cities point to “nine building blocks” thatcomprise “child friendly cities”:
Children’s participation• Enactment of ordinances/charters for children (e.g. Kawasaki City, Kosugi
Town, Tajimi City, Kochi Prefecture, Machida City, Takahama City)• Development of plans for children (e.g., Kunitachi City, Nishi Tokyo
City, Tachikawa City)• Establishment of Children’s Parliament (e.g., Miyagi Prefecture, Nakano
Ward and many other examples)• In the process of building and operating facilities for children (e.g., Omi
Hachiman City, Suginami Ward, Machida City, Kawasaki City)• Education administration and reform (e.g., Tsurugashima City, Makubetsu
Town, Kochi Prefecture)86

local government initiatives••

Training of children’s supporters (e.g., Omi Hachiman City, Shiga
Prefecture, Kawasaki City)
Promotion of children’s participation by civil society organizations/non-profit organizations (NPOs) (e.g., Forum for the Convention on the
Rights of the Child, Play Park, Childline)

Legal framework• Ordinances aimed at dealing with specific issues concerning the protection
and promotion of child rights (e.g., the provision of remedies throughombudspersons in Kawanishi City, Ginan Town, Saitama Prefecture)• Ordinances laying out guiding principles for policies concerning children(e.g., Mino City, Setagaya Ward, Chofu City)• Ordinances aimed at comprehensive protection and promotion of childrights (e.g., Kawasaki City, Naie Town, Kosugi Town, Tajimi City, Meguro
Ward, Uotsu City, Toshima Ward, Nabari City, Memuro Town, Gifu City)
Policies for children• Most of the municipalities have developed plans to support child-rearing
in accordance with the law requiring them to do so. However, very few ofthem reflect a rights-based approach in their plans. In the municipalities
where the members of the General Research Institute on the Convention
on the Rights of the Child (GRI-CRC) are involved, including KunitachiCity, Tachikawa City, Nishi Tokyo City and Yachiyo City, a rights-based
approach has been likely to be reflected in the plans.
Structures for children• Policies for children tend to be compartmentalized in the fields of welfare,education, delinquency prevention, etc. In particular, the concept ofchild rights tend to be neglected in the field of education.
• With a view to overcoming such problems, some municipalities (e.g.,
Fukuoka City, Sapporo City) have attempted to integrate administrative
structures for children.
Assessment and evaluation• Only a few examples of child rights assessment and evaluation system inlocal government structures exist so far (e.g., Kawasaki City, Tajimi City).
Special budget• Due to financial constraints, local governments have difficulty formulating
special budget for children.

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HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS

Situation analysis• While many municipalities undertake research on the situation of children, only a few municipalities, such as Kawasaki City, undertake periodic reviews.
Making child rights known• The municipalities that have enacted ordinances for children tend to
make more efforts to make the Convention on the Rights of the Childknown.
Advocacy for children• An independent Ombudsperson for Children was first established inJapan in Kawanishi City, followed by some other municipalities, such as
Ginan Town, Saitama Prefecture, Kawasaki City and Tajimi City.
• The Ombudsperson for Children’s Human Rights (Kawanishi City)
receives complaints and provides remedies, especially through restorative
processes (children’s participation in the process, recovery of self-esteem,
empowerment of children). It is supported by multidisciplinary staff(law, welfare, psychology, medicine, NPO) and collaborate with the local
board of education. See Figure 1 for the processes involved in dealing
with cases.
Child-friendly initiatives of city (and also prefectural) governments necessitate the adoption of rights-based approach in the processes involved. But theemployment of this approach is often challenged by those who stress children’s
duties.
There is also reluctance in the establishment of child advocacy systems
because of perceived increase in material and human burdens.
c. Human Rights Subway
1. Gwangju city11
Gwangju is a city well-known for its stance on righteousness that have stoodat the forefront to overcome national crisis whenever the nation faced difficulties throughout Korea’s five-thousand-year-long history. Notably, the May 18th
Gwangju Democratic Uprising, which galvanized the development of democracyin the Republic of Korea, had a significant impact on the democracy and humanrights movement not only in Asia but throughout the world. Based on such traditions and spirit, Gwangju hosted the Summit of Nobel Peace Laureates in 2006
and the World Women’s Peace Forum in 2007, conveying to the entire world themessage of democracy, human rights and peace, which embody the universal
spirit of humankind.

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local government initiatives

Figure 1. Kawanishi City Ombudsperson for Child Rights
Kawanishi Ombudspersons for Children’s Human Rights:
FLOWCHART
Anyone can express concerns about humanrights matters for the children in the City.

Application forContinued

advocacy/remedies

consultation

non-residents

Referrals//anonymous

Information

residents, students

Media and othersources

Mediationor employees in theCity
no investigation

Self-resolution with the

Ombudspersons’Ombudspersons’ support

own information

Decision on what to do

Investigation

Suspend/close the case

Necessary and appropriate action(a) Recommendations or letters of proposals for remedial measures (in specific cases;to the city organs)(b) Expression of views or letters of proposals for institutional improvement (to thecity organs)(c) Request for remedial measures (to those other than the city organs)(d) Notification of the results (to those other than the city organs)(e) Request for reports on remedial measures (if necessary, to the city organs)(f) Publication of the results (if necessary)* (a) and (b) can be repeated if necessary in the light of the city organs’ responses. The
city organs include the board of education and public schools.

Annual report to the Mayor* The columns with double lines indicate formal actions by the Ombudspersons.

Publication

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HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMSIn order to contribute to the growth of democracy and human rights, the cityof Gwangju is involved in the development of human rights index, constructionof the Human Rights Peace Center and Human Rights Park, the promotion ofinternational exchanges and expansion of inter-Korean cooperation focusing on
the city’s long-held philosophy of human rights and peace. The United Nations
concept of human rights city is also being promoted.
Gwangju Metro is affluent with composure and joy in every stop. Considering
the traits of each station, the stations have their respective themes that citizens
love. Theme stations that hold the memories and pride in the hearts of residents,and express a bright future, are loved as places for field experiences of the young
generations.
Among the eight stations with specific themes, several stations explicitly
include human rights as theme. The themes in these stations are described asfollows:
5.18 Memorial Hall
Munhwajeondang station – You can experience the 5.18 event, the proudhistory of Gwanju, and engrave the spirit of democracy, human rights and peacein your heart. The pavilion consists of five openings: stage of the uprising, history, democratization, culture and 5.18 chronicles. It provides you with realistic experience of 5.18 democratic movement, 5.18 event in the world and site
information.
Gwangju students independence movement memorial pavilion
Geumnamno 5 ga station - There are exhibitions on the chronicles of student
movements during the Japanese colonization, site & relic guides, and the threegreat independence declarations along with photographic data. This is a great
tourist site since [nearby] are Gwangju student independence history museum
and Gwangju Jeil high school where the movement started.
World human rights pavilion
Seongjeong park - It provides various works of major artists, and the chance
to experience the works of artists in the region. There is space for the exhibitionof major artists in the region along with the memorial booths of literary figureslike the poet Lee Subok. It also allows poetry recitals that citizens can participate[in]. It is a communication channel where anyone can recite poetry and discuss.

2. Busan city12“We can explore human rights from everywhere” is the idea behind thesetting up of human rights exhibitions in subway train stations in Busan city.
The project was conceived and implemented by the National Human Rights
Commission of Korea and Busan Transportation Corporation.

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They aimed to promote human rights and spread the culture of respect for human rights through the train station exhibits. They relay the following message:
Human rights can be protected with respect and care. The culture of respectfor human rights starts from “knowing human rights.”

The human rights exhibition at Mulmangol station of Busan subway line 3
opened in 2009. The Mulmangol station human rights exhibition is linked toa library that functions as human rights information center and home for human rights movement. There is also a human rights classroom, meant for humanrights education. There is space in the human rights exhibition where activities
can be held, such as activity on experiencing disabilities. The art gallery displays
human rights-related paintings, photos and various art works. Lastly, there is astage that can be used for human-rights-themed performances. People can use
those facilities for free. The Mulmangol Station office and the Busan office of
National Human Rights Commission of Korea run human rights education programs for students and adults. Also, they welcome any kind of field trips andobservations.

Busan Mulmangol Human Rights Themed Station

D. Human Rights Learning Studio13
Kaohsiung is the first internationally recognized human rights city in Taiwan
in view of its human rights initiatives, namely, the creation of a Human Rights
Committee, the establishment of a human rights course in the Open University

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HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS

Pillar decoration: “Abolish gender discrimination” (Busan City).

The art gallery displays human-rights-related art works (Busan City).

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local government initiatives

Public Forum in Human Rights Learning Studio.

Display in the Human Rights Learning Studio.

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HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS

of Kaohsiung, the consideration of the adoption of a Human Rights Ordinance,
and the establishment of “Human Rights Learning Studio” in a major train station in the City.
The City inaugurated the Human Rights Learning Studio (Studio) on 19
November 2009 in the Kaohsiung Rapid Transit (KRT) Formosa Boulevard station. The date of inauguration is significant for being the 30th anniversary of the
Formosa Incident and the ending of the “2009 United Nations International Yearof Human Rights Learning”.
The Studio was established by the Kaohsiung City Human Rights Committee
to promote human rights and human rights education in the city. The Open
University of Kaohsiung, an institution supported by the Kaohsiung City
Government, manages the Human Rights Learning Studio. The university develops and implements the activities of the Studio.
The Studio fully utilizes its space in the KRT Formosa Boulevard station. With
proper decorations and furnishings, it has become a platform for human rights
information displays (publications, e-learning, etc.), a multi-functional space forhuman rights learning for passengers, and also a venue for dialogue where human rights groups can hold various events.14 The Studio provides train passengers
many stories about Kaohsiung as a human rights city, holds monthly humanrights events such as symposiums, seminars, film appreciation, reading sessions,creative forums, music performances that allow the public to access, learn, andunderstand human rights in ways that are close to their daily lives. As a result,the events are widely praised and the Studio has gradually become a place forschool field trips.15
Since its inauguration, a variety of the activities have been held at the studiosuch as the following:
1. Human Rights Salon: Stories of New Immigrants in Taiwan (6 March
2010) - members of the academe, city councilors and a Vietnamese immigrant
discussed the human rights status of new immigrants in Taiwan and how to improve the realization of their rights.
2. The Labor Force: “Is the Labor Force Next in Line to Experience Extreme
Poverty?” (28 May 2010) - members of the academe and representatives of laborgroups discussed labor issues arising from the rapid and dramatic changes in various industries, especially the deteriorating financial situation of the labor force.
3. Seminar on the Care for Aboriginal Culture (12 June 2010) - a lead singer
of an indigenous music band, a music composer, the chairperson of the city commission on indigenous affairs, and an academic discussed the gradual loss oftribal rituals, traditional arts and organizations and the widening generation gap
within indigenous communities that lead to loss of legacies and cultural heritage.
4. Training Program for Volunteers of Human Rights Tour in Kaohsiung (23to 31 October 2010) – volunteers obtained knowledge and deep understanding94

local government initiativesof the culture of the human rights city so that they can promote human rights
learning, enjoy the culture of the human rights city, and help citizens and foreign
guests to better understand the culture of Kaohsiung as a human rights city. Aftercompleting the training, volunteers set up the “Volunteer Group of Kaohsiung
Human Rights Tour” on 10 December 2010, International Human Rights Day,and launched human rights city tour services.
5. Human Rights of Female Workers: Stories of those Women (29 November2009) - a documentary film director discussed the human rights situation of female workers and the labor rights situation.
6. Human Rights for Children: All the Invisible Children (24 April 2010)– the director of The Child Welfare League Foundation, southern Taiwan office,and a professor at the National Ping-tung University of Science and Technology
discussed issues about protecting children’s human rights.
7. Civil and Political Human Rights: Tears (22 May 2010) - a film director, alead singer of the “Shining” band, and the director of Kaohsiung Bar Associationand convener of human rights committee, discussed civil and political rights andtransitional justice issues.
8. Single-Family Human Rights: Can’t Live Without You (3 September 2010)– the director of Dawn Women’s Visions Foundation, and a member of Kaohsiung
Bar Association discussed the protection of rights of single-member families.
9. Next Stop: Human Rights (9 December 2009) - a group of students from
National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung University, and other southern universities worked with professors from Open University of Kaohsiung and completed the human rights book Next Stop: Human Rights to let the public know how
the younger generation perceived and felt the extent of human rights realizationin Taiwan, and to promote the importance of long neglected human rights.
10. Serial Event of Month of Human Rights Creations: “Whose Human
Rights?” (31 July 2010) - this consisted of the awarding ceremony for the
Illustrations Competition and Book Release of Human Rights Passport. This event
aimed to present the concepts of human rights in various forms and to get thembetter understood by the public through the display of illustrations.
11. Serial Event of Month of Human Rights Creations: Urban Human Rights
Music Festival (27 August 2009) - to present the diverse facets of human rights,“Urban Human Rights Music Festival”, one of the serial events during the monthof human rights creations, musicians created and performed human rights music.
12. Annual Kaohsiung City Human Rights Press Prize - established on 10
December 2011, it aims to encourage the public and media to report and record
human rights issues. The annual awarding event is designed to make people realize the meaning and importance of human rights guarantees and their development through people’s voices.

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HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMSThe Director of the Human Rights Learning Studio pointed out the value ofthe Studio:16
The Human Rights Learning Studio belongs not just to Kaohsiung citizens but
also to everyone who loves and cares about human rights. In addition, Formosa
Boulevard Station is no longer merely a pass-by transfer point but has been transformed into a “Transferring Center of Human Rights Concepts” and a place forpeople to learn, love and take care of human rights. Through the holding of various events, human rights are embodied, and every citizen can use the studio tolearn about human rights and incorporate them into their lives!

And the Mayor of Kaohsiung commented that in the Studio17
on the human rights wishing tree, many people wrote down their wish [on] human rights, and we hope that everyone in the government and public can be aprotector of human rights, because enhancement and protection of human rights
value will never be a coincident. We hope every city is heading forward to becoming a human rights city eventually so that human rights wish is truly fulfilled andcompleted successfully.

F. Charter for Foreign Residents18
Ansan City, home to one of the largest foreign communities in Korea, has become the first region to implement a set of guidelines designed to protect thehuman rights of foreign residents.
The industrial city will put the measures into effect from next month, a city
official said.
The self-imposed decrees urge both Koreans and employers there not to discriminate against foreign nationals due to their nationality, race, skin color, language or culture.
The city also pledged to come up with measures to keep non-Koreans frombeing unfairly treated at work or in using public services.
The guidelines have no legally binding force but city officials said they are toencourage the central government to pay more attention to the human rights offoreign residents and, in the long run, enact legally binding rules.
“Ansan is an international city where more than 40,000 people from fifty
countries live shoulder to shoulder. But many of them still face various [formsof} discrimination due to their different appearance, language, and culture,” theofficial added.
“In particular, lack of state attention has been blamed for hardship troubling
migrant workers, mostly from Asian countries. We came up with the guidelines
to create a more foreign-friendly environment.”

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local government initiatives

The official said Gwangju, in South Jeolla Province, and Jinju, in South
Gyeongsang Province, are also working to declare similar guidelines. A special committee comprising fifteen human rights experts and foreigners will belaunched to review and upgrade the regulations.
In the meantime, the provincial city has run a call center and consultation
center to help foreigners cope with any type of discrimination.
Victimized foreigners can seek instant help by calling 1644-7111. Services areavailable in the native languages of China, Thailand, Mongolia, Indonesia, thePhilippines, Russia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and also English and Korean languages. Face-to-face consultation is also available at the city’s Migrant Community
Service Center.
F. Ordinance on Student Rights19
The Gyeonggi Provincial Council in Korea enacted in September 2010 an ordinance on student rights. The Ordinance prohibits in all primary, lower and upper
secondary schools in the province the following:• Corporal punishment. This is opposite to the position taken by the
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) that “[I]f it isunavoidable for educational purposes, teachers may discipline students
with corporal punishment using a linear punishment instrument madeof wood measuring 1 to 1.5 cm in diameter and up to 50 to 60cm inlength.”• Hairstyle requirement. But each school may decide on the rule regarding
particular hairstyle (such as permanent waves and dyed hair color).
• Random searches of students’ belongings• Compulsion on nighttime self-study and attendance in supplementary
classes• Use of cellphones (except inside the classroom)• Discriminatory treatment such as forcing withdrawal of enrolment because of pregnancy or childbirth, or the practice of forcing students to attend events for particular religions or to attend religious courses without
the possibility of substitution.
In addition, under the ordinance, the Gyeonggi Provincial Office of Educationmust establish a twenty-member student human rights review committee withfive members being “student human rights advocates and given the authority toinvestigate instances of student human rights violations.”
The twenty-five regional offices of education, on the other hand, are required
to establish student human rights centers.
The ordinance met resistance from school principals and teachers who argued
that it would bring chaos in the schools. But the provincial education official

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HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS

who promoted the ordinance saw the need to break the prejudice that “rights
issues and education are in conflict, saying expanding students’ rights does notmean restricting teachers’ authority.”
A year later, in 2011, the Gyeonggi Provincial Office of Education surveyed
6,000 students and 1,500 teachers and school officials about the ordinance. The
survey results “showed some 84 percent of the students replied that the ordinance has brought positive changes to their school life. About 55 percent of theteachers also said they regard it positively.”
In January 2012, the Seoul Metropolitan Office of Education passed its own
version of student rights ordinance.20
G. Student Activities
On 16 December 2009, in celebration of the International Volunteer Day forSocial and Economic Development, the students of Jinling Secondary School in
Nanjing City in Jiangsu Province, China carried out a behavior-art activity to
spread the knowledge of human rights. They played violin, presented dactylology (spelling words using fingers) and gave out handbills.21
On 10 December 2010, in celebration of Human Rights Day, the local government of Wangluo Town in Xiangcheng County in Henan Province, China held apublicity activity to disseminate legal knowledge on population and family control policy using billboards, brochures, and consultation. It aimed to increase thepublic understanding of the right to life, liberty and personal security, the rightto freedom of expression, right to hold opinions, and the fact that the current
policy intends to protect human rights.22
On 8 December 2011, the local community of Baihuayuan in Nantong Cityin Jiangsu Province, China organized the publicity activity on “Human Rights
Day”, handing out flyers and collecting expectations and feedback on humanrights, in order to raise the public awareness of protecting human rights.23
On 6 December 2012, students in the Affiliated Primary School of Liaocheng
University in Liaocheng City in Shandong Province, China had a presentationon “Human Rights Protection”, to celebrate the coming Human Rights Day. The
organizer taught the basic knowledge of individual rights protection by situation
simulation, interactive activities and storytelling. The students were encouraged
to become “human rights defenders” by protecting themselves.24
In celebrating Human Rights Day on 10 December 2012, the students ofHuangjue School in Yangzhou City in Jiangsu Province, China gave a lectureon the subject of “Respect and Protect Human Rights” in their weekly flag-raising ceremony, in order to promote public awareness of human rights, especiallyamong primary school students.25

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H. Web Portal for Human Rights26
Gwangju City opened on 11 March 2013 a web portal for human rights(Democracy and Human Rights Portal – www.gjhr.go.kr). It combined two existing websites the Cyber Human Rights Center of Gwangju Buk-gu, and the World
Human Rights Cities Forum, in order to enhance web accessibility and provide
extensive information about human rights.
The portal promotes human rights and the World Human Rights Forum
hosted by Gwangju City, in addition to offering human rights counseling, andintroducing investigation and resolution of human rights infringement cases. It
also utilizes social network services, such as Facebook and Twitter to strengthencommunication with the general public.
Endnotes
1 This is an excerpt of the article of Yoshie Abe entitled “Fostering a Culture of Child Participation:
The Case of Tsurugashima City” published in issue 42 of FOCUS Asia-Pacific. Full text of the article
available at www.hurights.or.jp/archives/focus/section2/2005/12/fostering-a-culture-of-child-participation-the-case-of-tsurugashima-city.html)
2 For more information about the United Nations General Assembly Special Session, refer tothe document entitled “A World Fit for Our Children” and visit www.unicef.org/specialsession/highlights/index.html
3 UNICEF, The State of the World’s Children 2003 (New York: UNICEF), page 2.
4 See Tsurugashima no Kyouiku (Education in Tsurugashima Newsletter), volume 107(Tsurugashima: Board of Education), page 6.
5 Akihito Kita, “Child Rights Education in Japanese Schools,” Human Rights Education in AsiaPacific, volume 2 (Osaka, HURIGHTS OSAKA, 2011) page 155.
6 See Akito Kita, et al., Kodomo Ombudsperson Kodomo no SOS wo Uketomete (Children’s
Ombudspersons: Receiving SOS from Children) (Tokyo: Nippon Hyoronsha, 2001); and Aramaki, etal., Kodomo-Shien no Soudan - Kyusai (Advice and Aids for Child Support) (Tokyo: Nippon Hyoronsha,
2008).
7 The English text of the Ordinance is taken from “The Kawasaki City Ordinance on the
Rights of the Child Kawasaki City Council,” in www.childfriendlycities.org/en/to-learn-more/
examples-of-cfc-initiatives/japan
8 Kita, op. cit., page 158.
9 Ibid., pages 158 and 159.
10 The information in this section is derived from the report of the General Research Instituteof the Convention on the Rights of the Child (Japan) entitled “Present Status of and Challenges in“Child Friendly Cities” in Japan,” 11-12 September 2006.
11 The text of this section is taken from “Introducing Gwangju,” www.gwangju2015.com/
index.sko?menuCd=BB06002000000, and Gwangju Subway, www.gwangjusubway.co.kr/engsubway/
cultural/Cultural03.jsp.
12 All materials used here have permission from the blog of Busan office of National Human
Rights Commission of Korea (http://blog.naver.com/human1331/).
13 The discussion in this section is based on the 2010 Human Rights Learning Studio Report. The
full report is available at http://hr-learning.ouk.edu.tw/database/data_engpublish_p5_5.html.
14 Weng-Ying Hsu, “City Transfers Human Rights Values,” in 2010 Human Rights Learning
Studio Report, op. cit., page 3
15 Liguong Su, Human rights makes Kaohsiung more beautiful,” in 2010 Human Rights Learning
Studio Report, op. cit., page 2.

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16 Hsu, op. cit., page 3.
17 Chi Chen, “The value of human rights is supreme,” in 2010 Human Rights Learning Studio
Report, op. cit., page 1.
18 Si-soo Park, “Ansan Institutionalizes Human Rights Charter for Foreign Residents,” Korea
Times, 9 March 2009, www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2011/04/117_40961.html.
19 The text in this section is based on Hong Yong-duk, “Gyeonggi Province liberalizes student regulations,” The Hangkroyeh, 18 September 2010, at www.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_national/440444.html; First student rights ordinance proclaimed in Gyeonggi Province, Yonhap News
Agency, at http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/national/2010/10/05/81/0302000000AEN20101005003
700315F.HTML; Na Jeong-ju, Ordinance on students’ human rights gets mixed evaluations, Korea
Times, 5 October 2011, at www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2013/01/117_96129.html.
20 John Power, Is Seoul’s student rights ordinance proper?, The Korea Herald, http://nwww.
koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20120220001190.
21 The video is available at www.56.com/u46/v_Njg5MDEwNDM.html, accessed on 16
February 2013.
22 The news is available at www.ha.xinhuanet.com/zrzh/2010-12/13/content_21615324.htm,
accessed on 16 February 2013.
23 The news is available at www.js.xinhuanet.com/ccq/2011-12/13/content_24325936.htm,
accessed on 16 February 2013.
24 The news is available at http://pic.gmw.cn/channelplay/6200/679109/page_1_0/0.html, accessed on 16 February 2013.
25 The news is available at www.hjhjxx.com/bencandy.php?fid=58&id=714, accessed on 16
February 2013.
26 Gwangju City Runs a Web Portal for Human Rights, Human Rights Monitor South Korea, at
www.humanrightskorea.org/2013/인권정보-한눈에-광주시-민주인권포털-운영/100

Teachers for Human Rights Education:
Teachers comprise a very significant part of human rights education, being
the people who directly interact with the students to facilitate the learning of
human rights.
At the same time, there are organizations of teachers that perform tasks that
support the teachers in their classroom and school activities. These organizations
provide materials (teaching-learning materials, survey reports, etc.) and opportunities (workshops, seminars, conferences) for teachers to improve the teaching
and learning processes on human rights.
Below are examples of teachers’ organizations and teacher-related inititatives in Northeast Asia that help promote human rights education in the school
system.
a. ZENDOKYO and FURITSU JINKEN
On 6 May 1953, educators in nine prefectures (Kyoto, Osaka, Hyogo, Wakayama,
Nara, Shiga, Okayama, Tokushima and Kochi) and two cities (Kyoto and Osaka)in Japan founded a national federation of teachers to support both the realizationof the right to education of marginalized children and to promote the teaching on anti-discrimination in schools. This federation was named the National
Federation of Dowa Educators’ Associations, popularly known with its Japanese
short name ZENDOKYO.1
Dowa education has been defined as “an umbrella concept referring to all
forms of educational activities by both government and the Buraku movement
to solve the problems of Buraku discrimination.”2 Buraku discrimination refers to
the discrimination of a section of the Japanese population who were consideredsocial outcast from 16th century.3 Almost similar to the lowest caste group inSouth Asia, the discrimination against the Buraku people has continued till thepresent.
ZENDOKYO led a broad, mass-based education reform movement, focusing
on how the schools could help children, parents and the Buraku community
fight discrimination. It accommodated diverse ideological viewpoints and political positions.
When the Dowa Policy Council’s4 Recommendation was issued in 1965 andthe Law on Special Measures for Dowa Projects was enacted in 1969,5 Dowa education rapidly expanded in scale and scope, and Dowa educators’ associations
were formed in other prefectures. Thirteen associations were established and101

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joined ZENDOKYO in 1966; now there are ZENDOKYO chapters in thirty-threeprefectures and three cities.6
For several years, more than 20,000 participants gather at ZENDOKYO’s annual convention. This is the largest education-related gathering in Japan. It plays
an important role in developing and spreading human rights education, including Dowa education. It holds regular, intensive discussions of its own policies andof Dowa education in order to respond to and influence educational policies.7
At the prefectural level, Dowa educators in Osaka prefecture founded in1967 the Osaka Prefectural Senior Secondary School Dowa Education Research
Association or FUKO DOKEN. It aimed to study and develop Dowa education in
prefectural senior secondary schools in Osaka prefecture.8 After the enactmentof the Human Rights Education and Enlightenment Act of 2000, FUKO DOKEN
changed its name to FURITSU JINKEN in 2002. FURITSU JINKEN adopted abroader agenda by focusing on research and exchange of experiences not only
on the Dowa issue but also on human rights issues in general.9
FURITSU JINKEN has several sections and task-force groups. It has sections on
curriculum development, case studies, and career guidance. Its task-force groups
focus on developing teaching materials on ten human rights issues, namely:
1. Education related to part-time and the correspondence courses
2. Multicultural education
3. Gender-free education
4. Education related to people with disabilities
5. Education related to the eradication of the Buraku discrimination
6. Career guidance and education related to scholarship
7. Education for promoting voluntary activities
8. Education for protecting human rights in the internet society
9. Research on the history of Buraku minorities
10. Research on human rights awareness.
It holds exchange meetings in each school district. All public senior secondary school principals, vice principals and teachers in Osaka prefecture participate
in the FURITSU JINKEN activities. FURITSU JINKEN provides its members withthe opportunity to exchange experiences and research results on human rights
education including Dowa education.
FURITSU JINKEN covers various issues including those related to teaching
methods, students’ voluntary activities, course guidance, in-service and pre-service training, part-time and night schools, students with disabilities, multicultural education, and women’s liberation. Membership fees support the FURITSU
JINKEN activities.

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b. National Human Rights Commission of Mongolia10
Under the project of the National Human Rights Commission of Mongolia(NHRCM) called “Human Rights Education in Primary and Secondary Schools,”
an evaluation of the situation of human rights education in primary and secondary school levels was undertaken in 2005. The study carried out in Ulaanbaatar
and six provinces, involved more than one hundred seventy-five schools, two
thousand students and more than six hundred teachers and education authorities. The study found that• Most teachers and school managers undermined the importance of human rights education• There is a lack of teachers who are specialized in teaching human rights,
and there is no significant support to teachers in terms of content andmethodology• Teachers are dependent on conventional methods of teaching.
Subsequently, NHRCM developed a minimum qualification standard forteachers who are teaching human rights. The teachers’ standards establishes criteria to assess their performance on rights-based learning.
Teachers Standards
Following is the complete set of standards for teachers who should handle human rights classes.
Requirements for the Qualification of Teachers of Human Rights Classes11
The goals, content, and methods of teaching human rights classes have specific characteristics that set them apart from all other types of classes in primaryand secondary school education. For example:• Human rights are founded on the respect for dignity and worth of each
person. They are universal, inalienable, indivisible, and embody principlesof equality and non-discrimination. Therefore, it is essential to conduct
human rights classes that conform to these standards and requirements.
• Human rights education aims at fostering principles of mutual understanding, recognition and democracy among all pupils.
• Human rights education plays an important role in developing valuable
skills among pupils including the freedom of expression, standing up for
their groups and communities, making decisions, advancing cogent arguments and evidence, listening to others, and respecting others’ opinions
and cultures.
• Human rights education is a life-long process that extends beyond theclassroom context, and is cultivated in a positive social environment that
includes classmates, teachers, school, family and friends.

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Based on the above characteristics, human rights educators should meet specific requirements for qualification. This requirement should be used during theselection of appropriate human right educators, as well as in evaluating theirperformance.
I. The Knowledge of Comprehensive Teaching Skills:
Requirement 1: The understanding and knowledge of human rights values
and content, and the methodology to impart them to pupils through didactic
teaching processes
This requirement reflects the following content:• Possessing a comprehensive knowledge of the fundamentals of humanrights, its historic development, its international and national mechanisms, and relevant laws and legislation aimed at the promotion andprotection of human rights;• Possessing an ability to select and utilize international and national human rights instruments and resources for each lesson;• Possessing the knowledge and ability to select and devise teaching methods for the management of human rights classes and the simplificationof its content.
Requirement 2: Knowledge and skills to provide leadership and coordinationof human rights classes
This requirement reflects the following content:• Possessing the ability to develop didactic materials, such as real life examples and case studies that are relevant to class content;• Possessing the ability to select and utilize teaching methods and methodology that encourage and promote just and participatory pupil activity,and foster a democratic classroom environment.
Requirement 3: Comprehensive set of socio-cultural and communicativeskillsThis requirement reflects the following content:• Possessing humanitarian values and attitudes that respect the inherent
human dignity and worth of each and every person;• Possessing sincere aspirations and goals for fostering a culture of humanrights and the promotion of human rights knowledge among pupils;• Possessing comprehensive learning skills that include understanding andrespecting others, becoming a role model for others, learning from, cooperating with, supporting and helping others.

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II. Uphold the Principles of Human Rights:
Requirement 4: Upholding the Principle of Equality and Non-Discriminationin Schools
This principle is based on respect for each person’s inherent human dignity
and worth, including the treatment of all persons with equality and non-discrimination without distinction as to their social status.
This requirement reflects the following content:• The class content should conform to the above principles. For example,
the class content, teaching materials, examples, case studies and displays
should in no way encourage any form of discrimination and inequality
based on age, gender, profession, or official post;• Promote opportunities and conditions for non-discriminatory and equal
participation of pupils;• In the course of conducting and evaluating the classes, teachers should
adhere to the principles of justice, sincerity and equality without distinction as to the pupil’s class rank, family status, property, looks, or beliefs.
Requirement 5: Upholding the Principles of Respect for Human Dignity
Each person should be treated with respect without distinction as to age, culture, beliefs, race, sexual orientation, language, disability, or social status.
This requirement reflects the following content:• Foster knowledge among pupils that human rights are inherent rightsthat constitute the basis for their existence;• The class content, such as teaching materials, examples, case studies, pictures and displays should conform to this principle;• In classes, teachers should treat each pupil’s individual looks, characteristics and attributes with respect;• In classes, teachers should strive towards creating a favorable learning
environment where each pupil can sense their human dignity and worth,
be proud of it, and, consequently, respect other’s rights and freedoms.
Requirement 6: Upholding the Principles of Universal Human Rights
Human rights are a set of universal values that are recognized in all countries
and regions of the world. Governments and their citizens have an obligation topromote and protect them. The principle of universal human rights means thatevery country, group and citizen around the world should possess a common understanding of human rights and freedoms, should possess and respect standardsof international human rights and norms.

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HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMSThis requirement reflects the following content:• Prior to conducting a class, teachers should possess a common knowledgeof international human rights norms;• The evaluation of class and pupil performance should be directed towards determining whether the pupils have a common understanding of
human rights.
Requirement 7: Upholding the Principles of Indivisibility, Interdependence,and the Inherent Nature of Human Rights
Human rights exist in all spheres of life including the home, school, work,
hospitals, and courts. Similarly, human rights violations are also interrelated to
one another. The violation of one right often affect several other rights. The promotion of any one right has a positive effect on other rights. All human rights
such as civil, political, social, economic, cultural and collective rights are indivisible, which cannot be forcefully taken away. Human rights are not ‘gifts’ grantedby the state, government or officials, but are inherent rights that are possessed byeach person from birth.
This requirement reflects the following content:• Possessing the ability to make students understand that only when all of
our human rights are exercised can we live in dignity and respect (that it
is incorrect to form an opinion that any one right is more important thananother), to help pupils recognize and prevent violations of rights, and toassist pupils in acquiring skills that restore infringed rights;• Possessing the ability to help students understand that when one right isviolated, other rights are equally violated, and the violation of one person’s right initiates the violation of others’ rights;• Classes should be directed towards providing conditions and opportunities for pupils to exercise their indivisible rights, such as the expression of ideas and opinions, access to information, and the right tonon-discrimination.
Requirement 8: Upholding the Principles of Responsibility in Studies
In the field of human rights, the issue of responsibility involves all social
stratums ranging from state, individual, civil or social responsibilities. The state
responsibility: human rights are not granted at the state’s discretion. The stateshould not violate the equal [recognition] of everyone’s rights. In case of such
violation, states should be held accountable. Individual responsibility: each person has a right to respect and promote human rights and take actions againstorganizations and people who violate them. Civil society: all branches of society
including non-governmental organizations, foundations, and educational institutions have a responsibility to promote and protect human rights.

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This requirement reflects the following content:• Class content should be directed towards making students understandthat one person’s rights are restricted through the exercise of otherpeople’s rights, and if the given restriction is breached, the guilty party
should be held accountable. At the same time, all parties including theschool management, teachers, workers and pupils should respect andtake responsibility for the rights of all;
• In the course of the class, disciplinary measures against pupils that do not
fulfill their study obligations should be just and conform to human rights
standards and principles.
Endnotes
1 This section is largely based on the article of Ichiro Akashi, “Zendokyo and Other Groups:
Teachers’ Commitment to Dowa Education,” Human Rights Education in Asian Schools, volume 2, available at www.hurights.or.jp/archives/human_rights_education_in_asian_schools/section2/1999/03/
zendokyo-and-other-groups-teachers-commitment-to-dowa-education.html
2 Mori Minoru and Yasumasa Hirasawa, “DOWA Education and Human Rights,” Human Rights
Education in Asian Schools, available at www.hurights.or.jp/archives/human_rights_education_in_
asian_schools/section2/1998/03/dowa-education-and-human-rights.html.
3 For more discussion on the Buraku discrimination, see “Buraku Problem Basic”, http://blhrri.
org/blhrri_e/buraku_problem_basic.htm.
4 This is a special government advisory body formed to address the Buraku discrimination issue.
5 This law lasted for a little over thirty years and supported the development of the infrastructures and other facilities of the Buraku communities. The law lapsed in 2002.
6 See the list of prefectures with ZENDOKYO chapters in www.zendokyo.com/sub4.htm.
7 Yoshiro Nabeshima, Mariko Akuzawa, Shinichi Hayashi, and Koonae Park, “Japan: Human
Rights Education in Schools,” Human Rights Education in Asian Schools, volume 3, available at www.
hurights.or.jp/pub/hreas/3/04nabeshima.pdf.
8 Shin-ichi Hayashi, “The History and Activities of Osaka Prefectural High School Dowa (Human
Rights) Education Research Association,” Human Rights Education in Asian Schools, volume 2, available at www.hurights.or.jp/archives/human_rights_education_in_asian_schools/section2/1999/03/
the-history-and-activities-of-osaka-prefectural-high-school-dowa-human-rights-education-researchass.html.
9 Shinichi Hayashi, “Evaluating Human Rights Education in Osaka Senior Secondary Schools,”
Human Rights Education in Asia-Pacific, volume 2, available at www.hurights.or.jp/archives/asia-pacific/.
10 Altangerel Choijoo, “Human Rights Education Program of the National Human Rights
Commission of Mongolia,” Human Rights Education in Asian Schools, vol 11, (Osaka, HURIGHTSOSAKA, 2008), pages 18, 20-21.
11 This is taken from Human Rights Education in Secondary Schools – Brief Report (Ulaanbaatar:
National Human Rights Commission of Mongolia and UNICEF, 2005), and cited as Annex in
Altangerel, see above note.

107Civil Society Support for Human Rights Education:
Organizations comprising the so-called civil society provide numerous human rights-related programs and services that benefit the general public. Many ofthese organizations have achieved good track record over the years. Some havegained the trust of government agencies in providing specific expertise to government projects. The United Nations has, particularly the Office of the United
Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, provided a direct link with thecivil society in order to ensure the participation of civil society organizations in
the human rights-related activities of the United Nations bodies.
Many civil society organizations provide human rights education to various
types of people covering different issues. Some of the civil society organizations
have programs that relate to students, the school or formal education in general.
Examples of human rights-related programs of civil society organizations inNortheast Asia are presented below.
A. Child Assault Prevention (Japan)1
The Child Assault Prevention Center Japan (CCJ), established as a non-profit organization in 1998 (and obtained legal personality in 2001), aims to strengthen
cooperation among members of families, school officials and members of thecommunities towards the creation of a society that respects the human rights ofthe children.
Since April 2009, the CCJ has been organizing training courses for Child
Assault Prevention (CAP) Specialists and for professionals.
It also provides awareness-raising lectures for the public through the CAP
Training Center for southern Japan that covers thirty-two prefectures. This CAP
Training Center has been officially accredited by the International Center for
Assault Prevention (ICAP) (www.cap-j.net/) to administer CAP programs.
CAP Specialist Training
To become a Specialist, the applicant has to complete the “basic course on
prevention of violence against children” and the “[practical] training course for
CAP Specialists,” each course having three-day duration, join an approved CAP
group within the CCJ area, and acquire a “CAP Specialist Accreditation.”

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HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMSThe basic course on prevention of violence against children has the following
contents:
a. Class 1 - Basic knowledge about violence against children(1) Overview on the violence against children(2) Children and violence(3) Categories of violence against children
b. Class 2 - Philosophy and ideas on prevention education(1) The history of responses to child abuse - the creation of CAP(2) Areas related to the issue of child abuse(3) What are CAP’s philosophy and approaches?
c. Class 3 - Taking the child’s viewpoint 1(1) The human rights of children and the importance of developing
awareness on human rights(2) Empowerment
d. Class 4 - Taking the child’s viewpoint 2
e. Class 5 - Relations between domestic violence and children
f. Class 6 - Why are children often the victims of violence?
(1) Feminist analysis(2) Myths and facts(3) The role of silenceg. Class 7 - Sexual abuse against children(1) Four preconditions to sexual abuse(2) Child Sexual Abuse Accommodation Syndrome
h. Class 8 - Simulation - CAP Child workshop
i. Class 9 - Abused child’s psychology from a video “Breaking Silence”
j. Class 10 - Adults’ role in violence against children(1) Responding to a child in danger(2) Child empowerment(3) Child empowerment under the CAP Program(4) What adults can do for child empowerment
k. Class 11 - Summary of the basic course on prevention of violence againstchildren.
Practical Training for CAP Specialists
The course emphasizes discussions, activities in small groups and feedback. It
seeks to train CAP Specialists, who take the child’s view and engage in CAP activities with unshakable conviction.
a. Class 1 - Violence against children in the society interpreted from thechild’s viewpoint.
b. Class 2 - Learn about issues for implementing CAP Child workshops

110civil society support for human rights educationc. Class 3 - Learn what Review-time isd. Class 4 - Review-time training (practice)e. Class 5 - CAP Child workshop training (practice)f. Class 6 - Learn about issues for implementing CAP workshop for adults
g. Class 7 - Becoming a CAP Program facilitator.
Closing Circle
Signing an agreement/conferring the certificate for completion of the training course for CAP Specialist.
CAP Specialist support program“Freshers” support
Anyone who has completed the (practical) training course for CAP Specialists(24 hours) will receive this support for one year after taking the course to dispel
uncertainties or questions they may have when starting their CAP activities.
Accreditation renewal system
Introduced in 2010, active CAP Specialists are required to renew their accreditations every three years, and take a one-day (six hours) training within the
period. Currently, there are one thousand two hundred holders of the accreditation for CAP activities within the CCJ area.
CAP group support
There are approximately ninety CAP groups, which act as the basis for CAP
activities within the community. These groups and CCJ exchange memoranda
each year. CCJ will provide these groups with the latest information regarding
provision of CAP Programs, consultations on management support to maintainthe quality for the provision of CAP Programs.
B. Youth initiative: “Erkhuulei” (Mongolia)2“Erkhuulei” is a human rights defender and super-hero for children that is being
promoted by a very active youth movement in the human rights education fieldin Mongolia called “Hands Up 4 Your Rights!”. The youth movement was initiated and led by the “Let’s Develop” Youth Club and Youth Group of Amnesty
International Mongolia and supported by Mongolian Women’s NGOs Network(MONFEMNET). Its youth campaign is intended as a fun, dynamic and participatory mechanism to support young people’s empowerment and activism forhuman rights, gender justice and democracy in Mongolia. The campaign strategy consists of the marketing of human rights in a fun, accessible, creative and111

HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS

positive fashion, focusing specifically on youth, using peer training and fun public activities as well as media.
In 2008, the youth movement organized a Freedom Parade, Human Rights
Festival and a Human Poster Walk-About to spread awareness of human rights
and freedoms, especially freedom of expression, and gender-based violence
among the public. All activities were highly visual including facepainting, fundecorations (including a big paper cake for the 60th anniversary of the Universal
Human Rights Declaration), self-decorated T-shirts with human rights messages,
self-made banners and posters.
Events featured popular singers and artists, dance competitions, quiz contests and other activities. These campaign activities provided the young people
and others the opportunity to express themselves freely and creatively and enjoy
their right to free expression boldly and creatively.
One of the good features of the campaign is the creation by the youth ofa “national hero” (role model) of human rights named Erkhuulei. Erkhuulei isa national super-hero who has superpowers to develop each child’s and each
adult’s ability to understand, respect and defend human rights and freedoms.
This nongender-specific perpetual child with super abilities was created to popularize the spirit of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and promote thehuman rights education of children.
The name Erkhuulei comes from the Mongolian word erkh (the Mongolian
word for right) and erkh chuluu (the Mongolian word for freedom). Erkhuulei’scharacter was born at the first Training of Trainers (TOT) of the “Hands Up 4Your Rights!” campaign. The participants of the campaign developed a simple
human rights lesson plan, content and methodology for primary and secondary school students. Sixty young people were trained to be “Erkhuulei trainers” and they conducted Erkhuulei’s lessons at twenty-nine secondary schoolsof Ulaanbaatar, reaching out to over one thousand students in 2008. In March
2009, two Erkhuulei trainers (two law school students) traveled to Dundgovi andUmnugovi aimags (provinces) and taught human rights to over one thousand
secondary school students.
The “Hands Up 4 Your Rights!” campaign participants created a comic bookto introduce Erkhuulei to their peers and friends. The talent and dedication ofa young artist (Ts. Delgerjargal) helped breathe life into Erkhuulei. The comic
books were widely distributed during Erkhuulei’s human rights lessons at various
schools in Ulaanbaatar and Dundgovi and Umnugovi aimags as well as throughinformal networks.
The “Hands Up 4 Your Rights!” training of trainers (TOT) for one and a half
to two days and one-day peer training workshops are important componentsof the campaign. The training programs include sections on human rights, civics, gender equality and the nature of patriarchy, and creative campaigning for112

civil society support for human rights educationsocial change. All sections are highly interactive and include roleplay and group
work and incorporate collective analyses. In 2008, the campaign trained over ahundred young people and, under the support from the Australian Agency forInternational Development (AUSAID), held four TOT workshops and twelve peer
training workshops in 2009. Fun activities such as drawing and creating one’s
own campaign T-shirt are included in these workshops. As they participate in thedevelopment of the training content and methodology, the youth develop skills
on research, analysis, teamwork, facilitation, coordination, and training as well
as skills on listening, speaking, and problem-solving. In addition, they learn tohold press conferences, plan public events, and street actions to focus public andmedia attention on specific human rights and gender equality issues.
C. Tokyo Shure – Alternative Education3
In 2009, the Twentieth Nationwide Conference on Considering School Refusal
adopted “The Declaration on the Rights of School Refusing Children.” The conference was jointly organized by the Japan Free School Network and the Nationwide
Network of Parents of School Refusing Children.
The idea of a declaration came from children who were students of Tokyo
Shure, a non-governmental organization that provides alternate education tochildren who refuse to go to school. The students visited the UNICEF office inTokyo to learn about child rights in 2008.
A senior volunteer of the UNICEF Tokyo office, who explained the activities
of UNICEF, remarked to the children: “You are very happy because you don’t
have to worry about food for today. So, you have to go to ‘school’ to study hard.”
The children felt that something was wrong. They had many questions intheir mind:
Exactly, we maybe economically fortunate compared to children in othercountries. But, are we really happy? Are our rights as children protected by adults?
How about rights of participation? To begin with, the rights of children aren’t
meant only for children who live in developing countries, but for all children
including us, isn’t it?

They left the meeting in UNICEF Tokyo Office with such feeling.
Afterward, the children decided to learn the rights of the child by themselves. They got empowered in the process, with the rights of the child not merely knowledge but as feeling. They were so inspired by the learning that they
thought of having a declaration of rights that refer to children like them. Thiswas in 2009, when the national conference was about to be held. Thus the declaration was drafted with the assistance of educators, and later on discussed andadopted at the conference.

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HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST ASIAN SCHOOL SYSTEMSThe Declaration
The Declaration states the rights of school refusing children in the following
manner:1. Right to education
We have the right to education. We have the right to decide whether wewould go to school or not. Compulsory education means that the government and guardians must propose to all children to access education.
Compulsory education does not mean that children go to school.
2. Right to learn
We have the right to learn in ways fitted to ourselves. Learning is knowing something by our will not by compulsion. We learn a lot of things in
our life.
3. Right to choose the way we learn and grow up
We have the right to decide where and how we learn and grow up (forexample, school, free school, free space, home education). Please do notforce the thinking that going to school is natural to children.
4. Right to take a rest safely
We have the right to take a rest safely. Please assure that we can take a restin a place where we can be safe, and do not make us go to school or otherplaces against our will.
5. Right to live as we are
We have inherent personality. Do not let children compete or compare
each other. We decide the pace and the way we live by ourselves.
6. Right not to be discriminatedWe are respected without discrimination of any kind, and irrespectiveof school refusal, handicap, school scores, ability, age, sex, appearance,
nationality, family background, etc. For example, please do not restrict
the relationship among children caused by the prejudice that a son ordaughter may become school refusing child if he/she plays with school
refusing children.
7. Right to be assured of government financial support
We have the right to be assured by government of financial support in
the same manner with children who go to school.

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civil society support for human rights education

For example, school refusing children who belonged to free school or freespace can use the season ticket for students whose age ranges from primary school to secondary school. However, upon reaching secondary schoolage, if he/she does not belong to official secondary school, he/she cannot
apply for this service. We ask all adults to change the system to ensurethat all children are equally assured of government financial support.
8. Right to grow up safely and be protected against all forms of abuse
We have the right to grow up safely and be protected against abuse causedby school refusal. Adults must not allow any kind of punishment, abuse,
and forced admission to hospital on the children.
9. Right to privacy
Adults must not interfere with our privacy. For example, the following
are interferences with our privacy: a) Teachers calling on us without ouragreement and phoning us repeatedly irrespective of time to persuade
us to go to school again; b) Parents talking with our teacher about us
without our agreement. First of all, please listen to our views regarding all
matters affecting us and respect them.
10. Right to be accepted as an equal personality
Adults must recognize us as having equal existence and act together toassure the rights of the child in school, society and daily life. We need arelationship and an environment where we can express our views as theyare.
11. Right to a way of life of school refusing child
Adults should respect how school refusing children live. At first, pleaseface us to understand what school refusal is.
12. Respect the rights of others
We respect the rights and freedom of others.
13. Right to learn the rights of the child
We have the right to learn our rights. The government and adults should
assure the opportunity to learn the rights of the child by the children. We
can judge whether the rights of the child are assured or not by ourselves.

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Alternative Education
Most people in Japanese society assume that everybody graduates in secondary school or university, gets a job, and becomes an adult who thrives and engages with society. However, this way is not the only way to grow up.
Changing yourself to match society’s expectations is only one way to live.
Another way is to create your own values through your own interests and experiences for the purpose of suiting your own lifestyle. How do you want to work?
How do you want to spend your time? How do you want to build relationships
with others?
Tokyo Shure was founded in June 1985 to provide an alternate education
model that would address perceived deficiencies in Japan’s public education system. Shure was founded as an alternative education space where any child could
be herself/himself and have the support of parents and other citizens. Tokyo
Shure is one of the first free schools or alternative education centers in Japan.
Because Shure University has not been accredited by the Japanese Ministryof Education as a university, students are unable to obtain a bona fide diploma.
Shure University was founded in April 1999 by free school students, graduates and staff members. Any person who wants to pursue his/her interests canjoin the University. Activities take place in both the University space in Shinjuku
in Tokyo and in students’ homes. People can join from anywhere by e-mail, telephone, and mail.
Shure students pursue studies in their areas of interest by concentrating on
diverse projects. Projects are designed by students, faculty, staff and advisors interested in non-traditional ways of seeing and learning. For example, students interested in engineering might participate in a project to build a solar car; students
interested in film would write, produce and distribute a movie.
Shure students, faculty and advisors work together on this project-based curriculum based on students’ needs and interests. Unlike the traditional education
system, where youth are told what to study and then tested, Shure students participate in all phases of their education from devising educational programs torunning and evaluating them.
Even though students collectively undertake projects, each student retains
different interests. Individuality is greatly respected in Shure University. At thesame time, the University pays attention to the students’ activities and helps
them stimulate each other. Such relationships promote the University activities.
D. The Center for Law-related Education4
The Chung Hwa Rotary Education Foundation, Taipei Bar Association and Judicial
Reform Foundation have been jointly implementing a project called ‘Planting
Seeds of Law-Related Education in Taiwan’ (PSLRET) since May 2003. In July116

civil society support for human rights education

2006, with a donation of 23 millions NT$ (767,000 U.S. dollars) by the Kingston
Technology Company, Inc., the project was transformed into the Center for Lawrelated Education under the supervision of Judicial Reform Foundation.
Goals and Missions
The Center for Law-related Education has the following aims:• To develop a well-founded and distinctive law-related education in
Taiwan• To promote a new kind of law-related education rather than the old dogmatic one in order to prepare youngsters to become enlightened and responsible citizens who are committed to democratic principles and actively engaged in the practice of democracy in Taiwan• To translate and adapt the Foundations of Democracy: Authority, Privacy,
Responsibility and Justice series published by the Center for Civic Education(U.S.A.) as the key curriculum materials in the law-related education programs in the K-12 levels in the schools.
• To seek partnership with schools that can implement the programs, establish partnership with local Rotary Clubs that can fund the programs,
form partnership with local bar associations that can help teachers who
are going to implement the programs.
Work completed
By December 2006, the project has translated and adapted the K-3 and 4-6
grades curricular materials of the Foundations of Democracy: Authority, Privacy,
Responsibility and Justice series into Chinese language. A total of 15,000 copies of
the K-3 of the series and a total of 10,000 copies of the 4-6 of the series have been
published. Two hundred forty-eight lawyers have been trained to help teachers become familiar with the K-3 of the series. Twenty-nine schools and twelve
district educational authorities have partnership with the Center for Law-related
Education and 3,490 teachers who have been trained for the project. In addition,
the concept of privacy and that of justice of the K-3 of the series were filmed incooperation with the National Institute of Educational Resource and Research.
The 7-9 and 10-12 grades of the series are currently undergoing more adaptations
to replace American laws and cases with Taiwanese ones.
E. Child Welfare League Foundation5
Child Welfare League Foundation (CWLF), established in December 1991, is a
non-profit organization devoted to child welfare, both in the fields of direct and117

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indirect services. In order to advocate for children’s rights and raise awarenessof child welfare issues, CWLF works on improving legislation, coordinating a
network of related child welfare agencies and organizations, as well as monitoring the government’s child welfare system and policies, so as to create a better
environment for children.
Goals:CWLF aims(1) To facilitate the amendment of child welfare laws and policies(2) To promote the concepts of child welfare(3) To provide child welfare services(4) To conduct child welfare research(5) To build child welfare networks(6) To establish a child welfare data center.
CWLF also raises the awareness of the general public on the rights of children
through public education, national campaigns and press conferences. From theright to protection from abuse to the right to freedom of expression and privacy,
CWLF ensures that the government adheres to and upholds its responsibility tochildren’s rights and that children know what their rights are and how to exercise
them.
CWLF believes in the power of many to effect change. Using a wide range ofstrategies, CWLF works to raise awareness about the many social problems related
to child welfare and the work that can be done to create a safer and healthierenvironment for children.
CWLF's work includes:(1) Public campaigns to educate the general public on child rights, the laws
and ways to participate in the process for social change.
(2) Holding press conferences and issuing press releases to raise awarenessof various social issues and how the larger society can participate in combatingthese problems.
(3) Training and educating professionals such as teachers, doctors, police,
the media and child welfare professionals to recognize potential child abuse andneglect, issues affecting children and youth, and the resources available to assist
children and families.
CWLF also reaches out to children to educate them on their rights and where
to go for help. Through classroom visits in schools, stickers on books and passingout rulers, CWLF communicates valuable information such as important phone
numbers and resources such as the Children's Hotline to children around thecountry.

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Endnotes
1 Based on paper prepared by Child Assault Prevention Center Japan (CCJ), and presented in themeeting of contributors in this publication on 3-4 September 2012 in Osaka city.
2 This is an edited excerpt from Altangerel Choijoo, “Human Rights Education in Mongolian
Schools,” The State of Human Rights Education in Northeast Asian School Systems: Obstacles, Challenges,
Opportunities (Osaka: Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center, 2010), available at www.
hurights.or.jp/archives/other_publications/.
3 The content of this section is based on e-mail communication with the staff of Tokyo Shure(January 2013) and from the following websites:
a. About Shure University - http://shureuniv.org/eng/
b. IE3 Global Internships -http://ie3global.ous.edu/positions/shureuniversity/.
4 Discussion based on text taken from www.lre.org.tw.
5 Discussion based on text taken from www.children.org.tw.

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