U.S. ARMY CULTURE
An Introduction for Behavioral
Health Researchers

Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry
Uniformed Services University

30 U.S. ARMY CULTURE — An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

U.S. ARMY CULTURE
An Introduction for Behavioral
Health Researchers

EDITORS
Eric G. Meyer, MD
James E. McCarroll, PhD
Robert J. Ursano, MD

Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry
Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences
Bethesda, MD
CSTSonline.org

U.S. ARMY CULTURE
An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers
IPD 2017 by the Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry
Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences
4301 Jones Bridge Road
Bethesda, MD 20814-4712
First Edition

Contents
Preface.............................................................................................................. 1
Chapter 1
Cultural Competence..................................................................................... 3
Chapter 2
Conducting Research in Military Organizations........................................ 9
Chapter 3
Army Jobs: Cultures and Subcultures......................................................... 17
Chapter 4
U.S. Army Structure: Organization, Ranks, and Responsibilities............ 25
Chapter 5
U.S. Army Training....................................................................................... 33
Chapter 6
Career and Family Transitions.................................................................... 43
Chapter 7
U.S. Army National Guard and the Army Reserve: Citizen-Soldiers..... 55
Chapter 8
Technology and War..................................................................................... 63
Appendix A
Relevant Films and Books............................................................................ 69
Appendix B
Glossary of Acronyms.................................................................................. 75
Appendix C
Ranks and Responsibilities.......................................................................... 77
References...................................................................................................... 81

iContributors
David M. Benedek, MD
COL, MC, USA
Professor & Chair, Department of Psychiatry
Associate Director, Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry
Uniformed Services University
Bethesda, MD
Quinn M. Biggs, PhD, MPH
Research Assistant Professor
Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry
Uniformed Services University
Bethesda, MD
Catherine L. Dempsey, PhD, MPH
Research Assistant Professor
Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry
Uniformed Services University
Bethesda, MD
Joscelyn E. Fisher, PhD
Research Assistant Professor
Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry
Uniformed Services University
Bethesda, MD
Continued

ii

Carol S. Fullerton, PhD
Research Professor
Scientific Director, Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry
Uniformed Services University
Bethesda, MD
Oscar I. Gonzales, PhD
CPT, USA
Assistant Professor
Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry
Uniformed Services University
Bethesda, MD
Robert K. Gifford, PhD
COL (Ret), USA
Executive Officer, Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Uniformed Services University
Department of Psychiatry
Bethesda, MD
Holly B. Herberman Mash, PhD
Research Assistant Professor
Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry
Uniformed Services University
Bethesda, MD
James E. McCarroll, PhD, MPH
COL (Ret), USA
Research Professor
Senior Scientist, Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry
Uniformed Services University
Bethesda, MD

iii

Eric G. Meyer, MD
Maj, USAF, MC, FS
Assistant Professor
Scientist, Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry
Uniformed Services University
Bethesda, MD
Joshua C. Morganstein, MD
CAPT, USPHSAssociate Professor & Assistant Chair, Department of Psychiatry
Assistant Director, Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry
Uniformed Services University
Bethesda, MD
James A. Naifeh, PhD
Research Assistant Professor
Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry
Uniformed Services University
Bethesda, MD
Holly J. Ramsawh, PhD
Research Assistant Professor
Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry
Uniformed Services University
Bethesda, MD
Dale W. Russell, PhD
MAJ (Ret), USA, MS
Associate Professor
Senior Research Psychologist, Consortium for Health and Military
Performance
Department of Military & Emergency Medicine
Scientist, Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry
Uniformed Services University
Bethesda, MD

iv

Eric B. Schoomaker, MD, PhD
LTG (Ret), USA, MC
Professor & Vice Chair, Leadership Centers & Programs
Department of Military & Emergency Medicine
Uniformed Services University
Bethesda, MD
Trevor B. Stephens, BA
Research AssistantCenter for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry
Uniformed Services University
Bethesda, MD
Robert J. Ursano, MD
Col (Ret), USAF, MC, FS
Professor of Psychiatry & Neuroscience
Director, Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry
Uniformed Services University
Bethesda, MD
James C. West, MD
CAPT, MC, USN
Associate Professor & Assistant Chair, Department of Psychiatry
Scientist, Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry
Uniformed Services University
Bethesda, MD
Gary H. Wynn, MD
LTC, USA, MC
Associate Professor of Psychiatry & Neuroscience
Assistant Chair, Department of Psychiatry
Scientist, Center for the Study of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry
Uniformed Services University
Bethesda, MD

1

P R E FA C E

Preface
Culture is defined as a social domain that emphasizes the practices,
discourses, and material expressions, which, over time, express thecontinuities and discontinuities of social meaning of a life held incommon (James, 2014, p. 53).
Groups define themselves in part through shared culture and understand others through perceived similarities and differences. Culture is apervasive part of our everyday lives, and yet its influence often goes without notice. This oversight is also true for the U.S. Military. Often conceptualized as an occupation rather than a culture, the cultural considerationsof military service can be easily overlooked in research settings. Militaryculture includes a rich collection of symbols, beliefs, values, language,
dress, behaviors, relationships, and work. Like other cultures, military culture influences how research is conducted, both in its planning and execution. Understanding the culture of research participants is essential in
successfully answering research questions. For researchers who work withmilitary populations, it is important to appreciate the current stressors of
battle (Chapter 8), what it means to keep the chain of command “in theloop” (Chapter 2), and what soldiers’ jobs mean to them (Chapter 3).
This volume focuses on the culture of the U.S. Army. Many of the major
points also apply to other military services. The concepts are important
for those who desire to understand U.S. Army culture for research — particularly those early in their careers. We hope that this book helps thoseinterested in conducting research in the Army to better navigate what canseem like a foreign land. We have attempted to keep the text brief andhelpful, as entire tomes have been be written on the various cultural aspects of the Army. An extensive list of references is available for further
reading. While this book includes a brief orientation to the developmentof theories of culture, we have included only those theories that are helpful in understanding military culture. These theories may be taken into
account as considerations to be taken in designing and executing researchwithin the U.S. Army as well as the other military services.

2 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

The book is organized into specific chapters, which can be read to answer a particular question (e.g., How does the organizational structure influence soldiers?) or in its entirety. As a result of the specificity of chapters,some material is repeated. There are questions at the end of each chapter
to facilitate applying the key concepts towards research. The first chapter
provides an overview of how cultural competence is more than just cultural awareness, but a set of skills and attitudes. Chapter 2 describes theimportant pragmatics of conducting research in the military — a must
read for understanding how to interact with “the Army” before, during,
and after a research project. The remaining chapters provide specifics on
military culture.
These later chapters describe what soldiers do (Chapter 3), the structureof the Army (Chapter 4), and how Army training is organized to prepare
soldiers for their mission (Chapter 5). Following these basic descriptionsof the Army, we explore career transitions (Chapter 6). In this chapter,we describe the changes that occur in the career of the soldier and how
these transitions may affect them and their families. In addition to theactive duty component, the Army also consists of the reserve component
comprised of the Army Reserve and the Army National Guard (Chapter
7). These two forces have undergone many changes since the events of
9/11 and now occupy major positions in U.S. defense posture. A great dealof research on soldiers is conducted within both of these organizations,which makes this chapter an important component of the text. The final
chapter describes macro changes that have occurred throughout militaryhistory with a specific focus on how the war on terror has influenced the
Army’s conceptualization of combat and combat injury since the Gulf
War. The book concludes with a summary of media (movies and books)
related to the military to complement the extensive references and a brief
list of acronyms and ranks.
Members of the military are U.S. citizens first — they are part of the
Nation, and apart from the Nation. We hope this book will stimulate
thoughts and conversations about the cultural influences of military service on service members and their families. Such increased awarenesscan enhance the design and execution of research within the U.S. Army,and help the lives of countless soldiers and their families. In this effort we
thank the many who have gone before us. We have attempted to reference
them when possible, but have certainly only captured a few. It is their efforts that have made this volume possible.
Eric G. Meyer
James E. McCarroll
Robert J. Ursano

3

Chapter 1

Cultural Competence
Key Points
1. Understanding how your culture, as a researcher, views the study participant. This is just as important as understanding a participant’s culture.
2. In attempting to understand how culture influences study participants, use what you know about their culture to inform the questions
you ask them.
3. Cultural identity is not static; study participants can have different
degrees of acculturation, and may identify more with a specific subculture than with a parent culture.
Background
Cultural competence is more than cultural awareness or knowledge.
While knowledge of other cultures is important, it is still just a generalization and should not be used to arrive at conclusions regarding a study
participant without further information. A study participant may identify with a sub-culture more than a parent culture, or they may identify
as against a culture (anti-culture). Equally important is an awareness of
one’s own culture — how it influences your views, opinions, reactions,thoughts, emotions, and behaviors towards “others.”
As exemplified in the DSM-5’s Cultural Formulation Interview (CFI)(American Psychiatric Association, 2013), the crux to cultural competence is the skill of using an awareness of culture (“theirs” and “yours”) to
frame questions to the participant and being open to cultural differences
without ascribing value to those differences.
The military, although not typically referred to as a culture, is a culturethat requires a similar culturally competent approach. Having a commander, fighting in combat, frequent moves — all influence how a soldier
might interpret their illnesses, care, or your research question. You, theresearcher, may come from a culture with strong views of the military:
positive or negative. Researchers working with the Army have a better4 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

chance of success by framing their research questions (big and small)with an awareness of military culture and their own culture.
What Is Cultural Competence?
Cultural competence has been described as essential in the fields of
medicine, anthropology, sociology, business, leadership, and education.
The scope and meaning of this concept has shifted as it has been debated and politicized (Table 1). A widely accepted framework for individual cultural competence includes three components: being aware of
one’s self-view, understanding the worldview of culturally different people without negative judgments, and developing strategies and skills inworking with culturally diverse people (Sue & Sue, 1990).
TABLE 1: Two Views of Culture
Psychiatry:■■ Culture can affect how mental distress is expressed and evaluated.
■■ Cultural influences come from patients and providers■■ Finding these influences requires patient centered care — asking
questions about the patient’s context.
Sociology:■■ Culture is considered a commonality within a group of people.
■■ Culture exists within the social world of groups.
■■ Culture attempts to ascribe meaning of the social behavior of thesegroups.
From this definition there is an effort to make cultural competence
an organizational-level process (Cross, Bazron, Dennis, & Isaacs, 1989;
Harper et al., 2006) at the corporate level or as part of an organizational
mindset in handling “others.” Cultural anthropologists put forth concerns that such a static, divisive conceptualization of culture could be
problematic. Under such terms, culture could be misconstrued as thesource of maladaptive behaviors as well as the proverbial “solution” tounderstanding people from unfamiliar populations (Santiago-Irizarry,
1996). By 2003, anthropologists furthered apprehensions that culturalawareness was being objectified; noting that a reified, essential, static understanding of culture is inconsistent with the dynamic, individualistic
reality of culture (J. S. Taylor, 2003a, 2003b). The expansion of organizational cultural competence came to a sudden halt as leaders from avariety of fields united against leveraging social justice programs underCultural Competence 5

the guise of cultural competence (Wasley, 2006).
The definition of cultural competence has since swayed towards amore individualistic approach (Roysircar, 2004), avoiding the characterization of cultural competence as a theory (Gallegos, Tindall, & Gallegos,2008) or a quantifiable factor (Carpenter-Song, Schwallie, & Longhofer,2007). Many of the hidden assumptions, which undermined previous
conceptualizations of cultural awareness, have since been exposed in aneffort to prevent the errors of the past, to include:
1. Equating culture solely with ethnicity and race,
2. Considering culture as an attribute possessed by the minority “other”(Schnurr, Lunney, Sengupta, & Spiro, 2005,
3. Believing that increased exposure to these “others” would inherently
improve cultural competence,
4. Thinking that those in need of improved cultural competence are
predominately white Westerners,
5. Assuming that increased confidence and comfort equates to culturalcompetence (Kumas-Tan, Beagan, Loppie, MacLeod, & Frank, 2007).
Indeed, the psychological literature has gone so far as to say that cultural awareness is a component of an intimate relationship between two
people (Rodriguez, Cabaniss, Arbuckle, & Oquendo, 2008). Such an approach maintains the focus on the person, resisting the temptation to reduce a culture into archetypes or stereotypes, which would be antithetical to the goals of cultural competence (Mills & Keddie, 2010). Researchon cultural competence continues to demonstrate that the failure to acknowledge, understand, and manage sociocultural variations in attitudes
and behaviors can impede effective communication, undermine allianceformation, lead to dissatisfaction, and worsen outcomes (Betancourt &Green, 2010).1
Military Cultural Competence
The U.S. military is a culture with a language, code of conduct, behavioral norms, belief systems, dress, and rituals (Reger, Etherage, Reger, &Gahm, 2008). Military culture is in fact more delineated than most othercultures, as many of its tenets are clearly defined by law and by regulation. Looking beyond such foundational influences, the experience of
1. Note that the literature no longer differentiates culture by dichotomies (provider v patient, employee v customer, researcher v participant) embodying theconcept that both are important and the whole group, not the supposed “other,”
will be negatively impacted when there is a lack of cultural competence.

6 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

being in the military greatly influences a person’s identity. Military culture has a role in the cohesion among soldiers that gives them common
bonds (Krueger, 2000). For some, the military is an escape and provides
a predictable, sheltered life they may not have experienced growing up(Wertsch, 1991). For others, it stands as a final bastion as a rite of initiation into adulthood (Nash, 2007). For many, the desire to embody thewarrior mindset drives membership (Wertsch, 1991).
Through indoctrination, military culture overlays and often replaces
previous cultural beliefs while reducing, but not eliminating (Fenell,2008), many disparities (economic, racial, gender) that exist in civilian
culture (Harris, 2011; Lundquist, 2008). A preference for associating oneself with the military can occur after only a short period of service andcan take precedence over other common identities, such as race, gender,
sexual orientation, political party, or socioeconomic status. However, forsome members, military culture can be a source of conflict. Some women veterans have described military culture as negatively impacting theiridentity as sexual trauma in the military felt like a betrayal of the entire
military (Bell, Turchik, & Karpenko, 2014). Good or bad, indoctrination
into military culture is so profound that it can fundamentally change aworldview, often impeding transition back to civilian life (Brewin, Garnett, & Andrews, 2011).
Military culture is also reflected in its most basic elements: traditions,ranks, training, jobs, hierarchies, organizations, careers, and transitions.
Understanding these basic cultural influences of the U.S. military as awhole is a good starting point in appreciating the culture of soldiers andtheir families. However, the parent culture should not be considered thewhole story. The U.S. Army (referred to simply as the Army in the remainder of this text) shares much to the same cultural identity as the entire
military while maintaining its own, specific subculture (only soldiers say“hooah”). Further subcultures exist throughout the Army as they exist in
civilian society. Soldiers may identify with their job, geographic location,or unit more than the Army itself. Levels of acculturation can vary fromsoldier to soldier and over time.
Research and Army Cultural Competence
Understanding military cultural competence is key to successful military research. According to a recent Pew survey, civilian understanding of the U.S. military is markedly low. The percentage of Americans
currently serving in the military is the lowest since the period between
World Wars I and II (www.pewsocialtrends.org/2011/11/23/the-military-civilian-gap-fewer-family-connections). The treatment of military-

Cultural Competence 7

related illnesses, such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), may behindered by a lack of military cultural competence in civilian researchersand clinicians (Hoge, 2011), who struggle to understand the conceptsof illness and health from the perspective and experiences of soldiers.
The significance of Army cultural competence, including awareness ofthe common concerns, stressors, considerations, and language of soldiersand their families, is undeniable. It has been emphasized in the deliveryof community behavioral health and social services (Luby, 2012), training programs for veterans’ healthcare providers (Strom et al., 2012), andin the education of military students (Cole, 2015). Educational materials have also been produced on military culture (Goldenberg, Hamaoka, Santiago, & McCarroll, 2012). An 8-hour online, peer-reviewed, interactive training curriculum by the Uniformed Services University of
the Health Sciences (USU) Center for Deployment Psychology (www.
deploymentpsych.org) is also available. Additionally, tools for assessing
military cultural competence have recently been developed (Meyer, HallClark, Hamaoka, & Peterson, 2015) that can help researchers determine
their own levels of military cultural awareness.
Gaining the appropriate knowledge, skills, and attitudes associatedwith Army cultural competence is paramount in conducting behavioral
health research within the Army. A culturally competent researcher must
consider how Army culture might frame a soldier’s illness, injury, or other experience. Acculturation might be situational and change over time,and subculture identity might be more important than a larger cultural
identity. Researchers must be aware of how their own culture might influence their research.
Conclusion
Culture is a cornerstone of society, and cultural competence is fundamental in our ability to understand each other. Researchers should takethe time to become more aware of their own culture and the culture of
the Army to better understand how these may impact their interactions
with soldiers and their conceptualization of the Army. The more they can
improve their Army cultural competence, the better prepared they will
be to ask the right questions in order to successfully understand the challenges soldiers face within the construct of Army culture.

8 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

Thinking it Through1. What is your (the researcher’s) experience with the military?
Has anyone in your family served? What is your own responseto the military including combat, and other aspects of military
service (e.g., your assumptions, stereotypes, emotional reactions)? How might your perspectives impact your interactions
with the Army and/or soldiers? How might you reduce any
negative influences from these perspectives?
2. What are some of the ways that military culture could impact a
research question (expression of illness, understanding of care,
help seeking behavior)? How would you assess for such influences?
3. What are some cultures outside of the military that a service
member might more readily identify with?

9

Chapter 2

Conducting Research in Military
Organizations
Key Points
1. The mission of a military organization always comes first. You mustensure that your research will not interfere with it.
2. Commanders are responsible for their soldiers. They want to knowwhat you are doing so they can keep their soldiers safe. Keep theminformed early and often.
3. Your legitimacy is not necessarily based on your credentials, but asmuch based on how you conduct yourself — be on time, answer questions honestly, and follow through on promises.
Background
Without prior experience and knowledge, understanding the Armyis confusing. What is it? A researcher new to the Army might be confronted with appreciating only one organization of the Army, a company
for example. The organization to which the soldier belongs is informallyreferred to as the “unit” and we will use this terminology from this point
forward. Understanding a unit’s size, its command and control structure,training, and role on a military installation or in the defense of the nation can be daunting. In the case of reserve components, personnel areusually not located on a military installation. In addition to these structural factors are the demographics of the organization: average age of themembers, gender, marital status, the number with children, where they
live, and how they interact with other military units. While all of thesedemographic details are important considerations, misinterpreting theculture of an Army unit is where researchers can truly find themselvesin hot water. Forgetting to keep the command informed or attempting toschedule research that would potentially delay a training mission can be
the end of even the best-designed research project.
While understanding the intimate cultural considerations that exist
between the researcher and the participant soldiers can improve any

10 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

Army research project, this chapter focuses on the unit factors that cantruly “make or break” a project. There are several unique challenges inherent to conducting research in Army units. Among these are (1) gaining access to an Army unit, (2) preventing coercion, (3) preventing or
reducing stigmatization of those who participate in the research, and (4)avoiding interference with the mission of the unit (Fullerton, McCarroll, & Ursano, 2006). Successfully navigating these challenges requires
an awareness of several distinct factors: knowledge of how an Army unit
understands its purpose, appreciation for how an Army unit assesses a
researcher’s legitimacy, understanding the commander’s obligation to theunit, setting boundaries, coordination of requirements imposed upon
the unit by the research, confidentiality, and skills in effectively communicating.
Research in an Army Unit
Primacy of the Mission
The military is a functionally defined organization. People, units, andequipment are all defined by what they can do. Every job supports themission or it does not exist. Soldiers are judged on their ability to do theirjob in support of the mission. Failure to do so can result in disciplinary
actions or, if egregious, separation from the military. The use of function
as an indicator of deserving to be in the military is evident by the derogatory use of the word “civilian” for a soldier who cannot do their job.
Research does not typically support the mission in a direct fashion. As
such it will be viewed with extreme scrutiny. Although it may support future missions, promises that it will directly benefit the unit participatingin the research should be kept to a minimum. The emphasis should beon overall benefits to the Army in terms of increasing knowledge about
the factors under study. It is also important that the research not compromise the unit’s current mission, including requiring a major portionof training time.
In addition to ensuring that a research study does not impact a unit’s
mission directly, it must also not subvert the mission by undermining
morale. Soldiers must believe in their command and in what they are doing to maintain the grueling operational tempo required to be ready tofight at a moment’s notice. As a result, commanders may be wary about
external investigators conducting, and then disseminating research that
could undermine the morale of a unit or the entire Army (Ben-Ari &Levy, 2014). For example, if a unit is routinely told during research interviews that they should be stressed in the context of their mission, theymight start to falsely report increased levels of stress.

Conducting Research in Military Organizations 11

Army officials may also be concerned that reporting research findings
may threaten individual careers. For example, if an outside investigator isconducting research that could indirectly (e.g., findings of low work satisfaction or unit cohesion) or directly (e.g., finding of low trust in leadership) reflect poorly on military leadership, there may be concern about
negative effects on career advancement or promotion (Ben-Ari & Levy,
2014; McCarroll, Jaccard, & Radke, 1994).
Military research is often conducted by civilian researchers working
outside of the Department of Defense at the behest of the Army, rather than at the request of a researcher or research group. In these situations, the expectation of the Army is usually that the research will havean immediately beneficial effect by providing deliverable products. For
instance, actionable recommendations, which may include policy implications (e. g., guidance as to which sub-populations of soldiers should bemonitored by the military more closely to reduce the number of suicide
attempts). In these situations, it is important to know who is asking thequestion and ensuring that the answer is given to that person first before
to a journal or other public media.
In recognition of the fact that certain topics of research have a profound and direct impact on mission success, the Army has its own inhouse research arms for behavioral and health research such as the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research and the Army Research Institute for
the Behavioral and Social Sciences, among others. Researchers would be
wise to understand what research is already being accomplished by theArmy, not only to improve their own alignment with Army priorities, butalso to reduce the likelihood of duplicating efforts. The U.S. Army Medical Research and Material Command (USAMRMC) and Military Operational Medicine Research Program (MOMRP) can provide guidance
to civilian researchers on current priorities in behavioral health researchwithin the Army. Additionally, similar to research in the civilian world, a
budding researcher might also consider contacting the authors of completed research related to an area of interest to access what is available
and being currently conducted.
Legitimacy of the Researcher
Another consideration is the perceived legitimacy of the investigators.
While it is a common practice to collaborate with an active-duty scientist
or sponsor to establish legitimacy, it is important for all civilian researchers to understand how Army commanders may view them. Whereas
impressive credentials, altruistic aims, or intriguing scientific questions
may sway civilian institutions, these points are often superfluous to com-

12 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchersmanders. In a culture defined by function and status, little accord is given
to researchers who are ill prepared, late, or aloof. Commanders continuously assess a researcher’s competence as someone to be allowed into
their unit or community. This is not to be confused with a need to givethe perception that the researcher is somehow part of the Army. The researcher needs to show competence as a researcher, but also show respect
for the Army. For example, engaging in quasi-military behavior (using
language from movies and wearing similar clothing) is more likely to do
harm than good.
Army commanders may, however, question the knowledge base of
researchers regarding Army culture and organization (Ben-Ari & Levy,
2014). This should not be considered an insult, but rather an opportunity for both to learn more, the researcher about the unit and the commander about the research. Commanders may indeed be appropriately
concerned that results will be misinterpreted or misused if the researcher
lacks familiarity with the Army. Respond to questions honestly and use
a language they can understand (i.e., know your audience). It is potentially damaging to the researcher-command relationship if the researcher communicates using scientific jargon and unnecessarily complicateddescriptions of the study design/aims. Should the opposite occur, and acommander engage in “Army speak,” asking what they mean is an excellent way to demonstrate interest.
A Commander’s Obligations to Soldiers
Consider the commander’s obligation to the Army and to their unit.
Commanders train, equip, support, and protect soldiers in order to enable them to complete dangerous missions. Soldiers have volunteered toserve the United States. Any hint that a research protocol might unnecessarily put a soldier at risk of harm would be an affront to the relationshipbetween a commander and soldiers. As such, it is essential to keep command involved in the design and progress of your research study; again,
ensuring that they understand the study using language that makes senseto them. Similar to the role of an institutional review board (IRB), thecommand is charged with ensuring the safety of any soldier participants.
To this end, researchers should be prepared to answer whether the research they are proposing could be completed outside the military.
Similar to the ethical status given to children or inmates in research
protocols, military status confers a level of vulnerability. Thus, research inthe military that could be completed in a non-vulnerable civilian population is unlikely to obtain approval by commanders and/or military IRBs
(McManus, McClinton, Gerhardt, & Morris, 2007). Demonstrating how

Conducting Research in Military Organizations 13

research is specific to the Army and/or will benefit unit readiness in general terms are key considerations for the researcher to be aware of whentalking to unit commanders.
Pragmatics
TABLE 1. Overview of Pragmatics
Boundaries■■ Focus on research■■ Maintain role■■ Direct communication■■ Transparency in research procedures
Coordination■■ Obtain required approvals■■ Establish primary POC in unit■■ Dovetail research with unit operations■■ Keep POC and commander informed■■ Follow-up after completion of data collection
Confidentiality■■ Describe confidentiality protection procedures■■ Assure voluntary participation
Boundaries
All research teams must establish that their role is solely to conduct
their specified research with an Army unit. Otherwise, there can be amisunderstanding of the function of the research team. For example,
if the principal investigators also happen to have clinical degrees (i.e.,
psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, or social workers), there may be attempts by soldiers/commanders to engage the researchers about concerns of a clinical nature that are not directly related to the research task
at hand. The potential for role confusion can be even more significant
if there is an ongoing event or stressor in the unit that appears to fallwithin the researcher’s area of expertise. For example, military officials
may expect mental health researchers to engage in crisis counseling orother therapeutic interventions if a suicide or other serious incident has
recently taken place. Thus, the importance of clear roles and boundaries is paramount for the research team in order to complete the study
efficiently and to maintain good relationships with military officials. Of

14 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

course, if general consultation (not related to a specific individual) is
within the purview of the researchers, and there is time available whilestill completing the research in a timely manner, this may be undertaken
in a limited capacity if requested by military officials.
Coordination
The research team must go through the appropriate channels to haveresearch protocols approved. Gaining approval for human subjects research from a military institution can be a longer process than for many
civilian IRBs, with upwards to an additional six months required for approval (and often longer). This expectation should be built into the research timeline. A primary contact within the unit should be consulted
during the preparation of the research protocol before IRB approval, inorder to ensure that a specific locale for data collection has been identified, a suitable comparison group matched for variables such as militaryrank and proportion of enlisted personnel has been chosen (if appropriate), a reasonable timeline has been established, and that all other detailsof the research plan are feasible within the military context. In particular,
attention should be given to how data collection will be conducted without overly interfering with missions or the unit’s training schedule. Some
disruption to the unit’s daily activities is unavoidable when conducting
research, but this should be kept to a minimum. Once permission to conduct research has been secured from the military chain of command andthe IRB, the research process can begin in earnest.
Once active data collection is underway, there should be frequent
communication with the primary unit contact in order to troubleshoot
any logistical difficulties that arise and to keep the commander aware of
progress towards data collection goals. After data collection is complete,there should be at least one follow-up visit in order to present some findings to the commander when this is feasible. In addition, the researchteam will have to follow institutional guidelines in terms of gaining permission to publish any findings related to military research. Typically,
this entails review and approval of any study-related manuscripts or presentations by the researcher’s organization, but usually not by the military unit in which the research was conducted.
Confidentiality
The research plan will describe how participant confidentiality and thevoluntary nature of study participation will be maintained. Participants
may worry about possible negative effects on their career or relationships with other soldiers, particularly if mental health is being studied

Conducting Research in Military Organizations 15

and they are concerned about stigma. Reassuring soldiers of their confidentiality is important from the outset. This may encourage them to be
more honest when providing mental health-related data (Fear, Seddon,
Jones, Greenberg, & Wessley, 2012; Warner et al., 2011). Confidentiality
can also be protected through research in which participant information
is anonymous. There are methods, such as the use of participant codes,
to protect confidentiality without requiring names or social security
numbers. Perceived coercion can be of particular concern for military
personnel. Examples include coercion to participate and to answer questions in a certain way. Working with command directly on these concerns is paramount. A researcher may also explicitly state in the researchplan that military leadership will not have access to study data for any
individual soldiers or be allowed to provide guidance to soldiers on anyof the study components.
Conclusion
Conducting research in the military is an important endeavor. Important questions related to the military require well-designed studies.
The success of such research is heavily dependent on the researcher’s
understanding of the priorities and concerns of the Army unit. Coordinating with command helps to ensure that the research will indeed
help the Army and not compromise the unit’s mission or harm personnel. By demonstrating Army cultural competence, setting boundaries,
and maintaining transparency and confidentiality, a research protocol ismore likely to succeed.
Thinking it Through1. How does your research fit into the military mission? Is the research specific to the Army? Does it need to be accomplishedin an Army population, or could it be accomplished outside
the Army?
2. What are the concerns of the military command related toyour research? In what way will your research impact the mission or the unit’s readiness?
3. Will this research be perceived by the unit as negatively impacting soldiers? How will you address this perception?

16 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

17

Chapter 3

Army Jobs: Cultures and Subcultures
Key Points
1. The U.S. Army has many different subcultures, many of which are defined by work.
2. The career field is often a powerful source of pride and prestige. Partof a soldier’s identity is their ability to do their job.
3. Inquire about a soldier’s occupation, its impact on their career andlife, and recognize that they often have had more than one job.
Background
The Army is a complex organization requiring many different functions to meet its goals. Such functions are accomplished by organizations
including many different occupations. (See Chapter 4, U.S. Army Structure.) Each occupation exists in a career field (for example, the infantry)
and is classified by duties and responsibilities, which increase as the soldier progressively achieves higher ranks. Occupations are denoted by theterm military occupational specialty or MOS. A variety of occupations
exist in military organizations (informally referred to as units) in such a
way to provide the best structure to accomplish the unit’s mission. Soldiers can obtain their MOS through several routes. Prior to enlistment,
the Armed Forces Qualification Test (AFQT), an aptitude test, is takenby the applicant. The score then can be used in the process of selection of
the MOS by the soldier guided by the Army recruiter. Depending on the
AFQT score, the applicant can choose an MOS if the MOS has openings
at the time of enlistment. If the applicant does not have the qualificationsor the MOS is full, the applicant can be involuntarily given another MOS.
In the most general terms, Army career fields are grouped into one ofthree major categories that support the Army’s mission to engage anddefeat the enemy on the battlefield: the combat arms, combat support,
and combat service support. Each of which will be described below. This
chapter also describes the functions of several common MOSs as well as
one that has a unique and specialized function within the Army, mortuary affairs.

18 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

There are many influences in a soldier’s life and career that can be attributed to Army culture in general and specific subcultures. The soldier’s
career field is one of these subcultures. Largely, soldiers in each career
field undergo the same training and have the same mission and equipment. The career field is often a powerful source of pride and prestige;
however, there are hierarchies of prestige as recognized by other soldiersand by the individual soldier. Examples are units with a long combat
history and the number of awards given to the unit and to individual
soldiers For example, those whose mission is combat often look uponthemselves as superior to personnel in support units.
Army Functional Areas
Army functional areas (Table 1) can be described by the branches of
the Army. Many of these branches have functions in more than one area.
For example, engineers can perform as a combat arm through building
field fortifications, route clearing, and placing and detonating explosives. Engineers can also perform combat support through movementof friendly troops (building bridges) and hindering the movement ofenemy troops (blowing up bridges). Civil engineers perform combat service support with construction of supporting facilities. Similarly, aviation
has a combat role with attack helicopters, a combat support role withferrying ammunition and other supplies to the battlefield, and a combat
service support role in performing air evacuation and troop movements.
Again, while this multiplicity exists for many of the functional areas, forclarity only the dominant role for each branch is described.
Combat Arms
Combat arms branches of the Army are directly involved in combat.
These branches are the infantry, armor, field artillery, air defense artillery,aviation, engineers, and special operations forces. The mission of all combat forces is to destroy the enemy. This is conducted through reconnaissance (searching for the enemy), seizing and holding terrain, and conducting combat operations. Within the combat arms, the Army classifies
units as heavy, light, or special operations forces. Heavy forces consist ofarmor (tanks and armored vehicles), armored cavalry (reconnaissance),
and mechanized infantry (movement by vehicles such as trucks and armored personnel carriers). Light forces include infantry and airborne
infantry, which usually operate on foot. Light forces are more mobile,
but they are less protected. Soldiers within special operations forces are
uniquely trained to achieve military, diplomatic, economic, or psychological objectives, often by unconventional means. Their missions also

Army Jobs: Cultures and Subcultures 19

TABLE 1: Army Functional Areas
Combat Arms■■ Infantry■■ Armor■■ Aviation■■ Field Artillery■■ Air Defense Artillery■■ Combat Engineers■■ Special Forces
Combat Support Engineers■■ Aviation■■ Engineers■■ Chemical Corps■■ Military Police■■ Signal Corps■■ Civil Affairs■■ Psychological Operations■■ Military Intelligence
Combat Service Support Aviation■■ Logistics■■ Adjutant General■■ Acquisition Corps■■ Financial Management■■ Judge Advocate General Corps■■ Chaplain Corps■■ Army Medical Department
include counterterrorism, counter-proliferation, and special reconnaissance operations.
Combat Support
Combat support of the Army consists of many different functions that
help to support combat operations while not usually engaging directlywith the enemy. Among these are aviation, chemical defense, engineers,
military intelligence, military police, signal, and special operations forces.
Little other than the mission of supporting combat ties these disparate
specialty areas together.

20 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

Combat Service Support
The primary role of combat service support (also referred to as sustainment) is to support all Army forces through a very wide variety oflargely logistic functions. Occupational paths within the combat service
support branches are largely in the Quartermaster Corps, a branch of
the Army that includes such functions as general supply, food service,
field services such as water, sanitation, laundry, bath, shower, and clothing repair, mortuary affairs, fuel and petroleum supply, and fuel delivery
through pipelines and tanker trucks. In addition to the missions of theQuartermaster Corps, other combat service support functions include
ordnance (munitions and equipment such as weapons), legal, medical, transportation, finance, chaplaincy, and adjutant general functions(largely human resources support like pay and assignments).
Military Occupational Specialties
The MOS is an alpha-numeric character system that classifies the fieldof work, special skills, and the leadership level of the individual. While
there are several codes for the MOS, usually only the first three characters are commonly specified when describing a soldier’s occupation.
An example is the infantryman, who is identified by the MOS code 11B,
informally referred to as “11 Bravo.” (Bravo stands for the letter b in thephonetic alphabet that is used by the military, commercial aviation, andother fields internationally.)
The following are examples of some of the duties of soldiers in selected combat arms (infantry and engineers), combat support (military
police), and combat service support (medics, motor transportation operators, and mortuary affairs) MOSs.
Infantry
The infantry is the branch of the Army whose mission is to engage
and defeat the enemy at close range. There are many MOSs for infantry
soldiers, but the most common is the 11B. The infantry is the backboneof the Army. Infantrymen can engage in combat on foot, via mechanizedtransport, by air, and by amphibious landing. They often maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to ground-level military vehicles and thus may beairlifted or enter the combat area by parachute. They may be involved ina number of different operations, including attack, defense, patrol, escort,
construction, and raid/hostage rescue. During attack operations, in addition to engaging enemy forces, infantrymen are traditionally charged
with securing a target, which could be a bridge crossing, a hill, or a city.
During defense, the mission is to defend a target (which may include

Army Jobs: Cultures and Subcultures 21

important terrain and/or constructed fortifications), and defeat enemy
forces attempting to capture it. Patrol, the most common type of infantry
operation, consists of small groups of infantry moving in areas in which
enemy activity is suspected or has been detected. Patrols can have many
purposes, including security, reconnaissance, combat, terrain mapping,and special operations. Escort operations involve protecting combat support units from ambush. When escorting armored vehicles, the infantry
conducts patrols by scouring terrain, which may conceal enemy forces
waiting to ambush friendly vehicles, and by identifying enemy strong
points as potential targets for attack by heavier units or aircraft. Civil
engineers normally perform construction operations. However, other soldiers, such as infantry, may be required to perform light construction
when engineers are not available. Finally, during raid/hostage operations,infantry units are trained to quickly mobilize, infiltrate, and neutralize
enemy forces in order to secure a location, or rescue or capture high profile targets, as combat intelligence dictates.
Infantry training is more physically demanding than any other branchof combat arms. It emphasizes teamwork, discipline, and the applicationof sustained aggression against the enemy. Day-to-day infantry operations typically involve carrying heavy loads, performing long foot or vehicle patrols, enduring inhospitable climates with temperature extremes,
and frequent or constant exposure to enemy forces. As a result of combat
operations and all of the other factors, they tend to suffer larger numbersof casualties than soldiers in other career fields. These frequent stressors,along with increased risk of death and injury both for themselves andfellow soldiers, add to the psychological burden for those employed ininfantry operations. They tend to be at high risk for posttraumatic stress
reactions, suicidality, and other mental health concerns relative to thosein other military occupations (Kok, Herrell, Thomas, & Hoge, 2012; Sundin, Fear, Iversen, Rona, & Wessely, 2010; Trofimovich, Reger, Luxton, &Oetjen-Gerdes, 2013).
Combat Engineers
Combat engineers, also known as sappers, support infantry units andare responsible for both construction and demolition of fighting and defensive positions, building bridges, and clearing obstacles (e.g., improvised explosive devices [IEDs]). They are also required to place and detonate explosives when necessary, and to identify mines visually or withmine detectors. There can be high levels of daily stress, as combat engineers must maintain constant vigilance while searching for and clearing
routes of IEDs when outside the perimeter fence of a camp while some-22 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

times simultaneously taking fire from the enemy. If under attack, combat
engineers help support infantry during a firefight.
Military Police
Military police (MPs) perform many of the same duties as civilian
police, including enforcement of laws and regulations on Army installations. In both garrison and deployed environments, they prevent crime,
control traffic, and respond to emergencies. In particular, their responsibilities include patrols, controlling access to installations by checking
identification and ensuring that only authorized individuals are allowed
to enter, participating in criminal investigations in which they interview
victims, suspects, and witnesses, and arresting and charging suspects.
MPs are also called upon to fight as infantry when required. In non-deployed environments, military police are also subject to the same risks ascivilian police such as being assaulted or killed on the job.
Combat Medics
Combat medics are trained and serve as both soldiers and as healthcare providers (Pappas, 2001). Combat medics are trained to a proficiency equal to emergency medical technician (EMT) or greater during 16
weeks of Advanced Individual Training (AIT) (See Chapter 5, U.S. Army
Training). They provide emergency medical treatment, limited primarycare, assistance with evacuation of injured soldiers, and are responsible
for maintaining medical vehicles in the field. Combat medics are alsofrequently exposed to combat. For example, they can go on combat patrols where they may receive incoming fire, work in areas known to contain IEDs, and be attacked or ambushed (Chapman et al., 2012; Elnitsky
et al., 2013). Medics carry weapons with which they can defend injured
soldiers from further harm. Little is known about how straddling thesedual roles protects from, or makes combat medics vulnerable to, stress
reactions.
Motor Transport Operators
Motor transport operators drive or supervise the operation of vehicles
that transport military personnel or cargo. They load and unload cargo, manage the safety of transported personnel, employ convoy defense
techniques as appropriate, identify and correct or report any problems
with vehicles, and prepare vehicles for movement by air, rail, or sea. During the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan, attacks with IEDs (see Chapter6) have frequently targeted convoys and represent a common hazard todrivers during deployment. Convoys hit by IEDs are at risk for further

Army Jobs: Cultures and Subcultures 23

attack by small arms fire or rocket-propelled grenades. In addition, suicide bombers driving explosive-filled vehicles (vehicle-born explosive
devices, or VBEDs) are also a risk during convoys.
Mortuary Affairs
Care of the dead is the responsibility of the Army’s Quartermaster
Corps. The soldiers who perform this mission are in the career field ofmortuary affairs (MA). Their mission is to care for the remains of deceased military personnel and prepare them for return to their families. It
is a very small career field. There are two active duty MA companies andtwo Army reserve companies. There are also Army reserve detachmentsin the Pacific region and a company that is responsible for processing thepersonal effects of the dead at the Joint Personal Effects Depot (JPED)at the Dover Air Force Base Port Mortuary. Unlike many other Armyoccupational specialties, such as the infantry, in which soldiers can be
involuntarily enlisted, soldiers must volunteer to be in MA.
Enlisted soldiers in MA attend an eight week advanced individual
training (AIT) following basic training. In AIT they learn how to process the remains brought to collection points from the battlefield orother sites of death, search and recover the dead and locate unmarked
graves; disinter remains; decontaminate remains; collect, inventory, andsafeguard personal effects of the deceased; establish and record tentative
identification; and prepare remains and personal effects for shipment to
the U.S. for autopsy, if necessary, and final identification. Training includes classroom instruction as well as field experiences, such as trips tomorgues, to expose trainees to work with the dead.
After training, MA soldiers may be assigned to missions in disparate
locations worldwide in peacetime as well as during armed conflicts. During war, MA soldiers operate collection points to handle the remains ofAmerican forces, their allies, civilians, and, in some circumstances, remains of the enemy. Some will work at the Dover Air Force Base Port
Mortuary where the remains of service members undergo autopsy andfinal preparation for return to the family. Other MA soldiers will perform
search and recovery missions in Europe and Asia to retrieve remains ofservice members killed in previous conflicts, including World Wars I and
II, Korea, and Vietnam. In addition, they periodically deploy to mass fatality situations. These have included Hurricane Katrina, the Pentagon
after the 9/11 attacks, and the 2010 earthquake in Haiti, among others.
MA soldiers are also assigned to staff positions at the brigade or divisionlevel to advise the command on issues related to mortuary affairs.
Working conditions for MA soldiers are typically less than ideal and24 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

may take place in dangerous environments. Soldier deaths are often violent and the physical characteristics of the remains may be gruesome anddifficult to tolerate. Remains may be burned, mutilated, dismembered, or
decomposed, and the smells associated with death can be overwhelming,
permeating hair and clothes. Physical risks to the MA soldiers may also
be present as the remains may be booby-trapped or carry disease.
MA soldiers may experience grief over the loss of the service memberor the impact it has on the deceased service member’s loved ones. As ameans of emotional survival, MA soldiers are encouraged to avoid identifying with the deceased (Flynn, McCarroll, & Biggs, 2015). This can bechallenging as the deceased may wear the same uniform as the MA soldier, be of similar age, or share other common characteristics. Work withthe remains of women, children, or others who have a resemblance tothe MA soldier’s family or friends can be particularly difficult. Efforts toavoid identifying with the remains can break down during inventory ofthe deceased’s personal effects (e.g., when reviewing letters and picturesfrom the deceased’s loved ones), or when interacting with the deceased’sfamily or unit members. Therefore, self-care and social support are especially important for individuals working in MA.
Conclusion
The U.S. Army has many occupations (MOSs) organized into combat
arms, combat support, and combat service support. A general familiarity
with the types of common career paths within an MOS, along with anunderstanding of the duties, occupational stressors, and mission of each,will be helpful to researchers and clinicians who are new to working withsoldiers.
Thinking it Through1. How does your career influence the way you view an illness or
personal challenges experienced by you or your family member?
2. How might different jobs influence the way a soldier views illness or handles stress? For example, how might being responsible for packing parachutes for others influence a soldier’sview of control?
3. If a soldier identifies with their specific job (infantry, artillery,
medical, etc) more than with the Army as a whole, how mightthat influence their perception of being ill, receiving care, or ofparticipating in research?

25

Chapter 4

U.S. Army Structure:
Organization, Ranks, and Responsibilities
Key Points
1. Organization and rank define a soldier’s position and status in the
Army. These factors can help the researcher understand events in thesoldier’s career.
2. Knowing a unit’s command structure and its staff is essential to understanding how a unit functions and how that could affect research.
3. When conducting research that includes a wide variety of missions
and functions, it is important to understand how large-scale commands operate.
Background
The first task in attempting to understand the Army begins withknowledge of its organizational structure. A soldier belongs to many organizations. A soldier will typically belong to a squad, a platoon, a company, a battalion, a brigade, a division, and a higher echelon. The Army
includes active duty soldiers (Active Component), members of the Army
Reserve and Army National Guard (Reserve Component), and supporting civilian personnel who work alongside military personnel. The regular Army (active duty) component is the largest force of the U.S. military
services. As of 2014, it consisted of 504,330 soldiers. The Army National
Guard consisted of 354,072 and the Army Reserve was 195,438 (http://
www.armyg1.army.mil/HR/demographics.asp). There were approximately 800,000 Army family members. A total of 63.8% of Army soldiersreported family responsibilities: 35% had a spouse, 64% had children,
and about 1% had an adult dependent.
The Army functions as a team that includes the individual, the family,
and the military organization (usually known as “the unit”). Each unit has
its own culture that is based on the mission, the leadership, and the personnel in the unit. In addition to the unit’s mission, the leader influences

26 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

the culture of the unit. Companies within the same battalion (and battalions within brigades) can have markedly different characteristics basedon the leadership style of the commander such that soldiers’ daily experiences can differ markedly. For example, one commander may emphasize discipline and another physical fitness. Subcultures also exist within
the ranks. For example, lower enlisted personnel will have similar duties
and responsibilities that are distinct from those of higher rank. When asoldier is promoted from a lower enlisted rank to a non-commissioned
officer (NCO), that person will often assume leadership over those withwhom there was a previously equal relationship based on rank. NCOs
have their own culture. While both officers and NCOs lead soldiers, theydiffer on a variety of levels such as education, time in service, and levelof authority. These dissimilarities may be viewed as the foundation of
separate subcultures in the Army. The researcher is encouraged to learn
as much as possible about the unit, which often requires face-to-face contact with lower enlisted soldiers, NCOs, and officers. Such knowledge isbeneficial not only in the design of research; it also can lead to betterinterpretation of qualitative and quantitative information.
Soldiers and Their Ranks
There are three major classifications of Army personnel, divided byrank and responsibility: enlisted personnel (lower enlisted and NCOs),
warrant officers, and commissioned officers. (See Appendix C for descriptions of the responsibilities of each rank.) Ranks and insignia for all
U.S. military services are found at http://www.defense.gov/About-DoD/
Insignias [Accessed 12 December 2016]. Every Army rank is expressedby two or three characters, combinations of letters and numbers. Eachrank is also associated with a pay grade. While soldiers are usually addressed by their rank, pay grades are also discussed, particularly when referring to unit structures. For example, a sergeant has the pay grade of E5.
Hierarchical Army Organizations
Fire TeamThe basic building block of the infantry is the fire team. It usually consists of four or five soldiers who function as a unit in combat or otheroperations and duties. They can also serve in crews that serve weapons
such as artillery and crews manning combat vehicles such as tanks. Fire
teams are typically led by a corporal (E2) or a sergeant (E5).
Squad
The squad consists of approximately 10 soldiers and is ordinarily led by

U.S. Army Structure: Organization, Ranks, and Responsibilities 27

TABLE 1: Overview of Army Hierarchy
Fire Team■■ Squad■■ Platoon■■ Company■■ Battalion■■ Brigade■■ Division■■ Corps■■ Army■■ Army Group
■■a lower ranking NCO, usually a staff sergeant (E6). Squads form platoons.
PlatoonA platoon usually consists of four squads, with a total of about 40 people, although the size varies depending on the type of unit. It is the mostjunior Army organization led by an officer, a lieutenant (O1 or O2), whois the platoon leader. The platoon leader is not a commander, but functions under the supervision of the company commander. Each platoon
has an NCO platoon sergeant, usually a sergeant first class (SFC/E7). A
platoon is a basic organization in which soldiers will all know each otherand work together. Soldiers in one platoon may or may not know soldiersin other platoons, particularly soldiers who are new to the unit. Platoons
form companies.
Company
Three to five platoons and a headquarters section form a company. A
company is commanded by a captain (O3). It is the first level at which a
commander has jurisdictional authority over soldiers. Companies vary
greatly in size depending on the mission. They can include 60 to 200 soldiers or more. The senior NCO at the company level is the first sergeant(1SG/E8). At the platoon and company level, NCOs usually have longer
times in the Army than most lieutenants and captains. The1SG and theplatoon sergeants are major resources for the commander as well as forthe platoon leaders. (NCOs are major supports for the commander at allorganizational levels in the Army.) As a result of their experience, good
NCOs are highly valued. Companies can also be called batteries (in thefield artillery) or troops (for a cavalry company). The higher headquarters for the company is the battalion. Companies form battalions.

28 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

Battalion
A battalion is a major fighting force, typically consisting of approximately 750 soldiers. It is usually composed of four to six companies plus a headquarters element and is commanded by a lieutenant colonel (LTC/O5), an
experienced officer with usually at least 10–15 years of Army experience.
The major NCO for a battalion is the command sergeant major (CSM/E9),
a very powerful position and the pinnacle of an enlisted soldier’s career.
The CSM does not command, but leads through many roles in the battalion such as giving advice to the commander and other officers and NCOs.
Other major roles of the CSM are being involved in the training, equipping,and caring for the welfare of the (primarily enlisted) personnel of the unit.
The structure of a battalion can vary greatly. It usually has its own built-in
support with four staff officer positions: personnel, intelligence, operations,and logistics. In some cases, additional staff officers are assigned based on
the mission of the battalion. Battalions form brigades.
BrigadeA brigade is usually composed of three to six battalions and contains
approximately 3,900 to 4,100 soldiers. It is commanded by a Colonel(COL/O6) and, as with the battalion, has a command sergeant major(CSM/E9) as the commander’s NCO advisor. The CSM is the main link
between the Colonel and the enlisted personnel of the brigade, battalions, and companies. Brigades are structured as brigade combat teams(BCTs). The BCT is the major deployable U.S. combat force. It can be
deployed independently as a self-supporting organization or as part of adivision. Operating independently, in addition to combat forces, it has its
own logistical support. Brigades form divisions.
Division
An Army division is a command and control organization consisting of a headquarters and brigade combat teams (BCTs) as well as support organizations. It is commanded by a Major General (MG/2 stars)
and has a large headquarters staff. BCTs can operate independently fromother BCTs within the division or collaboratively. This type of structure
improves the division’s tactical ability to respond to immediate threats.
Divisions form corps.
Corps
Like the division, an Army corps is a command and control organization. In times of large-scale war, such as World War II, it was deployed
as a very large combat organization commanding divisions. However, inU.S. Army Structure: Organization, Ranks, and Responsibilities 29

modern warfare, which consists largely of small unit actions, its role is to
manage the organizations (divisions and brigade combat teams) under
its command. It is commanded by a Lieutenant General (LTG/O9, threestars) and has a large headquarters staff. Corps form field Armies.
Army
Historically, a theater army has been the Army component in a unified command (see below) with both combat and support capabilities.
An Army is commanded by a General (GEN/O10, four stars). An example of an Army from World War II is the U.S. Third Army, which wascommanded by General George Patton. However, distinguish between
an army and the entire U.S. Army. An army (such as the 3rd Army) isan existing organization whereas the U.S. Army consists of all personnel
in all active and reserve components. The final Army organization discussed is the Army Group.
Army Group
Historically, an army group consists of more than one U.S. army andusually armies from allied countries. It is employed for large scale, long
duration conflicts such as World War II. It is commanded by a General(GEN/O10, four stars). The last deployed army groups were in World War
II: the Sixth and Twelfth United States Army Groups, and the Fifteenth
Army Group. The Twelfth Army Group was the largest U. S. Army formation to ever take the field, 1.3 million personnel. It was commanded byGeneral Omar Bradley.
Army Staff Organization
Company and Battalion Staff
At each level of command in the Army, from the company to the armies
that fight wars, there exists a staff to assist the commander in carrying out
the mission. Officers will spend more time in staff positions than in command. The company commander will have an executive officer as well as
enlisted personnel in staff positions. The first level at which a formal staff
exists is the battalion although a less formal staff exists at company levelto handle matters of personnel, operations, supply, training, and otherfunctions. A battalion typically has four staff officers whose positions aredesignated by numbers preceded by a letter, 1–4: S1-Personnel, S2-Intelligence, S3-Operations and Training, and S4-Logistics. The same staff
functions exist at brigade level, but an S5-Civil-Military Operations andother staff may be assigned.

30 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

Division Staff
At higher levels of command, the four functions that define battalions
remain, but additional staff officers are required. At the division level,
staff officers are designated by a “G” (for general staff) for functions inaddition to the G1, G2, G3, and G4. The additional staff elements are: G5Civil-Military Operations; G6-Command, Control, Communications,and Computer Operations; G7-Information Operations Officer; and G8Resources Management. Commands can designate additional staff officers based on their mission. At the division and higher levels, commanders also have a personal staff that consists of the chaplain, judge advocate,
CSM, aide(s), and the public affairs officer.
Army Staff
At the Department of the Army level, there are many more staff elements that function under the direction of the Office of the Chief ofStaff of the Army. These are designated as Assistant Chiefs of Staff by
function. There are also many more staff elements under the directionof the Director of the Army Staff, who is responsible for integrating andsynchronizing the work of the Office of the Secretary of the Army andthe Army Staff. The Director reports directly to the Army Chief of Staff.
Large Scale Army Commands
The highest levels of Army commands exist to perform various functions such as combat, training, management of personnel, resources, acquisitions, planning, and other activities as required by the current Army
structure and organization. Most of these commands are called field
operating activities and come under the direction of an element of the
Army staff. Elements can change depending on operational and politicalpriorities like budgets.
Training and Fighting Commands
The two major commands that contain the largest number of military
personnel are the Forces Command (FORSCOM) (http://www.forscom.
army.mil/ accessed 25 July 2016) and the Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) (http://www.tradoc.army.mil/ accessed 25 July 2016).
The FORSCOM commands the Army fighting forces stationed at U.S.
installations and keeps them ready for deployment. Its mission also includes the ability to plan and deploy Army Reserve and Army National
Guard forces, when required. The FORSCOM headquarters is at Fort
Bragg, North Carolina. The TRADOC commands and manages all training elements in the Army from initial entry training to the most seniorU.S. Army Structure: Organization, Ranks, and Responsibilities 31

Army service colleges (See Chapter 5, U. S. Army Training). Its headquarters is at Fort Eustis, Virginia.
The Army Materiel Command (AMC)
The Army Materiel Command (http://www.amc.army.mil accessed 25
July 2016) is responsible for all Army logistics on a global basis. Its job ismateriel readiness — equipping, sustaining and enabling the warfighter
through technology, acquisition support, materiel development and logistics power projection across the spectrum of joint military operations.
If a soldier drives it, flies it, wears it, shoots it, communicates with it, oreats it, AMC provides it. The AMC responds to the needs of today’s war
fighters, but also anticipates the future and provides advanced equipment
and materiel. Its headquarters is at Redstone Arsenal, Alabama.
Large Scale Combatant Commands
Unified Commands
Unified commands contain U.S. forces of at least two military departments (e.g., the U.S. Army and the U.S. Navy) and may include the forcesof nations other than the U.S. An example is the Northern Commandthat has responsibility for Army operations concerning the U.S., Canada,
and Mexico. Its mission is to provide military support for civil authorities
in the U.S. and to protect the territory and national interests within thecontiguous United States, Alaska, Puerto Rico, Canada, and Mexico, andthe air, land, and sea approaches to these areas.
Combined Forces Commands
Combined forces commands consist of U.S. forces and those of othernations. The Republic of Korea/Combined U.S. Forces Command is an
example of a combined forces command (http://www.usfk.mil/). It has
a combined operational planning staff, developed in 1968 as an adjunctto the United Nations Command/United States Forces Korea/ Eighth
United States Army Headquarters.
Conclusion
Research, clinical practice, consulting, and otherwise interacting withmembers of the Army and Army veterans will be facilitated by understanding how the Army is structured. Even though soldiers wear the same
uniform, there are vast differences in experience, duties, and responsibilities that vary by organization. Rank determines the level of responsibility,
the career field determines the job, and experience and training determine the qualifications and ability of the individual soldier.

32 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

The Army works as a team, an approach that forms the basis of all
training as well as the functioning of the overall organization. At the lowest level of Army organization, a leader is generally in charge of about fivepeople. Through the Army hierarchy, organizations increase in size asenumerated above. For example, in World War II, the Twelfth U.S. Army
Group was the largest and most powerful U. S. Army formation ever totake to the field, over 1.3 million personnel.
Army organizations from the level of the company and higher havea commander and a staff. As the organization grows larger, so does thestaff. However, the most basic functions are contained in four separate
staffs: personnel, intelligence, operations, and logistics. From that basic
level, more elements can be added as the size of the command increases.
Examples are communications, civil-military affairs, and resource management.
Army commands are also organized by function: training, combat,
materiel, and support including medical, finance, and other personnel
functions. In worldwide operations, the Army carries out its missions in
combination with other U.S. military services and with the services ofother nations. U.S. organizations that support such missions are arranged
geographically over the globe.

Thinking it Through1. At what level of assignment and functioning are the soldiersparticipating in your research at — are they junior enlisted,senior enlisted (NCOs), officers, or all ranks? Are you dealing
with a company or something larger? Why might this matter?
2. When someone says, “The Army did…” what do they mean by“The Army”?
3. How could your relationship to the commander (due to requesting permission to conduct the study) impact the way soldiers view you? Could it change the way you view them?

33

Chapter 5

U.S. Army Training
Key Points
1. Training in the Army spans a wide range, from specific job training
at lower ranks to preparation for leadership and command at higher
ranks.
2. Formal training is required for promotion and is viewed as a reward
for success.
3. Many training programs involve field training as opposed to classroom training, are notoriously rigorous, and provide a rite of passage
for graduates.
BackgroundAt a time when only 29% of 17–24 year olds would qualify for military
service, and even fewer (1%) are actually serving, few can explain theexperience of military training. Short of prolonged deployments, soldiers
spend the majority of their time training. Army training gives soldiers
skills that set them apart and inculcates a culture specific to their career
field. This chapter will not discuss technical skills, but will emphasize thenature of the cultural conditioning that occurs beginning with initial entry training (IET) and more advanced and specialized skill training (Pietrzak, Johnson, Goldstein, Malley, & Southwick, 2009). IET is trainingof new enlistees. It includes basic combat training (BCT) and advanced
individual training (AIT), the completion of which entitles the soldier toa career classification, the military occupational specialty, or MOS (seeChapter 3 and below in this chapter for more discussion of the MOS).
Belonging to the Army (and any military service) encourages the development of an identity. Important aspects of IET are learning to work as ateam and to identify with Army values (see Tables 1 and 2). Some Armyorganizations require additional levels of skill training, which continues
to develop a soldier’s identity. An example is the training of the airborne
infantry soldier. Following IET, the soldier undergoes parachute training
and can subsequently be assigned to an airborne infantry unit. Often, that
identity stays with a soldier for the length of their career and as a veteran.

34 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

As a soldier aspires to more skill and more status, additional training may
be requested. The more rigorous the training, the more special the cultural context based on what is often considered an elite status comparedto soldiers who have not achieved this level of training and skill. In addition to airborne training, other trainings such as Army ranger training,
special operations, diving, and others carry a special identifying badge or
tab for the uniform.
The level and type of skills acquired through a short or long career arepart of a soldier’s identity. Those factors determine where that soldier will
be assigned, the types of duties expected, and the association with othersoldiers that form the basis of support for the individual as well as thesoldier’s family. Failure to complete training and subsequently adopt the
behaviors of the culture into which the soldier has been placed is a severe
limitation on the ability to function, to advance, and even to continue in
the Army.
Training and the Development of an Identity that Fits the Culture
Training prepares the soldier for the job, but is also the key element
in developing an Army identity. BCT takes 10 weeks to complete andconsists of long days of classroom and field training, Monday throughSaturday. Major topics of BCT are combat skills, teamwork, and personalcare. Identity development is also built through emphasis on Army values (Table 1).
Training for the Job
Training for all Army personnel (enlisted, warrant officers, and officers) is managed by the Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC)(http://www.tradoc.army.mil/ accessed 25 July 2016). This is a high-level
Army organization commanded by a 4-star general. TRADOC manages
all training from the initial entry training to high-level staff colleges (e.g.,
the Army War College).
An individual who joins the Army is recruited for a specific job, calleda military occupational specialty or MOS (see Chapter 3, U.S. Army Jobs).
Training has to take into account the abilities of the soldier. Classification
tests are given to evaluate abilities, but the match between abilities andinterests is not always met. For example, a soldier may want a particularjob, but may not qualify for it based on the requirements for the job including the level of achievement on the classification tests.
Depending on the specific capacity in which the individual serves,training can be extended or brief. MOS training for most enlisted personnel is for a few weeks or months, depending on the level of skill need-U.S. Army Training 35

TABLE 1. Army Core Values(http://www.army.mil/values/ accessed 25 July 2016)
Loyalty — Bear true faith and allegiance to the U.S. Constitution,
the U.S. Army, your unit, and other soldiers.
■■ Duty — Fulfill your obligations.
■■ Respect — Treat people as they should be treated.
■■ Selfless Service — Put the welfare of the nation, the U.S. Army, andyour subordinates before your own.
■■ Honor — Live up to U.S. Army values.
■■ Integrity — Do what’s right, legally and morally■■ Personal Courage — Face fear, danger, or adversity (physical or
moral)■■

ed. For the infantry, AIT is 10 weeks. The program for learning the Arabic
language takes 63 weeks. For officers, there are many routes to enter the
Army via the college Reserve Officer Training Corps, the U.S. Military
Academy at West Point, and the Officer Candidate School, which is a 12week program. Training for officer specialties including doctors, lawyers,
and chaplains generally occurs in their civilian field. As a result, military training is brief and generally consists of learning how to wear theuniform, military customs and courtesies, and the basic structure of the
Army. For example, doctors will learn about the Army’s medical structure in the Army Medical Command and other medical assets that arelocated in deployable organizations, such as in a brigade combat team or
separately deployable hospitals.
Training prepares the soldier for the job, but is also the key element indeveloping an Army identity. With the job, whether it is infantry, logistics, intelligence, or another of the many occupational specialties, comesthe association with others who have had the same training and experience — a culture. Some of these subcultures are stronger than others.
For example, being a member of an airborne or air assault infantry unit,
such as the 82nd or the 101st Airborne Division, puts the soldier in a more
elite category than those in non-airborne infantry units, such as the 1st
Cavalry Division or the 1st Infantry Division. These distinctions are often
bitterly argued between soldiers of such units. The training environmentis also the place where the soldier begins to learn Army lingo, an occasionally esoteric terminology consisting of jargon and acronyms that
seems like a foreign language to the person with no Army or other military background.

36 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

TABLE 2. The Soldier’s Creed(http://www.army.mil/values/Soldiers.html accessed 25 July 2016)
I am an American soldier.
I am a warrior and a member of a team.
I serve the people of the United States and live the Army Values.
I will always place the mission first.
I will never accept defeat.
I will never quit.
I will never leave a fallen comrade.
I am disciplined, physically and mentally tough, trained and proficient in
my warrior tasks and drills.
I always maintain my arms, my equipment and myself.
I am an expert and I am a professional.
I stand ready to deploy, engage, and destroy the enemies of the UnitedStates of America in close combat.
I am a guardian of freedom and the American way of life.
I am an American soldier.
Training and Education for Enlisted Personnel
We distinguish between training and education. Training is requiredfor holding an MOS in the Army and for special skills like airborne qualification. Education is selective, in that while usually required for promotion, it is often elective.
Basic Combat Training (BCT)BCT is ten weeks long and is identical for all Army active duty, Army
Reserve, and Army National Guard recruits. It is conducted in a highly
controlled environment with many physical and mental challenges. Recruits learn combat skills, how to work in a team, and Army customs andcourtesies. BCT prepares a universal identity of soldiers (common beliefs
and values) through their training and teamwork, but also learn throughthe seven Core Army Values and the Soldier Creed (see Tables 1 and 2).
Current BCT locations are Fort Benning, GA, Fort Leonard Wood, MO,
Fort Sill, OK, and Fort Jackson, SC.
Advanced Individual Training (AIT)BCT and AIT are two levels of training that are involved in the development of an Army identity, which includes the Army culture in general and the subculture in which a soldier functions following IET. BCTU.S. Army Training 37

prepares a universal identity of the soldiers, a combatant who shares thecommon beliefs of all soldiers. AIT goes further into fostering the development of a field-dependent identity based on the subcultures of infantry, medics, and other fields.
AIT consists of the remainder of the total IET and is when recruits
learn the specifics of their MOS. The Army trains a vast number of specialties and these can change with new requirements involving new technology and changing conditions of warfare. For example, remotely piloted aircraft, robots, and sensors are now widely deployed. Regardlessof these latter developments, basic soldier skills are the core of training.
Compared to BCT, AIT has more variability in its length and physical and mental requirements. It is different for each available Army career path, or MOS. The Army has almost 200 MOSs. AIT courses can last
anywhere from 4 to 52 weeks. Although many AIT schools do not train
for combat the way BCT does, individuals are still continually tested forphysical fitness and weapons proficiency. There are currently about 25 locations where Army personnel attend AIT (See Table 3 for AIT training
locations that may be attended by Army enlisted personnel). This number is subject to change as bases and training locations are combined or
moved. Some locations are at bases of the Navy or Air Force as it is more
economical to have appropriate personnel available in the same career
field, while having different military services trained at the same location.
Many changes in training have recently occurred for cost savings as aresult of the Defense Base Closure and Realignment Commission.
If a soldier cannot complete the AIT phase of training, that person
may be discharged or put into another career field for new training. Thisis called reclassification. Soldiers may also request reclassification at any
time during their career or may become ineligible for the current MOS
due to injuries, illnesses, or family difficulties.
Post-AIT Training
Following AIT, the individual may elect or be required to attend special skill training to qualify for special units or assignments. Many ofthese special skills will award a badge or tab for the uniform showingthat the person has that credential. Most of these schools are highly challenging physically and mentally. Examples are airborne, ranger, combat
infantry, combat medic, diver, and others.
Army Education for Enlisted Personnel
Enlisted personnel advancing through the ranks are required to attend a series of schools that are necessary for promotion to leadership38 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

TABLE 3. Locations for Enlisted Advanced Individual Training
The following list is illustrative of the wide variety of skills and locations at which Army personnel (primarily enlisted) are trained. We also
note locations of major branch headquarters. Often, Army personnel aretaught at schools of other military services and, conversely, other militaryoften attend Army schools. This list is subject to change based on Department of Defense requirements.
■■ Fort Rucker, Alabama — Aviation■■ Redstone Arsenal, Alabama — Missiles and rockets■■ Fort Huachuca, Arizona — Intelligence■■ Presidio of Monterey, California — Foreign language■■ Eglin Air Force Base, Florida — Ranger School (Phase III) and explosive ordnance disposal■■ Naval Support Activity, Florida — Engineer divers■■ Pensacola Naval Air Station, Florida — Foreign communications
intercept■■ Fort Benning, Georgia — Infantry, Airborne (Paratrooper), Ranger
School (Phase I & II)■■ Fort Gordon, Georgia — Signal Corps■■ Fort Meade, Maryland — Multiple federal and defense agencies suchas the National Security Agency■■ Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri — BCT and Engineers and Military
Police Corps■■ Naval Construction Battalion Center, Gulfport, Mississippi — Construction engineers■■ Fort Bragg, North Carolina — Airborne Infantry■■ Fort Sill, Oklahoma — Field Artillery■■ Fort Jackson, South Carolina — Basic Combat Training and Chaplain Center, Finance, NCO Education■■ Fort Bliss, Texas — Air Defense Artillery■■ Fort Sam Houston — Army Medical Department■■ Goodfellow Air Force Base, Texas — Cryptological and intelligence
training■■ Lackland Air Force Base, Texas — Military working dog program■■ Sheppard Air Force Base, Texas — Engineering and aircraft maintenance■■ Fort Eustis, Virginia — HQ, Training and Doctrine Command,
Army Aviation and Logistic Schools■■ Fort Lee, Virginia — Quartermaster, Ordnance Corps, Transportation Corps schools

U.S. Army Training 39

positions. Some are conducted at the installation where the soldier is assigned, while the more senior-level courses are conducted at a central
location.
Warrior Leader Course (WLC)
This is the first level of training for soldiers after completion of BCT
and AIT. It is for specialists and corporals (E4s) on the path to SGT (E5).
It is a month-long course to teach leadership at the small group level. It
includes instructions on how to counsel soldiers as well as tactical skills
such as map reading and land navigation.
Advanced Leader Course (ALC)
ALC is a junior level NCO course that focuses on training leaders at
the squad and platoon level. Soldiers who attend are Staff Sergeants (E6)and those who have been selected for promotion to staff sergeant. ALC
consists of a 90-day, highly facilitated web-based common core programand a branch-specific approximately eight-week resident phase designed
for the soldiers within each military occupation specialty. Mobile training teams at the installation level teach the course.
Senior Leader Course (SLC)
SLC prepares soldiers selected for promotion to Sergeant First Class(E7) to acquire the leadership, technical, and tactical skills, knowledge,
and experience needed to lead platoon/company size units. It is also
considered part of the preparation to be promoted to Master Sergeant(MSG/E8).
First Sergeant Course/Academy
This course prepares Sergeants First Class (E7) and Master Sergeants(E8) for the position of first sergeant of a company, battery, or troop.
The course consists of two phases: self-study lessons, and three weeks
of small group instruction. Phase II includes three weeks of interactive
small-group instruction. Subjects of study include training management,
unit administration, communicative skills, discipline and morale, logistics and maintenance, tactical operations, and physical fitness training.
Sergeants Major Course (SMC)The SMC is a senior level NCO course. It trains Master Sergeants (E8)and Sergeants Major (E9). Personnel trained are senior enlisted leadersfrom the Army, other U.S. military services, and allied militaries. It isa ten-month resident course conducted at the Army Sergeants Major

40 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

Academy, Fort Bliss, TX. A Department of the Army Selection Board
determines attendance for resident or non-resident training. If selected,
individuals may complete the course by correspondence.
Command Sergeants Major Academy
This course, also held at the Sergeants Major Academy at Fort Bliss,
Texas, is designed for Sergeants Major (E9) to learn to lead at the battalion command level.
Training and Education for Officers
Becoming an Officer
There are four ways in which an individual can become an officer:
the college reserve officer training program (ROTC), officer candidate
school (OCS), a direct commission (for specialized fields such as medicine, law, and chaplaincy), and the U.S. Military Academy (West Point).
Officers are trained in a career field that they have chosen or that they
have already completed, such as a professional school.
Basic Branch Schools
An officer is commissioned in a branch of the Army. Once an officer
is commissioned, basic branch school attendance is required. There are
currently 16 basic branches (see below) plus the specialty branches of the
Army Medical Department (Medical, Nurse, Dental, Veterinary, Medical Specialists, and Medical Service Corps), the Judge Advocate General
Corps, and the Chaplains Branch.
Army functions are trained in schools of the branches of the Army(e.g., infantry). Each branch has a function in combat arms, combat support, or combat service support. In some cases (e.g., engineers) the functions of a branch fall into more than one category. (See Chapter 3: Army
Jobs for a description of these functions of the Army.)
Advanced Officer Education
As officers progress, they will attend an advanced officer course in
their branch that can last six months or longer. Following the advanced
courses are higher-level schools for training officers from most branches.
Among these are the Army Command and General Staff College (CGSC)
and the Joint Service Staff College (formerly the Army Forces Staff College until integrated into the National Defense University in 1981). Each
service has its own war college for senior officers (lieutenant colonel andhigher). The National Defense University (NDU) prepares military andcivilian leaders from the United States and other countries in national

U.S. Army Training 41

and international security challenges. Schools for advanced officer education also usually include officers from other military services, high-level
civilians of the Department of Defense, and officers from other nations.
Conclusion
In general, if the Army is not fighting, it is training. Training begins
at entry and generally continues throughout a soldier’s career. At the enlisted level, weapons, tactics, equipment, and leadership are the major
topics. For officers (warrant and commissioned), training is oriented toward building knowledge of their basic branch until the officer reaches ahigher level and duties become branch immaterial.
Thinking it Through1. How might Army values impact a soldier’s response to trauma?
Would that change the way you design a survey or questionnaire?
2. What are the differences in training in enlisted soldiers andofficers? What impacts might that have on their view of illness
and recovery?
3. Where do you get your core values? Parents, school, friends,
religion/faith? Do you always abide by these core values? Are
any of them situational?

42 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

43

Chapter 6

Career and Family Transitions
Key Points:
1. Transitions in the military pose opportunities and challenges for thesoldier and the family.
2. Stress from large transitions, such as permanent relocation or retirement, benefits from support from many levels.
3. Small transitions, such as changes in rank and leadership, may cause
unexpected, but significant impacts on a soldier’s life and career.
BackgroundArmy life includes many transitions: enlistment or commissioning,
deployment, redeployment, demotion, promotion, a relocation, which iscalled a permanent change of station (PCS), separating from the military (voluntarily or involuntarily), and retirement. Transitions affect the
trajectory of the life and career of the soldier and family: individual, interpersonal, community, and military factors that may have an impact
on career and adjustment. Some transitions are of short duration, whileothers may be protracted, but all transitions can be meaningful periodsof adjustment. Transitions can be complex, and include challenges as well
as opportunities for growth. They may contribute to increased well-being
or be damaging, and many can have both positive and negative effects.
Soldiers will respond differently to these transitions, so there is no easy
way to predict which transitions will be stressful. Some may feel relief
with getting out of the Army, while others may fear civilian life. As such,being aware of the potential for stress at any transition is important.
These stressors can be abrupt, violent, untimely, and may involve therisk of death in the case of combat deployment. There are potential stressors in all military environments, including garrison life, training, and deployment. Both individual (e.g., self-efficacy and job involvement) andunit/organization (e.g., leadership climate, collective efficacy, and policy
decisions) moderators may influence the relationship between stressors(e.g., workload and role ambiguity) and health and performance outcomes (e.g., well-being, depression) (Castro, 2015). These facts highlight44 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

the importance of individual, family, leadership, and organizational intervention at key transition points to mitigate the potential for negative
outcomes.
The military family also experiences many of these transitions andstressors. Many transitions are similar to those in civilian families, whileothers are unique. Some unique military challenges are associated with
deployment, such as concern about the health and safety of the service
member while deployed, childcare, family health, and financial welfare.
Overall, most families are resilient, adapt well to these Army-relatedtransitions, learn to anticipate them, and to plan for the future. In addition to the changes to the individual and family, there are challenges
unrelated to the military, such as marriage, having children, caring for elderly parents, and others. These transitions may amplify stress, especially
if more than one occur simultaneously, such as the addition of a child tothe family while the soldier is deployed. The ability to anticipate whentransitions will occur, what to expect, and how to adapt to them can leadto increased resilience and better outcomes.
We present a chronological discussion of transitions by career stage:early, middle, and late. In general, this chapter largely addresses the lifeof the enlisted soldier and the family. Although officers will go throughmany similar transitions, the roles and responsibilities, and the career
trajectories are different.
Early Career Transitions
The initial challenges faced by the recruit include adjustment to military culture and initial training (see Table 1). These transitions may involve adaptation to a new environment, isolation from civilian peers,
separation from family, inexperience with authority and leadership, lackof privacy, close supervision, and monitoring of health and habits (Bijuret al., 1997; McCrary, 2006). The adjustment to military culture can be alengthy process. Initial exposure to military culture begins with Initial
Entry Training (IET) (Pietrzak et al., 2009), which is divided into Basic
Combat Training (BCT) and Advanced Individual Training (AIT). BCT
teaches basic combat skills, physical and mental fitness, and Army values
and ethics. AIT teaches skills specific to the soldier’s military occupational specialty (MOS) (See Chapter 3, Army Jobs). During BCT and AIT,
soldiers begin to identify with the culture, uniform, customs, structure,and values of the Army.
IET, and particularly BCT, may be an intense and stressful transition
period, associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety (M. A. Taylor, Shultz, Spiegel, Morrison, & Greene, 2007). Soldiers are adapting toCareer and Family Transitions 45

TABLE 1. Early Career Transitions■■ Basic training■■ MOS–specific training■■ Separation from family/friends■■ Adjustment to military culture■■ Adaptation to discipline and authority■■ Adaptation to physically taxing work (e.g., long hours, field duty, sleep
deprivation, and adverse weather)a new culture, a new community (the unit), and a new identity. Amongthe most important adaptations a solider makes within a military unit
are the need to learn to work with others as a team and the importanceof unit identity over self. Unit identity requires cohesion with one’s teammates (horizontal cohesion) and with the leadership (vertical cohesion).
Without horizontal cohesion the unit falls apart and can lead to mission
compromise. Vertical cohesion is based on trust in the leadership suchthat soldiers believe that they are respected, well supervised, and thatsomeone is looking after their welfare. While this is especially importantin the early career, it is also an important factor throughout the career ofa soldier (Manning, 1991).
Failure to complete BCT or AIT can feel humiliating and shameful.
Most failures to complete training occur in AIT. In 2014, 13.16% failed tocomplete IET, 0.07% failed to complete BCT and 13.10% failed AIT. According to data from the Defense Manpower Data Center1 indicated thatfemales tended to fail BCT or AIT more than males: 18.55% of females
compared to 12.06% of males. One may fail to complete BCT or AIT for
many reasons, including the inability to meet the physical or cognitive or
intellectual demands for the chosen occupational field, inability to demonstrate the capacity to adjust to requirements related to good order anddiscipline, and other failures to adapt. Physical fitness requirements are
the biggest hurdle for soldiers in BCT (Rieger & Scott, 2006). Fitness isan essential component of an Army career. Fitness in the Army is tested
annually by three measures of strength and endurance: push-ups, sit-ups,
and a two-mile run. Passing a fitness test is a requirement for promotion,
for attendance at an Army school, and for some assignments. Units perform calisthenics regularly, often before sunrise, as a group. Unit runs are
1. This data was obtained through a direct request (DRS #92854) to the DMDC
made by one of the authors (JM). It represents data collected through
31JUL2015.

46 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

thought to be morale and cohesion builders.
In addition, once a soldier has completed IET and is in a unit, approximately 30% do not complete their first tour of duty (Cardona & Ritchie,2006). If a soldier fails to meet the training requirements for one job (themilitary occupational specialty or MOS — See Chapter 3), another MOS
can be selected if there is a vacancy available. If a vacancy is not available, a soldier can be assigned a MOS that may be less desirable to that
individual. During IET, these changes are relatively easily accomplished,
but are more difficult after a soldier reaches their first unit assignment.
If the soldier does not fit in or does not like the MOS, moving from one
into another can be a lengthy process. Such a change (reclassification) is
not always successful in terms of the soldier’s adaptation to the Army. A
soldier may be given permission to change MOS depending on the needsof the unit. However, if the unit is due to deploy or is under-manned,
they are likely to need all of their personnel and are not likely to support
a person’s application for reclassification to another MOS, which usuallywould necessitate a transfer out of the unit.
Middle Career Transitions
Although transitions are inherent across the lifespan, much of the literature on stress associated with military transition has focused on early
career transitions rather than those of mid-career and late career. Significant mid-career transitions may include military leadership training,
civilian education, promotion, leadership advances and changes in responsibility, adjustment and work environment-related issues, multiple
deployments, and frequent moves (see Table 2).
TABLE 2. Middle Career Transitions
Military leadership training■■ Civilian education■■ Promotions■■ Changes in responsibility■■ New unit assignment■■ Changes in leadership■■ Multiple deployments■■ Relocation/moving■■ Overseas assignments■■

Military Leadership Training
Leadership training is required to develop leadership skills as well as
proficiency in combat skills. Military leadership training also teaches

Career and Family Transitions 47

about changes in Army structure and organization (see Chapter 2). The
Army is constantly changing to adapt to new realities in the world order, weapons and tactics, fighting doctrine, and new missions. Leadershiptraining may buffer against the negative effects of stress for commanders
and those they lead (e.g., role clarity, self-efficacy, and job engagement),
which in turn may influence soldier health outcomes (Britt, Davison,
Bliese, & Castro, 2004).
Leadership and other professional training (e.g., airborne school or
ranger school) may require temporary duty (TDY) at locations otherthan home for periods of weeks to months. When the soldier is involvedin training away from home, family members may elect to move elsewhere (such as to move in with their parents or other relatives). Changes
in housing and parental responsibility, similar in many ways to those resulting from deployment (although with less attendant stress related todanger or uncertainty surrounding return), are also likely.
Civilian Education
Civilian education is also an Army priority that can serve multiple
purposes, to include enhancing the soldier’s career through learning new
skills and contributing to eligibility for promotion. Civilian educational
benefits are a strong motivation for joining the military. For example,
in a 2014 survey, 74% of active duty military and veterans reported thatreceipt of education benefits was either an important or very importantreason for joining (Buryk, Trail, Gonzalez, Miller, & Friedman, 2015;
Gonzales, Miller, Buryk, & Wenger, 2015). The 2009 Post-9/11 GI Bill,an effort to meet the needs of two million post-9/11 era veterans andtheir dependents, was the largest expansion of veterans education benefits since the 1944 GI Bill. Since 2009, service members may elect totransfer their GI Bill benefits to their spouse, to one of their children, orto divide the benefit (equivalent to the cost of tuition and fees associatedwith receipt of a four year degree at a public university) among two or
more parties. Once they complete IET, soldiers are given funds and opportunities to take college courses, which can count toward a soldier’s
promotion as well as increase their skills and knowledge. All installations
have an education office where soldiers can sign up for classes online, bycorrespondence, or in person. Many of these opportunities are also available when the soldier is deployed.
Promotion
For lower ranking enlisted personnel (E1-E4), promotion is automatic
if the soldier has progressed normally without failures in performance or48 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchersrequirements for more than usual discipline. At the non-commissioned
officer (NCO) levels (E5-E9) promotion is competitive. Soldiers needsufficient time in their current grade, time in the Army, and there must
be a vacancy in the unit at the rank for which they qualify. Additional
requirements for promotion are often required. Promotion for a soldier
in a unit will include a formal ceremony in which promotion orders areread and the new rank is attached to the uniform. Typically, the unit
commander performs this ceremony with the soldier’s family present
and assisting with the ceremony by attaching the rank. The promotion
ceremony, which is the formal recognition of this particular transition, is
an important element of military culture.
Demotion
Enlisted soldiers can also be reduced in rank for a variety of reasons.
This is not a disciplinary option for officers — although they can be denied promotion. Loss of rank comes with a loss in pay and changes in career trajectories — they may no longer hold sufficient rank to lead a fireteam or platoon. Loss in pay can impact a soldier’s entire family. Losing
rank is also a highly visible form of punishment, as soldiers have to gettheir uniforms altered and explain to everyone why they “lost a stripe.”
Reasons for demotion can be as simple as being late, failing to improve,or poor work performance. While timeliness may seem like a small infraction in civilian life, in combat it can equate to not only military success but also to the safety of others (dropping a mortar 1 minute early orlate could mean landing on friendly forces). Typically a soldier is given“paperwork,” a Letter of Reprimand (LOR) for example, before losing
rank, but this is not always the case.
Leadership Advances and Changes in Responsibility
As soldiers increase in rank, they become responsible for other soldiers.
This usually begins at the E4 level (specialist or corporal), in which thesoldier may supervise only a few people (e.g., five soldiers as a team, special detachment, or detail). There is an NCO at each squad and throughout the organization above the squad level (see chapter 4 for details on
Army rank and organization), including the high levels of command. At
each increasing level of the NCO ranks, there is more responsibility, notonly for soldiers, but also for equipment, training, and operations. It is
important to note that NCOs do not command, but they lead soldiersand offer their advice to other leaders and to the unit commander.
Some soldiers adapt quickly to becoming leaders, but there are hazards
associated with taking on a leadership role: increased potential for incom-

Career and Family Transitions 49

petence, failure, or demotion. These difficulties often happen when a soldier is promoted early, without sufficient experience to be able to lead. If
the person is a poor leader, that will be reflected in the performance of thesoldiers led, which can also affect the unit cohesion and ability to function
as a team. The successful leader, however, will enjoy benefits like increased
respect and feelings of accomplishment. The anticipation of crises andchallenges in leadership and knowing what to expect will help a leader
and their unit through transitions (Bennis, 2004). Some approaches undertaken within the first six months of assuming a new position may help
with the transition: seeking a mentor, building a team, making a low-key
entry to learn the culture of leadership in the organization. Other beneficial strategies are learning from the wisdom of those already there, suchsenior NCOs, and learning who to trust (Bennis, 2004).
Work/Environment-Related Issues
Military service is inherently stressful. Physically and mentally demanding tasks, long work hours, and the possibility of being injured or
killed are just a few of the stressors of military life. Adaptation to physically taxing work as well as field duty, limited sleep, adverse weather, andboredom) have been associated with adjustment difficulties. Sleep difficulties are common among soldiers and veterans. Insomnia negatively
impacts combat operations and the overall deployment experience andis also a risk factor for posttraumatic stress disorder (Bramoweth & Germain, 2013). In a study of 375 service members and veterans of Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom, sleep difficulties were common and included sleep onset greater than 30 minutes (45.4%), achieving
fewer than 4.5 hours of total sleep time (21.4%), and being awake in bed
more than 15% of the time (Plumb, Peachey, & Zelman, 2014).
Deployments
Military deployments can involve multiple transitions and can be
stressful, regardless of whether the deployments involve combat, peacekeeping, or humanitarian efforts. A training period always precedes the
deployment and can take the soldier away from family and home fordays or weeks. Response to acute stress can vary. Soldiers may be stable
and resilient, have a gradual recovery, exhibit chronic distress, or havedelayed reactions (Mancini, Bonanno, & Sinan, 2015). Although deployments are sometimes associated with negative outcomes in families (deBurgh, White, Fear, & Iversen, 2011), families can also be resilient in theface of deployments (Bonanno et al., 2012; Cozza, Chun, & Polo, 2005). Ina study of a six-month peacekeeping deployment, soldiers reported both

50 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

positive and negative aspects of their deployment experience (Newby etal., 2005). Among the positive responses were earning extra money from
deployment, self-improvement in military skills, improvement in maritalor significant relationships, helping the people of the region, travel to another country, and realizing how fortunate they are to live in the UnitedStates. Negative responses included disappointment with the militarychain of command, moral injury, being away from family and missing
important events, deterioration of marital or significant relationships,
and feeling that the mission was not worthwhile. It should be noted that
there was a wide range of reports regarding the effects of deployment onmarital/significant other relationships. 30% of respondents reported that
there were only positive benefits, 16% thought there were only negative
effects, 47% reported both positive and negative consequences, and 7%
did not report either. These results emphasize the importance of variability in the adjustment to stress.
Relocation
Frequent moves are expected for the soldier and the family. Service
members, particularly high ranking officers and NCOs and those withspecial duties, can receive orders to move on short notice, leaving little
time to prepare for a move, to say farewell to friends, and to adjust to
a new community. Soldiers often work closely with Army leadership toselect their next assignments and may request the new location; however, they may not receive the assignment or the location that they desire.
Military moves have many challenges, such as finding affordable housing if base housing is not available, and establishing new health care andsupport networks. If married, they may need to find employment for the
spouse. Enrollment in school is necessary for children — and can be exceptionally stressful if previous work does not transfer to new school
districts or if a child’s programs of interest (e.g., sports, music) are notavailable in a new location. Children often view their peers as their main
support network, which can make moving especially difficult for them.
In addition to permanent moves with families, soldiers can also be ordered to locations where the family cannot accompany the soldier. These
are called unaccompanied tours. Often, whether a family moves withthe soldier depends on the soldier’s rank as well as the duty assignment.
Lower ranking personnel are often not allowed to have their families accompany them on some assignments overseas.
Injury and Illness
Soldiers risk injury and death during routine training, in movement

Career and Family Transitions 51

from locations in deployment, from accidents, and from combat. Illnesses in the Army can also differ from those in the civilian environment. Illnesses can result from exposure to a contagion due to dense living quarters, diseases that are endemic to foreign countries, and environmental
exposures such as depleted uranium in munitions and toxic substancesfrom fires (Mancuso, Ostafin, & Lovell, 2008).
As in the civilian world, illness and injury can occur at any point inlife. However, in the Army, the chances of injury are high (Belmont et al.,2010). Trainees are typically young and able to “bounce back.” Occasionally they will need to be “re-cycled” in a new training rotation, which isfrustrating, but not career-ending. While injury can occur any time in asoldier’s career, being injured in mid-career can be devastating as it can
result in medical retirement or reclassification if the soldier no longer
meets the physical requirements for the MOS.
Army Regulation 350-1 (standards for fitness for duty) is the basis fordetermining whether an individual can have a particular assignment or
remain on active duty. Both physical and mental standards exist. If there
is a question as to whether an individual can remain on active duty following an injury or illness, the individual’s record is put before a Medical Evaluation Board (MEB). Military doctors first describe the service
member’s medical diagnoses and prognoses in a narrative summary(called a NARSUM). The NARSUM is presented to the military service’s
Physical Disability Agency (PDA), which evaluates the service member’sability to meet the demands of the occupation, including deployability.
Evaluations for disability discharge have a variety of possible outcomes:
discharge with severance pay, temporary disability (until the condition
stabilizes), permanent disability, or return to duty. In these ways, an illness or injury may result in a jarring transition for even the best soldiers.
Late Career Transitions
The transition from middle to late career has challenges from a variety
of sources (see Table 3). Occupationally, senior leaders can struggle with
the increased responsibility that comes with their rank, changes in military culture due to new recruit populations, and variations in society’s
support for the military. Those who have been previously injured may
struggle with the lingering effects of injury that can be exacerbated due
to normal aging. Those with a family can struggle with the same circumstances as the civilian population — children leaving home, paying forcollege, and caring for aging parents.
Retirement eligibility and benefits for retirees can change with theneeds of the military. At the present time, service members are eligible

52 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

TABLE 3. Late Career Transitions
Mentoring younger soldiers■■ High-level responsibility■■ Family changes: aging parents, children leaving home, and retirement■■ Health changes■■

for retirement after 20 years of service and must retire after 30 years withspecial exemptions for senior personnel based on the needs of the Army.
Upon 20 years of service, a pension in the amount of 50% of the basepay is allotted for the rest of the retiree’s life. This can then increase beyond 50% for time served past 20 years. It should be noted retirement
can occur as early as age 38–45, enabling service members opportunities
early in their life that would not be otherwise possible. Army Reserveand Army National Guard personnel can also retire with the same benefits based on years of active and reserve service. After retirement, service
members may need training to facilitate the transition to a new career.
Educational benefits are available to members after service. The Post9/11 GI Bill is the most common means of supplementary educational
funding, as the full benefits are substantial and may include in-state tuition and a stipend. There are other benefits available to retirees: access todiscounted shopping in military installations; VA benefits; and disability
compensation if the soldier is injured or has a serious illness during active duty (Hamaoka et al., 2014).
Despite these benefits, retirement from active duty involves manytransitions and challenges for the soldier and the family (see Table 4).
There are many programs within the Army during the late career canhelp ease the transition from the Army to civilian life. Although retirement outcomes are usually neutral or positive, retirement may also be
stressful because of the potential losses it entails, such as reduced income
and activity. Retirement may be associated with perceived loss of support/camaraderie and financial problems, which may lead to increased
distress (Schnurr et al., 2005). Interviews with veterans revealed common concerns related to their transition to civilian life: fear of losing
their “military family”, worry of feeling out of place with people in their
new civilian life, and anxiety about lack of support (Ahern et al., 2015).
Successful career transitions of military retirees may involve additional education and training. Many military retirees transition to a second
career that is related to the military. One predictor of a successful second career transition among military retirees includes pre-military planning for a successful transition to civilian life (Vigoda-Gadot, Baruch,

Career and Family Transitions 53

TABLE 4. Transitions upon Retirement
Planning for separation/retirement■■ Relocation/moving off-base■■ Educational needs for new career■■ Occupational changes■■ Changes in financial situation■■ Loss of informal support networks■■ Loss of usual installation support services■■ Benefits eligibility (military/state)■■ VA eligibility/accessibility■■& Grimland, 2010). This preparation can inform expectations of theirjob and will help retirees overcome potential difficulties and frustrationsin their new careers. Maintaining interpersonal relationships developed
during military service, networking, and finding mentors are also important steps to successful transitions. Leaders at the end of their careers
may also benefit from mentoring younger personnel (Bennis, 2004).
Work-life balance difficulties may arise, as conflict with family time maylead to challenges with transitions to second careers. The new positionneeds to fit with the family role for long-term success. Finally, retirees
who prepare for and anticipate the needs surrounding family-work conflict and find mentors and networks are more likely to be committed totheir new organization, which is associated with better adjustment during the transition to a second career (Vigoda–Gadot et al., 2010).
There are other types of separation from the military besides retirement, either voluntary or involuntary, that occur prior to meeting retirement eligibility. These separations may cut short what was intended to
be a long military career and remove the possibilities of advancement
and retirement. Involuntary separations can occur at any level due to reductions in force, administrative discharges (e.g., behavioral or failure toadjust), medical conditions, or disciplinary reasons. Voluntary discharges are accepted, but the military may recall the soldier to active duty, if
needed, depending on the needs of the military and depending on thesoldier’s Army component, MOS, age, retirement status, and other considerations.
Conclusion
Transitions are inherently stressful, producing changes in relationships, work context, and personal and social identity, and are associatedwith disrupted social networks. Successful transitions include strong re-54 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

TABLE 5. Transitions for Soldiers and Families that Can Occur
Throughout the Career■■ Changes in financial situation■■ Relocation/moving■■ Geographic marital separation■■ Less social support due to geographic isolation from family andfriends■■ Changes in informal support networks■■ Access to medical care and health services■■ Work and family obligations/responsibilities■■ Spouse education■■ Spouse employment■■ Deployment cycle■■ Children’s educational needs■■ Concern for safety of deployed spouse■■ Aging parents/parental illness
lationships with family, friends, and community, employment after leaving the military, and a sense of well–being and contentment.
Awareness of the stressors associated with each career stage in the
Army is crucial at the organizational level with respect to policies, programs, and ways to meet the demands of the military on the soldier andfamily. Professionals working with soldiers can benefit from a better
understanding of the stress points during transitions, as these may belogical places to focus research, clinical, and programmatic efforts to improve outcomes for individuals and organizations within the Army.
Thinking it Through
1. Is the soldier currently going through any transitions?
2. How did they navigate previous transitions?
3. Could a career transition be related to your research question(e.g., is the stress you are seeing in senior enlisted members
secondary to delayed PTSD or adjustment to a new leadership
position?)?

55

Chapter 7

U.S. Army National Guard and the Army
Reserve: Citizen-Soldiers
Key Points
1. Reservists and National Guard members identify with their civilian
culture and their military culture — asking about the impact of bothis important.
2. Reservists and National Guard members may have a limited local
military group with which to identify.
3. Reserve component personnel can face many challenges related totheir military duties that are not shared by the active component forces.
Background
There are two primary components of the U.S. Army: the Active Component and the Reserve Component (RC), which consists of both theArmy Reserve and the Army National Guard. The RC has many categories, but there are primarily three: the Ready Reserve, the Standby Reserve, and the Retired Reserve. The Ready Reserve includes the Selected
Reserve, which is made up of soldiers who train year-round and arecapable of rapid deployment, and the Individual Ready Reserve (IRR),
comprised of former members of active duty or reserve forces. The IRR
soldier does not belong to a unit, but still has a military obligation andcan be mobilized. The Standby Reserve consists of skilled personnel who
are not required to perform training, but may be mobilized to fill specific manpower needs. Similar to the IRR is the Inactive National Guard(ING). These soldiers do not drill and are not attached to a unit, but may
be mobilized (called up) in the event of a national emergency. The Retired Reserve consists of personnel who have retired from active dutyor the Reserve Component, but may also be called up. The Reserve andGuard have served and continue to serve important military and civil
functions. In this chapter, we briefly provide the historical context of theReserve and Guard, their roles in U.S. society and the Army, and describe

56 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

them as they currently function with a special focus on their differenceswith the active component of the Army.
GRAPH 1: Size of U.S. Army Components in 2014

Reserves(195,000)
Active Duty
(504,000)
National Guard(354,000)The U.S. Army National Guard
The Guard is the oldest military organization in the United States,
dating from 1607, when militia companies were formed at Jamestown,
Virginia (http://vko.va.ngb.army.mil/VirginiaGuard/history/overview.
html). In 1636, the Massachusetts Bay Colony created three regimentsthat existed as separate militias around the area of Boston to defend thecolony against Native Americans. The Guard has since participated in every war or conflict that the U.S. has fought. The Guard is a state organization and is commanded by the adjutant general of the state who is responsible to the governor, but can be mobilized for federal service by orderof the President of the U.S. The Guard exists in all 50 states, the Districtof Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Guam. Guard soldiers
are civilians who mobilize for training and for state and federal missions.
In addition to these part-time soldiers, the 54 Army Guard headquarters contain a mixture of active duty and civilian personnel for full-time
personnel actions, such as preparing and monitoring training schedules,
pay processing, and other personnel actions (United States Government
Accountability Office (GAO), 2013). As of 2014, the Guard consisted of
354,072 Soldiers (http://download.militaryonesource.mil/12038/MOS/
Reports/2014-Demographics-Report.pdf). The Guard has a position on
the Joint Chiefs of Staff, represented by a 4-star general, the Chief of the
National Guard Bureau.

U.S. Army National Guard and the Army Reserve: Citizen-Soldiers 57

U.S. Army Reserve
Congress created the Army Reserve in 1908 as the Medical Reserve
Corps (Anonymous, 2008). In 1920, after World War I, Congress established the Officer Reserve Corps, the Enlisted Reserve Corps, and the Reserve Officer Training Corps. Approximately one-third of the force wascomposed of medical personnel. Since that time, Reserve personnel have
served in every conflict up to the present.
The Army Reserve is exclusively a federal military service, with norole in U.S. state operations except in extreme circumstances. Reserve
units currently exist in 35 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, Puerto
Rico, Guam, and American Samoa. The size of the Reserve in 2014 was
195,438 soldiers (http://download.militaryonesource.mil/12038/MOS/
Reports/2014-Demographics-Report.pdf).
The highest-ranking officer of the Reserves is the Chief of the Army
Reserve, a 3-star general who sits on the Army staff.
Army Guard and Reserve Training and Duty
When an individual joins the Guard/Reserve, that person is committed
to eight years of service. Time can be spent either on activated, Guard, orReserve status, depending on various factors such as age, job, and lengthof time of service. Both the Guard and Reserve attend the same initialentry training (IET) (See Chapter 5: Army Training). Following IET, thesoldier typically returns to their unit unless they request or are required
to attend additional training or remain on active duty. Typically, both theGuard and Reserve will train (called drill) for one weekend per monthplus a two-week period (annual training) each year. If called to active
duty, Guard and Reserve personnel function exactly as active component
soldiers. That is, they are part of a larger force whose mission is federally
defined. They serve whenever and wherever needed.
Personnel in the Guard and Reserve are eligible for the same retirement pay as soldiers who retire from an active duty career, but their retirement is computed on the basis of multiple factors including the timespent on active duty and other factors.
Current Legal Status of the Guard and Reserve
Both the Guard and Reserve derive their legal status from the U. S.
Constitution (Abramowitz, 2013). The drafters of the Constitution had a
mistrust of a large standing Army due to their experience with the British
Army prior to the American Revolutionary War. The Constitution established militias for the U.S. in two separate clauses, 12 and 16. The first(clause 12) was “To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of

58 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years.” This clauseprovides for a standing Army, but one with a limited role at the time of its
founding. The second (clause 16), is “To provide for organizing, arming,and disciplining, the militia and for governing such part of them as may
be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states
respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training
the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress.” The tensions between the active Army and the reserve components are present
today as they compete for political influence and funds (White, 2010).
State constitutions also have sections regulating militia and military affairs for the Guard.
Two U. S. federal statutes, U.S. Code Title 10 and Title 32, currently
apply to Guard mobilization. Title 10 and Title 32 operations are terms
often used when Guard operations are discussed by soldiers. Title 32 provides the legal basis for the Guard and most of its state operations. However, the Guard can be called to full-time active duty status under Title
10, for operational activities in the U.S., as determined by the Secretaryof Defense. Title 10 applies to operations when members of the Guard
are ordered to active duty in a time of national emergency. In this status,
federal dollars are used to pay guardsmen. Title 10 similarly provides theauthority to activate Reservists.
Structures and Functions of the Guard and Reserve
Both the Guard and the Reserves have the same types of military
units (combat, combat support, and combat service support) and structures (squads, platoons, companies, battalions, brigades, and divisions)as the active component. Through the end of January 2015, the Reserve
has contributed 8.6% of deployments to Afghanistan and 8.8% to Iraq.
The Guard has contributed 17.7% of soldiers to Afghanistan and 19.7%
of soldiers to Iraq (DMDC, 2015). In addition to multiple deployments,
Guard and Reserve soldiers are also required to participate in peacekeeping operations, large-scale domestic disturbances and emergencies, suchas hurricanes and wildfires, southwest border operations, and national
inaugural events. Humanitarian operations often require Guard forces
to assume key roles in security, infrastructure protection, and search andrescue. These operations have required the development of novel policies
and plans: responding to Hurricane Katrina required activation of Guard
Forces whose own homes were often also under water. These operations
have also required new technologies (e.g., communication networks forresponding over a vast area of operations), which may then be transferred to the regular Army.

U.S. Army National Guard and the Army Reserve: Citizen-Soldiers 59

Post-September 11, 2001: Changes In the Active Army, Army National
Guard and Army Reserve
The Army, including both active and reserve components, has undergone substantial changes following the events of September 11, 2001
(hereafter referred to as 9/11). This transformation has major effects on
the Reserve and Guard, as well as the active component (White, 2010).
Previously the active component was the primary operational force, withaugmentation by the Guard and Reserve, should it be necessary. The
Guard and Reserve are now considered operational forces rather thanstrategic reserves. Prior to these changes, the reserves often were seen
as “second-class” in comparison to the active Army. This was more true
for the Army Reserve, which at an earlier time consisted largely of support forces, than for the Army Guard (Tucker & Army War Coll Carlisle
Barracks, 2008). In Operation Iraqi Freedom, Army and Marine reservists had substantially higher rates of combat exposure than reservists inother branches of service (Russell et al., 2014).
TABLE 1. Post-9/11 Operational Changes in the Army Reserve and
Guard■■ Transitioned from strategic reserve to operational forces■■ Became a mobile modular force (brigade combat teams)■■ Overhauled unit operations:— More selective recruitment of personnel— Increased family and employer support— Increased training— Scheduled equipment maintenance■■■■Took an active role in homeland defense
Increased competition with Army for funds

The strategic climate since 9/11 has called for Army forces to change
from those prepared for large-scale warfare, as in the Persian Gulf War
of 1990–1991, to a more mobile and modular force that is largely selfsupporting and capable of rapid deployment. Whereas before 9/11 theArmy division was the typical operational force that would be deployed,
the brigade combat team (BCT) has become the most readily deployable
force. In order to implement this concept, complex changes to policies
and procedures where required. The roles of homeland defense and national security were updated. Unit operations such as recruiting of personnel, maintenance of equipment, training, family and employer support were also overhauled. All of these necessitated increased funding,which placed the Guard and Reserve in competition for DoD funds for60 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

personnel, training, and equipment (Pressnell & Army War College Carlisle Barracks, 2013), a position that could cause increased strife between
active duty and Guard and Reserve forces.
Stressors and Challenges in the Guard and Reserve
Supporting Combatant Commands
The Army Guard has a role in supporting the nine U.S. combatantcommands (European, Central, Africa, Pacific, North America, SouthAmerica, Special Operations, Strategic, and Transportation) in promoting security and stability operations in partnership with nations in theregions of the combatant commands (Deaton, 2013; Majury & Army
War College Carlisle Barracks, 2013). Goals of this civil-military strategic
partnership are to promote democratic institutions, share best practices,help partner countries achieve their goals, and reduce the pressure on
combatant commands to promote regional stability. Currently, some 40
U.S. states participate in this program, including joint exercises, training,and building capacity and capability of host nations in strategic partnerships.
Deployment
Reservists may be less prepared for the challenges of deployment compared to their active component counterparts for several reasons. Due totheir limited drill time, reservists receive less training than active component personnel. Lower levels of deployment preparedness have been
associated with an increased likelihood of posttraumatic stress disorder(PTSD) among reservists (Goldmann et al., 2012; Kline et al., 2013; Polusny et al., 2011; Shea, Reddy, Tyrka, & Sevin, 2013). Additionally, when
they deploy, it is possible that they could deploy as individuals rather thanas a unit. This is often more true of specialized soldiers such as doctors
than lower ranking soldiers. When this happens, more mental health issues can occur than when a unit deploys (Granado et al., 2012; Sundin etal., 2012), since high social support is associated with better mental healthoutcomes (Goldmann et al., 2012; Pietrzak et al., 2009; Polusny et al.,2011). Further, upon their return, they quickly go back to civilian life often
without the support of those with whom they were deployed. However,
empirical data on the mental health consequences of deploying without
one’s regular unit are scant. Of the published studies, some (Ismail et al.,
2000; Langston, Gould, & Greenberg, 2007; Rona et al., 2012), but not all(Booth-Kewley, Larson, Highfill-McRoy, Garland, & Gaskin, 2010; Granado et al., 2012; Sundin et al., 2012) have found significant associations
between individual augmentee status and mental health outcomes.

U.S. Army National Guard and the Army Reserve: Citizen-Soldiers 61

There is also the potential for less recovery time (also referred to as
dwell time) between deployments. Since the Guard can be deployedboth for state and federal missions, it is possible that dwell time can be
cut short if a guardsman is deployed for a state mission between federal deployments. Lastly, there are also issues of limited access to military
healthcare for Army Reserve and Army Guard personnel, who normally
have to be on active duty orders to receive care, but there is some additional eligibility following release from active duty. Limited access tomilitary health care can be further exacerbated by limited access to civilian care for those who live in rural areas. Reserve component personnel
returning from deployment also have an increased risk of homelessness,particularly in rural regions (Clauss, 2012).
Mental Health
Current budgetary and strategic planning has put great pressure on
the Army Guard and the Army Reserve (Abramowitz, 2013). Reserve
component personnel, like active duty personnel, are at risk for mental health problems following deployment (Hotopf et al., 2006; Lane,
Hourani, Bray, & Williams, 2012; Milliken, Auchterlonie, & Hoge, 2007;
Smith et al., 2008; Thomas et al., 2010). They are also at increased risk ofheavy weekly drinking, binge drinking, and other alcohol-related problems compared to active component personnel (Jacobson et al., 2008).
Compared to active duty forces that had been deployed, reservists reporthigher percentages of suicidal ideation (7.1% vs. 5.4%), have a higher
rate of suicide attempts (2.3% vs. 1.0%), and have a higher prevalence of
PTSD symptoms (8.4% vs. 7.6%) (Lane et al., 2012).
A prospective study of Guard soldiers who were deployed to Iraq
from March 2006 to July 2007 investigated the role of risk and resilience
factors prior to and after deployment (Polusny et al., 2011). Post-deployment new-onset probable PTSD was 13.8%. Their well-designed study,
notable for controlling many potential confounders, found that combat
experience, the aftermath of battle, exposure to recent stressful events,
and post-deployment social support (negative) independently predicted new-onset probable PTSD. The authors further hypothesized thata lack of post-deployment social support and post-deployment family
life stressors represented an important challenge for those transitioning
from the combat zone to civilian life. They suggested post-deployment
interventions that enhance the interpersonal supports of returning personnel. Further study is necessary to understand the role of the family
in social support and how recent stressors are associated with family
functioning.

62 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

Conclusion
Army Guard and Army Reserve personnel and their families have undergone many stressors and challenges due to increased levels of deployment during the recent Middle East conflicts. Both have been mobilized
in unprecedented numbers for long and repeated deployments. In addition to the mission requirements, there have been large-scale structuralchanges in the organizations due to Army transformation. Finally, in atime of reduced resources, both components of the Army compete forresources, which will affect all operations, such as recruitment, training,
unit and equipment maintenance, and the possibility of more deployments. The stress of these changes and developments will impact many
levels of soldier and family life, particularly employment and health care,as laws and regulations pertaining to both are subject to many factors,
such as employer considerations and availability and access to healthcare providers and facilities. However, both the Guard and Reserve are
expected to be strengthened and expanded, given that they are more costeffective and have demonstrated success in the Middle East conflicts ofthe present time.
Thinking it Through1. What are some typical expectations of personnel who join the
Army Guard or the Army Reserve? How might they impact
their view of serving?
2. How might being activated impact the personal and occupational life of members of the Army Guard and Army Reserve?
3. How might limited access to medical care and social services
affect their view of the military?

63

Chapter 8

Technology and War
Key Points
1. Changes in the ways wars are fought have effects on soldiers that may
be unique.
2. Technology affects weapons and strategy and forms the backdrop of
the culture associated with conflicts.
3. Combat is increasingly technological and can impact those who never set foot on the battlefield.
BackgroundThe current weapons, strategy, and culture affect every conflict, froma full-scale war to a clandestine operation. Weapons have evolved overmillennia and most conflicts have included a change in weaponry thathas often been decisive. However, improved weapons are not the only
factors that influence the outcome. Strategy has also changed. Rows ofsoldiers of the British Army were faced by guerrilla warfare that was often used by Americans in the Revolutionary War. Fear of mustard gas
dramatically changed the battlefield and the types of casualties during
the First World War. The use of terror has become a mainstay in current
combat. Indeed, every new weapon and tactic has a dramatic effect on
the experience of combat, and the potential associated fears.
Being in the military is not synonymous with combat experience.
There are soldiers who may have never deployed, let alone seen combat. Furthermore, deploying does not always involve exposure to combat.
However, when a soldier does experience combat it can have a profound
impact on their identity. Each conflict is different, and thus can have a
different impact on the individual and the society. This chapter reviews
the impact of recent conflicts and, in particular, the impact of the recent
war on terror, with specific emphasis on the use of Improvised Explosive
Devices (IEDs) by the enemy.

64 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

Modern Combat
Persian Gulf War
The Persian Gulf War (Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm; 2 August 1990–28 February 1991) was the last time that the U.S. and allied
forces fought a large-scale armed conflict in a linear fashion with recognized front line and rear areas. This conflict was similar to most previous
American wars, with the exception of the Vietnam War. The Persian Gulf
War was planned and executed in a manner that had been anticipatedby over forty years of preparation in central Europe for an attack by theSoviet Union; it just happened to be fought in the Middle East. There washeavy reliance upon military dominance of the air, large-scale troop andvehicle movement, engagement of heavily armored forces across open
terrain, and the use of combat air power to attack ground forces. Naval and maritime forces prepared for resupply, amphibious assault (orits threat), and the delivery of supportive bombardment by missiles andaircraft launched from the sea. With all of these assets and preparation,
the war was brief and decisive.
Despite a relatively quick victory, there was great concern for largescale casualties from weapons of mass destruction (WMD), especiallychemical weapons, by a foe that had employed them liberally during the
Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988). This, combined with the wholesale deployment of the Reserve and Guard forces with little to no previous combat
training, dramatically influenced soldiers’ anxiety related to the combat
environment. Exposure to desert dust, unfamiliar vaccines, smoke fromburning oil wells and burn-pits, contact with depleted uranium munitions, and the threat of invisible chemical nerve agents introduced a panoply of potential causes for complex behavioral and somatic symptoms
in military and civilians personnel on the battlefield.
Yugoslavia/Balkans
U.S. military involvement in the ethnic conflict surrounding the implosion of the former Yugoslavia in the Balkans (1993–2004) was a harbinger of many elements of 21st Century armed conflict, notably, dispersed combat and peacekeeping on a discontinuous battlefield, withcomplex geopolitical, religious, and ethnic elements. While casualties
from these operations were low, the continued employment of reserve
elements, confusion about the nature of the enemy, and the deep involvement of the media in framing the perceptions of both the warrior
and the public foreshadowed wars to come. These all compounded the
sub-cultural factors described in the above sections that characterize
the special operations forces (SOF), the Air Force and regular groundTechnology and War 65

forces, especially the Active Army, Army Reserve, and Army National
Guard.
Post 9/11
The September 11th, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center and thePentagon, and the attempted attack on another target in Washington,
DC, heroically foiled by the passengers of United Airlines Flight 93, set inmotion a series of reactive and pre-emptive military operations, resulting in over fifteen years of armed conflict in two major theatres, Iraq and
Afghanistan. These operations mirrored many of the smaller scale experiences in the Balkans: dispersed isolated engagement and peacekeeping
on a discontinuous battlefield with complex geopolitical, religious, andethnic elements. There was no rear or forward area. Soldiers deployedin historically support roles, such as truck drivers, found themselves targets of directed attacks on supply lines with IEDs. Even conventionalline units, such as artillery, were employed in route clearance, security,and urban clearing operations: roles they were psychologically unprepared for, even after last minute additional skills training. Naval medical
and other personnel were deployed into facilities and environments far
removed from maritime or even littoral areas. Airmen were exposed todirect combat through indirect fire and ambushes during resupply andother movements. In short, very few deployed soldiers, sailors, airmen,
marines, and coastguardsmen were spared engagement in direct combat
operations, a fact revealed through numerous assessments of the psychological experiences of support and combat troops in annual Mental
Health Advisory Team studies conducted by the Office of the Army Surgeon General. (See, for example, http://armymedicine.mil/Documents/
MHAT_9_OEF_Report.pdf accessed 25 July 2016).
The past 17 years (2001–2017) of military engagements in Afghanistan (Operation Enduring Freedom or OEF), Iraq (Operation Iraqi Freedom and New Dawn, or OIF/OND), and now Syria, in the war against
the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant or Syria (ISIL or ISIS), have seen
the results of a 44-year-old transition from a conscripted Army and Marine Corps to an all-volunteer force. While earlier generations might
have experienced a single long deployment (in excess of 6 months) or apredictable cycle of sea duty for 3–6 months, a large number of the active
duty and Reserve and Guard forces, especially ground combatants in the
Army and Marine Corps and SOF, were deployed repeatedly for tours of
7–15 months into combat zones. This is in contrast to the Persian Gulf
War, which lasted for little more than a month after 5 months of preparations were complete. These changes reflect both the realities of prolonged

66 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

conflict, employing a relatively small active component and reserve force
and the longer enlistments of many volunteers. Compounding this operational tempo (OPTEMPO) is the fact that many more soldiers in the allvolunteer force have families than their counterparts in the conscripted
force of the 1950’s — 1970’s, in which there were far more single men, far
fewer women, and a force that turned over regularly as short-term enlistments were completed and new soldiers replaced them.
Finally, dramatic continuous improvements occurred in the care of
combatants from the point of injury or illness (POI) to the sites of recovery and rehabilitation within the military health system of DoD hospitals or the Department of Veterans Affairs facilities. A concerted multifactorial, multi-disciplinary, and tri-service effort to improve every stepof casualty care from the POI, including far-forward life-saving surgicalresuscitation, intra-theatre and inter-theatre evacuation — usually byhelicopter and specially outfitted aircraft, respectively — and comprehensive recovery and rehabilitation was undertaken. These measures led
to unprecedented survival from battlefield wounds and injuries and theretention of wounded, ill, and otherwise injured combatants who could
be returned to duty, and a large number of grievously wounded amputees
and others who were medically retired.
Combat Stress
Combat-related stressors, which often occur during deployments tocombat zones, may also be present during deployments for peacekeeping, extended training exercises, and humanitarian missions. For example, landmines may injure soldiers deployed to peacekeeping missions.
Examples of stressors frequently encountered in combat situations arepresented in Table 1 (Killgore et al., 2008).
TABLE 1. Combat Deployment-Related Stressful Life Events■■ Participating in IED/mine clearing operations■■ Close-range IED/booby trap explosions■■ Working in areas that were mined or had IEDs■■ Being attacked or ambushed■■ Clearing/searching homes or buildings■■ Receiving small arms fire■■ Seeing dead bodies or human remains■■ Seeing destroyed homes and villages■■ Knowing someone seriously injured or killed■■ Having a member of one’s own unit become a casualty■■ Receiving incoming artillery rocket or mortar fireTechnology and War 67

Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs)
A significant and novel threat to soldiers who have been deployed forcombat in Afghanistan and Iraq has been the use of IEDs. IED attacks
have steadily increased since the beginning of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, reaching a peak in March of 2007, with reports of 2,612 total
IED incidents (including exploded, detected, or defused devices) and 448
casualties (including 59 troops killed in action and 389 wounded in action) in Iraq (Cordesman, Loi, & Kocharlakota, 2010). The highest number of casualties resulting from IEDs occurred in June of 2007 in Iraq,
with 83 troops killed and 572 wounded, followed by a marked decrease
in total IED incidents.
IEDs are easy and inexpensive to produce, yet are responsible for devastating injury and death to military personnel and extensive destruction to vehicles (DePalma, Burris, Champion, & Hodgson, 2005). They
are weapons that are homemade from readily accessible materials (e.g.,containers, fertilizer, wire, batteries, wood scraps) or chemicals, such as
fuel, or from discarded parts of military devices (e.g., mortar shells, oldmines) and are frequently loaded with metal fragments or objects thatare propelled at the time of the blast and produce further, more extensive
injury (DePalma et al., 2005). They are frequently buried or affixed to vehicles, and may be detonated close to the target or victim-activated, thus
posing a threat that is unpredictable and difficult to identify and prevent(Barbero, 2013; Dao, 2009; Moulton, 2009). It is often unnecessary forinstigators to be present at the time of the explosion, which minimizes
their own risk.
IEDs were the primary cause of wartime injury and death in Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) and Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) (Bohannon, 2011; French, Iversen, Lange, & Bryant, 2012). It is estimatedthat more than 60% of all U.S. combat casualties in OEF/OIF have been
due to IEDs (Barbero, 2013; Bohannon, 2011). The nature of IEDs initially precluded effective protective measures against them, although vehicle and body armor have since been developed. The threat of IEDs also
restricts troops’ freedom of movement, with slow-moving bomb detection teams and heavily armored vehicles, which are mine-resistant but
difficult to maneuver, complicating travel (Dao, 2009). In addition to thephysical characteristics of these weapons, the novelty of IEDs can produce significant psychological responses in soldiers. IEDs are unfamiliarand difficult to identify or anticipate, which can affect soldiers’ perceptions of threat and safety, subsequently increasing their sense of vulnerability, loss of control, and helplessness. Further information on IEDs canbe found at the Joint IED Defeat Organization (www.jieddo.mil).

68 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

Conclusion
Combat can be a defining experience for a soldier, and yet may only
represent a small fraction of their entire career, if at all. Years of training and preparation are required for the development of combat skills,
making the success, or failure, of a combat mission significant for soldiers. Exploring combat exposure in the context of the associated conflict serves an important role in understanding the cultural context of asoldier. Similarly, for the soldier who never deployed, or has never experienced combat, exploring what it means to have never been “at the tipof the spear” can be equally important. This differentiation may become
increasingly complex, as more combat operations can be conducted remotely. Indeed, combat of the future will have unique influences we have
yet to study — women in combat units for example, that will change theway we understand the traumas associated with war.
Thinking it Through1. When did the soldier serve? Did s/he deploy? Did s/he experience any combat? What was that like?
2. What types of injuries did the soldier or those around him/hersustain? What type of care was available / provided? What was
the outcome of their injuries?
3. What types of weapons was the soldier exposed to? What was
their reaction to these weapons?

69

APPENDIX A

Relevant Films and Books
Background
Film and literature provide a powerful window into worlds to which
we may not otherwise be exposed. But, as art, they can be prone to exaggeration and error. In the following list, we have diligently attempted to
select books and movies that are illustrative of the military experience.
These are but a token of the many books and movies depicting war andits effects. Although great lengths were taken to identify a high quality
and representative selection, it is essential to maintain a reflective stanceduring the experience of these works. What features align with what you
know about the military? What does not? These films and books can also
provide researchers with a starting point from which to engage a soldier.
Asking a soldier for their impression of a film will provide much more
information than the film itself — and will open the door to further conversation.
Selection ProcessThis media list of resources offers a compelling glimpse of war andmilitary culture. It was compiled based on recommendations by a panelof seven experts in military psychiatry and psychology. They were asked
to recommend movies and books that contain one or more of the following themes: deployment, combat, returning home, PTSD, families, casualties, and general military history. These experts were interviewed inperson whenever possible, and by phone, email, or written copy. In addition, Internet searches were performed using search terms such as “bestVietnam movies” and “best Korean War books.” When lists of the best
movies or books depicting a given conflict turned up in search results,
plot summaries were carefully reviewed. Selections were chosen if they
were considered to fit one or more of the requested themes, and if they
were generally rated highly by critics/reviewers (e.g., www.imdb.com rating of 7.5 or higher). If movies were both recommended by experts andrated highly by critics, this was also taken into consideration in compiling the list. Another consideration was diversity within the list of recom-

70 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

mendations. For example, there was an attempt to ensure that the experiences of women during wartime or in the military were represented (e.g.,
Hospital Sketches by Louisa May Alcott, Sand Queen by Helen Benedict,Testament of Youth by Vera Britten (World War I)). During the process,the editors met at least weekly to review the compiled list. Through an
iterative process of discussion, some selections were removed and others were retained. Selections were then grouped into broad eras (e.g.,
Pre-Revolutionary War-Civil War) and subcategorized into movies andbooks. Finally, the final themes were revised as follows: illness/injury,
combat, returning home, families, PTSD/mental health, unit cohesion,
military history, and military service.

Illn

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Relevant Films and Books 71

CIVIL WAR
Movies							Glory (1989)			✓				✓directed by Edward Zwick
Lincoln (2012)			✓directed by Steven Spielberg					Books							The Red Badge of Courage (1895) 			
✓			✓
by Stephen Crane				Gone with the Wind (1936)			✓ ✓by Margaret Mitchell			✓Hospital Sketches (1863)		
✓by Louisa May Alcott						WORLD WAR I
Movies							Sergeant York (1941)			✓		✓directed by Howard Hawks			Legends of the Fall (1994)			✓ ✓directed by Edward Zwick			

✓Books							Testament of Youth (1933)		
✓			✓
by Vera Brittain 		
All Quiet on the Western Front (1929)		✓		✓by Erich Maria Remarque		✓

A Farewell to Arms (1929)		
✓ ✓		✓by Ernest Hemingway		✓WORLD WAR II
Movies							Patton (1970)			✓			✓directed by Franklin Schaffner

✓

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72 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

Saving Private Ryan (1998)			✓		✓		✓directed by Steven Spielberg
The Longest Day (1962)			✓directed by Annakin, Marton & Wicki					To Hell and Back (1955)			✓				✓directed by Jesse Hibbs
Books							Crusade in Europe (1948)			✓						 ✓by Gen. Dwight Eisenhower
The Second World War (1990)			✓						 ✓by John Keegan
The Thin Red Line (1962)			✓by James Jones					KOREAN WAR
Books							The Coldest Night (2012)			
✓		✓		✓by Robert Olmstead			
VIETNAM WAR
Movies							Platoon (1986)			✓					✓directed by Oliver Stone
The Deer Hunter (1978)		
✓ ✓directed by Michael Cimino

✓

✓

✓

✓

Books							The Things They Carried (1990) 			 ✓			✓by Tim O’Brien		

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Relevant Films and Books 73

CONTEMPORARY CONFLICTS
Movies							Black Hawk Down (2001)			✓directed by Ridley Scott					The Hurt Locker (2008)			
✓		✓
directed by Kathryn Bigelow					Brothers (2009)				✓directed by Jim Sheridan		✓✓

Restrepo (2010)		
✓ ✓				✓directed by Sebastian Junger
Korengal (2014)		
✓ ✓ ✓directed by Sebastian Junger✓		✓Books							Sand Queen (2012) 			
✓ ✓		✓by Helen Benedict				74 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

75

APPENDIX B

Glossary of Acronyms
AFQT
AIT
BCT
EMT
IED
IET
MOS
MA
NCO
VBED

Armed Forces Qualification Test
Advanced Individual Training
Basic combat training
Emergency medical technician
Improvised explosive device
Initial entry training (Consists of BCT and AIT)
Military occupational specialty
Mortuary affairs
Non-commissioned officer
Vehicle borne explosive device

76 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

77

APPENDIX C

Ranks and Responsibilities
Enlisted personnel serve in ranks from private to sergeant major, E1E9. Enlisted personnel were about 81% of the Army in 2014. E1-E4 arereferred to as junior (or lower ranking) enlisted. Those in ranks E5-E9
are NCOs although some E4 at the rank of corporal can also be considered NCOs depending on their duties. E1-E4 are usually personnel
on their first enlistment in the Army. Warrant Officers were about 3%,
and commissioned officers were about 16%. The primary role of lower
ranking enlisted personnel is to carry out the orders issued to them tothem by their NCOs and officers. Insignia for these ranks can be found
at: http://www.army.mil/symbols/armyranks.html
Enlisted
PRIVATE (PVT/PV2, E1/E2) Addressed as “Private” — The lowest Armyrank. This is the entry-level rank for most soldiers. Soldiers are promoted
to E2 upon graduation from basic training.
PRIVATE FIRST CLASS (PFC/E3) Addressed as “Private” — PV2s arepromoted to PFC after approximately one year in the Army. Some soldiers, such as those with some college, can enter the Army as a PFC.
SPECIALIST (SPC/E4) Addressed as “Specialist” — Has served a minimum of two years and attended a specific training class as one of the requirements for this promotion. People enlisting with a four-year college
degree can enter the Army as a SPC. This is the first leadership role. The
SPC can lead other enlisted soldiers of lower rank.
CORPORAL (CPL/E4) Addressed as “Corporal” — The base of the NCO
ranks, CPLs serve as team leader of the smallest Army units such as afire team or a squad. Like all other NCOs, CPLs are responsible for theindividual training, personal appearance, and cleanliness of the soldiers
they lead.

78 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

SERGEANT (SGT/E5) Addressed as “Sergeant” — A SGT typically leads
a fire team (4 soldiers).
STAFF SERGEANT (SSG/E6) Addressed as “Sergeant” — SSGs typicallylead a squad comprised of two fire teams (9 total). Outside of combat,
they are often in staff positions at the company level. They can also function as platoon sergeants when the higher level NCO sergeant first class/
E7 is not available in the unit.
SERGEANT FIRST CLASS (SFC/E7) Addressed as “Sergeant” — SFCs
are typically platoon sergeants and function as advisors to the platoon
leader. The SFC generally has 15 to 18 years of Army experience.
MASTER SERGEANT (MSG/E8) Addressed as Master Sergeant” — The
MSG generally functions is a staff position. Normally they do not havethe leadership responsibilities of a first sergeant (1SG), who has the same
pay grade as a MSG.
FIRST SERGEANT (1SG/E8) Addressed as “First Sergeant” — The firstsergeant is the principal NCO at the company. The 1SG acts as the provider, disciplinarian, and counselor who instructs other NCOs, advises
the company commander, and helps train all enlisted soldiers.
SERGEANT MAJOR (SGM/E9) (Addressed as “Sergeant Major” — A
sergeant major is the senior NCO at the higher levels of Army organizations, but not at those that are commands such as battalion orbrigade or higher level organizations. The SGM’s roles and duties are
similar to those of the first sergeant at the company level, but the SGM
has the responsibility for many more soldiers and organizational responsibilities.
COMMAND SERGEANT MAJOR (CSM/E9) Addressed as “Sergeant
Major” — As is the case with other senior NCOs, the CSM functions at
the level of a battalion command or higher (e.g., brigade, and division).
The CSM supplies recommendations to the commander and staff, andcarries out policies and standards on the performance, training, appearance, and conduct of enlisted personnel.
SERGEANT MAJOR OF THE ARMY (SMA/E9) — There is only one
Sergeant Major of the Army. This rank is the epitome of what it means
to be a sergeant. The Sergeant Major of the Army oversees all NCOs andRanks and Responsibilities 79

serves as the senior enlisted advisor to the Chief of Staff of the Army (afour-star General).
Warrant Officers
In terms of Army structure, warrant officers fall between enlisted personnel and commissioned officers. They typically come from the enlisted
ranks in technical fields such as aviation, maintenance, and some logistical fields. The Army warrant officer is a technical expert, combat leader,trainer, and advisor. They are appointed by warrant by the Secretary of
the Army. Through progressive levels of expertise in assignments, training, and education, the warrant officer administers, manages, maintains,
operates, and integrates Army systems and equipment across the full
spectrum of Army operations. Warrant officers are formally addressed
as either Mr. or Ms.
rant Officers
WARRANT OFFICER 1 (WO1/W1) — WO1s are technically and tactically focused officers who perform the primary duties of technical leader,trainer, operator, manager, maintainer, sustainer, and advisor.
CHIEF WARRANT OFFICER 2 (CW2/W2) — CW2s are intermediatelevel technical and tactical experts who perform increased duties andresponsibilities at small groups through battalion levels.
CHIEF WARRANT OFFICER 3 (CW3/W3) — CW3s are advanced-level
experts who perform the primary duties of a technical and tactical leader.
They provide direction, guidance, resources, assistance, and supervisionnecessary for subordinates to perform their duties. CW3s primarily support operations levels from team or detachment through brigade.
CHIEF WARRANT OFFICER 4 (CW4/W4) — CW4s are senior-level
experts in their field. They primarily support battalion, brigade, division,
corps, and echelons above corps operations. CW4s typically have special
mentorship responsibilities for other WOs and provide essential advice
to commanders on WO issues.
CHIEF WARRANT OFFICER 5 (CW5/W5) — CW5s are master-leveltechnical and tactical experts who support brigade, division, corps, echelons above corps, and major command operations. They provide leader
development, mentorship, advice, and counsel to WOs and branch officers. CW5s have special WO leadership and representation responsibilities within their respective commands.

80 U.S. ARMY CULTURE: An Introduction for Behavioral Health Researchers

Officers
SECOND LIEUTENANT (2LT/O1) (Addressed as “Lieutenant” — The
entry-level rank for most Commissioned Officers. Leads platoon-size elements of four or more squads (16 to 44 soldiers).
FIRST LIEUTENANT (1LT/O2) (Addressed as “Lieutenant” — A senior
lieutenant generally with 18 to 24 months of service. Leads platoons andfunctions as executive officer (second in command to the company commander).
CAPTAIN (CPT/O3) Addressed as “Captain” — Commands companysized units (60 to 200 soldiers). Often functions as a staff officer at thebattalion level.
MAJOR (MAJ/O4) Addressed as “Major” — Usually serves as a staff officer at battalion and brigade level.
LIEUTENANT COLONEL (LTC/O5) Addressed as “Lieutenant Colonel” or informally as “Colonel” — Battalion-sized units (300 to 1,000 soldiers) are typically commanded by LTCs. LTCs often have staff positions
at the division level, or serve as brigade deputy commanders.
COLONEL (COL/O6) (Addressed as “Colonel” — Brigade-sized units(3,000 to 5,000 soldiers) are typically commanded by COLs. Can occupy
many staff positions.
BRIGADIER GENERAL (BG/O7) Addressed as “General” — Serves as
deputy commander to the commanding general for Army divisions andcan occupy many staff positions. Assists in overseeing the staff ’s planningand coordination of a mission.
MAJOR GENERAL (MG/O8) (Addressed as “General” — Typicallycommands division-sized-units (10,000 to 15,000 soldiers).
LIEUTENANT GENERAL (LTG/O9) Addressed as “General” — Typically commands corps-sized units (20,000 to 45,000 soldiers) and canhold a senior position on the Army staff.
GENERAL (GEN/O10) Addressed as “General” — The senior level ofArmy commissioned officer typically has over 30 years of experienceand service. Commands all operations within their geographical area.
The Chief of Staff of the Army is a four-star general.

81

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