Social change andhealth in Sweden
250 years of politics and practice
Jan Sundin and Sam Willner

Swedish National Institute of Public Health R 2007:21
ISBN: 978-91-7257-534-9
ISSN: 1651-8624
Graphic design: AB Typoform
Photos on front cover, from the left: IBL bildbyrå, Photos.com, Popperfoto/IBL bildbyrå,Photos.com and Sydsvenskan/IBL bildbyrå
Printing: Alfa Print AB, Solna 2007

Table of contents
List of tables and figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
250 years of public health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Health transition after 1750 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Aims, concepts and perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Reference list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2. Pre-Enlightenment: Life and death in God’s hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
State, church and people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
The Black Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Summary: Public health before the Enlightenment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Reference list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3. Mercantilism, the Enlightenment and the birth of epidemiology . . 55
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Mortality according to the statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Famines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Men and women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Town and country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Science, learned societies and enlightened priests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Popular advice from Sweden’s first paediatrician . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
The enemies according to an enlightened provincial doctor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Local administration, literacy and church discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Summary: The public health legacy of the Age of Enlightenment . . . . . . . . . . 77
Reference list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

4. Society in transition: Population growth, proletarianisationand increased life expectancy (c. 1800–1870) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
A society in transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Epidemiological trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Children and adults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Men and women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Regional and social differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Material deprivation and mortality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Health administration, provincial doctors and midwives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Public health and local administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Smallpox vaccination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Breastfeeding, infant care and cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Pre-industrial urban areas and hygiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Cholera – the last large-scale epidemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Strong liquor – a point of order and a health risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Social control and stigmatisation: Supervision of prostitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Summary: The first phase of the epidemiological revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Reference list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

5. Industrialisation and hygienism (c. 1870–1920) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Epidemiological trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Men and women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Regional and social differences in mortality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
The growth of medical knowledge and medical institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
A national statistics agency, Statistics Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Industrialisation, ideologies and the welfare state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Occupational health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Healthcare administration as a local issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Urban hygienism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Urban water – two local examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Alcohol legislation and the orderly worker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Philanthropy – humanitarian aid and social control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Philanthropy and public institutions – corporative cooperation . . . . . . . . . . 142
Popular movements – social and political grassroots in a new society . . . . . 144
Summary: Hygienism, economic growth and social stabilisation . . . . . . . . . 146
Reference list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6. Between two wars: Towards the Swedish welfare state(1920–1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
The epidemiological regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Social and regional differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
The institutionalisation of maternal and child healthcare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
District nurses in the line of public health duty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
The fight against tuberculosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

The Bratt system – solidarity among decent folk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Solving societal problems with the help of “social medicine” . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Social utopia: Scientific faith and paternalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
From urban to rural health risks: “Dirty Sweden” goes rural . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
The birth of the welfare state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Summary: Increased life expectancy, welfare and social hygiene . . . . . . . . . . 172
Reference list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

7. Harvest time for welfare policy
and medical progress (1945–2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Epidemiological trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Men and women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Social differences in health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Regional differences in mortality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Harvest time for the welfare state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Urbanisation, housing crisis and the “million-homes” programme . . . . . . . 192
Biomedical progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
The health service in economic crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Occupational and environmental health risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Swedish Public Health Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Epidemiology, risk factors and health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Restructuring the economy, social stress and health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Care of the body, the perfect body ideal and health as market commodities . . . 200
Swedish public health in a global individualistic world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
A comprehensive Swedish public health policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Health – a field of compromise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Summary: Harvest time for welfare policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Reference list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

8. Conclusions – lessons from the past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Social determinants and health – a Swedish example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Health and the response of society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Health and social change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Sweden and its European neighbours – converging systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Swedish history and the world today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Health and lessons from history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Reference list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

List of tables and figures
tablesTable 1.1
Table 3.1
Table 5.1

Table 6.1
Table 7.1

Remaining average life expectancy at different ages, 1751–2002.
Causes of death among men and women 20–44 years old.
Sweden, 1779–1782. Age-standardised deaths per 100,000.
Mortality from certain infectious diseases (and infection-related
diagnoses) in Swedish towns, 1875–1879 and 1921–1930. Deaths
per 100,000. Standardised for sex and age after 1875–1879.
Causes of death per 100,000, 1921–1930.
Cause-of-death patterns for men and women aged 15–19 and
50–59 years. Deaths per 100,000.

figuresFigure 1.1
Figure 1.2
Figure 3.1

Figure 4.1
Figure 4.2
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.4
Figure 4.5
Figure 5.1
Figure 7.1
Figure 7.2
Figure 7.3
Figure 7.4
Figure 7.5
Appendix

6•

The demographic transition. Sweden, 1750–2000.
Health, economic capital (EC), cultural capital (CC) andsocial capital (SC).
Sex-specific mortality in the 25–49 age group for major causesof death in the town of Linköping and surrounding countrysideparishes, 1750–1814.
Life expectancy for males. Sweden, France and England &Wales, 1800–2001.
Excessive male mortality in the 25–49 age group (%). Sweden,
1751–1900. Five-year periods.
Sex-specific mortality in the 25–49 age group for major causes ofdeath. Sweden, 1826–1830.
Smallpox mortality per 100,000. Sweden, 1749–1900.
Health and social change – Sweden, c. 1800–1850
Mortality specified for age, sex and marital status. Sweden,
1881–1890. Deaths per 1,000.
Incidence and deaths from tuberculosis per 100,000 in Sweden,
1911–2000.
Age-standardised mortality from various causes, 1911–2001.
Age-standardised mortality in the 25–64 age group among
married and non-married people, 1901–2004.
Causes of death and marital status, 1969–1978, 45–64 age
group.
Age-standardised mortality for Swedish counties in the 20–59
age group.
Sex- and age-specific mortality and sex ratio in mortality.
Sweden, 1750–2000.

list of tables and figures

Glossary of key organisations,political bodies and protagonistsof public health mentioned in
the text
Bratt, Ivan (1878–1956), physician and creator of the general rationing

system for purchase of alcohol.
Berch, Anders (1711–1774), first Professor of Economics at Uppsala Uni-

versity.
Berg, Fredrik Theodor (1806–1887), first Director-General of Statistics

Sweden.
Bäck, Abraham (1713–1795), physician, President of the Collegium

Medicum, Stockholm, close friend of Linnaeus.
Centerpartiet (Centre Party). Originally the Swedish farmers’ party.

Founded as Bondeförbundet (Farmers’ Union) in 1913, it changed its
name to the Centre Party in 1957.
Chydenius, Anders (1729–1803), priest, Enlightenment philosopher andMP.
Collegium Medicum – see under National Board of Health and Welfare.
Hagström, Johan Otto (1716–1792), provincial doctor, disciple of Linnaeus.
Hansson, Per Albin (1885–1946), Social Democrat Prime Minister andthe most famous Swedish spokesman of the welfare state.
Hellstenius, Johan (1834–1888), Swedish statistician.
Kinberg, Olof (1873–1960), forensic psychiatrist.
Landsting – see under Local government.
Linnaeus – see under von Linné, Carl.
von Linné, Carl (1707–1778) (generally known as Linnaeus outside

Sweden), physician, botanist, zoologist. Father of modern taxonomy.

glossary•7

Local government. The original form of local government in Sweden was

based on the sockenstämma (general parish meeting) handling both
ecclesiastical and secular affairs, and the ting (a countryside district
court led by a local judge before all free farmers) or the rådstuga (itscounterpart in towns). The local government reform of 1862 saw theestablishment of the landsting (county councils), who took over the
responsibility for hospitals. In urban areas, the municipality became
subsequently responsible for the municipal medical officer system, midwives, isolation hospitals and the healthcare committees.
Medicinalstyrelsen – see under National Board of Health and Welfare.
Myrdal, Gunnar (1898–1987) and Myrdal, Alva (1902–1986), husband andwife team, mentioned among the most famous architects of the Swedish welfare state.
National Board of Health and Welfare (Socialstyrelsen). Collegium Medicum, which gradually developed from a professional association for
physicians into an authority, was replaced in 1813 by the National
Board of Health (Sundhetskollegium). Another important organisation, the Surgical Society (Chirurgiska Societeten), was also dissolved
and amalgamated with the new authority. In 1877, Sundhetskollegium
was replaced by Medicinalstyrelsen (National Medical Board), which
adopted overall authority over the medical profession and institutions,
including responsibility for the hospitals. To assist the Board, chief provincial medical officers were appointed in every county to carry out
inspections. In 1912 Socialstyrelsen (National Board of Social Affairs)
was founded. In the 1960s, this was merged with Medicinalstyrelsen
and became the National Board of Health and Welfare.
Nordström, Ludvig “Lubbe” (1882–1942), writer and journalist, broadcaster.
Oxenstierna, Axel (1583–1654), Chancellor of Sweden.
von Rosenstein, Nils Rosén (1706–1773), writer, professor at Uppsala
University, often referred to as father of modern paediatrics.
Rådstuga – see under Local government.
von Schultzenheim, David Schultz (1732–1823), first Director-General of

Sundhetskollegium.

8•

glossary

Sveriges socialdemokratiska arbetareparti (Swedish Social Democratic Party).
Founded in 1889, the oldest and largest political party in Sweden.
Statistics Sweden (Statistiska centralbyrån). Tabellverket established in 1749
for the collection of public records was replaced in 1860 by a national
statistics agency, Statistics Sweden, providing the country with a national organisation for the collection and processing of statistical data,
not just on demographic conditions, but also on the business sector andtrade, the justice system and other areas of activity that were of significance.
Statistiska centralbyrån – (SCB) see under Statistics Sweden.
Strindberg, August (1849–1912), novelist and playwright.
Sundhetskollegium – see under National Board of Health and Welfare.
Systembolaget (Swedish Alcohol Retailing Monopoly). Public alcoholmonopoly retailer, founded in 1955, although Sweden’s first alcoholmonopoly started in the mid-19th century. The “Gothenburg system”
received much international attention in the late nineteenth century.
This involved a monopoly on sales in municipally owned taverns andoff-premise retail shops, introduced in Gothenburg in 1865. The intention was to reduce or eliminate private profit-making from liquor sales,
and thus to control or decrease alcohol consumption. The system waslater adopted in most Swedish towns and from 1905, all sales of liquor
were officially handled by government-controlled companies. Rationing of alcohol was established in 1917 by Ivan Bratt.
Tabellverket – see under Statistics Sweden.
Tegnér, Esaias (1782–1846), Swedish author and bishop, coined thephrase “peace, vaccine and potatoes”.
Ting – see under Local government.
Wallis, Curt (1845–1922), doctor and MP.
Wargentin, Pehr (1717–1783), Secretary of the Academy of Sciences.
Wretholm, Carl Josua (c. 1800–1870), provincial doctor in Haparanda in

the extreme north of Sweden.

glossary•9

Preface
The impressive improvements in health for the Swedish population
during the last two and a half centuries can be ascribed to manyreasons. There has been a multifold of important public health measures
including the regular collection of vital statistics from 1749 on a national
level through the state church, which also played an important role in
the early and widespread vaccination coverage against smallpox. Preventive mother and child care, access to health care free of charge,
restrictive alcohol policy, accident prevention in several sectors andanti-tobacco campaigns have also been important. However, theincreased living standard due to universal welfare policy strategies
including social security, high educational standard, high degree of
employment for women and men, regional and housing subsidies,appears to be equally or even more important.
The Swedish National Institute of Public Health, SNIPH, has been
responsible for supporting the implementation of the Swedish public

Timeline of dates in public health history in Sweden
Pandemics
Political developments

1749

1348-1350

1572 First medical

The Black Death(Digerdöden)arrives in Europe
and spreads to
Scandinavia

publication in
Swedish is printed in
the plague-year by a
Dutch court-physician

1300

1400

Establishment of a recordcollecting body, Tabellverket, the forerunner of the modern-day Statistics
Sweden (Statistiska centralbyrån).
Parish priests start producing tables.

1593 The Uppsala Synod

1710-1713 Lastestablishes the Lutheran
Church of Sweden

epidemic of Black
Death in Sweden

1500

1520 Gustav Vasa’s victory
over the Danish king Christian II
ended the union with Denmark

1600
1663

Collegium Medicum, professional
association for physicians, is founded.
(first constitution was established in 1744)

1700
1739 Royal Academy of
Sciences (Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien) is foundedhealth policy adopted by the Swedish Parliament, the Riksdag, in 2003,
and for reporting on the implementation process as well as the results.
The policy has been made available in English in a supplement to the
Scandinavian Journal of Public Health (volume 32, supplement 64;
eds. Hogstedt C, Lundgren B, Moberg H, Pettersson B and Ågren G) as
well as in a summary of the first Public Health Policy Report publishedin 2005. SNIPH has also contributed to the evaluation of Swedish
public health research in another supplement (no. 65) to the Scandinavian Journal of Public Health 2005.
Today’s public health policies and results can to a large extent be
explained by history and experiences from earlier decades and evencenturies. Therefore, we were very pleased to publish a book in 2005
on the health of the Swedish people in a historical perspective (eds.
Sundin J, Hogstedt C, Lindberg J and Moberg H) in Swedish incooperation with Professor Jan Sundin and Associate Professor Sam
Willner from Linköping University and others. We are now equallypleased to be able to publish a summarised and modified version in
English by Professor Jan Sundin and Associate Professor Sam Willner
focusing on the health development in relation to social changes overthe last 250 years. Bernt Lundgren, Christer Hogstedt and Henrik

1809

1842

Finlandbecomes
Russianterritory

Compulsory
schooling is introduced

1889

The Occupational Hazard
Act (Yrkesfarelagen) comes into force

1862 Local government reform:
vaccination law against
smallpox is introduced

1800
1813

1810

1820

National Board of
Health (Sundhetskollegium)is established

1830
1839

1891 First

Establishment of the Landsting(county councils, who take over
the responsibility for hospitals)

1816 Compulsory

1840

The Swedish
Medical Association
founds the journal Hygiea

1850

1860

sanatorium for lungdisease sufferers in
Sweden is opened

1870

1880

1890

1878 National Medical 1890 Chief provincial
Board (Medicinalstyrelsen) doctor appointed in every
is founded
countyMoberg from SNIPH were responsible for the discussions with theauthors and the processing of the book.
The new Swedish public health policy from 2003 has attracted muchattention internationally due to its focus on structural determinants aswell as lifestyle factors. The policy has been mentioned in the WHO
Bangkok Charter on Health Promotion in a Globalized World and the
WHO strategy for prevention and control of non-communicable diseases
in the European Region, as well as by the Independent WHO Commission
on Social Determinants. It is our hope that this publication shall contribute to the understanding of the background and context for this policy.
Historical lessons from one country can not be transferred uncritically to another country or be used as a basis for future decisions.
However, the likelihood of the effects of different policies could beindicated by comparing differences and similarities in the contexts. We
hope that this book will prove useful for policy comparisons and in the
training of public health policy-makers, researchers, administratorsand field workers.
Östersund, December 2007
Gunnar Ågren
Director General

1904 The
National Instituteof Medicine(Statsmedicinska
anstalten) is
established.

1907

1917

Instituteof Bacteriology isestablished.

National Bacteriological
Laboratory (Statens Bakteriologiska
Laboratorium) is founded.

1912 National Board of

1904 National antituberculosis association
is founded

Spanish Influenza
pandemic

Social Affairs (Socialstyrelsen)
is established1900

1918-1920

1910
1913

A limitednational basic pension
for all is introduced

1917

Introduction of alcohol rationing (Brattsystemet
or motbokssystemet)

1919 State subsidies to municipalities and county councils
employing properly trained
district nurses are introducedForeword
The increase in life expectancy in Sweden from an average age of about
35 in the mid-eighteenth century to about 80 years in the new millennium
is a spectacular achievement. It is a story about the interplay between
disease, medicine, and economic, social, cultural and political conditions, sometimes within, sometimes beyond the influence of conscious
human action. One of the trends in this story is the convergence of
public health policies and outcomes in Europe but local contexts havealso had a considerable impact upon the conditions for a healthy life.
The history of Swedish public health is no exception. In this book, wehighlight both what has been shaped within a national or Scandinavian
setting and what has been part of influences and policies imported
from abroad.
After completing an anthology in Swedish on this topic, we agreed
with our sponsors and collaborators at the Swedish National Instituteof Public Health that the story might also be of interest outside Sweden. Hence, the readers we have in mind are primarily international
colleagues, advanced level students and people involved in the implementation of welfare and health policies. Our friends at the Swedish

1921 First general election

1938

Swedish Public HealthInstitute (Statens institut för
folkhälsan) is established

1920

1949 Occupational

1938

Saltsjöbaden
Agreement between
employers andemployees is concluded

based on universal and equal
suffrage for both men andwomen to both houses

Safety and Health Act
comes into force

1947

Universal
child benefit isintroduced

1930
1935 Sterilisation for
undesirables becomes law.
(Not abolished until 1970)

1955

Abolition of
the rationing system
for alcohol (motbokssystemet)

1951

Three-weekstatutory holiday is
introduced

1940

1950

All citizens receive aminimum old-age pension,large enough to live on

Compulsory
health insurance isintroduced

1946

1955

National Institute of Public Health, particularly Director General GunnarÅgren, research directors Christer Hogstedt and Bernt Lundgren, andHenrik Moberg, who is now an investigator at the National Board of
Health and Welfare, have provided us with constructive critique andsuggestions, which greatly improved the content of the book. Bernt
Lundgren has also written a passage in Chapter 7 about the present
Swedish public health policy. Administrator Elisabeth JonssonSvedberg has put the references into the End Note system and Bernt
Lundgren has been responsible for the final editing of the book. They
have, at the same time, respected our subjective interpretations of thestory, for which we, as authors, are consequently exclusively responsible and accountable.
We have been able to utilise the expertise of learned academic
colleagues, both in Sweden and abroad, in reading the manuscript, at
numerous meetings and workshops and in individual conversations.
Patrice Bourdelais, Anne Hardy and René Loewenson read themanuscript in its preliminary form and gave us invaluable help on alllevels. Laurinda Abreu has provided us and other academics with rich
opportunities to exchange experiences within the PHOENIX thematic
network. Vladimir Shkolnikov, Mickey Chopra and David Sanders

1971

1960 Compulsory

Swedish Public HealthInstitute (Statens institut för
folkhälsan) closes downnine-year education
is introduced

1968

National Medical Board(Medicinalstyrelsen) merges with the
National Board of Social Affairs (Socialstyrelsen)to become the National Boardof Health and Welfare (Socialstyrelsen)

1960
1965-1974
Million-homes
housing programme
is implemented

1975

Abortionis decriminalised

1970
1969

State monopoly on
the sale of pharmaceuticals
is introduced

1977

Working Environment Act(revised in 1991) comes into force

1987 The Public HealthGroup (Folkhälsogruppen)
is established1980

encouraged us to compare the Swedish experiences with events at othertimes and places. Our colleagues at Tema Health and Society, representing a variety of academic fields, helped us to look at the developmentof health and society from interdisciplinary perspectives. Finally, in apolite and constructive way, Gary Watson and John Farrow haveerased innumerable errors, identified ambiguities and brought the text
to its present linguistic form. Thanks to all of you and others not mentioned!
We dedicate the book to our master students, arriving at Linköping
University from all corners of the world in order to learn more about
the interplay between health and society. As teachers we are greatly
inspired by lively seminar discussions, informal talks and theiradmirable ambitions to grasp a complicated issue and to make a difference to people’s welfare.
Linköping, December 2007
Jan Sundin and Sam Willner

1992

The Swedish National Instituteof Public Health (Folkhälsoinstitutet)
is established. It changes its nameto Statens folkhälsoinstitut on the
1 July 2001 and moves from Stockholm
to Östersund on the 1 July 2007.

1997 The National Committee for
Public Health (Nationella folkhälsokommittén) is established. It submits
its final report to the Government in 2000

1990
1993

Swedish Institutefor Infectious Disease Control(Smittskyddsinstitutet) is
established

2000
1995 Sweden joins
the European Union

2003 The Swedish Parliament,
the Riksdag, adopts a comprehensive
Swedish public health policy

1. Introduction

Introduction
Page 16: Pole walking

for healthy ageing.
Photo: Per Plåtare/
Pressens bildPage 17: Countryside
cottage, 19th century.
Photo: Nordiska museet

This book is a shorter version of a recently published anthology in Swedish, with certain amendments and additions to make the contents
more accessible to an international audience [1]. It is a historical journey
through 250 years of Swedish public health (epidemiological and demographic evidence, ideas, politics and practices) following the transition of
Sweden from a traditional agricultural society to the “post-industrial”
world. Although based on Swedish experiences, the book also puts thecountry’s history into a wider international perspective. Sweden was ofcourse not isolated from the rest of Europe and public health ideas andpolicies were formulated and practised in a European context.
We expect our readers first and foremost to be students on an
advanced academic level looking for comparative perspectives on theirown geographical arena both in Europe and in economically less developed parts of the world, countries where some of the health problems
that belong to our past remain unsolved. We also anticipate that moresenior colleagues will find some valuable contributions to this field ofknowledge. Each context is to a great extent unique and history cannot
provide readymade solutions to contemporary problems. Nevertheless,there may also be some lessons and food for constructive thought to befound for policy makers, through the comparison of one historicalperiod and geographical area with another.

OutlineThis first chapter gives a short overview and presents some major perspectives, concepts and points of departure, which are naturally just aselection of all angles from which this interdisciplinary subject can beanalysed. The chapters then work through the different historicalperiods highlighting certain characteristic patterns regarding both thehealth situation and health policies. The story starts with the earlymodern period, and then moves through the eighteenth century Age of
Enlightenment and the birth of organised public health policies and18•

introductioninterventions in the nineteenth century, to the creation of a modern
welfare state during the last hundred years. The final chapter summarises
and reflects upon the results.
Throughout the book, we will examine the characteristics of social
determinants and health over time, looking at factors such as regional
and urban-rural differences, social status, education, gender, primarygroups and socio-cultural differences. Where evidence exists, we will
try to identify the winners and losers, using available measures (mortality and life expectancy) as the dependent variable. Health policies andhealth outcomes will be related to scientific, ideological and politicalfactors. Some of society’s major efforts and interventions within thefield of public health will of course also be part of the story. In the final
chapter, we will summarise the results according to certain key observations and themes and, where appropriate, relate the results to theconcepts and perspectives presented above.
Today, global history is in many respects geographically synchronised.
At any one time, different societies find themselves at highly different
stages of economic, demographic and epidemiological development,
affecting the health and survival of their populations. In spite of all theobvious differences, the Swedish experience will also be discussed inrelation to the situation in today’s developing countries. We will ask if
certain patterns have a tendency (without representing a cast-iron social
axiom) to emerge in different times and places under certain conditions,for instance during rapid social change. All our readers may well notshare our assumptions and conclusions but nevertheless our professional
experience has led us to believe in the value of the exchange of ideas andfacts and convinced us that such an approach can make history morethan just a simple recording of unique events but rather a tool that can
aid us in our understanding of contemporary developments.1

1. As one example, see the contributions in Chopra M, Sundin J, Willner S, eds. 2004 [2].

introduction•19250 years of public health
The story starts with the Black Death, the pandemic which swept over
the Old World in the mid-fourteenth century. As far as Sweden is concerned, the Black Death, as along with other recurrent epidemics ofplague which often coincided with war and crop failures, left very few
imprints in historical sources in terms of central public health preventive
measures before the seventeenth century. A dominant opinion was thatthe epidemics were caused by the will of God. Although later than insouthern parts of Europe, Sweden also tried to curb the spread of
epidemics, by, among other things, introducing quarantines and establishing cordons sanitaires along its borders.
During the eighteenth century, under the influence of Mercantilism
and the Enlightenment, the authorities visibly increased their ambitions
concerning public health. One significant early step was the establishment of an organisation for the regular collection of vital statistics
on a national level from 1749 onwards in order to obtain reliable dataon mortality and causes of death, and facilitate appropriate steps toimprove the health of the population. This provides us with a uniquepossibility to follow national levels of and changes in mortality, taking
age and gender into account, over a considerable historical period, whichis also the main reason why we have focused on the last 250 years. Other
measures taken were the expansion of the system of provincial doctors
and midwives, and the introduction of extensive information campaigns
for breastfeeding and for improving infant care in general.
The early nineteenth century saw a secular decline in mortality,
which was, according to contemporary observers, caused by “Peace,vaccine and potatoes”. “Peace” refers to the permanent peace period after
the Napoleonic wars, “vaccine” to the introduction of comprehensive
smallpox vaccination in the early nineteenth century and “potatoes”
to the agricultural revolution, increasing farming productivity and production. These three factors encapsulate important conditions contributing to health improvements. Whilst children and women of mostages benefited from this improvement, mortality figures continued tobe high among middle-aged men.
In contrast to some other Western European societies, the industrial
revolution in Sweden during the late nineteenth century had no20•

introduction

significantly negative impact on mortality figures except for during
short periods of turbulence in rapidly growing urban environments.
One important factor contributing to increasing life expectancies
during this period was the largely simultaneous sanitary reforms which
took place during the development of urban areas, particularly the construction of effective sewerage systems and the supply of fresh drinking
water. An improved standard of living for large numbers of the population also contributed as did, among other things, the emerging ideal of“orderliness” vigorously propagated by certain popular movements
and restrictive alcohol legislation, introduced by central government to
reduce health problems connected to excessive drinking.
In the interwar period, during the 1920s and 1930s, the first steps
towards the welfare state were taken. The “People’s Home”, an idealof a paternalistic society where nobody was left alone when in need,became an increasingly popular image. At the same time, less appealing
examples of population policies were introduced in the guise of “scientific eugenics”.
In the post-war period, the “Scandinavian” type of a modern welfare
state was fully realised by the introduction of various types of social
benefits as well as, among other things, the expansion of general healthcare and day nursery services. Occupational health became a growing
concern in laws and negotiations between employers and workers. Preventive and curative medicine also contributed to the improvement in the
population’s health, with the introduction of antibiotics and vaccines,
technical innovations in cardiology and oncology, etc. Preventive healthpolicies were, at that time, increasingly concerned with attempts to influence and change individual lifestyle factors, rather than taking a structural
approach typical of the “hygienism” of the nineteenth century.

Health transition after 1750
In 1749, the demographic status of the Swedish population became forthe first time an institutionalised field of knowledge. In that year,
Tabellverket (a predecessor of the present-day Statistics Sweden) wasestablished and Sweden (including Finland which at the time was a

introduction•21

Swedish province) became the first country in the world to organise theregular collection of population data (size of population, death andbirth rates) on a national level. This gives us a unique opportunity tofollow trends in mortality rates with regard to gender and age overmore than two and a half centuries. The background was the dominant
political and economic doctrine of the eighteenth century, combinedwith the Age of Enlightenment’s optimistic view of being able to prevent
disease and death aided by science. Parish priests were ordered to compile and report the number of deaths per year among their parishioners
by age, sex and cause and to report the make-up of the population interms of sex and age at certain intervals [3].
The demographic transition model describes the relation between
birth and death rates and population development in a historical perspective. Thanks to Swedish population statistics, we can follow thisinterplay for more than 250 years. Initially, both birth and death rates
were high (Figure 1.1). Since the number of births was normallysomewhat higher than the number of deaths, the population naturally
grew. On occasion, a sudden peak in the death rate exceeded the number of births (e.g. 1772–1773 and 1808–1809), resulting in a temporary
fall in the population. The permanent decline in the death rate, whichbegan in the early nineteenth century, at the same time as the birth rate

Figure 1.1 The demo-

graphic transition.
Sweden, 1750–2000.
Source: Historisk statistik
för Sverige. Del 1, Befolkning (Historical statistics
of Sweden. Part 1,
Population statistics)
1720–1967. Befolkningsstatistik (Population
statistics), www.scb.se

60births and deaths/1,000 inhabitants

50

40

30

20

10

22

•

introduction

2000

1950

1900

1850

1800

0
1750

deathsbirthscontinued to be high, led to substantial population growth. The industrial revolution of the 1870s brought with it a drop in fertility rates.
This, combined with the mass exodus of Swedes to America during thesame period, put somewhat of a damper on population growth. During
the twentieth century, variations in fertility, declining mortality andimmigration were the main factors governing population development.
The dramatic drop in fertility rates resulted in warnings about “population crises” during the 1930s and considerable attention was devoted
to population issues in public debate [3]. It is a well-established factthat there are clear differences in demographic transition in different
countries even within western Europe. From the mid-eighteenth to thelate twentieth century, there was a long-term trend towards lower mortality in Britain and France as well as in Sweden. This was, however,temporarily interrupted in the former two countries around the
mid-nineteenth century, but not in the latter. Concerning fertility, thedifferences were more apparent. In France, fertility declined from the
mid-eighteenth century and onwards, while in Sweden and Britain therates remained relatively high until the onset of a declining trend in thelate nineteenth century [4].
One effect of the demographic transition, with falling fertility andmortality rates, was a growing number of older people in the population. The proportion of over 65s in the population in 1750 was six percent, a figure that had risen to 17 percent at the turn of the millennium
in the year 2000. It should be noted that the rising mortality curve(Figure 1.1) during the latter part of the twentieth century was primarily
due to the growing proportion of older people in the population, andnot the consequence of impaired health, even though there was a rise in
the number of deaths among middle-aged men during the 1960s and1970s.
From a public health perspective, the mortality rate is perhaps themost significant phenomenon, even if the birth rate is by no means
uninteresting in this context. Firstly, high fertility in the past was linked
to a greater risk of death in connection with pregnancy and childbirth.
And secondly, high birth rates contributed to a rapid rise in the population, which, according to a Malthusian view (named after the British
political economist and public debater, Thomas Malthus, (1766–1834),
tended to force up the mortality rate, since food production could notincrease fast enough to meet the demands of the bigger population.
Later research has, however, brought the Malthusian conclusions andintroduction•23

generalisations into question. Among other things, it has been suggested
that greater population pressure can lead to more intensive agricultural
production, which is quite capable of meeting the growing demands forfood supply [5]. Nevertheless, Malthus neglected or could not foresee
the technological advances that contributed to a dramatic increasein agricultural productivity, thus allowing fewer farmers to feed everlarger numbers of people using less land [6].
According to the epidemiological transition model, the countries of
the world have undergone different historical phases as regards causeof-death patterns, which can be linked to changes in mortality during
the demographic transition [7, 8]. The first phase (the age of pestilence
and famine), which in Sweden we can follow from the mid-eighteenth
century, was dominated by infectious diseases and characterised by auniversally high level of mortality with dramatic annual fluctuations.
Peaks in the mortality rate were caused by epidemics, which often coincided with crop failures and war. The second phase (the age of receding
pandemics), which corresponds to conditions in Sweden from the earlynineteenth to the early twentieth century, was characterised by a universally reduced mortality rate and a declining robustness and frequency
of epidemic outbreaks. The dominance of infectious diseases began to
subside. The third phase (the age of degenerative and man-made diseases),is still ongoing and is characterised by low levels of mortality in a historical perspective, dominated by such ailments as cardiovascular diseases and cancer (otherwise known as non-communicable diseases) andinjuries, whilst infectious diseases play a relatively insignificant role asa cause of death.
A new step in the development of public health is the dramatic
improvement in medical treatment of cardiovascular diseases combinedwith changes in individual behaviour, particularly diet and smoking
habits, in the Western World, resulting in declining mortality since the1970s [9]. As mortality levels in younger age groups have gradually
fallen, more and more interest has been devoted to other health problems that do not necessarily lead to death, such as allergies, stress andmental ill-health. Developments in other parts of the world, and perhaps most strikingly what is happening with the HIV/AIDS pandemic
in southern Africa, have shown that infectious diseases still constitute areal threat to public health. Another example is the dramatic decline inmale life expectancy and the disturbing increase in tuberculosis in partsof the former Soviet Union.

24•

introduction

The increasing average life expectancy illustrates one of the mostdramatic achievements in European history. In the mid-eighteenth century, life expectancy at birth in Sweden was around 35 years. This had
increased to about 55 years by the beginning of the twentieth century.
One hundred years later in the year 2000, it stood at 77 years for men
and 82 years for women (Table 1.1). Generally, women have usually
lived longer than men. In the past, mortality was highest among young
infants and the very old. The high mortality rate among infants andsmall children was a strong contributory factor in the low life expectancy figures. A young man or woman managing to survive until theage of 15 in the late-eighteenth century had a remaining average life
expectancy of just over 40 years, i.e. a reasonable chance of reaching atleast their 50th birthday. Nowadays, mortality is very low up until
50–60 years old, but it is during the first few years of life that the death
rate has been dramatically reduced. We can, however, also ascertainthat the health of older children, young people and adults has also
improved considerably during the last century. For example, remaining
average life expectancy at the age of 15 years has increased from about
50 years at the beginning of the twentieth century to 65 years at theturn of the millennium.
Table 1.1 Remaining average life expectancy at different ages, 1751–2002.
0

15

50

65

Men

Women

Men

Women

Men

Women

Men

Women

1751–1790

33.7

36.6

40.5

43.1

18.2

19.6

10.0

10.5

1851–1855

40.5

44.6

42.0

45.5

17.9

19.8

9.6

10.4

1901–1910

54.5

57.0

49.8

51.5

23.2

24.0

12.8

13.7

1951–1960

70.9

74.1

58.0

60.7

25.5

27.5

13.9

15.0

1998–2002

77.3

82.0

62.7

67.4

29.3

33.3

16.6

20.0

Source: Befolkningsstatistik, Del 4, Födda och döda, civilståndsförändringar m.m. (Population statistics.
Part 4, Vital statistics) 2002, Statistics Sweden.

introduction•25

Aims, concepts and perspectives
Certain facts, patterns and perspectives must be highlighted at theexpense of others when writing a short, reasonably comprehensive
story about a complex process. Some of these aims, concepts and perspectives will now be introduced and this will hopefully help the reader
to understand why certain events, factors and patterns have been highlighted. First of all, a word on terminology. Public health is often used
to mean both the health of a population and factors affecting its health,including collective actions taken in order to improve the health of a
population. We have accepted this wide definition. The organisationaland social history of individual healthcare in hospitals or elsewhere
will, however, only be mentioned in brief, partly in line with Thomas
McKeown’s premise that purely medical “therapy” only recently madea most significant contribution to prolonged life expectancy in our partof the world [10]. In other ways, we will argue that medical science andthe medical professions played prominent roles as agents in our story.

interdependency between wealth and healthMore wealth means better health for both individuals and populations.
There is a positive correlation between the prosperity of nations orsocial groups and health. High income and good education reduces therisks of almost all types of disease. Income is, however, also positively
correlated with health when all groups that are compared are provided
with enough economic capital to acquire the basic material resources
needed to protect their health. Based on studies of income inequalities
in different countries and in different American states, Richard Wilkinson
claims that large social differences in a particular society not only produce large inequalities in health, but may also have a negative impact
on its overall health status, measured as average life expectancy, including those who are quite well off. In Wilkinson’s opinion, inequalities
create negative psychosocial effects, even among the wealthy classes.
His results have been criticised for potential ecological fallacies and a
relatively weak correlation. Using one single variable in order to findexplanations is of course always dangerous. In Wilkinson’s cases, theconnection may be found in certain countries under certain conditions,for instance in the U.S., where life expectancy is lower than it should be26•

introduction

according to the average GDP. Other means of creating and distributing welfare may cause the income distribution to have less of an
impact. Adding welfare systems and public health policies and institutions to the analysis may further clarify the issue [11–17].
Conversely, sick people are often less able than healthy ones to contribute to the production of goods and services. Economists in the lateseventeenth and eighteenth century in Europe calculated the demographic
rates, the age-composition of the population and the value for societyof the work of children and adults compared with the costs of caring
for children and the elderly [18]. However cynical and naïve thesecalculations might seem, they were based on the pertinent observationthat the ratio between the productive and the dependent parts of a
population affects the economy of a nation – or of a household for thatmatter. The higher this ratio is, the greater the possibility of a decent
level of subsistence for everybody.
Economists and historians have shown that health is an importantresource for the society as a whole. A healthy population, with low
mortality among children and adults and a balanced age structure, iscorrelated with economic growth. Sweden, having had reliable population data since 1749, has been used as to illustrate this theory. Wheninfant and child mortality declined during the first half of the nineteenth century, the population grew, but to begin with this growth only
produced dependent children. As long as the mortality decline continued,
this imbalance prevailed, meaning a growing proletariat, unemployment and pauperisation for a growing part of the population and aslow rate of economic growth in relation to the size of the population.
Growth started to improve when the first large generations of those
who had survived childhood could start producing instead of just consuming. An even more positive era began during the last part of thenineteenth century, when family planning reduced the number of children born, but still not to an extent that threatened the reproduction of
the population. This positive trend in the producing/depending ratio
continued and was followed by rapid economic growth until the last
decades of the twentieth century, when the fertility decline (combinedwith an increasing percentage of older people who are no longer in theworkforce) made the ratio fall, coincidentally at the same time as the
economic growth rate started to slow down. The last few decades are,however, too short a period to constitute a trend that may help predict
the future.

introduction•

27

The highest correlation rates between the age structure of the
population and economic growth has a tendency to appear when the
proportional size of the middle-aged group is large, the best predictorof rapid growth. The assumption is that this group is not only moreproductive, because of its education and its experience, but it has alsocome to a stage in life when its economy is good, partly being used forsavings and investments for future productivity. A comparison withother countries in the western world and in OECD countries gives similar results, except for the case of the U.S., where constant immigration
has served as a vehicle for keeping the population pyramid in good
shape for economic growth. Even if fertility and migration are also two
important factors influencing the age distribution, health continues tobe important for most countries.
Consequently, if children die before society can prosper from theirskills and efforts as adults, if mortality is high in the working population and if health is bad in all groups, including older people who areforced to retire from work too early in life, the productivity versus
dependency ratio will fall and the rates of investment and economic
growth will tend to slow down [19–21].

“cultural capital” as a human resource
There are, however, non-material resources, which cannot be bought or
exchanged for money, at least not easily. These also can have a significant impact on public health. Some scholars, who have dedicatedresearch to this area, call these resources “symbolic capital”. One ofthe pioneers, the French sociologist and philosopher Pierre Bourdieu[22–24] describes what he calls “cultural capital”, which is “knowledge”, or what might be called “knowledge by doing” or “tacit knowledge” provided by upbringing and life experiences. It is knowledge of“how things are or work” in practice or in the dominant perceptions
among the people around you or – if you belong to the self-appointed
elite – among “the people that matter” in a specific context. It is also toknow and have the necessary social skills in order to be accepted in acertain culture, a social group, or a local community. Hence, cultural
capital can be anything from knowing how to solve a mathematical problem, to saying the right thing at a dinner table or wearing the rightdress for the right occasion if that is what is important to become “oneof them”.

28•

introduction

Bourdieu was not specifically discussing the relation between healthand cultural capital or the more obvious advantages of knowledge, forinstance how to feed a child properly or, in general, to have access tothe best available information on how to protect one’s health. His
major interest was how cultural capital – by upbringing (embodied)and by formal education (institutionalised) – opens the doors to theright circles, to the right work, to influence and prestige. However, cultural capital as values and behaviour also affects health indirectly. The
perception of the ideal body, for instance, varies noticeably between
different groups. Historically, the ideal of the body has changed backand forth. Consider, for instance, the history of European portrait
painting. There is a striking contrast between the slender subjects ofmedieval paintings compared with well-fed individuals portrayedduring the seventeenth and early eighteenth century baroque era, whena stout body was a sign of wealth. This is further underlined by theappearance of the less substantial statures of peasants and workers on
folklore paintings from the same period. Today, overweight is seen as amajor health problem caused by many factors, including cultural perceptions. At the same time, “obesity” and similar value-loaded terms
tend to produce a stigma, labelling certain groups in society as ignorantor at least insufficiently educated.
Attitudes towards cigarette smoking in Europe and North America
give us another example of this. Having been a habit of “sophisticated”
modern upper and middle class men – and later also women – during
the interwar period, it spread to other social groups who had previously
mostly been pipe-smokers or snuff users, a process that was encouragedby media and commercial interests. Nowadays, mostly because of the
medical dangers described in public health campaigns, smoking has
become a relatively rare phenomenon among the “educated” and a
stigma among the less educated often found in stressful, low-paid jobs,
for instance women in minor positions in the healthcare sector. Definedin this way, cultural capital is an active agent affecting people’s status,
welfare and health.

“social capital” as a human resource
Cultural capital is not shaped in a social vacuum. It is provided byformal institutions and family, but also by other informal groups or
networks from the cradle to the grave of each individual: voluntary

introduction•29

associations, churches, trade unions, political parties, social clubs,
neighbours, friends, colleagues at work, and other networks. Cultural
capital opens doors to different networks and different networks
cherish and foster different forms of cultural capital. Social capital is inbrief a product of the individual’s connections to the different networks
to which she was born or entered later in life. Like cultural
capital, social capital needs time, work – investment or “symbolic
gifts”, for instance voluntary work, unpaid advice and help to members. Even material gifts may be exchanged, but their true value is not
only – or primarily – measured in money but by a symbolic value. Social
capital can provide a feeling of “belonging” (as opposed to isolation),
identity, security and therefore also more self-confidence. Sharedcultural capital, homogenous norms and beliefs tend to strengthen the
network and contribute to mutual trust between its members, avaluable asset when needed. Therefore the network can sometimes help
in times of trouble but also contribute positively to psycho-social conditions. Evidently, there is reason to believe that “good” social capitalcan be good for an individual’s or a nation’s health.
Economic capital can sometimes be more easily “cashed in”, but it
will shrink at the same time and it can disappear because of a wrong
investment. Although both cultural and social capitals need investment,
they do not necessarily diminish when used. Social (and cultural)
capital is therefore a “sustainable” asset for individuals and society.
However, that does not mean that it cannot be damaged or indeed
erode and disappear for an individual, for a social group or for a wholesociety, when the social fabric develops unfavourably.

social capital, community, state and health
For Pierre Bourdieu, different forms of capital were first of all tools,
helping individuals and groups to further their vital interests in life andreproducing influence, status and power from one generation to another.
Robert Putnam, an American political scientist, turned his attention
towards local communities, social networks and their impact on effective political life and economic progress [25]. He distinguished between
two forms of social capital, the first being ‘bonding social capital’,characteristic of socially and culturally homogenous groups where the
network’s first objective was to strengthen the identities and interests of
its members. The early modern artisans’ guilds in Europe can be used30•

introduction

as a typical example of bonding capital, trying to defend their interestsand excluding others from their privileges. Bourdieu’s cultural andsocial capitals can mostly be seen as bonding capitals. There are, however, according to Putnam, other networks that create ‘bridging social
capital’. These networks consist of less homogenous groups with limited objectives and less emphasis on specific values, for instancecitizens in a local community taking care of their children’s playground, a bridge club or a sports club. Their bridging nature consists ofbringing people together, increasing the feelings of mutual belonging to
the greater society and creating an atmosphere of open-mindedness toother groups, values and ways of living. These networks do not always
have to be locally based, but can also be national associations. For
Putnam, bridging social capital is essential for political participation,community trust, economic progress and even for health.
Bo Rothstein, a Swedish political scientist [26], argues that social
capital can be enhanced by an active state, although its exact forms
change over time. This standpoint has also been taken by other scholars, for instance Michael Woolcock and Stephen Kunitz [27–29]. The
English historian Simon Szreter discusses the role of different types ofsocial capital and its effects [30, 31]. He does not deny the value of the
distinction between ‘bonding’ and ‘bridging’ social capital but gives
more weight to the potential negative effects of bonding capital. There
are several examples of organisations and networks whose goal may be
the exclusion of others, even taking action against parts of the population they do not like. Their activities are hardly to the benefit of society.
Besides, Bourdieu’s uncovering of the reproduction of power throughinformal elite bonds must also be considered.
Szreter highlights the will and initiative by the state and other movements to create ‘linking social capital’. This third form exists within
networks, associations and institutions sharing common ideologies ofhuman solidarity. Bonding and bridging social capital work horizontally,
while linking social capital is “vertical”: The “haves” help the “havenots”. In Szreter’s view, politics and public authorities at all levels canparticipate in linking social capital. It also means that in order to betruly beneficial for the whole society, informal networks and voluntary
associations should not just represent their own limited self-interest,
but must also act out of compassion for fellow citizens of different
kinds. Szreter’s historical evidence is mainly taken from his own country
during the nineteenth century, where he observed a shift from laissez-

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31

faire policies to public health and welfare reforms, which benefited thewhole nation and not just the wealthy. He argues, however, that his
observations are also relevant to other historical periods and societies.
The lack of a state and institutions imbued with these values and intentions might produce less trust and safety and tempt its citizens to resort
to more excluding forms of bonding social capital.
According to this view, politics and public and private institutions
can play a role to create – or undermine – valuable social capital for
those who need it, but ideology will be an important part of the process. To conclude, formal and informal institutions can influence•

The distribution of economic capital•

The forms, quantity and quality and distribution of cultural capital•

The forms, strength and distribution of social capital•

The strength and distribution of political capital•

The quantity, quality and distribution of healthcare and other healthservices

Given the need for qualitative assessment in each case, in this book we
prefer to see “social capital” as an analytical concept, not as a key
element in a general theory, which can be used to make predictions. In
other words, its existence in all its various forms may cause a variety ofpositive or negative outcomes for the welfare and health of a specificindividual or group. These implications depend on specific contexts
and conditions in time and place.

Figure 1.2 Health,economic capital (EC),cultural capital (CC)and social capital (SC).

HEALTH

Source: Jan Sundin

CC

EC

SC

32

•

introduction

human resources and health – a summary
The social fabric affects the health of human beings through a process
in which economic capital, cultural capital and social capital interact
with psychosocial and biological mechanisms in a certain epidemiological context. Socioeconomic change intervenes in these processes andcan either strengthen or weaken the health of individuals and populations.
When putting the different human resources together in a simple model,
we have to return to health as the first resource or capital. We concluded
not only that health is an important – sometimes the most important –resource for the individual, but also that a healthy population is essential
for the wealth of families, local communities and nations. Bad healthmeans less productivity and increased expenditure in care and treatment
regardless of who is paying the bill – the individual herself, the family,
local community or the state. If health is preserved, work and money canbe used for other urgent items, necessary for people’s well being.
Economic, cultural and social capitals enhance health in many ways,
but conversely, health is also a resource that helps a person to acquire
these means. Figure 1.2 represents the analytical elements for a single
individual, social group or nation. Strengthening either health or one of
the three pillars can start a positive process in which other parts of the
pyramid are also reinforced. Seriously weakening one of the four elements will have a negative effect on the other three, sometimes startinga vicious circle and eroding the whole pyramid. The basis of the pyramidis rooted in society and society surrounds it, influencing health as well.
If social change (caused by economical or political factors) occurs, positive or negative processes can start from the outside with implications forsociety itself. This process is often driven by more or less anonymous
forces on a macro scale, as it was, for instance, by agricultural change
and population growth in early nineteenth-century Sweden. a case wewill discuss later on in our story.

social change, gender and healthSocial class is correlated with health, but significant health differences
are also present between men and women, a fact that justifies further
discussion. In today’s modern societies, both formally registered illness(documented, for instance, in sickness insurance data) and self-ratedhealth problems tend to be more common among adult women thanamong men of the same age. This tendency can even be seen in some

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33

historical studies from the early: twentieth century. Several explanations have been suggested, for instance that the panorama of illness isdifferent between the two sexes due both to biological and environmental factors. Other explanations assume that women are more likely
to express their illnesses; they visit the formal healthcare services more
frequently, take out more sick leave and are more likely to respond toquestionnaires. A satisfactory explanation based on unquestionable
data has hardly been presented. Through history, male mortality has,on the other hand, usually been higher than female mortality, both
among children (especially newly born infants) and adults. The opposite
has often been seen as an indication that cultural and social systems
discriminate against the female population, for instance throughneglect of baby girls (even going as far as infanticide) or through establishing hard life conditions for women.
No scholars deny that biological factors may cause health differences between the two sexes. It has, for instance, been suggested that thefact that boys usually have somewhat higher mortality rates than girls
during infancy can be explained by their less developed lung systems orthat female babies are better protected against infections thanks totheir double set of X-chromosomes [32]. Complications in childbirth
resulting in maternal mortality was once an important cause of deathamong women between 15 and 45 years of age in Sweden and is still aproblem in societies with poor hygiene and less developed healthcare
systems. Adult female mortality is, however, with the exception of theintensive reproductive period, usually significantly lower than malemortality in the same age group.
Although biological factors explain some of the differences, a lot ofevidence indicates that most of them are caused by unequal social andcultural roles for women and men. The male/female mortality ratio
tends to vary in size for different age spans in different times and places.
In many cultures, both the male and the female absolute mortality rates
and the male/female ratio are lower among married persons thanamong the non-married. Even then, however, the differences varydepending on time and social milieu, often being more visible in urban
areas. These variations give further support to the conclusion that socialand cultural contexts affect the survival rates of men and women differently, even within the same socioeconomic group.
Gender – socially and culturally constructed roles, positions andresources of men and women – must therefore be taken into considera-

34•

introduction

tion in order to understand different forms of individual resources(“capital”). Sheila Ryan Johansson uses ‘positive and negative rights’as two concepts, which can help us to understand how these roles andresources have an impact on health [33]. Rights can be seen as privileges, economic, cultural and social capital invested in men or women
through gender roles. Positive rights are resources enhancing health.
Seen in the light of our definition of different forms of capital, it may
for instance be the necessary means to buy clothes, decent housing andfood, knowledge about healthy and unhealthy food and other substances (narcotics, alcohol and tobacco) and other habits that are a “gift”
from one’s cultural and social milieu and upbringing. Negative rights
can, on the other hand, consist of possibilities to consume too muchfood or to buy unhealthy drugs. In that sense, gender and health become
a complex nexus of positive and negative rights related to a specificcultural and socioeconomic context. Some patterns seem to occur
often, whilst other findings tend to be more specific.
Men usually control larger shares of economic capital than women,
either directly as private property owners or indirectly through their
dominance in business and in politics. In spite of that, male mortality
has often been higher and caused by negative gender factors. Male
roles and resources encourage them to become involved in many risks –wars, automobile accidents and rash lifestyles. Female subordinationand images as the prime caretakers of children and families sometimes
reduce their access to food and other material goods, but the same roles
tend to foster a more careful lifestyle.
One explanation why single people, especially men, have a shorter
life expectancy than those who are married can be the selective factor:
simply suffering from bad health or being less attractive on the marriage
market may be the reason why they may be unmarried, have never married or are divorced. This factor might be part of the truth, especiallysince healthy male lifestyles are intuitively positively correlated with thepossibility of being married. Men with alcohol problems or other risky
behaviours could be less successful in finding a willing partner or be left
with potential partners who share their negligent attitudes towards
health. The mortality disadvantage of unmarried people (especiallymales) tends to increase from the age of 20 to 45, which could be a signthat the least healthy individuals are “left over” on the marriage market.
The high mortality of widows and widowers could of course also depend
on some negative factor common to both themselves and their partners.

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The increasing unmarried/married mortality ratio over age can,however, also depend on the delayed mortality effect of lifestyles thatare an effect of being unmarried or emanate from psychosocial problems
caused by traumatic experiences of becoming divorced or widows/
widowers. Émile Durkheim, the father of modern sociology, claimed
that marriage strengthens male social control and gives them a feelingof responsibility as breadwinners and protectors of their families [34].
The marriage ritual signifies a step into a more positive social role anda supportive network. In Durkheim’s eyes, marriage also provides
meaning, a positive goal in life beyond the individual self. Still, by tradition, many females are educated to become the responsible andcaring partner even before they get married. They learn self-control andpractical skills, valuable for the everyday survival, from an early age.
Historical and contemporary studies have also shown that females
often “administrate” the more intimate part of the family’s social
networks, while men are in charge of the “business side”. In times ofcrisis, women seem to be more capable of improvising and devisingsolutions, often in collaboration with other women.
The sociologist Émile
Durkheim claimed thatmarriage strengthenssocial control andgives men a feelingof meaning andresponsibility, which
explains the positive
correlation between
marriage and life
expectancy.
Photo: Photos.com

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Both selection on the marriage market and the benefit of marriage
are plausible explanations for the low mortality rates among married
couples. The variations over time and space indicate that gender differences are affected by different socioeconomic and cultural conditions.
In the short-term perspective at least, rapid changes often seem to have
had more negative consequences for male life expectancy. In manysocieties, the successful man has to be economically well off, find awoman, have children and protect and support the family. Not living up
to that role indicates a lack of social capital. That would explain why
adult male mortality may increase during periods of social change, especially among the non-married with the weakest social networks. They
run the risk of trying to compensate for their shortcomings by associating with subcultures where drug abuse, alcoholism and violence arecommon. It is therefore logical to expect that social and medical problems start to become visible at an age when men are trying to establish
themselves on the labour market and become husbands. In urban areas,
where social change often – but not always – occurs in the form of inmigration, uprooted societies, anonymity, diversity of norms and a choiceof more or less healthy lifestyles, some male groups tend to lose out.

in conclusion
These analytical concepts and perspectives are mainly products ofmodern research and thinking. Still, we have reason to assume thatthey would, in principle and with due attention paid to conditions createdby specific contexts, also help us to understand events and patterns in
the past. We can expect that the material resources of a society will
always be important determinants of its citizens’ welfare and health.
The continuous re-distribution of these resources produces winners
and losers. But these changes do not occur in a social vacuum. Factors
other than purely or primarily economic conditions are also important.
Concepts like cultural and social capital uncover social relations andmechanisms, which can help people to support their welfare and survival. “Linking social capital” is a concept that helps us to understandthe role played by ideologies, policies and institutions – local or central,public or private. The human arena can be depicted by “class” or“social group” but there are other social relations of equal importancewhen analysing the distribution of the health of individuals, i.e. gender.

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Finally, we agree with Pierre Bourdieu that “power”, used by theindividual or exercised against an individual or a group by other individuals, groups or “society”, may significantly affect who will haveaccess to the benefits of society. Bourdieu’s analysis of cultural andsocial capital emanated from his curiosity about the fact that moresophisticated forms of power and influence could reproduce themselvesfrom generation to generation within a relatively closed “social field”
representing the French elite. In the end, he saw power and influence as
the means to generate resources for those invested with the same
power. Hence, power is not equally distributed between all individuals
and groups and more resources tend to generate more power. Institutions can exercise power against individuals overtly or in subtle ways,
enhancing or diminishing the possibility of themselves or others to live
healthy and wealthy lives. Relative deficits of resources in the form ofmoney, knowledge or social protection, also diminish the potentials forgood health. When modern public health policies emphasise “empowerment” as a strategy to give people better tools to improve their living
conditions and health, the existence of “disempowered” groups issimultaneously recognised.
With these perspectives in mind, the next chapter brings us back to
the early modern times, when publicly organised attempts to fightdeath and disease were imported to Sweden from southern Europe.

Reference list
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2.

3.

4.

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Sundin J, Hogstedt C, Lindberg J, Moberg H, eds. Svenska folkets hälsa ihistoriskt perspektiv [The health of the Swedish people in a historical perspective]. Stockholm: Swedish National Institute of Public Health; 2005.
Chopra M, Sundin J, Willner S, eds. Health and Social Change. Past andPresent Evidence. Hygiea Internationalis 2004;4(1). Published electronically at: http://www.ep.liu.se/ej/hygiea/.
Guteland G, Holmberg I, Hägerstrand T, Karlqvist A, Rundblad B. Ettfolks biografi: befolkning och samhälle från historia till framtid [The biography of a people – past and future population changes]. Stockholm:
Liber; 1983.
Bourdelais P. L´âge de la vieillesse: histoire du vieillissement de la population. Paris: Éditions Odile Jacob; 1997.

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Boserup E. The conditions of agricultural growth: the economics ofagrarian change under population pressure. London: Allen & Unwin; 1965.
6. Cypher J, Dietz J. The Process of Economic Development. London: Routledge; 1997.
7. Omran AR. The epidemiological transition theory revisited thirty years
later. World Health Statistics Quarterly 1998;51:99-119.
8. Omran AR. The epidemiological transition: a theory of the epidemiology
of population change. The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly
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9. Vallin J, Meslé F. Convergences and divergences in mortality. A new approach to health transition. Demographic Research, Special Collection
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10. McKeown T. The dream of medicine: dream, mirage or nemesis? Princeton: Princeton University Press; 1979.
11. Kawachi I, Kennedy BP, Glass R. Social capital and self-rated health: a contextual analysis. American Journal of Public Health 1999;89(8):1187-93.
12. Leon DA, Walt G, Gilson L. Recent advances: International perspectives
on health inequalities and policy. BMJ 2001;322:591-4.
13. Marmot M, Wilkinson R, eds. Social determinants of health. Oxford:
Oxford University Press; 1999.
14. Wilkinson RG. Unhealthy societies: the afflictions of inequality. London:
Routledge; 1996.
15. Mackenbach JP. Income inequality and population health: evidence favouring a negative correlation between income inequality and life expectancy
has disappeared. BMJ 2002;324:1-2.
16. Wilkinson RG. The impact of inequality: How to make sick societies healthier.
New York: The New Press; 2005.
17. Marmot M, Siegrist J, eds. Social inequalities in health: new evidence andpolicy implications. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2006.
18. Johannisson K. Det mätbara samhället: statistik och samhällsdröm i 1700talets Europa [Society in numbers: statistics and utopias in 18th century
Europe]. Stockholm: Norstedts; 1988.
19. Hertzman C, Siddiqi A. Health and rapid economic change in late twentieth century. Social Science Medicine 2000;51:809-19.
20. Lindh T, Malmberg B. Age structure effects and growth in the OECD,
1950-1990. Journal of Population Economics 1999;12:431-449.
21. Lindh T, Malmberg B. Population change and growth in the Westernworld, 1850-1990. Working paper for SSHA Conference 2000.
22. Bourdieu P. Le capital social: notes provisoires. Actes de la Recherche en
Sciences Sociales 1980;31:2-3.
23. Bourdieu P. The forms of capital. In: Richardson J, ed. Handbook of Theory
and Research for the Sociology of Education. New York: Greenwood; 1985.
24. Bourdieu P. Raisons Pratiques. Sur la théorie de l'action. Paris: Éditions duSeuil; 1994.
25. Putnam R. Bowling alone: the collapse and revival of American community.
New York: Simon & Schuster; 2000.

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political studies 2003;26(1):1-26.
27. Woolcock M. Managing risk, shocks, and opportunity in developing economies: the role of social capital. In: Ranis G, ed. Dimensions of development.
New Haven Connecticut: Yale Center for Int. and Area Studies; 2000.
28. Woolcock M. Using social capital: getting the social relations right in thetheory and practice of economic development. Princeton: Princeton
University Press; 2002.
29. Kunitz S. Accounts of social capital: the mixed health effects of personalcommunities and voluntary groups. In: Leon D, Walt G, eds. Poverty,
inequality and health. An international perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2001.
30. Szreter S. The state of social capital: bringing back in power, politics andhistory. Theory and Society 2002;31(5):573-621.
31. Szreter S. Health and wealth: Studies in medical history. Rochester, New
York: University of Rochester Press; 2005.
32. Waldron I. Sex differences in human mortality: the role of genetic factors.
Social Science Medicine 1983;17(6):321-33.
33. Johansson SR. Welfare, mortality and gender: continuity and change in
explanations for male/female mortality over three centuries. Continuity
and change 1991;6(2):135-77.
34. Durkheim É. Le suicide. Paris: Presses universitaires de France; 1991.

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42•

hälso- och samhällsutveckling i sverige2. Pre-Enlightenment:Life and death in God’s handIntroduction
Page 42: It was

believed that God
would send all kindsof punishments,
including pestilence
upon the Israelites
if they forgot his
commands.
Illustration: Gustave
Doré/IBL bildbyrå

Page 43:
Photo: Photos.com

For a long period of history, Sweden was an agrarian society with avery small proportion of its inhabitants living in towns, the rest relying
on agriculture and what nature had to offer them through hunting andfishing. In the fifteenth century, the capital of Stockholm was the only
town with more than 5,000 inhabitants. This figure had reachedapproximately 9,000 at the beginning of the seventeenth century. After
that, the expansion of the mercantile sector, international and national
trade and its role as the capital of a growing Baltic empire increased
Stockholm’s population to 50,000 inhabitants by the middle of that
century. Over the next 100 years, the city stagnated and the population
only grew to about 60,000 by the mid-eighteenth century. At the end of
the seventeenth century, Malmö (ca. 5,000 inhabitants by 1750) in thesouth and Gothenburg (ca. 10,000 inhabitants by 1750) in the southwest became the two most important provincial cities within the present
Swedish borders. Other towns were little more than large country
villages rather than cities, dominated by local crafts, trade, civic andecclesiastical administration.

State, church and people
A class of noblemen residing on larger estates emerged during the
Middle Ages but it never constituted more than a mere one percent of
the population. The nobility became one of four estates together withthe clergy (even smaller in number), the burghers in towns (another
1–2 percent) and the great majority of peasants. Each estate had special
economic privileges and gradually became recognised as one of thefour “houses of parliament”. In this sparsely populated country with apopulation in 1750 of less than 1.8 million (within today’s borders),
the establishment of a strong central government was not an easy task.
Throughout the Middle Ages, everyday life was regulated informally or
by local institutions, i.e. the church, the ting (a countryside district
court led by a local judge before all free farmers) or the rådstuga (its44•pre-enlightenment

counterpart in towns) with rare visits and interventions from the king.
Disease was, if ever, treated within the framework of traditional medical beliefs or, when accessible, by the monasteries. “Public health” wasstill an unknown concept both in theory and in practice.
Gustav Vasa’s victory over the Danish king Christian II in 1520
ended the union with Denmark, but it took almost a century, two civil
wars and several campaigns against external enemies to establish hisdynasty firmly on the throne. Gustav died in 1560 and was succeededby his son Eric XIV. In less than 10 years, Eric was violently overthrown, imprisoned and replaced by his younger brother Johan III.
Johan was succeeded by his son Sigismund, who was also king of
Poland. Sigismund was, however, a Catholic and religion became oneof the grounds for another civil war. The Uppsala Synod in 1593 declared that Sweden should now, once and for all, become a Protestantcountry and Gustav’s third son Charles IX captured the throne. This
was the beginning of a religiously orthodox era. Charles and later hisson, Gustav II Adolf, managed to strengthen their claim to the crown,even if the Danish kings still looked upon themselves as the true heirs.
While the Church of Sweden now needed the king as a defender of its
hegemony, the king was equally in need of their ideological support. By
the end of the seventeenth century, this relationship had tipped strongly
in favour of the crown. Charles XI and Charles XII had managed toestablish the doctrine that they were God’s undisputed and autocratic
leaders of both the secular state and the church.
The relationship between state and church was then very evident on
the parish level. Minutes of parish meetings and boards of elders, headedby the parish priests, show that these institutions handled both secularand religious matters and executed commands from both kings andbishops. Conflicts of interest did of course occur from time to time.
Both words and deeds of force could be used if the state’s basic interests
and needs were at stake. Shared interests, negotiations and compromises
were, however, often a more efficient way to make the system work. A
triangular relationship between state, church and the people became theestablished form of local government for more than two centuries.
Besides a strong army, Sweden’s ambitions to become and remain agreat power in northern Europe required a growing civil bureaucracy.
This began to emerge as early as during the reign of Gustavus I(1523–1560). His grandson, Gustav II Adolf (1594–1632), and theChancellor, Axel Oxenstierna, continued to modernise and expand thepre-enlightenment•

45

size and scope of the administration, which now rested with central
boards and county authorities controlled by representatives of theKing. More than 2,000 parishes and towns, with their priests, farmers
and townsmen, dealt with day-to-day ecclesiastical and secular matters.
Practically all the state’s economic resources had to be used for central bureaucracy and war expenditures in particular, and little was left
for health and social welfare measures. Before the Reformation, thechurch had funded and administered the medieval institutions for thecare of the sick and the very poor. With the King’s “nationalisation” ofchurch property and the closure of the convents, these institutions gradually disappeared during the sixteenth century without being replaced
to the same extent by state solutions. During the next century, the central authorities did, however, use their administrative system to initiate
quarantines and other preventive measures in times of plague.
Although hygienic measures and other attempted courses of action
often came too late, when the infection had already gained a foothold,the fight against the plague proceeded, and became one of the models
for similar campaigns against epidemics that wreaked havoc in nineteenth century towns and cities. It became a symbol of an emerging
new approach to the responsibility and capability of society to prevent
death and disease.
One well-known effect of the growth of the central state is theimportance of administrative professionalism, including the medical
field. Collegium Medicum was founded in 1663. To begin with, it wasa private professional association intended to uphold the good name of
the medical profession and combat quackery, but as time progressed, it
received an increasing number of government assignments. The organisation was expanded during the eighteenth century and its first constitution was established in 1744. As early as the seventeenth century, we
can find a small number of provincial doctors who were at least partly
paid by the state. In 1686, Collegium Medicum issued the first decree
governing what were known as “traditional birth attendants” inStockholm, followed by further regulations and training courses for
midwives in the capital. The humble size of this organisation of local
healthcare with a few district physicians responsible for vast geographicalareas meant that only a few inhabitants could ever benefit from its
services for a long time, but the foundations were laid for what would
later become an important tool for public health knowledge and policies.

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War
Becoming a soldier in the field was a highly dangerous fate for a youngman. Before the epidemiological revolution of the last 150 years,
overcrowding and wretched hygienic conditions in military lodgings
encouraged the spread of infection via air, water and food or via infected
rats, fleas and lice. Consequently, epidemics of diseases such as typhus,
relapsing fever, dysentery, typhoid and smallpox broke out. Even diseases
such as malaria (ague) and leprosy occurred. As seen from the experiences of plague, long-distance trade was an efficient transmission routefor infectious diseases. The other two most obvious reasons for the
spread and lethality of the epidemics were war and crop failure. And,
as a rule, it was not death on the battlefield that caused the dramatic
peaks in mortality during war years but rather the primitive accommodation conditions of the soldiers in connection with mobilisation andoffensives that provided an excellent breeding-ground for epidemics offood- and waterborne diseases such as dysentery and typhoid, or thosethat were spread via infected lice, such as typhus and relapsing fever.
There had been several devastating wars in medieval Sweden too,
but the resources of the fighting powers were limited. With the birth ofthe centralised state during the sixteenth century, the King was, however, able to mobilise more conscripts, levy more taxes, build a larger
fleet, hire more mercenary soldiers and engage in more prolonged campaigns. The growing size of the armies and the long periods spent inmilitary camps created an even better breeding-ground for epidemic
diseases with devastating results, for instance during the wars fought
on Finnish soil between Sweden and Russia at the end of the sixteenth
century. Nor did the situation improve during the seventeenth century,
which was characterised by numerous wars; the most prolonged being
the country’s engagement in the Thirty Years War. An extreme example
was Bygdeå, a parish in northern Sweden, where roughly 95 per cent of
all conscripted soldiers from the parish sent to the continental wars
during the 1620s and 1630s perished [1].

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The Black DeathIn spite of being situated on the periphery of Europe, contacts did takeplace with the rest of the continent, particularly through international
trade to and from the major ports. These contacts meant that Swedes
did not escape the horrifying plague epidemics, including the Black
Death. For many Swedes who grew up after the Second World War, thefilm director Ingmar Bergman’s (1918–2007) film from 1957, “TheSeventh Seal”, is probably the single most memorable image of
the “dark” Middle Ages. The film starts when a knight, Antonius
Block, has just returned from a crusade. Hoping to postpone his final,
unavoidable destiny, he is playing chess with Death, a frightening creature dressed in black and carrying a scythe. Around him, the Black
Death is taking its toll; monks and flagellants are walking around inprocessions while others are letting their agony out through violenceand sexuality. The title of the film as well as its leading motive of course
refers to the apocalypse in The Book of Revelations. God is punishing
the people for their sins before, eventually, giving salvation through the
opening of the Seventh Seal:
And the kings of the earth, and the great men, and the rich men,and the chief captains, and the mighty men, and every bondman,and every free man, hid themselves in the dens and in the rocks ofthe mountains; And said to the mountains and rocks, Fall on us,
and hide us from the face of him that sitteth on the throne, andfrom the wrath of the Lamb: For the great day of his wrath is come;and who shall be able to stand?
[Revelation, Chapter 6, Verses 15–17]
There is evidence of various types of plague from the sixth century
onwards. The most devastating epidemic, the Black Death1 started in
China in the early 1330s, travelled along the trading routes throughAsia, came to the Mediterranean ports in 1347 and arrived in Norway
in 1349. According to a medieval source, it came to the Hanseatic cityof Bergen with a merchant ship, reaching Sweden within a year. The
epidemic encountered little resistance in a virgin population and within

1. Later in Swedish history called Digerdöden (the Great Death).

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The knight playing chesswith Death. From Ingmar
Bergman’s film ”TheSeventh Seal”.
Photo: Everett Collection/
IBL bildbyrå

ten years, it had killed an estimated 30–40 per cent of the Swedish
population, which was less than one million at the time. Besides thepotential emergence of a new, more virulent form of the disease, thereason for its rapid spread and lethality has been explained by intensified long-distance trade with Eastern Asia, wars and low general
resistance amongst a population suffering from an agrarian crisis andhigh taxation. The plague returned to Sweden in several waves with astill frightening but less severe lethality, until the last epidemic in 1710–13.
Prior to the Age of Enlightenment in the eighteenth century, thebelief prevailed that a human being and her circumstances were controlled by God’s will. Such a belief was efficiently demonstrated during
the great epidemics. God and other supernatural beings could senddisease as a punishment for individual sinners. Crop failures, famineand pestilence could also afflict whole nations, when their kings did
not obey divine laws. We find an example of this in the Bible, where
King David arranged a census to find out how big Israel had become.
God was incensed by his arrogance and sent a plague that decimatedthe population. According to the Iliad, the Greeks met a similar fateoutside Troy, when the arrows of an enraged Apollo spread plague andannihilation. Repentance and penance could possibly help or alleviate

pre-enlightenment•49

the situation, a hope among the flagellants of the Middle Ages. Sinfulacts were, under this belief system, detrimental to physical health.
Magic could also be used to protect or cure but the world wasnevertheless unpredictable. Death and disease could strike anyone at
any time. Humans had little power over their final destiny but the rulesof life were crystal clear. As long as you followed the laws of God, you
had done your best. Religious norms were not only intended to savesouls but also to combat unnecessary suffering and death.
In addition, the teaching of Hippocrates (about 460–370 BC) andGalenos (129–199 AD) exerted considerable influence on medicine
during the Middle Ages and even into the nineteenth century. Antique
medical theories advocated the belief that by living a healthy life, a person could preserve his or her health. A long-standing assumption wasthat it was primarily up to the individual to protect her health. In
conclusion, apart from ruling honestly and trying to protect the population from famine and other dangers, the tools for a public healthpolicy, i.e. collective efforts to prevent disease and promote good
health, were very limited in northern Europe up until about 250 years
ago. It is interesting to note that one of the most popular works ofmedieval literature, Boccaccio’s Decamerone (published in 1348–1353),
takes place as a group of travellers flee the plague in Florence, the easiest
way of saving oneself from epidemics for those who could.
For it was in the Italian medieval city-states that the plague andother epidemics prompted the first systematic interventions to protect
the population against disease as early as the fourteenth century.
Nothing was known of bacteria or viruses, but it was observed that
infection could be transmitted from human to human. To fight epidemics, measures primarily aimed at shutting out infected people by notallowing them access to the cities and by setting up patrol lines to protect their areas were implemented. Town governments kept themselvesinformed as to when and where epidemics broke out and prevented
ship crews from going ashore if they had come from an infected area.
Quarantine, i.e. when a ship was made to anchor offshore and wait
until it was deemed free of infection, comes from the French word for“forty days”. Other preventive measures included fumigating houses
where the epidemic had taken hold and doctors dressing in special suits
to protect themselves from infection.
In Sweden, publicly organised measures to prevent the spread of
epidemics came much later than in southern Europe. One reason is, of50•

pre-enlightenment

course, that most Swedish towns were extremely small (a few hundredinhabitants) with equally small resources. Before the seventeenth century,
the King had little means at his disposal to take action and impose
regulations in order to curb the spread of the infections, even if somepreventive ideas arrived from the continent. The first medical publication in Swedish was printed in the plague-year 1572 by a Dutch courtphysician [2]. It described “how each and every person – old or young– rich or poor – shall adhere to official advice and help” in order tofight the disease. A quotation from the Bible was appended to the title:“He who sins before God shall find himself in the hands of thedoctors.” This publication and its successors at the end of the sixteenth
century were aimed at the few literate members of society. For the
majority, useful advice on how to protect oneself, other than to avoid
God’s wrath and punishment, was, to say the least, hard to come by.
Epidemics were often said to be heralded by heavenly spectacles orother omens. The advice often described cures; medicaments that could
be taken before or after the disease had broken out. From a modern
standpoint, such cures do not seem to have been very effective.
Otherwise, the recommendation was to keep one’s distance fromthose infected, and to be vigilant towards foreign visitors by sometimes
appointing special guards. Good hygiene was occasionally mentioned
as a suitable measure to avoid infection. One piece of advice, adopted
as a decree by the authorities in the seventeenth century, prescribed thatthose who had died from the plague were to be buried at designatedsites. Such plague cemeteries were to be a prototype for the cholera graveyards of the nineteenth century. However, the decree contravened
popular religious beliefs regarding a proper burial. Burial in a publicgraveyard was a prerequisite for future resurrection. Therefore, disturbances sometimes occurred when relatives of the deceased refused toobey this order. Other measures that sometimes conflicted with thebeliefs of the population included the fumigation of plague-infested
housing and the barriers that were erected to stop people moving
about. Examples of such public reactions against the regulations can befound during years of plague and other epidemics of the early eighteenth
century in the southernmost province of Skåne [3].
By then, however, even in Sweden, the belief had become stronger
that individuals could and should try to protect themselves and that
authorities could and even should take action to alleviate the consequences of certain epidemics. Still, the best remedy when an epidemic

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broke out was often to flee, although there were other alternatives.
Following influences from abroad, isolation, quarantine, cordons
sanitaires around infected areas and control of visitors from outside
became increasingly common. European quarantine systems wereexpanded during the eighteenth century and the borders of the Turkish
empire were especially stringently controlled, as they were often thegateway for infection from the East. Such apparently effective measures
were taken in Sweden on the border with Russia. Like in other European
countries at that time, it was proclaimed that those who tried to crossthe border without permission should be shot down without warning.
An oft-quoted explanation for the disappearance of plague in Europe
during the eighteenth century is that the black rat, the primary carrierof plague fleas, was driven out by the brown rat. It is, however, also
highly plausible that the above-mentioned isolation measures contributed to the exclusion of plague from Europe, for instance preventing itfrom entering Sweden via Russia after 1713.

Summary: Public healthbefore the Enlightenment
Proactive measures against plague had been taken in Italy during the
Middle Ages and on a larger scale in for instance Spain during thesixteenth century. Isolation of the infected, quarantines and cordons
sanitaires were attempts to prevent the arrival of plague epidemics. The
reasons for state intervention were of course easy to find, since every
new epidemic threatened the wealth and social stability of the country.
One example of a successful intervention against the spread of theepidemic is recorded in Marseille and Provence 1720–1722.
Sweden was not protected from the great plague epidemics during
medieval and early modern times and public attempts to fight or limit
the effects of such epidemics only date back to the seventeenth century.
There are several reasons for this delayed response. The country is geographically in the periphery, vast but with few inhabitants per square
kilometre. Once the central state had become reasonably well established52•

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during the sixteenth century, most of its resources were spent on theneeds of the court and on wars within and outside its borders. Its
expansion into a regional empire in the Baltic area during the seventeenth century still meant that most of the resources were earmarked
for military purposes but there was also a need for a civil bureaucracywith a greater impact on local affairs. A more concerted public responseto plague attacks came comparatively late and was not very efficiently
imposed before the second half of the seventeenth century. Thereafter,
as in other parts of Europe, fighting plague became a model for later
public health interventions against epidemics.
Generally, before the era of the Enlightenment, it was thought that
health was God’s gift and disease and death was His punishment forthe sins of an individual, the congregation, the whole nation or its
rulers. Hence, to live a decent life in accordance with His will andrepenting one’s sins were considered the most effective preventive
measures against illnesses. New “secular” ideas had emerged and established themselves on the continent as early as the sixteenth century. In
Sweden a few voices were raised, saying that God may have wanted
mankind to take precautions against plague and other epidemics, but
this idea did not gain a foothold in Sweden before the eighteenth century. It would be for these new generations to actively investigate thenature of epidemics, draw conclusions from that knowledge and optimistically set about using this knowledge for their benefit.

Reference list
1.

2.
3.

Lindegren J. Utskrivning och utsugning: produktion och reproduktion i
Bygdeå 1620–1640 [Conscription and exploitation: production and reproduction in the parish of Bygdeå 1620–1640]. Diss. Uppsala: Uppsala University; 1980.
Ottosson PG. Pestskrifter i Sverige 1572–1711 [Plague booklets in Sweden
1521–1711]. Linköping: Linköping University; 1986.
Persson B. Pestens gåta: farsoter i det tidiga 1700-talets Skåne [The mysteryof plague: epidemics in early 18th century Scania]. Diss. Lund: Lund
University; 2001.

pre-enlightenment•53

3. Mercantilism,

the Enlightenment andthe birth of epidemiology

Introduction
Page 54: In earlymodern medicine,anatomy studies
became a popular
tool when exploring
the functions of
the human body.
Photo: Photos.com

Page 55: Nils Rosénvon Rosenstein
1706–1773), writer,
professor at Uppsala
University, often
referred to as father
of modern paediatrics.
Photo: IBL bildbyrå

After the death of Charles XII in 1718 and the end of Sweden’s era as amajor power in northern Europe, the autocratic kingdom “by God’s
mercy” came to an end. It was replaced by what is referred to as the“Age of Freedom”: political power rested with the parliament’s four
estates and more secular ideas in support of the supremacy of the state
gained ground. Sweden was to remain predominantly agrarian for along time with a slowly growing manufacturing sector (mostly ironworks and to some extent textiles). In economic terms, mercantilism set
the agenda for state growth in terms of power and prosperity. The land
and the people who cultivated it or who manufactured machines,
equipment and – not least – weapons became the most importantresources for the state. A large, healthy population was a necessary
asset. This human capital could work, produce, pay tax and be utilised
in times of war. Keeping a record of the population and changes within
it was part of the mercantile fiscal approach. It resulted in a growinginterest in statistics and estimations, although Sweden was by nomeans the first country in Europe to make these calculations, named by
Sir William Petty (1623–87) as “political arithmetic”. This had alreadybeen tried for instance in France and Italy during the sixteenth andseventeenth centuries. In England, John Graunt published a study in
1662 entitled “Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of
Mortality”. In Sweden, Anders Berch (1711–1774) became the mostprominent representative of this approach. As an example of such
efforts, an average value was calculated for the contribution to the economy made by a farmhand, compared to the investment he required
before he was old enough to work. Doctors estimated how many
human lives and what production output they could save if they had
more resources at their disposal. Disease was seen as an economic loss
and good health as necessary economic capital for society, not just as ahumanitarian value [1-3].
For such purposes, and thanks to the detailed population registers ineach parish, Tabellverket, the forerunner of the modern-day Statistics
Sweden, was founded in 1749, the first example of a continuous,
nationwide system with populations at risk as its denominators. It
collected annual statistics on population change (mortality tables) andcomposition (population tables) from all Swedish parishes. The agency’s

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enlightenmentPehr Wargentin(1717–1783), first headof Tabellverket, thefirst statistical institution to start collecting
and analysing demographic data fromevery Swedish town
and parish in 1749.
Photo: IBL bildbyrå

first leading figure and architect was Pehr Wargentin (1717–1783),
who was also secretary of the Academy of Sciences. He was of course
also influenced by international trends, for instance the population statistics published by the German Johann Peter Süssmilch (1707–1767)and the works of other prominent figures in this field. Tabellverket andits successors provided Sweden with a unique opportunity to study
demographic and epidemiological development over several hundredyears, starting nearly one hundred years before the same information
began to be collected in other countries (apart from Finland, which

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belonged to Sweden at that time) [3]. The formulae varied somewhat
from one period to the next until its final year, 1859, but it was always
possible to see how many babies had been born each month (boys andgirls, in and out of wedlock), the number of stillbirths, consecrated
marriages and deaths by age and sex. Up until 1830, priests had to fillin a comprehensive cause of death table, each row of which corresponded (in accordance with the terminology of the day) to a specific causeof death and the columns broke down the deaths by age and sex. In
order to calculate death risks, one could use special tables (compiled
initially every year, then every third year and post-1775 every fifthyear) presenting the composition of the population with respect to sex,
age and status or trade.
Enlightenment and “reason” had now become guiding principles,indicating that people could and should learn how to create well-being
and better health by observing nature. Natural scientists and the medical
profession claimed to be, and started to be looked upon, as valuable
contributors to the needs of the state. That is why the extensive yearlytable on causes of death was included in the parish statistics organisedin accordance with contemporary ideas and knowledge. The chairmanof the Academy of Sciences, Abraham Bäck (1713–1795), undertook tocreate a nomenclature that was deemed workable when the first tables
were to be delivered in 1749. Certain diseases, such as typhus, dysentery,
whooping cough, smallpox and measles, could often be identified,
which is why they were given their own categories. Other cases weremore ambiguous and it was often a question of symptoms, such as
chest-ache or stroke, rather than specific diseases. “Stroke” denoted
sudden death among infants, if we are to believe contemporary
accounts. The priests were naturally not always capable of deciding
where on the table they should enter the deaths. Many dead infants
could from the beginning be found under “unknown child disease”.
Nevertheless, the tables demonstrated the major contemporary threats
to life and fed the debate as to what should be done about the state ofthings.1

1. Later on, cause of death reporting in the form of such tables was unfortunately limited tojust certain epidemics, which means we lack detailed statistics from the period 1830–1911.
In the towns and cities, death book statistics were, however, based on the diagnoses ofurban doctors; in rural areas, priests continued to be the main source until 1911. Local
studies can therefore compensate for the shortage of statistics to a certain extent.

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Mortality according
to the statistics
To begin with, this data was felt to be so important for state security
that it was kept secret, which was not unique for Sweden [2]. Soon,
however, reports and articles became available to the Swedish generalpublic. It became clear in no uncertain terms to the authorities anddoctors that (what was seen as) the weak population growth rate wasprimarily caused by high mortality, especially among young children.
Even those priests whose task it was to fill in the tables noticed thislarge number of infant deaths from various known and unknown (unidentified) diseases. Furthermore, the consequences of frequently
recurrent epidemics that not only affected children were there for all to see.
In the mid-eighteenth century, more than one in five infants died
before they were 12 months old and even during their next few years ofinfancy, they ran a substantial risk of death from infectious diseases
such as smallpox, whooping cough and various gastrointestinal infec-

The Table Commission’s report in 1750
on mortality in Sweden(including Finland)by causes of death(vertical), age and sexof the diseased (horizontal). Some categories, such as smallpox
and measles, aredistinguishable inmodern terminology,
others are just symptoms.
Photo: Arne Orregård,Statistics Sweden

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tions. Most children were at risk of smallpox infection, and the casefatality was often over 20 per cent. About 300,000 people, mostly
children, died from smallpox during the second half of the century [4].
Those surviving risked complications such as scarring, blindness,arthritis and encephalitis.
Surviving the first four years meant a reasonable chance of reaching
one’s 50th birthday, although in greater risk than today. Infection-relatedcauses of death, such as consumption in the lungs, fever fits and chest
disease, were also common among adults. We don't know exactly whatlies behind these diagnoses and must therefore be cautious in our interpretation, but contemporary descriptions of symptoms indicate thatthey chiefly referred to diseases such as pulmonary tuberculosis, typhoid
fever and infectious diseases of the respiratory organs [5]. The dominant causes of death nowadays, malignant tumours and cardiovasculardiseases, are more difficult to identify, but no doubt occurred as well.
The ever-present TB infections probably claimed just as many lives as
the more acute epidemic diseases. The combination of recurrent infection attacks and poor nutrition among large groups no doubt contributed to a widespread lack of resistance and increased risk of death.
Wars continued to take their toll even during the eighteenth andearly nineteenth century. Several European countries were hit by yearsof famine and rising death rates during the early 1740s [6]. Swedish
church registers bear witness to peaks in mortality in many parishes atthe beginning of the 1740s, an age characterised by simultaneous crop
failures and war. Mortality was for example high among the soldiersserving in the Baltic Navy in connection with the war against Russia in
1741–1743. There were also noticeable peaks in mortality in 1789 and
1808–1809 in connection with war and mobilisations. The last of thesepeaks, which can also be said to be the terminal point of the first phaseof the epidemiological transition, and which was followed by a periodof constantly falling death rates, exhibited higher levels for certain age
groups than even the crisis years of the 1770s. Men of conscription age
were particularly badly affected (see Appendix). But the civilian population was also affected as can be seen by the increasing death rates.

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Famines
As early as the 1860s, the Swedish statistician Johan Hellstenius published an article showing the correlation between years of harvest failureand high mortality figures in pre-industrial Sweden. The period
1772–1773, when the population was hit by extreme crop failure, saw
the highest total death rate ever recorded since the establishment ofTabellverket. The number of deaths rose by just over 70,000 comparedto the years immediately before. This seems to be the only year when
the number of people who starved to death reached three figures,
according to cause-of-death reports [7]. Hence, the statistical evidence
indicates that deaths directly caused by starvation constituted only afraction of the total mortality during the entire famine-related crisis
period. The majority died from infectious diseases (probably dysentery
and other gastrointestinal infections, including possibly typhus). The
increased mortality from epidemics in connection with the famine crises
was probably to some extent due to reduced resistance caused by malnutrition, but, as in many other countries during that time, was mostly
due to the increased spread of infection caused by labour mobility andvagrancy during the famine years [8].
Regarding the nutritional status of the population in general, people
did not starve but the diet appears to have been quite unbalanced,
largely dominated by cereals (bread and porridge), and during the nineteenth century also by potatoes, while the intake of fresh vegetables
and meat was relatively low.

Men and womenAmong new-born babies, boys ran a higher risk of dying than girls
during the first twelve months of life. This pattern still holds true today
and is probably rooted in biological factors that are detrimental to thesurvival rate of baby boys. A certain bias towards male mortality was
also the dominant pattern among older children and adolescents. A
strong contributory factor to this bias in all age groups, in addition toenlightenment•

61

early infancy, was the high accident mortality rate among men. Drowning was by far the most common cause of accidental deaths. This
indicates early-established gender differences in behaviour, implyingthat the way boys were brought up led to a greater tendency for themto expose themselves to physical risks than girls. Among adolescentsand adults, the various risks associated with the different types of working tasks performed by men and women were obviously a factor.
In the past, people obviously had difficulties explaining why the
sickly and ‘weak’ female sex appeared to be more robust than meneven in early infancy, when explanations such as men being exposed togreater risks in working life or in their spare time could not account forthe difference. The superior ability of girls to survive could even be
explained by the fact that baby boys have a stronger constitution:
The reason [for higher mortality among boys] must therefore lie
deeper and should preferably be sought in a baby-boy’s entire inner
structure, which is generally stronger, less yielding and flexible thana girl’s, and hence is much more vehemently attacked by disease
and reacts more violently against it [9].
Pregnant women and new mothers also constituted a vulnerable groupthat ran a substantial risk of dying from tuberculosis and other diseases,in addition to the risks of contracting puerperal (childbed) fever andcomplications associated with pregnancy and childbirth. In the mideighteenth century, almost 1 out of 100 childbirths resulted in the deathof the mother. When aggregated for the whole fertile period, 3–4
women out of 100 risked dying in childbirth by the end of the same
century [10]. Mortality was still as a rule higher among men thanamong women of reproductive age but the difference was less among
those of higher ages. On isolated occasions, there was excessive female
mortality in the most fertile child-bearing age group.
Mortality was higher among adult men for most causes of death.
This was true for accidents as well as infection-related diagnoses, e.g.
consumption, and other (often difficult to interpret) diagnoses (Table
3.1).

62

•

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Table 3.1 Causes of death among men and women 20-44 years old. Sweden, 1779–1782.
Age-standardised deaths per 100,000.
Causes of death

Men

Women

Consumption in the lungs

169

127

Other infections

498

409

Accidents

85

21

Maternal mortality–

149

Others

305

280

Total

1,057

986

Source: Widén L. Mortality and Causes of Death in Sweden during the 18th Century. Statistisk Tidskrift(Journal of Statistics), 1975; 13: 93–104.
Comment: ”Other infections” were dominated by chest disease, fever fits, ague, dysentery, putrid andtyphus fever including other pulmonary inflammations and respiratory organ infections as well as typhoidand malaria.

Town and country
Despite the small size of pre-industrial towns in Sweden, it was stillmuch more dangerous to live there than in the surrounding rural areas.
An important factor, to which contemporary observers also testify, wasthe poor sanitary conditions that allowed contagion to spread throughinfected water. The greater population mass compared to rural areas
also meant there was a greater risk of infections spreading.
This is certainly the case for infant and child mortality in general,
although the picture is sometimes modified by the impact of cultural
habits, for instance breast-feeding patterns. As an example, in the small
town of Linköping, the infant mortality rate (IMR) (before a child’s
first birthday) was normally between 30 and 35 deaths per 100 births
during the second half of the eighteenth century, sometimes evenhigher. In the surrounding rural area, the rate was considerably lower
at around 20–25 per 100. The figure was only about 15 in the less densely and more isolated parishes in forest areas. For children who hadreached their first birthday, the relative difference was the same between

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town and countryside. Population density per se and its impact on
exposure to infections was obviously the strongest factor explaining
these differences. Often, however, IMR was higher in the more sparsely
populated agrarian hinterland than at the proto-industrial iron foundries, where propaganda for breast-feeding and hygienic child-care wasintroduced at an earlier stage in history. There were also some areas in
the Swedish countryside where IMR was as high as in the cities, again
due to inadequate breast-feeding, while the mortality of older children
was almost always considerably lower than in urban areas.

deaths/1,000

Figure 3.1 Sex-specificmortality in the 25–49
age group for major
causes of death in the
town of Linköping
and surrounding
countryside parishes,
1750–1814.
Source: Linköping historical database/Umeå
demographic database(death registers).
Unpublished population
statistics tables, Tabellverket, 1750–1814.

countryside
town

12
male
10
8
6
4
2
0

respiratory
inf.

other inf.

strokedropsyexternals

maternal

otherexternals

maternal

otherdeaths/1,000
12female
10
8
6
4
2
0

64

respiratory
inf.

•

other inf.

strokeenlightenment

dropsyAs can be seen from Figure 3.1, infection-related causes of death werealso much higher among adults in urban areas, even in small towns
such as eighteenth century Linköping, compared to the surrounding
countryside. The relatively smaller differences in death rates among
women indicate the importance of gender-related lifestyle factors formen, as men and women to a large extent shared the same environmental risks connected to sanitary conditions in different places. The
exception can be seen for respiratory infections: women had lower
rates than men but there was also a clear disadvantage for urban
women, obviously caused by high exposure.

Science, learned societies
and enlightened priests
The Age of Enlightenment was characterised on the one hand by certain
common ideas and tendencies, but on the other there were always
variations and different theories circulating in the scientific community.
The most prominent figure among natural scientists as far as Sweden isconcerned was the botanist, physician, zoologist and father of modern
taxonomy, Carl von Linné (1707–1778), generally known as Linnaeus
outside Sweden. Like many of his academic contemporaries and as theson of a priest, Linnaeus was an offspring of the socially ascendingclasses. The catechetical tests gave talented farm children a chance tobe identified and be given a helping hand in their careers by influential
patrons. Linnaeus was the most internationally influential Swedish scientist and botanist of the era and held a professorship in medicine and“natural history” in Uppsala. He defended his doctoral thesis in the Netherlands and spent three years there 1735–38. Among his more famousinternational colleagues and correspondents were Albrecht von Haller(1708–77) in Göttingen, Hermann Boerhave (1668–1738) in Leiden andAntoine Laurent de Jussieu (1748–1836) in Paris. In a spirit that was typical of the day, he searched for knowledge in recognised medical journals,
in his own observations and in the popular medicine being administeredaround him. It was often a question of tonics and curative medicines, but
he also had comments to make on more public health-related conditions.

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Carolus Linnaeus(1707–1778) was
Sweden’s most
famous scientist in
his own time and has
continued to be soever since. He attracted students frommany countries andsent out pupils to allparts of the globe tocollect plants anddocument the world’s
flora.
Photo: Photos.com

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On a journey through Lapland, he noticed for example that mothers did
not breastfeed their children in parts of the extreme north of the country.
During Linnaeus’s time and throughout the eighteenth century,
many new national and international learned societies emerged, whose
task was to promote scientific dialogue and compile and discuss
reports on new research concerning, for example, measures to improve
public health. One of these was the Uppsala Science Society, which
selected and published many of the reports it had compiled. 1739 saw
the establishment of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, which
had a similar purpose. Abraham Bäck, who was chairman of Collegium Medicum from 1752 until his death, played a prominent role inthese learned societies. Bäck studied in Uppsala under Nils Rosén vonRosenstein (1706–1773), who had bartered with Linnaeus for the professor-ship of medicine there. Bäck became hovmedicus (chief medical
advisor to the royal court) in Stockholm, professor of anatomy andfounded what was later to become the Karolinska Institutet. Linnaeus
and most of his academic contemporaries had travelled in Europe
during their studies and got to know the scientific authorities of theday. They then kept in contact with their colleagues around the world
by letter and through periodicals. A good postal service and a closer
and faster communications system meant that news and ideas spread
more abundantly and more rapidly than previously. Many domestic
ideas, recommendations and practical measures to promote publichealth were based on international examples and influences.
To help improve the health service in rural areas, Linnaeus, together
with others, organised a course in basic medical skills for students intheology, popularly known as “priest medicine”, which they could thenemploy in their future parishes. The priests often kept handbooks in lay
medicine in their libraries and were also expected to run a small parish
pharmacy stocking the most common medicines thought to be necessary. Interest and zeal in health issues naturally differed from person toperson, but some priests maintained their contact with the learned
society by corresponding with Linnaeus or other well-known doctors.
Their reports on health conditions in the parishes were sometimes
published in the documents of the Academy of Science. When they filledin their causes of death table during the year, it was not always easy tofind the best diagnostic category, but the judgements of “enlightened
priests” need not have differed all that much from what professional
doctors would have said.

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Popular advice from Sweden’s
first paediatrician
One of the most important subjects of the scientists’ curiosity, experiments and constant proposals for improvements was public health, notleast to help increase the population for the good of society. This related in particular to the care of children, among whom mortality washigh according to Tabellverket. Advice was directed towards the educated and reasonably affluent section of the general public, but could in
principle and often even in practice reach the common people, thanks
to the Swedish home education system (see below), which led to themajority of Swedish adults being able to read. Linnaeus’s contemporary colleague in Uppsala, Nils Rosén von Rosenstein, has been called
Sweden’s first paediatrician. Similar advice was popularised in otherparts of Europe during this period [11]. Rosén was, like Linnaeus, theson of a priest and in 1764 he published “The Diseases of Children andtheir Remedies”, advice and instructions to the general public, which
was translated into English as early as 1776 [12]. The translation had
been done by Anders Sparrman, one of Linnaeus’s disciples and a crewmember on Captain Cook’s circumnavigations of the world. It waslater translated into several other languages. Rosén’s advice could also
be read as articles in annual Swedish almanacs between 1753 and 1771.
Apart from the Bible, the hymn-book and the catechism, these almanacs
were the most distributed printed matter, with an annual circulation
estimated to be more than 150,000 copies.
Apart from medicinal prescriptions, which we today treat with some
scepticism, Rosén’s writings included a long article on wet nurses andbreastfeeding. By way of introduction, he says that mother’s milk provides an infant’s best nourishment. Furthermore, lying-in will be easierfor the mother and the child will inherit her disposition and aptitude.
“We have seen how lion-cubs, breastfed by a cow or goat, have become
tame; whilst dogs, breastfed by a she-wolf, have become predators”,
the author ascertains. If you are forced to hire a wet nurse, he issues anumber of instructions: The wet nurse shall be of pious and chaste
mind, be in good health and have no symptoms of impure disease, ringworm and the like. The quality of the milk must be assessed carefully.

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The wet nurse may not drink wine, spirit or coffee. She may drink
small quantities of tea with a dash of milk. She must drink from a cleancup, not indulge in lovemaking or get worried or upset, since this canaffect the milk. The child’s stomach must not be overloaded and it
should only be breastfed when hungry. The wet nurse should not breastfeed during menstruation. If the child receives artificial food, onemust ensure that it is not contaminated with insects or other potential
hazards. The baby should not be swaddled too tightly and dirty clothes
should be changed immediately. It should have clean clothes, be in aclean room that is not draughty and lie with its head in an elevatedposition so as not to become apoplectic. Anxious children can be comforted by toys – girls with dolls and boys with horses, for example.
The rest of Rosén’s book is devoted to different types of children’s
diseases, how they arise and can be cured or alleviated. Abdominal
pain and cramp is often said to have afflicted the children of common
people, especially during the summer “when mothers eat a lot of sourmilk”. This pain then causes “heart palpitations or convulsion, andthen apoplexy”. This indicates to modern historians that many of thesecauses of death seem to have been associated with diarrhoea and othergastrointestinal diseases. Thrush, which in itself is a non-fatal fungus
disease of the mouth and throat, is said to have occurred in children“whose mouths are not kept clean; having suckled old thick milk or
milk with some kind of sharp taste [soured milk?]”. It also occurred
when children had a lot of diarrhoea. The best cure is to keep thechild’s mouth clean. Convulsions and heart palpitations in the form ofcramp are said to have occurred as the result of constipation and abdominal pain, if a wet nurse had become upset, when the child was teething, had scabies, the pox, measles, scarlet fever or worms. Concerning
worms, infants that “had only been breastfed could not contract these
forms of disorders”. “Until they begin to eat solids, I never notice any
sign of worms,” says Rosén. Diarrhoea was said to only occur ininfants if they were neglected or “had unfit or bad milk”. Children
who had other diseases often contracted diarrhoea. One piece of advice
was to let the child drink small amounts at a time but more often.
A long passage in the book is devoted to “koppor”, i.e. smallpox –that regularly reoccurring epidemic that claimed thousands of lives
every year in eighteenth century Sweden. It is firstly supposed by theauthor that the pox is infectious and “the pox poison does not comefrom the air nor does it breed in the air, and a town could be protectedenlightenment•

69

from the pox if similar measures as those taken against the plague were
implemented”. But the pox is not infectious until the day before they[the pustules] turn yellow, “since it is only then that the poison leaks
from them”. One should bury the sick person’s clothes to avoid theinfection spreading. Inoculation is prescribed and Rosén describes
different methods of how the infection can be transmitted from apoxed to a healthy person. The educated classes were encouraged toinoculate their children, since they “understand what damage a decimated population can do to the country and should therefore set a
good example”. The author denies the suggestion that attempting toprevent diseases by inoculation conflicted with God’s will. This is a
medicine “which God has let us discover” and hence it is a sin not to
use it. Regarding measles and whooping cough, it is ascertained thatthe infections seem to be similar to smallpox and Rosén hopes that asimilar medicine could be found to combat them. Inoculation was used
far too sparingly in Sweden to have been of crucial significance, but
was relatively widespread in Österbotten (north-eastern Sweden)
thanks to the well-known priest, Anders Chydenius.
Helminthic (worm) diseases cause relatively few problems in thewealthy part of the world today. In eighteenth century Sweden, however, different types of worm were endemic, especially among children.
They entered the body via food and drink, especially in dirty containers, during the summer and among the poor, Rosén explains. Good
advice is to cook the food well. A lack of cleanliness and poverty aresaid to be the main causes of rashes, scabies and pests (insects):
Affluent or rich people seldom have scabies. It is a common affliction among the less well-off and poor, however. The former haveservants. Children’s rooms are kept clean. The wet nurse gets clothes
so that she can change often and look nice. She can also keep thechild clean and change nappies and swaddling clothes regularly.
Rosén was the greatest authority on children’s diseases of his era. His
almanac articles and book would be read by generations of Swedishand foreign doctors, midwives and parents. The effect of some of thecures he prescribed seem rather dubious when seen in a modern-day
light, but during his age, he was to draw public attention to the positive
impact of breastfeeding and good hygiene on children’s health andsurvival.

70•

enlightenment

The enemies according to an
enlightened provincial doctor
It was, however, at the local level that medical doctors obtained practicalknowledge about the living conditions of the population. We can seethat this was of interest to many of Sweden’s eighteenth century provincial doctors from their reports to higher authorities. One of these
doctors, Johan Otto Hagström (1716–1792), was of a poor family,
studied in Uppsala under Linnaeus and Rosén von Rosenstein andworked in the city of Linköping and its surroundings during the second
half of the eighteenth century. He was a typical “grass root” product of
the Age of Enlightenment, who wanted to keep abreast of scientificresearch, referring to public welfare as an argument for measures topromote population health. Promoting vegetable farming was beneficial
both for health and for the economy. He naturally prescribed inoculation as a way of combating the pox, but did not seem to have made any
substantial efforts in practice to promote this himself.
Living in a small, but from a hygienic standpoint very unhealthy,
city, Hagström was very aware of its dangers:
Health can be seriously damaged by swine carrying human excrement through the streets here in Linköping, in the autumn andspring, making the already unhealthy air at these times of the year
even worse. Such unclean air is swallowed with saliva and reaches
the stomach, and is breathed into the lungs, leading inevitably todisease.
Letter dated 24 January 1755 [13].
The above quotation probably paints an accurate picture of the sanitaryconditions in many Swedish pre-industrial towns, as well as reflecting
the way people at the time thought diseases spread. A common perception, rooted in classical medicine, was that unhealthy odours and stenches from swamps or rotting organic material, known as miasma,
could cause disease – a perception that prevailed far into the next
century as well, and which formed part of the reasoning behind thesanitary reforms in British, and even Swedish, industrial towns, prior
to the definitive breakthrough of bacteriology towards the end of thenineteenth century [14, 15]. It is hence an example of how people per-enlightenment•

71

formed the right measures to improve public health, but for theoreticallydubious reasons. In parallel with this view of how disease originated,
there were also perceptions about how it spread through direct contact
with infected persons (contagion), which formed the basis of regulations governing the quarantining and isolation of sick individuals
during the early plague epidemics.
The fact that poverty was a source of ill-health and premature death
was not unknown to contemporary observers. In a speech to the Royal
Swedish Academy of Sciences in the summer of 1764, Hagström’s
distinguished friend and promoter Abraham Bäck talked about the prevalence of and reasons for social differences in mortality:
As far as plague epidemics are concerned, no better evidence of
this can be presented than the fact that they affect ordinary people
much more than the more affluent; and the fact that plague epidemics
lay waste to commoner communities whilst the better-off seldom
fall ill .... When I consider the reasons for disease and suchwidespread death among ordinary people, and town commoners,
Poverty, Misery, Shortage of food, Anxiety and Despair are thefirst things that come to mind.
In Bäck’s opinion, both material adversity and psychosocial factors
contributed to the social differences in mortality. In light of the substantial mortality in connection with crop failures and the fact thatmany people lived very close to the edge, Bäck’s conclusion seems
highly reasonable, even if the present state of our knowledge of social
inequity in health in eighteenth century Sweden is extremely limited.
The inadequate sanitary conditions, especially in urban areas, and thelack of knowledge about how infections spread meant, however, thatmaterially affluent groups also ran the risk of contracting various infectious diseases. Even well-to-do courtiers in Stockholm, with goodaccess to nutritious food, could, for instance, not always avoid contracting tuberculosis in the eighteenth century. But the risk was even higher
among the capital’s poor [16].
Abraham Bäck’s colleagues around the country also refer to the prevalence of social differences in health in their reports to Collegium Medicum.
Johan Otto Hagström reported in a letter dated 7 January 1757 that
“The ague was rife here at the end of March and beginning of April,especially among the poor: and few emerged unscathed from the disease”[13]. Poverty as a cause of disease and death is a recurrent theme in Hag-

72•

enlightenmentström’s letters to Collegium Medicum, especially during the crisis yearsof the eighteenth century. On 16 December 1771 he wrote that:
Beggars flock like sheep from many parishes scrounging bread toease their hunger. Hunger generally leads to disease among ordinary
people. God have mercy on this national scourge! [13].
In Hagström’s view, this meant that:… the destitute masses languish in their work, grow tired, growsick with despair, and finally see death as a welcome separationfrom all their tiresome troubles, sweat and hunger.
Another reason is, according to Hagström:... the constant imbibing of aquavit, for which there is plenty ofopportunity; at markets, festivals, weddings, funerals and especiallyduring the summer haymaking season. It is against my sworn oathto name the many sick people here who have fallen victim to gout,
falling sickness, dropsy, consumption, lack of appetite, fits of rage,
weak-headedness, weak and feeble seed, miscarriage, and after
much suffering, death itself.
He had personal experience of syphilis, contracted during his youth,
which certainly helped him to describe the exposure and stigmatisationof venereal disease sufferers. He refers to his patients, who say that“no-one would tolerate me in church, at social gatherings, at work,
while fishing or doing similar leisure activities”, after which they“weep bitterly, go away and I never see them again”.
His criticism is often directed towards a higher authority, which hefeels is far too passive when it comes to improving people’s conditions,
alleviating the effect of high living costs and restricting access to aquavit. Cereal traders, county governors and the priesthood all come in for
their fair share of criticism. Hagström was venturing into politicallydangerous territory here, so he carefully disguised his criticism in his
official reports to Collegium Medicum. When he could speak more
freely, as in a letter to Abraham Bäck, he was more explicit:
When I ask for a few shillings to help a wretch, then they say it’s awaste of money, but when they want thousands of guineas to erecta victory arch, then there is money made available immediately.

enlightenment•

73

Local administration,
literacy and church discipline
As seen in the previous chapter, the parish had a key role in the Swedish civil and clerical administration, a role that became more andmore important as the ambitions of the civil state and the orthodox
Protestant church grew. We have, for instance, seen that the population
statistics from 1749 and onwards were made possible by the existenceof the parish registers, which did not just record ministerial acts (births
and baptisms, marriages and deaths and funerals) but also all residents
day by day and year by year.
These registers were originally a product of Martin Luther’s declaration that everyone should be able to read the Bible. First of all, that didof course mean that the Holy Scripture had to be translated into vernacular Swedish, which took place already during the sixteenth century.
The second condition was that all adults should be able to read thetexts. To that end, a literacy campaign was initiated in some Swedish
dioceses during the first half of the seventeenth century, which soon
spread to the whole country. The first generation of adults was taught
by the priests, the parish clerks or some other literate person, and thenit was up to each generation to pass on the knowledge to their children
in the home. Yearly catechetical tests were organised in order to monitor the results of the campaign, which were recorded on “catecheticallists”, which successively became more and more detailed full-scaleexamination registers. Finally, during the last decades of the eighteenth
century, every person was registered within his or her official domicile
and household with data on when and from where she had moved into
the domicile and, if she left, where she moved to.
Besides encouraging the church’s ambitions and getting its support
in return, the state quickly found practical reasons for keeping theserecords: Every autumn, taxation poll registers could be updated withthe help of the church registers and whenever a new conscription ofsoldiers took place in the parish, the catechetical lists helped the acting
officer to identify those who were of age to join the army. Whenreligious and civil authorities were backing the campaigns, the result
became a unique success in the history of literacy. It has been estimated74•

enlightenment

Martin Luther(1483–1546) was a
German monk,
theologian, and theideological father ofProtestantism.
Photo: Photos.com

enlightenment•

75

that by the middle of the eighteenth century, a large majority of Swedes
were able to “read in Book” and reasonably understand what was said
in religious texts and in royal proclamations posted on church doors orat other public places. Hence, what Nils Rosén von Rosenstein wrote
in the almanacs in rather plain and understandable language was widely
spread and widely read. As is repeatedly demonstrated, the literacy of
mothers remains a key factor in the survival of young children. The
church registers also show that women were more capable readers thanmen, probably because they were usually in charge of the education of
the next generation and therefore got the necessary practice to uphold
their skill.
This does not, of course, mean that the doctor’s advice was always
or even usually listened to and obeyed. Local customs, traditional wisdom and beliefs were strong and not always in line with contemporary
medical knowledge. Neither were all priests “enlightened” and even if
they were, they were not always able to convince their parishioners. In
fact, it was not until the nineteenth century before campaigns for moreconsistent breast-feeding and better hygiene were to have a visible
effect on children’s survival rates.
Still, the tools for communication existed and in the meantime local
church representatives were engaged in other activities, more directly
motivated by religious arguments but with potential indirect positiveeffects on the people’s health. “Church discipline”, widely defined, had
become one of the major fields of protestant preoccupation. Sobriety
was, for instance, one of the virtues of a Christian congregation. Whenexamining the minutes of parish meetings and boards of elders, we therefore find that heavy drinking was seen as a sin that had to be corrected by intervention of the priest or the whole parish. Unrest within thefamily was also an unwanted threat to God’s will and conflicts between
husbands and wives were frequently brought to the attention of theparish authorities. In individual cases, these interventions served to prevent alcoholism and domestic violence, usually perpetrated by men,
within marriage. But probably more important is the fact that theparishioners were used to the notion that certain things could andshould be handled collectively by informal or formal social control
mechanisms. This “collectivism” and the authority of the priests arebasic conditions for the later relatively successful engagement of local
institutions in vaccination campaigns, hiring trained midwives andother efforts directly motivated by public health arguments.

76•

enlightenment

Summary:
The public health legacyof the Age of Enlightenment
The Age of Enlightenment signified a breakthrough for the idea that
one could – with God’s help – reduce mortality. Much reasoning andadvice was presented, which even when placed in a modern-day context
seems sensible. Empirical observation became an important instrument
for substantiating or formulating new theories. This coincided with“mercantilism”, i.e. a growing interest by the expanding central state
in keeping its population large and physically fit. In other words, thestate recognised that health was an economic asset for individuals andnations. As a result, the number of publicly employed physicians slowly grew in Swedish cities and provinces and formally trained midwives
gradually replaced traditional forerunners. From 1749 onwards, population statistics on the numbers and causes of death were collected andanalysed, which drew attention to the high mortality and some of its
potential causes.
A striking pattern among Swedish representatives of enlightenmentand science is that they were often recruited from among children
belonging to the middle-class. This made it easy for them not to always
accept old traditions as eternal truths. It also meant that they had
hands-on experience of the living conditions and health of the common
people. This is reflected in many remnants of writings. The tenderness
which they often express towards those least fortunate can be seen as
an expression of the emotionally charged genre of writing of theirepoch. It may also be seen as genuine empathy, based on personalobservations, experiences and a social and cultural proximity to thosethey are describing.
Contemporary medical theories on causes of disease and death did
not correspond to modern scientific knowledge but many practicalconclusions and recommendations were reasonable by modern standard.
It was generally understood by Linnaeus and his colleagues that nutrition
was important for good health. Tobacco and alcohol were seen by several observers as substances that could cause ill-health, at least when usedin excess. Some medical doctors thought that physical exercise would

enlightenment•77

make younger generations stronger and fitter. Poverty was discussed as amajor contribution to unnecessary illness and premature death.
Linnaeus had also noticed that people did not breastfeed their children in parts of northern Sweden and – as we have seen – breastfeeding
was strongly promoted by Rosén von Rosenstein in the 1750s. Although
his advice was widely spread to a literate population, to begin with it
impacted on some middle-class families but did not have any immediate
effect on the population in the most disadvantaged areas of the country. The urban areas of the eighteenth century were still extremely
dirty; people fetched their water from contaminated wells, both intowns and in undivided villages, where swine, cattle and horses continued to soil the streets. As a result, typhus, dysentery and various children’s
diseases continued to rage and the mortality rate remained basicallyunchanged until the 1810s, when it began to fall among children andwomen. Not until the nineteenth century can we find evidence to suggestthat the new ideas were starting to have an unequivocal impact in theform of increased life expectancy. Smallpox inoculation certainly saved
individual lives, but it was not before Edward Jenner’s (1749–1823) discovery of the immunising effects of cowpox was utilised on a universal
scale that this dreaded epidemic could be effectively controlled.
In conclusion, the old epidemiologic regime with high mortality
from infectious diseases and short life expectancy still prevailed at theend of the eighteenth century. The next chapter will focus on the firsthalf of the new century – not only on poverty among a growing proletariat and the problems of urbanisation but also on the declining mortality among children and women and the emergence of practical“hygienism” and its positive effect on life expectancy.

Reference list
1.

2.

78

Johannisson K. Det mätbara samhället: statistik och samhällsdröm i 1700talets Europa [Society in numbers: statistics and utopias in 18th century
Europe]. Stockholm: Norstedts; 1988.
Bourdelais P. L’age de la vielliesse: histoire du vielliessement de la population. Paris: Éditions Odile Jacob; 1997.

•

enlightenment

3.

Sköld P. Kunskap och kontroll: den svenska befolkningsstatistikens historia[Knowledge and control: the history of Swedish population statistics].
Umeå: Umeå University; 2001.
4. Sköld P. Kampen mot kopporna: preventivmedicinens genombrott[The struggle against smallpox: the breakthrough of prevention medicine].
In: Sundin J, Hogstedt C, Lindberg J, Moberg H, eds. Svenska folkets hälsa
i historiskt perspektiv [The health of the Swedish people – a historicalperspective]. Stockholm: Swedish National Institute of Public Health; 2005.
5. Willner S. Det svaga könet? Kön och vuxendödlighet i 1800-talets Sverige[The weaker sex? Gender and adult mortality in 19th century Sweden].
Diss. Linköping: Linköping University; 1999.
6. Post J D. Food shortage, climatic variability, and epidemic disease in preindustrial Europe: the mortality peak in the early 1740s. Ithaca: Cornell
University Press; 1985.
7. Odén KG. Statistisk undersökning rörande våldsamma dödsfall i Sverige[Statistical survey of violent deaths in Sweden]. Stockholm: Beckmans;
1875.
8. Livi-Bacci M. Population and nutrition: an essay on European demographic history. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1990.
9. Collin CG. Anmärkningar om dödligheten hos barn i Sverige åren 1831 tilloch med 1845 [Observations on child mortality in Sweden between 1831
and 1845]. Kungliga svenska vetenskapsakademiens handlingar [Royal
Swedish Academy of Sciences document]; 1845.
10. Högberg U. Maternal mortality in Sweden. Diss. Umeå: Umeå University;
1985.
11. Gelis, J. History of childbirth: fertility, pregnancy and birth in earlymodern Europe. Cambridge: Polity Press; 1991.
12. Jägervall I, ed. Nils Rosén von Rosenstein och hans lärobok i pediatrik[Nils Rosén von Rosenstein and his textbook in pediatrics]. Lund: Studentlitteratur; 1990.
13. Hagström JO. Johan Otto Hagström’s brev till Collegium medicum 17551785 [Johan Otto Hagström’s letter to Collegium medicum 1755–1785].
Linköping: Östergötlands medicinhistoriska sällskap [Östergötlands medical history society]; 1993
14. Edvinsson S. Den osunda staden: sociala skillnader i dödlighet i 1800talets Sundsvall [The unhealthy town: social inequality regarding mortality
in 19th century Sundsvall]. Diss. Umeå: Umeå University; 1992.
15. Nelson M, Rogers J. Cleaning up the cities: the first comprehensive publichealth law in Sweden. Scandinavian Journal of History 1994;19(1):17–39.
16. Puranen B I. Tuberkulos: en sjukdoms förekomst och dess orsaker. Sverige
1750–1980 [Tuberculosis: the occurrence and causes in Sweden 17501980]. Diss. Umeå: Umeå University; 1984.

enlightenment•79

4. Society in transition:

Population growth,proletarianisation andincreased life expectancy(c. 1800–1870)

A society in transition
Page 80: Peasantboys looking out fromthe window of a log
cabin.
Photo: Popperfoto/
IBL bildbyrå

Page 81: A potato

field.
Photo: Photos.com

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Sweden (within its presentborders, since Finland had become Russian territory in 1809) had apopulation of just over two million, a figure that was to rise to overfour million 70 years later. Nine out of ten people lived in rural areas,
and most of the rest inhabited small towns that more resembled overgrown peasant villages than anything else. The element of domestic
production in the agricultural economy was considerable althoughmarket relations intensified during early nineteenth century. Contemporary upper-class visitors from the European continent described
Sweden as a poor and backward country on the periphery of Europe,sparsely populated and characterised by small and insignificant towns
and villages [1].
The dramatic increase in the population during the period was accompanied by radical change in the social structure. Whilst peasant households made up the vast majority of the agricultural population in 1750,
one century later this proportion had been reduced to just 50 per cent.
Instead, rural groups without land of their own or other property of significance, such as crofters, cottars and lodgers, more than quadrupled insize during the period, whilst the number of farmers only increased byabout ten per cent. This rapid increase in the population coupled withgreater commercial pressure in the agricultural sector led to an increasing
number of people joining the ranks of the fast-growing rural proletariat.
Many of these were the sons and daughters of landholders, a downward
social mobility, which fundamentally changed the prospective for the
future lives of the new generations growing up after 1800 [2].
This development was linked to an increase in agricultural production and productivity (particularly regarding cereals, including potatoes),sometimes called the “agrarian revolution”, that transformed Sweden
from being a country importing large quantities of cereals to exporting
substantial quantities of oats to Britain after 1830. This transformation
created conditions for further division of labour and social differentiation as well as increased market production. Some (partly interrelated)major driving forces of agricultural growth were land reclamation,
enclosure reforms, new cultivation methods, such as crop rotation,
intensified cultivation, the spread of the iron plough, the introduction82•

society in transition

of potatoes as the most important staple food, etc. The land reforms,
such as the 1827 Laga Skifte Ordinance, contributed to more efficient
production by converting several small lots of cultivated areas intolarger unified fields and also strengthened property rights. In someparts of the country, it also led to the dissolution of villages and eroded
the foundations of the old village communities [3].

Epidemiological trends
Real wages for day-labourers in agriculture declined or stagnated in the1820s, 1830s and 1840s. Despite the growth of the landless proletariat,
a period of constantly falling mortality began around 1810 and
although outbreaks of various serious infectious disease epidemics occurred, mortality never again reached the extreme levels it had in thepast. As a result, a new phase of the epidemiological transition had
begun, the age of receding pandemics, despite the arrival of a new dreaded
pestilence hitting Sweden and Europe during the 1830s, namely cholera.
After the first epidemic in Sweden in 1834, when over 12,000 people
were reported to have died, the disease did not come back on a large
scale until the 1850s and 1866 saw the last widespread epidemic [4].
Even though cholera could have a devastating effect, especially inurban areas, its impact was never as violent as the mortality crises ofthe previous century. The cholera epidemic did, however, play animportant role in bringing about urban sanitary reform, not least concerning the construction of efficient water and sewerage systems in thelast decades of the nineteenth century.
Generally, the trend in Swedish mortality shared certain common
characteristics with the rest of Western Europe. During the eighteenth
and early nineteenth century, there was a transition from the old epidemiological regime, characterised by a high level of mortality and recurrent epidemic outbreaks with dramatic peaks, to a calmer phase withweaker and less frequent fluctuations in mortality. In contrast withother European countries, such as England and Wales and France(Figure 4.1), where mortality trends stagnated and stabilised in the
mid-nineteenth century and then began to fall again towards the end ofsociety in transition•

83

Figure 4.1 Life expec-

tancy for males.
Sweden, France andEngland & Wales,
1800–2001.
Sources: France:
Bourdelais 2004 (fromMeslé and Vallin) [5].
Sweden and England &Wales: Human Mortality
Database (University ofCalifornia, Berkeley;
Max Planck Institute for
Demographic Research,
Rostock) http://
www.mortality.org

years
80

70

60

50

40

30

2000

1980

1960

1940

1920

1900

1880

1860

1840

1820

20
1800

SwedenEngland & WalesFrancethe century, Sweden (and Norway) underwent a more continuous reduction over the period as a whole [6, 7]. The temporarily interrupted healthtransition in England must be seen in the light of an early, dramatic process of industrialisation and urbanisation, the negative health effects ofwhich could only gradually be remedied by means of political reforms
regarding work environment legislation and urban sanitation reforms
during the second half of the century [7]. The industrial revolution andsubsequent urbanisation reached Sweden later. The dramatic drops in the
French curve are of course connected to the effects of war.

Children and adults
After 1810, the dramatic fluctuations in death rates, connected to crop
failures and wars, disappeared and the general level of mortality declined
in most age groups. Infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis, diarrhoea,
smallpox, measles and whooping cough, were responsible for a major
share of the child mortality. Adolescents and younger adults died from84•

society in transitionailments such as tuberculosis, pneumonia, typhoid, typhus and dysentery, as well as in childbirth (women) and from external causes (mostlymen). Among the elderly population, the diagnosis “old age” was very
common, but causes of death such as tuberculosis, tumours and cardiovascular diseases probably also played an important role.
The general trend towards lower mortality did not, however, immediately affect the oldest part of the population. In older age groups, thedecline in mortality was insignificant before the middle of the nineteenth century and the male/female ratio was never particularly high. Asa matter of fact, mortality was higher during the first decades of thenineteenth century than before, especially among men. One reason forthis pattern can no doubt be attributed to a cohort effect; it took sometime before the improved health of young generations had a positiveeffect on their survival later on in life. Another, quite plausible, explanation is that the means of subsistence in the growing proletariat was
small or virtually non-existent when people were no longer able to earn
their living by paid work. The old system, whereby self-owning farmers
and craftsmen handed over their resources to the next generation on
condition that they themselves would be taken care of and fed, did notwork when many sons and daughters lived in small apartments withlittle more than what was needed to feed themselves and their children.
Local, collective solutions for poor relief and care of elderly were at thesame time scarce, a fact often mentioned in the contemporary debate
about “the social issue”.

Men and womenDuring the latter half of the eighteenth century, mortality in the 25–49
age group was about 15–20 per cent higher among men than among
women, except for the war-related mortality peak in 1789, whichmostly affected men of conscription age.
Despite the general decline in mortality, the death rate among adultmen in the early nineteenth century remained on the same level as
during the previous half-century, even if the fluctuations were not as
extreme as before. Since mortality among young and middle-agedsociety in transition•85

excesssive male mortality (%)

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5

1890

1880

1870

1860

1850

1840

1830

1820

1810

1800

1790

1780

0
1770

Source: Sundbärg G.
Bevölkerungsstatistik
Schwedens 1750–1900,
Stockholm; 1970 [8].

45

1760

male mortality in the
25–49 age group (%).
Sweden, 1751–1900.
Five-year periods.

1750

Figure 4.2 Excessive

women fell during the same period, the gender difference in mortality
in these age groups, and the excessive male mortality, became evenmore accentuated. As a result, the difference increased markedly to alevel of about 35 per cent between 1820 and 1850 (Figure 4.2).
The causes of death that made the biggest contribution to the excessive male mortality were lung consumption (pulmonary tuberculosis),external causes (accidents and suicide), and stroke and sudden violent
death (slag och bråd död), a diagnosis that is difficult to interpret(Figure 4.3). In all likelihood, it includes various types of sudden deathsuch as cerebral and cardiac infarction, cerebral haemorrhage and perhaps even alcohol poisoning. Contemporary descriptions of “slag”
make one think of the modern concept of “stroke”. There is considerable evidence pointing to alcohol consumption being a strong contributory cause of the increased male mortality from these diagnoses. Less
maternal mortality (death as a consequence of pregnancy or childbirth)among women of reproductive age also contributed to their favourable
health development. The excessive adult male mortality was particularly apparent in urban environments. During the 1820s for example, thedeath rate among men aged 25–49 years was double that of women inurban areas, but just under 20 per cent higher in rural parts of thecountry. Higher alcohol consumption in urban areas seems to havecontributed to this difference between town and countryside [9]. If we

86•society in transition

6

Figure 4.3 Sex-specificdeaths/1,000

mortality in the 25–49
age group for major
causes of death.
Sweden, 1826–1830.

5
4

Sources: Calculated from
unpublished mortalityand population tables,
1826–1830 (Tabellverket).

3
2

male
female10

consumption

other inf.

strokeexternals

maternalothercompare with a number of western European countries (England andWales, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, France and Denmark), we
see that mortality among middle-aged and older men in Sweden washigh in the mid-nineteenth century, whilst the death rate among younger
age groups of both sexes and middle-aged women was lower than inmost of the other countries [10]. Norwegian women are the exception,
however, with lower mortality than their Swedish counterparts. It
seems, therefore, that the first half of the nineteenth century was particularly distressing for Swedish men, not just in comparison with Swedish women but also with men of the same age in other parts of Europe.
There is considerable evidence pointing to the dramatic socialchanges in traditional agricultural society during the early nineteenth
century being an important factor behind the sharp increase in excessive
male mortality [11]. The structural transformation of society, greatersocial tension, uncertain food supply and an unsure future for the growing number of propertyless people probably contributed to greatersocial stress with negative consequences for both physical and mental
health, whilst the positive health effects of smallpox vaccinations, theabsence of war and perhaps even more efficient food production werestill the overriding factors influencing the general mortality trend. Why
then was this not the case among adult men? We have no reason toassume that men were worse off in general when it came to access tothe basic necessities of life. On the contrary, registered daily wages
among men were double those of women, and the labour market formost women was limited to low-paid jobs. An important explanationsociety in transition•87

is instead that certain characteristics of the traditionally male lifestyle
were strengthened in connection with the growth of the proletariat,
and that old social networks were dissolving, resulting in weaker social
control. One consequence of this was the dramatic increase in alcohol
consumption. This had negative health effects especially among men,since cultural acceptance of alcohol use clearly differed between men
and women. Women were not supposed to get drunk and therefore didso to a much lesser degree than men.

Regional and social differences
A Swedish population statistician, Gustav Sundbärg, divided Sweden
into three main demographic regions around the turn of the century in
1900. The main criterion for this division was the fact that not only
differences in marital fertility but also differences in mortality were distinguishable. According to the underlying statistics, published in what
was known as the “Emigration Report”, northern Sweden was characterised by low mortality during the first half of the nineteenth century,
whilst Mälardalen (the area around Lake Mälaren in central Sweden,
including Stockholm), the counties of Göteborg and Bohuslän on thewest coast and Blekinge in southern Sweden had high death rates [12].
In contrast to contemporary conditions, this does not indicate thatthe economically more affluent parts of the country were any better off
health-wise than the poorer areas. On the contrary, low mortality
counties, such as some of the northern counties, were among the poorest in the country (measured in terms of the number of people in the
population who were exempt from tax), whilst areas with a high deathrate, such as Stockholm and its adjoining counties, showed low poverty
levels [13]. We can, instead, see a clear pattern of high mortality in themost densely built-up and urbanised areas and relatively low levels insparsely populated and more peripheral parts of the country. A reasonable conclusion is that the spread of infection, related to poor sanitaryconditions, overcrowding and high mobility among the population,
was more significant for the regional differences than the poverty levelsof pre-industrial society.

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In the city of Linköping, situated south west of Stockholm, agespecific mortality was, for instance, much higher than in the surrounding
agrarian hinterland in every age group - among adults and particularly
among men. This urban-rural gap decreased for infants and children in
Linköping after 1820, probably because of improvements in the hygienic
conditions mentioned above, but remained particularly high for middleaged men during the rest of the pre-industrial period. In the latter case,the number of temptations in the form of numerous drinking establishments was an obvious threat to men’s health.
This does not mean that socioeconomic differences did not play arole in mortality figures on a more general level. A small number ofstudies of local environments in the early nineteenth century haveshown that, in a given environment, lower social groups often exhibited poorer health than more affluent groups [10, 14]. In other words, it
was generally speaking more unhealthy to live in towns and other densely populated environments, where the risk of contracting various
infectious diseases was considerably higher than in economically more
peripheral and sparsely populated areas, even though the material living
standard was generally higher in the former. On the other hand, ill-healthwas probably more widespread among the poor echelons of the population within each separate environment. Local studies have, however, forcertain periods and regions, shown a higher infant mortality among
more affluent groups than among the poor [15]. This was probably due
to social differences in breastfeeding habits. The poor often had no alternative to breastfeeding their infants, whilst even freehold farmers could
give their children cow’s milk, which involved a greater risk to childhealth compared to being fed on mother’s milk alone.
We might also add that the poorest counties seem to have been more
vulnerable during the crisis years in connection with crop failures, forexample in the late 1860s. However, the effects were much smaller
than during the previous century. One important contributory factor
was probably the fact that Sweden in the 1860s had a developed system of emergency relief. There was aid both from private and official
sources. The relief from the state consisted of emergency relief funds inthe form of loans and grants and public work projects, such as the digging of drainage ditches and road construction. There was also a system of granaries on the district and local levels, lending grain or flour
to the members of the communities [16].

society in transition•89

Material deprivation and mortality
When the Swedish author and bishop Esaias Tegnér (1782–1846)
spoke of the potatoes contributing to a healthier population, he wasreferring to the growing production of food in proportion to the size ofthe population. The typical diet was based on cereals and potatoes. The
content of animal foodstuffs was low, except for salted fish and sour
milk. Potato farming provided for the poor during crop failures andtimes when living costs were high. Not a single year of famine during
the first half of the nineteenth century was as devastating as for example
the early 1770s. There was nevertheless a clear connection between
harvests, food prices and general mortality up until the 1860s anddifficult years still occurred sporadically. The five-year reports of county governors give accounts of years in the 1830s and 1840s when
multitudes of poor beggars roamed the streets, driven out of places
where crop failures had caused the most problems. Even if access tofood per inhabitant was greater than in the eighteenth century, its distribution between the affluent and the poor was still uneven. At thesame time as prices went up, the number of jobs fell as did people’s
wages. The growing number of people relying on temporary work wasparticularly vulnerable and they often fell foul of the authorities forvagrancy and destitute crime in the form of stealing and shoplifting,especially when the economy was in recession. The society still had no
particularly effective means by which to solve this problem.
In the early nineteenth century, the costs of looking after the poor
were rising and in some parishes and towns, the authorities did everything they could to rid themselves of these “resource-draining” inhabitants by sending them on to the next town or village. An unemployedperson who lacked resources to provide for himself was “defenceless”
and was placed in the guardianship of the authorities. Some were sent
to the county governor, who could sentence them to forced labour at
special establishments, but the number of unemployed people was several times more than these institutions could handle. A whole successionof regulations and laws governing defencelessness and vagrancy failed
to solve the problem. Talk was of “the social issue” and attempts weremade to distinguish between those who were poor and deserved help
from those who did not merit it, similar to the talk in Great Britain of90•

society in transition

Potatoes made animportant contribution
to the nutritional
status of the Swedish
population, especiallythe poorer segments,
during the nineteenth
century and onwards.
Photo: SVT Bild

the “deserving and undeserving poor”. Some saw the problem as astructural issue requiring social intervention; others felt it was a question of morals: the depravity and idleness of the new classe dangereuse,as it was called in France at that time. Class differences in mortality
continued, especially among the children of single mothers, even if overall mortality began to fall among children and women from the 1810s
onwards. At the same time, as we have already seen, mortality stoodstill or even rose among middle-aged men of certain ages.
Although crop failures and high costs of living affected the poorest
sections of the population the most, the death rate during the largescale epidemics of the eighteenth century was relatively democratic.
The rich and poor lived in close proximity to each other in urban areas
and the hygienic conditions outdoors were the same for everyone.
Tabellverket did not register deaths by social category, but local spot
surveys indicate that both child and adult mortality were high in allsocial strata. This seems to have partly changed during the first half ofsociety in transition•91

the nineteenth century. Segregation in urban areas increased as a resultof the rapid growth in the number of poor people. The advice andinstructions proclaimed by doctors were first read and adopted, it
seems, by those of equal social standing, i.e. the upper and middle classes.
This is true, for example, of infant mortality and breastfeeding. In
Linköping, mortality decreased first among the middle class and thensomewhat later among the poor and among tradition-bound craftsmen.
Not a single middle-class child contracted small pox in the city of
Linköping during the early nineteenth century after the advent of vaccinations, whilst there were still sporadic cases among the less affluent.

Health administration,
provincial doctors and midwives
Within medicine and healthcare, the nineteenth century brought with it
major institutional and organisational changes synchronous with international tendencies. Collegium Medicum, which gradually developed
from a professional association into an authority, was replaced by the
National Board of Health (Sundhetskollegium). At the same time, theSurgical Society (Chirurgiska Societeten) was dissolved and amalgamated with the new authority, a sign of the growing professional andscientific significance of surgery. This also meant that it became easier
to handle previous disputes about skills between doctors and surgeons.
Hospitals continued to be subordinate to the semi-private Order of theSeraphim until 1859, when Sundhetskollegium took over this task. The
local government reform of 1862 saw the establishment of the Landsting(county councils, who took over the responsibility for hospitals). In
urban areas, the municipality became subsequently responsible for themunicipal medical officer system, midwives, isolation hospitals and thehealthcare committees. The provincial doctors continued to be subordinate to the Sundhetskollegium, which was also to issue decrees andsupervise the entire system.
A period of study at another European university had been seen as
part of the education of the academic elite since as early as the seven-92•

society in transition

teenth century. This perquisite was primarily enjoyed by students fromthe nobility and their private tutors. In the eighteenth century, we haveseen that Linnaeus and others, with the help of patrons and scholarships, could also study under the most prestigious professors of the day,as well as establish contacts which later resulted in lively correspondence and the exchange of new research ideas. Nineteenth-century Swedish
medicine did not possess as many high-profile scientists, but the internationalisation of science and medicine continued as the result of foreign
sojourns, correspondence and the lively reporting and reading of a growing variety of increasingly specialised journals. The speed with which
an innovation could be accepted is illustrated by the rapid introductionof smallpox vaccinations in Sweden after Edward Jenner had publicised his methods.
The tasks of provincial doctors had been laid down in a number ofdecrees during the eighteenth century and in 1822 it was decided thatthey should also devote themselves to healthcare and fighting epidemic
diseases, supervise smallpox vaccinations, the midwives and pharmacies and submit annual reports to Sundhetskollegium. At the beginningof the nineteenth century, however, the populous county of Östergötland in southern Sweden was, for instance, still only served by two
provincial doctors and in the north, the districts were so large that thedoctor hardly managed to visit all the parishes whilst on duty. There
were about 280 doctors in Sweden in 1805, a figure that had risen to463 by 1850. In both these years, the doctor-inhabitant ratio was much
lower in Sweden than in many other European countries. Few wereable to earn a living solely from private practice as a result of the weakmarket. Consequently, most of them, and indeed all the provincial doctors, were publicly employed by the state or by metropolitan administrations. Similar to religion prior to the advent of free churches, theSwedish health service was basically publicly financed and controlled.
Its payrolled doctors, midwives and nurses saw themselves more as
civil servants with a mission in life and less as private entrepreneurs,
contrary for instance to the medical market in Great Britain where privately practising doctors were in the majority. This naturally facilitatedthe necessary cooperation between state and the medical profession in
Sweden, since doctors did not have a reason to safeguard their interests
as market entrepreneurs, a potential for greater consensus and better
coordination between the views of the medical profession, politicaldecisions and implementation.

society in transition•

93Qualified midwives, brought up to know the importance of breastfeeding and good hygiene, were seldom to be found in rural areas at the
beginning of the nineteenth century and enlightened priests who propagated new ideas had to struggle against traditional beliefs and customs.
Gradually, however, the continued expansion of the provincial medical
system, an increasing doctor-inhabitant ratio and more midwives
working in rural areas increased the potential for these new ideas togain the acceptance of the common people.
Textbooks and educational publications for experts and laymen
were now being spread in an even steadier stream than in the eighteenth century and at the end of the nineteenth century they became agenre with many authors and buyers. As we have already established,
literacy in Sweden was widespread as early as the eighteenth century
and the consumption of secular literature increased, not least among
the middle classes. The introduction of compulsory school in 1842
became the main instrument for knowledge dissemination among thecommon people. It took several decades, however, before the school
reform was put into effect in all the country’s parishes and it took evenlonger before hygiene was afforded space on the school timetable. The
concept at that time also included conduct, spiritual upbringing andsalubrity. In the long term, however, and not least because of its strict
control of children’s personal hygiene, compulsory school took on avery important role as “medical educator”. The practical advice given
at school on how to avoid disease became more important for people’s
survival than the recommended curative remedies. Medical knowledge
and practice of the time were of little or no significance when it came tocuring more serious diseases. [17].

Public health andlocal administration
The reasons are not immediately obvious for the intriguing mortality
decline among children and most age groups of adult women after
1820 in a poor country undergoing rapid and profound socioeconomic

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transitions. The following pages will discuss some of the factors that
contributed to this positive development, starting with the importanceof the local administrative system as regards receiving and putting into
practice the new public health messages. From 1810 onwards, thecountry to all intents and purposes lived in peace and this laid the foundations of a stable civil society, where local institutions and authorities
were given better resources to meet administrative requirements. And it
was at the local level, in rural parish meetings and church councils, aswell as in urban council meetings and borough administrations, thatthings slowly began to happen which would eventually constitute what
was later referred to as the “century of hygienism”.
As we have pointed out, in a large, yet sparsely populated country
with poor communications, it was difficult for the state to govern without intermediaries. Royal decrees were read out in church and discussed
in parish meetings. The task of the priest, as individual spiritual adviser
or at catechetic meetings in the villages, was to preserve order in theparish and be a key mediator between the state and the local society. His
responsibilities included not only religious issues, but also mattersregarding family unity and harmony, drunkenness and other areas
covered by church discipline. To assist him, he had the church council, acollection of the elders, village warders and other parochial functionaries. He was also the supervisor of the unique home education system.
More densely populated countries chose to establish permanent schools,
the majority of which, for obvious reasons, were to be found in urban
areas. There were a few publicly sponsored primary schools in Sweden
too, but for economic and geographical reasons, they could only serve asmall minority of children. A compulsory school system for all was not
introduced by law until the middle of the nineteenth century.
Are then the catechetic meetings and the disciplinary activities of thechurch a manifestation of the notion that Swedes have traditionallybeen an obedient, easy-to-discipline people, who, without reflection orprotest, have put up with being under the command of the powersthat-be? The state naturally had disciplinary means at its disposal that
could be used when it was deemed necessary, but the unrestrained useof force could in the long run be counterproductive to the state’s intentions. Nor did the local church discipline always clash with what
farmers and citizens wanted. It was desirable to uphold peace andorderliness and prevent anxiety and conflicts. It was then a question ofsocial discipline and control, though not necessarily in opposition tosociety in transition•95

the will of the local elite and majority. Neither was being able to read ameaningless skill from the common people’s point of view. It was usefulin everyday life, in contacts with authorities on all levels and to formulate one’s own opinion on what God commanded in the Bible.
Although not the intention of the authorities, literacy therefore becamea weapon of political democracy and was instrumental in the revolt of
the new “free churches” towards the end of the nineteenth century.
The efficiency of the local system depended very much on the priest’s
enthusiasm and abilities to gain the trust of the parishioners, forexample regarding the use of church funds to finance a parish pharmacy
or to employ a qualified midwife. There is fair consensus among historians that this Swedish model of power-sharing, communication and negotiation was often comparatively successful, even from the state’s standpoint. The spirit of reformist compromise of the nineteenth century rested
on a long tradition of pragmatism resulting neither in a constant idyll nor
in an absolute system of repression. Regarding health issues, this pragmatism had provided a useful channel of communication between theprovincial doctors, the priesthood and the common people since theeighteenth century. The doctor in urban areas could strive in the same
way to gain the confidence of the governing powers, especially regarding
measures that would inconvenience or cost tax-payers.

Smallpox vaccination
Smallpox vaccination was successfully introduced in 1802. According
to Peter Sköld [18], who has published an extensive study of its history
in Sweden, this was the single most important factor for the accelerated
decrease and final eradication of smallpox as an endemic disease starting in early 19th century. Inoculation, using active matter from aninfected person to immunise others, was common knowledge among
eighteenth century doctors in Sweden and elsewhere. Figure 4.4 indicates that this use, which was propagated by Nils Rosén von Rosensteinand his contemporary colleagues in the medical profession, actually
had a significant effect on the declining number of deaths even before
1800. All available evidence does, however, indicate that the attitudes

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450

deaths/100,000
Figure 4.4 Smallpox
mortality per 100,000.
Sweden, 1749–1900.

400

Source: P. Sköld, The two
faces of smallpox, 1996,
appendix 1–4 [18].

350
300
250
200
150
100
50

1891

1881

1871

1861

1851

1841

1831

1821

1811

1802

1791

1780

1769

1759

1749

0

towards its use were ambiguous, since it could actually result in a fullscale infection and kill the inoculated person. On a mass scale, it needed the active participation of the few medical doctors available at thattime. Their reports tell us that the inoculation campaigns were sporadic,
usually on a small scale. Peter Sköld gives an example of one of themore ambitious interventions: between 1766 and 1780 an inoculation
house in Stockholm managed to inoculate less than one per cent of thechildren born in the city during the same period. Consequently, thisfactor cannot explain the major part of the decline of smallpox mortality
during the second half of the eighteenth century. It has been suggested
by Gunnar Fridlizius that immunisation processes or change in virulence
might have been the major factor for the clear decline in mortality
during the latter part of the 18th century [19].
Fridlizius finds it plausible that there had been a shift in exposure
between different forms of smallpox, giving more scope for the not-solethal form of smallpox viruses. Logically, this theory can very well betrue, its only weakness being that we do not of course have any conclusive
evidence confirming it. We must also consider that during this period,
other airborne and food- and waterborne infectious diseases took the
lives of many children, thereby competing with smallpox (which only
visited the local populations every 4–5 years) as a cause of death.

society in transition•

97

The local vaccinatorat work in a peasantvillage. Mass vaccination against smallpox
started in Sweden
during the first decadeof the nineteenth
century. The church
played a key role forthe success of Swedish public healthcampaigns, including
smallpox vaccination.
Lithography: Bengt
Nordenberg, 1862/
IBL bildbyrå

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Whatever the reason for the early phase of decline, it is beyond any
doubt that “vaccination”, the method described and popularised by
Edward Jenner at the very end of the eighteenth century, put a conclusive
end to the previous high peaks of deaths caused by smallpox epidemics
in Sweden. Right at the start of the nineteenth century, Jenner’s
method was tested by Swedish doctors with very encouraging results.
The news spread with incredible speed and within a decade, massvaccination campaigns had started all over the country. Usually, thefirst campaigns took place in the cities and somewhat later in the countryside, where vaccination matter was initially difficult to access.
Although the technique was relatively simple, someone had to betaught and then do the job. The Swedish solution was to give theresponsibility to the parish administration and to appoint a local official,sometimes the vicar but more often a person of lower status such as thebell ringer, as vaccinator. The key to success was the priest’s ability tointroduce the campaigns without creating suspicion and opposition
among the parishioners. Since the church registers had for a long time
been used for secular state purposes as well (as a basis for taxation,
conscription of soldiers and demographic surveillance), the sudden
addition to the new pre-printed examination records of a special
column, where it should be stated whether each individual had acquired
immunity after being naturally infected or through vaccination, caused
little surprise. Soon, the authorities could therefore request reports
about the success of the campaigns. The resulting statistics show thatthe vaccination rates were indeed high in most places.
After a few years debate and a parliamentary decision, a compulsory
vaccination law was promulgated in 1816. One argument for the law
was put forward by a prominent physician, David Schultz von Schultzenheim, who declared that the state sometimes had to be a guardian ofchild health and protect against the foolishness of parents. A fine wasset as a punishment for parents who did not vaccinate their child before
its second birthday. In addition, regulations were proclaimed regarding
actions to be taken by authorities and individuals in the event of an
epidemic breaking out. The result can be seen in Figure 4.4. No major
epidemic occurred during the next two decades. The infection was ofcourse not completely eradicated and it re-entered the country throughinternational contacts. In the largest cities with high migration rates,
vaccination of all children was hard to control and uphold. After sometime, it also became evident that complete immunity only lasted for asociety in transition•99

certain number of years after vaccination. Re-vaccination, recommended
since 1839, was therefore necessary for complete protection but did
not occur to a sufficient extent. Consequently, from the 1830s to the1870s, major cities faced peaks of smallpox mortality in certain years.
None of these peaks were, however, close to the magnitude of the epidemics that occurred in the previous century.
In a comparative perspective, smallpox vaccination turned out to bea success story in the history of public health in Sweden. The law in
1816 making it compulsory for parents to vaccinate their children
helped to uphold the system. However, as we have seen, vaccination
programs had been introduced all over the country with striking successeven before the law was promulgated. The work of dedicated and influential believers and practitioners among the medical profession was anecessary condition during the introductory phase. Their job would, on
the other hand, have been very difficult had there been strong popular
resistance to the campaigns. Obviously, another necessary key condition
was that their message could be communicated to and accepted by eachand every local community. As the chairman of the parish meetings, thepriest usually had the authority and trust of his congregation and wasable to mobilise support for mass vaccinations. The specific Scandinavian
mechanism of communication between central and local levels was
successful in this case. The prestige of the medical doctors and willingness to listen to their advice did of course grow considerably, once thepositive effects of the campaign had been demonstrated. To someextent, the same mechanisms were important for the success of theintensified propaganda for breastfeeding and better child-care.

Breastfeeding, infant careand cleanlinessIn Nils Rosén von Rosenstein’s handbook on child-care, we have seen
how people as early as the eighteenth century were able to implement
good advice for the benefit of health. Apart from articles in almanacs,
someone trusted by the common people was needed to propagate this100•

society in transition

advice in order for it to be implemented. It was, however, not always
easy to convince reluctant farmers of the value of paying wages to aqualified midwife, who, with the financial support of the parish, could
serve the poor free of charge. This was important for the provincial
doctor in Haparanda in the extreme north of Sweden, Carl Josua
Wretholm (c 1800–1870), who arrived there in the 1830s. He was searching for an assistant who could convince the Finnish-speaking population of the benefits of breastfeeding their children. Wretholm’s efforts
in this regard were eventually successful, a fact he proudly communicated to Sundhetskollegium. The story is retold in Anders Brändström’s
thesis entitled “De kärlekslösa mödrarna” (“The loveless mothers”)[15]. In his last official report in 1866 and after infant mortality had
fallen dramatically, the provincial doctor exclaims: “The times have
now changed and so have the farmers.”
Campaigns in support of breastfeeding also took place in other partsof Sweden, at different times and to varying effect. As the contemporary
observer, Johan Hellstenius (1834–1888), relates, there were still people
in the 1860s in some coastal regions of northern Sweden raising theirinfants on masticated food, pancakes and other unhealthy foodstuffs
instead of breastfeeding them. He also illustrated, with the help of figures,
how infant mortality in all parts of Sweden was lower near ironworks
than in the surrounding rural areas. There were often trained midwives
and even doctors at the ironworks, who tried every means of persuasion, patriarchal and otherwise, to convince mothers of the benefits ofbreast-feeding and good hygiene. The substantial, long-standing geographical variations in infant mortality in Swedish rural areas during
the nine-teenth century were partly due to population density, which
influenced the degree of exposure to infection, but also to cultural
trends in infant care. In this respect, midwives were very instrumental
in spreading knowledge. In some places and thanks mainly to antiseptic
innovations, they also seem to have had a hand in the decline of maternal mortality during childbirth and as a result of other infections, oftencaused by poor hygienic conditions when babies were being delivered.
Judging by the death figures from local surveys, the middle classwere first to benefit from these improvements in the cities, followed
later by other groups. In the countryside, on the other hand, relatively
well-to-do farmers were slow to accept the doctors’ advice comparedwith less wealthy families. Easy access to artificial food and the needfor mothers to work in the fields, leaving their babies to be fed andsociety in transition•101

attended by other female members of the household, have been mentioned as reasons for the farmers’ reluctance. A documented cultural conservatism also contributed to their initially negative attitudes. One
group of children was, however, lagging behind. Infant mortality
remained very high throughout most of the nineteenth century amongchildren of single mothers. These mothers lacked the support of theirnext kin. Working hard for their living, they were often unable to findenough time to breastfeed their newborn babies.

Pre-industrial
urban areas and hygiene
Mortality among all ages and for both sexes, and particularly among
middle-aged men, was highest in urban areas. The primary reason was
naturally greater exposure to infection depending on the density of the
population, but we must also consider the generally poor hygienic conditions that prevailed both in and outside homes. Tentative efforts toimprove the situation can also be seen in this area. There is evidence inthe penal registers for Linköping City of the authorities starting topunish citizens for breaking certain hygienic by-laws around 1800.
Some had neglected to keep the gutters open and free from dirt, others
had washed their clothes in the river Stångån, from where the city fetched
the drinking water it did not obtain from locally dug wells. The interestin keeping city streets and squares clean increased compared to previously.
Since there were some open drains in the squares, such simple measures
could play a significant role in preventing the drinking water frombecoming contaminated, especially in the more or less open wells
found at certain places in the city. The decision in 1817 to utilise awater supply further upriver had a more obvious impact, however. This
meant that the polluted stormwater that constantly flowed into theriver in the middle of the city was no longer reused. It is of course difficult to determine just how much these measures helped to improve
the health and survival rate of the inhabitants. The campaigns thatwere registered in the penal registers don’t seem to have been all that102•

society in transition

regular, but the fact remains that infant mortality fell dramatically in
Linköping until the mid-nineteenth century, resulting in the difference
in mortality rates between the city and the countryside narrowing
significantly.

Cholera – the lastlarge-scale epidemic
Cholera hit Europe for the first time in the 1830s. Similar to the plague,
it came from the east, at a time when epidemics of typhus, dysentery
and smallpox were starting to subside. It spread from country to country and from town to town with devastating consequences, not just for
infants and weak older people, but also for strong, well-nourishedadults. A total of nine epidemics hit Sweden between 1834 and 1873.
Since it was mainly transmitted via water and poor hygiene, its consequences were naturally most pronounced in the poor quarters of thetowns and cities. Many believed that it was caused by evaporationfrom the ground and malodorous air (miasma). It was also clear, however, that it could be spread from place to place. These two theories
could lead to different policies when trying to prevent the epidemic
from spreading and entering new areas. The miasma theory was
attractive to trade interests, since it could be used in order to oppose
measures aimed at blocking the free movement of people and goods. It
could also be used to support arguments for improvements of urban
hygiene. For strict adherents of the contagion theory, however, preventing the epidemic from entering a new place would seem to be the bestsolution (although not so easy to implement).
In practice, a mix of remedies was tried. The interest in health issues
and hygiene naturally grew when larger-scale epidemics raged. This
could already be seen around 1809-1812, when Sweden’s involvement
in war increased the exposure to different epidemics, and even more sowith the advent of cholera. If the plague had been the model disease forpublic health interventions of the seventeenth century, cholera was toplay the same role during the nineteenth century. Educational essays

society in transition•103

were penned and disseminated, decrees were issued, people tried toprevent foreigners who were suspected of carrying the disease fromcoming into the towns and cities, the clothes of infected individuals
were burned and their homes fumigated. The penal registers in Linköping
show that hygienic regulations began to be enforced increasingly stringently. During the first epidemic in the 1830s, towns and cities were
given the task of establishing special bodies that were to spring into
action as soon as new dangers arose. It would be another twenty years
or so, however, before those responsible for health inspections wereafforded a more permanent and efficient organisation. The financial
means for improvements would come from the affluent community inthe area and the will to take on greater burdens was still limited. The
efforts of doctors and a minority of progressive citizens were often invain when it came to trying to implementing economic measures thatleft their mark on people’s tax forms.

Strong liquor – a point of orderand a health risk
Strong liquor was in all likelihood a major contributory factor in thehigh mortality rate among middle-aged men during the first half of thenineteenth century, mostly in urban areas where there was an abundant
supply of cheap spirit and a diversity of legal and illegal taverns. Stimulated by proposals from high quarters and based on the desire of theelite for good orderliness on the streets and squares, a campaign was
initiated to combat drunkenness in urban public places and outside
churches. The penal registers of the courts began to fill up with suchcases. The problem proved to be widespread, but there was no evidence
to suggest it had been less so beforehand. The authorities seemed still
to consider drunkenness to be firstly a point of order and secondly athreat to poor relief and almost as an afterthought as a minor healthproblem. Restrictions and taxes on the distilling and sale of strong
liquor were mainly used to generate income for the state, not primarily
to reduce consumption.

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society in transition

”A Monday off work”.
In Scenes from Swedish everyday life in
the 1850s. Taking
a Monday off fordrinking was seen asa traditional privilege
by artisans.
Drawing: C.A. Dahlström/
IBL bildbyrå

Even before the advent of modern popular movements, a number ofpriests began propagating moderate alcohol consumption among theirparishioners. They used the term “temperance society” to convey theidea of unity, of entering into an agreement not to drink alcohol. One
example comes from Harmånger in the northern province of Hälsingland, where the priest during the 1830s gradually began to exert
influence on the farmers at parish meetings. His first request was forthem to stop bringing strong liquor with them to church on Sundays.

society in transition•

105

People often drank profusely prior to going to church, with the resultthat some fell asleep and others behaved boisterously. The priest wanted to ban such misbehaviour, but received little response from themeeting participants. The parishioners argued that they had to havesomething to warm them up since it was so cold in the church during
the winter. The priest’s suggestion to light a fire outside instead so thatpeople could warm themselves and drink hot milk was rejected.
With great stubbornness, the priest made the suggestion in meeting
after meeting and within ten years, he had managed to bring about aminor revolution. Finally, all those present apart from two farmers
agreed to join a temperance society, pledging not to make, sell or drink
strong spirit. Furthermore, all taverns would have to remain closed
before and during mass. The two farmers who refused to join werenamed in the meeting protocol with a pious hope that God would havemercy upon them. There is no record of to what extent and how long
this temperance society managed to fulfil its purpose, but it certainly
didn’t last forever. The initiative from above succeeded mostly becauseof the clergyman’s energy rather than any real conviction on the part ofthe common people. As many other phenomena of the eighteenth andearly nineteenth century, it bore the seeds of aspiration and was toprove more successful later on.

Social control and stigmatisation:
Supervision of prostitutes
A charge was introduced in 1815, a kind of voluntary tax, that was tofinance the care of poor venereal disease (VD) sufferers. This VD clinic
charge later became compulsory and was levied until the beginning of
the twentieth century. The poor were hence to be supervised and –under a law enacted in 1817 – were obliged to turn up at clinics fortreatment. There was little sympathy for the sufferers or concern overstigmatisation shown in the new laws. Control and public healthcare
would apply to the lower social echelons, a fact confirmed in a study of
Härnösand’s VD clinic between 1814 and 1844. Out of 500 male106•

society in transitionpatients, only four per cent were low-ranked white-collar workers, 12
per cent were farmers or fishermen and the rest were crofters, soldiers,
craftsmen and not least servants and people with no occupational title.
Among women patients, two per cent were commoners, whilst mostwere maid-servants or had no title. Compared to a control group,mortality among these patients who had been treated at the clinics washigher during the first five years after being discharged and few got
married [20]. The landed gentry could take care of their disease privately and discreetly.
We find a depressing example of how the authorities handled healthproblems with the aid of medical representatives in the control prostitutes were subjected to during the nineteenth century. Venereal diseases
remained a cause for concern throughout the nineteenth century. Anna
Lundberg has described how the medical image of venereal diseases
developed during the nineteenth century, the social measures (regulations) that were implemented by the authorities and the stigma thatalways affected the infected [21]. Control was tightened in new legislation brought in as early as 1812. As had happened in the eighteenth
century, certain social groups were earmarked for control measures, forexample, wet nurses, horse-traders, journeymen, servants, gypsies,
glassblowers and seasonal workers at fisheries on the West Coast.
Coffee shops, inns and taverns, as well as spas, harbours and military
barracks were to be inspected thoroughly, to ensure the personnel were
not infected. The county governors were responsible for ensuring theinspections were carried out. The law was adopted after a certain
amount of resistance from common people, whilst the other classes,
whose members hardly felt threatened by the measures, were positive.
Priests and doctors were also to take part in the inspections.

society in transition•107Summary: The first phaseof the epidemiological revolution– synergetic causes
The general fall in mortality in early nineteenth century Sweden was
obviously a significant cause of the population growth. The bishop,
poet and commentator on social affairs. Esaias Tegnér, explained thisdevelopment in terms of “peace, vaccine and potatoes”. “Peace” referred to the permanent peace period that began in 1814 and heralded thedisappearance of war-related mortality. “Vaccine” referred to thesmallpox vaccinations that were made compulsory in 1816. “Potatoes”
not only referred to the introduction of the potato as a staple foodamong large population groups, but can also be interpreted as generally
improved agricultural production as a result of new cultivations, replacement crops and crop rotation reforms, that helped to safeguard foodsupply for the rapidly growing population. Agricultural production
increased even faster than the population and created a food surplus,
which meant that Sweden went from importing to exporting cereals(primarily wheat) from the 1830s onwards. The last major crop failure,
which affected the country in the late 1860s, had a relatively limited,
and mostly local, impact on mortality levels [16]. The conditions
during the eighteenth century seem to have been more “Malthusian”
insofar as there was a closer connection between the harvest fluctuations, reflected by variations in farmers’ earnings, and mortality levels
than was the case during the following century [22].
One factor often highlighted as having a positive effect on healthdevelopment in Sweden is the generally high level of literacy, well before
the introduction of compulsory elementary school in 1842, whichenabled the population to assimilate health information, for example
via popular almanacs containing articles on the importance of breastfeeding and general advice on infant care, etc.[23]. Another factor isthe fact that the Lutheran church could act as the long arm of the stateat the parish level, for example regarding the implementation of preventive healthcare measures, such as compulsory smallpox vaccinations, which were often administered by the parish clerk. The parish

108•

society in transitionorganisation was furthermore the basis for population statistics, which
provided valuable data on public health.
Modern research has however questioned the significance of traditional explanations for the decline in mortality during the early nineteenth century. This is primarily a question of whether the improved
nutritional conditions really were such a crucial factor, in Sweden as
well as in other parts of Europe [24, 25]. The point has also been madethat smallpox mortality, which accounted for a substantial proportionof infant deaths, was already in dramatic decline during the late eighteenth
century, i.e. before Edward Jenner’s vaccine had been introduced. Even
if the significance of “peace, vaccine and potatoes” may earlier havebeen exaggerated and the fact that these factors can hardly have playeda decisive role in the reduction in smallpox mortality during the latterpart of the eighteenth century, they still undoubtedly had a positiveeffect on public health and contributed to a more even development of
the mortality curve during the first half of the nineteenth century.
The major decline in mortality among children and women coincided with the emergence of the urban proletariat and social problems in
the 1810s. Among the causes of this decline among children, we haveindicated smallpox vaccination, successful – at least in some places –propaganda in support of breastfeeding and more hygienic infant careand – at least in some urban areas – better hygienic conditions thanpreviously. The decline was most noticeable in areas with the highest
infant mortality rate, whilst the changes were minor in regions inwhich good breastfeeding habits had already been adopted, where
there was low exposure to infection and relatively low mortality. Furthermore, bigger potato harvests and greater food production overall contributed to improving people’s resistance to infectious diseases. These
positive factors supported each other and there is strong evidence ofsynergy effects. Fewer infections and less diarrhoea among children
also increased their resistance to airborne infections and later createdan increasingly resistant adult population. It is therefore impossible toattribute an exact share of the explanation to one specific factor. The
process was underway and continued unrelentingly during the second
half of the century.
The efficiency of the local administrations to implement new methods
and campaigns for the protection of people’s health has been emphasised
as a key factor explaining the rapid decline in mortality, especiallyamong infants and children. It shows that, as long as the politicalsociety in transition•

109

Figure 4.5 Health

HEALTHand social change– Sweden, c. 1800–
1850.

demographic growthamong childre

Source: Jan SundinCCEC

agriculturalchangeSC

unemployment
poverty

uprooted
citizens

alcohol, violence
theftsunstablehouseholds

migration

Human resources: EC = economic capital; CC = cultural capital; SC = social capitalsystem is prepared to act, significant achievements can be made for thehealth of a population even during periods of major economic andsocial transition. Simultaneously, however, socially vulnerable groups
did not share these benefits, in this case notably illegitimate children
and some pauperised middle-aged men. For one of the most marginalised
groups, the prostitutes, increasingly zealous public health regulation
became an impetus for stigmatisation.
Figure 4.5 summarises the relationship between health and socialtransition during the early nineteenth century. For a growing part ofthe population, socioeconomic changes caused unemployment, poverty,
unstable households, uprooted citizens and an increase of the consumption of alcohol, violence and theft. This, in turn, weakened theeconomic, cultural and social resources of the same proletariat, which
turned out to be problematic and had a clear impact on the health andwelfare of many middle-aged men in urban areas. In other words, bonding capital, supporting groups of farmers or craftsmen in the traditional agrarian society, had partly eroded, especially in urban settings. An
old type of minimal “linking social capital” in the communities wasunder pressure from the growing needs of the poor.

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society in transition

This is the time when Robert Malthus’s pessimistic views about the
impacts of population growth seemed true. In Sweden, a more positive
solution came during the second half of the nineteenth century. Emigration, industrialisation and the capacity of agriculture to feed more withless labour gave more and not less resources to individuals, local communities and the state to provide for welfare and health. This will bepresented in the following chapter.

Reference list
1.

2.

3.
4.

5.
6.

7.

8.

9.

Utterström G. Jordbrukets arbetare: levnadsvillkor och arbetsliv på landsbygden från frihetstiden till mitten av 1800-talet. Del 1 [Rural workers in
Sweden from the period of liberty to the mid-19th century. Part 1]. Stockholm: Tiden; 1957.
Winberg C. Folkökning och proletarisering: kring den sociala strukturomvandlingen på Sveriges landsbygd under den agrara revolutionen[Population growth and proletarianisation: the transformation of social
structures in rural Sweden during the agrarian revolution]. Diss. Göteborg:
Göteborg University; 1975.
Magnusson L. An economic history of Sweden. London: New York: Routledge; 2000.
Arvidsson SO. De svenska koleraepidemierna: en epidemiografisk studie[The Swedish cholera epidemics: an epidemiographical study]. Diss. Stockholm: Karolinska Institutet; 1972.
Bourdelais P. Improving public health in France: the local political mobilization in the nineteenth century. Hygiea Internationalis 2004;4(1):229-53.
Vallin J. Mortality in Europe from 1720 to 1914: long-term trends andchanges in patterns by age and sex. In: Schofield R, Reher D, Bideau A,
eds. The decline of mortality in Europe. Oxford: Clarendon Press; 1991.
Caselli G. Health transition and cause-specific mortality. In: Schofield R,
Reher D, Bideau A, eds. The decline of mortality in Europe. Oxford: Clarendon Press; 1991.
Sundbärg G. Bevölkerungsstatistik Schwedens 1750-1900: with preface
and vocabulary in English. [Swedish population statistics] Stockholm:
Statistics Sweden; 1970.
Fridlizius G. Sex-differential mortality and socio economic change: Sweden
1750-1910. In: Brändström A, Tedebrand LG, eds. Society, health andpopulation during the demographic transition. Stockholm: Almqvist &Wiksell International; 1988.

society in transition•11110. Willner S. Det svaga könet? Kön och vuxendödlighet i 1800-talets Sverige[The weaker sex? Gender and adult mortality in 19th century Sweden].
Diss. Linköping: Linköping University; 1999.
11. Sundin J, Willner S. Social stress, socialt kapital och hälsa: välfärd och
samhällsförändring i historia och nutid [Social stress, social capital andhealth: welfare and social change in past and present]. In: Sundin J,
Willner S, eds. Samhällsförändring och hälsa: olika forskarperspektiv[Social change and health: different research perspectives]. Stockholm:
Institute for Futures Studies; 2003.
12. Emigrationsutredningen. Bilaga V. Ekonomisk-statistisk beskrifning öfver
Sveriges olika landsdelar/ af Gustav Sundbärg [The emigration report. Part
V. Economic-statistical description of different parts of Sweden/ by Gustav
Sundbärg]. Stockholm: Nordiska bokhandeln; 1910.
13. Söderberg J. Causes of poverty in Sweden in the nineteenth century. Journal of European Economic History 1982;11:369-402.
14. Bengtsson M. Det hotade barnet: tre generationers spädbarns- och barnadödlighet i 1800-talets Linköping [The child at risk: infant and child mortality in three generations in 19th century Linköping]. Diss. Linköping:
Linköping University; 1996.
15. Brändström A. ”De kärlekslösa mödrarna”: spädbarnsdödligheten i Sverige under 1800-talet med särskild hänsyn till Nedertorneå [”The lovelessmothers”: infant mortality in Sweden during the 19th century with special
attention to the parish of Nedertorneå]. Diss. Umeå: Umeå University;
1984.
16. Nelson M. Bitter bread: the famine in Norrbotten 1867–1868. Diss. Uppsala: Uppsala University; 1988.
17. Wootton D. Bad medicine: doctors doing harm since Hippocrates. Oxford:
Oxford University Press; 2006.
18. Sköld P. The two faces of smallpox: a disease and its prevention in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Sweden. Diss. Umeå: Umeå University; 1996.
19. Fridlizius G. The mortality decline in the first phase of the demographictransition: Swedish experiences. In: Bengtsson T, Fridlizius G, Ohlsson R,
eds. Pre-industrial change. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International;
1984.
20. Brändström A. A life after dismissal? Patient’s life histories at a Swedish
county hospital, 1845–1890. In: Woodward J, Jutte R, eds. Coping withsickness. Sheffield: European Association for the History of Medicine and
Health Publications; 1995.
21. Lundberg A. Care and coercion: medical knowledge, social policy andpatients with venereal disease in Sweden 1785-1903. Diss. Umeå: UmeåUniversity; 1999.
22. Bengtsson T, Ohlsson R. Levnadsstandard och mortalitet i Sverige
1750–1860 [Standard of living and mortality in Sweden 1750–1860].
Lund: Lund University; 1984.

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23. Högberg U. Svagårens barn: ur folkhälsans historia [Children of starvation
years: from the history of public health]. Stockholm: Liber; 1983.
24. Bengtsson T, Fridlizius G, Ohlsson R, eds. Pre-industrial change. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International; 1984.
25. Schofield R, Reher D, Bideau A, eds. The decline of mortality in Europe.
Oxford: Clarendon Press; 1991.

society in transition•1135. Industrialisation and hygienism(c. 1870–1920)

Introduction
Page 114: Iron pro-duction and forestry
were the major components during theearly phase of industrialisation in Sweden.
19th century painting.
Photo: Photos.com

Page 115: Washingclothes in open air.
Year unknown.
Photo: Nordiska museet

There are several sound arguments why we should draw a dividing line
within the domains of public health between the early and late nineteenth century. Apart from the food crisis in 1917 during the FirstWorld War and the ravages of the Spanish Flu the year after, the Swedish population never again experienced anything that remotely
resembled the major famine years of the late 1860s.
Compared to, for instance Great Britain, industrialisation came latein Sweden, but once it started in the latter stages of the nineteenth century, industry experienced an unprecedented boom and the country’s
resources grew steadily. Jobs were created, people migrated to towns
and industrial urban areas and the collective society acquired greater
resources on the national and local level. A growing export of cereals,
timber, iron and steel to the more industrialised countries of Europe aswell as an expanding domestic market and extensive railroad construction projects stimulated industrial growth. It has also been suggested
that the rapid industrial growth in late nineteenth century Sweden tosome extent was related to a well-developed stock of human and institutional capital in spite of the relative poverty of the country aroundthe mid-century. Among other factors characterising Sweden as “theimpoverished Sophisticate” were: a high literacy level, a large numbersof students attending schools and universities, and an efficient financial
system [1]. Around 1900, Sweden achieved a leading position in industrial growth among the industrialised nations of the world [2]. This waslargely a result of the successes of the manufacturing industry, often
based on Swedish inventions and enterprises such as AB Gas-accumulator(AGA), Allmänna Svenska Elektriska Aktiebolaget (ASEA), LM
Ericson, Separator and AB Svenska Kullagerfabriken (SKF).
Real wages for industrial and agricultural workers more than doubled
between 1865 and 1910. In addition to a general improvement in thestandard of living and reduced dependence on harvest outcomes, more
and more railways were built, making it possible to get help to areas
affected by food shortages much more quickly. In the northern half ofthe country, which was worst-hit in the 1860s, forestry and mining
provided both direct and indirect employment opportunities. The
region became a relief area for the proletariat from more southern

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industrialisation and hygienism

parts of the country. Many others, who chose not to move to the north,emigrated across the Atlantic.
Between 1840 and 1930, more than a million Swedes immigrated to
North America. Emigration became extensive in the late 1860s following crop failures. At this time, a majority of the emigrants were smallholder families. During the late nineteenth century, a large proportion
consisted of single men and women in the 15-30 age group. Emigration
was particularly extensive from areas hit by economic recession or withweakly developed trade and industry. It is likely that the large scale
emigration contributed to the rapid rise of real wages in the industrial
sector and in agriculture in the late nineteenth century. It has beenargued, assuming that Sweden was overpopulated, that emigration
saved the country from widespread poverty and starvation. On theother hand, it is also possible that fewer people emigrating would have
led to an even more expanded domestic market, and thus further stimulated industrial growth and welfare [3].
But the first phase of industrialisation also had a darker side; long
working days (twelve hours was the norm until the eight-hour day was
introduced in 1919), hazardous machines and in many cases dark andunhealthy work environments. Housing conditions in some industrial
settlements were characterised by extreme overcrowding and poor
sanitary conditions. This was not least true of what became known as
the “Swedish Klondike”; the area of northern Sweden with an abundance of sawmills and ore-fields.
Primitive shanty towns grew up; the Loussavaara mine in Kiruna
being an example. Similarly, new population centres sprang up along
the newly laid railways, often with poor housing conditions. Stockholm was already renowned for its poor sanitary conditions and highmortality from infectious diseases, even in a European perspective. The
working-class districts were characterised by open, stinking drainage
ditches, poor public cleansing and water supply and severe overcrowding.
Many temporary and seasonal workers lived outdoors or in primitive
and overcrowded doss houses, which seem to have been the perfect
breeding-ground for various infectious diseases. Working-men’s hostelsand night shelters in Stockholm were critically described as “some of
the capital’s worst plague spots” in a report published in Social
Tidskrift (a periodical of the day) in 1913. The most common type ofapartment among working-class families of the age comprised one
room and a kitchen or kitchenette and often housed one or moreindustrialisation and hygienism•

117lodgers, in addition to family members, to boost income. But the hygienic
conditions were probably just as bad, and in many cases worse, in preindustrial towns and cities.
Regarding the social and economic consequences of industrialisation, two main standpoints have emerged in the international debate.
The “pessimistic” view claims that the effects were mainly negative.
The standard of living was falling and people were uprooted from theirtraditional rural milieus and forced to live in overcrowded and sociallydeprived industrial towns. The “optimistic” view claims that theadvantages were greater than the disadvantages. The standard of living
and living conditions in general improved, at least in the long run. In
the Swedish case, the optimistic view appears to be the most appropriate.
Rapid industrialisation in the late nineteenth century was accompaniedby considerable improvements in living standards (real wages) andhealth (life expectancy) [4].

Epidemiological trends
In connection with the industrial revolution, sanitary conditions did
start to improve, as a result, for example, of better water and seweragesystems and improved waste management [5]. The positive results wereseen quickly. Mortality from waterborne (and other) infectious diseases
fell drastically in urban areas during the latter part of the nineteenth
century. It is plausible that the sanitary reforms not only affected mortality from waterborne diseases but also airborne infections. Reducing
morbidity in the former probably led to improved resistance to, andlower mortality from, airborne diseases.
The differences in mortality between town and country decreased palpably, despite increased migration to urban areas. To some extent, thiscan be attributed to an “urbanisation” of rural Sweden as a result of theemergence of suburban areas outside the administrative borders of towns
and the establishment of new industrial centres. These areas were definedas rural in the official population statistics. Finally, by the 1920s, the earlier excessive urban mortality among younger age groups had shifted to ahigher death rate in the countryside than in the towns. For women, thiswas true across the entire reproductive age span, and the differences bet-

118•

industrialisation and hygienism

ween town and country were also negligible in older age groups. Therewas still striking excessive urban mortality among adult men, however,even if it had decreased slightly. All in all, the industrial revolution led to a
sharp decline in mortality and the disappearance of the dramatic peaks inthe death rate, with the exception of the influenza epidemic of 1918–1919.
Table 5.1 Mortality from certain infectious diseases (and infection-related diagnoses) in
Swedish towns, 1875–1879 and 1921–1930. Deaths per 100,000. Standardised for sex andage after 1875–1879.
1875–1879

1921–1930

Gastroenteritis*

253

19

Acute pneumonia

255

46

Consumption

332

115

Other tuberculosis**–30

Scarlet fever

107

2

Diphtheria, croup

92

5

Typhoid53

2

Measles24

4

Whooping cough24

7

Influenza–

16

Smallpox

15<1

Typhus13<1

Dysentery

2

1

Infantile paralysis–

1

Total ”infections”

1,192

274

All causes of death

2,250

926

Other infections* Includes diseases of changeable aetiology, but infection-related conditions dominate. Terminology:
Intestinal catarrh, diarrhoea, enteritis (1875–1879), acute gastroenteritis (1921–1930).
** Types of tuberculosis other than pulmonary tuberculosis are not presented separately in the statistics
for 1875–1879.
Source: Bidrag till Sveriges Officiella Statistik K, Hälso- och sjukvården. 1 (Contribution to Sweden´s Official
Statistics K, Health and medical services) 1875–1879. Sveriges Officiella Statistik. Befolkningsrörelsen.
Översikt för åren 1921–1930 (Statistics Sweden. Vital statistics. Summary for 1921–1930).

industrialisation and hygienism•

119Victims of the Spanish
flu in a Swedish militaryhospital in 1918.
Photo: SVT Bild

According to official statistics, the decades around the turn of the century saw a marked reduction in ‘pestilence mortality’, i.e. death fromcontagious diseases such as typhoid, smallpox, cholera, scarlet fever,diphtheria and measles [6]. During the latter half of the 1870s, an estimated 30 per 1,000 inhabitants in urban areas (statistics for rural areas
are incomplete) died each year from the dominant contagious diseases,
the equivalent of 15 per cent of all deaths (Table 5.1). Mortality thencontinuously decreased (with the exception of the influenza epidemic in
1918–1919) and during the 1920s the equivalent figure was 4 per
1,000 per year or 4 per cent of all deaths.
The decrease was probably even more dramatic than figures indicate,since the cause of death statistics had become more complete over time.
Some diagnoses, such as smallpox, ague, dysentery and cholera, hadessentially disappeared in 1900, whilst diphtheria, whooping coughand measles continued to be a real, albeit drastically reduced, threat
during childhood. It seems that medical therapy in the form of antitoxin
only played a significant role in the decline of diphtheria. Including TB(consumption) and respiratory infections (pneumonia) and diseases ofthe digestive system (certain types of gastroenteritis), infection-related120•

industrialisation and hygienismdiseases accounted for more than half of total urban mortality during
the earlier period and about a third during the 1920s.
Pulmonary tuberculosis accounted for about 15 per cent of total
urban mortality in 1875–1879 and twelve per cent in 1921–1930.
Other forms of TB dominated in younger age groups and accounted forabout four per cent of total mortality during the 1920s. Sanatoriums
and TB clinics were expanded during the early twentieth century, which
helped to isolate the sources of infection more effectively and increased
awareness of how infections spread. BCG vaccination was introduced in
the late 1920s and X-ray examinations to detect cases of tuberculosis
were introduced over the following ten years. Effective drugs against
tuberculosis only became available during the 1940s [7]. Hence, thisdecline in TB deaths had obviously begun before effective medicines werediscovered. Social and economic improvements seem to have been an
important factor, including better food and housing conditions.
In 1918–1919, Europe was hit by a serious influenza epidemic, theSpanish Flu, which killed about 35,000 people in Sweden alone [8],making it the most devastating epidemic to hit Sweden for over 50 years
and causing (until the present day) the last sharp peak in the mortality
curve. Young adults (20–40 years) were particularly badly affected, as
illustrated in the diagram showing sex- and age-specific mortality (seeAppendix). The northern forest counties were more severely hit by the
influenza epidemic than the rest of the country, even when differences inage composition are considered. The spread of infection was linked tothe ongoing world war. It is felt that American soldiers in particulartransmitted the infection to France, from where it spread further [8].
Infantile paralysis or polio was a ‘new’ disease that hit Sweden andwestern Europe as large-scale epidemics during the first sixty years of
the twentieth century. The effect on total mortality was indeed limited,
but thousands were left permanently paralysed. Paradoxically, theepidemics of the twentieth century are thought to be the product ofimproved public hygiene, even if this opinion does not go unchallenged[9]. In the past and under worse hygienic conditions, many children
may have been infected during early infancy, when the risk of serious
complications is slight, which is why the disease went unnoticed. Withbetter hygiene, people are less likely to come into contact with thepolio virus until later on in life, when the risks of complications, suchas paralysis, are much greater than during early childhood.

industrialisation and hygienism•

121During the latter part of the nineteenth century, home deliveries
assisted by professional midwives became the standard, which also
contributed to significantly reduced perinatal mortality [10].
A poorer nutritional standard due to food shortages and high living
costs was felt to have contributed to the drastic increase in tuberculosis
mortality during the First World War in Sweden as well as in several
other countries [7]. This is in contrast with the positive health development during the Second World War, manifested in falling mortality
from, for example, cardiovascular disease and diabetes [11]. The differences between the wars were probably due not only to changes in thegeneral disease pattern, with a marked decline in tuberculosis morbidity
and the increased significance of heart disease, but also to more efficient
food supply during the Second World War. In addition, due to foodrationing during the second war, diet was probably for the most part
healthier with less sugar and fat content.
The role of nutrition in the more general decline in mortality has
been keenly discussed ever since. Thomas McKeown presented his
theories in the 1970s on the reason for the great mortality decline. He
claimed that the role played by medicine in the secular decline in mortality during the nineteenth century was extremely limited, and that themain reason was improved nutrition [12]. Even if contemporary researchshares the view that the curative significance of medicine was extremely
limited until the introduction of sulpha drugs and penicillin in the
1930s and 1940s, the crucial role of nutrition has nevertheless beencalled into question. Instead, the significance of the sanitary reforms inurban areas during the nineteenth century has been highlighted [13].
Still, even if McKeown underestimated the role of hygienism, there is
no doubt that the rapidly rising standard of living was positive for thehealth of the general population.

Men and women
Maternal mortality constituted about ten per cent of all deaths among
women in the 15-49 age group up until the latter stages of the nineteenth century. This proportion fell to about five per cent at the turn of122•

industrialisation and hygienism

the century in 1900. Declining fertility helped to reduce the risk ofdeath in childbirth, but the dramatic fall in maternal mortality has been
mainly attributed to the expansion of Swedish midwifery services andthe introduction of antiseptic techniques during childbirth. In 1881,
instructions were issued on how midwives should disinfect their hands
and instruments with carbolic acid, resulting in a drastic reduction inchildbirth mortality. Attempted abortion became more common at theend of the nineteenth century and many women died whilst trying toterminate their pregnancy. ”Phosphorus poisoning" was the registeredcause of death.
Among younger and middle-aged adults, mortality decreased moreamong males than among females (see Appendix). One factor, according to data presented in official statistics, was the dramatic decline inalcohol-related deaths. In 1870–79, the statistics reported about 64
deaths from chronic alcoholism per 100,000 males in people over 20
years of age in Swedish cities. In the 1920s, the corresponding figure
was less than two. Although changes in diagnostic practice may haveaffected these figures, the drop clearly indicates a substantial fall in
alcohol-related deaths. There were often more deaths from tuberculosis
among women in younger age groups. This was certainly nothing newwhen it came to girls and young women (5–19 years old), who alreadyseem to have been more adversely affected during the early nineteenth
century than their male counterparts. As tuberculosis became anincreasingly dominant cause of death among younger age groups
towards the latter stages of the century (as a consequence of the dramatic decline in several contagious diseases), the gender differences intotal child mortality basically disappeared. Excessive mortality among
boys from accidents was balanced against the higher number of deaths
from tuberculosis among girls.
On the other hand, it was not until around 1900 that the national
statistics also reflected excessive female mortality among those of reproductive age. Higher mortality from consumption among married womenthan among single women was reported in Stockholm towards the endof the nineteenth century. This was in line with the perception that pregnant women constituted a risk group for TB because of their impaired
immune systems. In a study of Swedish parishes in the nine-teenth century,
Ulf Högberg has shown that pulmonary tuberculosis was a strong contributory cause of indirect maternal mortality [14]. However, this cannot
explain why girls contracted tuberculosis more often than boys.

industrialisation and hygienism•

123Figure 5.1 Mortality

60

specified for age, sex
and marital status.
Sweden, 1881–1890.
Deaths per 1,000.

50

Source: Sundbärg G.
Bevölkerungsstatistik
Schwedens 1750–1900,
Stockholm 1970 [19].

married malenon-married malemarried female
non-married female

deaths/1,000

40

30

20

10

0

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

Certain studies have claimed that this was due to male family members (and breadwinners) being better fed at the expense of female members of the household [15–17]. A social hygiene survey from northern
Sweden in the 1930s claimed that “the limited food available is firstly
served to the man and the children and the wife has to make do withwhat is left over, which is why they are often so thin....” [18]. Therefore,a certain amount of evidence suggests that house-wives, at their own
expense, put the rest of the family first when it came to serving food.
This, in combination with hard work and frequent pregnancies, could
lead to a low nutritional status and reduced resistance to TB. There is, on
the other hand, little evidence that children were also subjected to suchgender discrimination at the dinner table, which could have contributed
to the higher mortality rate among girls.
As in earlier periods, the urban lifestyle did not benefit the health ofadult men, whilst there were fewer deaths among women of reproductive age in the towns than in the countryside. This difference between
the sexes may in part have been due to more widespread alcohol abuse
among urban men. Regarding the higher mortality among rural women, a
relatively high fertility rate and poorer maternity care might be contributory causes. Neither is it possible to exclude the effect of selection mecha-

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nisms, i.e. women who moved into the towns to obtain work enjoyedbetter health on average than those who stayed in the countryside.
National statistics on mortality by marital status have been compiled
since the 1870s. There were significantly more deaths among single
men (unmarried or widowers), than among other groups. This wasparticularly true in urban areas. The major significance of being married or not was evident from the fact that mortality among marriedmen differed only slightly from their female counterparts. Among
people of reproductive age, for example, mortality among married men
was lower than for both married (up until the interwar period) andsingle women (up until the present day). Marital status played a lesssignificant role among women of reproductive age, where the differences
between married and single women were relatively small. The death
rate among women, who were beyond reproductive age, and no longer
vulnerable to the risks associated with pregnancy and childbirth, wason the other hand clearly less favourable for single women.
The lower level of mortality among married people of either sex(with the exception of women of child-bearing age) can be seen both asa product of selection effects and of the protective effects of marriage.
In the first case, this was due to individuals with poor health or lifestyles that constituted a threat to health, such as a chronic disease or
alcohol abuse, having more difficulty finding a life partner. Marriage
can also have served as a health-promoting institution; firstly because it
offers social support and creates a feeling of meaning and coherence,and secondly because it creates an awareness of duty to the othermembers of the family which in those days prevented certain types of
unhealthy behaviour, such as excessive alcohol consumption [20].

Regional and social differences
in mortality
Our knowledge of the social differences in mortality during the industrial revolution is limited to a few studies of local environments. In a
study of child mortality in late nineteenth century Stockholm, it wasindustrialisation and hygienism•

125

found that low social class was associated with an increased risk ofdeath from measles [21] Sören Edvinsson has shown that there wereclear social differences in mortality among children, but not among
adults, in Sundsvall in the late nineteenth century, with higher rates
among the working class than among more affluent groups [22]. Nor
do these social differences seem to have been great among the adults ofcontemporary Linköping [23]. The social gradient seems to have been
more strongly correlated with adult mortality (more so for men) during
the pre-industrial era than during the latter part of the nineteenth century when the standard of living had risen for the less wealthy parts ofthe population.
In connection with the industrial revolution, a new regional mortality
trend began to emerge. It manifested itself clearly during the interwar
period and beyond, and is evidently related to socioeconomic conditions, in contrast to the situation prior to the industrial revolution.
The highest age-standardised mortality rate and comparatively low
average life expectancy were to be found in counties in central andnorthern Sweden, where there are vast expanses of forest (a part of thecountry, which had enjoyed relatively favourable health conditions in
the pre-industrial period) and in the metropolitan regions [24, 25].
Differences in tuberculosis mortality were clearly the dominant causeof this new regional mortality trend.

The growth of medical knowledge
and medical institutions
In 1877, Sundhetskollegium was replaced by Medicinalstyrelsen(National Medical Board), which adopted overall authority over the
medical profession and institutions, including responsibility for thehospitals. To assist the Board, Chief Provincial Medical Officers wereappointed in every county to carry out inspections. Previously small
hospitals and mental institutions grew dramatically during this century.
According to their rules, they were only supposed to admit patients
who could be cured. To begin with, this occurred as a result of the126•

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institutionalisation of venereal disease sufferers but later the hospitals
started to take care of the needs of the poor. As healthcare became
more professional and trusted, more affluent people also began to signin as patients towards the end of the nineteenth century.
The era of international scientific conferences began during the latterpart of the nineteenth century, which further accelerated the disseminationof new research. The first hygiene conference took place in Brussels in
1876 and was followed at regular intervals by new meetings, at which
the vanguard of research and science was established and spread tomore and more countries. Medical science acquired more and more
understanding of the workings of the human body, in parallel withincreasing specialisation, creating medical subdivisions such as pathology, physiology, etc.
Preventive medicine was given its own discipline, hygienism, with
the German Max von Petterkofer (1818–1901) as its most prominent
figure. Sweden acquired its first professorship in hygienism in 1876.
But it was the breakthrough of bacteriology in the 1870s, symbolised
by Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) and Robert Koch (1843–1910), which
was the most dramatic development. The Swedish Medical Association
founded the journal Hygiea as early as in 1839. This journal and theEira publication (first published in 1877) became important fora for
debate and the dissemination of international and Swedish research findings. A doctor and member of parliament, Curt Wallis (1845–1922),
studied under Robert Koch in 1882 and belonged to the new generation of medical doctors who disseminated and popularised bacteriological theories in Sweden. New generations of medical researchers anddoctors were needed, however, before these theories could be fully
accepted. An example of this is the Statsmedicinska anstalten (National
Institute of Medicine), the first national institute of bacteriology inSweden, which was only established in 1907 and the National Bacteriological Laboratory, which did not come into existence until 1917
[26].

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127A national statistics agency,
Statistics Sweden
Information as to the country’s health status was naturally an important source of inspiration for reform. This was originally compiled, as
we have seen, from the annual parish reports collected by Tabellverket.
This venerable institution was replaced in 1860 by a national statistics
agency, Statistics Sweden, providing the country with a national organisation for the collection and processing of statistical data, not just on
demographic conditions, but also on the business sector and trade, thejustice system and other areas of activity that were of importance to thestate. The data was published in different series in Bidrag till Sveriges
officiella statistik (Contributions to Sweden’s official statistics) andmany findings were published in Statistisk tidskrift (Swedish Journal of
Statistics). The demographic data was now based on brief extracts
about each individual from the clerical registers, which were sent inand processed centrally.1
The interest in statistics, born during previous centuries, did not dieout in the nineteenth century. On the contrary, several countries started
to follow the Swedish example and collect data on the entire population. This began in Great Britain in the 1830s and in France in the
1840s. Other countries soon followed suit. Demography and epidemiology became internationalised, albeit using statistical methods thatwere much less sophisticated than they are today. It was neverthelesspossible to compare the differences between countries and draw one’s
own conclusions.

1. We can only obtain reliable cause of death data for urban areas up until 1911, when
medical death certificates were deemed reasonably comprehensive throughout the country.
Risk populations were calculated with the help of extracts from the catechetical registers
for one individual at a time (which became known as parish books after 1895). On the one
hand, this reform led to the data being handled and presented more professionally, but on
the other, it became subsequently more difficult and complex for researchers to practicallystudy changes on a low geographical level via the Statistics Sweden archives. Individual
data was added up on ‘checklists’ which, from one year to the next, covered different
geographical units consisting of several parishes. Neither was any attempt made to present
the differences in mortality between different social groups. Starting in 1870 and onwards,
however, tables were produced showing the striking differences in mortality between marriedand single people, broken down by sex and age.

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The central figure in the establishment of Statistics Sweden was the
paediatrician Fredrik Theodor Berg (1806–1887). He acquired international experience and knowledge on a European tour in 1839–1840.
He was appointed Professor of Paediatrics at the Stockholm Children’s
Hospital in 1845, became chairman of the Swedish Medical Society
and wrote a book, among other things, about thrush, a common fungal
infection among children. He was quickly given the task of preparing
the reorganisation of Swedish statistics, after having visited a numberof other European statistical institutions. Not unexpectedly, he wasappointed the first Director-General of Statistics Sweden, a post heoccupied until 1877. In addition to Berg himself, others were to research
the country’s health situation, using Statistics Sweden tables as an aid.
Attention was drawn to, among other things, the continuing alarmingly
high death rate from tuberculosis in Stockholm and other towns andcities, whilst the good news was that infant and child mortality, whichat the beginning of the nineteenth century had been high in European
terms, was now at a comparatively favourable level.

Industrialisation, ideologies
and the welfare state
As with later generations, people in the nineteenth century felt they
were living in an era of dramatic change. This gave rise to new theories
and ideas about how society was organised and how it developed,
which would have considerable influence over the next one hundredyears. Pure economic and social Manchester liberalism of the earlynineteenth century espoused a state that should only protect its citizens
from foreign and domestic threats, keep its hands off the market andrefrain from intervening in social issues. However, these extreme ideas
never really made any major and radical impression on Swedish politics and social conservatism and social liberalism entered the arena
during the latter stages of the nineteenth century. More recently, historians have pointed out that the nineteenth century Swedish bureaucratic
state, represented in the first chamber of parliament, was not in prin-industrialisation and hygienism•

129ciple against public sector activities. The governing powers searchedinstead for a pragmatic and ideal model, in which entrepreneurship,technical development and the right of ownership were reconciled withcollective efforts to promote, from their point of view, positive economic and social development.
An example of this was the question of the construction and ownership of the railways, where the state-owned solution was to dominate.
Society was technicalised and professionalised, sector-by-sector, basedon meritocratic2 principles. This was also true of hygienism and otherareas of importance to public health. The ‘social engineer’ has in recent
debates been used as a negatively charged concept, referring to the
meddlesome manipulation of people’s lives by official professions. Originally, however, the term was used about engineers who took part inthe clean-up of nineteenth century towns and cities.
Liberalism became the creed of economic progress and the representative of individual freedom and rights, whilst conservatism in different
guises attempted to put the brakes on some of the political and social
upheavals. Both these ideologies had advocates, who were positive
to social reforms within the framework of their fundamental values.
Bismarck’s reforms in the spirit of social conservatism in late-nineteenth
century Germany represented a patriarchal model, which not least was
intended to combat the new socialist tendencies among the working
classes. There were also conservative representatives in Sweden whose
task was to combat the new-age of social intervention based in the patriarchal model. Some philanthropic associations were clearly influenced by such thoughts. Many liberals were, for their part, more inclined
to look to cooperate with the workers’ own political organisations in acommon fight for democratic reforms. In the end, several activities that
had begun as philanthropic initiatives were, with the initiators’ consent, transformed to, or used as, models for state or municipal bodies,for instance nineteenth-century organised care and help for thedisabled. The growing socialist workers’ movement also became anever-more powerful actor on the political stage.

1. Meritocracy = social system stressing the importance of formal education and talent rather
than wealth or social position.

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industrialisation and hygienismOccupational healthIn the 1850s, the first statutes prohibiting child night work in industry
were introduced. These restrictions were, however, often contravened.
Health-related and social problems connected to urbanisation and thegrowth of the factory system made the need for regulation of theindustrial environments obvious. According to the estimations in thelate 1880s by Arbetarförsäkringskommittén (Committee for Occupational Insurance), industrial work was generally more dangerous thanagricultural work. High rates of occupational accidents were reported
particularly for miners, railway workers and workers in ironworks andengineering plants.
Differences in mortality appeared partly to be more related to thelocation of the workplace than to occupational risks. Workers employedin urban occupations usually experienced higher death rates than rural
workers. But there are also findings indicating that occupational
hazards per se affected the mortality levels. Investigations regarding
late nineteenth-century Sweden, Denmark and Britain showed highmortality for shipyard workers, miners and printers, workers in glassworks and in the metal and tobacco industries [27–29]. These occupations were exposed to toxic chemicals and accidental risks. Contemporary medical expertise pointed out the hazards of exposure to dust andchemicals [30], but the legislation was more concerned with the regulation of safety devices for machines and other equipment in industrial
plants than with the regulation of toxic substances. Stonecutters andworkers at glassworks and ironworks were for example exposed tohazardous dust that could cause silicosis and other forms of pneumoconiosis. Workers in the match industry were exposed to phosphorus
causing phosphorous necrosis and liver damage. At china factories andprinting offices, the employed faced the risk of lead poisoning, negatively
affecting the central nervous system. Gilders and silver-platers working
with mercury risked damage to their lungs and the central nervous system. Founders exposed to zinc and dyers and glassworkers exposed toarsenic had an increased risk of contracting cancer, cardiovasculardisease or liver damage, etc. The work of the committee resulted in
Yrkesfarelagen (The Occupational Hazard Act) in 1889. It regulated
safety devices for machines and other equipment and a state Labour

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131

Apprentice chimney
sweep.
Photo: Atelier Gustav
Dahlström, c. 1890–1900/
Nordiska museet

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Inspectorate was founded for its supervision. Occupational injury insurance was eventually introduced in 1901 [31]. Sweden was, of course,
often influenced by the development in earlier industrialised countries,
such as Britain and Germany.

Healthcare administration
as a local issue
Attempts to activate local bodies more effectively in the fight against
infectious diseases and epidemics had met with limited success during
the first half of the nineteenth century. As we have seen, however, cholera helped increase understanding of the problem in general and a new
epidemic regulation was issued in 1857. A year later, Sundhetskollegium
proposed more ambitious healthcare legislation, but this was eventually
rejected partly because it would be far too radical an infringement on
personal liberties. A new committee was appointed and the new legislation could finally be adopted in 1874. It prescribed how to organise
healthcare and how to combat epidemics. The legislation is primarily
remembered because it included an ordinance instructing every city or
town to establish a healthcare committee. Among other things, morbidity
and mortality from cholera, smallpox (of which there was an epidemic
the year before), typhus, typhoid, scarlet fever, diphtheria and dysentery
were to be reported to Sundhetskollegium.
The healthcare committees were to include the city doctor and representatives from the local police, the borough administration, and members appointed by the city council. Each committee was responsible forthe state of health in the city and appointing inspectors to carry out
regular inspections. To ensure it actually fulfilled its task, monthly meetings were instituted. Particular attention was to be devoted to watersupply, water quality and stormwater drainage. The committee wasalso to ensure that the food sold was of good quality and check that
rented housing and public premises (including factories) met hygieneand health requirements. Latrine, waste and animal husbandry control
within the city’s domains were among the committee’s most important

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133activities. In Linköping, for example, hundreds of inspections were carried out every year, which could lead to improvement demands backed
up by the threat of fines.
Sundhetskollegium had its own inspectors who routinely or whennecessary performed inspections around the country, a task that was
taken over by a chief provincial doctor appointed in every county in
1890. Records were kept of these inspections and they contain many
exhortations to city fathers to take the criticism and improvement proposals seriously.

Urban hygienism
How then did this new health service function on the local level during
the latter stages of the nineteenth century? Firstly, we can ascertain thatits greatest impact was in urban areas, traditionally the most dangerous
environment from a health point of view. We know what happened in a
few individual cities thanks to several local case studies [5, 22, 32].
Under the 1874 legislation, the chief city medical officer was an exofficio member of the healthcare committee. Linköping is a typicalexample. At that time, the health administrative body also included a
deputy medical officer, a hospital doctor, regimental medical officer
and provincial doctor along with about ten midwives. An isolation
hospital was opened in the 1850s to accommodate those who had contracted infectious diseases. During the smallpox epidemics of 1863 andof 1874–75, the hospital, which had room for 30 patients, fulfilled an
important function, even if it could not accommodate all those who
had fallen ill. It seems the hospital still had an effect, albeit a somewhat
limited one, on the spread of these and other epidemics. Naturally,
Linköping was not the only place affected by these epidemics, which
occurred partly because those who had been vaccinated did not havelife-long protection unless the procedure was repeated. Another reason
for their occurrence was the difficulty in maintaining control over thevaccination of the country’s floating population, who were constantly
moving in, out and around the towns and cities. Fear of the disease had
also subsided since people were no longer constantly reminded of its

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presence. According to Linköping’s chief medical officer, all those whodied in 1874–75 were young and had not been vaccinated. Most ofthem also came from poor families. The desire to vaccinate one’s children dramatically increased again as a consequence of the epidemic,
which meant that it became the last of its kind to hit Linköping and thecountry as a whole. This epidemic swept all over Europe and resulted
in a general increase in vaccination figures.
The Linköping healthcare committee comprised seven members. The
mayor, who was also the chief of police, chairman of the planning committee and other important bodies, chaired the committee. Other members in the 1870s included the city medical officer, a pharmacist andtradesmen and manufacturer representatives, a leading group of thecity’s elite. It was especially important that bourgeois laymen participated; since they represented those who would be most inconvenienced
by public duties and face the biggest tax bill, in accordance with thelegislation and local by-laws. In certain cases, concerning animal husbandry and latrine management for example, not all townspeople andproperty owners were that keen on the regulations. How exactly they
were to be applied could be the subject of considerable debate in thecommittee prior to decisions being taken. The city medical officer often
had to lead the way on new proposals, which were not always unanimously well received by some of the other committee members. In somecases, national inspectors or the chief provincial medical officer felt called upon to urge the city in no uncertain terms to take its responsibility.
Reports on inadequate facilities for pigs, poorly maintained latrines andother problems poured in from the inspectors and – as from 1889 – froma newly appointed local health inspector. A threat of action could be sufficient, but sometimes the matter went to court and a fine was imposed.
When evaluating the first decades after the healthcare legislation had
come into force, we must consider the dramatic population turnover
and the rapid growth in immigration into the poorest urban quarters
and into new suburbs. This was a challenge to the healthcare institutions in Swedish towns and cities, not least during the major wave of
urbanisation during the 1870s and 1880s. Before managing to build
enough housing to alleviate the problems of overcrowding and to ensure
adequate hygienic conditions in new residential areas, typhus, tuberculosis, diphtheria, scarlet fever and other diseases were rife. This left its
mark as a temporary mortality peak in rapidly expanding urban areasand northern sawmill districts.

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135This temporary rise in mortality, which was noted as early as the1850s, may also have been influenced by the introduction of compulsory
schooling, which increased children’s exposure to disease in overcrowded
classrooms. In light of this, the fact that a stabilisation and substantial
improvement in health could be discerned as early as the 1890s is
somewhat remarkable. The hygienism of the age was with-out a doubt
partly responsible for this. Despite the difficulties, the ambitions ofboth the medical officer and the healthcare committee could be gradually raised and health conditions improved. Influenced by the Victorian
repugnance of disorder and uncleanliness, the city’s upper classes foundthe unhygienic conditions unsatisfactory and towards the end of the
century, the breakthrough and popularisation of bacteriology underlined the need for greater cleanliness.
Currents of social liberalism also flowed through the bourgeoisie,
who were favourably disposed to society making a contribution to
improving the population’s health and public welfare through enlightened
reforms. This change of attitude towards a greater concern for publichealth and the conditions of the poor amongst the urban elite in Swedish cities was, as has been shown, not unique. This also happened in
France and Britain, suggesting that sharp differences in local policies
and health conditions developed throughout the century, following the
emergence of the hygienist movement [33, 34].
In the footsteps of industrialisation, other health problems emerged
as well. The inspections of factory-workers’ conditions in Linköping –as well as in the textile town of Norrköping – called attention to problems of poor air quality, pollution and the risk of tuberculosis infection.
The healthcare committees carried little weight, however, when it cameto making demands that were contrary to the interests of the economically and politically most influential city inhabitants. Occupational
health was more suited to national politics and union negotiations in amore democratic society.
The epidemiological trend in venereal diseases changed during thenineteenth century. Instead of being mostly confined to rural areas, as
was previously the case, the majority of sufferers could now be foundin places with a large number of unmarried men and prostitutes, suchas garrison towns and ports. As an illustration of Victorian double
standards regarding sexuality and gender and a dark side of the hygienist movement, the stigmatising and humiliation by inspection of female
prostitutes continued as before, and public action taken against infected
men was clearly class-related.

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industrialisation and hygienismUrban water– two local examples
As we have seen, supporters of the miasma theory had already realisedthat contaminated water was a potential source of infection, sincedangerous substances emanated from both earth and water. This
notion gained substance when the physician John Snow (1813–1858),
during a cholera epidemic in London in 1854, managed to convince thelocal authority that the infection in a specific urban area had originatedfrom a particular pump, from which the inhabitants fetched their drinking
water. Before the 1870s, most inhabitants of Swedish towns and cities
also got their drinking water from wells or from barrels supplied by thewater companies. In neither case was there much protection against
contamination, especially if the water came from supplies into which
stormwater from backyards, streets and squares ran. Thanks to the development of technology, the construction of pipes from water supply to
public pumps and into houses quickly got underway in Swedish towns
and cities. As a rule, drainage pipes were also laid in newly excavatedditches. Later, from the 1890s onwards, water closets were introduced
into more affluent households, but it took another half century before
almost all homes in the country had access to this hygienic appliance.
In the city of Norrköping, water and sewerage problems were solved
shortly after 1870 as the result of a private initiative with the help of afinancial contribution from the wealthy Swartz family, owners of several
textile mills in the city, and other donations. This paternalistic solution
led to pipes also being connected to the poorer quarters and factoryworker families being given free access to the private industrial watersupplies. Representatives of the medical profession certainly argued for
new systems for water and sewage on health grounds, but a very
important factor was the substantial amount of water needed to run
industrial plants in all the towns and cities. For the middle classes, it
was also a question of greater convenience. It is unclear whether thewater and sewerage systems would have been expanded so early and so
rapidly, had it simply been a question of public health.
Linköping is another example of how piped water moved up the
local agenda. In 1866, a year after the cholera epidemic, a motion was

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137

put forward in the Linköping City Council concerning the draining ofwaterlogged areas. As the first protagonist, the mayor made directreference to the experiences of the epidemic. Three years later, he put
forward his own proposal, drawn up by two hired water engineers ofconsiderable experience. He justified the proposal by saying that waterand sewerage systems were currently being constructed in more andmore towns and cities, that it was the right thing to do from a healthperspective and that it would also benefit industry and provide better
fire protection. The project was to be financed and implemented privately for 30 years, was only to cover the city centre and was expected toprovide financial profit for its stakeholders, who were already in theprocess of establishing a company. The city administration would takeup a fifth of the share capital, but private owners would have priority
when it came to dividend distribution. Plenty of support had been mustered in advance and the city council adopted the proposal with theamendment that the system would cover a large area and fire hydrants
would be installed and used free of charge when necessary.
The city administration undertook to meet the extra costs that laying sewerage pipes in the ditches would imply. The first sections of thesystem were completed as early as 1876 and it was gradually expanded
over the next 15 years to cover almost the entire city, although in somecases houses were equipped only with a stop-cock in the backyard.
Demand constantly increased and in 1893 a new pumping station andfiltration devices were completed. The undertakings returned dividendsof considerable size, indicating that the project was lucrative for theinvestors before it was taken over by the city administration in 1907.
The expansion of Sweden’s first water and sewerage systems wasachieved by means of various financial solutions. It occurred at thesame time as many other factors were having a positive impact on thehealth of the population. Economic prosperity was on the up, increasingly more effective solutions to other urban hygiene issues were being
found and overcrowding became less of a problem over time. In all
likelihood, however, technological advancement also played a vital rolein Sweden’s urban health development. Water accessibility often bore a
direct relationship to the level of hygiene in a household. The fact thatstormwater was now being more properly drained from the streets, andthat human and animal excrement was being disposed more efficiently,
were probably more important factors, however.

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Hans Nilsson has attempted to estimate the potential effect of the
expansion of the water and sewerage system in Linköping. His study
shows that infant mortality before 1875 was of approximately thesame magnitude in all city districts. This was particularly apparent, as
expected, regarding mortality from gastro-intestinal diseases. After
1875, infant mortality fell more sharply in those areas of the city where
the system was expanded during the first ten years, but already by themid-1880s, this difference had evened out. By this time, only a small
minority of inhabitants lacked access to running water, and their healthalso benefited from better stormwater drainage systems [5]. Other studies also indicate an association between improved freshwater supply
and falling mortality in the late nineteenth century as well as in theearly twentieth century, not only for infants but also among one to four
year-olds [35, 36].

Alcohol legislationand the orderly worker
From the mid-nineteenth century onwards, the government introduced
a series of restrictions relating to the manufacture and sale of alcohol.
These proved to be the first effective measures aimed at reducing consumption. Excessive alcohol consumption was undesirable and certain
people had begun to point out its harmful effects on health. Furthermore,
it also caused social damage, although fiscal interests were just as
important. In order to safeguard the government’s income, both the
manufacture and sale of alcohol had to be supervised. This was madepossible by the introduction of licenses and control mechanisms. The
legislation had the greatest impact on rural areas, where many had totravel a long way to obtain the coveted commodity, whilst there were still
plenty of retail outlets in urban areas, to which certain groups were frequent visitors. This seems to be particularly true of younger, single men.
Many of them had left their home districts and led anonymous lives outside the social control of the local community. A sign of this is that total
alcohol consumption and mortality rates among single men clearly corre-industrialisation and hygienism•

139

lated with each other after 1870, the first year for which Statistics
Sweden can produce such figures [23]. Mortality peaks often coincidedwith times of economic prosperity, when the demand for labour was
greatest, urban and industrial migration was intensive and wages soared.
The “Gothenburg system” received much international attention inlate nineteenth century [37]. This involved a monopoly on sales inmunicipally owned taverns and off-premise retail shops, introduced in
Gothenburg 1865. The intention was to reduce or eliminate private
profit-making from liquor sales, and thus to control or decrease alcohol consumption. The system was later adopted in most Swedish towns
and from 1905, all sales of liquor were officially handled by governmentcontrolled companies.
Even though single men continued to be large consumers of alcoholand their mortality was still excessive compared to their married counterparts, conditions stabilised in several respects in the new industrial
society that was emerging rapidly around 1900. In the old workers’society, there were strong traditions of heavy drinking at feasts andotherwise during time off work. Taking a “free Monday” was considered
the right of any journeyman, as long as it did not occur too frequently
and the employer was satisfied with his performance. The growing
band of men who lived off temporary work during the first half of thenineteenth century also had plenty of opportunities to relax at taverns
and other drinking establishments. This was impossible for the industrial worker, who had to get to work on time and could not afford tohave too much of a hangover. Hence, the nature and demands of thejob imposed discipline on the working class.
Other causes also contributed to this involuntary discipline. Job
security increased compared to pre-industrial society, making it easier
to start families, which in turn was a positive factor. The new industrial
settlements and urban communities became much more socially stable,
as the working classes became more self-supporting and migration becameless chaotic. The psychosocial causes of alcoholism started to decrease.
Furthermore, emerging popular movements helped improve self-discipline,
a factor to which we will return shortly. During the First World War,administrative control measures based on individual purchase restrictions were introduced in a number of towns. These measures lead eventually to a compulsory system (Brattsystemet) with individual liquor
rationing and control combined with a public monopoly on alcohol
trade and imports. It caused a levelling-off of the annual alcohol consumption at about five litres per capita in the adult population.

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Philanthropy – humanitarian
aid and social control
Victorian morals shaped the collective ideals of a new middle classcomprising public and private sector white-collar workers and small
entrepreneurs. These included orderliness and morality, thrift andmoderation. Philanthropic societies were founded by the well-to-dowith a social conscience. Children were afforded particular attention
both from the authorities and philanthropists. Parents who, due to negligence or other circumstances, could not sufficiently care for theirchildren were to receive support or be deprived of their right to bringthem up. In municipalities, the healthcare (and later child-care) committees were responsible for enforcing anti-neglect legislation.
At the turn of the century, there were over 200 voluntary associations and institutions, in the form of créches, schools, orphanages,

Poor children fetchinga bottle of milk from
“The Milk Drop”, aSwedish philanthropic
association active
during the earlytwentieth century.
Photo: Nordiska museet

industrialisation and hygienism•

141summer camps and other charitable establishments aimed at children,in Stockholm alone. Examples include private establishments like
Mjölkdroppen (The Milk Drop, inspired by the French ‘Gout de lait’).
Poor mothers who were unable to breastfeed could come to these establishments and received sterilised milk for their children. Their activities were often based on a paternalistic, moralising and authoritative
attitude towards the working class and the poor. It was the task ofsociety and its more affluent members to support, supervise, informand rectify problems [38]. Help, that could make life easier, was given
at the cost of social control and subordination. The situation for single
mothers was still very difficult in the late nineteenth century, but atleast as far as their children were concerned, it was better than it had
been before. Their mortality finally began to decline, although muchlater than in other groups.

Philanthropy andpublic institutions– corporative cooperation
There were also societies supporting adult liberal education, prisoner
welfare, persons with disabilities, etc. These associations often recruited
representatives from the higher echelons of society among social conservative and social liberal entrepreneurs and public officials. This gave
rise to a kind of elite corporatism. Public and private establishmentscomplemented each other and the same people could be found in theexecutive management of both. Humanism mixed with moralism andpaternalism was a characteristic feature of this ideological period oftransition between a hierarchical class society and democratic equality.
Many nineteenth century social actors no doubt had genuine compassion for the weak. Paternalism could be justified in that the stronger
and more knowledgeable were both obliged and entitled to educate theweaker and less knowledgeable. Rights and obligations were negotiated in each individual case in a way that was not always pleasant for142•

industrialisation and hygienism

Poor children. Photography from a philanthropic pamphlet
written in 1870 abouta residential schoolin Stockholm for poorand neglected boys
Photo: Alfred Jonsson/
Nordiska museet

industrialisation and hygienism•

143

those seeking help. Social systems, both private and public, began insome cases to exercise heavy-handed control.
Elitist philanthropy did, on the other hand, not lack criticism. One
line of critique came from those who believed in social Darwinism and‘the survival of the fittest’. According to this reasoning, helping thepoor would only lead to a society occupied by the weak. The mostbiting and famous attack from the left did, on the other hand, come inAugust Strindberg’s novel Röda rummet (The Red Room). His criticism of upper-class women’s attempts to feel good by giving alms to thepoor was shared by radical pioneers within the socialist labour movement. At the same time, however, philanthropy helped to establish prototypes, models of social support that could be developed and modified
as part of the modern welfare state.

Popular movements– social and political grassrootsin a new society
Many of those in the industrious lower-middle class, along with memberof the new working class, joined free-church movements and temperance
leagues, which grew rapidly during the second half of the nineteenth
century. In the mid-1880s, these voluntary associations had roughly
100,000 members each and in 1920, every fourth adult Swede was amember of the workers’ movement, the free churches or the temperance
movement. Most of these members had a working-class or lower middleclass background [39]. They played a fundamental role in the creationof a new society with a new outlook on the world, new values and a
new semi-formal social structure, within which the growing working
class could recognise and identify itself. The popular movements were
just as important for the development of the trade unions and politicalbranches of the expanding working class.
Greater class awareness was not just about identifying opponents
among the powers-that-be and employers. It was also about acquiring

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one’s own identity, a feeling of coherence, solidarity and hope for the
future – all of which were probably more important from a health perspective. More autonomous equivalents to the social norms and social
solidarity of the class society and the peasant and artisan communities
of yesteryear began to emerge. The popular movements also took overthe socialising – or if one prefers – the disciplinary functions of thestate church, village communities and guild associations. One effect of
the burgeoning ideal of conscientiousness in the working-class movement was a clearly more restrictive attitude towards unrestrained drinking and alcohol consumption in general. Many workers were involvedin both labour unions and the Social Democratic Party as well as in thetemperance movement. The former nineteenth century “dangerous
social class” was replaced by a new “popular movement” Sweden.
But the popular movements were not just concerned with discipline.
The growing study circle movement also led to the dissemination ofhealth advice on for example hygiene and healthy diet. Belonging to afree-church congregation could also provide psychological support andmaterial help from deacons and deaconesses. At the end of the century,
trade unions founded voluntary health insurance funds, from which
paying members could obtain financial support when necessary.
It was in this Folkrörelsesverige (“Popular-Movement-Sweden”), as
tradition began to call it, and in local communities that new ideas andforms of action were tested for improving welfare. In pre-industrial
society, the landowners or employers had the responsibility for the careof sick and elderly workers living in their households. Industrialisation
and urbanisation created a need for new solutions, and during the latenineteenth century, voluntary health insurance societies (friendly societies) expanded. Most were open and based on free individual membership; others were based on employer-controlled organisations or were
controlled by labour unions. About ten per cent of the working population was registered as members in these societies in the mid-1880s [40].
The public contribution to the health insurance system was increased
over time by state grants. Most white-collar employees in the public
and private sector were guaranteed sick pay through collective agreements between the labour market parties. Individual membership in
health insurance societies was, on the other hand, more common for
manual workers until 1955, when universal health insurance was introduced [40].

industrialisation and hygienism•

145Summary: Hygienism, economic
growth and social stabilisation
The four decades before the First World War represent an unprecedented
era of industrialisation, rapid urbanisation and economic growth in Swedish history. Mass emigration, primarily to North America, lessened thepressure of population growth during the last decades of the nine-teenth
century. At the same time, new jobs and better wages were offered in the
rapidly growing industrial communities. Although taking place over a
strikingly short period of two to three decades, this transition, and in particular the influx of people from rural areas to cities and other industrialsites, created certain health problems. The first generation of industrial
workers had to settle in overcrowded living areas where water- andairborne infections spread easily. Children suffered badly from diarrhoea,
diphtheria, scarlet fever and other epidemics and adults were badly affected by endemic tuberculosis. Single men, leaving a certain degree of social
control in the rural villages, were easy victims of the urban temptations toover-consume cheap alcohol at numerous drinking establishments.
Simultaneously, however, pipelines were built, which provided freshand less contaminated water to a growing number of urban inhabitants
and housing conditions improved as the result of a boom in the building industry. Overall per-capita alcohol consumption also decreased
as the result of stricter regulation and a socially more stable society.
Family-building was made easier and contributed to this stability together
with the demand for more orderly lives from both industrial employers
and the workers’ own associations.
New voluntary associations became mass movements in the form of
the temperance movement, free churches, the workers’ political parties
and trade unions. Their members could build new forms of social
capital and prototypes for social security to be taken over by public
institutions during the next century. All in all, these factors combined
to create a healthier population, which manifested itself in declining
mortality figures at all ages and a steadily increasing life expectancy formen and women in all social groups. More or less well-organised philanthropic associations tried to help the poor, for instance giving single
mothers access to milk for their children. Less positive was the growing
public interest in solving social issues by invading the autonomy of cer-146•

industrialisation and hygienism

tain vulnerable groups, for instance “asocial” families not thought tobe good parents.
Before the start of the First World War, Swedish companies had
begun to make successful inroads into the world market. The first steps
towards political democracy had also been taken. New types of“bridging social capital” emerged. However, rapid economic growth(interrupted by two depressions), universal suffrage and majorities inparliament for better welfare and social security all belong to the interwar period. This story, when public institutions became more and more
active in creating “linking social capital” is told in the next chapter.

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21. Burström B, Diderichsen F, Smedman L. Child mortality in Stockholm
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26. Graninger U. Från osynligt till synligt. Bakteriologins etablering i sekelskiftets
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30. Almquist E. Allmän hälsovårdslära med särskildt afseende på svenska förhållanden för läkare, medicine studerande, hälsovårdsmyndigheter, tekniker
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39. Ambjörnsson R. Den skötsamme arbetaren: idéer och ideal i ett norrländsktsågverkssamhälle 1880-1930 [The honest and diligent worker: ideas and ideals
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1496. Between two wars:

Towards the Swedish welfare state(1920–1945)

Introduction
Page 150: District

nurse visiting a home
in northern Sweden
in 1939.
Photo: K W Gullers/
Nordiska museet

Page 151: Interior from
Sällskapet Barnavård
(The Society for ChildCare) in Stockholm.
Photo: Nordiska museet

Before 1866, the Swedish parliament (Riksdag) consisted of four estates, the nobility, the clergy, the burghers and the farmers. A reform inthat year established a two-chamber assembly (kammare) to represent
the people. The right to vote and become a representative was, however, limited to the wealthiest, male members of society, which meantthat the upper house (första kammaren) was dominated by the veryrich and the top state bureaucrats, while a majority of wealthy landowners and farmers sat in the lower house (andra kammaren). In 1907,
the right to vote for the lower house was given to all adult men with ayearly minimum income of 800 Swedish kronor, a relatively substantial
amount of money at the time, or a certain capital. At the same time,
one vote in the local government elections was weighted on a scalefrom 1 to 40 based on wealth and income. The winners of the local
elections then elected representatives to the upper house. In 1911,
almost all men were granted the vote for elections to the lower house,but the definite democratic breakthrough came with the first generalelection based on universal and equal suffrage for both men andwomen to both houses in 1921.
These reforms resulted in a gradual increase in left-wing parties in
the Riksdag. After a decade of heated political conflict as to whether
the king had the right to appoint the government independent of house
majorities, parliamentarism was accepted by all parties after the FirstWorld War, i.e. the government should reflect, or at least be tolerated
by, the parliamentary majority. The 1920s saw a number of short-lived
minority governments, alternately representing social democrats, conservatives, liberals or coalitions between liberals and social democrats.
Stable government was established in 1933, when the social democrats
and the farmers’ party (the forerunner of the present-day Centre Party)
formed a majority coalition, which lasted until a crisis cabinet, consisting of all parties except the communists, was formed during theSecond World War. The increasing influence of left-wing representation
was an important factor for the gradual introduction of new social
policies in the interest of workers and small-farm holders.
For the first time in Swedish history, more people worked in industry
than in agriculture in the 1930s, and just as in France at the same time,152•

between two wars

more people lived in urban than in rural areas. Industry was dominatedby engineering, mining and steel, and forest products including paper
and pulp. Depressions in the world economy brought high unemployment rates, which were a dominant problem during the whole interwar
period. Taxes were relatively low compared to other countries. In
1925, the tax level was only about 16 per cent of national income.
However, there were substantial increases in municipal taxes, reflecting
the developing ambitions of local government regarding social services
and health. The takeover of government by the “worker-farmer” coalition in 1933 led to various social policy reforms, such as government
subsidies to voluntary unemployment insurance, maternity benefit andthe introduction of child-health centres [1]. These and similar reforms
laid the foundations of the modern Swedish welfare state, although it
was only fully developed in its modern form during the post-war boom
period.

The epidemiological regime
After the mortality peak caused by the Spanish Influenza pandemic of
1918-1920, death rates continued to decline. As previously noted, mortality from acute infectious diseases had declined considerably in thelate nineteenth and early twentieth century. At younger ages, tuberculosis was a predominant cause of death during the interwar period.
Among middle-aged and elderly people, circulatory diseases (especially
infection-related rheumatic diseases in younger age groups), tumours(particularly stomach cancer) and respiratory diseases (such as pneumonia)
dominated (Table 6.1). As regards sex differences in mortality, suicideand accidents made a significant contribution to total excess male mortality.

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153

Table 6.1 Causes of death per 100,000, 1921–1930.
Male 20–39

Female 20–39

Male 40–59

Female 40–59

Tuberculosis

206

219

133

126

Circulatory

31

35

188

189

Respiratory

39

32

109

85

Stomach cancer

4

3

87

58

Other tumours

12

17

83

143

Suicide

22

5

51

11

Accidents

53

7

53

8

Other

96

115

240

228

Total

463

433

944

848

Source: Befolkningsrörelsen. Översikt för åren 1921–30 (Vital statistics. An overview 1921–1930).
Stockholm: Statistics Sweden, 1939.

Social and regional differences
According to Einar Rietz, there was a clear connection between infantmortality in Stockholm around 1920 and family income levels. In families where the father earned less than SEK 4,000 a year, mortality in thefirst year of life was 4.9 per cent, but was only 1.4 per cent amongfamilies where the father’s income was over SEK 10,000 [2]. Morerecent studies have confirmed this pattern, indicating tangible socioeconomic differences in child mortality in Stockholm around the turnof the century [3]. Besides purely material factors, class differences
have also at times been associated with access to knowledge and attitudes
towards the acceptance of this knowledge, especially regarding proper
child-care and willingness to use medical services for sick children. This
was, as we have seen, the case during the early nineteenth century,
when the middle class was more prone to vaccinate their children against
smallpox. Attitudes of suspicion towards the medical profession, as inaccepting the isolation of children with contagious infections, have also
been documented among working class families in the industrial Sundsvall region during the second half of that century.

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Contemporary expertise highlights factors such as a poor diet, hard
climate, overcrowding and poverty as causes of the unfavourable healthsituation (regarding tuberculosis, gastro-intestinal problems, anaemia
and rachitis) in the northern forest counties. Numerous and frequentpregnancies coupled with hard work were mentioned in relation toadult women. But it was mostly the significance of dietary habits andhousing conditions that were discussed and studied in detail.
This was done as part of a large-scale social hygiene study, undertaken in about 1930 with the support of the National Medical Board,in the two northernmost counties, Västerbotten and Norrbotten [4].
The unbalanced flour and milk-based diet, which was low in animal
protein and fresh vegetables, and had a low calorie content, was seenas the most significant factor contributing to health problems in thenorthern counties. One positive effect, which by no means neutralised
the negative impact, seems to have been a lower prevalence of arteriosclerosis – a significant cause of cardiovascular disease – in northern
Sweden [5]. The underlying cause of the high mortality in the forest
counties was probably to a great extent the socioeconomic conditions,characterised by higher unemployment and a more significant dependence on social assistance than in other parts of Sweden. A one-sided
labour market, dominated by the forest industry, and high birth rates
probably contributed to this [6].

The institutionalisation ofmaternal and child healthcare
In the face of declining fertility, maternal and child healthcare was gradually institutionalised. Paediatrics and obstetrics became separate specialities and an increasing number of babies were delivered at hospitalmaternity wards instead of in the home. In an international context,
however, midwives continued to play an important role in deliveries,
which seems partly to have been due to the market for private paediatricians not being as large as in more densely populated countries, suchas neighbouring Denmark. As hygiene at hospital maternity units

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155

improved and sulpha drugs (from the 1930s) became an effectivemeans of combating puerperal (childbed) fever, maternal and early
infant mortality gradually fell. Public institutions replaced philanthropic forms of support, and in time all mothers were able to access advice
and help at maternity and child health clinics from the late 1930s
onwards.

District nurses in the lineof public health duty
Along with the expansion and growing professionalism of hospitals,
hospital doctors began playing a decisive role in healthcare. As long as
only poor people frequented the hospitals, the status of a hospital doctor
was not as high as that of, say, a city medical officer, provincial doctor
or university professor. But gradually, hospital patients began to be
more representative of a national social average. Research required
access to patients and both healthcare and research needed laboratories. The hospital became the natural workplace of medical specialists
and researchers. To assist them, they now had well-trained, qualified
nurses instead of nursemaids.
A special category of nurse was established, district nurses, who wereto play a significant role. Sweden was a sparsely populated country andit was primarily in urban areas that people had easy access to institutionalised care. From the beginning of the twentieth century, provincial
doctors were assisted by what were known as “rural nurses”, but theiremployment conditions and status left much to be desired. In 1919, theparliament decided to award state subsidies to municipalities and county councils that employed properly trained district nurses. These were
under the supervision of the provincial doctors and were to take care ofmore straightforward medical care routines in the home and reportback to the doctor on a variety of individual and public health issues inthe district. In addition to emergency measures, much of their work
comprised giving advice on, for example, hygiene issues and infant care.

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The district nurse became the health service’s primary link toschools, later in cooperation with school nurses and doctors. She wasto pay attention to school sanitary conditions and the hygienic andgeneral health status of the children. Among her important tasks were
to explain that (clean) milk and vegetables were wholesome foodstuffs
and to argue in favour of taking regular baths and against all unhealthy
habits. There are many tales of the authority of these formidable
women, even in the presence of grudging men folk, and houses werealways swept a little more diligently in expectation of their visits. In
contrast to the earlier rural nurses, district nurses were directly subordinate to the provincial doctors, providing them with more autonomy,
for example when it came to putting forward their views on reform tolocal politicians. Dressed in uniform and equipped with the status
afforded to them by their education, this occupational group became a– paradox permitting – paternalistic matriarchy [7].

The fight against tuberculosis
One of the most spectacular events in twentieth century Swedish publichealth is without doubt the eradication of tuberculosis, TB. It attacked
men and women in their prime with no forewarning. Humans havebeen familiar with the disease in different forms since classical antiquity– but its most common guise was pulmonary tuberculosis. Consumption, as it was also known, became the major widespread disease of thenineteenth century among adults. It first became a problem in the southern parts of the country, eventually reaching the extreme north.
Overcrowding and growing migration over greater distances helped
spread the infection. Tubercle infection did not necessarily bring on
immediate visible symptoms. The degree of exposure and individual
resistance were crucial factors as regards who contracted acute TB. The
disease was most common among highly exposed occupational groups,
such as textile workers and poor people living in overcrowded, unhygienic housing. No-one could be sure of escaping the disease, however, and even members of the Swedish royal family contracted it [8].

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157

Many Swedish families
lived in overcrowded
cottages and small
flats until the end of
the Second World War,a perfect breedingground for the spreadof tuberculosis andother infectious
diseases.
Photo: Nordiska museet

At the end of the nineteenth century, TB was endemic, i.e. the infection was either active or latent in virtually the entire population. Some
homes were particularly devastated and cultural ideas about the disease
were characterised by fear and stigmatisation, whilst in literature, consumption and life in the shadow of death is often portrayed in aromantic light. There were no effective cures and preventive measures
were based on classic plague-inspired models. Contact with those infected was avoided, their clothes burnt and their homes fumigated after
death, but the ability of the tubercle bacillus to survive outside thehuman body revealed the inadequacy of the measures.
Robert Koch’s discovery of the active agent of tuberculosis and his
postulate that the disease could only occur if this agent was present
was one of the first milestones in the history of bacteriology. This andthe discovery of other dangerous micro-organisms underlined theimportance of cleanliness, which is probably one of the reasons why
TB began to claim fewer lives in Sweden during the early twentieth century. An increasing proportion of the urban population was given
access to running water, making it easier to keep houses clean. There158•

between two wars

was less overcrowding, which in turn reduced exposure to airborne
diseases. Houses and apartments where infected persons had lived weredisinfected, people were told to spit in special mugs and the international system of tuberculosis dispensaries, monitoring the disease and theemergence of new cases, was introduced. Improving living standards
were equally important as they provided people with the resources toacquire more nutritious food and hence better resistance to disease.
The authorities and curative medicine still lacked effective cures,
however. The first sanatorium for lung disease sufferers in Sweden was
opened in 1891, followed by what were known as “jubilee sanatoriums”
in the early twentieth century. Clean air, rest and gassing of the lungs
were among the therapeutic measures, which were believed to have saved
a number of lives. A national anti-tuberculosis association was founded
in 1904 at about the same time as X-ray technology improved diagnostics. In accordance with foreign trends, tuberculosis clinics were established after 1905. These were to advise the general public how to protect
themselves by means of good hygiene, diet and housing. It was not until
the 1920s that the BCG vaccine was developed, which helped to reduce
the number of new cases. The final, decisive break-through came in the
1940s when curative medicines were successfully developed.

The Bratt system– solidarity among decent folk
The issue of individual liberty versus the public good and the wellbeing of other people had been topical ever since the age of mercantilism
in the eighteenth century. Supervision of prostitutes in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century brought the same conflict of interests to the fore. During the First World War, a slightly dramatic, yethistorical, encroachment on personal liberty was implemented, basedon health arguments and affecting the entire population. In 1914, Ivan
Bratt, physician and member of the Temperance committee of 1911,
introduced an individual control and rationing system for the purchaseof liquor in Stockholm as an alternative to the demands for prohibition

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from the temperance movement. Several cities followed Stockholm’s
example, and in 1919, the system became compulsory throughout Sweden [9]. Any adult wishing to buy wine or spirits was required to present a personal ration-book (motbok) at the Systembolaget (Swedish
Alcohol Retailing Monopoly). All purchases were registered and therationing of liquor was introduced. Generally, greater rations were
given to men and the better-off and towards the end of the “motbok”
era, the amount was maximised to three litres of liquor a month.
A majority of women and almost half of all men were willing to go astep further in the referendum of 1922, when a proposal for a total ban
on alcohol was only just rejected. Although illegal distilling and smuggling certainly existed, the low prevalence of alcohol-related deaths
during the rationing period clearly indicates that their impact on realconsumption levels was quite modest, and that the Bratt system managed to keep the per-capita consumption on a relatively low level andhelped minimise alcohol-related diseases.
After 1955 Systembolaget retained public control over the retailtrade, but the rationing system was abolished, and alcohol related mortality increased rapidly [10].

Solving societal problems withthe help of “social medicine”
Around the turn of the century, many public debaters and scientists
were influenced by the notions of social Darwinism, i.e. the idea that
there was a law of nature on the survival of the fittest that could also
be applied to human society. This fuelled indifference to the welfare
and human rights of the weak and permitted a more or less active
screening of the population in order to uphold the good health of thehuman race. This could be achieved in part by keeping social interventions to help the weak to an absolute minimum and by means of anactive population policy. Eugenic arguments also gained in strengthand could be used to support the same ideas. Suspected epilepsy suffe-160•

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rers were forbidden by law to get married as early as the eighteenth
century, as it was thought they could pass the disease on to the next
generation. The optimistic nineteenth-century belief in the possibilityof being able to cure many mental diseases by administering treatment
began to wane in the early twentieth century in the light of less thanfavourable results in mental healthcare. According to a new trend in
opinion, more intensive attempts were needed to influence people’s
environment and upbringing so as to combat acute mental disorders.
Socially oriented medicine would be represented in Sweden byamong others, the forensic psychiatrist, Olof Kinberg (1873–1960).
Criminal aberrations, according to Kinberg, also belonged to the samefamily of conditionable social diseases. Eugenics, for instance thepractice of trying to limit the influx of mentally disturbed individuals,
was seen as a cure by many medical professionals and other publicdebaters. The aim, as Kinberg expressed it in 1935, was to “increase
our efforts to the utmost in order to achieve a biologically and sociallyadvanced type of human being and in addition uphold such an interestin the development of biological science so that these efforts can be realised”. Social medical officers were to stem the deterioration of thehuman race and limit the consequences of mental diseases.
The most well-known (and in retrospect highly scandalous) productof eugenics was the sterilisation laws which came into force both in
Sweden and many other countries. A code from 1915 forbade the mentally ill and deficient to marry, not least on genetic hygiene grounds. A
sterilisation bill was first drafted in the 1910s with advocates andopponents from among both the medical world and various politicalparties. Debates and inquiries followed, but it took until 1935 for thebill to be adopted by the parliament. Sterilisation, said its advocates,
was justified on eugenic, social or humanitarian grounds. The operation was carried out on the mentally ill on condition that they themselves
gave their consent, or following a decision by the National Medical
Board. In 1941, sterilisation was also introduced for people displaying
antisocial behaviour, such as psychopaths, if this condition was causedby some form of mental disorder. Medicine had thereby incorporated awide spectrum of social phenomena and behaviours into the clinicalconcept – social problems were being “medicalised”. Not everyone inmedical circles agreed on the sterilisation laws, but individual doctors in
Sweden were to play a crucial role in the selection of those whose pro-

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creation was considered to be harmful to both their progeny and theSwedish race. Representatives of the municipal social services, who had
the power to initiate enquiries, also took part in individual decisions.
Sterilisation could sometimes be seen as a humanitarian measure formentally retarded women, who were often sexually abused and became
pregnant. Putting their children into institutional care or foster-homes
was considered to have a negative impact on the children’s social future.
Many also gave their own consent to the operation based on medical
advice. But mistakes were made even at this stage caused by incorrect
diagnoses. Others were sterilised against their will, in some cases withreference to dubious medical diagnoses and theories. Many of the operations were therefore ethically indefensible, violated people’s humanrights and caused great personal suffering.
The population policy debate and some of its practical consequences
during the interwar period were based on ideas that at the time wereconsidered to be scientific truths. As far as we know, however, sterilisation was never explicitly justified on the grounds of racial ethnicity in
Sweden. “It’s not just about the shape of the head but also about what
it contains”, the conservative party stated in a 1934 polemic against
Nazi-influenced members of their youth movement. Developments inGermany during the 1930s also made people reflect on the possible
consequences of radical eugenic thinking. However, enforced sterilisations still continued to occur up until the 1960s and the law was notabolished until 1970, at which point the mentally ill were apportioned
the same value as other citizens in this respect.

Social utopia:
Scientific faith and paternalism
The idea of improving the Swedish race, even if based primarily on
scientifically proven methods of upbringing and efficient social institutions, took many guises. Yvonne Hirdman, and later several others,
employed the concept of social engineering to describe attempts toshape human beings into good, healthy individuals, both for their own

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and for society’s sake [11]. This part of the project, that engaged manymembers of society at the time, to create a thoroughly “modern” society
had come into being inspired by optimism in the face of development, afaith in the ability of science and experts and a belief in human flexibility aided by paternalistic benevolence, and actually was not that different to the spirit shown during the Age of Enlightenment.
The husband and wife team Gunnar Myrdal (1898–1987) and Alva
Myrdal (1902–1986) are often regarded as personifying social engineering as a variant of social democracy. Their publications were penned
against a background of falling fertility rates and the threat of a shrinking population, which inspired them to write Kris i befolkningsfrågan
(A population in crisis), published in 1934. Many of their ideas wereabout how to arrest the trend by making society a better place for families
with children. They reveal simultaneously an elitist view of the common
citizen and a strong belief in the potential of collective institutions to“put life right”. According to the Myrdals and others of the same opinion, the way to promote a better society was via a scientifically wellfounded population policy, of which upbringing and education were
important components. Scientists are under obligation to disseminate
and share their knowledge, based on established truths. This was primarily to be achieved through the state education system, but Alva Myrdal
also visualised collectively organised day nurseries fulfilling the samerole, in a form that bears a certain resemblance to the Israeli kibbutzim.

From urban to rural health risks:“Dirty Sweden” goes rural
For a long time, urban areas were considered the most dangerous places to live in from a hygiene and health perspective, both in Sweden
and in the rest of Europe. However, nineteenth-century reforms in thecities and increasing access to healthcare had produced great results,
with urban death rates gradually reaching parity with – and for certain
diseases and age groups – dropping lower than those in rural areas by
the middle of the twentieth century. At the same time, there remained

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Reporting from ajourney throughSweden in 1937, theSwedish novelist andjournalist Ludvig”Lubbe” Nordström
used the radio, newspaper articles and abook to describe theunhealthy aspects ofthe countryside.
Photo: SVT Bild164•

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pockets of poverty in Sweden among agricultural workers, crofters andother less affluent rural groups.
The standard of housing in Sweden had indeed improved since thenineteenth century, but still varied considerably among different socialgroups at the end of the interwar period. Housing policy subsidies wereintroduced during the interwar period for pensioners and large families,
and for the construction of private houses in rural areas. One author
and broadcaster emerged in 1938, however, who was somewhat lesscomplimentary about the Swedish-style welfare state. Ludvig “Lubbe”
Nordström (1882–1942) described both through the new medium ofnational radio and in book form what he called “Dirty Sweden” [12].
His nationwide travel report painted a dark picture of the spiritual,physical and material status and conditions of the Swedish rural population at the end of the 1930s. Provincial doctors and local government
councillors, who symbolised enlightenment and modernity, acted as his
guides to poor, draughty and dirty homes. Nordström drew a contrast
between these and the priests who, with their pious religious preaching,
had no contribution to make to progress and a better world and merely
symbolised the past.
Nordström’s image of an almost altogether backward rural population has recently been questioned by historical researchers [13]. It has,for instance been pointed out that farmers would not have been able tocope with the rapid changes in technology and markets as well as theydid, had they been backward, ignorant people. There was also a growing interest in self-education and the protection of common interestsin the interwar rural population. This manifested itself, for example, inthe form of cooperatives for the production and distribution of theirgoods, political and non-political associations and study circles discussing anything from agricultural matters to literature, world politics and– sometimes – even health problems. But let us follow in Lubbe Nordström’s footsteps for a moment:
A local government accountant conveys the experience of his firstmeeting with destitution in a crofter’s cottage:
A small, rather low kitchen, a dreary, equally long chamber withshabby rag-carpets, ... A smell of herring brine and stuffy air combined with odours of wood rot, mould, chamber pots, old, sweaty
clothes, clammy shoes and dirty socks filled the cottage.

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We are given a final image of a well used by villagers in the province of
Närke:
It was a hole in a ditch along the road, full of slimy green water.
An empty bottle was strung up on a stick. There was a barn a little
further up. I turned around. An old man emerged from the gate.
His clothes were indescribable. His big, bushy, greyish green hairframed a face similar to that of an ape with a pair of burning eyes,
and the face was one green, tangled apparently slimy beard –“Dirty Sweden” personified in living, human form.
Urban areas and their inhabitants represented modernity, progress andthe future. Bad employers were also lambasted, but it was in the higher
echelons that Lubbe Nordström met reason and refinement. He argued
that government action would not help bring about improvements. The
broadcasted reports ended with an interview with Carl Larsson i By
(1877-1948), farmer’s son, author and conservative representative ofrural popular movements. Listeners were told that it was a new senseof responsibility that was lacking. A welfare-state mentality had beencreated by “the spirit of Marxism, the public organisation, the stateshall do everything, the individual shall only be assisted [Nordström’s
own italics]”. Nordström interjected with a comment about how thishad “led to a constant plastering-over of the cracks in our racial substance, and what’s the point of that?” Larsson responds by saying:“with all these ‘social workers’ and the like, the weak and incapable
are now receiving more attention than the strong folk”. The critique ofwhat was condemned as “the passive, sedated welfare-state mentality”
has, in other words, a long history in the Swedish debate.
Lubbe Nordström added that this had been a common view among
all the doctors he had met out in the rural community. There was a
grave risk of degeneration and poor racial substance. The discussion
ended with both protagonists afraid that Sweden would become a“weak old lady”. The other final interview was held with an agronomist, who suggested that the future of the rural community could besafeguarded through mergers and the rationalisation and industrialisation of agriculture. Women would not then have to do heavy work andcould “take care of the home as is their want and duty”. Agricultural
families might also need a domestic servant, but such people must be
offered better working conditions.

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In Sweden in the 1930s, democracy had triumphed as the politicalform of governance. Many displayed a strong desire for social reform.
At the same time, Olof Kinberg, Lubbe Nordström, the Myrdals andseveral other public debaters expressed a paternalistic attitude and ablind faith in the capacity of information, science and expertise to solve
society’s problems – a view based on the remnants of elitism. Social
hygienism was also reflected in Swedish housing policy of the interwar
period [14].
It is easy for us, as modern-day people, to feel that we are on a morehumane and ethically higher level than the social engineers of the interwar era. Without denying their sympathy for the weak, their way ofpresenting findings and proposals conveys a feeling of cool distance.
This is particularly apparent when we compare their way of writing
with some of their predecessors in the eighteenth century Age of
Enlightenment. One of the explanations for the difference is the growing
gap that was opening up between the intelligentsia and the common
people and between theories supported by allegedly scientific arguments and more pragmatic ideas during the interwar period. Linnaeus
and his contemporaries experienced poverty and social deprivation atmuch closer quarters physically, even when they moved to their aristocratic urban accommodation. They often used medical terminology to
express themselves, but when they described and interpreted their practical experiences, their language, examples and logical reasoning were
not altogether different from the vernacular.
In this respect, an increasingly rapid revolution occurred over thecourse of the following centuries. The strivings of the scientific community for objectivity created a fear of emotional elements creeping into
analyses and proposals. Scientific jargon became increasingly complex,
even when describing everyday phenomena. The view of the humanbeing as a Newtonian machine or a biological, albeit complicated,organism was reinforced. In their most explicit forms, scientific theories and support for such a view became highly questionable. Utopian
advice to political decision-makers was often naively exaggerated in its
faith in the scientific truths of the day. With their fear of subjectivity
and their pains to be scientific, the arguments from some participatorsin the social debate did not leave much room for compassionate
humility and empathy. But we naturally need to consider these publicdebaters in the light of the values and predominant attitudes of the day.

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Of all the Swedes who became committed to public health issues atthat time, Lubbe Nordström, with his drastic images in a new medium,had the single greatest impact on the political debate. Others also madeimportant contributions to highlighting rural problems, including theproletarian author, Ivar Lo-Johansson and radio reporter Sven Jerstedt,
in expressive and more sympathetic portrayals of agricultural workers
and their lot. But Lubbe Nordström’s contributions had a great impact
on opinion, which probably helped to accelerate reform, ironicallyenough to a great extent with the help of the state in which he placedso little confidence. The blind faith of Alva and Gunnar Myrdal andother medical and non-medical utopians in the potential of scientificknowledge to help build better communities was never to be realised inits more radical form. Even if many social reforms were designed andadopted on the national level, the demands and examples often camefrom those working at the grass-roots level within individual municipalities and urban districts. This is where the welfare state was to be built
in practice. Here, people’s actions were based on pragmatic reasons
without too much consideration for complicated ideologies and theoretical reasoning.

The birth of the welfare state
When summarising the history of public health between the two world
wars, it is clear that some factors had a particularly significant impact:
the emergence of an unprecedented rapid growth in prosperity, democratisation, the welfare state, scientific development and continuous
economic structural transformation. It is obvious that the abovementioned factors were interdependent. Not only did industrialisation
contribute to the growth in prosperity, but it also created a new middle
class and a working class, thereby paving the way for democratisation.
It was in their interest to promote a system based on equal suffrage,
democracy and collective security, for which the welfare state became acommon goal. This vision was, in its most popular and still quoted
form, expressed in a speech made to the Riksdag in 1928 by Per Albin
Hansson (1885–1946), leader of the Social Democratic Party. Hansson

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used “the People’s Home” as the image of a well-functioning society.
The concept had already been used by conservatives who saw the state
as an organism, in which all parts worked in harmony for the benefit of
the whole.
In Hansson’s view, however, this “home” had other characteristics.
He declared that:
The foundation of the home is community - - - The good homedoes not recognise privileged or neglected individuals, has no
favourites and no stepchildren. There, one does not look down
upon the other. There, nobody looks for advantages at the expenseof another person; the strong do not suppress and plunder the
weak. In the good home, there is equality, concern, cooperation,
helpfulness. When applied on the great home of people and citizens,
it would mean the destruction of all social and economic barriers,
which currently divide citizens into the privileged and the neglected,
the ruling and the dependent, plunderers and the plundered.
For many decades to come, and still a living symbol in the twenty-first
century, “The People’s Home” became the most powerful utopian
image for those who built the Swedish welfare state.
Scientific progress led to technological advancements, which in turncreated new resources for the benefit of the welfare system and science.
There were however darker sides to the intellectual landscape of thetime in which must be included eugenic ideas and a certain scientific“over-objectification” of social issues. Racial biology influenced theapproach taken to safeguarding the health of the population. In its
most concrete guise, this approach manifested itself in the form of Sweden’s sterilisation laws. Social medicine experts and leading figures in
the public debate also claimed, albeit in less drastic terms, to be able tofashion the perfectly healthy human being both mentally and physically. In the light of posterity, such claims revealed a naive overconfidence
in the capabilities of science.
However, the “Swedish Model” was developed concurrently, symbolised in the Saltsjöbaden Agreement between employers and tradeunions signed in 1938; a “social contract” in a spirit of negotiation andcooperation instead of continued conflict, which left its mark on the
Swedish political landscape for years to come concerning both social

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For many Swedes,
Per-Albin Hansson(1885–1946) was “thefather of the welfare
state – the People’sHome”. He was prime
minister from 1932
until his death.
Photo: Karl Sandels
samling/IBL bildbyrå

security systems in general and the health and medical service in particular. Just as insecurity in the industrial society seemed now to be athing of the past, structural change and the internationalisation of production and consumption began to make their mark. National economic structures and national scope for formulating social policy wereincreasingly affected by the outside world. During the first thirty yearsof the twentieth century, the foundations of the Swedish model were
formulated based on various ideas prevalent at the time. After the
introduction of political parliamentarism and universal suffrage, it was
seldom possible for one single interest to push through crucial decisions at their own discretion, either in the Riksdag or in the municipalities. The decisive influence of government on the formulation of thewelfare system went without saying for the labour movement, but neither was it alien to the conservatism of the early twentieth century,
which saw society as an organism, in which the well-being of all parts
was interdependent.
The Liberal Party stood for the safeguarding of individual freedom,
however they also appealed to and recruited socially committed mem-170•

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bers, many of whom had their roots in temperance societies and freechurch movements. The parliamentary party representing the farmers
naturally supported individual and private ownership, but its members
were also in touch with ordinary country people and everyday, pragmatic issues out in the parishes. In the business sector, trade unions andemployers fought with each other, using strikes and lockouts as their
weapons of combat, as they did in the general strike of 1909. Neither
party had particularly positive experiences from conflicts and the reformist climate of negotiation won the day at the expense of open disputes,
as established in the famous Saltsjöbaden Agreement of 1938 between
employers and employees.
A welfare state developed within this political framework, most ofwhich was in principle supported by all ideological inclinations, albeit
with varying levels of ambitions and goals. Many of the initiatives taken
by popular movements and philanthropic societies were legally incorporated into the remits of both central government and the municipalities.
Persons with disabilities began to receive attention, for instance in theform of special schools for the blind and deaf mute and other disabled
institutions established in the 1930s. Investments in child-care continued and district nurses became the most active and important agents forprevention and primary care in Sweden’s rural communities, not least
through their involvement in the fight against tuberculosis.
The first precursors of health and unemployment insurance funds
were gradually reorganised to include at the beginning the workers’
collectives and ultimately the entire population. The first, albeit
modest, old-age pension was introduced as early as 1913 and poor
relief became more human. The rotation and auctioning-off of elderly
paupers from one household to the other was, for instance, replaced bypermanent living in old people’s homes. The concept of workhouses or
poorhouses survived for a long time in popular parlance. The expression “old people’s home” had a more positive ring to it. The fact thatmunicipal care for the elderly was also affecting the welfare of relativesof democratically elected parish assembly members promoted a sense ofcommunity solidarity. Hospitals and outpatient healthcare were also
democratised. As belief in medicine and the ability of care institutions tooffer effective and humane care grew, patients increasingly represented
more of a national social average as opposed to being exclusively madeup of poor and destitute people, as had been the case in earlier times.

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Worker protection and occupational health received increasing
attention from the turn of the century onwards. Older patriarchal traditions, dating back to the ironworks and sawmills, still survived inparts of the country. This patriarchalism differed from one workplace
to the next. Worker loyalty to the employer was rewarded by benefits
including free medical care, lodgings and some financial support toretired workers. The employer’s recognition of his responsibility was
manifested at large workplaces by the presence of a company doctor
who often took on the role of general practitioner for the workers. In
the democratic twentieth century, this paternalistic solution was ofcourse no longer feasible in the long run. As we have noted, worker
protection was regulated by national framework legislation, within
which employers and employees tried to find solutions for concrete
issues via direct negotiations and agreements.

Summary:
Increased life expectancy,
welfare and social hygiene
After the Spanish Flu in 1918, no major mortality peak have sinceoccurred in Sweden. During the interwar period, a welfare state was
gradually built up from modest beginnings. Economic depressions
occurred in the 1920s and 1930s, causing suffering for those who losttheir jobs, but without putting an end to the secular trend towards
lower mortality figures for both sexes and in all age groups. Generally,
people became economically better off. Political democracy encouraged
more attention to occupational hazard; basic economic safety nets weredeveloped for the sick and the unemployed. Healthcare became moreaccessible to all. A new profession of district nurses became apostles ofhealth information. One visible effect of a society in transition was theshift from higher to lower urban infant mortality rates compared withthe countryside. In the 1930s, unlike 100 years previously, the countryside represented “Dirty Sweden” in the eyes of one commentator.

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“Social hygiene” became a popular concept and a field of interest for
certain members of the medical and political professions. This wasmost conspicuous in the “eugenic” movement, which argued for active
policies to foster a stronger and healthier population. Even when not
combined with openly racist theories, these ideas led proponents to ask
for measures to prevent the reproduction of “weaker social elements”.
Laws allowing for compulsory sterilisation were the most conspicuous
result. Arguments were also heard for what has been labelled as “social
engineering”: More or less extensive social interventions in the lives ofindividuals were defended by paternalistic arguments that these would
benefit both individuals and society at large.
At the same time, the Social Democratic Party, as the primary politicalrepresentative of the labouring classes, saw the potentials for evolutionary reform instead of a socialist revolution. “The People’s Home”, aconcept actually borrowed from conservatives, became the ideal for awelfare state with neither privileged groups nor stepchildren. A coalition between the Social Democrats and the Centre Party in the 1930s
was followed by a government coalition consisting of all parliamentary
parties except the communists during the Second World War. The needfor a regulated economy during the war paved the way for those whowanted more systematic planning after 1945. This experience, supported by the prosperous economy during the post-war boom, became an
inspiration for what history books have defined as the harvest time of
the welfare state, presented in the next chapter.

Reference list
1.
2.

3.

Magnusson L. An economic history of Sweden. London: New York: Routledge; 2000.
Rietz E. Sterblichkeit und Todesursachen in der Kinderjahren: eine sozialhygienische Untersuchung in den vier grössten Städten Schwedens. Diss.
Stockholm: Karolinska Institutet; 1930.
Burström B, Bernhardt E. Social differentials in the decline of child mortality in nineteenth century Stockholm. European Journal of Public Health
2001;11:29-34.

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4.

En socialhygienisk undersökning i Västerbottens och Norrbottens län,utförd med stöd av Kungl. Medicinalstyrelsen under åren 1929–1931 [Asocial hygiene study in the northern counties of Västerbotten and Norrbotten, performed with support from the Royal Medical Board between 1929
and 1931]: Lund; 1934.
5. Lundquist CW, Björnwall J. Iakttagelser över arteriosclerosen i norra
Sverige på grundval av obduktionsmaterialet vid Centrallasarettet i Umeå[Observations of arteriosclerosis in northern Sweden on the basis of the
autopsy material at Umeå General Hospital]. Svenska läkartidningen
1936:1209-15.
6. Willner S. Det regionala dödlighetsmönstret i Sverige från jordbrukarsamhälle till det postindustriella samhället [The regional mortality pattern in
Sweden from agricultural society to the post-industrial society]. In: Nordin
I, ed. Rapporter från hälsans provinser; en jubileumsantologi [Reports
from “good-health” provinces; a commemorative anthology]. Linköping:Tema Hälsa och samhälle, Linköping University; 2004.
7. Emanuelsson A, Wendt R. I folkhälsans tjänst: sju decennier med densvenska distriktssköterskan [In the service of public health: seven decadeswith the Swedish district nurse]. Stockholm: Vårdförbundet SHSTF[Swedish Association of Health Professionals]; 1994.
8. Puranen B-I. Tuberkulos: en sjukdoms förekomst och dess orsaker, Sverige
1750–1980 [Tuberculosis: its occurence and causes in Sweden 1750–1980].
Diss. Umeå: Umeå University; 1984.
9. Bruun K. Bratts genombrott [The breakthrough of Bratt]. In: Bruun K,Frånberg P, eds. Den svenska supen [The Swedish snaps]. Stockholm: Bokförlaget Prisma; 1985.
10. Willner S. Alkoholpolitik och hälsa hos kvinnor och män [Alcohol policy
and gender specific health]. In: Sundin J, Hogstedt C, Lindberg J, Moberg
H, eds. Svenska folkets hälsa i historiskt perspektiv [The health of theSwedish people in a historical perspective]. Stockholm: Swedish National
Institute of Pubic Health; 2005.
11. Hirdman Y. Att lägga livet till rätta: studier i svensk folkhemspolitik[Putting life in order: studies in Swedish welfare policy]. Stockholm: Carlssons; 1989.
12. Nordström L. Lort-Sverige [Dirty Sweden]. Stockholm: Kooperativa förbundets förlag; 1938.
13. Waltersson K. Bildning för livet: framtidsstrategier och bildningssträvanden i Tengene JUF 1930–1960 [Education for life: strategies for the futureand educational efforts in Tegene association for agrarian youths]. Linköping: Linköping University, 2006.
14. Karlsson SO. Arbetarfamiljen och det nya hemmet: om bostadshygienism
och klasstruktur i mellankrigstidens Göteborg [The working class family
and the new home: on hygienism and class-structure in mid-war Gothenburg]. Linköping: Linköping University; 1993.

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7. Harvest time for welfare policy

and medical progress(1945–2006)

Introduction
Page 176: During thetwentieth century, thephysically fit body
became a target for
public health interventions as well as
commercial interests.
Photo: Karl Sandels
samling/IBL bildbyrå

Page 177:
Photo: Photos.com

In the post-war period, the modern welfare state matured, characterised
by low unemployment and a growing labour market for women, constantly rising wages and expansion of the public health service andsocial safety nets. But the period also saw a comprehensive structuraltransition within the production systems accompanied by regional migration and urbanisation [1]. The 1950s and 1960s were characterisedby very strong economic growth throughout the western world, more
rapid in Sweden than in most other countries [2]. This growth in combination with an equalisation of incomes led to a significant increase instandards of living for broad groups of the population, for example asubstantial improvement of housing standards, introduction of partly
income-related social security and rising mass consumption. From1950 to 1970, total consumption is estimated to have risen by nearly
100 percent. Public consumption rose even faster than private consumption, leading to rapidly increasing taxes. In the early 1970s, tax
levels reached nearly 50 per cent even on ordinary incomes.
There was a decline in agriculture, and an upswing in industry, particularly in engineering, and the service sector expanded. An extensive
redistribution of the population took place. At the same time, population declined in the northern forest counties, while the large cities andtheir surrounding areas grew rapidly.
During the post-war period, gainful employment increased rapidly
among women, particularly from the 1960s onwards, when many
women were employed in the rapidly expanding public sector of healthand medical care, schools and child-care. Unemployment figures werevery low, well under five per cent, until the crisis of the early 1990s.

Epidemiological trends
Effective chemotherapy, initially developed during the 1930s, in the formof sulpha drugs, and antibiotics, in the form of penicillin, have contributed
to the dramatic post-war decline in infection-related morbidity and mor-178•

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tality, for example from pneumonia and rheumatic heart disease. Effective
drugs (in the form of streptomycin and paraaminosalicyclic acid) wereintroduced in the mid-1940s to combat tuberculosis, resulting in reduced
mortality. Large-scale polio vaccinations were initiated in the late 1950s.
It is nevertheless apparent, as seen in the previous chapters, that thegeneral decline in infectious diseases (including tuberculosis) began long
before the introduction of effective drugs or vaccinations (Figure 7.1).
300

Figure 7.1 Incidence
and deaths fromtuberculosis per
100,000 in Sweden,
1911–2000.

250

200

Source: EPI-aktuellt 2004;
3:13 (Swedish Institutefor Infectious Disease

150

Control), Statistics Sweden.

100

new cases/100,000
deaths/100,000

50

0
1911

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

The development of cancer and circulatory diseases is more uncertain ina long-term perspective, due to diagnostic difficulties during the earlyeighteenth century, when many cases of cancer and cardiovascular disease
were passed off as “diseases of old age” [3]. Some forms of cancer, including lung cancer, have certainly increased, whilst others, such as stomach
cancer, have decreased. As regards the post-war era, we can also establishthat a relatively substantial rise in cardiovascular mortality affected somegroups (middle-aged men) until about 1980 (Figure 7.2).
Registered alcohol consumption per capita and mortality from livercirrhosis (a proxy for alcohol-related mortality) increased significantly
from the mid-1950s to the mid-1970s. The consumption increased
from about five litres of 100-percent alcohol per adult person to overseven litres. Some plausible factors contributing to this are the abolition of the rationing system (“motbokssystemet”) in 1955, more positive

harvest time•179

Purchasing themonthly ration of
alcohol at the statemonopoly store
before the abolitionof restrictions on
alcohol consumption
in 1955.
Photo: SVT Bild

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1 600Mendeaths/100,000

Figure 7.2 Age-standardised mortality
from various causes,
1911–2001.

1 400
1 200

Source: Sveriges Officiella
Statistik, Dödsorsaker(Statistics Sweden, Causesof Death) 1911, 1920,
1930, 1940, 1950, 1960,
1970, 1980, 1990, 2001;
S Preston et al. Causesof Death. Life Tables for
National Populations,1972 [4].

1 000
800
600
400
200

1980

1990

1980

1990

2001

1970

1960

1951

1940

1930

1970

1 600

1920

1911

0

Women

deaths/100,000

1 400
1 200
1 000
800
600
400
200

harvest time

2001

1960

1951

1940

1930

1920

1911

0

•

181

tumours
circulatory
unknownother infections
othersrespiratory organ
other infections
pulmonary TB

attitudes towards alcohol consumption among the public, and the freesale of medium-strong beer (“mellanöl”) 1965–1977. As a consequenceof Swedish membership in the European Union in 1995, more liberal
import regulations have been introduced, leading to the import of large
quantities of alcohol from other EU countries. As a result, alcohol consumption per capita in the early 2000s reached over ten litres of 100percent alcohol per person over fifteen years of age, probably the highest
level for 100 years. Yet Sweden has a relatively low per-capita consumption of alcohol as well as a low level of alcohol-related mortality
from a European perspective. It is likely that the traditional restrictive
alcohol policy has contributed to this. For example, the state-owned
alcohol monopoly retailer (Systembolaget) continues to control thedomestic retail trade of strong beer, wine and spirits.
From a global perspective, the threat from infectious diseases is stilla reality. The world has had to face new threats from both old and new
infectious agents in epidemic form: HIV, Legionnaire’s disease, Ebola
fever, SARS, BSE and multi-resistant TB, to mention only a few. Althoughinfectious diseases have a very small impact on the cause of death
panorama in Sweden today, they still play a considerable role in costs
associated with sick leave and medical care. Increased travel and theimport of resistant germs from the surrounding world have also madeit more difficult to treat various infectious diseases efficiently.

Men and women
The post-war period has seen a dramatic rise in the male/female relative
mortality ratio in all age groups except in infants (see Appendix). The
general decline in mortality from infectious diseases (especially tuberculosis) has played an important role in younger age groups. Since
tuberculosis mortality was previously slightly higher among girls, it
reduced the effect of high accident mortality among boys, while today
accidents and suicide are by far the most dominant cause of deathamong young people. In spite of male accident mortality having decreased substantially since the beginning of the twentieth century, boys still
meet with far more accidents than girls, resulting in very considerable
gender differences in total mortality (Table 7.1).

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Table 7.1 Cause-of-death patterns for men and women aged 15–19 and 50–59 years. Deaths
per 100,000.
a) 1911–1915

15–19 years

50–59 years

Cause of death
Infections*

Men
229.9

Women
280.0

Men
245.7

Women
201.4

Tumours

4.9

4.3

264.0

258.6

Circulatory organs**

39.0

38.0

283.9

253.2

Respiratory organs***

36.9

36.3

193.0

128.1

External causes

75.0

14.6

145.9

23.2

Others

67.0

64.9

315.8

260.7

Total

453

438

1,448

1,125

* excluding influenza, **including cerebral haemorrhage, ***including influenza, to obtain a similarclassification to the period 1991–1995.

b) 1991–1995
Cause of death

15–19 years
Men

50–59 years

Women

Men

Women

Infections

0.8

0.5

3.6

1.9

Tumours

4.9

3.0

185.2

205.5

Circulatory organs

2.1

1.5

234.6

68.8

Respiratory organs

0.8

0.3

19.2

13.3

External causes

33.6

13.4

81.2

33.6

Others

6.6

4.3

97.1

44.3

Total

49

23

621

367

Source: Sveriges Officiella Statistik, Dödsorsaker (Sweden’s official statistics, Causes of Death) 1911–15,
1991–95, Statistics Sweden.

For many women of reproductive age, illegal abortion became a major
medical problem in the interwar period. An estimated 20–25 per centof women undergoing the procedure became sterile, and almost 10 per
cent of hospitalised cases resulted in death. This should be seen in theharvest time•183

light of very restrictive abortion laws. Abortion was not decriminalised
until 1975, when a woman’s right to abortion became statutory. This
has eradicated a major social and medical problem for a vulnerable
group of women [5].
Among middle-aged and older people, the decline in mortality from
infectious disease is not as significant for the greater gender difference
in total mortality (Table 7.1). The pattern has instead been influenced
by a greatly divergent trend between men and women in diseases of thecirculatory organs (ischemic heart disease in particular). There has
been an increase in these types of diseases among men until about
1980, whilst female mortality has instead decreased. A certain amountof convergence occurred thereafter due to a more rapid fall in malelevels. It should also be observed that mortality from heart diseaseduring the initial stages of the twentieth century was caused much
more by infection-related diseases (rheumatic fever) than it is today,
especially in younger age groups, a fact that also helps to explain thechanged gender pattern. Naturally, the likelihood of changes in diagnostics also having influenced the differences between the periods
should also be taken into consideration.
The substantial excessive male mortality after the Second World War
is considered to be the result of gender differences in smoking habits
and changed eating habits having a more negative effect on men due tothe fact that female sex hormones prevent cardiovascular disease [6].
The closing gender gap in mortality since the 1980s is probably tosome extent an effect of a more rapid decline in male smoking. Since
the late 1980s, a higher proportion of women than men have been
daily smokers [7].
Excessive male mortality is particularly apparent among single people
and divorcees (Figure 7.3). During the first half of the twentieth century,
marital status differences in mortality diminished, while there was anincrease in excessive mortality for the non-married in the 45–64 age
group for both sexes during the 1960s–1980s. Death rates increased
significantly, even in absolute figures, among single middle-aged men
during the 1960s and 1970s. One explanation is their high mortality
from more or less lifestyle-related conditions, such as cirrhosis of theliver, alcohol-related mental illnesses, suicide, accidents and cardiovascular diseases (Figure 7.4). Simultaneous major regional migration andurbanisation, combined with increased wages, may have been important underlying factors, which encouraged tobacco and alcohol consumption and contributed to greater social stress [8].

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25

deaths/1,000

Figure 7.3 Agestandardised mortality
in the 25–64 age
group among marriedand non-marriedpeople, 1901–2004.

male
20

15

Source: Befolkningsrörelsen (Vital statistics)
1911–20, 1921–30,
1931–40, 1941–50,
1951–60, Befolkningsförändringar (Population
changes) 1961–90,
Befolkningsstatistik,
Del 4, Födda och döda,
civilståndsförändringar
mm (Population statistics.
Part 4, Vital statistics)
1991–2004, Statistics
Sweden.

10

525

2001–2005

1991–1995

1981–1985

1971–1975

1961–1965

1951–1960

1941–1950

1931–1940

1921–1930

1911–1920

1901–1910

0deaths/1,000

non-married 25–44
non-married 45–64
married 25–44
married 45–64

female
20

15

10

5

harvest time

2001–2005

1991–1995

1981–1985

1971–1975

1961–1965

1951–1960

1941–1950

1931–1940

1921–1930

1911–1920

1901–1910

0

•

185

700

Figure 7.4 Causes ofdeath and marital
status, 1969–1978,
45–64 age group.

600

Source: Statistics Sweden,
Statistical report HS
1981:10.3, vol III.

400

men

500

300
200
100

psych.

suicideaccidents

otherpsych.

suicideaccidents

othercirrhosis

respiratory

othercancercancerof lungs

circulatory

0

700
women
600
500
400
300
200
100

cirrhosis

respiratory

othercancercancerof lungs

0
circulatory

divorcedunmarriedmarriedSocial differences in health
Several studies from the latter stages of the twentieth century, from bothSweden and other countries, all unequivocally show that ill-health andthe risk of mortality are greatest among socially and economically disadvantaged groups, among both men and women and in all age groups,
irrespective of professional status, level of education or income. Middle-

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aged men in less skilled professions are twice as likely to die as wellqualified white-collar workers, for example. The greatest difference,
however, is between occupationally active and non-active people (longterm unemployed, those on long-term sick leave or disability pension).
In the 1970s, social differences in mortality increased among middleaged (particularly single) men, having been relatively minor at the
beginning of the 1960s. This seems above all to have been an effect ofrising mortality from cardiovascular disease among industrial workers,
whilst well-qualified white-collar workers enjoyed much more favourable
health trends. After 1980, mortality also began to fall among industrial
workers, whilst amongst less qualified professions in the service andtransport sectors, it developed less favourably than among othergroups [9]. According to the 2005 Public Health Report, social differences in mortality remain, but almost all socioeconomic groups of working
age, apart from women in unqualified professions, enjoyed continuous
improvements in health. The social differences are still, however, substantially greater among men than among women [10]. Myocardial
infarction is an important cause of the social differences in mortality
among adults, despite lung cancer, suicide and alcohol-related deaths also
playing a major part [11, 12]. A large number of research reports havesuggested that socioeconomic differences in health in modern European
societies, including Sweden, are caused by partly intertwined and overlapping factors such as health-related lifestyles (including physical exercise,dietary habits, smoking and alcohol consumption), psychosocial problems related to stressful circumstances, social exclusion, social support,
etc. Some studies have, for example, presented evidence suggesting thatsocial isolation or lack of control over work and home life can affecthealth and even lead to premature death. Other studies show that social
support and good social relations contribute to better health [13]. Therehave, however, also been objections to the focus on psychosocial factors
rather than on “real” material conditions, such as inequalities in the distribution of public and private resources [14].
In relative terms, social differences in mortality among middle-aged
men during the latter stages of the twentieth century seem to have been
about the same in Sweden as in other western European countries,
including the other Nordic countries, Great Britain, Italy and Spain.
The death rate was roughly about 50 per cent higher among blue-collar
than among white-collar workers. Swedish blue and white-collar
workers had generally speaking low mortality and relatively minor dif-harvest time•187

ferences in absolute figures in comparison with the majority of othercountries, however [10, 15]. Lately, a growing emphasis has been put
on the effect of the entire life course for understanding health inequalities.
The fact that health outcomes of today are the result of socioeconomic
conditions both now and in the past must also be considered [16, 17].

Regional differences in mortality
The regional mortality trend has been relatively stable since the interwar period, with the highest death rate in the forest counties to the northand in the metropolitan regions (above all for men), and the lowest levels
in southern Sweden excluding the metropolitan regions (Figure 7.5). This

Figure 7.5 Agestandardised mortality
for Swedish counties
in the 20–59 age
group.

1921–1930

Source: Befolkningsrörelsen (Vital statistics)
1921-30, Livslängden i
Sverige. Livslängdstabeller
för riket och länen (Life
expectancy in Sweden)
1981–1990, Statistics
Sweden.

4 Highest3
2
1 Lowest

(6)
(6)
(6)
(6)

188

•

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1981–1990

is also reflected in the differences in average life expectancy between the
counties, with a span of about two years between the highest and lowest
ranked during the 1990s. Mortality from cardiovascular disease is thegreatest contributory cause to the differences between northern andsouthern Sweden, with significantly higher levels in the north than in thesouth. The counties of northern Sweden have also performed badly if we
consider other ill-health and disease indicators such as self-rated healthand number of people on long-term sick leave and disability pension.
The differences in average life expectancy and mortality levels between
municipalities are even greater and are clearly linked to variations insocial conditions. There is a clear statistical relationship, for example,
between high dependence on social assistance and low average life expectancy. Excessive mortality in metropolitan areas can be partially explainedby high levels of lung cancer and alcohol-related death, which reflect
differences in smoking and alcohol consumption habits [18].
Excessive mortality in the forest counties has often been explained
over the last twenty or thirty years by high intakes of saturated fat infood, which have contributed to high levels of cholesterol [19, 20]. As
we have seen, the unfavourable health situation in the forest counties
during the interwar period was more often attributed to a caloriedeficient and unbalanced diet, based on milk and flour products andlacking in animal protein. The differences in the social and economic
conditions probably constitute an important underlying factor as
regards the stable trend in regional mortality, despite the dramatic socialchanges after the Second World War, the emergence of the modern welfare state and an improved standard of living in general. Variation in
the prevalence of tuberculosis was the dominant factor behind theregional differences during the interwar period, whilst cardiovasculardiseases have dominated since the end of the Second World War. A
common denominator for the forest counties both in the interwar andpost-war periods has been a relatively high dependence on social assistance and high levels of unemployment coupled with an unbalanced
diet [21].

harvest time•189

Harvest time
for the welfare state
Compared to countries that have been more or less directly involved inwar, Sweden found itself in an economically favourable position in theimmediate post-war period. The production apparatus was intact.
Wood, steel and engineering products were in demand in a Europe thatneeded to be rebuilt. During the war years, government planning had
been an essential tool, and the political left, including the social liberals, now wanted to utilise the growing resources to extend the welfare
state still further. This was a question of improving the social safety-net
which was already in place for the sick, disabled, unemployed, aged
and families with children. The coalition government of the crisis years
was dissolved and political antagonism centred on the role of the state,economic planning and the private versus public relationship. The political landscape still offered scope for new social reforms, however, before
the issue of national supplementary pensions drew a clear dividing-line
between left- and right-wing parties at the end of the 1950s.
Whilst the post-war British National Health Service was introducedin one single step, the Swedish health and welfare system developed in
Swedish day-care
centre for children in
the 1950s. The aim ofthese centres was toprovide good childcare and thus ensure
equal opportunities
on the labour market
for men and women.
Photo: Sören Hoffman/
SVT Bild190•

harvest timephases. In the 1960s in particular, there was a dramatic expansion ingovernment-administered welfare reforms initiated and administeredby the state. The Swedish welfare regime (like in other Scandinavian
countries highly influenced by the social democratic parties) has, according to Gösta Esping-Andersen, been characterised by universalism,
comprehensive risk coverage, generous benefit levels, egalitarianism,and explicit efforts to minimise market dependency in the welfare system[22]. Compared with other types of social welfare systems, according
to this typology, the main objective of the Scandinavian system is toguarantee an equal living standard for all, while the liberal protection
system is more concerned about the fight against poverty and the conservative corporatist system wants to maintain worker revenue levels.
Both the northern Europe and British welfare states are principallyfinanced by taxes, while continental and southern European systems
are mainly financed by “social contributions”, for instance voluntary
insurance systems. From 1950 to 1980, the percentage of the government’s revenues spent on public sector consumption rose from 11 to 34
per cent [2]. Some examples of social reforms during the post-war
period are: national basic pension for all (1946), universal child benefit(1947), three weeks statutory holiday (1951), compulsory health insurance (1955), new law on public welfare replacing the old legislation
on poor relief (1957) and compulsory nine-year basic education(1960). Subsequent legislation has increased the annual leave to five
weeks, introduced supplementary pensions (ATP), brought down theworking week to forty hours, introduced a system of housing subsidies,
prolonged time for parental leave, etc. There has also been a substantial
expansion of health and hospital care as well as of municipal day nursery
services, facilitating the entry of women into the labour market.
Health provisions (GP consultations, hospital stays, etc.) have mainly
been financed by the compulsory health insurance system, and only toa small extent by charges paid by the patients. The severe economic
decline at the beginning of the 1990s, however, put an end to further
welfare reforms.
The construction of the modern welfare society guaranteeing basic
or income-related social security to all eradicated absolute poverty andmeant that no-one needed to go cold or hungry. Still however, social
safety-nets favour those who have had the chance to enter the workforce, whilst they are less generous to groups who are outside it for
whatever reason.

harvest time•191

Urbanisation, housing crisis andthe “million-homes” programme
At the same time as the general level of wealth increased, society had todeal with the effects of rapid migration from rural agrarian businesssectors to urban industries and the service sector. Day nurseries andother forms of day-care for children had to be established to allow
mothers the opportunity to venture onto the open labour market, supplemented by the extension of the right of parents with small children
to paid leave. The health service was in particular need of more resources,
to a great extent as a consequence of the constant introduction of newservices created by scientific and technological development.
The housing crisis that accompanied the rural-urban migrations was
tackled after the Second World War through different types of financial
support for new buildings and housing was subsidised for the economically disadvantaged. When the issue had gained the maximum politicalpriority, the million-homes housing programme was initiated between
1965 and 1974 (known as “the record years”) in order to solve theproblem using large-scale technology. Economically more affluent
families settled in urban downtown areas or built private houses withthe help of state-subsidised loans. In the larger towns and cities, lessaffluent wage earners ended up in what the critics referred to as suburban “concrete ghettos” with an accumulation of social problems.
While the depopulation of rural areas was seen to a great extent as anecessary and positive consequence of modern society, politicians
began in the 1970s to try to reduce the streams of rural migrants byusing subsidies and labour market policy to prevent rural areas frombecoming impoverished.
The heavily subsidised housing sector grew at a rate that made it difficult to establish socially efficient environments in some suburban
areas. Inadequate facilities and poorly planned estates in some residential areas hardly facilitated social adjustment. Economic and social segregation, which is difficult to avoid without encroaching too much on
people’s freedom of choice, took place. Much of the problem lay in thenature of migration itself: leaving one environment and entering anotheralways involves the risk of a sense of not belonging and estrangement.

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Swedish mortality rates rose among adult men during the 1970s. This
increase was particularly evident among single and divorced men, agroup that is often especially sensitive to rapid social change. As noted,
this was also the case in early nineteenth century Sweden and during
the unprecedented rapid urbanisation of the 1870s. According to migration research, however, those living in migrant housing areas may
find new forms of social stability after a certain time. To some extent,
this has happened in the oldest, established suburbs of Swedish cities.
To achieve a fair balance, especially from a health perspective, wemust compare the driving forces of “the million-homes project” andthe effects of urbanisation with the housing conditions that prevailed
prior to and at the early stage of the major migrations of the post-war
period. Even though Lubbe Nordström’s depiction of “Dirty Sweden”
in the 1930s was coloured by the author’s sense of drama, it still reflected
problems that had not all been solved at the end of the Second World
War. The majority of city apartments had a water closet, but by nomeans all. The physical burden placed on housewives was considerable
in the absence of household appliances, which we later have come to
expect as a matter of course. In hindsight, even if certain things could
have been done on a more humane scale during the “record years”
around 1970, the positive benefits must also be attributed to local
government officials, city planners, architects and engineers, whomanaged to solve the housing problem under heavy political pressure.

Biomedical progress
The technological and scientific revolution of the twentieth century
provided medicine and the health service with fresh economic resources,
knowledge and instruments, at a pace unimaginable during the previous century. Primary care, hospitals and specialist clinics expanded
rapidly. The laboratory and microbiology became symbols of medical
progress, which now covered increasingly in-depth knowledge about
the human cell and its relationship to the world around. Since theintroduction of the smallpox vaccine in the early nineteenth century,
only slight progress had been made and applied regarding immunity

harvest time•193

Vaccination.
Photo: IBL bildbyrå

and the alleviation of the effects of other infections prior to the outbreakof the Second World War. The sulpha drugs and penicillin constituted
in time the major breakthrough in the emergency treatment of infectious
diseases. After the Second World War, new vaccines and antibiotics
started to benefit the population on a large scale.
Tuberculosis, diphtheria, polio and many other infectious diseases
could one by one be both prevented and cured, at least in rich countries.
In the 1970s, the World Health Organization (WHO) ran a spectacularand successful campaign to rid the world of smallpox. The epidemiological revolution, it seemed, was about to be fully accomplished, at least

194•

harvest timein rich countries. This dramatic progress, along with developments insterilisation, anaesthesia, pain relief, sophistication of surgical methods
and new medicinal drugs promised dramatic change in the balance ofpower between health carers and their worst enemy, disease. At thesame time, many microbiologists became more cautious during thecourse of the last two decades of the twentieth century with their promises about infectious diseases being gone for good. This might not be
the case – not even in the wealthier parts of the world.

The health service
in economic crisis
In Sweden, mortality rates have continued to fall slowly in all age
groups and average life expectancy has increased during the second
half of the twentieth century. Paradoxically, however, this has not led
to a decrease in medical care costs. On the contrary, this social sector
became supply-driven. New knowledge, new medicines and new treatment methods created new scope for curing and alleviating disease, butalso brought with them constantly increasing costs and the need forcare rose, despite the number of care days falling for many disorders.
This is even more evident if we consider the greater need for care of anageing population. To begin with, county councils and central government were able to employ extra resources to cope with the trend, butduring the 1980s, it became clear that this was not possible in the longterm. Waiting lists for clinics started to appear and the system ended up
in serious crisis.
This was exacerbated by strained central government and municipal
finances during the economic recession of the early 1990s. Cutbacks
affected healthcare personnel, unemployment increased across theboard and the number of people on long-term sick leave and disability
pension eventually began to rise. The situation became very serious for
Sweden’s public welfare systems and the economy of the welfare state.
A struggle of priorities began in the health service, in which resources
for preventive measures were pitched against care activities, outpatient

harvest time•195

care against specialist care and speciality against speciality. New solutions were demanded and tested: more care in the home and less in
expensive institutions, a purchaser-provider model between different
hospital units and the privatisation of some previously publicly run
units concurrent with trends that also characterised other central
government and municipal activities. This development received strong
ideological support from liberal currents, which are critical of collective
solutions and prescribe less regulation, more competition and individual
responsibility.

Occupational andenvironmental health risks
Industrialisation led to the work environment being highlighted as animportant health issue of the twentieth century. Occupational healthand health services were mainly administered separately from otherpublic health issues, an example of the Swedish model on the labour
market. As industrialisation gathered pace, factories handled increasing
amounts of chemical substances as part of their production, substancesthat had more or less well-known effects on the natural environmentand human health. In agriculture, production-enhancing chemicals
supplemented manure. Petrol-powered motor vehicles replaced horses,
barges and trains as the main means of transportation for goods andpeople. Scientific and technological research helped to introduce these
new substances into the environment, the workplace, homes and food.
Even the ability of science to rapidly develop new medicinal drugs proved to involve certain risks.
Increasingly, it was the task of biochemical and epidemiological research to identify environmental problems and highlight how they should
be solved and monitored. In certain cases health disasters among exposed
workers, such as asbestos-induced cancer and silicosis, were required
before the authorities and producers began to heed the warnings fromfar-sighted researchers. In others, research has disseminated knowledge
and been listened to before dramatic consequences ensued. The deve-

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lopment of occupational medicine and industrial hygiene lagged behindin Sweden compared to earlier industrialised countries.
During the 1960s and 1970s, growing attention was paid to healthand safety at work and the status and influence of local safety representatives, the National Board of Occupational Safety and Health and theLabour Inspectorate were strengthened. Since then, increasing emphasis
has been attached to musculo-skeletal disorders and psychosocial problems. Evidence shows that health is negatively affected if the individual
has little control over working conditions in combination with highwork demands. This can lead to a greater risk of low back pain andcardiovascular disease [23]. Among the occupational groups with anincreased risk of negative stress are, for example, nursing assistants,
post-offices clerks, shop assistants, drivers, waiters and cooks [24].
To conclude, negative stress appears to be most common in typicallyfemale occupations in the service industry. Fatal working accidents
have clearly declined as have many classical occupational diseases(such as silicosis and asbestosis), and fewer workers are now exposed
to carcinogenic substances, to a large extent thanks to preventive measures. There are, however, also strong indications that rising physicaldemands in working life lead to increased negative stress in certain
occupational groups, such as professional carers.
Occupational health and safety in Sweden have been regulated bystate control and legislation (for example the Occupational Safety and
Health Act of 1949 and the Working Environment Act of 1977, revisedin 1991) but also to a great extent through negotiation and agreement
between the Swedish Employers Confederation (SAF) and the Swedish
Trade Union Confederation (LO) until the early 1990s [25].

Swedish Public Health Institute
After years of political wrangling and inquiry, the Swedish Public
Health Institute was established in 1938. With financial support fromthe Rockefeller Foundation, the Institute received first-class interior
fittings and equipment, as did institutes in several countries at thattime. Its task was to prepare and promote preventive measures, which

harvest time•197

“focused on preserving or improving public health”. This task included
investigative and research-oriented activities within the various fieldsof hygiene. In addition, the Institute was to provide training for various
staff-members within the national health service. The Institute had apublic hygiene and an industrial hygiene department as well as a foodhygiene laboratory, to which a vitamin laboratory was later added.
After a few years, a link was established between the occupational
medicine function and the clinical activities at Karolinska Hospital in
Stockholm. Toxicological activities were developed during the 1950s. The
basic premise was to highlight major hygienic problems with the help ofscientific measurements, which could then be eliminated by applying
technical solutions. In 1956, 211 persons worked at the Institute, ofwhom 50 occupied official positions. Specialisation increased in timeand various activities were hived off during the 1960s and integrated
into other national agencies focusing on food, environmental protection, occupational safety and health. The activities of the Swedish
Public Health Institute came to an end in 1971.

Epidemiology,
risk factors and healthSocial medicine and epidemiology have been redesigned as modern
health sciences. The international research community has described
the relationship between society and health/disease in a swift current ofinvestigations and articles. The relationship between public welfare andhealth was manifested when the National Medical Board (Medicinalstyrelsen) was merged with the National Board of Social Affairs (Socialstyrelsen) to become the National Board of Health and Welfare (Socialstyrelsen) in 1968. The Swedish national registration system became,along with larger and smaller registers and databases, a rich source of
information for statistics-based studies. Health status and mortality
among the population were surveyed with regard to a range of different
variables, including age, sex, geographical location, occupation andfamily situation. A national cancer register helped to identify a number

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harvest timeof risk factors, including the significance of smoking for lung cancer. In
addition to cross-sectional studies, longitudinal surveys were introduced
to increase knowledge about the long-term effects of living conditions
and lifestyles on health. Knowledge about how various societal factors
influenced health increased; the major challenge was often to understand and explain why the various connections have arisen.
Despite all the new knowledge, a rich welfare society and healthequity promotion measures, one inconvenient fact remains – classinequalities in health and life expectancy. They have varied over the
centuries, but have always been there and have been particularly large
in times of radical and rapid social change. As regards mortality, theseinequalities have often been more visible among men than among
women. This seems to be due to the fact that male social and culturalgender roles have been less adaptive to change. The male role as thestrong breadwinner is threatened when it cannot be fulfilled due torestructuring and unemployment. The answer often seems to be harmful social stress or irrational reactions in the form of lifestyles that havea negative impact on health. The female gender role has shown itself
through time and in many cultural contexts to be more flexible andmore inclined to lifestyles that are more constructive from a healthpoint of view.

Restructuring the economy,social stress and health
It is generally agreed that the economic crisis of the 1990s contributed to amore insecure existence for large groups of the population. At theworkplace, employers and managers were subjected to economic restrictions and tougher competition. Individual employees and trade unions
were forced to put up with cutbacks. As all evidence shows, unemployment increases the risk of disease, caused not least by psychosocial factors.
Greater productivity is not only achieved by means of technical improvements, but also by means of fewer people working harder, not least in
personnel-intensive sectors such as healthcare and social services. The

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threat of redundancy weakens employment security and the feeling ofcontrol and influence over one’s own situation at the workplace. Many
researchers feel that this is one of the main causes of the rise in sick leave
numbers during the 1990s. Not surprisingly, higher-than-average morbidity also occurred among culturally and socially vulnerable immigrants.
Morbidity is, however, difficult to measure unequivocally. It has
been suggested that the Swedes have become more inclined to worry
about themselves and prefer being on sick leave to working underunsatisfactory conditions, not as a generation effect but rather a tendency
affecting several age groups simultaneously. The evidence pointing todifferent parts of the social insurance system interacting with factors
such as unemployment, oppressive working conditions, psychosocial
problems and physical disease seems more conclusive, however. Various
rewards in the regulatory framework and the levels of reimbursement
steer individuals towards one or another part of the system.
The problem of infectious diseases, which was often linked to social
structures and environmental factors, was seen as less threatening andaffording less priority during the last decades of the twentieth century.
Instead, the focus for public health interventions turned to cancer, cardiovascular diseases and other more or less lifestyle-oriented issues. It therefore seemed logical that most attention should be paid to individual factors and attempts to promote healthy human behaviour. This was also themajor strategy when the HIV pandemic caused great anxiety. Attempts topromote safe sexual behaviour became the main preventive effort.

Care of the body,the perfect body ideal andhealth as market commodities
The fact that tobacco smoking was a serious health hazard with major
measurable effects on morbidity and mortality had no impact on legislation and public awareness until the late twentieth century. Before
that, a calm, pipe-smoking (male) doctor often communicated his

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harvest timeAnti-tobacco advertisement published by“A smoke-freegeneration”.

health advice in advertisements and information campaigns. He wassuperseded by anti-smoking campaigns in schools and the mass media.
New legislation in public places aims to isolate the activities of smokers
from the rest of the population. The image of the smoker is no longer
just of a person risking his own health, but also one who is disloyal tothose around him. Along with seatbelt legislation, which drasticallyreduced the number of car deaths, anti-smoking campaigns are anotherexample of a successful public health measure, which in this case resulted
in a spectacular decline in the number of smokers in Sweden. At thesame time, however, smoking has become more associated with class,for instance with women in minor, low-paid positions. Paradoxically,
many of these women work in the health service.
Even as early as the early nineteenth century, gymnastics became arecognised activity, partly motivated by health reasons, but also as training
for military purposes. During the nineteenth century, the majority ofthe population did heavy manual work and therefore had no need forextra physical activity. The twentieth century was the century of sport,
practised firstly by the middle class and later as a mass movement.
Caring for one’s body by means of a healthy diet and physical training
was also prescribed by the medical profession. The aesthetically perfectharvest time•201

body symbolised by ancient Greek statues was idealised in place of thestout torso of the Baroque age or the ethereal figures of other epochs.
Even in totalitarian regimes such as Nazi Germany and the Soviet
Union, the perfect physical body was depicted in art and propaganda
as an example of public welfare and national desire. This manifested
itself not least during the Berlin Olympic Games in 1936 and in theefforts of socialist states in top-level sport after the Second World War.
During the 1940s, Swedes went on marches and did early morning
exercises to the sound of a rousing, sergeant-major-like voice on theradio.
Many people of post-war generations have lacked the feeling of
spontaneous physical activity as a need, despite work becoming lessphysical for many and walking and cycling to work and the shops
being replaced by car journeys. A high-calorie everyday diet was supplemented by fast food rich in sugar and fat. Swedish people became on
average heavier and less fit. Parallel to this, the slender, well-trained
body ideal was increasingly exploited in the mass media and advertising.
Body-building, fitness training and aerobics were on offer at gymnasiums
for men and women. The health spas and bathing facilities of yesteryear
were reborn in modern guises. Miraculous dieting methods are presented in newspaper advertisements and health food shops are filled withmore and more new products. Advertisements for foodstuffs with thelowest possible fat content fill the newspapers and shop shelves, at thesame time as the National Food Administration has shown how certain
commodities have unnecessary sugar additives to entice consumers. A
commercially favourable future is prophesised for “functional food”
with additives that are deemed to promote good health.
The preoccupation of medical research and the health service withthe problems of anorexic and overweight individuals is a new chapter
in human history. Too much food or a refusal to eat presupposes anoverabundance of food. Physical activity and obesity are high-priority
areas in the new public health objectives and we can look forward toincreased action to reverse the trend. Epidemiological reports present a
number of findings that identify high-risk groups based on sex, social
background, health status and other factors.
Unfortunately, legitimate misgivings about the negative effects of overweight threaten to create stigmatisation as an unintended and undesirable side effect. Generalisations about those who deviate from what is
considered to be healthy, based on the statistical over-representation of202•

harvest timecertain factors, have also been made in some scientific articles. The
media, too often describing “the archetypal fat person”, “the typicalsmoker” and other problem groups, makes things even worse, whensummarising more or less substantiated and occasionally not even causerelated statistical relationships between a number of individual factors
and a specific health problem. Such stereotypes often present “the typicalproblem person” as low-paid, low-educated with poor self-confidence,
insufficient self-control and sometimes with psychological problems.
In the middle of this often confusing stream of good advice stands
modern man. New and old discoveries and advice about how to preserve
health, beauty and attractiveness are presented daily by media. Healthis a product in demand, manufactured, packaged and offered for saleas part of an industry that is responsible for an ever-increasing share of
our gross domestic product, perhaps even more so on the private market than within the publicly financed sector. We can pick and choose.
This represents one of the greatest future challenges facing publichealth science in order to further the health of the community as well
as strengthen the individual’s right and opportunities to exert personal
influence on her health. It was easier for the eighteenth century provincial doctors and priests with their monopoly on expert knowledge andpreferential right of interpretation to communicate the right way togood health.

Swedish public healthin a global individualistic world
A full-scale account of the public health history of the last sixty years
would need a book of its own. It represents the zenith of classic industrial
society, which has been superseded by the structural transformation of
the business sector, the financial crisis of public welfare systems, anideological conflict between civil liberties and collective solutions, thewaning power of national politics concurrently with the globalisationof financial capital and trade and the formation of international bodies
with the right to intervene in national decisions, including those madeharvest time•203

in the area of social policy. But it is also about what has been – at least
during an optimistic period – experienced as the finale of epidemiologicaltransition in the rich countries of the world. We have left behind us apast, where infectious diseases posed the biggest threat to health, andentered an era in which new complaints were seen as the most important tasks for public health interventions, above all cardiovasculardiseases and cancer. In the light of HIV, an increasing multi-resistanceof the TB virus and the behaviour of other aggressive micro-organisms,
there are prominent representatives of microbiology, however, whowarn that the battle against infections is not yet won. Even rich countries
can find themselves facing the same plight as the poorest parts of theworld, which have yet to undergo epidemiological transition. The latterare nowadays often hit both by health problems associated with poverty
and by the lifestyle diseases of industrialised countries.
The years after the turn of the millennium have seen overweight,
physical inactivity, drugs and other lifestyle factors become the focus ofconcrete public health policy measures in the industrialised world, as
they are the primary causes of premature death. The same issues also
dominate the problem scenarios and competence building incorporated
in the majority of practical training courses aimed at future publichealth analysts and practitioners. The focus has intensified on thehealth behaviour of certain groups and individuals. At the same time,
traditional paternalism is no longer accepted, a fact that the international public health science community is trying to resolve through what
it likes to call “The New Public Health”. The key word is now empowerment – individuals need to be given more scope to influence theirhealth themselves. Swedish public health plans for the new millenniumemphasise the significance of identifying and influencing structural
factors. Finding ways of influencing society’s structures is, however,with the hindsight of history, the most difficult problem facing publichealth policy-makers. When singling out concrete methods for reachingoverarching health aims, individually oriented, regulated and behaviourinfluencing interventions are most common. At the same time, structural
conditions, both economic and social, have throughout history been
the most powerful health determinants. Such conditions are best influenced through economic and welfare policies.

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A comprehensive
Swedish public health policy
A comprehensive Swedish public health policy was adopted by the
Swedish Parliament, the Riksdag, in April 2003 [26]. It pushes healthup on the political agenda and affords equity in health high priority.
The overall aim of the policy is to “create societal conditions for good
health on equal terms for the whole population”. To help achieve this
aim through multi-sectoral efforts, the Government has established eleven“domains of objectives” (areas of determinants of public health where
efforts are to be concentrated):
1. Participation and influence in society
2. Economic and social security
3. Secure and favourable conditions during childhood and adolescence
4. Healthier working life
5. Healthy and safe environments and products
6. A more health-promoting health service
7. Effective protection against communicable diseases
8. Safe sexuality and a good reproductive health
9. Increased physical activity
10. Good eating habits and safe food
11. Reduced use of tobacco and alcohol, a society free from illicit
drugs and doping, and a reduction in harmful effects of excessive
gambling.
The basis for this policy can be traced back to measures within different
policy areas that have been put forward in the Swedish history of
public health. One important aspect has been an increasing concern
about inequity in health. Considerable inequities in health were recognised in the 1980´s together with a growing knowledge that modern hightech medical care was not dealing well with the major health problems
arising from lifestyles and environmental factors. In 1987 the Government appointed a high-level task force of officials and scientists, thePublic Health Group, to develop a national public health strategy which

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would not only promote increased equity in health but integrate publichealth with the general welfare policy system. The task force proposed
among other things a new governmental authority, the Swedish National
Institute of Public Health, to direct health promotion and disease prevention activities at the national level. The Institute was set up in 1992.
In 1997 the Government appointed a National Committee for Public
Health. It was made up of members of all the parliamentary parties aswell as experts both from central government agencies and various
other authorities and sectors in society – the research community,
labour market and organisations representing older people, immigrants
and the disabled. The main task for the committee was to draft proposals for national public health objectives and suggest strategies to guideintersectoral public health work. A second task was to “politicise” thepublic health issue, i.e. raise awareness and put public health issues highup on the political agenda, especially in relation to Sweden’s municipalities and county councils. The committee submitted a final report in2000 called Health on Equal Terms – National Goals for Public Health.
This report, with objectives and targets focusing health determinants,
was to become the foundation of the Government’s public health bill.
According to the bill, many actors on all levels of society are responsible for the implementation of the new comprehensive public healthpolicy. Central government agencies, whose tasks and activities have a
direct impact on public health, are obliged to consider the effects ofand monitor their work. Municipalities (n=290) and county councils(n=21) have their own tax-levying powers and a significant degree of
autonomy vis-à-vis the state. For them, the eleven domains of objectives,
according to the Government, “show how their activities can be incorporated to help achieve the overall national public health aim”.
A national steering committee, under the leadership of the Ministerof Public Health and Directors-General of the agencies concerned, hasbeen established to improve coordination on the national, regional andlocal level. The Swedish National Institute of Public Health is responsible
for monitoring and coordinating the implementation of the national
public health policy. The institute is also a national centre of excellence
for the development and dissemination of methods and strategies in thefield of public health, and exercises supervision in the areas of alcohol,
illicit drugs and tobacco.
As part of its role to monitor the public health policy, the Swedish
National Institute of Public Health is working with descriptive and206•

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analytical reports focusing on both the development of health determinants and actions to promote health. A Public Health Policy Report
was submitted to the Government in 2005 and a new one will be produced within the next few years. The aim of the reports is to provide aneffective way for the Government to communicate with the Riksdag
regarding public health issues.
“The 2005 Public Health Policy Report” shows time-series data for
42 important health determinants and describes the actions taken
during the 2003-2005 period by 30 central and regional state agencies,
the 21 county councils and 239 out of the 290 municipalities. In thereport, the Swedish National Institute of Public Health puts forward
29 priority proposals related to health threats in the areas of mental illhealth, working life, air pollution and accidents, communicable diseases,
overweight and physical activity, tobacco, alcohol, violence against
women and inequalities in health. There are also 13 proposals aimed at
improving public health interventions, including the involvement of
more actors, better coordination of regional public health work andmore support to municipalities in the form of different competences
within the field of public health [27].

Health – a field of compromise
Epidemiology, biology, chemistry and other natural sciences became
the cornerstones of knowledge needed to overcome health risks. But
the issues are multi-dimensional. Political, economic and other factors
are influential components of these complex problems. Conflicts easilyarise between what are considered the interests of the whole population and the right to individual integrity and freedom. Economic gains
and losses are weighed against estimated dangers that may affect thenatural environment and human health. Regarding atmospheric pollution, global warming and ozone depletion, individual measures in different parts of the world are insufficient, almost meaningless other thanas examples encouraging further action. A national public health policy
can be pursued less and less in isolation from the surrounding world.
All actors must participate in close cohesion. In the worst case scenario,

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this may lead to compromise among different interests, in which longterm effects on public health pale somewhat in significance. The consequences of EU membership for Swedish alcohol policy represent a
prime example of this conflict.

Summary:
Harvest time for welfare policy
The decades after the Second World War have been described as a“harvest time” for Swedish welfare policies. The most active agents ofreform were found among left-wing and social-liberal politicians but
most welfare reforms were gradually accepted on the wider political
spectrum. The systems for social security and healthcare were further
improved to deal with all vulnerable life situations. Some of these systems were organised not only nationally but also on a local community
level. The positive contributions of medical technology to people’s
health and survival were more evident than previously. Continuous
economic growth, enhanced by the fact that Sweden had avoided thedevastating effects of war, was of course a factor that helped to bring
down mortality figures.
From the 1950s and onwards, the engagement of the working population in industrial production and services accelerated and, consequentially, a decline in rural jobs created massive migration into urban
areas. Industrial life meant better paid jobs and wealthier lives. The
shift from rural to urban lifestyles may, however, also explain why
mortality ceased to decline for some decades among middle-aged men
and even increased for unmarried men. These men also belonged to thefirst generations of heavy cigarette smokers and had easier access toalcohol due to more lenient restrictions. After the peak, the male mortality hump disappeared, to be replaced by a new decline, which narrowed the gender gap during the last decades of the twentieth century.
During the post-war period, deaths caused by chronic diseases, suchas cardiovascular problems and lung cancer, increased in numbers andshare of total mortality. This is one logical reason why the focus of

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harvest timepublic health discourse became more concentrated on individual lifestyles. Following a tradition that had already started before the Second
World War1, information and other interventions in schools and media
giving advice on social issues and healthier lifestyles became popular
instruments for change. The most successful of these campaigns wasundoubtedly that directed against tobacco smoking. Later, the growing
percentage of overweight people, even in the youngest generation, andthe anticipated negative health effects of a less restrictive regulation ofcheap alcohol following Sweden’s entry into the European Union in
1995, resulted in similar public health interventions. This concentration
on individual behaviour is understandable due to the fact that behaviour
is an active agent in many of the modern “welfare diseases”. At the sametime, the need to protect the individual’s dignity, self-respect and autonomy
can be jeopardised if certain groups are labelled and stigmatised.
Simultaneously, mental complaints became a growing concern for thenational insurance and healthcare systems. Scientific studies indicated a
relationship between these problems and psychosocial life conditions atwork and elsewhere. Links were seen to exist between psychosocial
stress caused by working conditions, unemployment, etc. and aspectrum of negative biomedical responses, such as cardiovasculardisease and diabetes. These findings and other evidence have been used
to argue that campaigns against unhealthy individual lifestyles must not
exclude continued attention to structural factors in society and health.

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2.

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Liber; 1983.
Magnusson L. An economic history of Sweden. London: New York: Routledge; 2000.

1. On the role of the radio as a new channel for communication of advice in all types of social
issues, see for instance Seifarth 2007 [28].

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Carlsson G. Liv och hälsa: en kartläggning av hälsoutvecklingen i Sverige[Life and health: mapping the health development in Sweden]. Stockholm:
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4. Preston SH, Keyfitz N, Schoen R. Causes of death: life tables for national
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F, Härenstam A, Lindberg G, eds. Kön och ohälsa: en antologi om könsskillnader ur ett folkhälsoperspektiv [Gender and ill-health: an anthology
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and health in Sweden during the 20th century]. In: Sundin J, Hogstedt C,
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samhällsförändring i historia och nutid [Social stress, social capital andhealth: welfare and social change in past and present]. In: Sundin J, Willner S, eds. Samhällsförändring och hälsa: olika forskarperspektiv [Socialchange and health: different research perspectives]. Stockholm: Institutefor Futures Studies; 2003.
9. Diderichsen F, Hallqvist J. Trends in occupational mortality among middleaged men in Sweden 1961-1990. International Journal of Epidemiology
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10. Socialvetenskapliga forskningsrådet. Ojämlikhet i hälsa: ett nationellt
forskningsprogram [Inequality in health: a national research programme].
Stockholm: SFR; 1998.
11. Persson G, Danielsson M, Rosén M, Alexandersson K, Lundberg O,
Lundgren B et al, eds. Health in Sweden – The National Public HealthReport 2005. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health 2006;34(Suppl 67).
12. SOU [Official Government Report] 2000:91. Hälsa på lika villkor – nationella mål för folkhälsan [Health on equal terms – national goals for publichealth]. Available in English in: Scandinavian Journal of Public Health
2001;29(Suppl 57)
13. Marmot M, Wilkinson R, eds. Social determinants of health. Oxford:
Oxford University Press; 2006.
14. Lynch JW, Smith GD, Kaplan GA, House JS. Income inequality and mortality: importance to health of individual income, psychosocial environment,or material conditions. BMJ 2000;320:1200-1204.
15. Kunst AE, Groenhof, Mackenbach JP. Mortality by occupational class amongmen 30-64 years in 11 European countries: EU Working Group on socioeconomic inequalities in health. Social Science Medicine 1998;11:1459-76.

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16. Kuh D, Ben-Shlomo Y, eds. A life course approach to chronic disease epidemiology. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2004.
17. Fritzell J, Lundberg O, eds. Health inequalities and welfare resources: continuity and change in Sweden. Bristol: The Policy Press; 2007.
18. Molarius A, Janson S. Regionala skillnader i medellivslängd i Sverige[Regional differences in life expectancy in Sweden]. Läkartidningen2001;10:1084-9.
19. Rosén M. Epidemiology in planning for health. Diss. Umeå: Umeå University; 1987.
20. EpC-rapport 1997:1. Riskfaktorer för hjärt-kärlsjukdom – regionala ochsociala skillnader i Sverige [Risk factors for cardiovascular diseases –regional and social differences in Sweden]. Stockholm: National Board of
Health and Welfare, Swedish National Institute of Public Health; 1997.
21. Willner S. Det regionala dödlighetsmönstret i Sverige från jordbrukarsamhälle till det postindustriella samhället [The regional mortality pattern in
Sweden from agricultural society to the post-industrial society]. In: Nordin
I, ed. Rapporter från hälsans provinser: en jubileumsantologi [Reports
from “good-health provinces”: a commemorative anthology]. Linköping:Tema Hälsa och samhälle, Linköping University; 2004.
22. Esping-Andersen G. Social foundations of post-industrial economies.
Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1999.
23. Theorell T, Karasek R. The demand-control-support model and CVD. In
Schnall et al, eds. The workplace and cardiovascular disease. Philadelphia:
Hanley & Belfus; 2000.
24. Järvholm B, ed. Working life and health: a Swedish survey. Solna: Swedish
National Board of Occupational Safety and Health; Stockholm: Swedish
Council for Work Life Research; 1996.
25. Thörnquist A. Arbetarskydd och samhällsförändring i Sverige 1850-2005[Occupational safety and social change in Sweden 1850-2005]. In: Sundin
J, Hogstedt C, Lindberg J, Moberg H, eds. Svenska folkets hälsa i historiskt
perspektiv [The health of the Swedish people in a historical perspective].
Stockholm: Swedish National Institute of Public Health; 2005.
26. Hogstedt C, Lundgren B, Moberg H, Pettersson B, Ågren G, eds. The Swedish Public Health Policy and the National Institute of Public Health.
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28. Seifarth S. Råd i radion: modernisering, allmänhet och expertis 19391968. [Advice on the radio: modernisation, general public and expertise
1939–1968] Diss. Linköping: Linköping University; 2007.

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8. Conclusions –lessons from the pastIntroduction
Page 212: Health careclinic in Gambia.
Photo: Sean Sprague/
Phoenix

Page 213:
Photo: Photos.com

The interplay between a society and its people’s health makes a fascinating but challenging history. Attention must be paid to a number offields ranging from medicine and science, economic, political and social
factors to culture and psychosocial conditions. Obviously, an in-depth
knowledge of such a range of fields cannot be expected from the authorsof this book. We have, however, been aware of the challenge, and havenot shied away from attempting to identify some of the most obvious
aspects of health and social change in a broader context. Conditions
for health are constantly changing, which makes it difficult to formulate
solid “laws” and wide-ranging general theories, which would be valid
independent of their historical context. Comparison between societies, indifferent periods and different geographical areas and dissimilar in manyother important ways, is even more hazardous. And yet, in this chapter,
we will attempt to highlight some themes, patterns and processes over
250 years of Swedish history, which may give further food for thought
and reflection on the basic conditions for the health of populations.

Social determinants and health– a Swedish example
1

Throughout the last 250 years, one factor stands out as differentiating
health within a population, namely the effect of socioeconomic stratification. It is therefore time to summarise how this pattern has presented
itself in different periods.
As usual in historical investigations, we must rely on evidence regarding the absolute opposite of health. Swedish demographic data ingeneral is as good as can be asked for concerning the time-span (from1749 and onwards), particularly in providing mortality rates for age,
1. A more extensive discussion on the Swedish history of social determinants and health isforthcoming in Sundin J and Willner S 2008 [1].

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gender and contemporarily diagnosed causes of death. However, thesocial distribution of deaths has not been well represented historicallyin the national data sets. Lack of knowledge on this important factor isprobably a product of the limited interest among authorities and scientists in the past. Unlike for instance Great Britain, public statistics onmortality by socioeconomic group came to the fore comparatively latein Sweden. The issue did, however, receive increased attention from thelate 1960s and onwards, when it was obvious that social inequalities
had not been eradicated by the welfare project [2]. This was also
demonstrated in a series of public reports on the relationship between
economic resources and welfare [3]. Similar British evidence in the
famous Black Report [4] stimulated Swedish researchers to continue
studying the connection between wealth and health.
As seen in previous chapters, social resources have had a constant
impact on mortality figures. The commonest way of identifying andmeasuring social determinants is the use of statistical data on socialgroup or “class”, the term varying depending on research traditions.
This concept is usually expressed by variables on occupation, income
and/or educational level. Material resources, working conditions andknowledge influence an individual’s potential for a good life. Occupation and education may also be a proxy for collective cultural patterns
that are good or bad for health. In addition, empirical studies usuallyconfirm that these variables are correlated with health or ill-health.
Yet, not all of the complex mechanisms behind these correlations are
known. Modern studies have introduced psychosocial theories, forinstance about status and satisfaction at work, and concepts such associal capital, in order to go beyond purely material resources in understanding how social factors work [5]. In historical studies, data on suchfactors are hard to find, which does not of course mean that they may
not have been important. They could be at least part of the explanatory
discussion.
There are, however, additional perspectives that throw more light onsocial mechanisms. Men and women live under significantly different
conditions, which usually manifest themselves in different health outcomes within the same “class”. Social circumstances and the organisation of collective welfare systems can affect health differently in different age groups, making total life expectancy a rather crude indicatorof the causes behind class differences. Belonging to primary groups
such as the traditional family or less formal conjugal unions is positively

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correlated with health. “Ecological” factors are also important, i.e.
material and cultural conditions in a certain place at a certain time. All
these factors are of course interrelated and correlated to each other.
Hence, “class” and conventional “social groups” should not be looked
at in isolation. As far as the scattered data allow, gender, age, civil status
and geographical locality have been factored in.

material resources and public healthReasonable access to purely material resources is one of the obvious
positive assets. Without detailed evidence, we may still assume that thiswas also the case before the great mortality decline. However, as we saw
in Sweden, high levels of exposure to all types of infections made premature death “democratic” and hard to escape. High population density
and intensive human association were dangerous threats to life. Whereyou were living was many times more important than who you were.
As seen, for instance in Chapter 6, overwhelming evidence from historical research shows that Thomas McKeown’s thesis in its generalform, that improved nutrition is the primary reason for the long-term
decline of mortality in Europe, cannot be sustained. On the other hand,basic access to food and other necessary commodities was of course
important. Before the last three decades of the nineteenth century, yearsof bad harvests and famine threatened the health and lives of the poor.
During that century, poor people in rapidly growing cities lived inovercrowded housing and hygienically dangerous environments. These
factors are also apparent in studies of Swedish regional mortality. Local
customs may explain certain geographical patterns but once population density ceased to be the dominant factor, indicators of material
wealth became more visibly correlated with life expectancy.
Social group as a concept encapsulates income and wealth, but cultural resources like education and social capital, are also correlatedwith survival rates. The strength of its impact does, however, depend on
specific circumstances at a given place and time. Before the nineteenthcentury decline, Swedish infant and child mortality rates were, by western European standards, relatively high in all social groups. Once thedecline started, social group (both as a material and a cultural
factor) became more important. Public health advice and campaigns, bethey for breast-feeding, better personal and environmental hygiene or
smallpox vaccination, were usually accepted earlier among the urban

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A farmhand’s family
kitchen in southern
Sweden in 1938.
Photo: Otto Ohm/
IBL bildbyrå

middle class than among craftsmen and workers. Differences in material
resources were perhaps less important than the readiness to accept new
advice and tools. In parts of the countryside, relatively wealthy farmers’
wives were less prepared than other groups to change their breastfeeding habits. Yet, after a short time lag, infant mortality figures started
to decline in all social groups except among illegitimate children.
Social group became more important again, when poor housing conditions helped to spread childhood infections in the period of rapid
urbanisation during the second half of the nineteenth century. Income
was negatively correlated with infant mortality as late as during theinterwar period. For infants and children, we may conclude that socialgroup may have had its strongest effects on survival either when social
conditions were particularly hard for the less wealthy or when sociallyestablished groups had the resources to apply new knowledge and attitudes more rapidly for the preservation of their children’s health.

conclusions•

217gender and health
Understanding the mortality of adult generations requires the analysis
of social group in relation to the impact of gender. Where data are
available, we find that female mortality is often less sensitive to classdifferences, not least during periods of profound social change. This isshown in a few case studies from the nineteenth century and – most of
the time – for later periods in Swedish history.2 Obviously, this cannot
be an effect of purely economic factors. The average income of women
has always been less than that of men in all social groups. Work-related
health problems have of course existed for certain male occupationalgroups but they cannot explain the different outcome between the twosexes to any great extent. Nor should we underestimate the physicalhealth risks for previous generations of working-class women.
The variation over time of adult male surplus mortality indicatesthat the high ratio is not only caused by constant genetic, biologicalfactors. Instead, we must look for socially defined and practised genderroles, including different rights, duties, behaviours and probably also
gender-specific psychological reactions to different conditions anddemands. This includes the empirically proven fact that men tend to beallowed, and allow themselves, to become more involved in unhealthy
behaviour, taking higher risks in potentially dangerous situations andusing unhealthy drugs more frequently. On the other hand, women are
stereotyped as less aggressive and more ready to endure setbacks, a socialrole they have sometimes proved to be more able to live up to in certain
ways. Male status has also traditionally been defined by active and successful participation on the labour market and being the family’s major
breadwinner. Hence, we may understand men’s vulnerability to rapidsocial change when these roles are threatened or cannot be fulfilled.
Whether this pattern will remain in a society where gender roles still
exist but are becoming less evident inside and outside the labour market
remains to be seen. Recent reports in the Swedish media are, for instance,
claiming that the health of women in certain occupational groups wasparticularly affected by the economic recession of the 1990s.

2. A recent example of gender differences is the astonishing mortality among Russian men
after 1989. See for instance: Shkolnikov et al. 2004 [6].

218•conclusions

social capital and healthIn modern research, social networks and social capital are often shown
to be important resources for good health. As indicated in Chapter 1,
these concepts have been seen as resources for individuals, groups or
societies as a whole. This was probably also the case in previous societies. In a quantitative sense, men do tend for instance to have as manyfriends and participate in as many networks as women. Qualitatively,
however, things may sometimes be different. Micro-studies from earlynineteenth century Swedish cities show that poor single mothers andwidows often lived together under the same roof and provided mutual
assistance to each other. Old widows could, for instance, be babysitterswhile younger mothers were out at work. The young mothers could, on
the other hand, help the widows with physically difficult everyday
tasks. Male networks were of course not always negative for their wellbeing, but the time men spent at drinking houses was not necessarily
positive for their survival.
Looking at the three different types of social capital identified in
Chapter 1, we have seen that “bonding social capital” within networks
of equals was a necessary asset in traditional society in which mostpeople had few material resources. Neighbours, craftsmen’s guilds andother networks would often help their members in times of need. For“outsiders” who did not belong to such a network, every misfortune
could be fatal. By the end of the nineteenth century, new religious associations, and the temperance movement, created “bridging social capital” across social boundaries and often also provided “linking social
capital”, a way for the “haves” to give to the “have-nots”. Poor relief
provided by local institutions centuries ago can of course also be seen
as such an example. In the twentieth century welfare state, linking social
capital became an institutionalised cornerstone.

the vulnerable single man
The link between male surplus mortality and alcohol was strong during
the early nineteenth century. Marital status is an intervening factor
making this pattern visible. During the industrial boom and rapid
urbanisation in late nineteenth century Sweden, there is a clear correlation between the general level of alcohol consumption and mortality
among middle aged unmarried men in urban areas. In contrast with theprevious period, this “hump” cannot be explained by deterioratingconclusions•

219

working conditions or reduced access to steady jobs. It is rather an
expression of slackened social control in an urban milieu with many
temptations. At the same time, there was a sharp decline in overallmale mortality, caused by better living conditions, more stable family
situations and a stronger code of “decency” within the working classitself. Consequently, class differences in mortality became less evident
among adult men in at least one major industrial area in the north in
the late nineteenth century.
Since the end of the nineteenth century, secular mortality rates havedeclined steadily in all adult groups and in both sexes independent ofmarital status. However, as we have seen, middle-aged male life expectancy stagnated during the 1970s. As a social determinant of health,marital status by gender is in certain contexts highly sensitive to socialchange both in better and worse times, notwithstanding the striking
class differences in mortality between rich and poor residential areas,
as for instance is still documented in Stockholm.

social differentials and healthbefore the epidemiological transition
Summarising the major findings concerning social determinants andhealth in Swedish history, periods with certain characteristics standout. During the era of ravaging epidemics and infectious diseases,
population density and exposure to infections were the primary causesof mortality differences, both for children and adults. However, thepoor suffered more than others during mortality peaks caused by harvest
failures and subsistence crises. Generally, infant mortality was notdifferentiated between social layers, but children of mothers withouthusband or supportive networks were extremely vulnerable, with mortality rates up to and above 50 per cent during their first year of life.

the nineteenth-century mortality decline
Population density became a less powerful factor for mortality with the
decline of epidemics and infectious diseases in the nineteenth century,even if cities continued to report the highest rates. The mortality decline started among children and adult women and came later among
adult men and the oldest age group. At the same time, socioeconomic
factors became more visible in the death statistics, among children

220•

conclusions

partly due to sociocultural lags in the adaptation of better childcare
habits, including breast-feeding and smallpox vaccination. Among
middle-aged men, the socioeconomic differential seemed to be strong
and the resulting high male/female mortality ratio was evident in all
major causes of death.

the industrial boom (c. 1870–1900)
All ages and both sexes benefited from a substantial mortality decline
during the second half of the nineteenth century concurrent with therapid industrialisation of the country. However, in the beginning andparticularly during the most hectic economic boom in the 1870s, environmental problems emerged in the cities’ immigrant areas, which for awhile increased the social differential among children. High mortality
was registered among urban unmarried men, tempted by anonymous
urban lifestyles, but after a couple of decades this pattern became weaker.
Sanitation programmes had begun to take effect, migration had slowed,
family-building started earlier in life, living conditions improved steadily
and industrial work demanded more disciplined labour. Trade unions,temperance movements and “free churches” contributed to the emergence of “the orderly workers”.

twentieth-century mortality declinewith remaining social differentials
Mortality continued to decline for all ages and social groups from theend of the nineteenth century onwards. Still, in spite of a developed
welfare state, significant social differentials in health remain in Sweden:
between occupational and educational groups, between men andwomen and between married and unmarried men. There is also a difference of several years in life expectancy between socially segregatedresidential areas in the major cities.

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221

Health andthe response of society
An official committee report on Swedish public health policy, adopted
by the Swedish Riksdag in 2003, underlines the importance of structural economic and social factors for the health of the population [7, 8].
As we have seen, such a conclusion is supported by empirical findings.
The social, cultural and economic situation in each historical period
does, to a great extent, determine the conditions for welfare and health.
But structures are not merely the product of an invisible hand outside
the control or influence of human action.
The refusal to accept deterministic interpretations of our life conditions, whether as an effect of God’s mysterious will or caused by Chance,
was an important contribution of the Enlightenment era. Its belief inscientific empirical observation and reason, coupled with economic
arguments and the political wish for a large and healthy population,
were ideological foundations for a proactive state with an interest in
public health. Compared with the ”scientific” and ”objective” languageof reports from the twentieth century, a more emotional, compassionate
tone towards suffering human beings can be found among someeighteenth-century writers. Hence, in addition to economic arguments,
such concerns were also raised by those who advocated interventions
to prevent disease and premature death.
The first direct collective public health interventions in Sweden were
implemented to combat plague in the seventeenth century. Inoculation
against smallpox was recommended by the medical profession during
the eighteenth century but did not become a universally efficientweapon against the disease. Edward Jenner’s vaccination method,
implemented and executed by local agents during the early nineteenth
century, was, on the other hand, a striking success with great symbolic
importance for the authority of medical doctors. It did have positivesynergy effects on the same profession’s promotion of breast-feedingand hygiene during the nineteenth century.

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public health and local communities
It has been said that Swedes seem to be surprisingly obedient to messages
and proclamations from public authorities and more prone to accept
collectivism than to protect individual rights and freedom. We have noreason to involve ourselves too deeply in this debate, but a related issue
concerns the reasons why, for instance, the nineteenth-century publichealth campaigns met with relatively little resistance from the generalpublic. In a comparative European perspective, the successful introduction of mass vaccination against smallpox can be said to be one ofthese examples. Within the first decade of the century, this innovation
had spread to most parts of the country to the benefit of the new generation of young children.
The leading advocates of the vaccination were of course foundamong the medical doctors but, in order to be successful, the message
had to be accepted by the local administration and the population. This
must to a considerable extent be ascribed to the organisation of local
affairs and the, mostly flexible, communication between these bodies
and external authorities. The local priest had traditionally been the key
figure acting as a mediator between the central state and the common
people. An organisational framework for the implementation of thevaccination campaigns was therefore already in place, ensuring thatthey worked, for the most part, very smoothly enough.
Other public health initiatives were not so easily introduced andaccepted. The propaganda for breast-feeding had to overcome longlasting cultural traditions, and the benefits of hygienic reforms in thecities were not at all self-evident to their inhabitants. The visible andimmediate success of mass vaccination did of course strengthen theprofessional authority of medicine. A period (sometimes stretchingover several decades) of patient persuasion was, however, also usuallyneeded before other advice and proposals were accepted by a political
majority. In the end however, conservative peasants accepted the adviceof the publicly trained midwives over that of the traditional wise
women, their wives started to breast-feed newborn babies more consistently and townsmen started to keep the cities cleaner. Other examples
can very well be found where people were less ready to listen to proclamations from experts and representatives of the state. When handled
skilfully, however, such negotiations did make a successful contribution
to public health.

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early nineteenth century:
the unsolved social issue
In the local communities, the traditional primary welfare system rested
upon family and kin, complemented by some minimal support fromlocal funds to the “deserving poor”. For those who had this form of
minimal “social capital”, some support could be expected in times ofutter need. Other “outsiders”, without family or friends, perhaps evenwith a bad social reputation, found themselves in precarious situations.
The state’s and local communities’ responsibility for the weakest members of society was extremely limited before their material resources
had grown and other ideologies emerged during the nineteenth century.
The weakness of this patchy collective protection of the poor wasdemonstrated during the great transformation of traditional agriculturalsociety that occurred in Sweden during the first half of the nineteenth
century. The population grew rapidly and, without any significant
industrialisation that created new jobs, unemployment and underemployment became the fate of a large part of the new generations of
Swedes. While voices were raised arguing for social reform, the dominant policy was primarily concentrated on controlling this new, socially
dangerous class of paupers, vagrants and prostitutes presumed to besources of contagious venereal disease. The size of the problem became
an impetus for local administrations to try and get rid of the growing
number of “non-deserving” individuals claiming support from meagre
poverty relief funds. The state responded by promulgating more severelaws against vagrancy and building houses for compulsory work, amethod that was too expensive and inefficient to turn the tide.
Hence, while conscious policies may have helped to improve healthand increase life expectancy for women and children from the beginning of the nineteenth century, we have seen that the same thing did not
happen for middle-aged men. For them, their plight was a combined
product of the social context and gender aspects.

industrialisation and public health policy
Industrialisation was rapid during the last three decades of the nineteenth century. In spite of years of recession, in the long run this meant
more jobs, safer incomes for the workers and more local and national
resources in the public sphere. While industry was still unable to224•

conclusions

absorb whole generations of new workers, mass emigration to North
America helped to limit unemployment figures. Emigration might also
have strengthened the bargaining power for better wages and working
conditions of those staying in Sweden. Throughout the nineteenth century, politics continued to be the domain of wealthy minorities, providing little scope for the landless and the growing number of industrial
workers to influence either local or national affairs.
During the second half of the nineteenth century, local urban institutions made their most spectacular contributions to health by slowly
creating cleaner cities, particularly by the introduction of pipelines for
freshwater provision and sewage disposal. Representatives of the medical profession did their part, arguing for reforms, although matters ofconvenience and comfort may have been even more important for thesetechnical innovations. The state issued laws and regulations and organised systems of inspection but, in the end, the decisive factor was thewillingness of urban middle-class taxpayers to accept and take thepractical consequences. Even alcohol regulations were in practice frequently introduced on a local level.
To begin with, industrialisation and urbanisation resulted in a situation where the majority of citizens did not have a formal say in politics
and public affairs. The emergence of multiple voluntary associations –temperance movements, “free churches”, trade unions and the workers’
political organisations – signifies the perceived necessity to fill thevacuum left in the absence of the traditional agrarian ancient regime.
Helping brothers and sisters in need became one of the imperatives ofreligious associations and welfare arrangements, just as social security
benefits for the unemployed and the sick were started by the workers
themselves. These initiatives became prototypes for the building of ademocratic welfare state after the First World War.

the “people’s home” and the welfare state
Even if medical science and institutions have played an important rolein prolonging life expectancy during the twentieth century, the general
welfare system must be seen as the primary agent for a healthier life.
Ideas about the welfare state were, of course, not uniquely Swedish but
manifested themselves in a variety of ways, moulded by the different
national contexts. In Sweden, Folkhemmet, the “People’s Home” asdescribed in 1928, continued to be seen as the ideal society up until theconclusions•

225

“The people’s home”.
Photo: Sydsvenskan/
IBL bildbyrå

end of the twentieth century; more and more public resources wereallocated in order to give all citizens a materially safe life and good
healthcare from the cradle to the grave. Numerous reforms codified innational legislation are milestones in this process, while proposals forreform often emanated from initiatives taken by voluntary associations
or politicians representing demands and needs felt in local communities.
Instead of only being a product of social engineering exclusively
implemented from the top of the nation state, the welfare state in practice is the result of imports of models from abroad, national policy andlegislation and negotiation between local and central interests. Many
practical models were first adapted and tested locally, becoming national legislation at a later stage. Supervised by national laws, regulationand control, regional and local political bodies became and still are thechief administrators of the public system for welfare and health in226•

conclusions

Sweden, including the right to levy taxes for its funding. So, in conclusion, the historical evidence tells us that promoting public health andwelfare has been and is still to a great extent a local concern. The abilityof society as a whole to collaborate with international bodies and tocommunicate at the local level, and the ability of institutions on alllevels to communicate with, be trusted by and identify the needs oftheir citizens, will decide a society’s potential to promote health.

Health and social change
Early modern society did not offer the majority of its members much
physical security: people had to live according to the collective norms
in order to be accepted and given support in times of need. It did,
however, also mean that life was in certain respects easier than in amore individualistic world, where people have to choose between alternative life-plans, which may or may not become reality. Being born intoa farmer’s or a craftsman’s family would, for instance, usually mean
membership of that social group for those who were lucky enough tosurvive childhood without serious physical handicap.

pre-industrial transition
For a growing number in each new generation, this social system changed by the beginning of the nineteenth century. The early nineteenthcentury Swedish mortality crisis among adult men was no doubt connected to socioeconomic changes. Politically, Sweden experienced apeaceful coup d’état in 1809, but social problems were never of such amagnitude that they threatened the political establishment, and Parliament was reformed in the 1860s, giving the majority voice to the wealthierfarmers and the growing middle-class. Although the state and local
communities were capable of introducing reforms that improved thehealth of children and women, they had neither the economic resources
nor the political will to give adequate help to the growing proletariat, afact that was detrimental to the health of adult men. The results havebeen described in Chapter 4.

conclusions•227

industrialisation– short-term problems and long-term profits
From the middle of the nineteenth century, industrialisation meant a
new type of change, which also had certain negative effects on thehealth of those moving from the countryside to crowded and, from asanitary perspective, poor housing in cities and other industrial areas.
The effects are seen in the mortality figures of the last decades of the century. Tuberculosis and other infectious diseases thrived in primitive lodgings and workplaces. As we have seen, however, the hygienic situation
eventually improved and early family-building had a stabilising effect,
which was also reflected in the mortality figures for middle-aged men.
The emerging popular movements provided new social networks forthe working class, offering a sense of coherence and collective social
protection. Trade unions can of course be seen as producers of bondingsocial capital. “Free churches” and the temperance movements could
create “bridging social capital” between the lower-middle classes andthe workers. Philanthropic associations and public authorities to a certain extent initiated activities, which could be seen as emerging forms ofvertically produced, “linking social capital”. Slowly, local communities
were able to handle environmental and social problems when their revenues increased as a result of general economic growth. For the first time,even the most vulnerable group, illegitimate children with single mothers,
could enjoy more social support and a healthier life than before.

the state and linking social capital
During the twentieth century, in Sweden and other industrialised countries, economic growth and democracy jointly formed the basis of thewelfare state, a systematic representation of the attempts to create theconditions for linking social capital, when the strong and “haves”
stand up for the weak and “have-nots”. The health service could offer
more efficient remedies to all citizens. Social safety nets were graduallydeveloped to minimise the consequences of economic upheavals andstructural changes on the labour market.

social change – winners and losers
Swedish history shows that social change, especially when extensive
and relatively quick, has had visible impacts on health. There were – at228•

conclusions

least in the short-time perspective – winners and losers but who they
were was a product of contexts and specific conditions. Winners were
those with the luck or resources to use the opportunities offered by the
new social circumstances. The losers – when using mortality as thedependent factor – were, as we have seen, often men who for one reason
or another had problems in coping with the new situation. That thesepatterns emerge when the chances of social success are insecure may
not be surprising. Perhaps more unexpected are the examples of increasing male surplus mortality during the boom periods coupled with
migration into economically expansive urban milieus.

social change and institutional response
Health in a population is not a mysterious state beyond human influence.
It requires resources and these resources are never evenly distributed
over time, space and social groups. Here, we refer not only to undoubtedly important material resources but also to what we have called cultural and social capital. Knowledge is not just a question of purchasing
power but also entails the acquisition of the cultural norms that have tobe adapted to this knowledge. At least for the less wealthy in a society,social capital is also a resource that can exist in different forms andwith different effects. It can be a very closely-knit bonding capital
within the family, or a much wider net, including the collective andinstitutionalised forms of linking capital provided by NGOs or public
institutions on a local and national level. Social change tends to alter
the conditions under which different types of cultural and social capitaleffectively uphold people’s welfare and health. Such capital may need
to be reshaped and rebuilt in new forms to suit new conditions and needs.
This underlines the importance of the political and institutional contexts in which social change takes place. The social networks of the oldagrarian society were in certain respects unable to meet the demands ofa society in transition during the early nineteenth century, at least for aconsiderable number in the growing proletariat. Nor could Manchester
liberalism or social Darwinism deliver the right prescription. Economic
growth helped to create the tools for welfare and health during the lastcentury but these resources had to be channelled through proper institutions at local, regional and national level, in Scandinavia as well as inother industrialised countries like Britain and France.

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229

Sweden and its European
neighbours – converging systems
For centuries, Sweden has shared a common European heritage, experiencing similar developments and being exposed to the same flow ofideas, borrowing and copying models from its neighbours. The plague
was the first example of how states tried to exclude an epidemic fromthe country or at least stem its spread. In Sweden and many othercountries, the growing strength of the central state and its need of a productive population, as well as the new optimistic, investigating spirit of
the Age of Enlightenment, already began to stimulate an interest in
public health policies as early as the eighteenth century.
The last two centuries have involved continued convergence among
different countries in Europe on a range of social policies and theireffects on health. Medical breakthroughs and the growth and institutionalisation of healthcare under the aegis of the welfare state havecontributed to this development. The supervision of public health andinterventions motivated by health reasons also followed this pattern.
The fact that Sweden managed to avoid two world wars helped thecountry to remain at the top of survival rate tables, whilst average life
expectancy in previously poorer parts of Europe did not reach the samelevels until recently. In general, the size of a western European country’s
public investment in health relates to the degree of economic development. While healthcare has increasingly become publicly financed in all
countries, the division between publicly and privately run care varies
due to historical circumstances. In Sweden, publicly run healthcare
institutions have dominated and this is still essentially the case, even if
privatisation of hospitals and primary healthcare centres has recently
been on the agenda.

the medical profession– servants of the swedish state
The medical profession in Sweden has been historically shaped by thecountry’s geographical and political circumstances. The collegiate
system of administration, born in the seventeenth century to meet the230•

conclusions

growing needs of the country as an emerging great power in northern
Europe, included Collegium Medicum, which gradually became the state’s
information body and the instrument with which to monitor and supervise health conditions and healthcare. A similar system of provincial
doctors was to be found in other countries such as Denmark and Norway. However, compared to Britain, Denmark and even Norway, themarket for private practitioners was unusually limited in a widespread,sparsely populated country like Sweden, with an insolvent peasantry.
This, in combination with the ambitions of the state to promote
population growth, meant that the Swedish medical profession was largely made up of public officials employed by the state rather than working in a private market. As they grew in number, they formed a link
between patients, the local community and the medical and politicalleadership in Stockholm. Trained midwives were also incorporated into
this organisation, employed and paid by parishes, towns and cities toserve the poor free of charge. In the twentieth century, local midwives
received support with the advent of salaried district nurses, who cooperated closely with provincial doctors as the primary agents of disease
prevention and healthcare.

hygienism
As we have seen, the early nineteenth century brought with it a decline
in mortality. On the other hand, the difficulties of solving the social
issue in the form of a growing proletariat were typical of what was
happening in many other countries at that time. The widening economic and cultural gaps between a growing middle-class elite and the newproletariat led to social conflicts and hygienic problems in segregatedslum areas, especially in urban immigrant areas. Not until the later
nineteenth century would the economy catch up and the interest of theelite in hygienism and the sanitation of urban areas gather real pace inEurope, having a decisive impact on the fight against the ravages ofinfectious diseases. Hygiene became an established science and practicalactivity, manifested in its professionalisation and international conferences. Local public health committees and inspectors are a Swedish
version of the “Gesundheitspolizei”, a concept minted by Johann Peter
Frank (1745–1821), a medical doctor working in eighteenth century
Vienna [9]. Similar public health officials, interventions and technicalsolutions for urban water supply and waste disposal were for instanceconclusions•231found at an earlier stage in Britain and France, influencing Swedish
professions and authorities [10–15]
A less attractive side of hygienism, as an exercise of power against
marginalised women, emerged in the control and stigmatisation of prostitutes and individuals, who were branded “depraved”. Currents of“social hygienism” in the twentieth century established eugenics as aquasi-science and led to enforced sterilisations. This was not a uniquely
Swedish phenomenon. Social hygiene derived its arguments and models
from an international movement.

a subordinate people?
It is sometimes said that the Swedish population is unusually passive
and subordinate in accepting the decisions and intentions of the authorities. This assertion is made hand in hand with a second assertion thatpolitical intentions have often been implemented with less friction andconflict than in many other countries.
Local autonomy was a necessity in a large but sparsely populated
country. To be successful, public health policy messages had to be
accepted by those at whom they were aimed. The lasting Swedish
culture of negotiation between the state and comparatively egalitarian
local communities, influenced as it is by geographical factors, engendereda certain degree of trust between people and rulers. At the same time,
European differences should not be exaggerated. It is a fact that densely
populated and more socially stratified countries experienced sharper
conflicts. But it has for instance been pointed out that hygienic andsocial reforms in urban Great Britain and France during the second halfof the nineteenth century were also products of a growing sensitivity to
the needs of the whole population, in spite of the political hegemony ofthe middle class.

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Swedish history
and the world today
In the industrialised, wealthy parts of the world, a long and healthy life
is seen as the natural condition for almost everyone. During the last
200 years, average life expectancy has doubled from 40 to about 80
years. It will soon be 200 years since Swedish men were drafted as soldiers in a war with their neighbours. Serious infectious diseases are
rare, and when they occur, most are curable. Hunger has been replacedby over-consumption of food, and physical inactivity and obesity havebecome major health problems. But this is only true for a minority of
the world’s population. Millions of infants still die from causes similar
to those that took the lives of Swedish children in pre-industrial society.
Even more efficiently than in previous ages, war causes chaos, pain anddeath to civilian populations in many places; and malaria, tuberculosisand HIV/AIDS are constantly part of everyday life in poor countries.
Life expectancy declined since the 1970s, most rapidly during the
1990s, in Russia and other parts of the former Soviet Union and there
are still no clear signs of endurable change to the better.
Why then has not the example of Sweden and other fortunate countries been successfully copied when the world’s collective material resources are much larger than they have ever been before? And why is healthactually deteriorating instead of improving in some places? The simple
answer is of course that we cannot copy history when solving new challenges, since society and the conditions for health are constantly changing. Yet, the problems facing poor parts of the world today have muchin common with the European nineteenth-century economic and social
challenges – structural problems that were tackled by what came to be
known as hygienism in a wide sense. The following discussion is anattempt to draw some conclusions from our experiences of the past. It
can only be “narrative scenarios”, hopefully casting some light, on a
general level, on relations between health and its determinants. It may atleast stimulate reflections on what can erode, preserve or enhance individuals’ and societies’ resources for health during rapid social change.3
3 Our reflections on this theme emanate from a collaboration with international colleagues in
preparation of a volume on “Health and Social Change. Past and Present Evidence [16].

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russia and south africa– two contemporary examples
Let us take a quick glance at two examples in today’s world in a simple,
some would say simplified, manner. This is not to suggest that theseexamples are comparable in all respects to early nineteenth-century
Swedish experiences.
On a smaller scale, the middle-aged male mortality crisis in earlynineteenth-century Sweden has some striking similarities with what
happened in an alarmingly short space of time in the former Soviet
Union with accelerated speed after 1989. In Russia, life expectancy declined from the 1970s to the mid-1980s. Then it increased between 1985
and 1989, probably as a result of President Gorbachev’s campaign against
alcohol abuse. After 1989, life expectancy declined rapidly, especiallyfor men (6.6 years between 1989 and 1994!). The mortality rates thenstagnated or even decreased for a short time, but seem, according torecent figures, to have stabilised on a high level [6, 17–23].
The high adult mortality in Russia after the political upheaval of
1989 was particularly visible in causes such as heart disease, accidents,
alcohol-related disease and, in marginal groups, diphtheria and tuberculosis as well. In the middle-age group, mortality increased moderately
among women and dramatically among men. Mortality increased moreamong those who were unmarried, had only a basic education, and/or
were unemployed and the negative trends were more marked in certain
regions. Among the factors that are thought to have influenced thesedevelopments are political and social disintegration; a weak state; deterioration of systems of welfare and healthcare; rapid privatisation of
the economy (which created unemployment); increased migration anduprooted groups; a weak civil society (family structure, other types ofsocial networks, etc.); alcoholism; lawlessness and criminality. This has
sometimes been summarised under the concept of collective and individual “social stress”.
In South Africa, the most affluent country south of the Sahara,socioeconomic and epidemiological factors combine in ways that are
unhealthy for both sexes and all ages. The legacy of the past is still aheavy burden. Families were split due to the apartheid labour migration system. Miners in Johannesburg were, for instance, recruited from“homelands”; segregated impoverished enclaves created for the black
population. These workers were not allowed to bring their wives and234•

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children with them, which had a devastating impact on the stability offamily systems, and HIV/AIDS found an early breeding ground in thesemale cultures. Generally, most of the problems faced after “Freedom
Day” in 1994 are rooted in the apartheid policies. Democratisation did
not immediately bring about a Rainbow Society where populationgroups of all colours were to live together in harmony with social security and equality for all – a frustration not least for those who were stillpoor and vulnerable.
In the 1990s, South Africa’s borders were opened to the global economy. Previously protected domestic industries, for example the textile
industry in Cape Town, found it hard to compete on the markets. The
result was rapid de-industrialisation and unemployment. Shantytowns
expanded in the suburbs of big cities as the result of mass-immigrationof poor people from the countryside, once the black population was
granted mobility. These urban “informal settlements” endure difficult
social and hygienic conditions, extremely high unemployment, drug
abuse and high rates of injuries caused by violence and traffic accidents
and other types of crime. Well-functioning local communities havebeen hard to establish, although non-governmental organisations andthe state have tried to alleviate the conditions [24–37].
Life expectancy is declining dramatically, since mortality has increased
for more than a decade. Death rates were still increasing in 2004. This

Care centre in
Mocambique.
Photo: Sydsvenskan/
IBL bildbyrå

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trend is of course primarily caused by HIV and AIDS, but also consequently by tuberculosis and other diseases affecting the respiratory
tracts. In 2004, HIV prevalence among confirmed TB patients was
about 60 per cent or more in the states with the highest incidences of
HIV/AIDS. Children either become orphans and/or die themselves at
an early age mainly because of transmission from the mother. The
healthcare system faces an enormous challenge and it is often least
developed in rural areas with the most urgent needs. Official antiretroviral treatment programs against AIDS started in 2004 but only aminority of those infected had access to this vital aid in 2005. [38, 39].
Exact and reliable figures are hard to find, but it is clear that HIV
and AIDS are more common among young and middle-aged womenthan among men in the same age groups [40, 41]. This is partly caused
by women’s higher physiological risk of being infected by the virus.
Whilst most South Africans seem to know about HIV/AIDS and how
to remain HIV-negative, culturally defined gender roles intervene andmake it difficult for many women to stand up for their right to voluntaryand safe sex. One problem is that safe sex is not usually practised bymarried or cohabitating couples, while, as a more positive sign, the useof condoms is seemingly becoming more frequent among younger
unmarried generations, at least among more educated groups [42–52].
Male deaths are reported to be lower than female deaths from
HIV/AIDS but the opposite is true for mortality caused by injuries.
Traffic accidents are one of the major causes of death for both sexes
but the very high figures for homicide and other forms of intentional
violence are mostly a male phenomenon, both for perpetrators and victims.
The age-specific distribution of this latter cause of deaths is similar tothe pattern in Russia, i.e. with a huge peak in ages 20–40. The increaseof violent deaths eventually stagnated in 2004. It remains to be seen
whether this trend will last, but the rate is still extremely high in aninternational perspective [39, 53].
In other words, a large proportion of mortality occurs in the generation which should be providing for the youngest and the oldest. Costfor treatment, need of social support and loss of production are growing
problems for the nation.

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conclusionsdifferent by context – similar by character?
Social change is often a process stretching over several decades andsocial, political and institutional adjustment to change takes time. BothRussia and South Africa suffered from the legacy of oppressive systems
when the new, democratic era began in the 1990s. In the first five yearsof the new millennium, there are no clear signs that the tide has turned
towards stabilisation and improvement of welfare and health improvements for the most vulnerable in either case.
When comparing a number of factors/conditions related to healthand welfare during social change in early nineteenth century Sweden
versus present-day Russia and South Africa, certain key patterns are
seemingly similar in character, omitting the evident differences due tohistorical period and geographical location. In all three cases, even in
Russia and South Africa, where one positive element of change was the
progression towards democracy, socioeconomic change caused social
instability and migration of poor people into urban areas poorly equipped
to provide good living conditions. Old rules and norms on how to succeed in life changed during this geographical and “mental” migration
to a new milieu. A sense of being uprooted threatened stability andtrust in local communities, something some men are particularly poorat handling. At the same time, the local community is the most important level for a healthy society.
Although similar in character, the scale of change in former Soviet
republics and South Africa is on a much larger scale than in earlynineteenth-century Sweden. One important difference between thenand now is that, in the twenty-first century, advanced medical knowledge and technology for material welfare and health are there on the
global market – for those who can buy and use them. On the other
hand, lack of material resources and globalisation puts restraints onnational policies. Before the globalisation of the world market, local
authorities and national states were in some ways more autonomous insocial issues. In return for development loans, international creditgivers have, for instance, until recently often prescribed structuralreform. As a cure for underbalanced state budgets, governments havebeen advised to limit social expenditure.

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Health and lessons from history
The question has been posed whether the positive developments for
population health that occurred in Sweden and western Europe in thesecond half of the nineteenth century will be repeated today or tomorrow in the still less wealthy and healthy countries of the world [24].
The answer is of course that every new situation needs its own specificsolutions. Certain observations may, however, still be valid.
A successful public health policy requires good knowledge. Medical
and biological knowledge come first to mind. In societies ridden with
infectious disease and epidemics, as Thomas McKeown pointed out, itis crucial to understand the interplay between germs and the humanbody. Two centuries ago, the theoretical understanding of disease was,from a modern standpoint, rudimentary or in many respects false. The
medical profession did, however, speculate how infectious diseases
spread. Could it be something that emerged from soil, water and air(miasma)? Or was some kind of substance communicated from one
person to another (contagion)? The miasma theory led to an interest inclean air, clean water and clean food, whilst the best defence against
contagion was to stay away from, or isolate, infected persons and tocontrol and hinder its migration over land and sea.
In some respects, both recommendations might also help to fightendemic infections by implementing sanitary interventions or by keeping
epidemics outside a country or a town. Hence, certain positive effectsof early public health initiatives could be seen even before there was aclear understanding of the underlying biological mechanisms. Suchendeavours were much more effective and easy to understand and support once medical science could deliver more convincing explanations,advice and cures, starting at the end of the nineteenth century. Contemplating the situation of today’s world, it is easy to see that thegreatest obstacle to many potential improvements is not the lack ofbiomedical knowledge. Often it is rather a matter of finding a way tocommunicate this knowledge to the whole population.
Turning back to Sweden more than 200 years ago, it is still intriguing
how so much good public health advice can be found in the literature
and, somewhat later, could also be put into practice. Even as early as
the eighteenth century medical doctors promoted cleaner cities. Inocu-

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lation against smallpox was followed by mass vaccination after theyear 1800. Such messages were gradually heard and resulted in a dramatic mortality decline throughout the nineteenth century, especiallyamong young children.

observing and actingThis brings us to the emerging interest in empirical observation during
the Enlightenment, which in turn created a desire for population registers and led to the birth of demography and epidemiology in Sweden. It
was the statistical reports from the Swedish population registers, startingin 1749, that highlighted the problematically high mortality figures
among children. Similar observations were made in early local surveys
in France and Germany. The Swedish statistics also showed that urban
areas, even of a small size, were dangerous for health. It was also clearthat infant mortality was much higher in areas where infants were notbreast-fed properly, thereby drawing attention to the relation between
cultural habits and health. The first, eighteenth century, observations
were followed by a growing number of studies and reports, which
increased understanding of the distribution of health and disease in a
population. They showed in undisputable figures the detrimental
effects of epidemics, the toll taken by tuberculosis, later on the effects
of drug abuse and obesity, and the continuing large health differentials
between social groups. All of these and other problems challenged
representatives of both medicine and general society.
These Swedish examples, and many others, clearly demonstrate theimportance of keeping track of the population and its determinants asa basis for public health policies. Although we cannot find direct causal
explanations in statistical evidence, lack of such data makes it difficult
to identify problem areas and start considering potential causes andsolutions. Policy-makers must have the will and administrative resources
to monitor the health and welfare of the population in order to be able
to implement the necessary reforms.

literacy and gender
Literacy (and in modern times other media channels than the written
word) is of course a necessary condition for the spread of knowledge tothose who need it. The good advice for better childcare, launched byconclusions•

239

Nils Rosén von Rosenstein during the second half of the eighteenth
century, was printed and distributed in large numbers in almanacs thatwere bought and read in ordinary Swedish peasants’ households. This
mass health education was made possible by the literacy campaigns
started by the church a century before and made an important contribution to the eventual success of the efforts of von Rosenstein andother colleagues. Literacy is a cultural capital making it possible forvulnerable groups and individuals to verbalise and highlight their needs
and claims. It is hard to envisage a functioning democracy and reasonable equality without general literacy.
Studies have shown that the traditional Swedish type of home education, compulsory for all, actually meant that women were more skilled
readers than men, which is almost never the case when literacy is offered
as a voluntary asset on a “market”. It was of course important for thesurvival of the children, for whom the women had primary responsibility. Equally, studies have shown that female literacy is a positive factor
for the good health and survival of children in many areas of today’s
world.
This reminds us of the consistent appearance of gender factors inpublic health history and contemporary societies. Not only are mothers
important for the health of the next generation due to traditional gender roles, but these same roles also produce striking differences inhealth outcomes and mortality figures from birth to old age. However,the differences may be weaker or stronger depending on time, place,social and cultural conditions. And this is not solely because men are
involuntarily brought into more dangerous situations (for instance atwork or at war). Men also engage themselves in more risky behaviour
without being formally obliged to do so. Certain aspects of these differences even affect others, for example in the form of drug abuse, neglectof the family, violence against kin and neighbours and transmitting
venereal diseases and HIV. Consequently, more gender equality, more
power for dominated or abused women and policies aimed at minimising the factors causing risky behaviour among men have, in qualitativeand quantitative terms, the potential to bring about the most notable
positive achievements in health and welfare.

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individual and structure
In post-World-War-Two western societies, there has been a tendency to
direct public health policies and interventions towards individual behaviour. One of the reasons for this trend is, of course, that in affluent
societies lung cancer, cardiovascular problems, diabetes and other noninfectious diseases come to the forefront as dominant problems. Thereis, as we know, a clear link between these diseases and lifestyles, theclassical inter-mediators being lack of physical exercise, over-consumptionof unhealthy food, obesity or drug abuse in different forms. At thesame time, however, recent research shows that these type of problems
are also affected by society’s provision of general welfare, feelings ofcoherence, safety, and similar psychological phenomena. This knowledge,
together with the obvious negative psychosocial effects of the depression
in the 1990s, is one of the reasons why the officially declared Swedish
public health policy of 2003 also emphasised the need to consider
structural, socioeconomic factors.
Less affluent societies, facing an epidemiological regime resembling
the situation in nineteenth century Europe, are of course even moreaware of the negative link between poverty, weak economic and public
infrastructures and health. The fight against infectious disease is still
the paramount goal, even if obesity, heart disease and other “modern”
health risks are also having a visible impact on the mortality figures in,for instance, South Africa. Enhancing economic growth, while at thesame time trying to direct the distribution of growing wealth to allparts of the population, is a great challenge for national and regional
policies. The experience of early nineteenth-century Sweden showsthat, for the first generations, the path from a traditional povertyridden agrarian society towards a wealthier industrial society tends to
produce losers as well as winners. Migration and uncontrolled rapid
urbanisation added to the problematic situation.
Certain general conditions for success or failure can be suggested.
For instance, the improvement of health conditions in urban areas did
not occur by itself. Besides unprecedented economic growth, the will
and ability of public authorities and new voluntary associations were
important factors paving the way for the success of the welfare state in
the twentieth century. Even earlier, the existence of a local administration
in a negotiating position between state and people, with a reasonable
degree of trust from the latter, made vaccination against smallpox aconclusions•

241

nineteenth-century success story. Small reforms successively improved
sanitary conditions during the same century, in Sweden as well as inother places in Europe.

the middle class – agents of reform?
The role of the nineteenth-century middle class, growing in size, wealthand influence, also deserves comment. Here were the winners of defeudalisation who felt that their success depended on their own abilities
rather than on inherited privileges. They had an interest in a well-orderedsociety where merit and personal ability counted, and where the rule oflaw and good governance, rather than unpredictable autocracy andcorruption, prevailed. In addition, most had recent roots among thecommon people, although they often disliked what they saw as theunruly behaviour of “the dangerous classes”. Increasingly, they entered
the ranks of state and local administration, many of them being either“social conservatives” or “social liberals”. As in, for instance, Franceand Great Britain, many joined voluntary philanthropic associations,embraced proactive ideologies about citizenship, tried to improve thesocial conditions of the working class and approved a more ambitious
policy for sanitary urban reforms. In other words, they acted as agentsfor “linking social capital”.
The role of the industrious middle class has also been emphasised intoday’s developing economies. In some countries, such a middle classexists and has a certain political influence. In others, the social pyramid
consists of a small – economically, socially and politically – privileged
elite, the rest of the population having limited or no share of the benefits of economic growth. The latter structure is, in a European context,
more similar to a medieval, feudal world or, at best, a state with aneighteenth-century enlightened monarchy/aristocracy. Some developing
countries are rather recent creations, still lacking a sense of reasonable
national homogeneity, common values and social coherence. In suchconditions, equipped with limited financial resources, much has to beachieved before they can become welfare states with an efficient social
and administrative infrastructure.

242•

conclusions

economic growth and social politics
Related to this issue is the question of how, by whom, and where, efficient welfare systems should or could be promoted. Is this a goal thatcan only and will automatically emerge, when economic per capita
growth has reached a certain level? Many countries have seen a significant improvement of life expectancy correlated to economic growth.
On the other hand, as we have seen, there has not been an immediate
positive effect everywhere to the benefit of everybody. So, first of all,policies that attempt to minimise the degree of deterioration during
rapid and profound phases of change would be welcome. Secondly, if
the claims by Richard Wilkinson and others are true [54], namely that
there is a positive correlation between a more equal distribution of
wealth in a population and the health of all citizens in the same population, independent of the absolute level of the average income per capita,
policies that aim at a more even distribution of wealth should have apositive general impact on health and life expectancy for all.
Such policies do, of course, require an ideological motivation among
the ruling elite. Or, as Simon Szreter puts it [55], that those who havethe basic resources for a good life are prepared to share with those whohave not. In addition, good governance has to rest upon a certain degreeof trust and effectiveness in order to achieve sustained social harmonyand development. Since, as history shows, health is primarily produced
locally, the knowledge, awareness, skill and trustworthiness of local
governments will be of utmost importance. Essential factors include
access to health care institutions, safety, the best possible education for
the inhabitants, trust among local inhabitants (bridging social capital)
and trust between local inhabitants and their authorities (linking social
capital) on all levels. To create the conditions for such social infrastructure poses a challenge for many societies suffering widespread poverty,
great inequality, local communities fractured by heavy migration, andold and new infectious diseases like malaria and HIV/AIDS.

peace
Sweden’s public health history has been a comparatively happy one, but
not because Swedish authorities were exceptionally wise, exercised
extraordinary foresight or because problems resolved themselves. The
fortunate coexistence of several positive factors was crucial. These inc-conclusions•

243luded the country’s relative social homogeneity, the high literacy rate,
stable local administration and, by the end of the nineteenth century, theemergence of new popular movements fit for new social circumstances.
We have mentioned the Swedish nineteenth century commentator’sreference to “peace, vaccine and potatoes” as one way of summarising
the factors behind the beginning of an era of almost constantly decreasing mortality. Potatoes stand for the material resources needed for ahealthy population. Vaccine may stand for scientific discoveries andideas successfully implemented. Peace may, however, be sometimes forgotten as an important aspect of the Swedish case. From being among
the high-mortality European states at the beginning of the nineteenth
century, Sweden had achieved one of the lowest figures by the year
1900 and has remained in that position ever since. This pattern coincides with an era of unbroken external peace and relatively little internalsocial conflict, a state of affair only shared by Switzerland amongst its
European neighbours. War not only results in the death of soldiers in thebattlefield, It also facilitates the spread of diseases among soldiers andcivilians, destroys material resources and drains those same resourcesfrom collective civil needs. Furthermore, it contributes to psychologicalstress and trauma and prevents the establishment of good civil institutions. Sweden had considerable experience of violent conflict before theend of the Napoleonic wars and the peace treaty of 1814; other European
states have up until the late twentieth century been involved in war andpolitical turmoil several times, and many populations in the world arestill suffering their effects. No wealthy and healthy society with few“avoidable deaths” can emerge under such conditions.

power and empowerment
By definition, war is the ultimate collective expression of power byphysical force. Power can, however, be exercised in other ways forother reasons. During the course of Swedish public health history, compulsory measures were taken. Quarantines and the establishment ofcordons sanitaires against plague epidemics in early modern times
were, for instance, implemented with considerable shows of blatantforce. In the nineteenth century, compulsory smallpox vaccination andthe regulation of prostitutes were enforced by the state. During theearly twentieth century, the authorities were invested with extended
powers to bring children into educational institutions, if these children244•

conclusions

were seen to be insufficiently cared for by their parents or to be sociallywayward. Restrictions on the sale of alcohol were introduced in orderto reduce the medical and social damage associated with its free use. Asan, often, scientifically and ethically ambiguous product of “social
hygienism”, laws were passed in the interwar period which allowed theenforced sterilisation of certain mentally, physically or socially “abnormal” citizens. Power was exercised against some or all for the presumed benefit of themselves or others within fields more or less completely outside the traditional definition of the criminal sphere.
Per Albin Hansson, the Swedish politician, who used “The People’sHome” as an image of the ideal society, observed that the inhabitantsof this “national home” had both responsibilities and rights, but foundthat the state was stressing the responsibilities more than the rights of
its citizens. The social debate during the 1930s can be seen as an
attempt to define the demarcation line between duties and rights. What
must a citizen do in order to have the right to claim the benefit of thesocial system? And what power was society entitled to exercise against
the citizen in order to keep the People’s Home in good order? In thisdebate, some have been portrayed as “social engineers” who went too
far towards intervention in the private sphere when presenting their
benevolent version of a “social democratic” utopian society. However,social reforms immediately before and after the Second World War wereless utopian and more pragmatic. Elements of the welfare state weresometimes questioned in detail but not in principle by other politicalmovements. Power is still, and has always been, used to a certain extent
in welfare and public health policies: today for instance in traffic regulations or restrictions of the right to smoke in public spaces. Yet, the dominant approach of modern welfare policy in practice has been “empowerment”, i.e. to provide all citizens with the resources for a good and healthy
life, rather than using paternalistic force to achieve that end.
As we have seen, during periods of social transition, certain groups
tend to pay a price in the form of health problems and high mortality.
Sometimes this may result from their lack of information and access to
new knowledge, sometimes it has to do with the lack of material or
psychological power to adapt to the new world. A society’s ability tominimise such negative effects by protecting or increasing the resourcesof vulnerable groups will determine the outcome for the health of its
citizens. Such “empowerment” may also be achieved through voluntary
mobilisation of new forms of collective agencies. This was, for instance,

conclusions•

245

the case when popular movements introduced a new approach tounderstanding and handling social issues in late nineteenth century
Sweden. Focusing on the most vulnerable may sometimes mathematically add less to the nation’s average life expectancy than public healthinterventions aimed at the whole population. But the choice between
either of the two strategies is not a purely mathematical problem. It isalso a matter of ethical and ideological deliberations.
The balance between the rights and responsibilities of the individual
versus the state will always be debated when social circumstances andvalues change. Different interpretations of empirically observed relations between health and the social fabric, ideologically founded value
systems and conflicts of interest between different layers of the society
will always exist. In Swedish history, the – some would say nostalgic –image of the People’s Home and the idea of consensus rather than social
conflicts have been two icons shaping welfare and health politics.

health makes wealth
Finally, it should not be forgotten that both reason and historicalevidence tell us that there is a positive correlation in both directions
between the wealth and the health of a nation. Even the elite may benefit
if society pays attention to the sufferings of its disadvantaged members.
The eighteenth century idea that a strong, healthy population was arequisite for a strong, wealthy state mostly derived from the interests ofthe dominant elite and owed little to humanitarian values. In essence,
however, that conclusion is still valid.

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Appendix
sex- and age-specific mortality and sex ratio
in mortality. sweden, 1750–2000.
deaths/1,000

260
Infants

240

200

220
200

150

180
160

100

140
120

50

100
0

deaths/1,000

25

2000

1975

1950

1925

1900

1875

1850

1825

1800

1750

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80

sex ratio
5–9 years

260
240

20

220
200

15
180
160

10

140
120

5

100
0

250

•

appendix

2000

1975

1950

1925

1900

1875

1850

1825

1800

1775

80
1750

male
femaleratio(female=100)

sex ratio250

deaths/1,000

sex ratio
260

12
15–19 years

240

10
220
200

8

180
6
160
140

4

120
2
100
0

deaths/1,000

2000

1975

1950

1925

1900

1875

1850

1825

1800

1775

1750

80

sex ratio
260

20
30–34 years

240
220

15

200
180
10
160
140
5

120
100

0

appendix

2000

1975

1950

1925

1900

1875

1850

1825

1800

1775

1750

80

•

251

male
femaleratio(female=100)

deaths/1,000

40

sex ratio
50–54 years

35

260
240
220

30

200

25

180
20
160
15

140

10

120

deaths/1,000

2000

1975

1950

1925

1900

1875

1750

1850

80
1825

0
1800

100

1775

5

sex ratio
260

140
70–74 years

240

120

220
200

100

180
160

80
140
120

60

100
80
2000

1975

1950

1925

1900

1875

1850

1825

1800

1775

0
1750

male
femaleratio(female=100)

Source: 1750–1900: Sundbärg. Fortsatta bidrag till en svensk befolkningsstatistik för åren 1750–1900(Further contributions to Swedish population statistics, 1750–1900). Statistisk Tidskrift 1909. (Statistics
Sweden). 1901–2000: Bidrag till Sveriges Officiella Statistik A. Befolkningsstatistik (Population statistics)
1901–1910; Befolkningsrörelsen (Vital statistics) 1911–1960; Folkmängdens förändringar (Population
changes) 1961–1966; Befolkningsförändringar (Population changes) 1967–1990; Befolkningsstatistik(Population statistics) 1991–2000. Statistiska centralbyrån (Statistics Sweden).

252•

appendix