

(9$/8$7,1*7:2*5$00$57<3(6)25-$3$1(6( $35(/,0,1$5<678'< 
7RPRKLUR)XMLLDQG+LELNL<DPDVKLWD<RNRKDPD1DWLRQDO8QLYHUVLW\

 




 ,QWURGXFWLRQ  7KH SUHVHQW SDSHU FRQFHUQV JUDPPDU HYDOXDWLRQ ,W LV DOZD\V DQ LVVXH RI LQWHUHVW IRUWKHRUHWLFDOV\QWDFWLFLDQVZKDWV\QWDFWLFVWUXFWXUHVVKRXOGEHDVVLJQHGWRVHQWHQFHVLQDODQJXDJHDQGZKDWVHWRIUXOHVLVQHHGHGDVWKHJUDPPDURIWKHODQJXDJHLQRUGHUWRJHQHUDWHWKHVWUXFWXUHV
6RPHWLPHVHYLGHQFHLVDYDLODEOHLQIDYRURIRQHVHWRIUXOHVRUDQRWKHU,WLVDOVRRIWHQWKHFDVHKRZHYHUWKDWGDWDFDQEHDQDO\]HGLQGLIIHUHQWZD\VDQGWKHUHIRUHPRUHWKDQRQHJUDPPDULVFRPSDWLEOHZLWKWKHGDWD7KHLVVXHRIDQevaluation metricDULVHVKHUH &KRPVN\&KRPVN\DQG+DOOH ,QWKLVSDSHUZHLQWURGXFHDQH[HUFLVHTXHVWLRQZKHUHWZRJUDPPDUW\SHVIRU-DSDQHVHFRPSHWHDQGGLVFXVVZKDWHYDOXDWLRQPHWULFFDQEHWKRXJKWRILQRUGHUWRUHVROYHWKHSDUWLFXODUWKHRU\VHOHFWLRQSUREOHP ,WZLOOEHFOHDUZK\ZHFDOOWKHTXHVWLRQDQ
³H[HUFLVH´   ,QWKHSDVWGHFDGHVLWKDVEHHQGHEDWHGKRZKHDGILQDOVXUIDFHVHQWHQFHIRUPVDUHJHQHUDWHG
LQ-DSDQHVHDQGRWKHUVLPLODUODQJXDJHVOLNH.RUHDQ-XVWWRQDPHDIHZ$R\DJL)DUPHU)XMLL)XNXLDQG6DNDL)XNXLDQG7DNDQR)XQDNRVKL
+DQ/LG]DQG0XVROLQR+D\DVKLDQG)XMLL.D\QH.LVKLPRWR.LWDJDZD.RL]XPL.RRSPDQ.XURGD0L\DJDZD0XUDVXJL2WDQLDQG:KLWPDQ6DLWR6DLWRDQG)XNXL6DLWRDQG
+RVKL6DWRDQG+D\DVKL6HOOV6KLEDWD6KLPDGD7DNLWD7RNL]DNLDQG.XZDQD7RQRLNH:KLWPDQDPRQJRWKHUV  )XMLL  H[DPLQHVWKHVWUXFWXUHVRIVXERUGLQDWHGFODXVHVKHDGHGE\FRPSOHPHQWL]HUV
7KHFRPSOHPHQWFODXVHIRXQGLQ  LVDQH[DPSOH    +LURVKLZD  'H1$JD 
NDWWDWR  RPRWWD +LURVKL723 'H1$120  ZRQ&  WKRXJKWµ+LURVKLWKRXJKWWKDWWKH'H1$%D\6WDUVKDGZRQ¶ )XMLL DSSOLHV VWDQGDUG FRQVWLWXHQF\ WHVWV ZKLFK UHYHDO WKDW WKH VWLQJ DeNA-ga katta-to LV
DVVLJQHGDVWUXFWXUHOLNHWKHRQHLQ  DVRSSRVHGWRWKHRQHLQ  VXJJHVWLQJWKDW-DSDQHVHQDWLYHVSHDNHUVLQWHUQDOL]HZKDWZHPLJKWFDOOD³&RPSOHPHQW+HDG*UDPPDU´LQ  QRWZKDW
  7KLVZRUNLVSDUWLDOO\VXSSRUWHGE\-636.$.(1+,*UDQW1XPEHU-3. -1-

1DQ]DQ/LQJXLVWLFV5HVHDUFK5HVXOWVDQG$FWLYLWLHV
ZHPLJKWFDOOD³+HDG+HDG*UDPPDU´LQ   :HDEVWUDFWDZD\IURPWKHH[LVWHQFHRI7HQVH
DQGPXOWLZRUGQRPLQDOVWULQJVIRUWKHHDVHRISUHVHQWDWLRQ                     &3
$&RPSOHPHQW+HDG*UDPPDU&3o6&         6               &
6o193 93o9_19  1             93      WR 1o'H1$_6RIW%DQN 
9oNDWWD'H1$           9&oWR                 NDWWD            6$+HDG+HDG*UDPPDU
6o193   1            9393o9_199o9&
'H1$           9      1o'H1$_6RIW%DQN9oNDWWD              9     &&oWR              NDWWD   WR )XMLLGLVFXVVHVVRPHSLHFHVRIHYLGHQFHLQIDYRUWKH&+*UDPPDU7DNHRQHEDVHGRQDNLQG
RISURIRUPUHSODFHPHQW,Q  WKHLQGHWHUPLQDWHSURIRUPnan(i) µZKDW¶UHSODFHVWKHVXEVWULQJWKDW LV H[KDXVWLYHO\ GRPLQDWHG E\ 6 7KH ++ *UDPPDU SUHGLFWV WKDW WKLV NLQG RI SURIRUPUHSODFHPHQWZRXOGEHLPSRVVLEOHEHFDXVHWKHVWULQJDeNA-ga kattaLVQRWDFRQVWLWXHQWXQGHUWKHJUDPPDU  $ +LURVKLZD  QDQWR  LLPDVLWDND"

+LURVKL723  ZKDW&  VDLG4µ:KDWGLG+LURVKLVD\"¶% 'H1$JD 
NDWWDWR  LLPDVLWD'H1$120  ZRQ&  VDLGµ+HVDLGWKDW'H1$KDGZRQ¶ ,WFDQWKXVEHFRQFOXGHGWKDWWKH&+*UDPPDULVGHVFULSWLYHO\VXSHULRUWRWKH++*UDPPDU  7KLV VDLG OHW XV LQWURGXFH WKH TXHVWLRQ WKDW FRQFHUQV XV 6XSSRVH ZH VHW DVLGH HPSLULFDO  6HH 6HOOV   IRU D FRQFUHWH SURSRVDO WKDW IDOOV ZLWKLQ WKH UHDOP RI ++ *UDPPDUV 6HH DOVR.LWDJDZD  6KLPDGD  DQG6DLWR  7KHVHDXWKRUVSURSRVHWKDWKHDGPRYHPHQWWDNHV
SODFHRXWRIKHDGDGMXQFWLRQVWUXFWXUHLQRQHZD\RUDQRWKHU

-2-

(YDOXDWLQJ7ZR*UDPPDU7\SHVIRU-DSDQHVH 7)XMLLDQG+<DPDVKLWD 
DUJXPHQWVIRURQHDOWHUQDWLYHOLNHWKHRQHPHQWLRQHGDERYH7KHQLVWKHUHDQ\ZD\WRGHFLGHLI
HLWKHUWKH&+*UDPPDURU++*UDPPDUPRUHKLJKO\YDOXHGWKDQWKHRWKHU"5HFDOOWKDWZH
KDYHFDOOHGRXUTXHVWLRQDQH[HUFLVHTXHVWLRQ7KHUHDUHDFRXSOHRIUHDVRQVIRUGRLQJVR)LUVW
HYHQWKRXJKDUJXPHQWVOLNHRQHEDVHGRQ  H[LVWZHGLVFXVVWKHWZRK\SRWKHVHVDVLIWKHVHDUJXPHQWVGLGQRWH[LVW6HFRQGZHDOVRNQRZWKDWHYHQWKH&+*UDPPDULVKDUGWRPDLQWDLQ
0DQ\JUDPPDWLFDOFRPSRQHQWVRI-DSDQHVHDUHLJQRUHGKHUHDUJXPHQWGURSVFUDPEOLQJZKLQVLWXTXHVWLRQVFDVHPDUNLQJDQGVRRQDQGVRIRUWK6LPSOHFRQWH[WIUHHJUDPPDUVOLNHWKH
RQHLQ  FDQQRWGHDOZLWKWKHPDWDOO:HKRZHYHUVHWDVLGHWKLVIDFWDQGOLPLWRXUVFRSHWR
FRQWH[WIUHH JUDPPDUV 7KLUG WKH WZR NLQGV RI JUDPPDUV ERWK DVVXPH WKH QRQWHUPLQDOV\PEROV 6 DQG 93 ,W VKRXOG EH QRWHG WKDW WKH OLWHUDWXUH KDV VKRZQ WKDW WKHVH QRQWHUPLQDOV\PEROV DUH QRW ZHOOPRWLYDWHG 7KHVH FDWHJRU\ ODEHOV DUH SUREOHPDWLF XQGHU ;EDU 7KHRU\&KRPVN\6WRZHOO DQGRU%DUH3KUDVH6WUXFWXUH7KHRU\ &KRPVN\ :HGRQRWILQGOH[LFDOLWHPVRIWKHFDWHJRU\61RUGRHVWKH,QFOXVLYHQHVV&RQGLWLRQDOORZXVWRUHO\RQEDUOHYHOQRWDWLRQVDOWKRXJKWKH\PD\EHQHHGHGLQRUGHUWRFRYHUFHUWDLQIDFWV7KXVZH
NQRZERWKJUDPPDUVDUHSUREOHPDWLFEHIRUHZHFRPSDUHWKHP  'HVSLWHWKHVHUHDVRQVWREHOLHYHWKHVHWWLQJLVQRWDVUHDOLVWLFDVLWPD\EHZHVWLOOWKLQNWKDWWKHVHVLPSOHJUDPPDUVDUHZRUWKVWXG\LQJ<DQJ  REVHUYHVWKDW³>I@URPWKHVRQ>    @ WKH (YDOXDWLRQ 0HWULF DOO EXW YDQLVKHG H[FHSW LQ WKH UHODWLYH VPDOO ILHOG RI IRUPDOOHDUQDELOLW\ 7KHUH DUH PXOWLSOH UHDVRQV IRU WKLV VRPH UHDVRQDEOH DQG VRPH QRW EXW WKH QHWHIIHFW LV WKDW D PHFKDQLVWLF DSSURDFK WR ODQJXDJH VWURQJO\ HPERGLHG LQ HDUO\ JHQHUDWLYHJUDPPDU UHFHLYHG OHVV DWWHQWLRQ´ :KLOH ZH DJUHH ZLWK <DQJ¶V REVHUYDWLRQ WKDW HYDOXDWLRQPHWULFVKDYHUDUHO\EHHQGLVFXVVHGIRUDZKLOHZHWKLQNWKDWVLPSOLFLW\SDUVLPRQ\DQGQRQUHGXQGDQF\DUHVWLOOFRQVLGHUHGDVVLJQLILFDQWPHDVXUHVWRHYDOXDWHWKHRULHVZLWKLQPLQLPDOLVWWKHRUL]LQJWRR &KRPVN\)UHLGLQDQG/DVQLN ,IVRLWPLJKWEHXVHIXOWRFDUHIXOO\
H[DPLQHDVLPSOHDQGVRPHZKDWK\SRWKHWLFDOFDVHOLNHRXUVWRVHHKRZLWLVSRVVLEOHWRPHDVXUHWKHYDOXHVRILQGLYLGXDOJUDPPDUV   ,QZKDWIROORZVZHSURSRVHWRXVHWKH%D\HVLDQPRGHORIJUDPPDUDFTXLVLWLRQDGYDQFHGE\
3HUIRUV7HQHQEDXPDQG5HJLHU   KHUHDIWHU 375  LQRUGHUWR H[DPLQHV WKHWZR
JUDPPDUW\SHVIRU-DSDQHVHPHQWLRQHGDERYH375¶VFHQWUDOFRQFHUQLVLQKRZFKLOGUHQFRXOGFKRRVH³KLHUDUFKLFDOJUDPPDUV´HVSHFLDOO\RYHU³IODWJUDPPDUV´ZLWKRXWGLUHFWHYLGHQFH7KH
IRUPHU JUDPPDUV DUH FRQWH[WIUHH JUDPPDUV JHQHUDWLQJ VWUXFWXUHG WUHH GLDJUDPV OLNH D 
ZKHUHDVWKHODWWHUDUHWKRVHJHQHUDWLQJRQHVOLNH E 375VKRZWKDWWKHLUHYDOXDWLRQPHWULF
IRU UHZULWLQJ JUDPPDUV VXFFHVVIXOO\ FKRRVH KLHUDUFKLFDO JUDPPDUV RYHU RWKHU JUDPPDUVLQFOXGLQJIODWJUDPPDUV$OWKRXJKWKHPRGHOREYLRXVO\LVLQWHQGHGIRUJUDPPDUDFTXLVLWLRQLW
FDQDOVREHYLHZHGDVDQHYDOXDWLRQPHWULFIRUWKHRU\VHOHFWLRQ &KRPVN\<DQJ
3HDUO    D >6>13>'HWWKH@>1ER\@@>93>9DGPLUHV@>13>1KHU@@@@E >6>'HWWKH@>1ER\@>9DGPLUHV@>1KHU@@-3-

1DQ]DQ/LQJXLVWLFV5HVHDUFK5HVXOWVDQG$FWLYLWLHV
$V DOOXGHG WR HDUOLHU 375¶V PRGHO XWLOL]HV %D\HVLDQ LQIHUHQFH 7KLV IDFW LV QRW SULPDULO\LPSRUWDQWIRURXUFXUUHQWSXUSRVHV VHH<DQJ3HDUODQGUHIHUHQFHVFLWHGWKHUH 
7KHPDMRUDGYDQWDJHRIXVVWDUWLQJZLWKWKHLUPRGHOOLHVLQWKHIDFWWKDWWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQDJUDPPDUGDWDDQGWKHJUDPPDU¶VYDOXHDUHTXLWHWUDQVSDUHQW,WLVUHODWLYHO\HDV\WRLGHQWLI\ZKDWUHYLVLRQRIDJUDPPDUPDNHVWKHJUDPPDUVFRUHEHWWHUWKDQWKHRWKHU  7KHSDSHULVVWUXFWXUHGDVIROORZV6HFWLRQLQWURGXFHVDQGLOOXVWUDWHV375¶VPRGHOZLWKDFRQFUHWH H[DPSOH 6HFWLRQ  DWWHPSWV WR XVH WKH PRGHO WR FRPSDUH &+ DQG ++ *UDPPDUV$OWKRXJKZHVHHWKDW&+*UDPPDUVDUHUHJDUGHGPRUHKLJKO\YDOXHGWKDQ++*UDPPDUVZH
DGGUHVVVHYHUDOSUREOHPVDQGDUJXHWKDWWKHUHVXOWVQHHGWREHLQWHUSUHWHGZLWKFDUH3URSRVLQJ
D ZD\ RXW RI WKH SUREOHPV ZLWK WKH ILUVW DWWHPSW ZH PDNH D VHFRQG DWWHPSW WR UHGR WKHFRPSDULVRQDQGFULWLFDOO\H[DPLQHWKHQHZUHVXOWVWRR6HFWLRQFRQFOXGHVWKHSDSHU 7KH0RGHO ,QWKLVVHFWLRQZHLOOXVWUDWHWKHPRGHOZLWKWZRVHWVRIFRQWH[WIUHHJUDPPDUVWKDWGLIIHULQ
DFHUWDLQZD\LQRUGHUWRVHHKRZWKHPRGHOFDSWXUHVOLQJXLVWV¶LQWXLWLRQVDERXWVLPSOLFLW\DQG
JHQHUDOL]DELOLW\RIJUDPPDUV  375¶V PRGHO LQ DFFRUGDQFH ZLWK %D\HV¶ UXOH DUJXHV WKDW WKH SRVWHULRU SUREDELOLW\ IRU D
JUDPPDUGJLYHQDFRUSXVDLVSURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHSURGXFWRIWKHSULRUSUREDELOLW\IRUGDQG
WKHOLNHOLKRRGIRUGRQDDVLQ     ‫݌‬ሺ‫ܩ‬ȁ‫ܦ‬ሻ ‫݌ ן‬ሺ‫ܦ‬ȁ‫ܩ‬ሻ‫݌‬ሺ‫ܩ‬ሻ
7KHFRPSRQHQWVRIWKLVUXOHDUHUHYLHZHGEHORZ *UDPPDUVDQG7KHLU3ULRU3UREDELOLWLHV ,Q375¶VSURSRVDOJUDPPDUVDUHEXLOWLQVXFKDZD\WKDWWKH\KDYHWKHPLQLPXPQXPEHURIUXOHVQHHGHGWRJHQHUDWHWKHVHQWHQFHVLQDJLYHQFRUSXV  LVDQH[DPSOHRIDFRUSXV:HFDOO
LW³&RUSXV$´&RUSRUDFRQVLVWRIVWULQJVRIFDWHJRU\V\PEROVQRWDFWXDOZRUGVEHFDXVH375¶VVWXG\LVSULPDULO\LQWHUHVWHGLQDFTXLVLWLRQRIVHQWHQFHSDWWHUQVUDWKHUWKDQOH[LFDODFTXLVLWLRQ
7KHFRUSXVLQFOXGHVN VDQGDet N VDVRSSRVHGWRJohn cameDQGthe girl ran  Corpus A19 

'HW19 

7KLVPHDQVWKDWZKDWZHQRUPDOO\XQGHUVWDQGDVpre-terminalsymbolsLQFRQWH[WIUHHJUDPPDUVDUHWUHDWHGDVterminalsKHUHVHH.RUQDLDQG3XOOXP  IRUYLUWXDOO\WKHVDPHDSSURDFK  6HH3HUIRUV7HQHQEDXP*ULIILWKVDQG;X  ZKHUHDWXWRULDOLQWURGXFWLRQWR%D\HVLDQPRGHOVRIFRJQLWLYHGHYHORSPHQWLVSURYLGHG -4-

(YDOXDWLQJ7ZR*UDPPDU7\SHVIRU-DSDQHVH 7)XMLLDQG+<DPDVKLWD  $FFRUGLQJO\ OHW XV LQWURGXFH JUDPPDUV WKDW FDSWXUH WKH FRUSXV 7KHUH DUH WZR JUDPPDUW\SHV:HFDOORQHW\SH³$OZD\V13*UDPPDUV´DQGWKHRWKHU³6RPHWLPHV13*UDPPDUV´
7KHJUDPPDUVGLIIHULQWHUPVRIKRZWRFRQFHLYHWKHQRWLRQ³1RXQ3KUDVH´8QGHU$OZD\V13
*UDPPDUV QRW RQO\ WKH VWULQJ N EXW DOVR WKH VWULQJ Det N LV DQ 13 8QGHU 6RPHWLPHV13
*UDPPDUV LQ FRQWUDVW WKH VWULQJ Det N IRUPV DQ 13 ZKLOH N GRHV QRW ,I ZH FRQVLGHU WKHVPDOOHVWJUDPPDURIHDFKW\SHWKDWJHQHUDWHVWKHVHQWHQFHVZHREWDLQWKHVHWVRIUXOHVVKRZQLQ7DEOH  1RWHDOVRWKDW375¶VV\VWHPWDNHVLQWRFRQVLGHUDWLRQWKHQXPEHURIQRQWHUPLQDOVWKDWRIWHUPLQDOVDQGWKDWRISURGXFWLRQUXOHVLQHDFKJUDPPDUZKHQFDOFXODWLQJSULRUSUREDELOLWLHV$VVKRZQLQ7DEOH$OZD\V13DQG6RPHWLPHV13*UDPPDUVDUHQRGLIIHUHQWLQWHUPVRIWKH
QXPEHUVRIWKHV\PEROVDQGUXOHV 
7DEOH  7KH $OZD\V13 *UDPPDU DQG WKH 6RPHWLPHV13 *UDPPDU EXLOW WR FRYHU WKHVHQWHQFHVLQ&RUSXV$

7KH$OZD\V13*UDPPDU
7KH6RPHWLPHV13*UDPPDU 
5XOHV

6o139
13o'HW1_1

3URSHUWLHVQRQWHUPLQDOV WHUPLQDOV 
UXOHV 

6o19_139
13o'HW1




QRQWHUPLQDOV WHUPLQDOV 
UXOHV 






 :LWKWKLVVHWWLQJLQPLQGOHWXVVHHKRZWKHSULRUSUREDELOLWLHVIRUWKHWZRJUDPPDUVDUH
FDOFXODWHG7KHSULRUSUREDELOLW\IRUDJUDPPDUGLVFDOFXODWHGE\WKHHTXDWLRQJLYHQLQ  
ZKHUHVn, PDQGNiLQGLFDWHWKHQXPEHURIYRFDEXODU\LWHPVWKDWRIQRQWHUPLQDOVWKDWRISURGXFWLRQUXOHVDQGWKDWRIULJKWKDQGVLGHLWHPVIRUSURGXFWLRQUXOHiUHVSHFWLYHO\   Prior probability


ே

ଵ

೔

‫݌‬ሺ‫ܩ‬ሻ ൌ ‫݌‬ሺܲሻ‫݌‬ሺ݊ሻ ς௉௜ୀଵ ‫݌‬ሺܰ௜ ሻ ς௝ୀଵ௏


7KXVIRULQVWDQFHp(Always-NP Grammar) UHIOHFWVWKHIROORZLQJSUREDELOLWLHV L KRZOLNHO\DJUDPPDUHQGVXSKDYLQJSURGXFWLRQUXOHV LL KRZOLNHO\DJUDPPDUHQGVXSKDYLQJQRQWHUPLQDOV\PEROV LLL KRZOLNHO\HDFKSURGXFWLRQKDVWKHQXPEHURIULJKWKDQGVLGHLWHPVWKDWLWKDV HJS o NP VKDVWZR DQG LY KRZOLNHO\HDFKULJKWKDQGVLGHLWHPIRUWKDWSURGXFWLRQUXOHLVFKRVHQIURPDPRQJWKHILYHFDWHJRU\V\PEROV HJNPLQS o NP VLVFKRVHQZLWKSUREDELOLW\ )LQDOO\375DVVXPHWKDWp(P)p(n)DQGp(Ni)DUHJHRPHWULFGLVWULEXWLRQVZLWKSDUDPHWHU 7KHODUJHUWKHQXPEHURIYRFDEXODU\V\PEROVWKHQXPEHURISURGXFWLRQUXOHVDQGWKHQXPEHURIULJKWKDQGVLGHLWHPVRIHDFKSURGXFWLRQDUHWKHORZHUp(P)p(n)DQGp(Ni)
  ,QDGGLWLRQ3HUIRUV7DQHQEDXPDQG5HJLHU  WDNHLQWRDFFRXQWSUREDELOLWLHVRISURGXFWLRQUXOHV:HRPLWSURGXFWLRQSUREDELOLWLHVLQRXUFDOFXODWLRQVIROORZLQJ3HUIRUV7DQHQEDXPDQG5HJLHU    7KHUHIRUH ‫݌‬ሺ݊ሻ  ൌ  ሺͳ െ ͲǤͷሻ௡ିଵ ‫Ͳ כ‬Ǥͷ -5-

1DQ]DQ/LQJXLVWLFV5HVHDUFK5HVXOWVDQG$FWLYLWLHV



DUH %HFDXVH ZHKDYHWRGHDOZLWKYHU\VPDOO QXPEHUV WKH FDOFXODWLRQV DUH GRQHLQ WKH ORJGRPDLQ  VKRZVWKHSULRUSUREDELOLWLHVIRUWKHWZRJUDPPDUVWKDWFDSWXUH&RUSXV$    /RJ p $OZD\V13*UDPPDUIRU&RUSXV$  

/RJ p 6RPHWLPHV13*UDPPDUIRU&RUSXV$  
 
7KH$OZD\V13*UDPPDULVVOLJKWO\SUHIHUUHGWRWKH6RPHWLPHV13*UDPPDU:HZLOOVHHLQ
6HFWLRQWKDWDPRUHUHPDUNDEOHGLIIHUHQFHHPHUJHVZKHQWKHFRUSXVLVH[SDQGHG /LNHOLKRRG3UREDELOLWLHVIRU*UDPPDUV*LYHQD&RUSXV  7KHOLNHOLKRRGSUREDELOLW\IRUDJUDPPDURQDFRUSXVLVWKHSUREDELOLW\RIDOOWKHVHQWHQFHVLQWKHFRUSXVRFFXUULQJDWWKHVDPHWLPHXQGHUWKHJUDPPDU,Q  WKHFRUSXVDFRQWDLQVk
VHQWHQFHVS1, . . ., Sk    Likelihood‫݌‬ሺ‫ܦ‬ȁ‫ܩ‬ሻ ൌ  ς௞௜ୀଵሺܵ௜ ȁ‫ܩ‬ሻ
)RULQVWDQFH N VLVSDUVHGDVLQWKHWUHHGLDJUDPLQ  XQGHUWKH$OZD\V13*UDPPDU,Q
WKLVJUDPPDUDQ6QRGHLVDOZD\VUHZULWWHQWKLVZD\EHFDXVHLWKDVRQO\RQH6UXOH$Q13
QRGHLQFRQWUDVWLVUHZULWWHQDVDet NRIWKHWLPHDQGDVNRIWKHWLPHLIWKHWZR
1UXOHVDUHZHLJKWHGHTXDOO\7KXVS >6>131@9@             6
3URGXFWLRQUXOH 3UREDELOLW\
6o139     13        9
13o'HW1
13o1     1
*HQHUDOO\VSHDNLQJLIWKHUHDUHPDQ\ZD\VWRUHZULWHDJLYHQQRQWHUPLQDOQRGHXQGHU*LWFRQWULEXWHVWRGHFUHDVLQJWKHOLNHOLKRRGSUREDELOLW\IRU*/LNHZLVHLIDVHQWHQFHLVDVVLJQHGD
PRUHFRPSOH[WUHH LHRQHFRQWDLQLQJPRUHQRQWHUPLQDOQRGHV LWPD\DOVRFRQWULEXWHWR
GHFUHDVLQJWKHOLNHOLKRRG  

7DEOH+RZWKHVHQWHQFHVRI&RUSXV$DUHDVVLJQHGSUREDELOLWLHVE\WKH$OZD\V13DQG
6RPHWLPHV13*UDPPDUV 
6HQWS 7UHHTIRUS6VLQT 13VLQT 3UREDELOLW\DVVLJQHGWRS$OZD\V13 * 19
>6>131@9@
IRU&RUSXV$  'HW19 >6>13'HW1@9@     

6RPHWLPHV13 19
>619@
*IRU&RUSXV$ 'HW19 >6>13'HW1@9@    


7KH ORJ SULRU OLNHOLKRRG DQG SRVWHULRU SUREDELOLWLHV IRU $OZD\V13 DQG 6RPHWLPHV13

-6-

(YDOXDWLQJ7ZR*UDPPDU7\SHVIRU-DSDQHVH 7)XMLLDQG+<DPDVKLWD *UDPPDUVIRU&RUSXV$DUHJLYHQLQ7DEOH7KHSRVWHULRUIRUWKH$OZD\V13*UDPPDULVVOLJKWO\KLJKHUWKDQWKDWIRUWKH6RPHWLPHV13*UDPPDU7KLVLVGXHWRWKHSUHIHUHQFHLQSULRU
IRUWKHIRUPHUJUDPPDURYHUWKHODWWHUEHFDXVHWKHWZRJUDPPDUV¶OLNHOLKRRGVDUHQRGLIIHUHQW
7DEOH/RJSULRUOLNHOLKRRGDQGSRVWHULRUSUREDELOLWLHVIRU$OZD\V13DQG6RPHWLPHV
13*UDPPDUVIRU&RUSXV$7KHKLJKHUSUREDELOLWLHVDUHKLJKOLJKWHG $OZD\V13*UDPPDUIRU&RUSXV$
6RPHWLPHV13*UDPPDUIRU&RUSXV$
3ULRU/LNHOLKRRG

3RVWHULRU3ULRU/LNHOLKRRG

3RVWHULRU











 ([SDQGLQJWKH&RUSXVDQG*UDPPDUV¶*HQHUDOL]DELOLW\  7ZRJUDPPDUVWKDWDUHFRPSDWLEOHZLWKDFRUSXVPD\GLIIHULQVXFKDZD\WKDWRQHFDSWXUHVD OLQJXLVWLFDOO\ VLJQLILFDQW JHQHUDOL]DWLRQ ZKLOH WKH RWKHU PLVVHV LW ,Q WKH FDVH RI JUDPPDUFRPSDULVRQGLVFXVVHGVRIDU$OZD\V13*UDPPDUVFDSWXUHWKHJHQHUDOL]DWLRQWKDWWKHV\QWDFWLFGLVWULEXWLRQVRINDQGDet NDUHHVVHQWLDOO\WKHVDPH7KHVWULQJthe manRFFXUVZKHUHJohn
RFFXUVDQGYLFHYHUVD:HTXLFNO\VHHKRZWKHPRGHOFDSWXUHVWKLV  /HWXVH[WHQG&RUSXV$WRLQFOXGHVRPHQHZVHQWHQFHV7KHODUJHUFRUSXV&RUSXV%KDV
IRXU QHZ VHQWHQFHV XQGHUVFRUHG LQ   :H QRZ KDYH WUDQVLWLYH VHQWHQFHV LQ RXU FRUSXV$FFRUGLQJO\WKH$OZD\V13DQG6RPHWLPHV13*UDPPDUVIRU&RUSXV$DUHUHYLVHGWRFRYHU
WKHQHZGDWDZKLOHNHHSLQJWKHLUPDMRUIHDWXUHVWKHVDPHERWKNDQGDetNDUHGRPLQDWHGE\
NPLQWKHUHYLVHG$OZD\V13*UDPPDUZKHUHDVRQO\Det NLVGRPLQDWHGE\NPLQWKHUHYLVHG
6RPHWLPHV13*UDPPDU  Corpus B 19 
191
'HW191
'HW19 
19'HW1 'HW19'HW1
7KLVH[WHQVLRQRIWKHFRUSXVUHVXOWVLQWKHIROORZLQJVLWXDWLRQZKLOHRQO\RQHUXOHQHHGVWREH
DGGHGLQ$OZD\V13*UDPPDUVIRXUUXOHVQHHGWREHLQ6RPHWLPHV13*UDPPDUV 
7DEOH7KHUXOHVDQGWKHQXPEHUVRIWKHV\PEROVUXOHVRIWKH$OZD\V13DQG6RPHWLPHV
13*UDPPDUVIRU&RUSXV% 
$OZD\V13*UDPPDUIRU
6RPHWLPHV13*UDPPDUIRU
&RUSXV%
&RUSXV%
5XOHV

6o139_13913
13o'HW1_1

V\PEROV  QRQWHUPLQDOV 
DQGUXOHVWHUPLQDOV UXOHV 

6o19_139_191_1913 
1391_13913
13o'HW1




QRQWHUPLQDOV WHUPLQDOV 
UXOHV 







-7-





1DQ]DQ/LQJXLVWLFV5HVHDUFK5HVXOWVDQG$FWLYLWLHV

7KHSUREDELOLWLHVIRUWKHUHYLVHGJUDPPDUVDUHJLYHQLQWKHVHFRQGURZLQ7DEOH 

7DEOH/RJSULRUOLNHOLKRRGDQGSRVWHULRUSUREDELOLWLHVIRU$OZD\V13DQG6RPHWLPHV
13 *UDPPDUV IRU &RUSRUD $ DQG % )RU HDFK FRUSXV WKH KLJKHU SULRU OLNHOLKRRG DQGSRVWHULRUSUREDELOLWLHVDUHKLJKOLJKWHG $OZD\V13*UDPPDUV 
6RPHWLPHV13*UDPPDUV

3ULRU/LNHOLKRRG

3RVWHULRU3ULRU/LNHOLKRRG 3RVWHULRU

)RU&RUSXV$











)RU&RUSXV%













&RPSDUHGWRZKDWKDSSHQVEHIRUHWKHFRUSXVJHWVH[WHQGHGWKHSRVWHULRUIRUWKH$OZD\V13
*UDPPDULVPRUHFOHDUO\SUHIHUUHGWRWKDWIRUWKH6RPHWLPHV13*UDPPDU0RUHVSHFLILFDOO\ZKDWFRQWULEXWHVWRWKLVGLIIHUHQFHPRVWLVWKDWWKH6RPHWLPHV13*UDPPDU¶VSULRUSUREDELOLW\UDGLFDOO\GURSVIURPWR7KHSULRUGURSVLQWKH$OZD\V13*UDPPDUDVZHOOEHFDXVHWKHJUDPPDUJHWVFRPSOH[EXWLWRQO\GURSVWRDOHVVHUGHJUHHIURPWR
,W LV DOVR QRWHZRUWK\ WKDW WKHUH LV QRW PXFK GLIIHUHQFH EHWZHHQ WKH WZR JUDPPDUV LQ WKHLUOLNHOLKRRGV7KLVVHHPVWREHEHFDXVHFRUSXVH[WHQVLRQFRVWVERWKJUDPPDUW\SHVEXWLWGRHV
VRLQGLIIHUHQWPDQQHUVZKLOHWKH$OZD\V13*UDPPDUW\SHVXIIHUVIURPKDYLQJWRJHQHUDWH
WUHHV ZLWK PRUH 13V HPEHGGHG WKH 6RPHWLPHV13 *UDPPDU W\SH VXIIHUV IURP KDYLQJ WR
FKRRVHIURPVL[GLIIHUHQWUXOHVHYHU\WLPHLWH[SDQGVDQ6   7KLVZD\WKHV\VWHPDOORZVXVWRVHHKRZJUDPPDUVRIRQHW\SHGHVFULEHWKHGDWDPRUH
HIILFLHQWO\WKDQJUDPPDUVRIWKHRWKHUW\SH  &RPSDULQJ7ZR*UDPPDU7\SHVIRU-DSDQHVH 7KH)LUVW7U\  :HDUHQRZSUHSDUHGWRDSSO\375¶VHYDOXDWLRQPHWULFWRWKHWZRJUDPPDUW\SHVLQWURGXFHG
LQ6HFWLRQ7KHVLPSOHGHFODUDWLYHVHQWHQFHDeNA-ga SoftBank-ni kattaµ7KH'H1$%D\6WDUVEHDWWKH6RIW%DQN+DZNV¶LVGLDJUDPHGLQD&+*UDPPDUDQG++*UDPPDUDVLQ DE 
UHVSHFWLYHO\ 7RVLPSOLI\WKHFDOFXODWLRQV RI SULRU DQG OLNHOLKRRG SUREDELOLWLHV ZHIRFXV RQ
JUDPPDUVZKHUH1LVQRWGRPLQDWHGE\13   D               &3     E             6          6               &   1              93         1               93       

'H1$    1              9
  'H1$     1              9       6RIW%DQN       9       &          6RIW%DQN         NDWWD                     NDWWD      

-8-

(YDOXDWLQJ7ZR*UDPPDU7\SHVIRU-DSDQHVH 7)XMLLDQG+<DPDVKLWD  7KH&RUSXV :HXVHDWR\FRUSXVVKRZQLQ)LJXUHDVRXUODQJXDJH)ROORZLQJ375ZHGLYLGHWKHPDLQFRUSXVLQWRGLIIHUHQWVXEFRUSRUDLQRUGHUWRVHHLIWKHOLNHOLKRRGRIDJUDPPDUYDULHVGHSHQGLQJ
RQWKHFRPSOH[LW\RIWKHFRUSXVXVHG:HFUHDWHWKUHHFRUSXVOHYHOV/HYHO  FRQWDLQV PRVWEDVLFSDWWHUQVVLPSOHWUDQVLWLYHDQGLQWUDQVLWLYHVHQWHQFHV0XOWLFODXVHVHQWHQFHVDUHDGGHGDW/HYHO7KH\KDYHFRPSOHPHQWFODXVHVKHDGHGE\LQWUDQVLWLYHDQGWUDQVLWLYHYHUEV$WWKHWKLUGOHYHOWKHSDWWHUQVZHFRQVLGHUDVFRQWDLQLQJDGMXQFWFODXVHVDUHDGGHG%RWKWKHPDLQFODXVHVDQGWKHDGMXQFWFODXVHVDUHYDULHGLQWHUPVRIWKHLUWUDQVLWLYLW\6HH7DEOHIRULOOXVWUDWLRQVRIWKHVHVHQWHQFHSDWWHUQVZLWK-DSDQHVHH[DPSOHV 
/HYHO/HYHO/HYHO

19& 119&

119&9& 1119&9&

19&  19&

119&  19&

19&  119&

119&  119&)LJXUH7KUHHOHYHOFRUSXVDQGWKHVHQWHQFHSDWWHUQVWKDWWKH\FRPSULVH 


7DEOH6WULQJVRIV\PEROVLQWKHFRUSXVDQGSRVVLEOHQDWXUDOODQJXDJHH[DPSOHVRIWKHP 
6WULQJ([DPSOH
19&

DeNA-ga katta.
µ'H1$ZRQ¶ 

119&

DeNA-ga SoftBank-ni katta µ'H1$EHDW6RIW%DQN¶

119&9&

Hiroshi-wa DeNA-ga katta-to itta.
µ+LURVKLVDLGWKDW'H1$KDGZRQ¶ 1119&9&

Hiroshi-wa DeNA-ga SoftBank-ni katta-to itta.
µ+LURVKLVDLGWKDW'H1$KDGEHDWHQ6RIW%DQN¶

19&  19&

Hiroshi-ga kaetta-node DeNA-ga katta.
µ%HFDXVH+LURVKLOHIW'H1$ZRQ¶

119&  19&

Hiroshi-ga siai-o mita-node DeNA-ga katta.
µ%HFDXVH+LURVKLZDWFKHGWKHJDPH'H1$ZRQ¶ 

19&  119&

Hiroshi-ga kaetta-node DeNA-ga SoftBank-ni katta.
µ%HFDXVH+LURVKLOHIW'H1$EHDW6RIW%DQN¶ 

119&  119& 

Hiroshi-ga siai-o mita-node DeNA-ga SoftBank-ni katta.
µ%HFDXVH+LURVKLZDWFKHGWKHJDPH'H1$EHDW6RIW%DQN¶ 


7KHFRUSXVLVQRWUHDOLVWLFLQWKDWLWFRQWDLQVWRRIHZSDWWHUQVDQGWKDWWKHOHYHOVGRQRWUHIOHFWWKHZD\WKHFRPSOH[LW\RIWKHOHDUQHU¶VLQSXWFKDQJHVGXULQJWKHFRXUVHRIDFTXLVLWLRQ -9-

1DQ]DQ/LQJXLVWLFV5HVHDUFK5HVXOWVDQG$FWLYLWLHV

 7KHVHQWHQFHSDWWHUQVLQRXUFRUSXVKRZHYHUDUHIRXQGLQUHDOFKLOGGLUHFWHGVSHHFK7KH
XWWHUDQFHV LQ   DUH DOO IURP WKH $ULND FRUSXV RI &+,/'(6 2VKLPD7DNDQH HW DO 1LVLVDZDDQG0L\DWD ,WVKRXOGEHQRWHGWKDWKHUHDJDLQZHDEVWUDFWDZD\IURPPDQ\JUDPPDWLFDOIHDWXUHVRI-DSDQHVH HJDUJXPHQWGURSULJKWGLVORFDWLRQ    D19&
QDQND 
XJRLWD 
VRPHWKLQJ PRYHG
µ6RPHWKLQJPRYHG¶ $ULND0FKD E119&
$ULFKDQN\RRQR  J\R]DZD 
MRR]XQL  WXNXWWHQH $ULFKDQWRGD\*(1  GXPSOLQJ723  ZHOO&23  PDNH6)3µ$ULFKDQ,KRSH\RX¶OOPDNHJRRGGXPSOLQJVWRGD\¶  $ULND0FKD F119&9& 
NRUH ]HPEX  DUX  NDGRRND  PLWH  PL\RR 
WKLV  DOO 
H[LVW  ZKHWKHU  VHH  OHW¶VVHH µ/HW¶VVHHLIZHKDYHDOORIWKLVKHUH¶  $ULND0FKD G1119&9&
NRUH  QDQL  QRQGH  L UX  WR  RPRX  NRQRKLWR  
WKLV  ZKDW  GULQN  352*  WKDW  WKLQN  WKLVSHUVRQµ:KDWGR\RXWKLQNKHLVGULQNLQJKHUH¶  $ULND0FKD H119&119&
LPDKLWRWVXQR 
RPRFKDR  GDVKLWDUD KLWRWVXQR  RPRFKDZD VKLPDXQGD 
QRZRQH&/*(1  WR\$&&  WDNHLI RQH&/*(1 WR\723  SXWZD\6)3
µ,I\RXWDNHDWR\RXW\RXVKRXOGSXWZD\RQHRND\"¶  $ULND0FKD 
7KHVHFKLOGGLUHFWHGXWWHUDQFHVVXJJHVWWKDWWKHFRUSXVZHGLVFXVVLVQRWHQWLUHO\K\SRWKHWLFDO  7KH*UDPPDUV  7RJHQHUDWHWKHVXEVHWVRIWKHFRUSXVZLWKWKHPLQLPXPQXPEHURI UXOHV ZH SRVLW WKUHH
JUDPPDUVIRUHDFKJUDPPDUW\SHDVVKRZQLQ)LJXUH$W/HYHOWKHJUDPPDUVDUHGHVLJQHGWRFRYHUWKHVHQWHQFHVFRQWDLQHGLQWKH/HYHOVXEFRUSXV$/HYHOWKH\DUHGHVLJQHGWRFRYHUWKHVHQWHQFHVZLWKFRPSOHPHQWFODXVHVDVZHOOEHFDXVHWKHVXEFRUSXVFRQWDLQVWKHP
)LQDOO\DW/HYHOWKHWZRJUDPPDUVDUHH[WHQGHGVRWKDWWKH\FDQJHQHUDWHXSWRWKHFRPSOH[VHQWHQFHVFRQWDLQLQJDGYHUELDOFODXVHVDGMRLQHGLQVHQWHQFHLQLWLDOSRVLWLRQ -10-

(YDOXDWLQJ7ZR*UDPPDU7\SHVIRU-DSDQHVH 7)XMLLDQG+<DPDVKLWD  7R FDOFXODWH WKH SULRUV IRU WKHVH VL[ JUDPPDUV ZH QHHG WR GHFLGH WKH QXPEHU RI QRQWHUPLQDOVWHUPLQDOVDQGUHZULWLQJUXOHV7KHWDVNLVWULYLDOIRU&+*UDPPDUVEXWLWLVQRWIRU
++*UDPPDUV7KLVLVVREHFDXVHLQWKHODWWHUJUDPPDUVWKHV\PERO9LVXVHGDVDWHUPLQDOV\PERO DV ZHOODVDQRQWHUPLQDOV\PERO   LV WKH VWUXFWXUHRI D WUDQVLWLYH 93 XQGHU ++
*UDPPDUV 

/HYHO/HYHO/HYHO



&RPS+HDG
*UDPPDUV+HDG+HDG
*UDPPDUV&3o6&
6o193
93o9_196o193
93o9_19
9o9&

93o&39

93o69

6o&36

6o66

)LJXUH7ZRJUDPPDUVDW/HYHOVDQGWKHUXOHVWKH\FRPSULVH7KHKLJKHUWKHOHYHOLVWKHPRUHUXOHVHDFKJUDPPDUW\SHKDV   
 93 5XOH3UREDELOLW\
6o193
 1           9 
93o9 93o19        9          &9o9&
9Do nothing:LWKLQWKHVWDQGDUGFRQFHSWLRQRIFRQWH[WIUHHJUDPPDUV VHHHJ/DUVRQ&DUQLH 
ZHWDNHWKLVVLWXDWLRQWRPHDQWKDW9LVDPELJXRXVEHWZHHQEHLQJDWHUPLQDODQGEHLQJDQRQWHUPLQDOXQGHU++*UDPPDUV7KXVLQWKH/HYHO++*UDPPDUIRUH[DPSOHWKHJUDPPDU¶V
QRQWHUPLQDOV\PEROVLQFOXGH693DQG9ZKHUHDVLWVWHUPLQDOV\PEROVLQFOXGH19DQG&
7KLVOHDGVWRWKHVWDWHRIDIIDLUVZKHUHIRUHDFKFRUSXVWKH&+DQG++*UDPPDUVGRQRWGLIIHU
LQWHUPVRIWKHQXPEHUVRIWKH QRQ WHUPLQDOV\PEROVDQGSURGXFWLRQUXOHVDVVKRZQLQ7DEOH 
7DEOH7KHQXPEHUVRIWKHV\PEROVDQGUXOHVRIWKH&+DQG++JUDPPDUW\SHVDW/HYHOV$WHDFKOHYHOWKHWZRJUDPPDUVGRQRWGLIIHULQWHUPVWKHQXPEHUVRIQRQWHUPLQDOVWHUPLQDOVDQGUHZULWLQJUXOHV &+*UDPPDU ++*UDPPDU /HYHOQRQWHUPLQDOV WHUPLQDOV 
UXOHV 





QRQWHUPLQDOV WHUPLQDOV 
UXOHV 





/HYHOQRQWHUPLQDOV WHUPLQDOV 
UXOHV 





QRQWHUPLQDOV WHUPLQDOV 
UXOHV 





-11-

1DQ]DQ/LQJXLVWLFV5HVHDUFK5HVXOWVDQG$FWLYLWLHV
/HYHOQRQWHUPLQDOV WHUPLQDOV 
UXOHV 

QRQWHUPLQDOV WHUPLQDOV 
UXOHV 










 $FFRUGLQJO\WKHSURGXFWLRQUXOHVDUHDVVLJQHGSURGXFWLRQSUREDELOLWLHVWKHZD\VKRZQLQ
7DEOH

7DEOH5XOHVRIWKH&+DQG++JUDPPDUVDQGWKHLUSUREDELOLWLHVDW/HYHOV &+*UDPPDU ++*UDPPDU 


5XOH

3URE

5XOH

3URE/HYHO

&3o6&
6o193 
93o9 
93o19








6o193
93o993o199o9&
9Do nothing







/HYHO&3o6&
6o193 
93o9 
93o19
93o&39









6o193
93o993o19
93o699o9&
9Do nothing








/HYHO







&3o6&
6o193 
6o&36
93o9 
93o19
93o&39










6o1936o6693o993o19
93o699o9&
9Do nothing










 5HVXOWVDQG'LVFXVVLRQ 1RZOHWXVFDOFXODWHWKHSULRUOLNHOLKRRGDQGSRVWHULRUSUREDELOLWLHVIRUHDFKJUDPPDU7KH
UHVXOWVDUHVKRZQLQ7DEOH$WHDFKOHYHOWKHWZRJUDPPDUW\SHVKDSSHQWRKDYHWKHVDPH
SULRUSUREDELOLW\:KDWPDNHVDGLIIHUHQFHLVWKHLUOLNHOLKRRGSUREDELOLWLHV$WHDFKOHYHOWKH
&+*UDPPDUVFRUHVEHWWHUWKDQLWV++FRXQWHUSDUW 

7DEOH/RJSULRUOLNHOLKRRGDQGSRVWHULRUSUREDELOLWLHVIRU&+DQG++*UDPPDUV7KH
KLJKHUSUREDELOLWLHVDUHKLJKOLJKWHG
&+*UDPPDU++*UDPPDU

3ULRU/LNHOLKRRG

3RVWHULRU3ULRU/LNHOLKRRG 3RVWHULRU/HYHO











/HYHO













/HYHO











-12-

(YDOXDWLQJ7ZR*UDPPDU7\SHVIRU-DSDQHVH 7)XMLLDQG+<DPDVKLWD 
7RVHHZK\WKHUHVXOWVKDYHWXUQHGRXWWKLVZD\FRQVLGHUKRZWKHWZRJUDPPDUW\SHVDVVLJQD
SUREDELOLW\WRWKHVWULQJN N V C V CZKLFKFRUUHVSRQGVWRHiroshi-wa DeNA-ga kattta-to itta
µ+LURVKLVDLGWKDWWKH'H1$KDGZRQ¶$VVKRZQLQ  WKH&+*UDPPDUDVVLJQVWRWKH
VWULQJRIV\PEROVZKHUHDVWKH++*UDPPDUVDVVLJQVWRWKHVDPHVWULQJ&UXFLDOLVWKDWLQ
++*UDPPDUVHYHU\WLPHD9QRGHLVHQFRXQWHUHGDFKRLFHKDVWREHPDGHDVWRZKHWKHUWR
H[SDQGVRUQRW,IWKH9QRGHLQTXHVWLRQLVDQRQWHUPLQDOLWLVUHZULWWHQWR9&LILWLVD
WHUPLQDOQRPRUHUXOHVDSSO\   DCH Grammar>&3  >61 >93  >&3  >61 >939@@&@9@@&@          





EHH Grammar>61 >93  >61 >93  >99&@@@  >99&@@@          
*HQHUDOO\VSHDNLQJLIDVHQWHQFHKDVPRUHYHUEVLWORZHUVWKHSUREDELOLW\RIWKHVHQWHQFHWRD
JUHDWHUGHJUHHLQD++*UDPPDUWKDQLQD&+*UDPPDU)RUWKLVUHDVRQWKH&+*UDPPDUVVFRUHEHWWHULQOLNHOLKRRGSUREDELOLW\WKDQWKH++*UDPPDUVDWDOOWKHWKUHHOHYHOV  7RZDUGVD0RUH/LQJXLVWLFDOO\,QIRUPHG&RPSDULVRQRIWKH7ZR*UDPPDU7\SHV %367KHRUHWLF&RQVLGHUDWLRQV 'RHVWKHILQGLQJUHSRUWHGLQWKHSUHYLRXVVXEVHFWLRQOHDGXVWRFRQFOXGHWKDW&+JUDPPDUVDUHVXSHULRUWR++*UDPPDUV":HDUJXHWKDWLWGRHVQRWQHFHVVDULO\5HFDOOWKDW&+*UDPPDUVDUHPRUHKLJKO\YDOXHGLQOLNHOLKRRGSUREDELOLW\QRWSULRUSUREDELOLW\5HFDOODOVRWKDWZKHQD++*UDPPDU¶VOLNHOLKRRGLVFDOFXODWHGHYHU\9QRGHLVDVVLJQHGSUREDELOLW\EHFDXVHWKHUH
LVDFKRLFHDVWRZKHWKHUWRH[SDQGWKHQRGHRUWHUPLQDWHWKHUHZULWLQJSURFHVVWKHUH:HDUJXHWKDW WKH UHDVRQ IRU &+ *UDPPDUV EHLQJ PRUH KLJKO\ YDOXHG LV HVVHQWLDOO\ EHFDXVH WKHIUDPHZRUNRIFRQWH[WIUHHJUDPPDUVWKDWXQGHUOLHWKH375PRGHOIRUFHVXVWRSRVLWWZRNLQGV
RI 9 XQGHU ++ *UDPPDUV 7KXV WKH VLJQLILFDQFH RI WKH UHVXOWV VHHQ DERYH GHSHQGV KRZVXEVWDQWLDOWKHWHUPLQDOQRQWHUPLQDOGLVWLQFWLRQLVLQOLQJXLVWLFWKHRU\  ,Q IDFW %DUH 3KUDVH 6WUXFWXUH &KRPVN\  &K   ZKHUH EDUOHYHO QRWDWLRQV DUHHOLPLQDWHG VXJJHVWV WKDW WKH WHUPLQDOQRQWHUPLQDO GLVWLQFWLRQ PLJKW QRW EH FRQFHSWXDOO\QHFHVVDU\8QGHUWKHODWWHUWKHRU\&+*UDPPDUVZRXOGSDUVHDWUDQVLWLYHVHQWHQFHDVLQ D 
RQ WKH RQH KDQG ZKLOH ++ *UDPPDUV DV LQ E  RQ WKH RWKHU &UXFLDOO\ WKH JUDPPDWLFDODV\PPHWU\ EHWZHHQ WKH WZR JUDPPDU W\SHV VHHPV WR YDQLVK 1RZ ERWK JUDPPDUV LQYROYHWHUPLQDOQRQWHUPLQDODPELJXLWLHV  +RZGRHVWKLVFKDQJHDIIHFWWKHUHVXOWV"7DEOHOLVWVWKHUXOHVRIWKH*+DQG++*UDPPDUVDWWKHWKUHHOHYHOVDQGWKHLUSURGXFWLRQSUREDELOLWLHV7KHILQDOUHVXOWVDUHVKRZQLQ7DEOH -13-

1DQ]DQ/LQJXLVWLFV5HVHDUFK5HVXOWVDQG$FWLYLWLHV D








      &







 E       9

      9          &







1           9

1           9 







      1            9

       1            9               9          &

7DEOH5XOHVRIWKH%36YHUVLRQVRI&+DQG++*UDPPDUVDQGWKHLUSUREDELOLWLHVDW/HYHOV  %36&+*UDPPDU %36++*UDPPDU 


5XOH

3URE

5XOH

3URE/HYHO
&o9&&Do nothing9o19 
9Do nothing






9o199o9&
9Do nothing 







/HYHOV DQG
&o9&&Do nothing9o19
9o&9 
9Do nothing







9o199o999o9&
9Do nothing 









7DEOH/RJSULRUOLNHOLKRRGDQGSRVWHULRUSUREDELOLWLHVIRUµEDUHSKUDVHVWUXFWXUH¶&+
DQG++*UDPPDUV$WHDFKOHYHOWKHKLJKHUSULRUOLNHOLKRRGDQGSRVWHULRUSUREDELOLWLHVDUHKLJKOLJKWHG %36&+*UDPPDUV%36++*UDPPDUV

3ULRU/LNHOLKRRG

3RVWHULRU3ULRU/LNHOLKRRG

3RVWHULRU/HYHO

      /HYHO













/HYHO














7KHUHVXOWVUHYHDOWKDWDWDOOWKHFRUSXVOHYHOVWKH&+*UDPPDUVDUHSUHIHUUHGRYHUWKH++
*UDPPDUV7KHUHDVRQVHHPVWREHWKDWSURGXFWLRQSUREDELOLWLHVLQ++*UDPPDUVDUHJHQHUDOO\ORZHUWKDQWKRVHLQ&+*UDPPDUVDVFDQEHREVHUYHGLQ7DEOH7KLVJHQHUDOO\FDXVHVWKH
++*UDPPDUV¶OLNHOLKRRGSUREDELOLWLHVORZHU  )XUWKHU'LVFXVVLRQ :KDWFDQZHFRQFOXGHIURPWKHHYDOXDWLRQVRIWKH&+DQG++*UDPPDUVLQWKH%36VHWWLQJ"
:HDUHQRZPRUHFHUWDLQWKDQEHIRUHWKDW&+*UDPPDUVDUHVOLJKWO\EXWFRQVWDQWO\SUHIHUUHG
RYHUWKHLU++FRXQWHUSDUWV:KLOHWKHDUJXDEO\XQVXEVWDQWLDODV\PPHWU\EHWZHHQWKHJUDPPDUW\SHVLVHOLPLQDWHG LHERWKJUDPPDUW\SHVQRZLQYROYHWKHWHUPLQDOQRQWHUPLQDODPELJXLW\LQTXHVWLRQ WKH&+*UDPPDUVVFRUHEHWWHUWKDQWKH++*UDPPDUVHYHQLIWKHGLIIHUHQFHPD\
EHVPDOO -14-

(YDOXDWLQJ7ZR*UDPPDU7\SHVIRU-DSDQHVH 7)XMLLDQG+<DPDVKLWD  7KHVHUHVXOWVZLWKWKHVHFRQGPRGHOKRZHYHUDUHKDUGWRLQWHUSUHWZHKDYHWRVD\)LUVWLI
%367KHRU\LVZKDWZHVKRXOGSXUVXHKHUHWKHJUDPPDWLFDOIUDPHZRUNXQGHUO\LQJWKH375
HYDOXDWLRQPHWULFLVDWRGGVZLWKWKDW:KHQWKHFRPSOH[LW\RIDSDUWLFXODUJUDPPDULVHYDOXDWHGZHVKRXOGQRWORRNDWWKHQXPEHURIWHUPLQDOVDQGQRQWHUPLQDOVWRPHDVXUHLWVYDOXHLIZHWKLQNWKDWWKHVHQRWLRQVDUHJURXQGOHVV  )XUWKHUPRUH LW VKRXOG EH QRWHG WKDW WKH %36 JUDPPDUV GLVFXVVHG DERYH DUH HPSLULFDOO\LQDGHTXDWHLQ PDQ\ ZD\V$PRQJ RWKHUWKLQJV WKH\ PDVVLYHO\ RYHUJHQHUDWH XQJUDPPDWLFDO
VWULQJV XQOLNH WKH PRUH WUDGLWLRQDO WKHRULHV WKDW ZH DGRSW LQ WKH ILUVW PRGHO )RU H[DPSOH
DVVXPLQJ WKDW & DQG 9 DUH FRQVLGHUHG DV VWDUW V\PEROV LQ %36 &+ DQG ++ *UDPPDUVUHVSHFWLYHO\ERWKJUDPPDUVJHQHUDWHWKHVWULQJV CZKLFKLVFRQVLGHUHGXQJUDPPDWLFDO7KH
FDXVHRIRYHUJHQHUDWLRQRIWKLVVRUWREYLRXVO\LVWKHODFNRIVXEFDWHJRUL]DWLRQLQFRQWH[WIUHHJUDPPDUV 7UDQVLWLYH DQG LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV IRU LQVWDQFH UHTXLUH VXEMHFW DUJXPHQWV 7KLVUHTXLUHPHQWLVHQFRGHGE\WKH6UXOHVLQWKHQRQ%36JUDPPDUV$QGLWLVQRWSRVVLEOHWRXVH
DQ 6UXOH LQ %36 JUDPPDUV 7KH VLWXDWLRQ LV QRW VXUSULVLQJ DW DOO ,W KDV EHHQ QRWLFHG VLQFH
6WRZHOO   WKDW SKUDVH VWUXFWXUH UXOHV OLNH WKRVH ZH FRQVLGHU LQ WKH SUHYLRXV VHFWLRQLPSOLFLWO\ HQFRGH ZKDW VXEFDWHJRUL]DWLRQ IHDWXUHV GR DQG IRU WKLV YHU\ UHDVRQ WKH\ DUHFRQVLGHUHGUHGXQGDQW7KH%36YHUVLRQVRIWKHPKDYHQRUHGXQGDQF\LQWKLVUHVSHFWEXWDVDWUDGHRII ORVH WKH DELOLW\ WR FDSWXUH WKH UHVWULFWLRQV RQ ZKDWHOHPHQWV HDFK YHUE FDQ FRRFFXUZLWK 3UREOHPVRIWKH%36JUDPPDUVOLNHWKHVHPDNHWKHPIDUIURPUHDOLVWLFDVWKHRULHVRI-DSDQHVHV\QWD[  7KXVRQHIXWXUHWDVNZRXOGEHWRUHFRQVLGHUWKH%36JUDPPDUVXQGHUO\LQJRXUHYDOXDWLRQPHWULFLQDZD\WKDWDOORZVXVWRKDQGOHVXEFDWHJRUL]DWLRQ$UHWKHUHDQ\JUDPPDUVZHFDQDGRSWIRUWKDWSXUSRVH"0LQLPDOLVW*UDPPDUV 6WDEOHU.REHO+XQWHU*UDI DUHDQREYLRXVFDQGLGDWHDOWKRXJKLWWDNHVXVWRRIDUDILHOGWRDVNDWWKLVSRLQWZKDWWKH
SULRUVDQGWKHOLNHOLKRRGVIRU0LQLPDOLVW&+DQG++*UDPPDUVVKRXOGORRNOLNH  &RQFOXVLRQ :HKDYHDSSOLHG3HUIRUV7HQHQEDXPDQG5HJLHU¶V  PRGHORIVHQWHQFHVWUXFWXUHDFTXLVLWLRQ WR FRPSDULVRQ RI WZR JUDPPDU W\SHV IRU -DSDQHVH $OWKRXJK WKH UHVXOWV RI WKH
SUHVHQWVWXG\PD\EHWDNHQDVVXJJHVWLQJWKDW&RPSOHPHQW+HDG*UDPPDUVEHPRUHKLJKO\YDOXHGWKDQ+HDG+HDG*UDPPDUVZHDUJXHWKDWFDXWLRXVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQLVUHTXLUHG:HKRSH
  2WKHU SUREOHPV LQFOXGH WKH IDFW WKDW QHLWKHU JUDPPDU FDQ GLVWLQJXLVK FRPSOHPHQWV DQG DGMXQFWVWKRXJKWKHSUREOHPLVQRWLQKHUHQWWRWKHFRQWH[WIUHHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRI%36WKHRU\ +RUQVWHLQDQG1XQHV 7KDWLVZK\QRQHZUXOHVDUHDGGHGWRDJUDPPDUZKHQWKHFRUSXVLVH[WHQGHGIURP/HYHOWR
/HYHO   ,QFLGHQWDOO\PDQ\DQDO\VHVWKDWDGRSWD&+JUDPPDUDVVXPHKHDGPRYHPHQW 2WDQLDQG:KLPDQ.RL]XPL.LVKLPRWR)XQDNRVKL+D\DVKLDQG)XMLL
6DWRDQG+D\DVKLDPRQJPDQ\RWKHUV 7KLVIHDWXUHFDQQRWEHDGGHGWRDQ\RIWKHJUDPPDUVZH
KDYHFRQVLGHUHGKHUHEXWFDQEHDGGHGWR0LQLPDOLVW*UDPPDUV -15-

1DQ]DQ/LQJXLVWLFV5HVHDUFK5HVXOWVDQG$FWLYLWLHV

WRKDYHVKRZQWKDWOHDUQLQJPRGHOVRIWKHVRUWGLVFXVVHGKHUHPD\EHXVHIXOIRUWKHRU\VHOHFWLRQ
DQG WKDW WKHRUHWLFDO FRQVLGHUDWLRQV RQ WKH JUDPPDUV XQGHUO\LQJ WKHP DUH FUXFLDO LQ RUGHU WR
REWDLQPHDQLQJIXOUHVXOWV 
5HIHUHQFHV $R\DJL+LURVKL  Nihongo no Zyosi to Kinoohantyuu >-DSDQHVH3DUWLFOHVDQG)XQFWLRQDO+HDGV@+LWX]L6\RER7RN\R &DUQLH$QGUHZ  Constituent Structure2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV2[IRUG8.
&KRPVN\1RDP  Aspects of Theory of Syntax0,73UHVV&DPEULGJH0DVV &KRPVN\ 1RDP   ³5HPDUNV RQ 1RPLQDOL]DWLRQ´ ,Q Reading in English Transformational
Grammar5-DFREVDQG3HWHU5RVHQEDXPHGV*LQQ:DOWKDP± &KRPVN\1RDP  The Minimalist Program0,73UHVV&DPEULGJH0DVV &KRPVN\1RDPDQG0RUULV+DOOH  Sound Patterns of English+DUSHU 5RZ1HZ<RUN )DUPHU$QQ  Modularity in Syntax0,73UHVV&DPEULGJH0DVV )UHLGLQ5REHUWDQG+RZDUG/DVQLN  ³6RPH5RRWVRI0LQLPDOLVPLQ*HQHUDWLYH*UDPPDU´,Q
The Oxford Handbook of Linguistic Minimalism &HGULF %RHFN[ HG 2[IRUG 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV
2[IRUG± )XMLL 7RPRKLUR   ³+REXQ QR .R]R WR 8PHNRPL +REXQ QR %XQUXL 6WUXFWXUH RI &RPSOHPHQW&ODXVHV DQG &ODVVLILFDWLRQ RI (PEHGGHG &ODXVHV ´ ,Q Nihongo Bunpo Handobukku -DSDQHVH
*UDPPDU+DQGERRN .HLNR0XUDVXJL0DPRUX6DLWR<RLFKL0L\DPRWRDQG.HQVXNH7DNLWDHGV
7RN\R.DLWDNXVKD±  )XNXL 1DRNL DQG +LURPX 6DNDL   ³7KH 9LVLELOLW\ *XLGHOLQH IRU )XQFWLRQDO &DWHJRULHV 9HUE
5DLVLQJLQ-DSDQHVHDQG5HODWHG,VVXHV´Lingua±  )XNXL1DRNLDQG<XML7DNDQR  ³6\PPHWU\LQ6\QWD[0HUJHDQG'HPHUJH´Journal of East
Asian Linguistics± )XQDNRVKL .HQVKL   Syntactic Head Movement and Its Consequences 3K' GLVVHUWDWLRQ
8QLYHUVLW\RI0DU\ODQG )XQDNRVKL .HQVKL  ³9HUE6WUDQGLQJ9HUE 3KUDVH (OOLSVLV LQ -DSDQHVH´ Journal of East Asian
Linguistics ± )XQDNRVKL.HQVKL  ³9HUE5DLVLQJDQG93)URQWLQJLQ-DSDQHVH´The Linguistic Review± 
*UDI 7KRPDV   Local and Transderivational Constraints in Syntax and Semantics 3K'
GLVVHUWDWLRQ8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD/RV$QJHOHV +DQ&KXQJK\H-HIIUH\/LG]DQG-XOLHQ0XVROLQR  ³95DLVLQJDQG*UDPPDU&RPSHWLWLRQLQ.RUHDQ(YLGHQFHIURP1HJDWLRQDQG4XDQWLILHU6FRSH´Linguistic Inquiry± +DQ &KXQJK\H -HIIUH\ /LG] DQG -XOLHQ 0XVROLQR   ³(QGRJHQRXV 6RXUFHV RI 9DULDWLRQ LQ
/DQJXDJH$FTXLVLWLRQ´Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences ±+D\DVKL 6KLQWDUR DQG 7RPRKLUR )XMLL   ³6WULQJ 9DFXRXV 9HUE 5DLVLQJ 7KH &DVH RI 9te LQ
-DSDQHVH´Gengo Kenkyu±   +D\DVKL6KLQWDURDQG7RPRKLUR)XMLL  ³3UHGLFDWH(OOLSVLV1XOO$GMXQFWVDQG3UHGLFDWH5DLVLQJ
LQ-DSDQHVH´Proceedings of CLS 51, ± 
+RUQVWHLQ 1RUEHUW DQG -DLUR 1XQHV   ³$GMXQFWLRQ /DEHOLQJ DQG %DUH 3KUDVH 6WUXFWXUH´
Biolinguistics± -16-

(YDOXDWLQJ7ZR*UDPPDU7\SHVIRU-DSDQHVH 7)XMLLDQG+<DPDVKLWD +XQWHU7LP  Syntactic Effects of Conjunctivist Semantics: Unifying Movement and Adjunction
-RKQ%HQMDPLQV$PVWHUGDP3LWWVEXUJ .D\QH5LFKDUG  The Antisymmetry in Syntax0,73UHVV&DPEULGJH0DVV.LVKLPRWR+LGHNL  ³2Q9HUE5DLVLQJ´,QThe Oxford Handbook of Japanese Linguistics, 6KLJHUX
0L\DJDZDDQG0DPRUX6DLWRHGV2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV2[IRUG± .LWDJDZD <RVKLKLVD   Subject in Japanese and English 3K' GLVVHUWDWLRQ 8QLYHUVLW\ RI
0DVVDFKXVHWWV$PKHUVW.REHOH*UHJRU\0  Generating Copies: An Investigation into Structural Identity in Language
and Grammar3K'GLVVHUWDWLRQ8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD/RV$QJHOHV.RL]XPL0DVDWRVKL  ³6WULQJ9DFXRXV2YHUW9HUE5DLVLQJ´Journal of East Asian Linguistics
±.RRSPDQ+LOGD  ³.RUHDQ DQG-DSDQHVH 0RUSKRORJ\IURPD6\QWDFWLF3HUVSHFWLYH´Linguistic
Inquiry± .RUQDL$QGUiVDQG*HRIIUH\.3XOOXP  ³7KH;EDU7KHRU\RI3KUDVH6WUXFWXUH´Language
± .XURGD6<  Generative Grammatical Studies of the Japanese Language3K'GLVVHUWDWLRQ
0,7 .XURGD6<  ³&RPSOH[3UHGLFDWHVDQG3UHGLFDWH5DLVLQJ´Lingua ± /DUVRQ5LFKDUG  Grammar as Science0,73UHVV&DPEULGJH0DVV 
0L\DJDZD6KLJHUX  Complex Verbs and the Lexicon3K'GLVVHUWDWLRQ8QLYHUVLW\RI$UL]RQD
0L\DJDZD6KLJHUX  ³&DXVDWLYHV´,QThe Handbook of Japanese Linguistics1DWVXNR7VXMLPXUDHG%ODFNZHOO±
0XUDVXJL.HLNR  ³-DSDQHVH&RPSOH[1RXQ3KUDVHVDQGWKH$QWLV\PPHWU\7KHRU\´,QStep by
Step: Essays on Minimalist Syntax in Honor of Howard Lasnik5RJHU0DUWLQ'DYLG0LFKDOVDQG
-XDQ8ULDJHUHNDHGV0,73UHVV&DPEULGJH0DVV± 
1LVLVDZD+LUR<XNLDQG6XVDQQH0L\DWD  MiiPro-Arika Corpus7DON%DQN3LWWVEXUJ2WDQL.D]X\RDQG-RKQ:KLWPDQ  ³95DLVLQJDQG93(OOLSVLV´Linguistic Inquiry± 
2VKLPD7DNDQH<XULNRDQG%ULDQ0DF:KLQQH\+LGHWRVKL6LUDL6XVDQQH0L\DWD1RULR1DND  CHILDES Manual for Japanese2ndEdition7KH-&+$7SURMHFW&KXN\R8QLYHUVLW\ 
3HDUO /LVD   ³(YDOXDWLRQ 8VH DQG 5HILQHPHQW RI .QRZOHGJH 5HSUHVHQWDWLRQV 7KURXJK$FTXLVLWLRQ0RGHOLQJ´Language Acquisition±
3HDUO /LVD   ³3RYHUW\ RI WKH 6WLPXOXV :LWKRXW 7HDUV´ XQSXEOLVKHG PDQXVFULSW 8QLYHUVLW\ RI
&DOLIRUQLD,UYLQH 
3HUIRUV$QGUHZ-RVKXD%7HQHQEDXPDQG7HUU\5HJLHU  ³3RYHUW\RIWKH6WLPXOXV"$5DWLRQDO
$SSURDFK´,QProceedings of the 28th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society5RQ
6XQDQG1DRPL0L\DNHHGV1HZ<RUN /RQGRQ3V\FKRORJ\3UHVV± 
3HUIRUV $QGUHZ -RVKXD % 7HQHQEDXP DQG 7HUU\ 5HJLHU   ³7KH /HDUQDELOLW\ RI $EVWUDFW
6\QWDFWLF3ULQFLSOHV´Cognition± 
3HUIRUV $QGUHZ -RVKXD % 7HQHQEDXP 7KRPDV / *ULIILWKV DQG )HL ;X   ³$ 7XWRULDO,QWURGXFWLRQWR%D\HVLDQ0RGHOVRI&RJQLWLYH'HYHORSPHQW´Cognition 
6DLWR 0DPRUX   ³&DVH &KHFNLQJ9DOXDWLRQ LQ -DSDQHVH 0RYH $JUHH RU 0HUJH"´ Nanzan
Linguistics± 
6DLWR0DPRUXDQG1DRNL)XNXL  ³2UGHULQ3KUDVH6WUXFWXUHDQG0RYHPHQW´Linguistic Inquiry± 
6DLWR 0DPRUX DQG +LWRUR +RVKL   ³&RQWURO LQ &RPSOH[ 3UHGLFDWHV´ 3DSHU SUHVHQWHG DW WKH7VXNXED:RUNVKRSVRQ&RPSOH[3UHGLFDWHV-17-

1DQ]DQ/LQJXLVWLFV5HVHDUFK5HVXOWVDQG$FWLYLWLHV
6DLWR0DPRUXDQG+LURWR+RVKL  ³7KH-DSDQHVH/LJKW9HUE&RQVWUXFWLRQDQGWKH0LQLPDOLVW3URJUDP´,QStep by Step: Essays on Minimalist Syntax in Honor of Howard Lasnik5RJHU0DUWLQ'DYLG0LFKDHOVDQG-XDQ8ULDJHUHNDHGV0,73UHVV&DPEULGJH0DVV±
6DWR <RVXNH DQG 6KLQWDUR +D\DVKL   ³6WULQJဨ9DFXRXV +HDG 0RYHPHQW LQ -DSDQHVH 1HZ(YLGHQFHIURP9HUEဨ(FKR$QVZHUV´Syntax± 
6HOOV3HWHU  ³.RUHDQDQG-DSDQHVH0RUSKRORJ\IURPD/H[LFDO3HUVSHFWLYH´Linguistic Inquiry± 
6KLEDWD <RVKL\XNL   ³1HJDWLYH 6WUXFWXUH DQG 2EMHFW 0RYHPHQW LQ -DSDQHVH´ Journal of East
Asian Linguistics 
6KLPDGD -XQUL   ³+HDG 0RYHPHQW %LQGLQJ 7KHRU\ DQG 3KUDVH 6WUXFWXUH´ XQSXEOLVKHGPDQXVFULSW0,7
6WDEOHU (GZDUG   ³'HULYDWLRQDO 0LQLPDOLVP´ ,Q &KULVWLDQ 5HWRUp HG Logical Aspects ofComputational LinguisticsVolume 1328 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science,%HUOLQ6SULQJHU
9HUODJ
6WRZHOO7LP  Origins of Phrase Structure3K'GLVVHUWDWLRQ0,7 
7DNLWD .HQVXNH   ³,I &KLQHVH LV +HDG,QLWLDO -DSDQHVH &DQQRW %H´ Journal of East Asian
Linguistics 
7DNLWD .HQVXNH   ³96WUDQGLQJ 6OXLFLQJ DQG ,WV ,PSOLFDWLRQV´ ,Q Proceedings of NELS 411LFKRODV/D&DUD<HOHQD)DLQOHLEDQG<DQJVRRN3DUNHGV*/6$$PKHUVW0DVV±
7RNL]DNL+LVDRDQG<DVXWRPR.XZDQD  ³$6WUHVV%DVHG7KHRU\RI'LVKDUPRQLF:RUG2UGHUV´
,QTheoretical Approaches to Disharmonic Word Orders7KHUHVD%LEHUDXHUDQG0LFKHOOH6KHHKDQ
HGV2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV2[IRUG±
7RQRLNH6KLJHR  ³-DSDQHVHDVDQ269/DQJXDJH´,Q6KRVXNH+DUDJXFKLDQG0LFKLNR)XQDNL
HGVMinimalism and Linguistic Theory7RN\R+LWX]L6KRER :KLWPDQ-RKQ  ³*RMXQWR7RJRNR]R :RUG2UGHUDQG6\QWDFWLF6WUXFWXUH ´,QKaku to Gojun
to Togokozo &DVH:RUG2UGHUDQG6\QWDFWLF6WUXFWXUH E\.RLFKL7DNH]DZDDQG-RKQ:KLWPDQ
7RN\R.HQN\XVKD± <DQJ&KDUOHV  ³5DJH$JDLQVWWKH0DFKLQH(YDOXDWLRQ0HWULFVLQWKHVW&HQWXU\´Language
Acquisition: A Journal of Developmental Linguistics±

-18-