Department für Nutztiere und öffentliches Gesundheitswesen in der Veterinärmedizin
Veterinärmedizinische Universität Wien
Institut für Tierernährung und funktionelle Pflanzenstoffe(Vorstand: Univ. Prof. Dr. sc. agr. Quendrim Zebeli)







VEGAN NUTRITION OF DOGS AND CATS







Diplomarbeit
Zur Erlangung der Würde einer
MAGISTRA MEDICINAE VETERINARIAE
der Veterinärmedizinischen Universität Wien
Vorgelegt von Pia-Gloria Semp
Wien, im Dezember 2014

Betreuerin: A.o. Univ. Prof. Dr. med. vet. Christine IBEN
Gutachter: Priv.-Doz. Dr.med.vet. Florian Zeugswetter



















Table of Contents
1. Preface……………………………………………………………………………..……

1

2. Basic Nutrition Review………..………………………………………………………..

3

2.2.1.Macronutrients………..………………………………………………………. 3
2.2.2.Energy………………………………………………………………………… 3
2.2.3.Fats……………………………………………………………………………. 4
2.2.4.Carbohydrates………………………………………………………………… 6
2.2.5.Proteins..……………………………………………………………………… 7
2.2.6.Water………………………………………………………………………….. 92.2. Micronutrients………………………………………………………………………

9

3. Vegan Nutrition Issues
3.1. Protein – Amino Acids……………………………………………………………… 10
3.2. Vitamin D…………………………………………………………………………… 14
3.3. Vitamin A…………………………………………………………………………… 16
3.4. Vitamin B3………………………………………………………………………….. 17
3.5. Vitamin B12………………………………………………………………………… 18
3.6. Folic Acid…………………………………………………………………………… 20
3.7. Iron………………………………………………………………………………….. 21
3.8. Urinary pH………………………………………………………………………….. 22
4. Vegan Pet Foods
4.1. Commercial diets…………………………………………………………………… 23
4.1.1. Wet food………………………………………………………………………. 23
4.1.2. Dry Food……………………………………………………………………… 24
4.1.3. Nutritional additives………………………………………….……………….. 26
4.2. Home-prepared diets…………….………………………………………………….. 27
4.3. Supplements………………………………………………………………………… 28
5. Material and Method,.…………………………………………………………………… 29

6. Results…………………………………………………………………………………….31
6.1. Participants..…….……………………………………………………………………31
6.2. Questionnaire..……………………………………………………………………….31
6.2.1.Motifs .…….……………………………………………………………………31
6.2.2.Quality of Information………………………………………………………….31
6.2.3.Feeds……………………………………………………………………………32
6.2.4.Supplements…………………………………………………………………….32
6.2.5.Noticed Changes………………………………………………………………..32
6.3. Clinical Examination…………………………….………………………………..…33
6.3.1.Dogs…….………………………………………………………………………33
6.3.2.Cats…………….……………………………………………………………….35
6.4. Blood Assessment..…………………………………………………………………..37
6.4.1.Dogs………………………………………………………………………….…37
6.4.2.Cats..……………………………………………………………………………41
6.5. Urinary pH………………….………………………………………………………..43
6.6. Analysis of commercial vegan diets…………………………………………………44
6.6.1. Commercial diets for dogs……………………………………………………..44
6.6.1.1. Guaranteed Analysis……………………………………………………..44
6.6.1.2. Nutrient Levels……………….…………………………………………..45
6.6.1.3. Fulfillment of demand……………………………………………………47
6.6.2. Commercial diets for cats..…………………………………………….………48
6.6.2.1. Guaranteed Analysis……………………………………………………..48
6.6.2.2. Nutrient Levels………………………………………….………………..49
6.6.2.3. Fulfillment of demand……………………………………………………50
6.6.3. Self-prepared diets………..……………………………………………………52
7. Discussion…………………………………………………………….…………………..54
8. Summary………………………………………………………….……..………………..74
9. Zusammenfassung……….………………………………………………………………..76
10. List of tables and figures………………………………………………………………….79
11. References ………………………………………………………………..………………80
12. Appendix …………………………………………………………………………………85

1
1.

PrefaceMany people enjoy a vegetarian lifestyle today, with its most popular reasons being
ethic, moral, economic or religious. There are different types of vegetarianism, each
including or excluding specific foods. At its minimum, living a vegetarian lifestylemeans abstaining from the consumption of meat and fish (“ovo-lacto vegetarianism”).
More restricted diets are known as “Ovo-vegetarianism”, which includes eggs, but notdairy products or “Lacto-vegetarianism”, which includes dairy products, but no eggs. At
one of its most restricted forms, all animal flesh and products, including milk, honey,
eggs are excluded from the diet, but also by-products of animal slaughter (e.g. leather)avoided. This may even also include vitamin and mineral sources if they are derived
from animals. This type of diet is called veganism. The vegan society of America
defines it as following: “Veganism is a way of living which seeks to avoid, as far as
possible and practical, the use of animals for food, clothing or any other purpose. At theheart of veganism is the core principle that animals are not ours to be used. It’sessentially about respecting other animals, not causing them harm or using them asproperty.” Other than maybe some years ago, it seems today vegan nutrition has becomea more present topic in media, television and newspapers around us. Vegan restaurants
and supermarkets are opening and living a vegan lifestyle generally seems to become agrowing trend. Among most people, it is their love to animals and the worry about
intensive farming, as well as the abuse of animals and their intention to avoid any
animal suffering, that drives people to the only logical conclusion of avoiding anythingthat comes with exploitation of animals. This love for animals however often comeswith the wish of sharing one's life with a pet. If a carnivorous animal such as dog or cat
gets chosen, it might lead to contradictions with ones own dietary philosophy. Vegan
pet-owners often reach the point where they ask themselves if it is acceptable tocontinue feeding their cats and dogs animal derived foods and by doing so supporting
the system they actually intend to boycott. Therefore, some vegan pet owners decide toapply their own ideas of a plant based diet on their cats and dogs.
What might have been rather unthinkable a few years ago, or at least more difficult, has
become easier and rather quickly implementable. A constantly growing supply of pet
foods, specifically composed for this type of diet, paves the way for an uncomplicatedchange of feed and will therefore gain more and more importance in a veterinary clinic.

2
Proper nutrition is among the more important considerations in health maintenance anda key to disease management. A basic knowledge of nutrients, requirements, availability
and consequences of deficiencies or excesses is important to feed dogs and catscorrectly and give advice about feeding. To feed cats and dogs, who systemically belong
to the group of carnivora, on a purely plant-based diet, gives rise to the question if it is asafe and arguable option.
Both, plant- and meat-based foods, contain a fair amount of most vitamins and nutrients.
Specific ones, like vitamin B12 however, can not be found in plant products.
In this paper the issue shall be addressed, if vegan nutrition meets the nutrient
requirements of carnivorous pets such as cats and dogs, and if the supposition of thiskind of diet causes a lack of nourishment with certain nutrients. It could be expectedthat a purely plant based diet, might lack of nutrients like Vitamin B12, iron, folic acidor protein among others and lead to malnourishment of carnivorous pets like dogs andcats.
It is the intention of this paper to provide general information on vegan nutrition of dogs
and cats and furthermore to deal with how an adequate nutrient intake can be met with
only plant based feeds. Also it will provide information about what there is to be minded
and what a lack of nourishment with certain vitamins, essential amino acids, and othernutrients can result in.
In the following, after a short summary of general basic nutrition informations, thepaper will elaborate on specific nutritional issues of a vegan diet and take a closer lookat commercially produced vegan pet-foods and give examples of recipes used in home
prepared vegan diets.













3

2. Basic Nutrition Review
A basic knowledge of nutrients, requirements, availability and consequences of
deficiencies or excesses is important to feed dogs and cats correctly and give advice
about feeding. A nutrient is any food constituent that helps support life and is needed byan organism to live and grow. Nutrients are essential in that they are involved in a
number of functions of the body. Macronutrients are needed in larger quantities andinclude organic nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, and also water.
Macronutrients may be used for supplying energy but can also serve as structuralcomponents. Micronutritions are nutrients needed in very small amounts and include
organic nutrients like vitamins, and inorganic chemical compounds such as minerals(HAND et al., 2010).


2.1. Macronutrients
2.1.1. Energy
All living organisms need energy, not only to keep their body temperature up but also tofuel all bodily functions such as breathing, circulation, digestions, excretion and tosustain metabolism (MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010).
Providing energy is a key function of dietary intake, with fat and carbohydrates being
the main supplier. Although energy itself is not a nutrient, fats, carbohydrates and aminoacids contain energy in the form of chemical bonds and are the energy-containing
nutrients in food. Once eaten, these organic nutritional components are digested,absorbed and transported to body cells where they are used to generate energy. The body
captures nutrient energy in energy-containing compounds through a series of enzymaticbiochemical reactions (GROSS et al., 2010).
In nutrition, the joule is the internationally recognized unit of measure for energy.
A more commonly used energy measure is the calorie, which expresses energy in termsof heat. A kcal is 1,000 calories and a kilojoule (kJ) is 1,000 joules. Kcal and kJ can beinterconverted using the formula 1 kcal = 4.184 kJ (KAMPHUES et al., 2009).
The biochemical reactions that take place in the body either use or release energy.
Anabolic reactions require energy and, conversely, catabolic reactions release energy.

4Without energy supplied by food, reactions like pumping ions, molecular synthesis andactivation of contractile proteins would rapidly cease and death would occur. The mostimportant energy-containing compound is ATP.
ATP is the usable form of energy for body cells (HAND et al., 2010). Knowledge ofenergy requirements is needed to determine how much food has to be fed to an animal.
Determining energy requirements involves measuring energy expenditure of an animal
under a defined set of physiologic and environmental conditions (HAND et al., 2010).
Maintenance Energy Requirement is calculated for dogs using the formula 0,47 ME/kg
bw0,75 and 0,41 ME/kgbw0,75 for cats (KAMPHUES et al., 2009).
In dependance of breed, individual conditions and age, deviations from the mean of-25% to +50% are possible. MER will be higher in temperamental young short haired
dogs, which are kept outside and possibly less in old, lazy, long haired dogs, kept indoor (MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010).
Daily energy requirement (DER) represents the average daily energy requirement of any
animal and depends on life-stage and activity. Calculation is based on the resting energy
requirement (RER) for the animal modified by a factor to account for normal activity or
production (e.g., growth, gestation, lactation, work). The DER for growing, pregnant,lactating and exercising animals includes energy needed for maintenance plus the
additional energy for work and production. Estimates of the DER for dogs range
between 397 to 850 kJ of DE BWkg0.75 per day (HAND et al., 2010).
The NRC recommends a DER for adult cats of 290 to 380 kJ/BWkg0,75/day.


2.1.2.

Fats

Lipids are high energy compounds that supply nutritional and functional requirements in
mammals. Lipids that are solid at room temperature are commonly called fats whereas
those that are liquid at room temperature are referred to as oils. Dietary intake of lipids
benefits dogs and cats in many different ways including membranes, energy storage,
signaling and other functions. After absorption and breakdown of the absorbed fats,
fatty acids are burned and serve as energy supply. Dietary fats are the most concentrated
forms of energy sources in pet foods, supplying 2.25 times the metabolizable energy ofproteins and carbohydrates. Dietary fat provides a physical positive environment in the
gut that enhances absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) (HAND et al., 2010;
MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010).

5
There is no requirement of „fat“ as such but rather a requirement of essential fatty acids.
Fatty acids are the key constituent of lipids. Certain long-chain fatty acids that arenecessary for adequate physiologic functions cannot be synthesized de novo and themetabolism thus depends on adequate dietary intake. These fatty acids are called
essential fatty acids and insufficient supply leads to classic signs of deficiency. The Ω-3and Ω-6 fatty acid families are essential fatty acids. α-linolenic acid belongs to the Ω-3family and is required for brain and retinal function, contributing to cell membrane
fluidity and skin health. Members of the Ω-6 family include linolenic acid, γ-linolenicacid and arachidonic acid. Linolenic acid and α-linolenic acid are essential fatty acids
for both cats and dogs. Good examples of plant sources of linolenic acid and α-linolenicacid are safflower oil, sunflower oil or corn oil. Soybeans offer both linolenic acid and
α-linolenic acid in a great amount (FASCETTI and DELANEY, 2012; NRC; 2006).
Dogs are able to synthesize arachidonic acid by elongating and desaturating linolenicacid; However a study performed by MacDONALD et al (1984) suggested, cats cannot.
Cats therefore strongly depend on sufficient supply of this essential fatty acid in food,and as no arachidonic acid is found in common plants, in a vegan diet, cats depend on asynthetical composed arachidonic supplement added to their food. Arachidonic acid is
important for platelet aggregation, prevention of mild mineralization of the kidneys andfor reproduction especially in female cats (HAND et al., 2010).
Table 1: Requirements of linolenic acid (NRC, 2006)
Adult dogs

growing puppies

lactating bitches

0.4 g/ kg

0.8 g/ kg

1.6 g/ kg

Adult cats

growing kittens

lactating female cats

0.14 g/ kg

0.2 g/ kg

0.3 g/ kgComplete foods should contain a min. of 1-1.3% DM linolenic acid for dogs and 0.55 %DM for cats. Recommendations regarding arachidonic acid in food go from 0.006 %DM for adult cats to 0.02 % DM for weaning cats (F.E.D.I.A.F, 2013).Excess dietary
lipids may be assimilated and stored as fat in adipocytes. A Deficiency of fatty acids
will impair wound healing, cause a dry lusterless coat and scaly skin, and also change
the lipid film on the skin. If deficiency persists, alopecia, edema and moist dermatitis
may develop. An EFA deficiency can also lead to neonatal abnormalities and abortions(HAND et al., 2010; MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010).

6
2.1.3.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates encompass monosaccharides (e.g., glucose) and disaccharides (e.g.,sucrose), oligosaccharides (e.g., raffinose) and polysaccharides (e.g. starches).
The body uses simple carbohydrates and starches in foods as a source of glucose. They
provide energy (ATP) and are a source of heat for the body. Certain products can beused as building blocks for other nutrients, such as nonessential amino acids,
glycoproteins, glycolipids, lactose, vitamin C, etc.
Simple carbohydrates and starches in excess of the body’s immediate energy needs are
stored as glycogen or converted to fat (HAND et al., 2010).
Carbohydrates supply approximately 17 kJ/g (BIESALKSI et al., 2010). Although there
is no minimum dietary requirement for simple carbohydrates or starches per se, certain
organs and tissues (e.g. brain and red blood cells) require glucose for energy. The bodyalways maintains a glucose supply to key tissues; thus, if adequate dietary carbohydrates
are unavailable, amino acids will be used for glucose synthesis. When energy
requirements are high and tissue accretion is occurring (e.g., during growth, gestationand lactation), adequate dietary carbohydrates or glucose precursors are necessary tomaintain metabolic processes (HAND et al., 2010).
Dogs and cats do not have an absolute dietary requirement for carbohydrates in thesame way that essential amino acids or fatty acids must be provided. They do, however,
have a requirement for adequate glucose or glucose precursors to provide essential fuelfor the central nervous system. When energy needs are high and anabolic processes areproceeding at an active rate (e.g., during growth, gestation and lactation), it is best to
supply food containing readily digestible carbohydrates and starches.

Foods fed to

growing animals and those with high-energy needs should contain at least 20%
carbohydrates. Grains such as corn, rice, wheat, barley and oats provide the bulk of
starch in commercial pet foods and are well digested and absorbed due to cooking andextrusion processes during the pet food production. Starches are the primarycarbohydrates found in corn, wheat, rice, barley, oats and potatoes. Meat is a poor
carbohydrate source. Most starches from grains are easily digested in the small intestine,
when fed raw or cooked to dogs and cats. Sugar is sometimes added to enhance
palatability of pet foods. Unlike in people and other primates, dietary sugars do not posea risk for dental caries in dogs and cats (HAND et al., 2010).

7
Normal cats can maintain adequate blood glucose levels when fed low-carbohydrate,high-protein foods. Cats produce only 5% of the the amount of pancreatic amylase thatdogs produce. Unlike dogs, cats lack hepatic glucokinase activity, which limits theirability to metabolize large amounts of simple carbohydrates. If large amounts ofcarbohydrates are fed to cats signs of maldigestion occur (e.g., diarrhea, bloating andgas). Despite the limitations of digestive capacity and metabolism, the starch levels
found in commercial cat foods are well tolerated (HAND et al., 2010).


2.1.4.

Proteins

Proteins are the principal structural constituents of body organs and tissues, function as
enzymes, hormones and antibodies or supply energy. Muscle protein composes nearly
50% of total body protein. Proteins consist of a chain of amino acids, several of which
are classified as essential because they can not be synthesized in the body. 10 for dogs
and 11 for cats. The body is able to synthesize new proteins and enzymes provided that
all the necessary amino acids are available. Protein synthesis is limited when certain
amino acids are not present or available in the quantities needed (MEYER and
ZENTEK, 2010; HAND et al., 2010). A high rate of protein synthesis occurs during the
production of red and white blood cells, cells of the skin, GI tract and pancreas. In
addition, all body proteins are continuously broken down and re-synthesized. A fractionof amino acids are permanently lost as urea, ammonia, creatinine or nitrate in urine andfeces, sweat, semen, secretions, skin desquamation and loss of hair. The efficiency bywhich amino acids from food are converted into tissue describes protein quality (HAND
et al., 2010). Protein quality is influenced by amino acid availability and theirconcentration as well as the protein source. So called high quality proteins provide all
essential amino acids. When a protein lacks one ore more of the essential amino acids it
is referred to as poor quality protein.
Plant proteins are said to have a lower digestibility due to higher fiber content. In thestomach, a high fiber content leads to slower passage. However in the gut, high fiber
diets lead to quicker passage of the food which might reduce degradation rate ofnutrients and thus the availability of amino acids. However studies showed that ileal
digestibility of crude protein was higher for diets containing soy protein sources than forones containing poultry meal. Thus conducting soy protein sources are well utilized by

8
the dog prior to the terminal ileum, and soy protein concentrations offer a viable
alternative to poultry meal as a protein source (CLAPPER et al., 2001; GRIESHOP and
FAHEY, 2000). HUBER et al. (1994), observed no differences in protein digestion of
cereal based diets containing either soybean meal or meat and bone meal. A large
portion of the protein in cereal based dry pet foods typically comes from grains, rice,corn, wheat and barley. Soybean meal and corn gluten meal are concentrated sources ofplant protein (HAND et al., 2010). In addition to fiber content, protein availability canbe influenced by trypsin inhibitors, which are mainly found in plant protein source.
Trypsin and chymotrypsin are enzymes that play a key role in the digestion of protein inanimals. If inhibited, quality of food protein drastically decreases with lower availabilityof amino acids. Mild heat treatment during processing serves to inactivate the inhibitors
and improves digestibility of plant usually high in those inhibitors such as soy(HEGARTY et al., 1982). Furthermore a high percentage of the inhibitors is physicallyremoved, leaving soy isolates with a trypsin inhibitor activity as high as 40% of thatfound in raw soybeans (BAKER and RACKIS, 1986; FOX and CONDON, 1982 ;HAND et al., 2010). Protein quality of food can be improved through protein
complementation, feeding multiple protein sources or supplementing single amino acids
to the food (NRC, 2006). Rather than having a requirement of proteins, animals have anamino acid requirement. The amount of each amino acid that an animal requires varies
based on individual constitutions (HAND et al., 2010). Dogs and cats will increase foodintake to meet their amino acid requirements for maintenance if the food contains low
quality protein. Clinical signs of protein deficiency include reduced growth rate,
anorexia, anemia, infertility, alopecia, fatty liver, brittle hair and a poor coat, muscle
atrophy and decreased blood levels of albumin (HAND et al., 2010; NRC, 2006).
Protein intake above requirement should be carefully monitored in any animal withrenal or liver diseases. Feeding protein above requirements for healthy dogs and catsdoes not result in a true toxicity, because the excess amino acids from the protein arecatabolized and the waste nitrogen is excreted (HAND et al., 2010).
The National Research Council (NRC) has established that canine foods should containat least 22% protein, for growth, and 18% DM protein for adult maintenance (maximumof 30% DM dogs, 45% DM cats). Cats have higher protein requirements than mostother domestic species (HAND et al., 2010).

92.1.5.

Water

Water is one of the largest constituents of the animal body, varying up to more than 80%of the total. It is vital to life and is considered the most important nutrient. Water isnecessary for the chemical reactions that involve hydrolysis (e.g., enzymatic digestionof carbohydrates, proteins and fats) and is the solvent in which substances are dissolved
and transported from the intestines into the tissue. Water helps regulate bodytemperature and provides shape and resilience to the body.
Significant negative water balance can result in clinical dehydration, which can manifest
in loss of skin elasticity. As a major constituent of body fluids, water helps lubricate thejoints and eyes and provides protective cushioning for the nervous system. It aids in gas
exchange in respiration by keeping the alveoli of the lungs moist and expanded, and isimportant for the excretion of urinary excreted substances via the kidneys. Younger,
leaner animals contain more body water than fatter older animals. As animals mature,they require proportionately less water (HAND et al., 2010; MEYER and ZENTEK,2010).


2.2.

Micronutrients
Micronutrients are nutrients necessary for the body only in very small amounts but arenevertheless essential for good health. Micronutrients include organic nutrients likevitamins such as vitamin C, A, D, E, K and the B-complex vitamins. They also include
inorganic chemical compounds such as dietary minerals (micro minerals), macro
minerals (calcium, phosphorus, potassium, chloride, magnesium) or trace elements(iron, cobalt, chromium, copper, iodine, fluoride, manganese, selenium, zinc,…)(WEDEKIND et al., 2010).
Micronutrients can be found naturally in a variety of plant- and animal-based foods. In
the following, only those micronutrients are further discussed, which are mainly
provided by animal based foods and therefore might not be sufficiently provided in dogs
and cats fed on a vegan diet.




10
3.

Vegan Nutrition Issues


3.1.

Protein - Amino Acids

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Only 20 different amino acids are usedand combined in different ways to make up all proteins needed in the body. Many aminoacids are non-essential which means they can be synthesized in the body if adequate
nitrogen and energy is available. However, there are several amino acids that cannot be
synthesized in the body at all or not in sufficient quantities, and thus are essential aminoacids (HAND et al.., 2010; NRC, 2006).
If enough non-essential amino acids are not synthesized and not adequately derived
from food, essential amino acids will be converted into non-essential amino acids in the
body (LEWIS et al., 1990). Dogs depend on dietary intake of ten essential amino acids(arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine,tryptophan, and valine). Cats have a dietary requirement for an additional, eleventh,amino acid called taurine (NRC, 2006).
Amino acids are absorbed in the small intestinal lumen or fermented by bacterial
enzymes in the hind gut. The availability of amino acids can be affected by high food
dry matter intake, fiber, and foods that contain low quality protein (HAND et al., 2010).
Once absorbed, amino acids are reassembled into new proteins by the liver and othertissues of the body for tissue protein synthesis, synthesis of enzymes albumin hormones,
and deamination for energy (LEWIS et al., 1990).
If a ration is low of a specific essential amino acid, protein synthesis will stop as soon
this one essential amino acid is used up. This amino acid which is available in thesmallest amount is called limiting amino acid because it inhibits synthesis and limits thequality of the whole protein of the ration (KIRCHGEßNER et al., 2011).
Thus combining different protein sources can make the amino acid profile of a rationmuch more efficient and result in food with high quality protein (GILLEN, 2003). As an
example, corn protein is low in lysine and tryptophan whereas soybean meal is adequate
in both amino acids. Together they make up to a well balanced amino acid profile.
Furthermore, individual amino acids can be added to the food (HAND et al., 2010).
Combination of protein sources can result in imbalances or deficiencies of other aminoacids.

11
Imbalance occurs when one or more amino acids needed for protein synthesis are notavailable in the quantity needed, but at least one other amino acid is provided in excess.
Antagonism occurs when amino acids have similar chemical structures. Excess of one
increases the requirement of one or more chemically similar amino acids (HAND et al.,2010).


Arginine
Arginine is a key intermediate in the urea cycle, stimulating urea synthesis andactivating enzymes that lead to detoxification of ammonia for urea synthesis. It alsoelicits the release of sexual hormones and metabolic mediators (s.a. insulin, glucagonand gastrin). Arginine can be synthesized from citrulline and ornithine, which can bebuilt from glutamate in the small intestine gut wall (FISCHMANN, 2005) Ornithine andCitrulline, other urea cycle intermediates, can prevent hyperammonemia and substitutefor arginine (MORRIS et al., 1979). However, studies showed that neither ornithine nor
citrulline are present in high enough quantities to substitute for arginine (HAND et al.,2010). Arginine deficiency can lead to hyper-ammonnia, tremors, emesis, apnea,
cyanosis, and even death in cats (MORRIS and ROGER, 1978). Cats develop signs ofdeficiency rapidly (NRC, 2006).

Histidine
Histidine plays a structural role in proteins, acts glucogenic, and is the precursor ofneuroactive and regulative compounds (s.a. histamine). It also plays an important role inoxygen exchange in the lungs. Histidine deficiency leads to decrease in hemoglobin andalbumin (NRC, 2006).

Isoleucine
Isoleucine is ketogenic and glucogenic and a constituent of proteins (NRC, 2006).

LeucineLeucine acts ketogenic and as a constituent of proteins. It enhances protein synthesis,
increases plasma insulin and suppresses protein degradation in skeletal muscle (NRC,2006).

12
LysineLysine is a constituent of proteins and important for cross linkages in collagen. It is
often acting as a limiting amino acid when low protein cereal based diets are fed. Good
plant sources for Lysine are soybeans, soy protein isolate, wheat germ and beans. Lysine
is the precursor of carnitine (NRC, 2006).

Methionin
Methionin is the most limiting amino acid in a diet for cats and the first or second mostfor dogs. It plays important role in cell replication and phospholipid synthesis, anddeficiency will lead to interference with those processes (NRC, 2006).
If sufficient vitamin B is available, Methionin is a precursor to cysteine. Cysteine is non
essential per se, however as it can provide one half of total need for sulfur amino acids,
Cysteine has a special position among non-essential amino acids. It is an importantcomponent of protein, hair, and gluthationine which is an important. antioxidant.In cats,
excess consumption of Methioin can lead to severe hemolytic anemia and heinz bodies
formation (NRC, 2006).

Phenylalanine
Is needed for maximal black hair color and a constituent of proteins. It is the precursor
for Tyrosine, which spares one half of the phenylalanine needed and therefore takes a
special role among the non essential amino acids. Tyrosine is needed for protein
synthesis and the synthesis of thyroid hormones and catecholamines (NRC, 2006).

Threonine
Threonine is glucogenic and regulates enzyme activity (NRC, 2006).

Tryptophan
Is the precursor of neurotransmitter (Serotonin, Melatonin) and the precursor of niacinin dogs. Cats cannot synthesize a significant quantity of niacin from tryptophan, thus
depend on adequate dietary intake (NRC, 2006).

13
ValineValine is a constituent of proteins (NRC, 2006).


TaurineTaurine is an important essential amino acid for cats. Taurine is not incorporated into
proteins synthesized by the body but is rather found as a free amino acid in manytissues. Taurine acts as a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator and is involved withbody temperature regulation, maintenance of normal retinal structure and heart function.
Once absorbed in the intestine, it is conjugated to bile acids in the liver (assisting in theabsorption of dietary fats). Whereas dogs conjugate bile acids to both taurine andglycine, conjugate cats them only to taurine. Cats have an obligatory loss of taurine infeces and intestinal losses through enterohepatic circulation. Obligatory losses coupledwith little capacity for cats to synthesize taurine make it an essential amino acid for cats.
Taurine deficiency can lead to reproductive failure and central retinal degeneration.
Furthermore, it is well known that taurine deficiency can cause dilative cardiomyopathy
in American Cocker Spaniels and Golden Retrievers (SANDERSON, 2006;
BELANGER et al., 2005; KRAMER et al., 1995). It can be recommended to add taurine
supplementation to dog food in order to guarantee sufficient supply.
Also taurine requirement increases slightly with increased dietary protein (NRC, 2006).











14
3.2.

Vitamin D

Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that functions in the intestine, bone and kidney byenhancing intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphorus, stimulating deposition ofbone calcium and increasing renal reabsorption of calcium.The most important
substances in the body with Vitamin D function are cholecalciferol (Vitamin D3), which
occurs mainly in animals, and ergocalciferol (D2), which occurs predominantly in plants(MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010). Vitamin D2 is said to be less efficiently used thanvitamin D3 (HAND et al., 2010). However in dogs, different from cats, plant based
vitamin D2 is proved to be of almost the same efficiency as the animal based vitamin
D3 (MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010).
The skin of most mammals can produce cholecalciferol via activation of 7Dehydrocholesterol with ultraviolet-B light. However, according to HAZEWINKEL etal. (1987), HAZEWINKEL and TRYFONIDOU (2002) and MORRIS (1999), thisphotosynthesis pathway is inefficient in dogs and cats. Cats and dogs therefore
ultimately depend on adequate dietary intake of vitamin D. Vitamin D is absorbed fromthe small intestine by non-saturable, passive diffusion, which depends on bile salts. Likeother steroids, vitamin D is transported in association with proteins. Vitamin D is
distributed relatively evenly among the various tissues where it resides in lipid depots.
Vitamin D can be found in adipose, kidneys, liver, lungs, aorta and heart (HAND et al.,2010). In mammals, both vitamin D2 and D3 are not the active form of vitamin D. They
are activated in the body by hydroxylation first in the liver and again in the kidneys to
1,25-(OH)2-D3 (Calcitriol). The demand for this active substance depends on demandfor calcium and intake of phosphorus (MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010)
The vitamin D-dependent homeostatic system responds to changes in calcium
concentration. When serum calcium falls below a given level, parathormon (PTH) issecreted by the parathyroid glands, which function is to detect and correct
hypocalcemia. The kidneys respond to PTH, resulting in phosphate diuresis andstimulation of calcitriol synthesis, which leads to increased enteric absorption of
calcium and phosphate. In addition, calcitriol, cooperates with PTH in bone to promotemobilization of calcium and phosphate. The combined result of these responses is toincrease plasma concentration of calcium and phosphate (HAND et al., 2010).
Calcitonin is secreted by the thyroid gland when circulating concentrations of calcium

15
are increased. Calcitonin suppresses bone mobilization and may increase the renal
excretion of calcium and phosphate (HAND et al., 2010).
Animal products and tissues, especially fish and fish oils, are known to be good sourcesof vitamin D, whilst plants are usually rather devoid of that vitamin (MEYER and
ZENTEK, 2010) One group of investigators found that moist foods generally contained
higher levels of vitamin D than extruded foods (HAND et al., 2010).
Signs of vitamin D deficiency are frequently accompanied by a simultaneous imbalanceof calcium and phosphorus. Clinical signs generally include rickets, enlarged
costochondral junctions, osteomalacia, osteoporosis and decreased serum calcium andinorganic phosphorus concentrations (HAND et al., 2010). Deficiency generally leads toinsufficient mineralization of the skeleton (MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010).
In cats, deficiency results in neurologic abnormalities associated with degeneration of
the cervical spinal cord (MORRIS, 1996). Other signs include hypocalcemia, elevated
PTH concentrations, posterior paralysis, ataxia and eventual quadriparesis (HAND etal., 2010). The vitamin D allowance recommended by NRC (2006) is 13.8 μg
cholecalciferol (552 IU)/kg DM for dogs regardless of life stage, and 5.6 μgcholecalciferol/kg DM (250 IU) for cats for growth, and 7 μg cholecalciferol/kg DM(280 IU) for maintenance and reproduction (HAND et al., 2010). Excessive vitamin D3
supplementation; even if it is still below the toxic level, decreases bone remodeling andcauses focal enlargement of the growth plate in growing puppies. Excessive vitamin D
concentrations may result in hypercalcemia, soft-tissue calcification, and ultimately
death (HAND et al., 2010). The NRC (2006) proposed a safe upper limit of 80 μg
cholecalciferol (3,200 IU)/kg DM for dogs and 750 μg cholecalciferol (30,000 IU)/kg
DM for cats regardless of life stages.








16
3.3.

Vitamin A
Vitamin A, retinol, is a general term describing a group of compounds with the biologic
activity of retinol. Most of the preformed vitamin A in food is in the form of retinyl
esters, whereas the source of vitamin A from plants is in the form of provitamin A
carotenoids (HAND et al., 2010).
In nature, all of the vitamin A ingested by animals originates from carotenoids
synthesized by plants. The conversion of carotenoids to vitamin A requires oxidative
cleavage of the carotenoid molecule beta-carotene (NRC, 2006). Dogs have the ability
to use carotenoid precursors of vitamin A (s.a. beta-carotene) and convert it to retinol(NRC, 2006). Cats can absorb β-carotene but are unable to convert carotenoids tovitamin A and therefore cannot meet their vitamin A requirement from carotenoids(SCHWEIGERT et al., 2002).
1 IU of vitamin A is equal to 0.3 μg of retinol. 1mg beta carotin is equal toapproximately 500 IU vitamin A (MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010)
Vitamin A is essential for growth, reproduction, immune function and maintenance of
healthy epithelial tissue and is involved in the expression and regulation of many genes(HAND et al., 2010). Vitamin A is also the major component of the retina and thereforeof special importance for vision (MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010).
Retinyl esters and carotenoids are hydrophobic, thus their dispersion into the aqueous
environment of the small intestinal lumen requires bile salts for micellar solubilization.
Dietary carotenoids are therefore only absorbed half as well as preformed dietary
vitamin A. Vitamin A is transported through the lymphatic system to the liver, which is
the main storage site in both cats and dogs. In cats, kidneys contain a much higher
vitamin A concentration than other species (NRC, 2006).
NRC (2006) recommends a vitamin A allowance of 1,515 RE (retinal equivalent) (5,050
IU)/kg DM for dogs for all life stages and 1,000 RE (3,333 IU)/kg DM for cats for
growth and maintenance.
Signs of vitamin A deficiency can be night blindness, retinal degeneration and extreme
dryness of the conjunctiva. Other signs include anorexia, weight loss, ataxia, skinlesions, increased susceptibility to infection,

poor coat, weakness, increased

cerebrospinal fluid pressure, nephritis, skeletal defects and impaired reproduction

17(NRC, 2006). The most characteristic signs of hypervitaminosis A are skeletal
malformation, spontaneous fractures and internal hemorrhage . Other signs include
anorexia, slow growth, weight loss, skin thickening, suppressed keratinization,
increased blood clotting time, reduced erythrocyte count, enteritis, congenitalabnormalities, conjunctivitis, fatty infiltration of the liver and reduced function of liverand kidneys (HAND et al., 2010).
NRC (2006) proposed a safe upper limit of 64,000 RE (213,333 IU)/kg DM for adultdogs. The safe upper limit of vitamin A for cats is 100,000 RE (333,333 IU)/kg DM for
maintenance, gestation and lactation.
Naturally rich sources of vitamin A are fish oil, liver, egg and dairy products. The mostcommon vitamin A supplements used in pet foods include vitamin A esters (HAND etal., 2010). Plants, particularly bright yellow and orange ones, such as carrots, sweet
potato, kale, pumpkin are a good source for beta carotene, provitamin A (O’HEARE,
2013).


3.4.

Vitamin B3

Niacin is a water-soluble vitamin and is essential to several physiologic oxidoreductive
reactions and others that are significant in normal cell function.
Dietary niacin (nicotinic acid and nicotinamide) is absorbed readily through the gastricand small intestinal mucosa. In most mammals, foods high in tryptophan can alleviatesigns of niacin deficiency. However, cats cannot efficiently use tryptophan to synthesize
niacin and therefore have a strict dietary requirement for preformed niacin (HAND etal., 2010). Deficiency of niacin can result in dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia and death.
Cats are more likely to develop signs of deficiency than dogs because of their strict
requirement for niacin. Niacin deficiency may occur when foods with low quantities ofniacin and tryptophan are ingested (HAND et al., 2010). No niacin toxicity informationin cats or dogs is available, as excess niacin is excreted in urine.
The greatest amounts of niacin are found in animal based products, however cereals,
legumes (s.a. kidney beans), oilseeds and yeast especially are also rich of Niacin(HAND et al., 2010). According to the NRC (2006), the recommended allowance for
niacin is 17 mg/kg DM for dogs and 40 mg/kg DM for cats for all life stages.

18

3.5. Vitamin B12
Cobalamin is a water soluble Vitamin and the largest and most complex B vitamin.
It is synthesized only by certain microorganisms and all animals ultimately depend on
microbial synthesized cobalamin (NRC, 2006).
After oral intake, dietary vitamin B12 is freed from food peptides and proteins in thestomach by hydrolysis through gastric acidification and pancreatic enzymes (HAND etal., 2010). Free vitamin B12 binds to a glycoprotein, called the intrinsic factor (IF). IF is
essential for vitamin B12 absorption. In dogs, unlike humans, the pancreas is the major
and the stomach a lesser source of IF.

According to the NRC (2006), in cats, thepancreas is the sole source of IF. The resulting stable vitamin B12-IF complex is mainly
absorbed in the ileum but significant absorption was also noticed in the jejunum of dogs
and cats. After absorption by enterocytes, vitamin B12 is transported as
methylcobalamin in blood by proteins. In cats cobalamin is mainly present in the formof adenosylcobalamin and hydrocobalamin (NRC, 2006). Transcobalamin II, a protein
without a carbohydrate moiety, carries about 75% of vitamin B12 in the blood of dogs
and cats. (cf. HAND et al., 2010) A recessive heritable blockage of vitamin B12
absorption is known in Giant Schnauzers (MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010).
Cobalamin is bound to protein as methylcobalamin or adenosylcobalamin. (NRC, 2006)
The active forms of B12, coenzymes, adenosylcobalamin and methylcobalamin,
participate in the functioning of more than a dozen enzyme systems and have an
important role in biochemical processes.The two most important reactions involving
cobalamin are the conversion of methylmalonyl-coenzyme A (CoA) to succinyl-CoA
and the remethylation of homocysteine which leads to synthesis of methionine (HAND
et al., 2010).
All DNA- synthesizing cells take up vitamin B12 from the blood as vitamin B12 isrequired by the enzyme methionine synthase, which is needed for pyrimidine
biosynthesis (HAND et al., 2010).
The intestinal flora of dogs and cats can synthesize cobalamins in the presence of cobalt,
however, as the site of production is caudal to the site of absorption, this ability is not ofmuch use. Vitamin B12 therefore has to be supplied by adequate dietary intake. (NRC,
2006)

19
Only certain microorganisms synthesize cobalamin. Microbes and yeast can makevitamin B12 for absorption by animals. The major food sources of cobalamin are animal
products. Meat, and to some degree milk products, are good sources of vitamin B12.
Plant products are generally devoid of this vitamin or contain only very small amounts(NRC, 2006). HAND et al. (2010) suggest that longterm feeding of vegetarian diets maylead to vitamin B12 deficiency, as vitamin B12 is only made by microbes and found inanimal tissue. However, most commercial pet foods, including vegan or vegetarian pet
foods, are supplemented.
Vitamin B12 deficiency first becomes a problem in tissues with rapid cell division,
because fast dividing cells (such as enterocytes, bone marrow cells, neurocytes)
especially depend on cobalamin (KOOK, 2013).
Deficiency may result in poor growth and neuropathies, but can also lead to GI signs
and systemic complications such as immune deficiency and anemia (HAND et al.,2010). Other than inadequate dietary intake, exocrine pancreatic insufficiency is also
often associated with subnormal serum cobalamin concentrations, because secretion of
the intrinsic factor is reduced or absent. Furthermore, gastrointestinal diseases can cause
cobalamin deficiency. GI problems may affect the absorptive capacity of the ileal (andjejunal) mucosa and chronic enteropathies will lead to serum hypocobalaminemia andultimately to cobalamin deficiency (KOOK, 2013). Clinical signs of deficiency can not
be expected to occur immediately, as reserves of vitamin B12 in the liver can bemobilized (MEYER/ZENTEK, 2010).
According to a recent study (GRÜTZNER et al., 2010), Shar Peis have a highprevalence of cobalamin deficiency compared to other breeds and healthy appearing
Shar Peis may have subclinical cobalamin deficiency.
To detect early or mild cobalamin deficiency, measuring methylmalonic acid (MMA) or
total plasma homocysteine can be useful, as cobalamin deficiency leads to reduced
activity of these enzyme systems (NRC, 2006). However, this test is expensive andtherefore rarely used in veterinary medicine. Vitamin B12 may also be directly assessedby determination of serum vitamin B12 levels. The active forms of cobalamin fromdietary intake are very unstable. Commercially produced cobalamin is derived fromfermentation, and during isolation a cyano group is attached. Cyanocobalim isconsidered very stable in foodstuff (NRC, 2006) and may be used as pharmaceuticalsupplement, sane as hydroxocobalamin or nitritocobalamin (HAND et al., 2010).

20
The NRC (2006) recommended allowance for vitamin B12 is 35 μg cobalamin/kg DM
for dogs and 22.5 μg/kg DM for cats, regardless of life stages. A dietary maximum
concentration for vitamin B12 has not been proposed.
Cobalamin should be considered for supplementation whenever serum cobalamin is
subnormal or in the low normal range.
The Gastrointestinal Laboratory of the University for Texas, currently recommends
repeating subcutaneous injections of 250 µg per injection in cats and, depending on thesize of the patient, 250-1500 µg per injection in dogs.


3.6.

Folic Acid

Folate stands for a group of compounds with the biologic activity of folic acid.
Folic acid is absorbed in the small intestine and is important for the transfer of methylgroups in intermediary metabolism (MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010).
Pathways include nucleotide biosynthesis, phospholipid synthesis, amino acidmetabolism, neurotransmitter production and creatinine formation. In addition, vitamin
B12 is closely paired with folate in the production of methionine from homocysteine(HAND et al., 2010). Microorganisms in the intestine synthesize a large amount offolate, therefore adult dogs with normal intestinal function only have a small demandfor dietary intake (MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010). Folate is found in plant-based andanimal-based foods. Liver, egg yolks, green vegetables, salads and yeast are goodsources of folate. The vitamin is destroyed by heating, prolonged freezing and duringstorage in water. Commercial pet foods are supplemented with folate to overcome theeffects of processing and storage (HAND et al., 2010). Folate deficiency ischaracterized by poor weight gain, hypo chromic megaloblastic anemia, anorexia,
leukopenia and decreased immune function (MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010).
In cats, folate deficiency is associated with hyperhomocysteinemia. There have been noreported cases of folate toxicity and therefore no dietary maximum concentration for
folic acid has been proposed (HAND et al., 2010).
The NRC (2006) recommended allowance for folic acid is 270 μg/kg DM for dogs and750 μg/kg DM for cats regardless of life stage.




21
3.7.

Iron

Iron is a micro mineral which plays an important role in several enzymes and otherproteins responsible for oxygen activation, for electron transport, and for oxygen
transport (in hemoglobin and myoglobin) (HAND et al., 2010).
67% of iron in the body is present in hemoglobin, 27% in storage sites, 4% in muscle
tissue as myoglobin and the remainder in various enzyme systems that are important inenergy metabolism. The primary role of iron is the synthesis of hemoglobin andmyoglobin, where it functions as a binder and transporter of oxygen (NRC, 2006).
Iron in foods exists in two forms, heme iron present in hemoglobin and myoglobin (asin meat) and non-heme iron present in grains and plant sources (HAND et al., 2010).
The amount of iron absorbed from food is determined by the iron status of the body, theavailability of dietary iron and the amounts of heme and nonheme iron in food (HAND
et al., 2010). Heme iron absorption is not greatly affected by iron status or other dietaryfactors. In contrast absorption of nonheme iron is markedly influenced by iron status
and by several dietary factors such as phytate, tannins and excesses of phosphorus,
manganese, zinc, copper and ascorbic acid. Food rich in ascorbic acid has been provento have a positive influence on iron absorption. Calcium is a dietary factor that inhibits
both, heme and nonheme iron absorption (HAND et al., 2010). Various fiber sources(s.a. psyllium, pectin) also have shown to reduce the apparent percentage absorption of
Fe intake (in human diets) (NRC, 2006).
Iron is transported by plasma and is taken up by the bone marrow for hemoglobin
synthesis. Although a small amount of hemoglobin circulates in plasma, by far thegreatest amount of plasma iron is complexed to the specific iron-binding transferrin.
The degree of saturation of transferrin affects deposition of iron in liver stores and the
supply of iron to red blood cell precursors (HAND et al., 2010).
Iron is stored predominantly as ferritin and hemosiderin in liver, bone marrow andspleen. Iron is continuously lost in sweat, hair and nails, but because of the limited
capacity of the body to excrete iron, iron homeostasis is maintained primarily byadjusting iron absorption (HAND et al., 2010).
NRC (2006) recommends a minimum of 88 mg/kg DM iron for growth and 30 mg/kg
DM iron for adult dogs. Iron recommendation for cats is 80 mg/kg DM for growth andadult life stages.

22
Iron concentrations are high in most meat ingredients, especially organ meats such as
liver, spleen and lungs. Seaweed, soybeans, lentils, spinach and fiber sources such as
beet pulp, soy mill run and peanut hulls can be listed as good vegetarian sources of iron
(HAND et al., 2010).
Signs of deficiency are microcytic hypochromic anemia and a low percentage saturationof plasma transferrin, poor growth, pale mucous membranes, lethargy, weakness,diarrhea, hematochezia, and melena (FASCETTI et al., 2012).
Intake of larger amounts than necessary can overwhelm the small total binding capacityof proteins and result in the presence of toxic amounts of free Fe in the system.
However, since there are no studies of Fe toxicity in dogs being fed standard diets, norecommendation as to a safe upper limit can be made by the NRC (2006). However,iron excesses should be avoided because of potential antagonism with other minerals(e.g., zinc and copper) (HAND et al., 2010).


3.8.

Urinary pH

pH, power of hydrogen, is the measure for acidity or basicity of a solution. The range ofpH values goes from pH 0 to pH 14, with 0 being the value for concentratedhydrochloric acid, 7 being neutral pH and 14 the value for concentrated sodiumhydroxide. Therefore pH 1 – pH 6,9 describes an acidic solution, pH 7 a neutral solution
and pH 7,1 – 14 a basic solution. The normal healthy range for the pH of a cat's urine is
pH 5,5 - 7, the normal healthy range for the pH of a dog's urine is pH 5 – 7 (KRAFT
and DÜRR, 2013); However it is normal for some healthy normal dogs to have values alittle more acidic or basic. pH is important at it acts directly to crystallization in theurinary system and bladder stones.
A change in urinary pH does not indicate the presence or absence of stones but
influences conditions that are more or less likely to trigger stone production.
Excessive dietary vitamin C is raised as a concern in patients with a history of calcium
oxalate urolithiasis since it can increase urinary oxalate excretion (BAXMANN et al,2003).



23
4. Vegan Pet foods
The increasing demand for vegan pet feeds has prompted the marketing ofcommercially produced canned diet or kibble that meet up to the requirements and theidea of a strictly plant based diet and the vegan philosophy. Many options and brands
are available worldwide.


4.1. Commercial diets
A number of commercial vegetarian and vegan pet foods are available in Germany andAustria, of which the following were most commonly fed to dogs and cats participatingin this study on a regular daily basis.

4.1.1. Wet Food
• BENEVO DUO. Benevo Foods, Unit 5 Downley Point, Downley Road, Hants, P09
2NA, USA. www.benevo.com
A complete and nutritionally balanced adult vegetarian dog and cat food. Formulated byprofessional pet nutritionists, Benevo Duo is a tasty and digestible vegetarian foodprepared without animal ingredients, artificial flavours or colours. Free of all common
allergens such as meat, fish, soya, wheat and dairy. Complete diet with balanced
nutrition. Contains vegeterian Taurine, good for dogs & essential for cats (label,
05/2014)
Composition: water, potatoes, carrots, oat groats, sunflower oil, peas, brown rice,
tomatoes, blueberries, cranberries, brewers yeast (label, 05/2014)• AMÌ wet food, 5 Elements Italia srl, via Boccalerie 12, 35139 Padova, Italia,
info@amipetfood.com, www.amipetfood.com
Complete vegetable based food for adult dogs. The product contains only plant based
protein sources. It is also suitable for animals particularly predisposed to foodsensitivities. The needs of individual animals are nonetheless subject to peculiarities andvariations (label, 08/2014)
Composition: beans, carrots 12%, lentils, potatoes 10%, peas, sunflower seed oil, pea
protein, minerals, hydrolyzed vegetable protein (label, 08/2014)

24• VEGUSTO, Vegi-Service AG, CH-9315 Neukirch, www.vegi-service.chComplimentary food for cats. Recommendation to combine or alternate the wet foodwith dry food for example VEGUSTO CAT and AMÌ CAT dry food.

Vegusto’s cat food is specifically designed for vegan gourmet cats using the finest andfreshest ingredients. All of Vegusto’s cat food contains VegecatTM, a purely plantbased supplement for all essential cat nutrients which has been used in the U.S. since1986 and is recommended by veterinarians.
Composition: water, wheat protein (gluten), vegetable oils (non-hydr.), VegecatTM,
spices, yeast, spices, rice starch, rock salt.


4.1.2. Dry Food• AMÌ DOG MINI. Amì srl, Corso Milano 5, 35139 Padova, Italia,
www.amipetfood.com
An healthy daily food for smaller friends. Vegetable based Amì Dog (mini) is acomplete food for small size adult dogs, light and easy to digest. No need to add
supplements. It helps your dog to be more vital and healthy. Balanced formula, only
100% vegetable raw materials, without any artificial colors and preservatives,
hypoallergenic (label, 08/2014)
Ingredients: corn, corn gluten, corn oil, rice protein, peas, linseed, beet pulp, potato
protein, brewers yeast, L-Carnitine, linoleic acid (6,90%) (label, 08/2014)• AMÌ DOG. Amì srl, Via Boccalerie 12, 35139 Padova, Italia. www.amipetfood.com
Complete pet food for adult dogs. Amì Dog is a vegetable based complete and balanced
food for adult dogs of all sizes, no need to add supplements. Raw materials 100%vegetable, no dyes, nor preservatives, balanced nutritional formula. (label, 08/2014)
Composition: corn, corn gluten, corn oil, rice protein, whole peas, beet pulp, linseed,bicalcium phosphate, hydrolyzed vegetable protein, potato protein, brewer’s yeast,
calcium carbonate, sodium chloride, rapeseed oil. (label, 08/2014)



25• YARRAH Organic Vegetarian Dog Food. Yarrah Organic Pet food B.V., P.O. Box 448,
3840 AK Harderwijk, The Netherlands. info@yarrah.com, www.yarrah.com
Complete pet food for adult dogs. Yarrah Organic Vegetarian Dog Food is a 100%organic, healthy and complete meal, which is prepared with the finest ingredients. This
recipe is completely vegetarian / vegan and contains no meat or animal by-products.
Yarrah Organic Vegetarian Dog Food can prevent skin and coat problems, stomach andintestinal problems and hyperactivity, which can be caused by meat consumption(www.yarrah.com, 2014)
Composition: wheat*, soya beans*, corn*, sunflower seed husks*, semolina*, minerals,
brewers yeast. *= from controlled organic farming sources, Skal 1301 (label 08/2014)• AMÌ CAT, 5 Elements Italia srl, via Boccalerie 12, 35139 Padova, Italia,
www.5elementsitalia.com
Complete pet food for adult cats. Amì Cat is a complete balanced plant based food for
adult cats of all breeds. Ami Cat is based on exclusive vegetable proteins and gives
the cat more vitality and health. Its natural formula is hypoallergenic in almost allcases, and helps to solve typical problems of poor nutrition: heavy or slow digestion,
appetite and fatigue. The ingredients are 100% vegetable raw materials, without
artificial dyes and preservatives, a traditional balanced formula(www.amipetfood.com, 2014).
Composition: corn gluten, corn, corn oil, rice protein, whole peas, pea fibre, brewer’s
yeast, bicalcium phosphate, linseed, hydrolyzed vegetable protein, potato protein,sodium chloride, calcium carbonate, rapeseed oil (label, 05/2014).











26
4.1.3.

Nutrional additives

Table 2: Nutritional additives of selected vegan dietsAMÌ DOG
reg. size(label,05/2014)

AMÌ DOGsmall size(label,08/2014)YARRAH
organic(company,
05/2014)BENEVODuo(label,05/2014)AMÌ wet(label,05/2014)

AMÌ CAT(label,05/2014)

4050

27500

per kgVitamin A(IU/kg)

26000

18000

25000
(Retinol)✓Vitamin D(IU/kg)1350 (D3)1350 (D3)1500 (D2)200 (D2)120 (D3)

1600

Vitamin E(mg/kg)

355

265

125

✓ (n.s.)9270

Copper (mg/
kg)

50

20

13

✓ (n.s.)-10

Iron (mg/kg)

348

-

70

✓ (n.s.)-186

Iodine (mg/
kg)

25

-

1,5

✓ (n.s.)-4

Selenium(mg/kg)

20

-

0,3

✓ (n.s.)-10

Zinc (mg/kg)

160

-

150

✓ (n.s.)-100

Manganese(mg/kg)56-

47✓ (n.s.)-12

L-carnitine(mg/kg)

300

300

235

-

-

300

Taurin (mg/
kg)

-

-

470

6,6

-

1500

Vitamin B12(mcg/kg)

-

-

0,07

✓ (n.s.)--Vitamin B1B7 (IU/kg)

-

-

-

✓ (n.s.)--Vitamin C(IU/kg)---✓ (n.s.)--✓ added









* n.s. ….. not specified

27
4.2. Home-prepared diets

Feeding commercially prepared pet foods offers several advantages over feeding
homemade foods, including convenience, cost, consistency and potentially better
nutritional balance. Nevertheless, a growing number of pet owners prefer to prepare
homemade foods. Owners mainly state that they feel comfortable knowing and being incontrol about what they feed, the composition and the origin of ingredients.
REMILLARD (2010) suggests that without adequate supplementation, using synthetic
ingredients, cats fed vegan diets are at high risk for various deficiencies.
To provide adequately balanced self made rations, a conscientious examination with thesubject of vegan pet nutrition is necessary. Focus of attention should mainly be paid toadequate composition and supplementation of nutrients that can only be found in animal
products or only in little amounts in plants (vitamin B12, arachidonic acid, iron, …)
Example recipes for home-prepared diets for cats can be found in the book „Vegetarian
Cats & Dogs“ (PEDEN, 1999). Guaranteed dry matter analysis of the „Vegecat
KibbleTM“ recipe published in the book shows sufficient or the requirement exceeding
supply with nutrients (AAFCO, 1999; PEDEN 1999).
Another recipe published by PEDEN (1999) is a wet food composition for adult cats.
Another example for a self-prepared vegan diet is provided by JAMES O'HEARE in his
book „Vegan Dogs“ (2013). The diet was formulated to be balanced and complete by anutrition consultant, for a healthy 30kg dog in average condition, getting average low tomoderate exercise. For dogs much outside of this range, the diet needs to be formulated
to meet their specific needs (O’HEARE, 2013).








28
4.3. Supplements

VEGECATTM : Dried kelp (source of arachidonate), calcium carbonate, monocalcium
phosphate, DI-methionine, Taurine, Choline chloride, DI- alphatocopheryl acetate, Zincoxide, Ferrous sulfate, Vitamin A-acetate, Copper sulfate, Ergocalciferol, Sodium
selenite, Vitamin B12supplement

Guaranteed anaylsis (100g): Calcium 10068 mg,

Phosphorus 1253 mg, Methionine 3717 mg, Taurine 3585 mg, Choline 1895 mg,
Arachidonate 400 mg, Vitamin E 227 IU, Zinc 55 mg,
Iron 73 mg, Vitamin A 8963 IU, Copper 3,5 mg, Vitamin D2 896.3 IU, Selenium 0.135
mg, Vitamin B12 0.036 mg
VEGEYEASTTM composition: Dried yeast, Dried autolyzed yeast, Dried yeast extract;according to the producer, VegeyeastTM is 100 times more acid than other yeasts such as
brewers or nutritional yeast and is 35% lower in magnesium. (http://www.vegepet.com).
According to the producer, the higher acidity and low content of magnesium both aresupposed to keep the urinary pH within a healthy acidic range and help prevent thebuilding of Struvite within the urinary tract.

VEGEDOGTM : Monocalcium phosphate, Calcium carbonate, dried kelp, Taurine, Zincoxide, Ferrous sulfate, DI-alphatocopheryl acetate, Choline chloride, Sodium selenite,
Vitamin B12supplement, Vitamin A-acetate
Guaranteed anaylsis (100g): Calcium 24185 mg, Phosphorus 9692 mg, Taurine 2360
mg, Zinc 400 mg, Choline 365 mg, Vitamin E 350 IU, Zinc 55 mg, Iron 156 mg,
Vitamin A 19880 IU, Selenium 0.27 mg, Vitamin B12 0.1 mg






29
5.

Material and MethodOver a period of 2 years pet owners from Austria, Germany and Switzerland weregathered via notice boards in veterinary practices, numerous articles in various forums
and groups of the online platform Facebook®, and word of mouth, to participate in thisstudy or to complete a questionnaire about their experience of feeding their cats anddogs on a vegan, plant-based, diet, it's implementation and consequences that come with
it. The compilation of the questionnaire contained questions which were to be answeredwith predetermined selectable answers and semi-open or open questions that could beanswered in own words and descriptions.
A template of the questionnaire used in this study can be found at the very end of thispaper (Appendix).
Provided pet owners gave their consent, the questionnaire was followed by astandardized clinical examination and blood collection in pets concerned.
An approval for animal testing was obtained for the blood assessment. (GZ:
BMWF-68.205/0153-II/3b/2012)
To get an idea of the distribution of the serum levels mentioned above in conventionallyfed dogs and cats and to have a possibility of comparison, IDEXX laboratory wasapproached to send anonymously and randomly picked data of 20 conventionally fed
dogs and cats that underwent a routine health check without any known health problems
at the time of the sampling. Detailed list of blood test results can be found in the
Appendix.
The clinical examination of the participating animals was carried out and noted in thepresence of the graduate student or by the graduate student herself in 24 of the 35
animals. In 11 cases, the examination was conducted according to a pre-definedassessment system by an external vet without the presence of the graduate student.
22 of the 35 samples were sent to the veterinary laboratory “IDEXX” in Ludwigsburg,
Germany. 7 samples were analyzed in a different laboratory (LABOKLIN, EasyLab).
The token blood was kept in EDTA and Serum tubes, the serum samples were
centrifuged and sent within the shortest time possible.

30
To calculate nutrient- and energy requirements of cats and dogs at a certain age andweight, as well as the nutrient content of a self-prepared diet; The computer aided dietcalculation software „Diet Check Munich©“ was used.
Analysis of vegan feed was performed partially at the University of Veterinary Medicine
in Vienna and „Futtermittel-Labor Rosenau“. The methods of measuring used at the
University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna are validated and conform with theregulations of the method book of the association of german agricultural analytic andresearch institutes. (NAUMANN, C., BASSLER, R. (1997): Die Chemische
Untersuchung von Futtermitteln. Band III. VDLUFA)The distribution of the data was tested using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov-Test. All data
were normally distributed. The independent t-test was used to test for significance. The
Program SPSS 17 was used.























31
6.

Results

6.1.

Participants

A total of 233 pet owners completed the questionnaire, including 174 dog- and 59 catowners, some of which having both species living in their household.
The majority of pet owners were in the age class of 26-30 years (27%), followed by thegroup of 19-25 years old (23%). 3% of pet owners filling out the questionnaire were
between 15-18 years, 9% were older than 50 years. 85% of the participants were female
and 15% male. 91% stated to be vegan themselves, 6% live on a ovo-lacto-vegetarian
nutrition and the remaining 2% specified to eat both, animal- and plant-based-foods.


6.2.

Questionnaire

6.2.1.

Motifs90% of participants said conviction (moral and ethical reasons and reasons of animal
welfare) was the most important reason that motivated them to feed their pets on avegan diet. 18% had to change their pets diet to a purely plant-based one, due toacceptance problems with ordinary feed and 2% stated that their main intention is pure
curiosity.


6.2.2.

Quality of Information

When asked where owners take their information on this specific type of diet, 91%
stated the internet (forums and groups of social networks) as their main source of
information, followed by discussions with colleagues (45%) and articles in magazines(25%). 25% reported their veterinarian as their primary informant about vegan animal
nutrition. The questionnaire showed that from their own estimation, 80% of pet owners
feel well informed about the nutritional needs of their pet. Only 3% reported to not be
informed at all. When asked about their knowledge about the nutritional content ofvarious foods, 83% of pet owners stated to feel sufficiently informed and 2% to not be
informed at all. Out of all participating pet owners, 73% stated to be well informed
about possibly occurring deficiencies and 11% do not feel informed.





32
6.2.3.

Feeds

The inclusion criterion to be part of this study was a minimum length of 6 months of
exclusively eating a vegan diet for both cats and dogs, with the extra requirements forcats to live indoor only. Out of the dogs participating in this study, the average length of
consuming a vegan diet was 2,83 years with a maximum length of 7 years and theshortest period being 6 months. The average length of exclusively eating vegan food in
the group of cats taking part in this study was 3,9 years with a maximum length of 6,5years and the shortest period of 6 months.
39% of participating pet owners feed their cats and dogs industrially produced feed only
9% prepared their pet's food at home themselves and 106 pet owners (52% of 100)
stated to mainly feed industrially produced feed but mix it with self prepared food on aregular basis.
Out of the 19 pet owners who feed self prepared food, 14 are dog- and 5 cat owners.
The product “Amicat” was listed as the most popular industrially produced cat kibble(87%) followed by various others (23%, s.a. “Evolution Diet”, “Vegusto”).
In dog foods, the brands “Benevo” (34%) and “Ami Dog” (33%) were named almost
equally, followed by “Yarrah” (22%) and other products (9%)


6.2.4.

Supplements

Out of 218 pet owners who filled in the questionnaire, 60 (27 %) stated to add
supplements to their pets food, with 65 % (140) not adding any supplements.
Supplements mostly mentioned were “Vegedog” (38 %) and “Vegeyeast” (16 %)followed by various different other supplements (64 %) s.a. “Vegecat”, yeast flakes,
brewer's yeast, single vitamins,... .


6.2.5. Noticed changes
38 pet owners reported independently from each other, that their pets showed a muchshinier and healthier coat. Some animals that had been prone to a particularly scaly oroily coat before the conversion to a vegan diet, no longer showed signs of any
dermatological problems. Some pet owners particularly noticed the increased stool
volume and not further defined improvement of the stool consistency. 16 owners
described the individual scent of their pets as more pleasant and 14 owners were
especially happy over the loss of foete ex ore.

33
6.3. Clinical examination
6.3.1. Dogs

1. General appearance
All 20 dogs were bright, alert and responsive, some of gentle playful behaviour, somefearful. No abnormalities in posture and gait were noticed. Hydration was adequate in
all cases.


2. Body condition
Body Condition was assessed with the aid of the Body Condition Score Systemdeveloped at the Purina Pet Care Center (scheme from 1 – 9 with 4-5 being ideal
weight). One dog had a body condition score of 7, but was already put on a restricting
diet by its vet and had successfully lost weight over a certain amount of time. One dog
showed a body condition score of 6 with the owner being told to carefully watch andcontrol their dogs weight. One dog had a body condition score of 3, however, thismight have been a normal score for this breed (greyhound).


3. Skin and coat
Out of 20 examined dogs, the skin and coat of 18 dogs was clinically inconspicuous,
shiny and neat. One dog showed localized areas of pyodermia at the caudal part of theneck and the interdigital area of the front limbs, which was already being treated. One
dog had a noticeable squamous coat and mild loss of hair. No dog showed signs ofpruritus.


4. Lymph nodes
Lymph nodes of all 20 dogs were of a physiologic size and coarseness.


5. Vital signs
The mucosa membranes of all 20 dogs was pink, capillary refill time within the normal
healthy range of 2 seconds. In one dog, the lid conjunctiva of both eyes were brick red
and showed a mild Entropium. Two dogs had mildly red lid conjunctives and oculardischarge on both eyes.

34
6. Perfusion, Cardio system
The pulse of all dogs was strong, the artery well filled and well taut.
During auscultation of the heart and palpation of the pulse, a respiratory arrhythmia wasnoticed in 8 dogs. The pulse of the other 12 dogs was regular. Auscultation of the thorax
revealed a systolic heart murmur in 2 dogs. Both were diagnosed with a congenital
tricuspidal insufficiency, and have been in therapy for this reason already.


7. Respiratory tract
One dog started coughing when palpating the upper neck area and was diagnosed withlaryngitis/tracheitis over the course of the examination.
2 dogs showed a mild stridor nasalis due to their bracheocephalic breed.
Auscultation of the lungs was clinically inconspicuous in all 20 dogs.


8. Digestive tract
1 Dog displayed problems swallowing and was diagnosed with laryngitis/tracheitis overthe course of the examination. Palpation of the abdomen was not possible in 4 dogs dueto their little compliance. The other 16 dogs showed no conspicuousness. The abdomen
was soft and easy to palpate. No pain was noticed during palpation and no palpableabnormalities of abdominal organs were noticed.
3 dogs showed mild and 1 dog moderate dental calculus. The mouth cavity of theremaining 16 dogs showed no clinical abnormalities. In 1 dog, mild foete ex ore could
be noticed.


9. Defecation
The majority of pet owners (95%) specified the frequency of defecation to be 2 – 3times daily, 3% said that their dog would settle feces more often than 3 times daily.
In 19 out of the 20 examined dogs, defecation was usually normal and the feces wellformed. One dog tended to recurrent diarrhea in stressful situations, but would go backto normal feces without any therapy needed.


10. Other findings
1 dog (from Spain) was previously tested positive to leishmaniosis, but showed noclinical abnormalities.

35
6.3.2. Cats
1. General appearance
All 15 cats were bright, alert and responsive. Some were aggressive and fearful, others
relaxed and curious. Hydration was adequate in 14 cases. One cat showed a marginal
hydration status and minimal loss of the elasticity of the skin.


2. Body condition
Body Condition was assest with the aid of the Body Condition Score System developed
at the Purina Pet Care Center (scheme from 1 – 9 with 4-5 being ideal weight) 3 out of
15 cats had a body condition above 5, with a highest score of 7. All other 12 cats were
found to be at their ideal weight.


3. Skin and coat
Skin of 12 cats was clinically inconspicuous, noticeable shiny and neat.
3 out of 15 cats showed moderate squamous coat. 6 cats showed moderate hair loss at
the time of the clinical examination; However pet owners stated this to be a regularity
while visiting the vet, and at the specific time with naturally occurring change of coat asa reason. One female cat showed a hairless, red, pruritic area on her left hind tarsus andwas previously diagnosed with recurrent Feline Atopic Dermatitis (FAD) for which she
had not received treatment at the time of blood assessment. Other than the one cat
diagnoses with FAD, no cats showed signs of pruritus.

4. Lymph nodes
Lymph nodes of all 15 cats were of a physiologic size and coarseness.


5. Vital signs
The mucosa membranes of all 15 cats was pink and capillary refill time within thenormal healthy range of 2 seconds.

36
6. Perfusion, Cardio system
The pulse of all 15 cats was regular and strong, the artery well filled and well taut.
Auscultation of the thorax revealed no abnormal sounds or diagnoses in any of theexamined cats.


7. Respiratory tract
Auscultation of the lungs was clinically inconspicuous in all 15 dogs.


8. Digestive tract
Palpation of the abdomen was difficult possible in 2 cats due too their little compliance,but showed no abnormalities as far as viable. Abdominal palpation in 13 cats was
unremarkable.
No pain was noticed during palpation and no palpable abnormalities of abdominalorgans was noticed in 12 cats. Palpation of the kidneys in one cat suggested alteration of
the kidney surface; However following blood assessment showed no signs of renal
disfunction.
Inspection of the mouth cavity was not possible in 6 cats due to no compliance.
Inspection of the mouth cavity in the remaining 7 cats was unremarkable. The tongue of
one cat showed little changes in the surface which did not seem to distract the cat.
Dental inspection showed missing, previously extracted, teeth in 2 cats, and dental
plaque in 5 of the examined cats.


9. Defecation
In all 15 cats, defecation was described as unremarkable with the feces being wellformed. Defecation was stated to be once daily in most cats, some defecating every
other day.


10. Other findings
One cat was tested positive of the Feline Immunodeficiency Virus, but showed noclinically abnormal signs during the examination.





37
6.4. Blood AssessmentOut of 220 pet owners who had filled out the online questionnaire, 134 initially agreed
to a blood taking to be carried out on their pet, with subsequent assessment andpublication in this study. Out of these 134 animal owners, successful appointments were
ultimately made with 23 pet owners and 35 animals. Following a general clinicalexamination, blood samples were taken in 20 dogs and 15 cats. In 14 animals this was
taken over by the respective veterinarian without the presence of the graduate student
and samples were sent together with a previously completed order form. Out of the 35
blood samples, blood samples were taken voluntarily from 9 participants in Germany attheir own expense at their veterinarian, and the results placed at the disposal of thestudy. 22 of the 35 samples were sent to the veterinary laboratory “IDEXX” in
Ludwigsburg, Germany. 7 samples were analyzed in a different laboratory(LABOKLIN, EasyLab). Detailed results of blood tests can be found in the appendix.
A complete blood count panel ,basis chemistry panel (liver and kidney parameters) as
well as pankreatic parameters, magnesium, calcium, iron, total protein, folic acid,vitamin b12, carnitin were analyzed.
Due to too little sampled material or animals not cooperating well, not tolerating thesampling well and the declining of some owners of another sampling, not all parameters
could be measured in all participating dogs and cats.














38
6.4.1. Dogs
1. Folic acid
Serum Folic acid was measured in 17 dogs. Results of 5 dogs (29%) were below thenormal reference range (9,3 – 23,8 ng/ml) with a minimum value of 4,2 ng/ml. The
serum folic acid concentration of 12 (71%) dogs was within the normal reference range
with a minimum value of 10,9 ng/ml and a maximum value of 17,7 ng/ml. The mean
serum folic acid value was 11,58 ng/ml

Reference Range

Folic Acid (ng/ml)

25
20
15
10
5
0

0

3

6

9

12

15

18

Dogs
Fig. 1: Distribution of Folic Acid serum levels in 20 vegan dogs

2. Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)
Serum vitamin B12 was analyzed in all 20 dogs. 15 dogs (75%) showed a level within
the normal reference range (234 – 812 pg/ml) with a mean value of 340,09 pg/ml.
Serum cobalamin concentrations of 5 dogs (25%) were below the reference value, with

900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0

Reference Range

Vitamin B12 (pg/ml)

a minimum value of 197 pg/ml.

0

5

10

Dogs
Fig. 2: Distribution of Vitamin B12 serum levels in 20 vegan dogs



15

20

39
3. IronSerum iron was analyzed in 19 dogs. The results of 17 (90%) dogs were within thereference range (84 – 230 ug/dl) with a mean of 159,42 ug/dl. Serum iron value of one
dog (5%) (41,1 ug/dl) was below the lower reference value. One dog (5%) had a serum

250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0

Reference Range

Iron (ug/dl)

iron concentration (237,9 ug/dl) above the upper reference.

0

5

10

15

20

Dogs



Fig. 3: Distribution of iron serum levels in 19 vegan dogs

4. L-Carnitine
Serum L-Carnitine was analyzed in 7 dogs. 4 out of 7 dogs (57%) showed serum levels
within the normal reference range (16 - 42 µmol/l ) with a mean of 37,91 µmol/l, aminimum value of 16,3 µmol/l and a maximum value of 35,3 µmol/l. The 3 remaining
dogs (43%) all showed elevated L-Carnitine levels with a highest value of 59,2 µmol/l.

5. Serum Total Protein
Serum total protein of all 20 dogs (100%) was within the reference range (5.4 – 7.6 g/dl)
with a maximum value of 7.0 g/dl, a minimum value of 5.3 g/dl, and a mean 6,3 g/dl
Serum albumin of all 20 dogs was within the reference range (2.8 – 4.3 g/dl) with amaximum value of 4,1 g/dl, a minimum value of 2,9 g/dl, and a mean 3,3 g/dl






40

Below is a table (table 3) comparing mean values, standard deviation and percentage ofdogs within the reference range of dogs fed vegan diets and dogs fed conventional diets.

Table 3: Blood values of vegan dogs, compared to values of dogs fed conventionally

Vitamin B12
234 - 812 pg/
mlIron
84 - 230 µg/
dl

Total Protein
5.4 - 7.6 g/dl

Folic Acid
9.3 - 23.8 ng/
ml

L-Carnitin
16 - 42 µmol/lmean (veg. diet)

340.09159.42

6.3

11.58

37.91

mean (conv. diet)317.35134.71

6.1

11.98

40.58

SD (veg. diet)

117

48

0,47

3

15

SD (conv. diet)

159

4

0,59

4

17

within the RR(veg. diet)15 out of 20(75%)

17 out of 19(89%)

20 out of 20(100%)

12 out of 17(70%)

4 out of 7
(57%)

within the RR(conv. diet)13 out of 20(65%)

15 out of 20(75%)

18 out of 20(90%)

15 out of 20(75%)

8 out of 20(40%)

SD…….. standard deviation
veg……. vegan

















conv…… conventional*RR…….. reference range

41
6.4.2. Cats
1. Folic acid
Serum folic acid was analyzed in all 15 cats. The values of 7 cats (46%) was within thenormal reference range (11,1 – 21,6 ng/ml), out of which one cat only just reached thelower limit (11,1 ng/ml) Serum Folic acid concentration of 8 cats (53%) was below thereference value with a minimum of 5,3 ng/ml.

20

Reference Range

Folic Acid (ng/ml)

25

15
10
5
0

0

4

8

12

16

Cats



Fig. 4: Distribution of folate serum levels in 15 vegan cats

2. Vitamin B12
Cobalamin was analyzed in all 15 cats. Serum vitamin B12 of 14 cats (93%) was within
the normal reference range (269 – 1333 pg/ml), the value of 1 cat (7%) was above thereference value. (1420 pg/ml)

Reference Range

Vitamin B12 (pg/ml)

1.600
1.200
800
400
0

0

4

8

Cats



Fig. 5: Distribution of Vitamin B12 serum levels in 15 vegan cats

12

16

42
3. IronSerum iron was analyzed in all 15 cats. The results of 14 cats (93%) were within thereference range (70 – 210 ug/dl). Iron of one cat (224 ug/dl) (7%) was above the upper
reference value.


Reference Range

Iron (ug/dl)

240
196
152
108
64
20

0

4

8

12

16

Cats



Fig. 6: Distribution of Iron serum levels in 15 vegan cats

4. Serum Total Protein
Serum total protein of all cats (100%) was within the normal reference range (5,9 – 8,7g/dl) with a maximum value of 9.0 g/dl, a minimum value of 6,6 g/dl, and a mean of 7,3
g/dl Serum albumin of all cats (100%) was within the reference range (2.8 – 4.3 g/dl)
with a maximum value of 4, a minimal value of 2,8 and a mean of 3,3 g/dl.

Below is a table (table 5) comparing mean values, standard deviation and percentage ofcats within the reference range of cats fed vegan diets and cats fed conventional diets.
Table 4: Blood values of vegan cats, compared to values of cats fed conventionally.
Vitamin B12
269 - 1333 pg/
mlIron
70 - 210 µg/dl

Total Protein
5.9 - 8.7 g/dl

Folic Acid
11.1 - 21.6 ng/
mlmean (veg. diet)

760.1

114.4

7.3

11.0

mean (conv. diet)

632.1

96.8

7.3

19.2

SD (veg. diet)

301

39

0,6

3

SD (conv. diet)

668

81

0,9

9

within the RR (veg. diet)14 out of 15(93%)

14 out of 15(93%)

15 out of 15(100%)

7 out of 15(46%)

within the RR (conv. diet)

10 out of 20(50%)

7 out of 20(35%)

19 out of 20(95%)

15 out of 20(75%)

SD… standard deviation; veg…vegan; conv…conventional, *RR…reference range

43
6.5. Urinary pH

In all examined dogs and cats, normal urination was described by their owners. With thehelp of the pet owners, test strips (Combur(R) 9 Test) were used for urine examination in
spontaneously passed urine of 19 dogs and one cat in their private environment.
Test strips were mostly photographed (10 out of 19) right after use and activation, andresults of all 20 test strips were noted on a prewritten paper.
Protein resulted 1 + positive in 3 dogs, but was negative in all other 16 dogs (84%) andthe cat (100%). Blood, glucose and ketones came back negative in all 19 dogs and thecat (100%).
As previously stated, our main interest was urine pH, as vegan and vegetarian diets cantend to promote an alkaline urine which may be directly associated with higher risk forcrystallization and building of Struvit.
Of 19 examined dogs, one dog (5%) showed a pH above the healthy normal pH range ofa dog's urine (pH 5-7). The concerned owner was advised to repeat the examination as
the dog showed no clinical signs or problems in the urinary tract and wrong storingmight lead to alkalinity too; However results of the repetition are still outstanding. The
other 18 dogs (95%) and the cat (100%) were within the normal pH range with 6 times a
pH of 5, 7 times a pH of 6 and 5 dogs having a pH of 7.

Reference Range

Urinary pH

10

6

2

0

5

10

sampled dogs

Fig. 7: Distribution of urinary pH in 19 vegan dogs

15

20

44
6.6.

Analysis of commercial vegan dietsIn the following are results of the analytical investigation of the most commonly usedvegan dry and wet dog and cat feed (as per the answers given to the questionnaire).
The amount of following components were analyzed: Moisture, Crude Ash, Crude
Protein, Crude Fat, Crude Fiber and dietary elements such as Calcium, Phosphorus,
Potassium, Sodium, Copper, Iron, Zinc, Manganese, Magnesium.
Further below the nutrient profile of a self-prepared, wet, vegan diet for a dog was
calculated, using the program „Diet Check Munich(c)“. In addition to the nutrients
mentioned above, Vitamin A, E and Vitamin B12 was calculated. Furthermore the aminoacid profile and amount of linolenic acid provided, was calculated using the nutrient
statement provided by the NRC (2006).

6.6.1.

Commercial diets for dogs

6.6.1.1. Guaranteed Analysis
Table 5: Guaranteed Analysis of 3 vegan dry diets for dogs
Recommended
nutrient levels

YARRAH
organic

AMÌ DOG reg.
sizeAMÌ DOG small
size(MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010)(label, 05/2014)(label, 05/2014)(label, 08/2014)

Moisture< 12%

9% (8%)

8% (5.9%)

8% (4.6%)

Crude Ash

< 10%7.5% (7.5%)

6.0% (5.3%)

6.2% (5.4%)

Crude
Protein> 18%

22% (22%)

24.5% (25.6%)

27% (28.8%)

Crude Fat

> 5.5 %

7,5% (7.6%)

12% (12.7%)

14% (14.4%)

Crude Fiber>1%

5,7% (5.9%)

2.8% (2.8%)

2.9% (2.3%)

Table 6: Guaranteed Analysis of 2 vegan wet diets for dogs
Recommended nutrient levels

BENEVO DUO

AMÌ wet(MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010)(label, 05/2014)(label, 07/2014)

Crude Protein> 5.5 %

7.0 % (8.76%)

8.5 % (10%)

Crude Fibre> 0.2 %

3.00%

2.7 % (1.6%)

Crude Fat>1%

2.00% (3.25%)

6.2 % (8.4%)

Moisture< 80 %

76.00% (76.80%)

68 % (60.41%)

45
6.6.1.2. Nutrient Levels
As none of the investigated diets exceeded neither the nutritional nor the legal
maximum limit of nutrients as issued by FEDIAF (2013); only too little amounts weremarked.
Table 7: Nutrient levels of selected vegan diets for dogs in comparison to maximum
recommended allowances per kg DM (FEDIAF, 2013)
F.E.D.I.A.F.
(2013)

AMÌ DOGAMÌ DOG YARRAH
regularsmall sizeorganic
size

BENEVO
Duo

AMÌ
wet

per kg Dry Matter
Protein(g/kg)-Fat (g/kg)-

Calcium(g/kg)

25 (N)

Phosphorus(g/kg)

16 (N)

Ca:Ph ratio

2/1

Kalium(g/kg)

-

256

287

222

378

250

127

144

77

140

212

12.2

13.1

13.0

15.7

11.8

8.9

10.6

10.4

10.4

6.4

1.3

1.2

1.2

1.5

1.8

4.3

4.3

10.9

16.4

9.5

Sodium(g/kg)

18 (N)

2.5

1.8

4.0

2.7

11

Copper(mg/kg)

28 (L)

28

22.3

21.9

15.4

8.5

Iron
(mg/kg)1420 (L)

269.9

260.6

413.1

217.1

169.5

Zinc
(mg/kg)284 (L)

183.9

176.6

172.2

165.6

43.4

Manganese(mg/kg)170 (L)

54.8

66.0

98.4

30.7

29.7

Magnesium(g/kg)

-

1.6

1.6

3.1

2.2

1.2

*as per results from analysis performed at Veterinary University Vienna

L ….. legal
N….. nutritional

46
Table 8: Fulfillment of minimum recommended allowances per kg DM (F.E.D.I.A.F,
2013) of selected vegan diets for dogs
F.E.D.I.A.
AMÌ DOG AMÌ DOG YARRAH BENEVO
F.
reg. size
smallorganicwet(2013)

AMÌ wetFulfillment in %Protein (g/
kg)

180

142

159

123

210

139

Fat (g/kg)

55

231

262

140

255

385

Calcium(g/kg)

5

244

262

260

314

236

Phosphorus (g/kg)

4

223

265

260

260

160

Ca:P ratio

1:1

Potassium(g/kg)

5

866

866

218

328

190

Sodium(g/kg)

1

250

180

400

270

1100

Copper(mg/kg)

7.2

389

310

304

214

118

Iron (mg/
kg)

36

750

724

1148

603

471

Zinc (mg/
kg)

72

255

245

239

230

60

Manganese (mg/kg)

5.8

945

1138

1697

529

512

Magnesium (g/kg)

0.7

229

229

443

314

171

*as per results from analysis performed at Veterinary University Vienna





47
6.6.1.3. Fulfillment of demand
Table 9: Fulfillment of requirements of two vegan dry diets for a 20kg dog
Requirement dog

AMÌ DOG reg.
size
(Fulfillment in %)YARRAH organic(Fulfillment in %)Energy (MJ)

3.8 MJ

157

141

Kcal

898

159

142

Crude Protein (g)

52

158

135

Calcium (mg)

1230

294

310

Phosphorus (mg)

923

288

329

Magnesium (mg)

185

259

484

Potassium (mg)

1230

104

260

Sodium (mg)

246

311

481

Iron (mg)

9.2

873

1314

Manganese (mg)

1.5

1088

1920

Copper (mg)

1.8

462

350

Zinc (mg)

18.5

296

273

* Calculation based on recommended daily ration provided on packaging (20 kg dog)










48
Table 10: Fulfillment of requirements of two vegan wet diets for a 9kg dog
Requirement(NRC, 2006)

BENEVO Duo
Fulfillment in %AMÌ wetFulfillment in %Energy (MJ)

2.1

87

144

Kcal

494

88

146

Protein (g)

28

114

129

Ca (mg)

677

198

590

P (mg)

508

175

425

Mg (mg)

102

184

388

K (mg)

622

225

521

Na (mg)

135

172

2773

Fe (mg)

5.1

364

1129

Mn (mg)

0.8

328

1260

Cu (mg)

1

131

280

Zn (mg)

10.2

139

144

*Calculation based on recommended daily ration provided on packaging

6.6.2. Commercial diets for cats
6.6.2.1. Guaranteed Analysis
Table 11: Guaranteed analysis of two vegan wet diets for catsAMÌ CAT(label, 05/2014)

BENEVO DUO(label, 05/2014)

Moisture

8.00 % (4.19%)

76.00% (76.80%)

Crude Protein

33.00 % (31.97%)

7.0 % (8.76%)

Crude Fat

14.00 % (12.67%)

2.00% (3.25%)

Crude Fibers

3.50 % (3.9 %)3.00%

Crude Ash

5.90 % (5.46%)

1.9 %Omega-3 Fatty acid0.80 %-

Omega-6 Fatty acid6.50 %-* as per results of guaranteed analysis performed at Veterinary University Vienna

49
6.6.2.2. Nutrient Levels
Table 12: Nutrient levels of selected vegan diets for cats in comparison to
maximum recommended allowances per kg DM (FEDIAF, 2013)(FEDIAF 2013)AMÌ CATBENEVO Duo

per kg DM
Calcium (g/kg)

-

9.9

15.7

Phosphorus (g/kg)

-

9.2

10.4

Kalium (g/kg)

-

4.2

16.4

Sodium (g/kg)< 1.5% DM

4.82

2.7

Copper (mg/kg)

28 (L)

12.6

15.4

Iron (mg/kg)

1420 (L)

206.3

217.1

Zinc (mg/kg)

284 (L)

107.9

165.6

Manganese (mg/kg)

170 (L)

34.6

30.7

Table 13: Fulfillment of minimum recommended allowances per kg DM (F.E.D.I.A.F,
2013) of selected vegan diets for cats
FEDIAF (2013)AMÌ CATper kg DM

BENEVO Duo

Fulfillment in %Protein (g/kg)

250

133

151

Fat (g/kg)

90

147

156

Calcium (g/kg)

5.9

168

266

Phosphorus (g/kg)

5

184

208

Potassium (g/kg)

6

70

273

Sodium (g/kg)

0.8

603

338

Copper (mg/kg)

5

252

308

Iron (mg/kg)

80

258

271

Zinc (mg/kg)

75

144

221

Manganese (mg/kg)

5

692

614

Magnesium (g/kg)

0.4

425

550

Taurine (g/kg)

1

150

660

* as per results of guaranteed analysis performed at Veterinary University Vienna

50
6.6.2.3. Fulfillment of demand
Table 14: Fulfillment of requirements of a vegan dry diet for a 3kg cat
Requirement(NRC. 2006)

AMÌ CAT(as per results of analysis
performed at Vet. Univ. Vienna)

Fulfillment in %Energy (MJ)

0,9

114

Kcal

209

118

Crude Protein (g)

15

106

Ca (mg)

150

317

P (mg)134329

Mg (mg)

21386

K (mg)

272

74

Na (mg)36639

Fe (mg)

4.2

235

Mn (mg)

0.3

553

Cu (mg)0.3

200

Zn (mg)3.9

133*Calculation based on feeding instruction as provided on packaging for a 3 kg cat








51
Table 15: Fulfillment of requirements of two vegan wet diets for a 4,5kg cat
Requirement(NRC, 2006)

BENEVO DUO(as per results of analysis
performed at Vet. Univ.
Vienna)

VEGUSTO CAT FIX(www.vegusto.ch/2014)

Fulfillment in %Energy (MJ)

1.2

76

70

Kcal

274

79

73

Crude Protein (g)

19

85

117

Ca (mg)

197

340

112

P (mg)

175

254

231

Mg (mg)

27

348

359

K (mg)

356

197

134

Na (mg)

47

247

321

Fe (mg)

5.5

169

225

Mn (mg)

0.3

433

-

Cu (mg)

0.3

217

1067

Zn (mg)

5.1

139

1063

*Calculation based on feeding instruction as provided on packaging for a 4,5 kg cat










52
6.6.3.

Self-prepared diets

Here is an example recipe, as its used on a regular basis by one of the contestants to feed
a 25kg Labrador dog. The recipe was slightly altered - rather than brewer's yeast (asused in our calculation below), the supplement VEGEYEASTTM was used in theoriginal recipe.

Vegan Buckwheat & Lentils Recipe (Participant, 2013)
Ingredients make for a daily ration
130 g buckwheat
190 g lentils
38 g brewer's yeast
10 g Vegedog
700 mg calcium (as Calciumcitrat)
200 IU vitamin D3
1 pinch of salt
100 g spinach (frozen)
20 g sunflower oil
1,3 liters water
To this basic recipe, fruits and vegetables are added by availability.
The program „DietCheck Munich“ was used to review the nutritiousness of the recipe
and the adequacy of the nutrient supply. DietCheck Munich calculates the individual
requirements based on the publication of NRC (2006) and nutritional values of various
feed based on Souci/Fachmann/Kraut.

Table 16: Nutrient supply of the self-prepared „Buckwheat & Lentils“ Recipe
Requirement dog (25 kg)

Buckwheat & lentils(per daily ration)

Daily Requirement

Fulfillment in %4,5 MJ

127

1062 Kcal

125

Crude Protein (g)

61

126

Ca (mg)

1455

202

P (mg)

1091

235

Energy53
Mg (mg)

218

218

K (mg)

1455

230

Na (mg)291

73

Fe (mg)10,9549

Mn (mg)

1,7

247

Cu (mg)2,2

264

Zn (mg)21,8224

Vitamin A (IE)

1838

317

Vitamin D (IE)

198

101

Vitamin

13

77


Table 17: Fullfillment of minimum recommended amino acid and linoleic acid levels ofthe „Buckwheat + Lentils“ Recipe „Buckwheat and Lentils“ Recipe
Minimum Recommended
Nutrient Levels(F.E.D.I.A.F., 2013)„Buckwheat + Lentils“
Recipeg / MJ

Fulfillment in %Protein

10.76

716

Fat

3.29

790

Histidin

0.14

165

Isoleucin

0.27

159

Leucin

0.49

128

Lysin

0.25

243

Methionin

0.19

73

Methionine + Cystine

0.37

70

Phenylalanin

0.32

127

Tryptophan

0.1

122

Threonin

0.31

131

Valin

0.35

102

Linolenic acid

0.79

150

54
7.

Discussion

Cats and dogs are both the most favorite and most common pets by far each year
(FEDIAF, 2012). Because the natural feeding habit of these carnivorous animals does
not conform with the own dietary philosophy of a strictly plant based diet, a growing
development among vegan pet owners can be noticed that might be a subject for future
veterinarians and one that is not to be ignored. The growing popularity of vegannutrition, that does not seem to spare carnivorous pets like cats and dogs, can be seen in
many various internet boards, groups on social networks or other platforms. Vegan andvegetarian pet owners show a growing interest in extending their own dietary
philosophy onto their pets. Observing the answers given to the questionnaire, themajority of pet owners, whether just showing interest in or actively practicing vegan pet
nutrition, were found to be mainly women (85%) below the age of 30 (53%).
91% were following a vegan lifestyle themselves and stated moral and ethical reasons
and reasons of animal welfare as their main motifs. This reaffirms the findings of astudy published by ENGELHARDT in 1999.
A german speaking group on the internet platform Facebook(R) called „Vegan Hund!? Ja
klar!“ (= „Vegan dog!? Of course!“) currently lists 2917 members (by 07/2014) andgrowing, also the group „Vegane Katzen“ (= „Vegan cats“) is followed by 903 members,
which shows the definitely existing and constantly growing interest in theimplementation of vegetarian / vegan diets for cats and dogs.
Vegan pet-owners often reach the point where they ask themselves if it is acceptable tocontinue feeding their cats and dogs animal derived foods and by doing so supporting
the system they actually intend to boycott. Therefore, some vegan pet owners decide toapply their own ideas of a plant based diet onto their cats and dogs.
The aim of this paper was to provide general information about vegan nutrition,commercially available feeds, recipes for home prepared diets and possible nutritionaldifficulties that go along with this type of diet.
In the course of researching informations and other papers on for this study, it became
apparent that so far not many studies on this subject have been conducted or published.
WAKEFIELD et al. (2006) published a study on 34 cats that had been exclusively fed acommercial or homemade vegetarian diet. Blood and plasma taurine and serum
cobalamin was measured in the course of this study.

55
ENGELHARD (1999) published a study on vegetarian nutrition in cats and dogs
looking at 66 adult dogs (of which 29% were stated to be vegan) 8 vegan puppies and 8
cats (25% vegan).
Both the domestic cat (Felis catus, Felis silvestris catus) and the domestic dog (Canis
lupus familiaris, Canis familiari) systemically belong to the group of carnivora whofurther define as meat-eaters. It is readily apparent that their teeth are designed by naturefor eating a diet largely comprised of animal tissue. Their short intestinal tracts
compared especially to animals like rabbits or horses also indicate that they are notdesigned to accommodate diets containing large amounts of plant materials. To feedpredators a purely plant-based diet, gives rise to the question if it is a safe and arguable
option. Also the legal aspect of a vegan nutrition for cats and dogs should be taken into
consideration and may make veterinary support of this idea difficult. The legal situation
shall be discussed at the end of the discussion.
Although cats and dogs are classified as Carnivora, today the domestic dog is
considered more as an omnivorous animal (an animal that eats both, meat and plants)(NRC, 2006). Different metabolic adaptions and metabolic differences (e.g. metabolism
of arachidonic acid, vitamin A, taurine) between cats and dogs support this slightly
altered classification. Also HAND et al. (2010) agree with the classification of cats asstrict carnivores and dogs as omnivores.
At the congress of the European Society of Veterinary and Comparative Nutrition, Dr.
Wouter HENDRIKS urged to rethink the classification of dogs as omnivores. The
intestinal morphology and physiology of canine and feline are quite similar and so istheir low ability to ferment undigested material in the large intestine. Also HENDRIKS
presented results of studies showing that wolves in their natural habitat ingests only
minor amounts of plants material and avoid consumption of the stomach contents of
their prey. HENDRIKS furthermore argued that the higher flexibility in metabolic
pathways in dogs compared to cats are the result of the “feast or famine” lifestyle of theancestors of our modern-day dogs. The feast and famine lifestyle of wolves has resulted
in a metabolism which has distinct features also seen in omnivorous animals although
clear features are obvious of their carnivorous ancestors. AXELSSON et al (2013)
suggest that because of their association with humans and eating people's waste, dogs
became scavengers of a mixed diet and this applied a strong selective pressure on the
dog’s appetitive behaviors and digestive system. Furthermore their published study

56
indicates that the gene for amylase (a protein that starts the breakdown of starch) was
28-fold more active in dogs than wolves, indicating that dogs should be fivefold better
than wolves in digesting starch (AXELSSON, 2013)
Most vitamins and nutrients are contained in a fair amount of both, plant- and meatbased foods. Specific ones however, can only be found in animal products (e.g. taurine,
vitamin A, vitamin B12) or, in trace amounts in some algae. Red and brown seaweeds
contain arachidonic acid. (BHASKAR et al., 2004; VAN GINNEKEN et al., 2011).
Also several of the essential amino acids are limited in most vegetable sources,
suggesting the necessity to use synthetic forms of some nutrients and informed use of
supplements to make a complete and balanced vegan diet (MICHEL, 2006)
Thinking of a strictly plant based diet, there are a few nutrients that instantly rise to thequestion if and how an adequate supply can be guaranteed when sparing all animal
sources. Protein intake is probably the main concern in a vegetarian or vegan diet.
Proteins are the principal structural constituents of body organs and tissues (MEYER
and ZENTEK; 2010). There is no requirement for protein as such, but a requirement for
its building blocks, the non-essential and essential amino acids (NRC, 2006).
Although meat and other animal products are probably the main source of protein,proteins and amino acids are also found in large numbers in plants. A large portion of
the protein in cereal based dry pet foods typically comes from grains, rice, corn, wheat
and barley. Soybean meal and corn gluten meal are concentrated sources of plant protein(HAND et al., 2010).
Adequate protein intake can therefore be provided by a healthy balanced vegan diet.
Adding to the classification of strict carnivores, cats have a higher protein requirement
than dogs in general (HAND et al., 2010).
Serum total protein of all 20 examined dogs and 15 cats in this study was within thenormal reference. A study published in 1999 by ENGELHARD showed similar resultsin the blood assessment of 34 vegetarian/vegan dogs and 2 cats.
Cells use amino acids derived from food proteins, single amino acids added to the foodand amino acids synthesized by the body and cannot distinguish between amino acids
from grains or plants (e.g. rice, soybean) and those from meats (e.g. chicken). The only
importance is that all amino acids are present in sufficient quantities that are needed tosynthesize a particular protein (HAND et al., 2010). Plant proteins are said to have alower digestibility due to higher fiber content. High fiber content might lead to quicker

57
gut passage which lowers degradation rate of nutrients and thus availability of aminoacids (NRC, 2006). Digestibility of proteins is important in animals such as cats anddogs that have a relatively short intestinal tract (O’HEARE, 2009).
In addition to fiber content, trypsin inhibitors can influence amino acid and protein
availability; However once mild heat is applied, these inhibitors are inactivated(BAKER and RACKIS, 1986). HUBER et al., 1994 observed no differences in protein
digestion of diets, containing either soybean meal meat and bone meal, also otherstudies (CLAPPER et al., 2001; GRIESHOP et al. 2000) concluded that soy protein
concentrations offer a viable alternative to poultry meal as a protein source.
CERUNDOLO et al. (2009) suggests that feeding soy to dogs on a long-term basis may
influence results of studies in which endocrine function is evaluated, although larger
studies are needed to confirm this supposition.
Looking at the effect of administration of dietary soy to cats, WHITE et al. (2004)
published a study proving dietary soy to have a measurable although modest effect on
thyroid hormone homeostasis in cats and to lead to an increase in total thyroxine (T4)and free T4 (fT4).
KIM et al. (1995) furthermore also suggest that dietary soybean protein leads to adecrease in plasma taurine concentration in cats.
As previously discussed, proteins consist of a chain of amino acids, several of which areclassified as essential because they can not be synthesized in the body. Most of theseessential amino acids can be found in plants. However Taurine, the amino acid essential
for cats, can only be found in animal products and is thus to be syntheticallysupplemented in a vegan or vegetarian diet (GILLEN, 2003). Although dogs generally
are able to synthesize Taurine, it is recommended to supplement it to dog food in orderto guarantee sufficient supply, as synthesis rate seem to differ in breeds. BACKUS et al.
(2006) showed that on the bases of metabolic body weight and liver weight the
Newfoundlands, had less than half of taurine synthesis rates of beagles, conducting that
if Newfoundland Dogs are representative of large breed dogs, future studies should
determine whether sulfur amino acid requirement scales disproportionally withmetabolic energy requirement. FASCETTI et al. (2003) results suggest that consumptionof certain commercial diets may be associated with low blood or plasma taurine
concentrations and DCM in dogs. DELANEY et al. (2003) published a study, which

58
showed lower mean whole blood taurine concentrations in dogs fed diets containing
whole grain rice, rice bran or barley. The lowest whole blood concentrations were seen
in dogs fed lamb or lamb meal and rice diets.
Taurine blood levels had not been measured in vegan cats participating in this study.
ENGELHARD (1999) measured plasma taurine levels of 2 vegetarian cats in theirstudy. Both cats showed levels significantly below the reference.
A study published by WAKEFIELD et al. (2006), measured blood and plasma taurine
levels of 17 cats that had exclusively been fed a commercial or homemade vegetariandiet. Taurine levels of 14 of 17 cats were within the reference.
Another important essential amino acid is Arginine. Arginine is essential for both catsand dogs, but no other species has yet been shown to be as sensitive to arginine
deficiency as cats, who develop signs of deficiency within three hours (NRC, 2006).
Arginine is a key intermediate in the urea cycle that detoxifies nitrogenous wastes suchas ammonia (HAND et al 2010). Most animal protein sources supply sufficient
Arginine; However in a strictly plant based diet, Arginine intake should be carefully
monitored. Arginine deficiency leads to hyper-ammonia, tremors, emesis, apnea,
cyanosis, and even death in cats (MORRIS and ROGER, 1978). Ornithine andCitrulline, other urea cycle intermediates, can prevent hyperammonemia and substitutefor arginine (MORRIS et al., 1979) However, they can not be made fast enough insufficient quantities to substitute for arginine (NRC et al., 2006). Good plant sources for
Arginine are sesame seeds, soya and seaweed. (nutritiondata.com)
Also important is the essential amino acid Methionine. It is the most limiting amino acidin a diet for cats and first or second for dogs. Together with cysteine, methionine is oneof two sulfur-containing proteinogenic amino acids (NRC, 2006). Methionine serves asa precursor for cysteine. It can be transformed to Homocysteine which again can beused to regenerate methionine, or to form cysteine (HAND et al., 2010).
Both Methionine and Cysteine play an important role in many metabolic pathways suchas cell replication and phospholipid synthesis (NRC 2006).
Both amino acids do not systemically belong to the group of acidic amino acids;
however with the process of degradation and the resulting end product, Methionine andCysteine are powerful urinary acidifiers (GILLEN, 2003). Due to the higher pH of plant
based protein, vegan and vegetarian diets can tend to promote an alkaline urine andstruvite formation, which the acidifying effect of Methionine and Cysteine can prevent.

59
Methionine content of plant proteins tends to be lower than those of animal proteins.
Plant proteins also tend to be relatively rich in glycine, which can act as a functional
methionine antagonist (McCARTY et al., 2009). Vegan diets can be relatively poorsources of methionine, therefore adequate intake of plant sources high in methionine isrecommended. Sesame seeds, brazilian nuts, brown rice, corn and to some extent alsosoy products can also be good sources of methionine (nutritiondata.com).
Supplementation in a vegan diet should be taken into consideration.
The non essential amino acid L-carnitine should also be mentioned for dogs fed on avegan diet. It does naturally occur in plants only in small amounts and can besynthesized from Lysine by the dog. However; to guarantee adequate supply,
supplementation is suggested (MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010).
Looking at the L-carnitine levels of 7 vegan dogs participating in this study, 3 showed
serum levels below the reference level; However no significant differences could benoticed (t-test, SPSS17.0) between mean L-Carnitine levels or general distribution ofserum Carnitine levels compared to dogs that were fed a conventional diet. The group ofvegan dogs had slightly higher percentile fraction of dogs within the reference range
than the group of dogs who were fed on a conventional diet.
Other than several amino acids, some fatty acids can not be synthesized by the body but
need to be taken in in sufficient amounts with food, thus are essential. As previously
mentioned, the requirement of these essential fatty acids (Ω-6 and Ω-3 fatty acids
families) can be met with a strict plant based diet.
However, a fatty acid that deserves strong attention in a vegan diet in cats is arachidonic
acid, of which little or none is found in plants. It is important for platelet aggregation,
prevention of mild mineralization of the kidneys and for reproduction especially infemale cats (HAND et al., 2010). Arachidonic acid can be synthesized by dogs, but notby cats (MacDONALD et al., 1984), cats therefore depend on a synthetical composedarachidonic supplement added to their food in order to assure sufficient supply.
Informed adequate supplementation is necessary both in commercially produced andhome-prepared diets. An example for a plant based supplementation of arachidonic acidis the specifically composed product „VegecatTM“ which uses arachidonic acid, isolated
from a norwegian seaweed, Kelp (PEDEN, 1999).
A worry that often comes with vegan/vegetarian nutrition is the excessive intake of60
carbohydrates in order to meet the energy requirement. Neither dogs nor cats have arequirement for carbohydrates, they do, however, have a requirement for adequate
glucose or glucose precursors to provide essential fuel for the central nervous system.
These requirements can be easily met in a plant based diet by consumption of grains
potatoes and other legumes which are frequently used in commercially produced dietsand can easily be added in home made rations.
Unlike dogs, cats lack hepatic glucokinase activity, which limits their ability tometabolize large amounts of simple carbohydrates (BERNARD, 2003). Lacking
glucokinase activity, cats rely on other enzymes, including hexokinase. Although
hexokinase is less efficient than glucokinase when glucose concentrations are high, cats
have considerably more hexokinase than dogs (LAFLAMME, 2010).
If large amounts of carbohydrates are fed to cats signs of maldigestion occur (e.g.,diarrhea, bloating and gas). Despite the limitations of digestive capacity andmetabolism, the starch levels found in commercial cat foods are well tolerated (HAND
et al., 2010). Other than glucokinase activity, cats also lack glucuronyl transferase which
is an enzyme important for glucuronidation, a process needed for detoxification.
Lacking this enzyme reduces cats ability to metabolize certain drugs and also toxins
such as plant-based phytoalexins (e.g.. Isoflavonoids in legumes) (COURT a.
GREENBLATT, 2000). Sufficient supply of most vitamins, minerals and trace elements
can be assured by a strictly plant based diet. However, there are certain ones that occur
in little or no amount in plant-based foods.
Cobalamin, Vitamin B12, for example can only be synthesized by certain
microorganisms. Microbes and yeast can make vitamin B12 for absorption by animals,
However the major food sources of cobalamin are animal products (e.g. meat) Plant
products are generally devoid of this vitamin (HAND et al., 2010) and whereas
ruminants and other herbivores can synthesize sufficient quantities of cobalamin in theirintestines to meet their needs, humans, and other omnivorous or carnivorous animals
like dogs and cats can not. The intestinal flora of dogs and cats can synthesize
cobalamins in the presence of cobalt, however, as the site of production is caudal to thesite of absorption, this ability is not much of use.
Vitamin B12 therefore is a big concern when a strictly plant based diet is put onorganisms that aren’t able to synthesize this vitamin. Cobalamin on its own puts aquestion mark over the adequacy of a vegan or vegetarian diet for cats and dogs. HAND61
et al. (2010) suggest that longterm feeding of vegetarian diets may lead to vitamin B12
deficiency, as vitamin B12 is only made by microbes and found in animal tissue. In avegetarian and especially a vegan diet, Vitamin B12 therefore has to be supplied byadequate supplementation (NRC, 2006)
When informed regular supplementation is provided however, requirement of Vitamin
B12 can be met in a vegetarian or vegan diet. Results of blood assessment of 20 dogs
and 15 cats in this study emphasize this suggestion.
14 out of 15 cats and 15 out of 20 dogs had Cobalamin levels within the normalreference, and showed no significant differences compared to dogs and cats that were
fed a conventional diet. Expected significantly lower Vitamin B12 could not be observed.
Serum cobalamin levels of both tested cats and dogs showed higher mean values
compared to the group of cats and dogs who were fed on a conventional diet and also ahigher percentage of dogs and cats within the normal reference.
Also in 2006, WAKEFIELD et al. measured serum cobalamin levels in 17 vegetariancats proving all 17 to have serum B12 levels within the reference.
Other than inadequate dietary intake, Hypocobalaminemia is also associated withgastrointestinal disease. A study from BERGHOFF et al. (2013), showed serum
cobalamin concentrations to be significantly lower in dogs with gastrointestinal disease
as well as exocrine pancreatic insufficiency or gastrointestinal inflammation(GRÜTZNER et al., 2012).
A retrospective study published by GRÜTZNER et al. (2012) showed the breeds Akitas,
Chinese Shar-Peis, German Shepherd Dogs, Greyhounds, and Labrador Retrievers tohave increased proportions of serum cobalamin concentrations below the lower limit of
the reference interval.
A study from Texas, by GRÜTZNER et al. (2012) also named Shar Peis to have a highprevalence of cobalamin deficiency compared to other breeds and healthy Shar Peis
may have subclinical cobalamin deficiency.
Other important vitamins in strictly plant based diet are Vitamin D, A and B3 (Niacin)
The main function of vitamin D is in maintenance and regulation of calcium levels inthe body and vitamin D is, therefore, critically important for the development of ahealthy skeleton. Main forms of Vitamin D are cholecalciferol (Vitamin D3), which
occurs mainly in animals, and ergocalciferol (D2), which also occurs in plants (MEYER
and ZENTEK, 2010) The Solanaceae family, which includes vegetables such as potato,

62
tomato, pepper, is said to contain high amounts of vitamin D3 although current
knowledge is limited to the content in leaves. Future investigation will elucidate if also
the edible portions also contain vitamin D3 (JÄPELT a. JAKOBSEN, 2013)
Cats and dogs can not synthesize Vitamin D through sun exposure as humans can, thus
ultimately depend on adequate dietary intake of vitamin D (HAND et al., 2010).
Plant sources of vitamin D are very limited and wild mushrooms are one of the only
significant sources of vitamin D2 (MATTILA et al., 2002; TEICHMANN et al., 2007).
Ergosterol is a cell membrane component of fungi and the provitamin of vitamin D2.
Thus, vitamin D2 can be found in plants contaminated with fungi. Plants are not known
to produce ergosterol, and any vitamin D2 present is probably derived from endophytic
fungi or a fungal infection (JÄPELT a. JAKOBSEN, 2013).
Supplementation of synthetically composed Vitamin D is strongly recommended in avegan and vegetarian diet in both dogs and cats, because of its lack in plant based
products. Vitamin D2 is said to be less efficiently used than vitamin D3 (HAND et al.,2010), however unlike in cats, plant based vitamin D2 in dogs, proven to be of almost
the same efficiency as the animal based vitamin D3 (MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010) .
Unfortunately blood levels of Vitamin D were not measured in the study.
Vitamin A is necessary for normal vision, growth, reproduction, immune function andmaintenance of healthy epithelial tissue. Vitamin A is also involved in the expression
and regulation of many genes (McCLINTICK et al., 2005).
The source of vitamin A from plants is in the form of provitamin A carotenoids (HAND
et al., 2010). In nature, all of the vitamin A ingested by animals originates fromcarotenoids synthesized by plants. Dogs have the ability to use carotenoid precursors ofvitamin A (s.a. beta- carotine) and convert it to retinol (NRC, 2006). Plants, particularlybright yellow and orange ones, such as carrots, sweet potato, kale, pumpkin are a goodsource for β-carotene, provitamin A. (O’HEARE, 2013).
Cats can absorb β-carotene but are unable to convert carotenoids to vitamin A andtherefore cannot meet their vitamin A requirement from carotenoids (SCHWEIGERT etal., 2011) Another study by GREEN et al. (2012) however indicates that cat are indeed
capable of converting β-carotene to active Vitamin A, but this is likely inadequate tomeet cats requirement. Cats must be provided with a preformed source of Vitamin A andchemists have learned to synthesize it, avoiding the use of animal products (PEDEN,

631999). In a vegan or vegetarian diet for cats, adequate supplementation should beassured in both home prepared and commercially produced feeds.
Vitamin B3, Niacin, is a Vitamin that can be synthesized from the amino acidtryptophan. However; cats cannot efficiently use tryptophan to synthesize niacin andthus have a strict dietary requirement for preformed niacin (HAND et al., 2010). Grains,
legumes and potatoes are good plant sources of Niacin. (nutritiondata.self.com)
One of the biggest concern when thinking of a strictly plant based vegan diet, next toProtein, is assurance of adequate iron intake. Iron in foods exists in two forms. Hemeiron is present in hemoglobin and myoglobin (as in meat), whilst non-heme iron can befound in grains and other plant sources (HAND et al., 2010). Absorption of non-heme
iron is markedly influenced by phytate, tannins and excesses of phosphorus, manganese,zinc, copper and ascorbic acid. Food rich in ascorbic acid has been proven to have apositive influence on iron absorption, whereas calcium is a dietary factor that inhibits
both iron absorption (HAND et al., 2010).
Seaweed, soybeans, lentils, spinach and fiber sources such as beet pulp, soy mill run andpeanut hulls can be listed as good vegetarian sources of iron (HAND et al., 2010).
However, in vegetarian or vegan commercial pet foods, Iron should be supplemented toguarantee an adequate daily intake. Commercially available vegan diets are usually
supplemented with iron in adequate quantities. Iron compounds such as Iron oxide oriron carbonate have little availability and are not recommended for supplementation(MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010).
Blood assessment in this study showed 14 out of 15 cats and 17 out of 19 dogs to haveiron levels within the normal reference, and showed no significant differences compared
to dogs and cats that were fed a conventional diet. Expected significantly lower iron
could not be observed.
Serum iron levels of both tested cats and dogs showed higher mean values compared to
the group of cats and dogs who were fed on a conventional diet and also a higher
percentage of dogs and cats within the normal reference.
When looking at information sites or talking to people about vegan nutrition, Folic Acidis a nutrient often associated with lacking in a vegan diet. The reason for which is notclear as plants naturally provide a high amount of folic acid. Dark green leafy
vegetables, beans, lentils and peas (legumes) are great sources of folate. Folate isimportant for normal cell function and growth, it prevents anaemia and helps prevent

64
birth defects during pregnancy. Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) is required for the body toabsorb, store and activate folate to its coenzyme forms. Furthermore, together with
Vitamin B12, folic acid is needed for the conversion of Homocysteine to Methionine or
Cysteine. Folic acid, particularly in large doses, can mask vitamin B12 deficiency bycompletely correcting hematological abnormalities (HERBERT, 1999). Considering thenaturally high occurrence in plants, adequate dietary intake should not be of concern ina vegan diet.
However, results of blood assessment from participating cats showed significantly lower
folic acid values (p < 0,001) in the vegan group compared to conventionally fed cats anda smaller percentage of cats within the group within the normal reference. Folic acid is avitamin with very high sensitivity to heat, oxidation, and light (NRC 2006). Foods
fortified with folic acid are moderately stable to heat but unstable to light. Significantly
lower folic acid values in the group of vegan cats in this study, who were exclusively
fed commercially produced diets (mainly Amì Cat and Vegusto) suggest insufficient
supplementation of Folic Acid to the feeds or possible loss in the process of production.
No information or statement on folic acid levels in the final product, the kibble that isingested, was given by Ami Pet food. „Vegusto“’s own guaranteed analysis of thefinished product showed a sufficient, or the recommendation excessing, amount of folic
acid. In comparison, the group of vegan dogs showed no significant differences to folicacid levels of dogs fed a conventional diet.
Other than insufficient dietary intake, low folic acid blood levels can also be achievedby inflammation or diseases of the intestines, as a result of insufficient absorption andmetabolization. None of the participating cats however had problems with the GI-tractthat were known at the time of blood collection.
Affecting many metabolic reactions and the general well-being of the body, the diet also
influences urinary pH. Examination of urinary pH is important as it directly influencesconditions that are more or less likely to trigger stone production. The excretion of thenitrogenous waste products of protein catabolism results in the acidic urine ofcarnivores. Cat and dog urine is usually slightly acidic, with the normal range being 6.0- 7.5 (GILLEN, 2003).
Plants are poor in acidifying amino acids and therefore, due to the higher pH of plant
based protein, vegan and vegetarian diets can tend to promote an alkaline urine. Urine
pH 7 and higher indicates Alkalinity which presents an increased potential risk of65formation of Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate) crystals or stones (HAND etal., 2010).
To prevent crystallization in dogs and cats fed on a vegan or vegetarian diet, regularmonitoring of urine pH is recommended and acidifying agents and supplements can be
added to the food (GILLEN, 2003). Asparagus, peas, brown rice, oats, lentils, corn,brussel sprouts and yeast, may be included in vegetarian cat food, and are all urinary
acidifiers (PEDEN, 1999).
Also Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a urinary acidifier. The BSAVA (British Small Animal
Veterinary Association) Small Animal Formulary (RAMSEY, 2014) recommends adosage of 50-80 mg/kg every 24 hours for cats and dogs. As previously mentioned, theamino acids Methionine and Cysteine can additionally be used to acidify an alkaline
urine, thus preventing struvite formation. The BSAVA Small Animal Formulary(RAMSEY, 2014) recommends a dosage of 200 mg/cat every 8 hours. PEDEN (1999)
states that methionine supplementation should not exceed 1800 mg/day for a 10 poundcat. Higher acidity and low content of magnesium both are supposed to keep the urinary
pH within a healthy acidic range and help prevent the building of Struvite within theurinary tract. However; acidifying nutrients, agents or products (s.a. VEGEYEAST)
should be used carefully as an excess can lead to metabolic acidosis. (LUTZ et al.,2014) Also, a more acidic urinary pH promotes higher urinary excretion of calcium andlower excretion of magnesium. This has to be regularly checked and controlled asmagnesium is a natural inhibitor in the formation of urinary stones associated withcalcium.(LUTZ et al., 2014)
In the present study, out of 19 examined dogs, one dog showed a pH above the healthy
normal pH range of a dog's urine (pH 5-7) whilst the remaining 18 dogs and the one catwere within the normal pH reference.
During clinical examination of participating cats and dogs, no abnormalities weredetected that were obviously relatable to a vegan diet. However; it is important to take
into consideration that no puppies or kitten were examined in the course of the present
study. Findings published by ENGELHARDT (1999) however showed that at 8 weeks,
the vegan puppies were approximately half of the normal weight for dogs that age. The
adult dogs, equal to our findings in the present study, showed no clinical abnormalities
and appeared bright and healthy. One cat showed retina atrophy.
The growing demand and interest in vegan pet nutrition has lead to the marketing of

66
commercial vegetarian or vegan dog and cat foods.
The present paper looked at by participants most commonly used an available
commercially produced vegan pet feed as well as some examples of home prepared
diets.
The first products we looked at were dry kibble for both cats and dogs and a wet feedfor dogs from the company „Ami Pet Food“.
„Amì Dog regular size“ is labeled as a complete pet food for adult dogs, listing
composition, analytical constituents and nutritional additives as well as an instruction
for use and daily amount. Other than stating a higher moisture of 8% (compared to 5,9%
moisture resulting our own analysis), guaranteed analysis of the company showed nosignificant deviation to the analysis performed by the Veterinary University Vienna and„Futtermittel-Labor Rosenau“.
Vitamin A, D3 and E are added to the feed, the source of which is not further described.
Taking into account that Ami Pet Food advertises its raw materials as being 100%vegetable, it is likely that mentioned vitamins are derived from a plant based source.
Next to trace elements and minerals, l-carnitine (300 mg/kg) is specifically mentioned
as nutritional additives. No declaration of Vitamin B12, Folic Acid or Taurine can befound on the packaging. „Amì Dog regular size“ proved to be sufficient in mostly all
nutrients. The nutrient „Potassium“ did not meet the minimum recommended levels per
kg DM as published by F.E.D.I.A.F (2013). However, when looking at the nutrition of a
20 kg dog, using the recommended daily ration provided on the packaging, demand of
all nutrients is satisfied or exceeded.
„Amì Dog small size“ is labeled as a complete balanced pet food for small sized adultdogs, with no need of additional supplementation. Composition, analytical constituentsand nutritional additives as well as an instruction for use and daily amount is provided
on the packaging. Other than stating a higher moisture of 8% (compared to 4,6%
moisture resulting our own analysis), guaranteed analysis of the company showed nosignificant deviation to the analysis performed by the Veterinary University Vienna and„Futtermittel-Labor Rosenau“.
Vitamin A, D3 and E are added to the feed, the source of which is not further described.
Taking into account that Ami Pet Food advertises with raw materials being 100%vegetable, it is likely that mentioned vitamins are derived from a plant based source.

67
Copper, L-Carnitine (no further declaration of amount) and Linoleic acid (6,9%) are
specifically mentioned as a nutritional additives. No declaration of Vitamin B12, Folic
Acid or Taurine can be found on the packaging. Also, declaration on the packaging of„Amì Dog small size“ differs from the declaration provided on the company’s website(www.amipetfood.com) The website seems to state the same declaration as provided for„Amí Dog regular size“. „Amì Dog small size“ proved to be sufficient in mostly all
nutrients with only the nutrient „potassium“ not meeting the minimum recommended
levels per kg DM as published by F.E.D.I.A.F (2013).
„Amí wet“ is labeled as a complete vegetable based wet pet food for adult dogs.
Composition, analytical constituents and nutritional additives as well as an instruction
for use and daily amount is provided on the can. Guaranteed analysis of the company
showed no significant deviation to the analysis performed by the Veterinary University
Vienna and „Futtermittel-Labor Rosenau“, and all parameters conformed with thecomparison chart of minimum recommended levels (MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010).
Vitamin A, D3 and E are added to the feed, the source of which is not further described.
No declaration of Vitamin B12, Folic Acid, L-Carnitine or Taurine can be found.
„Amì wet“ proved to be sufficient in mostly all nutrients with only the nutrient „zinc“
not meeting the minimum recommended levels per kg DM as published by F.E.D.I.A.F(2013). However, when looking at the nutrition of a 9 kg dog, using the recommended
daily ration provided on the packaging, demand of all nutrients is satisfied or exceeded.
„Amì Cat“ is labeled as a complete vegetable based pet food for cats of all breeds withno need to add supplements. Composition, analytical constituents and nutritional
additives as well as an instruction for use and daily amount is provided on the can.
Guaranteed analysis of the company showed no significant deviation to the analysis
performed by the Veterinary University Vienna and „Futtermittel-Labor Rosenau“ otherthan in the parameter moisture (8% vs. 4,7%). All parameters were conform with thecomparison chart of minimum recommended levels (FEDIAF, 2013) Magnesium, Ω-3and Ω-6 fatty acids are mentioned in the analytical constituents. Vitamin A, D3 and E
are added to the feed, the source of which is not further described. Next to traceelements and minerals L-Carnitine and Taurine are mentioned in the nutritional
additives in sufficient amount. No delcaration of Vitamin B12 or folic acid can befound.
„Amì Cat“ proved to be sufficient in mostly all nutrients with potassium meeting only

68
74% of the minimum recommended levels per kg DM as published by F.E.D.I.A.F(2013). Also, when looking at the nutrition of a 4,5 kg cat and using the recommended
daily ration provided on the packaging, the demand from all nutrients but Potassium ismet. A lower blood potassium level within the group of cats feeding on „Amí Cat“ wasnot observed in this study.
„Amì Cat“ and „Amì Dog (small and regular size)“ both listed very high addition of
sodium selenite (Na2SO3) as a source for selenium to the food. Sodium selenite consists
up to 46% of selenium (KAMPHUES et al., 2009). FEDIAF (2013) publishedrecommended level per 100 g dry matter of selenium to be 0,03 mg at the minimum, notto exceed the legal upper limit of 0,056 mg for both cats and dogs. ( 0,3 mg - 0,56 mg
per 1 kg DM).
Maximum permitted levels have been determined by the EU. „Legal maximum only
applies when the particular trace-element or vitamin is added to the recipe as anadditive, but relates to the ‘total’ amount present in the finished product (amount comingfrom the additive + amount from feed materials)“ (FEDIAF, 2013) As we unfortunately
didn’t analyze the amount of Selenium in the finished product, we can only assume theamount by what is originally added to the feed. The apparent excess of over Selenium
supplementation 150-times higher than the legal upper limit lists, gives reason to thinkthat even highest losses during process of preservation would still lead to an excessive
concentration of selenium in the end product.
The amount of sodium selenite added to Amì Cat is listed as 10 mg/kg, which makes 4,6
mg of pure selenium, and a addition to Amì Dog of 20 mg/kg, which makes a total of
9,6 mg of pure selenium. Seeing as though all dogs and cats feeding on products of„Ami Petfood“ are healthy and (so far) show no signs of selenium intoxication, one
could assume that the high number on the packaging might result from a simple labeling
mistake. Unfortunately even within a long period of time, the companies were notavailable for further information on the supplementation of Selenium. („As you canunderstand I am not allowed to give analysis to anyone. Do not worry! We have beenfeeding lots of healthy pets for years and you can find good feedbacks
everywhere.“ (Ami Pet Food Staff, 2014) Chronic selenium poisoning leads to severe
affection of liver and spleen, severe ascites and possible extreme dilatation of bloodvessels in the abdominal cavity (MOXON and RHIAN 1943).
A study in 2010 fed dietary concentrations of 8 to 10 μg Se/g DM from Na2SeO3 or69organic Selenium (Selenomethionine, which contains 40% pure selenium) to cats. No
clinical signs of selenosis or chronic selenium toxicity were observed in the cats or dogs
and form of Se had no effect on any of the measurements. Results of the study
concluded that cats tolerate greater dietary Se concentrations as they are more efficientat excreting excess Se in the urine and storing less Se in the liver (TODD et al., 2012).
„Benevo Duo“ is a wet feed composed to fulfill requirements for both cats and dogs. It
is a complete and nutritional balanced adult vegetarian dog and cat food. It is free of allcommon allergens such as meat fish soya wheat and dairy (can label). Composition,
analytical constituents and additives are declared on the can. Guaranteed Analysis
provided by the company conformed with the Analysis performed by the Veterinary
University Vienna and „Futtermittel-Labor Rosenau“ and with the comparison chart ofminimum recommended levels (MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010). Within the nutritional
additives list, only the amount of vitamin D2 and taurine is declared. All other additives
are mentioned, however the amount is not specified (Incl. Vit A, E, B3, B5, B2, B7, B6,
B12, Folic Acid and trace elements.) „Benevo Duo“ provides sufficient amount of
nutrients compared to the minimum recommended levels per kg DM as published by
F.E.D.I.A.F (2013). Using the recommended daily ration provided on the can, „Benevo
Duo“ does meets only around 80% of the energy and calorie requirements of a 9 kilo
dog and only around 80% of the energy, calorie and protein requirements of a 4,5 kilocat. Animals fed on „Benevo Duo“ should therefore be closely monitored for weight orenergy losses. A lower serum total protein in the cats feeding on „Benevo Duo“ could
not be observed in this study.
„Vegusto“ is a complimentary wet food for cats. Recommendation to combine oralternate the wet food with dry food for example „Vegusto Cat“ and „Amì Cat“ dryfood. 100 % vegan, completely free of animal based ingredients and cruelty-free.
„Vegusto“ was fed to 2 participants of this study, but unfortunately didn’t undergo
further analysis in this study. However, when approached via Email, the company
immediately responded and provided helpful and professional information about
analytical constituents of the finished product. Compared to the requirements of a 4,5
kilo cat (Diet Check Munich, NRC 2006) fulfillment of demands was sufficient or
nutrients were provided in an excessive amount, while still conformed with the legal
maximum allowances (FEDIAF, 2013). Vitamins B1-B3 and B5-B7 as well as Folic
Acid were shown to fulfill the requirements.

70
There was no declaration of Vitamin B12 or Taurine, but declaration of using the
supplement „VegecatTM“ by PEDEN to provide sufficient supply. The amount of which
was not further described.
„Yarrah Organic“ is labeled as a complete pet food for adult dogs. The recipe is stated to
be fully vegetarian/vegan, not containing any meat or animal by products. Composition,
analytical constituents and nutritional additives as well as an instruction for use anddaily amount is provided on the packaging. Guaranteed analysis of the company showedno significant deviation to the analysis performed by the Veterinary University Vienna
and „Futtermittel-Labor Rosenau“. Amount of supplementation of trace elements,
Vitamin A (as Retinol), D (as Vitamin D2, ergocalciferol) and E (DL-α-tocoferol
acetate) is declared on the packaging.
No declaration or mentioning of Vitamin B12, Folic Acid, L-Carnitine or Taurine can befound on the packaging. However, when approached, the company provided a full list ofanalytical constituents of the final product and nutritional additives, mentioning LCarnitine, Taurine and Vitamin B12. Folic acid does not seem to be supplemented.
„Yarrah“ proved to be sufficient in all nutrients, meeting the minimum recommended
levels/ kg DM as published by F.E.D.I.A.F (2013) and the requirements of a 20 kg dog.
A study from REISENHOFER (2012) revealed that guaranteed analysis of the vegan
dry foods „Benevo“, „Yarrah“ and „Ami Dog“ conformed with the required norm valuesof the scientific comparison chart. In vegan wet feed the product „Canigourmet“ proved
to be conform with the standard value in all parameters. The products „Terra Pura“ and„Yarrah“ showed to be at the limit within the parameter „Crude ash“. Furthermore, thevalue „moisture“ was shown to be slightly above the recommended value. All othervalues were within the norm.
ENGELHARD (1999) tested the complete dry food „Yarrah“. Analysis published in the
study showed the dry food „Yarrah“ to provide too little iron whilst providing excessing
amounts of all other nutrients. Comparison of their own analysis to the official analysis
published by „Yarrah“ showed significant difference in zink but no significant
differences in all other nutrients. However, when asked about changes in the recipe
since 1999, Quality Assurance Manager Arthur Hartman stated that Taurine and LCarnitine are now added to „Yarrah“.
„Yarrah“ was the only company that provided immediate and helpful customer service,answering all questions professionally without hesitation.

71
Analysis of the „Yarrah“ in this study showed all parameters were conform with thescientific comparison chart (MEYER and ZENTEK, 2010) as well as with the minimum
required allowances published by F.E.D.I.A.F (2013), mainly providing the nutrients
excessively. All vegan feeds stated nutritional additives mostly of vitamins and traceelements, some also adding essential amino or essential fatty acids.
Feeding a home prepared diet was not common among vegan cat owners, all cats
participating in this study were fed on a commercial diet. However; the book
„Vegetarian Cats and Dogs“, by James PEDEN, provides dry kibble and wet foodrecipes. To make home preparation easier, the books website also offers a prepared dry
mix called „Vegecat KibbleMixTM“, which needs flour, water and oil adding to it.
According to the book, all recipes provided are conform with the AAFCO.
In 2004, GRAY et al published a survey about the nutritional adequacy of two vegan
diets, including the diet mentioned above and a canned diet for adult cats called„Evolution diet“. „Vegecat KibbleMixTM“s was prepared according to company
instructions. Evolution canned diet for adult cats required no additional preparation. The
study showed both brands being deficient in taurine and methionine and arachidonic
acid, with the „Vegecat KibbleMixTM“ diet being additionally deficient in Lysine andArginine.
The Evolution diet was deficient in several B vitamins as well as retinol, calcium,
phosphorus and the overall protein. James PEDEN, the manufacturer of „Vegecat
KibbleMixTM“ responded to the publication of this study claiming the particular batch
was probably made improperly, hinting to many healthy vegan cats he supported formany years. A reevaluation and second analysis of the diet was not performed.
Excessive or deficient intake of iodine may play a role in the development of goitre andhyper-thyroidism in cats (KYLE et al., 1994). The iodine content of the final products
unfortunately was not measured in the course of this study. Going only by the
information provided on the packaging; regarding the amount of added iodine; the dry
cat diet „AMI CAT“ lists 0,4 mg Iodine added per 100g of dry matter. This amount isbelow the legal maximum of 1,10 mg/100g DM cat food (FEDIAF, 2013). KYLE et al.
(1994) suggest that the cat is able to maintain normal levels of thyroid hormone despite
prolonged high or low iodine diets.
Only two vegan diets for dogs list the amount of iodine that had been added to the feed.
The dry diet „YARRAH“ states an addition of 0,13 mg/100g dry matter.

72This amount is below the legal maximum of 1,10 mg/100g DM cat food (FEDIAF,
2013). The dry diet „AMI DOG“ however states an additional amount of 2,7 mg/100g
dry matter; hereby widely exceeding the legal maximum. Upon request, no statement
regarding this finding was provided by the company.
When it comes to home-prepared diets, dog owners seem to be more open and interested
in the idea to feeding their pets a self prepared feed. In this study we looked at an
example recipe „Buckwheat and Lentils“, composed and used by one of ourparticipating vegan pet owners. This recipe was formulated and given to a 25 kg
Labrador Dog. Comparison to the requirement of a dog of this weight (Diet Check
Munich, NRC 2006) showed the diet to be sufficient or providing an excessive amountin most nutrients, but being too low in Vitamin B12 (although supplemented with
„VegedogTM“) and Sodium.
Looking at the amino acids and Linoleic acid of this recipe, compared to the minimum
required nutrient levels published by FEDIAF (2013), The diet proved to provide
sufficient intake in all amino acids except Methionine and Cysteine. Both parameters
only reached 70% of the minimum requirement. Requirement of linoleic acid (Ω-6) was
met with this self prepared diet. Insufficiency in Vitamin B12 as well as Methionine,
Cysteine and sodium, can be easily counteracted by adding an adequate amount of
supplementation and adding a controlled amount of table salt to the diet. Nevertheless,an adequate nutrient supply by feeding a self-prepared, home-cooked diet, can only beachieved having profound knowledge of requirements and needs of animals andnutrients in general.
ENGELHARD (1999) proved 10 out of 12 commercially available vegan andvegetarian diets for cats and dogs to be insufficient for cats and dogs nutritional needs.
Only two diets could be recommended without reservation. Looking at the publication
year of this study however; examined diets would need to be re-examined as recipes andingredients might have change over the years. In the case of „YARRAH“ a recipechange was confirmed by the company and results in the present study differed from thefindings published by ENGELHARD (1999).
In the course of this study, an often asked question was if a vegetarian or vegan dietwould be good for kidney disease.

73
Generally a low protein low phosphorus diet is recommended As a low proteine and low
phosphorus diet ist recommended. (ELLIOTT et al., 2000). A vegan or vegetarian diet isoften associated with a low-protein diet and therefore considered as an appropriate
alternative for kidney disease; However this conclusion can not be made without wideand profound research into this specific topic, taking into consideration the special
needs of CKD.
Another point, that should not be dismissed, is the legal situation of feeding cats anddogs on a strictly plant based diet. According to the Austrian animal protection act; thetype, consistency, nature, quality and amount of the feed has to conform with thespecies, age and requirements of the animals. The feed has to be designed and composedin a way, so that animals can satisfy their species appropriate need of activity, that is tied
to feeding (§17 (1) TSchG). The German animal protection act states that the personthat keeps or cares for a pet hat to nourish the animal according to its species andrequirements (§2 (2) TierSchG).
Thinking of the way cats and dogs and their ancestors feed in a natural or wild
environment, it is easy to say that a vegan diet is definitely not a species appropriate
from of nutrition. However seeing it strict, especially when it comes to texture, it might
be arguable if any kind of canned diet fulfills the requirement of a composition anddesign of food that satisfies species appropriate needs, as it is further described in theAustrian law. All vegan diets for dogs fulfilled nutritional requirements in the main,
being in accordance with the legal text of an the age and requirement conforming diet.
Although all animals participating in this study were clinically unremarkable andappeared bright and healthy, still the classification of cats and dogs, and the legal
definition and description of keeping and feeding them, might make it difficult for
veterinarians to openly support and recommend a strictly plant based nutrition.









74
8.

SummaryFeeding cats and dogs a strictly plant based diet rises to the question if adequate supplyof nutrients and a healthy lifestyle can be assured.
In this study, 20 dogs and 15 cats underwent a clinical examination and bloodassessment. Inclusion criterion to undergo blood assessment was a minimum length of 6months of exclusively eating a vegan diet for both cats and dogs, with the extra
requirements for cats to live indoor only.
During clinical examination of participating vegan cats and dogs, no abnormalities weredetected that were to be associated with the individual diet. All examined dogs and cats
appeared happy and bright, some fearful, some aggressive. No diseases could be foundthat were directly and obviously relatable to a plant based died.
Results of blood assessment showed no significant differences in all tested parameters indogs compared to dogs that were fed a conventional diet. Expected significantly lower
values of iron and vitamin B12 in vegan dogs could not be observed. Two dogs out of the
20 participating were fed on a home prepared supplemented diet and neither showed any
significant deviations. The main finding in this study are significantly lower folic acidvalues (p < 0,001) in the group of vegan cats compared to conventionally fed cats. The
reason of which is not known and may need further investigation. No other significant
deviations to the norm values were found. Expected significant lower values of ironprotein or vitamin B12 in vegan cats could not be observed. In the main, examined vegan
diets fulfilled cats and dogs nutritional requirements.
Two dry dog diets („Amì Dog regular size“ and „Amì Dog small size“) did not fulfill
the minimum recommended allowances for potassium per kg DM dog food. One wet
dog diet („Benevo Duo“) did not fulfill the energy and calorie requirements of a 9 kilodog, when obeying the feeding recommendation provided on the packaging.
Two wet diets for cats („Vegusto“ and „Benevo Duo“) did not fulfill the energy andcalorie requirement of a 4,5kg cat, when obeying the feeding recommendation provided
on the packaging; „Benevo Duo“ furthermore was found to provide insufficient protein
supply. The dry cat diet „Ami Cat“ did not fulfill the minimum recommended
allowances for potassium per kg DM cat food.
Feeding self-prepared diets was not so much of a subject in cat-owners, but common
amongst dog-owners. The recipe presented in this study fulfilled the dogs nutrient

75
requirement in the main, but was too low in the amino acids methionine and cysteine,
vitamin B12 and sodium; nutrient imbalances that can be easily corrected.
Cats are unable to convert carotenoids to vitamin A, depend on dietary intake ofarachidonic, taurine, vitamin D, niacin and arginine. Their classification of strict
carnivorous as stated in many sources, together with previously mentioned metabolic
peculiarities, their adaption for a low-carb diet and a higher protein requirement, mightsuggest that a vegan or vegetarian diet is not or possibly less advisable for cats.
However, all cats, showed no clinical abnormalities seemed bright happy and owners
described no acceptance problems of their cats towards the vegan feed. In order toprovide adequate nutrient supply and assure a healthy balanced diet, close examination
with the subject of vegan nutrition is necessary and implementation of this diet for catsand dogs should not be taken lightly. Supplementation of taurine, l-carnitine, iron,vitamin B12 and vitamin D in both dogs and cats, and additional supplementation ofarachidonic acid and vitamin A in cats is recommended. A healthy and balanced vegannutrition can barely be implemented without supplements.
Long term results, a larger group of animals feeding on a vegan diet for more than 7
years and further tests (taurine, niacin, vitamin A, vitamin D,…) as well as generally alarger number of participants would be needed for significant validity.
With the information given in this study, the overall impression of participating animals
and present results of examinations and blood assessments, the insular disapprobation ofa vegan diet for cats and dogs can’t be reasoned, but a vegan diet is not species
appropriate for cats and dogs and therefore can not be recommended by veterinarians.
Also the legal text is not very clear on this specific subject and might make it difficultfor veterinarians to actively support and openly recommend a strictly plant based diet.
However; the growing interest and demand for vegan and vegetarian diets for cats anddogs should result in a stronger discussion of this subject among veterinarians.
The strong convictions of vegan pet-owners and the will to put the own philosophy onto
their cats and dogs, should lead to taking vegan cat and dog nutrition serious in amodern veterinary clinic. Rather than leaving pet owners to themselves and risking
inadequate supply of nutrient, veterinarians can and should provide information on
implementation of this diet, nutrient requirement and supplementation. By creating a
positive and open basis of discussion, unavailability to medical help and veterinary
support can be prevented and a balanced diet and healthy lifestyle assured.

76
9.

Zusammenfassung
Katzen und Hunde rein pflanzlich zu ernähren, wirft die Frage auf, ob eine angemessene
und ausreichende Versorgung mit Nährstoffen und ein gesunder und ausgewogener
Lebensstil gesichert werden können. In der vorliegenden Studie unterzogen sich 20
Hunde und 15 Katzen einer klinischen Untersuchung und einer Blutabnahme.
Die Bedingungen, um an der Blutuntersuchung teilnehmen zu können, waren die
ausschließliche Fütterung von rein pflanzlichen Futtermitteln über eine Mindestdauer
von 6 Monaten bei Hunden und Katzen, mit dem extra Kriterium für Katzen,
ausschließlich innerhalb einer kontrollierten, geschlossenen Umgebung (Haus,
Wohnung) zu leben, wodurch das Ausschließen der Aufnahme tierischer Produktemöglich war. Freigänger-Katzen wurden zu der Blutabnahme nicht herangezogen.
Bei der klinischen Untersuchung von teilnehmenden vegan ernährten Hunden undKatzen wurden keine Veränderungen bemerkt, die mit der jeweiligen Diät in Verbindung
gebracht werden könnten. Alle untersuchten Hunde und Katzen präsentierten sichmunter und aufmerksam, manche erschienen ängstlich, manche zeigten aggressives
Verhalten. Keine Erkrankungen wurden diagnostiziert, die in direktem Zusammenhang
mit einer rein pflanzlichen Ernährung gesetzt werden konnten.
Ergebnisse der Blutuntersuchungen von veganen Hunden zeigten keine signifikanten
Unterschiede in allen untersuchten Parametern zu Hunden die mit einer herkömmlichen
Diät tierischer Inhaltsstoffe gefüttert wurden. Erwartete signifikant niedrigere Eisenund Cobalaminwerte in vegan ernährten Hunden konnten nicht beobachtet werden.
Zwei der 20 Hunde wurden mit einer eigens zusammengestellten und zubereiteten
supplementierten Diät gefüttert und zeigten ebenso keine signifikanten Abweichungen.
Blutuntersuchungen der teilnehmenden rein pflanzlich ernährten Katzen zeigten
signifikant niedrigerer Folsäurewerte im Vergleich zu Katzen, die mit herkömmlichen
Diäten tierischem Ursprungs ernährt wurden. Die Ursache der niedrigeren
Folsäurewerte konnte in der vorliegenden Studie nicht geklärt werden und bedarf
eventuell weiterführender und umfassenderer Studien. Erwartete signifikant niedrigere
Eisen-, Protein- oder Cobalaminwerte in vegan ernährten Katzen konnten nicht
beobachtet werden. Bei den Futtermitteln erfüllten die untersuchten pflanzlichen
Katzen- und Hundediäten größtenteils die jeweiligen Nährstoffbedürfnisse.
Zwei vegane Trockenfutter für Hunde („Amì Dog regular size“ und „Amì Dog small

77
size“) erfüllten nicht die Mindestempfehlungen von Kalium pro Kilogramm
Trockenmasse Futter. Ein Nassfutter für Hunde („Benevo Duo“) ausserdem nicht den
Energie- und Kalorienbedarf eines 9kg schweren Hundes, sofern sich an die
Fütterungsempfehlung der Firma gehalten wurde.
Zwei vegane Nassfutter für Katzen („Vegusto“ und „Benevo Duo“) erfüllten ebenfalls
nicht den Energie- und Kalorienbedarf, sofern man die Fütterungsempfehlung derFirma, für eine 4,5 kg schwere Katze befolgte. Die Berechnung der „Benevo Duo“ Ration ergab ausserdem eine unzureichende Proteinversorgung. Das vegane
Trockenfutter „Amì Cat“ erfüllte die Mindestempfehlungen für Kalium pro Kilo
Trockenmasse Katzenfutter nicht.
Selbst gekochte- und zusammengestellte Diäten zu füttern war seltener ein Thema bei
veganen Katzenbesitzern, sehr üblich jedoch bei Besitzern von pflanzlich ernährten
Hunden. Das in der vorliegenden Studie präsentierte Rezept einer selbsterstellten Diät
erfüllte den Nährstoffbedarf des Hundes zum größten Teil, enthielt jedoch eher
niedrigere Mengen der Aminosäuren Methionin und Cystein, Vitamin B12 und Natrium;
eine Minderversorgung, die sehr einfach korrigiert werden kann.
Um metabolische Eigenheiten noch einmal herauszuheben, können Katzen Karotenoide
nicht zu vitamin A verstoffwechseln und sind abhängig von ausreichender Aufnahme
von Arachidonsäure, Taurin, Vitamin D, Niacin und Arginin. Ihre Klassifizierung als
strenge Fleischfresser, wie sie in mehreren Quellen genannt wird, zusammen mit den
vorher genannten Eigenschaften ihres Stoffwechsels und deren Anpassung an einekohlenhydratarme und proteinreiche Diät könnten nahelegen, dass eine rein pflanzliche
Diät für Katzen nicht oder weniger geeignet beziehungsweise empfehlenswert ist.
Keine der untersuchten Katzen zeigte klinische Veränderungen. Sie präsentierten sichmunter und aufmerksam, und Besitzer konnten keine Akzeptanzprobleme veganer
Futtermittel bei ihren Katzen beschreiben.
Um eine adäquate Nährstoffversorgung und eine gesunde, ausgewogene Ernährung zur
Verfügung stellen zu können, ist eine genaue Auseinandersetzung mit dem Thema derveganen Ernährung notwendig, und die Umsetzung dieser Ernährungsform bei Hunden
und Katzen sollte nicht leichtfertig erfolgen.
Ergänzung von Taurin, L-Carnitin, Eisen, Vitamin B12, Vitamin D bei Hunden undKatzen sowie speziell bei Katzen auch die Zugabe von Arachidonsäure und der aktiven
Form von Vitamin A ist zu empfehlen.

78
Die Durchführung einer gesunden, nährstoffreichen veganen Ernährung ist ohne Zusätze
kaum durchführbar.
Langzeitstudien, eine größere Gruppe an Tieren, die über einen Zeitraum von übersieben Jahren vegan ernährt werden, und weitere Tests (Taurin, Niacin, Vitamin A,
Vitamin D,…) sowie generell eine größere Teilnehmeranzahl wären nötig für einestärkere Aussagekraft der Studie über vegane Ernährung bei Hunden und Katzen.
Mit den Informationen aus dieser Studie, dem Gesamteindruck der teilnehmenden Tiere
und den vorliegenden Ergebnisse der klinischen Untersuchung sowie
Blutuntersuchungen, kann die engstirnige Verweigerung oder das Abraten einer veganen
Ernährung für Hunde und Katzen nicht begründet werden, jedoch ist eine vegane
Ernährung keine artgerechte Ernährung für diese Tiere und kann daher von Tierärzten
nicht empfohlen werden. Der Gesetzestext aus dem Tierschutzgesetz ist in Bezug auf
dieses Thema nicht sehr deutlich und könnte es für Tierärztinnen und Tierärzte
zusätzlich erschweren, offen und bestärkend eine rein pflanzliche Ernährung vonHunden und Katzen zu unterstützen.
Unabhängig davon aber, sollte das zunehmende Interesse an dieser Form der Ernährung
und die Nachfrage in einer stärkeren Auseinandersetzung mit diesem Thema unter
Tierärztinnen und Tierärzten resultieren. Die starke Überzeugung von veganen
Tierbesitzerinnen und Tierbesitzern und der Wille die eigene Philosophie auf dieeigenen Hunde und Katzen umzulegen, sollte zu einem Ernstnehmen von rein
pflanzlicher Hunde- und Katzenernährung in der modernen Tiermedizin führen. Anstatt
Tierbesitzer sich selbst zu überlassen und dadurch eine inadequate Nährstoffversorgung
zu riskieren, können und sollten Tierärztinnen und Tierärzte über die korrekte
Ausführung und mögliche Risiken dieser Ernährungsweise sowie über Nährstoffbedarf
der Tiere und Supplemente informieren. Mittels positiver und offener Gesprächsbasiskann außerdem einer Verschlossenheit gegenüber medizinischer Betreuung undtierärztlicher Unterstützung entgegen gewirkt werden, um zusammen eine ausgewogene
Diät und einen gesunden Lebensstil zu sichern.









79
10.

List of tables and figuresFig. 1: Distribution of Folic Acid serum levels in 17 vegan dogs……………….…..…38
Fig. 2: Distribution of Vitamin B12 serum levels in 20 vegan dogs……………………38
Fig. 3: Distribution of Iron serum levels in 19 vegan dogs………….…………………39
Fig. 4: Distribution of Folate serum levels in 15 vegan cats…..……………………….41
Fig. 5: Distribution of Vitamin B12 serum levels in 15 vegan cats…………………….41
Fig. 6: Distribution of Iron serum levels in 15 vegan cats……..……………………….42
Fig. 7: Distribution of urinary pH in 19 vegan dogs ………………………………… ..43


Table 1: Requirements of linolenic acid (NRC, 2006)………………………………… 5
Table 2: Nutritional additives of selected vegan diets……………………………….. 26
Table 3: Blood values of vegan dogs, compared to values of dogs fed conventionally..40
Table 4: Blood values of vegan cats, compared to values of cats fed conventionally…42
Table 5: Guaranteed Analysis of 3 vegan dry diets for dogs………………………….. 44
Table 6: Guaranteed Analysis of 2 vegan wet diets for dogs…………………….……. 44
Table 7: Nutrient levels of selected vegan diets for dogs in comparison to maximum
recommended allowances per kg DM.…………………………….………………….. 45
Table 8: Fulfillment of minimum recommended allowances per kg DM (F.E.D.I.A.F,
2013) of selected vegan diets for dogs.……………………………………………….. 46
Table 9: Fulfillment of requirements of two vegan dry diets for a 20kg dog…………. 47
Table 10: Fulfillment of requirements of two vegan wet diets for a 9kg dog………..…48
Table 11: Guaranteed analysis of two vegan wet diets for cats……………………….. 48
Table 12: Nutrient levels of selected vegan diets for cats in comparison to maximum
recommended allowances per kg DM (FEDIAF, 2013)……………………….……… 49
Table 13: Fulfillment of minimum recommended allowances per kg DM (F.E.D.I.A.F,
2013) of selected vegan diets for cats…………………………………..…………..… 49
Table 14: Fulfillment of requirements of a vegan dry diet for a 3kg cat………………50
Table 15: Fulfillment of requirements of two vegan wet diets for a 4,5kg cat……….. 51
Table 16: Nutrient supply of the self-prepared „Buckwheat & Lentils“ Recipe………52
Table 17: Fullfillment of minimum recommended amino acid and linoleic acid levels ofthe „Buckwheat + Lentils“ Recipe „Buckwheat and Lentils“ Recipe………………….53

80
11.

References


AXELSSON, E., RATNAKUMAR, A., ARENDT, ML., MAGBOOL, K., WEBSTER,
MT., PERLOSKI, M., LIBERG, O., ARNEMO, JM., HEHAMMER, A., LINDBLADTOH, K. (2013): The genomic signature of dog domestication reveals adaptation to a
starch-rich diet. Nature 495: 360-364.



BACKUS, R.C., KO, K.S., FASCETTI, A.J., KITTLESON, M.D., MACDONALD,
K.A., MAGGS, D.J., BERG, J.R., ROGERS, Q.R. (2006): Low plasma taurine
concentration in Newfoundland dogs is associated with low plasma methionine andcyst(e)ine concentrations and low taurine synthesis. J Nutr.136(10): 2525-33.



BAKER, E.C.; RACKIS, J.J. (1986): Preparation of unheated soy protein isolates with
low trypsin inhibitor content. Adv Exp Med Biol, 199: 349-355



BAXMANN, A.C., DE O G MENDONCA, C., HEILBERG, I.P. (2003): Effect ofvitamin C supplements on urinary oxalate and pH in calcium stone-forming patients.
Kidney Int. 63: 1066–1071



BELANGER, M.C., OULLET, M., QUENEY, G., MOREAU, M. (2005): Taurinedeficient dilated cardiomyopathy in a family of golden retrievers. J Am Anim Hosp
Assoc., 284-291



BERGHOFF,N., PARNELL, NK., HILL, SL., SUCHODOLSKI, JS., STEINER, JM.
(2013): Serum Cobalamin and methymalonic acid concentrations in dogs with chronic
gastrointestinal disease. AM J Vet Res., 74: 84-89



BERNARD, M.T. (2003): Raising Cats Naturally: How to care for your cat the way
nature intended. Blakkatz Publishing, Lincolnton, NC, USA

BHASKAR, N., KINAMI, T., MIYASHITA, K., PARK, SB., ENDO, Y., FUJIMOTO,
K. (2004): Occurence of conjgated polyenoic fatty acids in seaweeds from the Indian
Ocean. Z Naturforsch C.,95: 310-314.



BIESALSKI, H.K., BISCHOFF, S.C., PUCHSTEIN, C. (2010): Ernährungsmedizin. 4th
Edition, Thieme, Stuttgart, Germany.
CERUNDOLO, R., MICHEL, K.E., COURT, M.H., SHRESTHA, B., REFSAL, K.R.,
OLIVER, J.W., BIOURGE, V., SHOFER, F. (2009): Effects of dietary soy isoflavones
on health, steroidogenesis, and thyroid gland function in dogs. AJVR, Vol. 70 (3):353-360.



CLAPPER, GM., GRIESHOP, CM., MERCHEN, NR.,, RUSSETT, JC., BRENT, JL
JR., FAHEY, GC JR. (2001): Ileal and total tract nutrient digestibilities and fecal
characteristics of dogs as affected by soybean protein inclusion in dry, extruded diets. J
Anim Sci, 79: 1523-32.

81
COURT, MH., GREENBLATT, DJ. (2000) Molecular genetic basis for deficientacetaminophen glucuronidation by cats: UGT1A6 is a pseudogene, and evidence for
reduced diversity of expressed hepatic UGT1A isoforms. Pharmacogenetics, 355-69



DELANEY, J. S., KASS, H. P., ROGERS, R. Q., FASCETTI, J. A. (2003): Plasma andwhole blood taurine in normal dogs of varying size fed commercially prepared food. J.
Anim. Physiol. a. Anim. Nutr. 87: 236–244.
ELLIOTT, J., RAWLINGS, J.M., MARKWELL, P.J., BARBER, P.J. (2000): Survivalof cats with naturally occurring chronic renal failure: effect of dietary management. J
Small Anim Pract., 41(6):235-42.



ENGELHARDT, R. (1999): Feldstudie zur vegetarischen Ernährung von Hunden undKatzen. Dissertation, Tierärztliche Fakultät der LMU München, Deutschland.



F.E.D.I.A.F. (European Pet Food Industry Federation) (2012): Facts and Figures.
European Pet Food Industry Federation, Publication.



F.E.D.I.A.F. (European Pet Food Industry Federation) (2013): Nutritional Guidelines forComplete and Complementary Pet Food for Cats and Dogs. European Pet Food Industry
Federation, Publication.



FASCETTI A., DELANEY (2012): Applied veterinary clinical nutrition. 1st Edition,
Wiley-Blackwell.



FASCETTI, J. A., REED, R. J., ROGERS, R. Q, BACKUS, C. R. (2003): Taurine
deficiency in dogs with dilated cardiomyopathy: 12 cases (1997–2001). J. Am. Vet.
Med. Assoc. 223: 1137-1141.

FISCHMANN (2005): Untersuchungen zur Bedeutung von Arginin für die induzierte
NO-Synthese im ZNS. Dissertation, Medizinische Fakultät der Eberhard Karls
Universität , Tübingen, Deutschland.

FOX, P.F., CONDON, J.J. (1982): Food Proteins. Springer Science & Business Media,
P. 146-147



GILLEN, J. (2003): Obligate Carnivore: Cats, Dogs, and What it Really Means to be
Vegan. Steinhoist Books.

GRAY, CM., SELLON, RK., FREEMAN, LM. (2004): Nutritional adequacy of twovegan diets for cats. JAVMA, 225: 1670-1675



GREEN, A.S., TANG, G., LANGO, J., KLASING, K.C., FASCETTI, A.J. (2012):
Domestic cats convert [2H8]-β-carotene to [2H4]-retinol following a single oral dose. J
Anim Physiol Anim Nutr. 96(4): 681-92.



GRIESHOP, CM., FAHEY, GC. (2000): The role of soy in companion animal nutrition.
J. Animal Nutrition, P. 171-181



82

GROSS, K.L., YAMKA, R.M., KHOO, C., FRIESEN, K.G., JEWELL, D.E.,
SCHOENHERR, W.D., DEBRAKELEER, J., ZICKER, S.C. (2010): Macronutrients.
in: HAND, M.S., THATCHER, C.D., REMILLARD, R.L., ROUDEBUSH, P.,
NOVOTNY, B.J. (2010): Small Animal Clinical Nutrition. 5th Edition. Mark Morris
Institute, Topeka, KS, USA.

GRÜTZNER, N., CRANFORD, SM., NORBY, B., SUCHODOLSKI, JS., STEINER,
JM. (2012): Evaluation of serum cobalamin concentrations in dogs in 164 dog breeds(2006-2010). J Vet Diagn Invest. 24: 1105-1114.

GRÜTZNER, N., BISHOP, M.A., SUCHODOLSKI, J.S., STEINER, J.M. (2010):
Association Study of Cobalamin Deficiency in the Chinese Shar Pei. Journal of
Heredity, Volume 101, Issue 2, 211-217



HAND, M., THATCHER, C., REMILLARD, L.R. (2010): Klinische Diätetik fürKleintiere. 4. Auflage, Schlütersche GmbH & Co. KG, Hannover, P. 60-72



HAZEWINKEL, H.A.W., HOW, K.L., BOSCH, R., GOEDEGEBUURE, S.A.,
VOORHOUT, G. (1987): Inadequate photosynthesis of vitamin D in dogs. In: MEYER,
H., KIENZLE, E. (1987): Nutrition, Malnutrition, and Dietetics in the Dog and Cat.
British Veterinary Association in collaboration with the Waltham Centre for Pet
Nutrition, Minnesota, USA.



HAZEWINKEL, H.A.W., TRYFONIDOU, M.A. (2002): Vitamin D3 metabolism indogs. Mol Cell Endocrinol.



HEGARTY, P.V.J. (1982) Influence of food processing on nutritive value of proteins. in:FOX, P.F., CONDON, J.J.: Food Proteins. Springer Science & Business Media, 146-147



HERBERT, V. (1999): Folic acid. In: SHILS, ME., OLSON, JA., SHIKE, M., ROSS,
AC. (1999): Modern nutrition in health and disease. 9th edition, Williams & Wilkins,
Philadelphia, USA.



HUBER, TL., LAFLAMME, D., COMER, KM., ANDERSON, WH. (1994): Nutrient
digestion of dry dog foods containing plant and animal proteins. Canine Pract, 19, 11-13JÄPELT, RB., JAKOBSEN, J. (2013): Vitamin D in plants: a review of occurence,
analysis, and biosynthesis. Frontiers in Plant Science. 4: 136



KAMPHUES, J., COENEN, M., IBEN, C., KIENZLE, E. (2009): Supplemente zu
Vorlesungen und Übungen in der Tierernährung. M.&H. Schaper, Hannover,Deutschland.
KIM, S.W., MORRIS, J.G., ROGERS, Q.R. (1995): Dietary soybean protein decreases
plasma taurine in cats. J. Nutr. 125(11):2831-7.

83
KIRCHGEßNER, M., ROTH, F.X.,, SCHWARZ, F.J., STANGL, G.I. (2011):
Tierernährung.13th Edition. DLG-Verlag
KOOK, P.H. (2013): Cobalamin deficiency states: a fine example of the One Medicine
concept. Vet J. 196: 137-138
KRAFT, W., DÜRR, U. (2013): Klinische Labordiagnostik in der Tiermedizin.
Schattauer, Auflage 7., Deutschland.



KRAMER, G.A., KITTELSON, M.D., FOX, P.R., LEWIS, J., PION, P.D. (1995):
Plasma taurine concentrations in normal dogs and in dogs with heart disease. J Vet
Intern Med. 9: 253-258
KYLE, A.H.M, TARTTELIN, M.F., COOKE, R.R., FORD, H.C. (1994): Serum freethyroxine levels in cats maintained on diets relatively high or low in iodine. NZVJ, 42,
Issue 3: 101-103



LAFLAMME, D. (2010): Focus on Nutrition: Cats and carbohydrates: implications forhealth and disease. Compend Contin Educ Vet., 32: E1-3



LEWIS, L., MORRIS, M., HAND, M.S. (1990): Klinische Diätetik für Hund und Katze.
Mark Morris, Topeka, USA.



LUTZ, H., KOHN, B., FORTERRE, F. (2014): Krankheiten der Katze. Enke Verlag, 5.
Auflage: P.760-767.



MATTILA, PH., LAMPI, A-M., RONKAINEN, R., TOIVO, J., PIIRONEN, V. (2002):
Sterol and Vitamin D2 contents in some wild and cultivated mushrooms. Food
Chemistry. 76: 293-298



McCARTY, MF., BARROSO-ARANDA, J., CONTRERAS, F. (2009): The lowmethionine content of vegan diets may make methionine restriction feasible as a life
extension strategy. Med. Hypotheses. 72: 125-128.



McCLINTICK, JN., Crabb, DW., TIAN, H., PINAIRE, J., SMITH, JR., JEROME, RE.,EDENBERG, HJ. (2005): Global effects of vitamin A deficiency on gene expression in
rat liver: evidence for hypoandrogenism. J Nutr Biochem.



MacDONALD, ML., ANDERSON, BC., ROGERS, QR., BUFFINGTON, CA.,MORRIS, JG. (1984): Essential fatty acid requirements of cats: pathology of essential
fatty acid deficiency. Am J Vet Res. 45: 1310-7
MEYER, H., ZENTEK, J. (2010): Ernährung des Hundes: Grundlagen - Fütterung Diätetik. 6th Edition. Enke, Germany.
MICHEL, KE. (2006): Unconventional diets for dogs and cats. Vet Clin North Am
Small Anim Pract. 36: 1269-81

84
MORRIS, J. G. (1999) Ineffective vitamin D synthesis in cats is reversed by an inhibitorof 7-dehydrocholestrol-Δ7-reductase. Journal of Nutrition.



MORRIS, J. G., ROGERS, Q. R. (1978): Arginine: an essential amino acid for the cat.
Journal of Nutrition 108: 1944-1953.



MORRIS, J. G., ROGERS, Q. R., WINTERROWD, D. L., KAMIKAWA, E.M. (1979):
The utilisation of ornithine and citruline by the growing kitten. Journal of Nutrition 109:724-729.



MORRIS, J.G., EARLE, K.E., ANDERSON, P.A. (1999): Plasma 25-Hydroxyvitamin
D in Growing Kittens Is Related to Dietary Intake of Cholecalciferol. J Nutr. 129(4):909-12.



MORRIS, J.G., ROGERS, Q. R (1978): Ammonia intoxication in the near adult cat as aresult of a dietary deficiency of arginine. Science 199: 431-432.



MOXON, AL., RHIAN, M. (1943): Selenium Poisoning. Physiological reviews. 23:
305-337

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL (2006): Nutrient Requirements of dogs and cats.
National Acad. Press, Washington, DCO’HEARE, J. (2013): Vegan Dogs, Compassionate Nutrition. Online http://
www.behavetech.com/vegandogs.pdf, Date of Download: 03.03.2014



PEDEN, JA. (1999): Vegetarian Cats and Dogs. Third Edition. Harbingers of a New
Age, Troy, Montana, USA.



RAMSEY, I. (2014): BSAVA Small Animal Formulary. 8th Edition, Wiley-Blackwell,
UK.
REISENHOFER, B. (2012): Vegane Hundeernährung. Diplomarbeit.
Veterinärmedizinische Universität Wien, Österreich.



REMILLARD, R.L., CRANE, S.W. (2010): Making Petfoods at Home. in: HAND,
M.S., THATCHER, C.D., REMILLARD, R.L., ROUDEBUSH, P., NOVOTNY, B.J.
(2010): Small Animal Clinical Nutrition. 5th Edition. Mark Morris Institute, Topeka,
KS, USA.

SANDERSON, L. S. (2006): Taurine and Carnitine in Canine Cardiomyopathy.
Veterinary Clinics Small Animal Practice 36:1325-1343.



SCHWEIGERT, F.J., RAILA, J., WICHERT, B., KIENZLE, E. (2002): Cats absorb βcarotene, but it is not converted to vitamin A. Journal of Nutrition, 202: 1610S-2S

TEICHMANN, A., DUTTA, PC., STAFFAS, A., JÄGERSTAD, M. (2007): Sterol andvitamin D2 concentrations in cultivated and wild grown mushrooms: Effects of UV

85
irradiation. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 40: 815-822



TODD, SE., THOMAS, DG., BOSCH, G., HENDRIKS, WH. (2012): Selenium status
in adult cats and dogs fed high levels of dietary inorganic and organic selenium. J Anim
Sci, 90: 2549-2555



VAN GINNEKEN, V., HELSPER, J., DE VISSER, W., VAN KEULEN, H.,
BRANDENBURG, W.A. (2011): Polyunsaturated fatty acids in various microalgal
species from north Atlantic and tropical seas. Lipids Health Dis, 10:104.



WAKEFIELD, LA., SHOFER FS., MICHEL, KE., (2006): Evaluation of cats fed
vegetarian diets and attitudes of their caregivers. JAVMA, 299: 71-73.



WEDEKIND, K.J., YU, S., KATS, L., PAETAU-ROBINSON, I., COWELL, C.S.
(2010) : Micronutrients: Minerals and Vitamins. in: HAND, M.S., THATCHER, C.D.,
REMILLARD, R.L., ROUDEBUSH, P., NOVOTNY, B.J. (2010): Small Animal
Clinical Nutrition. 5th Edition. Mark Morris Institute, Topeka, KS, USA, P

WHITE, H.L., FREEMAN, L.M., MAHONY, O., GRAHAM, P.A., HAO, Q., COURT,
M.H. (2004): Effect of dietary soy on serum thyroid hormone concentrations in healthy
adult cats. Am J Vet Res, 65:586–591
Bundesgesetz über den Schutz der Tiere, zweites Hauptstück, erster Abschnitt, § 17 (1)TSchG. (Austrian animal protection act)
Tierschutzgesetz, zweiter Abschnitt, §2 (2) (German animal protection act)



12.
Appendix

12.1.
12.2.
12.3.

Template Questionnaire
Results of Blood Tests of vegan dogs and cats
Serum levels of conventionally fed dogs and cats

Fragebogen Diplomarbeit „Vegane / Vegetarische
Ernährung bei Hund und Katze“
Studiengang Diplomstudium Veterinärmedizin an der Veterinärmedizinischen Universität Wien In
Zusammenarbeit mit dem Institut für Tierernährung
Angaben zur Person
Alter (Jahre)
15 - 18
19 - 25
26 - 30
30 - 40
40 - 50
älter

Geschlecht
männlich
weiblich

Ernährung
Mischkost
Lacto-Ovo-Vegetarisch
Vegan
AndereSonstiges:

Angaben zum Tier
Alter
0-1
1-5
5 - 10
10 - 15älter als 15 Jahre

Gewicht (Hund)<5
5 - 10
10 - 20
20 - 30
30 - 50> 50

Gewicht (Katze)
<3
3-5
5-8
8 - 10> 10

Verwendung
Zucht
Freizeit
Sport
Sonstiges:

Bekannte ErkrankungenJa
Nein

wenn ja, welche?

Dauermedikation
Nein
Ja

wenn ja, welche?

Haltung
Einzelhaltung
Gruppenhaltung
Wohnungskatze
Freigänger (Katze)

Sonstige Informationen (Betreuung tagsüber bei Verwandten zB,. ...)

Angaben zur Fütterung
BeweggründeÜberzeugung

Akzeptanzprobleme gegenüber gewöhnlicher Futtermittel
Eine Diät wurde aus Krankheitsgründen angeraten
Neugier
Durch Bekannte / Freunde dazu bewegt worden

Wie haben Sie sich bislang informiert?
FachzeitschriftenInternet
Freunde / Bekannte
Tierarzt / Tierärztin
garnicht
Sonstiges:

Art der Fütterung
ovo-lacto-vegetarischovo-vegetarischvegan
Sonstiges:

Ich fühle mich gut informiert über ....
Nährstoffbedarf meines Tieres
trifft zu
trifft weniger zu
trifft garnicht zu

Nährstoffgehalt der Lebensmittel
trifft zu
trifft weniger zu
trifft garnicht zu

ggf. auftretende Mängel einer pflanzlichen Ernährung
trifft zu
trifft weniger zu
trifft garnicht zu

Zeitraumseit Geburt
Umstellung erfolgt erst

Seit dem Alter von ....

Verwendete Futtermittel
Industriell hergestelltes FutterMarke :

Hausgemachtes Futter

Häufigkeit der Fütterung
1 x / Tag
2 x / Tag
3 x / Tagöfter

Menge der Fütterung
100 - 200 g
200 - 300 g
300 - 400 g
400 - 500 g> 500 gWie bemessen sie die Futtermenge?
nach Gefühl
nach Herstellerangabennach Appetit
willkürlich

Welche Futtermittel werden bei der hausgemachten Fütterung hauptsächlich verwendet
LinsenBohnenSojaprodukte
SeitanLupineKarotten
ErbsenSpinatRote Rübe
Zucchini
Eier
Reis
Kartoffeln
Getreideprodukte (Flocken, Nudeln, ...)
Milch
TopfenJoghurtKäse
andere Milchprodukte
Pflanzenöl
ButterSonstiges:

Wie ist die Akzeptanz der Futtermittel
sehr gut
gut
weniger gut
schlecht

Verträglichkeit der Futtermittel
sehr gut
gut
weniger gut
schlecht

Kotkonsistenz
flüssig
fladenartig
weich
hart

Kotfarbe
rotbraunhellbraun
dkl braun
schwarzbraun
schwarzHäufigkeit des Kotabsatzes pro Tag
0-1
2
3
öfter

Allergische Reaktionen
Ja
Nein

wenn ja, wie äußert sich das?

Füttern sie Ergänzungsfuttermittel
Nein
Ja

wenn ja, welche?

Wird ihr Tier ausschließlich von Ihnen gefüttert?
Ja
Nein

wenn nein, werden andere Futtermittel verwendet?
Ja
Nein

Besonderheiten (Vorlieben, Abneigungen)

Angaben zur Fütterung von Belohnungssnacks (Leckerlies)
Füttern sie Belohnungssnacks?
Ja
Nein

Markeandere Snacks

Häufigkeit pro Tag
1 - 5 Stk
6 - 10 Stk
11 - 20 Stk
keine Angabe

Anlassbeim Einüben von neuen Lektionen
bei guter Leistungzu besonderen Anlässen (Weihnachten, Geburtstag, ...)
zur Begrüßung / Verabschiedung
Sonstiges:

Herkunft der Belohnungssnacks
pflanzlichtierischbeides

Werden Belohnungssnacks auch ohne ihr Beisein verfüttert?
Ja
Nein

wenn ja, welcher Herkunft?
pflanzlichtierischbeidesweiß ich nicht

Sind Ihnen Veränderungen an ihrem Haustier aufgefallen?
Ja
Neinwenn ja, welche?

Datengewinnung
Würden Sie sich bereit erklären ihren Hund / ihre Katze für die Studie zur Verfügung zu stellen?
(umfasst eine kostenlose Gesundenuntersuchung (klinische Untersuchung) sowie die Gewinnungvon Harn-, Kot-, und Blutproben
Ja
Nein

Ihr Name

Telefonnummer

Email Adresse

SendenGeben Sie niemals Passwörter über Google Formulare weiter.
Powered by Google Docs
Missbrauch melden - Nutzungsbedingungen - Zusätzliche BestimmungenDog 19

Dog 18analyzed by
LABOKLIN

Dog 17

Dog 16

Dog 15

Dog 14

Dog 13

Dog 12

Dog 11

Dog 10

Dog 9

Dog 8

Dog 7

Dog 6

Dog 5

Dog 4

Dog 3

Dog 2

Dog 1

Reference
Range

analyzed by
IDEXX

4,3

5,3

7,4

3,3 - 8,3 mmol/
l

12

23

13

13

20

21

25

14

13

13

18

18

16

31

13

19

13

9 - 29 mg/dl

Bun

85

94

115

35 - 106 μmol/l

0,9

0,8

0,6

0,7

1,0

0,6

0,6

0,7

0,7

0,7

0,9

0,9

0,7

0,7

0,8

0,7

0,7

< 1,4 mg/dl

Creatinine

150

151

148

142

146

148

146

147

146

147

147

148

150

148

148

146

149

146

146

147

142 - 153
mmol/lNatrium

4,3

4,6

4,5

4,4

5,4

4,9

4,5

4,3

6,0

5,5

5,3

4,5

4,4

4,7

4,5

4,9

4,5

5,9

5,6

5,3

3,9 - 5,8 mmol/l

Potassium

1,3

1,2

1,0

2,2

2,4

1,3

1,7

1,6

1,6

1,8

1,4

0,8

0,9

1,7

1,0

1,3

1,4

1,7

2,1*

1,2

0,9 - 1,7 mmol/l

Phosphate

1,3

1,8

2,4

0,2

0,1

0,1

0,2

0,2

0,2

0,2

0,1

0,2

0,1

0,1

0,2

0,2

0,2

0,2

0,1

0,2

< 0,4 mg/dl

Bilirubin

20,3

3,8

26,1

57

41

54

54

41

50

99

598

58

53

48

34

34

34

110

67

34

< 122 U/l

ALT

36

39

71

109

170

69

72

52

31

51

46

148

80

54

48

51

92

49

72

32

< 147 U/l

AP

16,2

13,3

13,6

28

36

37

21

19

53

53

106

32

28

40

39

17

18

49

95

41

< 59 U/l

AST< 3,4 μmol/l

Dog 20

7,0

6,3

6,8

6,3

6,7

6,5

5,7

5,9

5,3

6,5

6,0

6,0

5,5

7,0

6,1

6,2

5,4 - 7,6 g/dl

Total Protein

3,5

3,2

3,1

2,9

3,2

3,0

3,1

3,1

3,0

3,4

3,2

3,0

3,1

3,8

3,4

3,5

2,8 - 4,3 g/dl

Albumin

3,5

3,1

3,7

3,4

3,5

3,5

2,6

2,9

2,3

3,1

2,8

3,0

2,4

3,2

2,6

2,7

2,4 - 4,3 g/dl

Globulin

935

620

1186

975

680

589

492

675

523

764

516

621

804

616

684

509

< 1264 U/l

Amylase

30

91

77

22

56

33

62

64

64

34

25

72

92

67

28

45

< 298 U/l

Lipase

216

151

178

153

207

180

216

263

172

140

171

217

118

223

144

223

< 398 U/l

Cholesterin

263

264

325

287

297

307

280

234

235

281

250

266

266

276

274

304

203 . 377
mmol/lFruktosamin

2,4

2,2

2,6

2,5

2,7

2,6

1,7

2,1

2,2

2,5

2,5

2,7

2,5

2,5

2,5

2,2

2,1 - 2,9 mmol/l

Calcium

1,0

0,9

0,8

0,8

1,2

1,1

1,0

1,0

1,0

1,0

0,9

0,7

0,8

0,9

0,9

0,8

0,7 - 1,1 mmol/l

Magnesium

66

33

142

84

75

57

47

48

51

59

31

80

64

52

64

39

28 - 468 mg/dl

Triglyceride

0,78

45

1,2

0,36

0,9
< 374 μmol/l
2,7

1,1

0,42

2,6
3,1 - 10,1
mmol/l

320

2,6

1,0

272

7,1

320

2,7

213

104

4,0

405

20

836

56

4,1

1345

2,4

745

46

3,6

4,1

2,4

616

3,1

6,5

3,8

2,7

6,7

6,3

4,1

< 3,9 mmol/l

6,8

10,4

15,3

6,0

10,4

17,8

6 - 12 G/l

Leucocytes

6,7

6,9

7,2

7,9

7,1

7,6

6 - 9 T/l

Erythrocytes

15,6

15,9

16,5

19,1

15,3

17,2

15 - 19 g/dl

Hemoglobin

48

48

47

73

48

50

38 - 55 %Hematocrit

66

72

70

66

93

69

66

60 - 77 fl

MCV

34

32

33

35

26

32

34

31 - 34 g/dl

MCHC

162

196

303

218

321

185

231

150 - 500 G/l

Thrombocyte
s

161,2

183,6

187,5

41,1

148,3

130,3

84 - 230 ug/dl

Iron

< 30

59

138

107

31

32

< 200 ug/L

cPLI

10,9

8,8

14,1

11

9,3 - 23,8 ng/
ml

Folic Acid

335

250

340

434

211

198

234 - 812 pg/
ml

Vitamin B12

16 - 42 umol/lCarnitin

Results of Blood assesment - Dogs-2

5,9
55

255

18,6

8,9

8,3

214

44

8,9

33

35,3

72

296

48

11,8

471

236

197

8,8

15,7

174

210,1

313

77

6,6

34

188

154,8

15,7

356

< 30

4,2

46

237,9

6,3

71

31

159

126,6
33

15,9

689

48,9

52

73

31

153

113,6

107

12,4

224

17,5
58

77

35

260

107,9

95

8,7

7,3
17,8
54

70

34

146

211,4

< 30

7,1
7,9
17,0

54

69

34

298

202,6

7,9
7,1
18,5

47

72

33

280

12,8
7,7
15,9

43

78

12,7

9,3
6,7
14,6

54

43

13,3
6,1

17,8

307

11,9
6,9

8,3

8,1

149,8

< 30

59

200

254,8

34

34

17,7

201,4

26

70

36,8

13,8

284,5

56

55

22,7

13,1

18,8

22,4

50

23,4

8,0

9,1

16,2

48

11,6

6,8

6,9

16,5

15 - 45 μmol/l

4,4

6,8

172

6,9








Cat 7

Cat 6

Cat 5

Cat 4

Cat 3

Cat 2

Cat 1

Reference
Range

analyzed by
IDEXX

29

26

31

22

16

20

28

30

16 - 38 mg/dl

Bun

0,8

1,2

1,0

0,8

0,7

0,7

1,3

1,6

1,0

< 1,9 mg/dl

Creatinine

150

150

153

151

153

150

149

151

153

156

147 - 159
mmol/lNatrium

4,5

4,8

3,8

4,1

4,5

4,2

4,7

4,5

4,7

4,7

1,0

1,4

0,8

1,0

1,0

1,3

0,5

1,5

1,6

1,9

0,1

0,2

0,2

0,1

0,1

0,2

0,1

0,1

0,1

0,2

< 0,4 mg/dl

Bilirubin

113

62

74

119

76

107

80

115

102

65

< 175 U/l

ALT

29

25

42

63

42

36

29

56

40

67

< 73 U/lAP

Phosphate

Cat 8
26
1,1

Potassium

Cat 9
35

Cat 13

Cat 12

21

24

28

1,4

0,6

0,8

1

152

153

156

157

4,9

4,3

4,5

4,7

1,6

1,4

1,7

1,7

0,2

0,2

0,2

0,2

71

67

87

77

91

66

105

90

5,0

3,3 - 5,8 mmol/l 0,8 - 2,2 mmol/l

Cat 10Cat 11

Cat 1442

anazlyzed byeasyLABCat 15

Cat 14

Cat 13

Cat 12

Cat 10

Cat 9

Cat 8

Cat 7

Cat 6

Cat 5

Cat 4

Cat 3

Cat 2

Cat 1

Reference
Range

analyzed by
IDEXX

18

22

19

17

43

22

26

34

28

24

37

56

38

42

< 71 U/l

AST

7,9

7,6

7,3

7,3

7,1

6,8

6,7

7,5

6,6

6,9

7,1

9,0

7,6

7,1

5,9 - 8,7 g/dl

Total Protein

3,2

3,7

4

3,7

2,8

2,8

3,0

2,9

3,2

3,2

3,6

3,6

3,5

3,3

2,7 - 4,4 g/dl

Albumin

4,7

3,9

3,3

3,6

4,3

4,1

3,7

4,6

3,4

3,7

3,5

5,4

4,1

3,8

2,9 - 5,4 g/dl

Globulin

147

155

93

75

112

100

159

116

122

124

157

132

108

198

< 329 mg/dl

Cholesterin

229

224

258

260

214

201

198

220

212

233

267

446

301

210

190 - 365
umol/lFruktosamin

2,4

2,4

2,6

2,6

2,0

2,3

2,3

2,3

2,4

2,3

2,0

2,4

2,6

2,5

2,2 - 2,9mmol/lCalcium

1,1

0,9

1

0,9

1,5

1,0

0,9

1,1

1,1

1,0

1,5

1,1

1,1

1,0

0,6 - 1,1mmol/lMagnesium

51

91

51

62

32

55

58

46

53

103

489

42

27

104

21 - 432 mg/
dl

Triglyceride

Cat 11

Cat 15easy Lab




MCV

MCHC

Thrombocyt
es

Iron

Folic Acid

Vitamin B12

Hematocrit

Cat 12
9

7,8

10,5

10,1

9,4

13,2

14,8

14,8

14

46

51

53

49

48

49

52

52

29

29

28

29

430

219

151

123

94,1

116,1

89

80,4

145,4

12,4

9,1

12,8

11,1

14,7

768

507

451

390

496

Erythrocyte Hemoglobins

Leucocytes

269 - 1333
pg/ml

analyzed by
IDEXX

11,1 - 21,6
ng/ml

28 - 45 %70 - 210 ug/
dl

9 - 15 g/dl

150 - 550 G/l

5 - 10 T/l

950

31 - 35 g/dl

6 - 11 G/l
51

30

89,8

10,9

833

40 - 55 fl

Reference
Range
39
48

30
198

80,3

15,8

1420

634

11,3
41
42

31

129

139,8

7,1

927

10,6

7,7
12,1
40

43

31

299

114,8

15,7

741

104,8

8,7
8,5
12,0
41

47

35

235

88,0

14,8

902

249

Cat 1
10,8
9,6
12,5
42

42

31

159

130,9

7,0

29

Cat 2
6,9
9,5
12,8
40

46

30

215

224,5

1119

Cat 3
8,7
8,8
13,8

44

43

34

265

5,3

Cat 4
6,0
9,6
13,5

43

39

25

113,4

Cat 5
12,5
9,6
13,0

37

47

334

Cat 6
6,6
10,1
12,6

39

397

Cat 7
5,4
9,5
9,7

9,0

Cat 8
6,5
8,1

95,7

Cat 9
9,9

Cat 13
5,5

9,6

867

Cat 10Cat 148,5

Cat 11

Cat 15easy Lab







Cat 18

Cat 17

Cat 16Cat 15

Cat 14

Cat 13

Cat 12

Cat 11

Cat 10

Cat 9

Cat 8

Cat 7

Cat 6

Cat 5

Cat 4

Cat 3

Cat 2

Cat 1

253

357

392

93

370

323

89

369

1429

87

1516

1321

150

36

2000

421

1144

50

916

Vitamin B12
pg/ml

18

14

12

20

17

24

2

17

20

16

15

21

21

14

18

24

28

21

44

16

Folic acid
ng/ml

47

26

95

61

39

216

133

76

18

92

233

50

67

293

82

109

38

55

146

63

Iron
ug/dl

5,95

6,05

6,97

6,59

6,81

9,79

7,61

7,31

7,61

7,86

7,08

6,96

7,96

7,66

6,77

7,86

8,02

8,67

6,71

6,34

Totalprotein
g/dl

Dog 20

Dog 19Dog 18Dog 17

Dog 16

Dog 15

Dog 14

Dog 13

Dog 12

Dog 11

Dog 10

Dog 9

Dog 8

Dog 7

Dog 6

Dog 5

Dog 4

Dog 3

Dog 2

Dog 1

190

487

389

248

418

589

183

352

386

653

146

271

321

293

405

15

210

172

287

118

Vitamin B12
pg/ml

13

4

17

11

9

14

10

10

9

12

12

20

15

16

4

15

13

6

9

19

Folic acid
ng/ml

230

165

169

162

219

73

124

137

120

41

132

179

73

96

91

111

74

163

143

194

Iron
ug/dl

16

46

37

69

49

35

58

16

46

37

69

49

35

58

52

50

16

39

22

11

7

6,02

6,02

5,73

5,52

6,19

5,89

6,53

6,09

5,32

6,6

5,19

7,57

5,98

6,74

5,66

6,77

6,23

6

6,63

12.3. Serum levels of conventionally fed dogs and cats.

Cat 191327

L-Carnitin Totalprotein
umol/lg/dl

Cat 20