Journal of Global Resources
Volume 4 (02)
July 2018
ISSN: 2395-3160 (Print), 2455-2445 (Online)

Page 18-29

03
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM IN NECHISAR NATIONAL PARK,ETHIOPIA: IDENTIFYING THE CHALLENGES AND CONSERVATION MEASURES
Hasrat Arjjumend1, Shingo Shibata2 and Selemon Thomas Fakana3
1

Senior Fellow, Centre for International Sustainable Development Law, McGill University Facultyof Law, Montreal, Canada. Email: harjjumend@gmail.com
2

Professor, Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Sophia University, Kioi-cho,
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan. Email: shibata@genv.sophia.ac.jp
3

Department of Environment & Climate Change, Ethiopian Civil Service University,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Email: selethom36@gmail.com

Abstract: The forest ecosystems in Ethiopia’s Nechisar National Park are unique in special
context of the ecosystem services extended to local population, tourist projects, restaurants,
hotels, city dwellers and forest dwellers. There are four categories of ecosystem services
provided by the forest ecosystems of Nechisar National Park. Anthropogenic activities inside
forests exert immense pressure on the natural resources of the park. Rapid loss of the forest
ecosystem of the park leads to losing all crucial ecosystem services. The challenges to theforest ecosystems of the park are posed by number of agents such as individuals, groups ofindividuals or institutions that directly convert forested lands to other uses. This review-based
article not only identifies the factors responsible for the loss of ecosystem services but alsosuggests conservation strategies.
Key words: Ecosystem service, Forest ecosystem, Nechisar National Park, Conservation
Introduction
The national parks are the most extensive type of protected areas in Africa and globally. They
are classified under category II of the World Conservation Union (IUCN) categories of protectedareas. National parks are created to (1) protect the ecological integrity of one or more
ecosystems for present and future generations; (2) exclude exploitation or occupation for the
better conservation of the natural resources; and (3) provide spiritual, scientific, educational,
recreational, and ecological opportunities, all of which must be environmentally and culturallycompatible (Muhumuza and Balkwill, 2013). Nechisar National Park is also an IUCN category IIprotected area that was established in 1974 with the aim of conserving the vast diversity ofwildlife and the scenic beauty of the area. It is located in Southern Nations Nationalities andPeople’s Region (SNNPR) of Ethiopia and lies to the east of Arba Minch town at a distance of
510 km from the capital city Addis Ababa. The park covers 514 km2 of territories including the‘Bridge of God’ (an isthmus between lakes Abaya and Chamo). The park’s elevation ranges
from 1108 meter to 1650 meter.
Despite exceptional ecosystem services provided by Nechisar National Park, humaninterference has been influencing the conservation activities through accelerating the loss ofhabitat and biodiversity, which is eventually reducing the productivity of ecosystem services. The
major challenges faced by the park are illegal settlements, overgrazing, agriculture expansion,alien invasive species, bush encroachment, uncontrolled fire, overfishing, deforestations,degradation of wildlife habitats, and weak infrastructure inside the park for the management
activities such as monitoring, wildlife census and patrolling. The forest ecosystem services areoften undervalued or are not given due attention by public decision-makers, investors, local
communities, tourist accommodation providers, and others. Anthropogenic activities, particularly
from Arba Minch town, therefore, exert immense pressures on the park’s natural resources fromthe surrounding community. The loss of the forest ecosystem of the park leads to losing all18

crucial ecosystem services that were obtained. This may further lead to difficult life in Arba
Minch town. A limited number of studies have been carried out on the ecosystem services of
Nechisar National Park, and on challenges the forest ecosystems of the park face. The present
article will not only describe the ecosystem services provided by forests of Nechisar National
Park, but also address the current challenges faced by the park. This will help the planners,
decision makers, stakeholders, experts, investors, Arba Minch town dwellers and local
communities for being aware of valuable services of the forest ecosystems. Moreover, thisarticle will also focus on identifying the major challenges of the conservation of forest ecosystemof the park and will suggest potential measures to enhance the conservation.
Features of Nechisar National Park
Ethiopia is a country of great geographic diversity with wide altitudinal and physiographic
variations. The wide range of ecological variation coupled with the corresponding diverse socioculture has made the country one of the important diversity rich areas in the world (Tadesse,
2003; Alemayehu, Teketay and Powell, 2005). Nechisar National Park covers an area of 514
km2, of which 85 percent is land and 15 percent is water (lakes Chamo and Abaya). It lies within
the floor of the East African Great Rift Valley, situated between 5°51′-6°10′ N and 37°32′-37°48′
E with an elevation ranging between 1108-1650 masl (Sintayehu, Afework and Mundanthra,2011).The Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s Region (SNNPR) of Ethiopia lies within
the Somali-Massai Regional Center of endemism, one of the major floristic regions in Africa andfalls within one of the IUCN’s global biodiversity hotspots named the ‘Horn of Africa’(Clark,
2010).Out of 2,500 plant species of this regional centre of endemism, around 800-1000 species
are estimated to be found in SNNP region (Samson, Tamrat and Alemayehu, 2010). The
SNNPR has diverse wildlife species including terrestrial and aquatic, large and small mammals.
Details of various faunal species are shown in Table 1.
#
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Wildlife
Species
Mammals
Birds
ReptilesAmphibians
FishesPlantsTable 01: Wildlife Resources of the SNNPR
No. of Species in No. of Species inpercent Species in NSNPNSNP Region
Ethiopia
Region compared with Ethiopia
> 91
279
33
351
862
41
33
201
16
8s
63
13
16
150
10
800-1000
6500-7000
12-14
Figure 1: Map of the Park

19

Context of Ecosystem Services
What is ‘ecosystem service’? In a broad sense, ‘ecosystem service’ refers to the range ofconditions and processes through which natural ecosystems, and the species that they contain,
help sustain and fulfill human life (Daily, 1997 as cited in Jodi et al., 2005). The four broad
categories of forest ecosystem services are: (1) provisioning, such as the production of food andwater; (2) regulating, such as the control of climate, flood and diseases; (3) supporting/habitat,such as nutrient cycles and crop pollination; and (4) cultural, such as spiritual and recreational
benefits. Healthy ecosystems supply us with food, freshwater, clean air, and a stable climate.
They protect us from disease and disaster and allow us to make choices about our way of life
(MEA, 2007). Haines-Young and Potschin (2009) also reiterate that all humans are dependent
on the ecosystem services. Despite the invention of many synthetic materials, nature still
provides the stuff of life: trees bring us wood and paper, clothing is made from plant and animal
fiber, and many life-saving medicines are derived from plants. Less visible but equally important
are the complex natural systems that filter our air and water, regulate the climate, and protect us
from disease and natural disasters. Forests maintain air and water quality, reduce landslides andfloods, and play a key role in stabilizing climate pattern.
Ecosystem services are sometimes confused with biodiversity. Biodiversity or life onearth, including the variability among living organisms within species, between species, andbetween ecosystems is not itself an ecosystem service. Rather, biodiversity serves as thefoundation for all ecosystem services. Both wild and managed ecosystems contribute tobiodiversity. The value some people place on biodiversity for its own value is captured under thecultural ecosystem services of ‘ethical’ and ‘existence’ value (Janet et al., 2008). Forests support
as much as 90 percent of terrestrial biodiversity (Brooks et al., 2006). The world’s forests arealso globally important carbon stores and sinks and provide a wide variety of other ecosystemservices for people, such as protection of fisheries, watersheds and soils, apart from being
source of raw materials, e.g. non-timber products (Gullison et al., 2007).
Classification of the Ecosystem Services
There are three international classification systems that are available to classify ecosystemservices: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), The Economics of Ecosystems andBiodiversity (TEEB) and Common International Classification of the Ecosystem Services(CICES). The MEA was the first large scale ecosystem assessment and it provides a frameworkthat has been adopted and further refined by TEEB and CICES. The MEA organizes ecosystemservices into four well known groups: provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services.
The TEEB proposes a typology of 22 ecosystem services divided in 4 main categories, mainly
following the MEA classification: provisioning, regulating, habitat and cultural and amenity
services. An important difference that TEEB adopted was the omission of supporting services,which are seen in TEEB as a subset of ecological processes. Instead, habitat services havebeen identified as a separate category to highlight the importance of ecosystems to provide
habitat for migratory species (e.g. as nurseries) and gene pool ‘protectors’. CICES builds on theexisting classifications but focuses on the ecosystem service dimension. In the CICES system,
the services are either provided by living organisms (biota) or by a combination of livingorganisms and abiotic processes (EU, 2013). The correspondence between these classifications
is illustrated in Annex 1.According to Haines-Young and Potschin (2011), the main difference
between CICES and TEEB classifications is in the treatment of ‘habitat services’. While TEEB
identifies them as a distinct grouping at the highest level, CICES regards them as part of abroader ‘regulating and maintenance’ theme. The CICES includes the 3 familiar ‘service themes’
that are nested as 9 principle classes of services; 23 ‘service groups’ and 59 ‘service types’. The
CICES classification is illustrated in Annex 2.
Hence, no universally accepted typologies of ecosystem services presently exist,
although the MEA framework is still widely applied. Notwithstanding the difficulties of defining
what exactly an ecosystem service is, many authors have attempted to provide a typologies orchecklists. These typologies, both pre- and post-date of the MEA, vary considerably in theirapproach and level of sophistication (Haines-Young and Potschin, 2009).
20

Ecosystem Services of Nechisar National ParkThe forest ecosystem of Nechisar National Park is the “lung” of Arba Minch town and its
vicinities. It regulates the local weather and climatic conditions. It also adds aesthetic values.
This forest satisfies the spiritual, recreation and aesthetic needs. It serves as cultural asset andthe “green home” for diversified wild fauna and flora with exceptional nutrient cycles and energy
flows. The forests of the park provide various ecosystem services like:1) provisioning services(food, water, timber, fuel wood, fodder, grass, charcoal, medicinal plants, game, fruits, drinking
water), 2) regulatory services (air quality regulation, fresh air provision, rainfall, flood prevention,
drought prevention, pollination, carbon sequestration, waste decomposition, maintenance of soil
fertility, pest and disease control, etc.), 3) habitat services for wild fauna like Burchell’s zebra,
grant's gazelle, greater kudu, lesser kudu, common bushbuck, hippopotamus, lion, leopard, Nilecrocodile, Anubis baboon, Vervet monkey, Columbus monkey, diki dik, hyena, pelicans,flamingos, etc., and 4) cultural services like recreation, ecotourism, bird watching, forest walking,mountain climbing, trekking, aesthetic value and spiritual relaxation. According to Aramde et al.
(2014), the vegetation in the park comprises forests, grasslands, shrub lands and thickets,woodlands and the riparian forest. There are also the savannahs, mountain habitats andspectacular landscapes. Hence, it has a variety of habitats that supports the vast diversity ofwildlife and provides a number of crucial ecosystem services for the human wellbeing. The forest
ecosystem of Nechisar National Park is believed to be unique in its vegetation formation fromwhich the forty springs (called as God’s Hall) emanate1.
General Challenges to Forest Ecosystems
In spite of obvious values of forests, anthropogenic activities are causing unprecedented threats
to forest ecosystems (Chavan, 2013). Throughout the world, the destruction of natural forests
for timber, cropland, fuel wood, urbanization, development projects and commercial industry
have had a profound impact on rural communities and wild fauna and flora. The deterioration of
the Earth’s extensive forests has exposed critical watersheds, thereby, accelerating topsoil
erosion and sedimentation of rivers and reservoirs, and exacerbating floods. Simultaneously, theexcessive deforestation has overtaxed the land's natural resilience and the capacity toregenerate and sustain its productive functions (Poffenberger, 1996).
In East African countries, the forests play a major role in the economies by providing avariety of goods and services. The total forest cover of East Africa is estimated to be 85.6 million
ha or about 21 percent of the land area of the sub-region (FAO, 2003). However, most of the
population is concentrated in the limited high-productivity activities and the intense land usepressures are a major factor contributing to land degradation and other environmental problems
such as soil erosion and downstream siltation. The annual rate of deforestation in East Africa
between 1990 and 2000 was estimated to be 0.51 million ha or about 10 percent of the annual
deforestation rate for all of Africa (FAO, 2003). Today, the forest resources of East Africa aresteadily disappearing and those that are left are being degraded. The growing demand for land,
expanding commercial activities, resettlement, wildfire, overgrazing, subsistence cultivation,
encroachment and inadequate efforts to implement sustainable management have contributed
to deforestation (FAO, 2003).The forest land occupies approximately 2.9 percent of Ethiopia’s
total landmass. Currently, forest degradation and depletion are commonplace in the country. By
early 1950s the forests occupied about 16 percent of the total land area, by 1980s the forests
occupied only 3.6 percent, and by year 2000 the coverage of forests was 2.9 percent (Mogaka etal., 2001). The current annual loss of highland forest area has been estimated to be between
150,000 ha to 200,000 ha (Bongers and Tennigkeit, 2010; Mogaka et al., 2001).
Challenges to Nechisar National Park
Historically, humans have modified natural ecosystems emphasizing on those species that yield
direct benefits (e.g. agricultural commodities), generally overlooking the unseen but essential
ecosystem services (DEWHA, 2009).In the last 50 years, people have modified forest
ecosystems more rapidly and extensively than in any comparable period of human history (MEA,
2007).DEWHA (2009) also describes that forest ecosystem services have not been easy to1

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observe until they cease to flow; hence, they have not been formally counted in economic
systems, or the effects of their loss have been counted as ‘externalities.’ However, when theseexternalities become a significant cost burden to society, such as restoring degraded forest
ecosystem, it becomes a priority to understand and value forest ecosystem services and tointegrate them into economic frameworks. The challenges to the forest ecosystems are theresults of anthropogenic actions by a number of agents. Agents are individuals, groups ofindividuals or institutions that directly convert forested lands to other uses or that intervene inforests without necessarily causing deforestation but substantially reducing their productive
capacity. Agents include shifted cultivators, private and government logging companies, mining
and oil and farming corporations, forest concessionaires and ranchers. These agents clear forest
lands or selectively exploit forests for agricultural expansion, to subsist, for mining, to obtain
forest products and fuel wood (Arnoldo, 2000).
In particular context of Nechisar National Park, the following pertinent challenges aredescribed as below:
Lack of Awareness and Coordination among Stakeholders
The contribution of forest ecosystem services to human wellbeing is usually undervalued due tolack of awareness which is resulting in the use of the resources in a way that undermines theprovision of such services. Decision makers and the general people often influence forest
ecosystem in Nechisar National Park through their actions as a result of lack of awareness offorest ecosystem and biodiversity values. This arises from the lack of effective communication
mechanisms to raise awareness of forest ecosystem services and its values. At national leveltoo, the forest ecosystem services issues were not well integrated into the formal education
system. Promotion and appreciation of community knowledge associated with forest ecosystemservices and biodiversity, its local uses and management that should also be used as an
informal education (EBI, 2014). Similarly, DEWHA (2009) also describes that despite theirenormous services, forest ecosystems continue to be destroyed in this park. Lack of hard data
regarding the actual services of forest ecosystems hampers the incorporation of services into
government decision making. Moreover, there is a lack of proper implementation and monitoringmechanisms both in specific cases and in the overall assessment of the status of forest
ecosystem conservation and their sustainable use. Huge efforts are needed to strengthen
coordination and to raise awareness of stakeholders, including the public, concerning
biodiversity conservation, sustainable utilization and development (EBI, 2014).
Lack of Recognition of the Forest Ecosystem Services
Human well-being utterly depends on nature. Despite the inextricable connections, forests havefrequently been seen in isolation. Decision makers may be focused on reducing poverty,
increasing food production, strengthening resilience to climate change, or producing energy. The
development projects and policies intended to meet these goals often go forward unwittingly atthe expense of forest ecosystem (Janet et al., 2008). EBI (2009) also states that conserving
forest ecosystem requires strong political commitment and an understanding of the value ofnatural resources. It appears that the latter is totally lacking in regard to managing the Nechisar
National Park. As a result, inadequate consideration is being given to conservation of forest
ecosystem in the park. Projects and investments are either oriented to short term development
goals and, even when they consider forest ecosystem and biodiversity conservation, they arepoorly implemented. Jodi et al. (2005) express that the full social and environmental benefit offorest ecosystem services and the full cost of their degradation are not translated in a way thatwill ensure optimal decisions for both the economy and the environment. That is one reason why
ecosystem services in national parks remain neglected in mainstream paradigm of development.
Population Growth
Uncontrolled population growth puts undue pressures on all the natural resources particularly on
forest ecosystem. With increasing population growth there is an increase in resource
consumption, which causes expansion and intensification of land use, overutilization of biologicalresources and overexploitation of forest ecosystem services (EBI, 2014).At present the rapid
population growth of Arba Minch town is related to immigration of people coupled with the higher
22demand of fuel wood and construction materials. It brings pressure to bear on the forest
ecosystems in Nechisar National Park. Besides, the park’s forests serve as source of food, feed
and fodder, environmental and social services to the community (Lemlem and Fasil, 2006;
Aramide, Tsegaye and Pananjay, 2012).
Poverty
Poverty is situations in which people depend directly upon consumption of forest ecosystemservices or other natural resources for survival. Poor farmers, fishermen, pastoralists and others
extract from the forest ecosystem to support their livelihoods (EBI, 2014). The population in thefringe areas of Nechisar National Park is largely poor, and the dependence of people on forests’
ecosystem services is well evident (EBI, 2009). Hence, usually the poor people are forced toharm forest ecosystem to expand their agricultural land and to collect forest products (Jodiet al.,2005).Poverty, food insufficiency and insecurity contribute much to habitat loss andfragmentation as a result of deforestation and cultivation. Sumitet al. (2011) states that poverty
and over population is believed to be the main causes of loss of forest ecosystem in the park
areas. Even though poverty and overpopulation are undeniably responsible for much of thedamage to forest ecosystem, it is not an exclusive problem to Third World countries. An
individual in an industrialized country is likely to consume much of the world’s resources ascompared to a person in a poor country. The linkage of poverty and overexploitation of
resources in poor countries with the affluent lifestyles in developed world is well understood.
Deforestation
Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted
to a non-forestry use. It also refers to indiscriminate cutting or over-harvesting of trees for fuelwood, commercial activities, charcoal making, pulp, or to clear the land for agriculture, ranching,logging, construction, or development activities such as construction of railway, highway, dam,industries, mining and alike (Ojekunle, 2014). Along with the fast population growth and thedevelopment of Arba Minch town, there is a high demand for fuel wood and timber by the urban
dwellers and big institutions. For all these institutions and households, the only source of heatand light energy, and construction of houses, fences and roofing, is park’s forests. According to
EBI (2009), absence of schemes for benefit sharing in most parks, including Nechisar National
Park is causing negative impacts due to minimizing the sense of ownership within the local
communities. In other words, the lack of benefit sharing schemes has, to some extent, produced
negative attitudes towards forest ecosystems in the park area.
Inadequate Valuation of Forest Ecosystem Services
Forest ecosystem provides local and global unmarketable/non-priced benefits like carbon
sequestration, ecotourism and recreation to the human well-being. Any loss of these benefits
must be considered as costs. Nevertheless, the failure of markets to account for non-priced
benefits and costs in various circumstances, has to be an important underlying source for thechallenges of forest ecosystem services (Arnoldo, 2000).Market and economic policy failures,such as perverse subsidies, absence of markets for the forest ecosystem services are the major
challenge which leads to forest ecosystem degradation and loss (Jodiet al., 2005). In addition,even when a value credibly estimated for the forest ecosystem, it is often an externality—a costaccruing to society at large, rather than to the individuals or companies responsible—so there islittle incentive for those actors to care for the forest ecosystem in question. These market failures
are common drivers of the huge forest ecosystem losses of the past half century (DEWHA,
2009).Though this principle is common for all parks, it acutely befits on Nechisar National Park.
Potential Measures to Conservation of Nechisar National Park
Enhancing Public Awareness of Forest Ecosystem Services
Considering the issues and problems in Nechisar National Park, raising awareness of the people
living in vicinity of park and the decision makers should be integrated in most of the activities
related to forest ecosystem services and its values. Public awareness raising activities can bedone by organizing annual events such as International Day for Biological Diversity, Earth Day,
Tree Day, World Environment Day, Green Award Programs and Annual Tree Planting
programmes. Such activities may be organized and carried out by governmental and non23

governmental organizations. Besides, knowledge acquired/gained through research, carried out
by various institutions in the areas of forest ecosystem services, can be communicated using
different media outlets, and such information may be used to devise plan to conserve andsustainably utilize forest ecosystem services.
Enhancing Stakeholders’ Participation in Forest Ecosystem Conservation
Ways to reduce challenges on the forest ecosystem must go hand in hand with improving thewelfare of communities at the forest frontiers. There is no clear strategy of involving stakeholders
in the conservation of forests of Nechisar National Park. Conservation strategies require
cooperation and goodwill of communities and other stakeholders who are directly dependent on
the forests of park. The strategies should be such that they should, on the one hand, recognize
the critical roles of national, state and conservation sectors; and, on the other hand, they should
empower the civil society and the private sector to take a proactive role in reducing challenges,
often working in conjunction with government.
Strengthening Investment in Research, Training and Education
Undoubtedly, there is lack of knowledge and information among the common people about
forest ecosystem services. Forest managers and policy makers serving for Nechisar National
Park need to be comprehensively educated, and they need to appreciate the complexity of theinteracting ecological, economic, social, cultural and political factors. Hence, training andeducation of stakeholders help people understand forest ecosystem services and its challenges.
It can help reduce adverse effects and challenges on the forest ecosystem services. Besides, it
can encourage appropriate action to minimize challenges on the forest ecosystems.
Generating Significant Contribution from Stakeholders
Generating stakeholders’ contribution is crucial for sustainable forest ecosystem management
since it realizes ecological, economic and social sustainability. Management for forest
ecosystem services without the involvement and contribution of stakeholders is not economicallyand socially sustainable. Achieving ecological sustainability means that the ecological values ofthe forest must not be degraded rather improved in Nechisar National Park. Stakeholders’contribution will enhance biodiversity conservation, minimize soil erosion, boost up soil fertility,
and increase water quality through maintaining forest ecosystem health (Chomitzet al., 2007).
Strengthening the Role of Government and Non-Government Institutions
Strong and stable government agencies managing the Nechisar National Park are essential toslow down the challenges to the forest ecosystem services. Sumitet al. (2011) stated thatenvironmental NGOs’ contribution towards conservation management has been enormous. They
have the advantage over government organizations and large international organizations
because they are not constrained by government to government bureaucracy and inertia. They
are better equipped to bypass corruption and they are very effective at getting to the people.
Enforcement of Policy, Legislative and Regulatory Measures and its Compliance
A wide variety of policy statements and legislative and regulatory measures have been
established to protect forests, but they need to be effectively enforced. New modifications or
adjustments are, of course, needed for site specific conditions. Laws, policy and legislation
should be such that they encourage local people and institutional participation in forestry
management and conservation along with safeguarding indigenous people’s traditional rights
and tenure with rightful sharing of benefits. Many formal and informal enforcement or compliancemechanisms can be used to overcome forest ecosystem challenges and to prevent
deforestation. All these recommendations also apply in case of Nechisar National Park.
Conclusion
The ecosystem services provided by forest ecosystems of Nechisar National Park of Ethiopia
support the livelihood and life of a series of stakeholders. Arba Minch town completely depends
for various needs on the forests of the park. The anthropogenic pressure and degradation
threats on the natural resources of park’s forest ecosystems are observed causing acutepressure on the ecosystem services of forests. It will lead to fast loss of habitats and health of24

ecosystems. Various strategies for conservation have been suggested for the management of
the Nechisar National Park. The park administration must take serious measures to halt thedegradation process by involving and engaging not only the local populations but also thestakeholders like restaurant owners, hotel owners, tour operators, water users, fuel woodcollectors, timber merchants, stone quarries, and so on. Multilateral participatory processes
need to be pursued with utmost seriousness.
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29. Samson, S., Tamrat, B. and Alemayehu, M. (2010). Floristic Diversity and Structure of
Nechisar National Park, Ethiopia. Journal of the Dry lands, 3(1): 165-180.
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31. Sumit Chakravarty, S. K. Ghosh, C. P. Suresh, A. N. Dey and Gopal Shukla (2011).
Deforestation: Causes, Effects and Control Strategies. Department of Forestry, Pomology &Post Harvest Technology, Faculty of Horticulture, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
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Ecology and Development Series No. 10, 2003, University of Bonn.

26

Annex 1: Ecosystem Services Categories in MEA, TEEB and CICESMEA Categories
Food (fodder)
Freshwater

TEEB Categories
Food
Water

Fiber, timber
Genetic resources

Raw Materials
Genetic resources

Biochemicals

Medicinal
resources

Ornamental
resources

Ornamental
resources

Air quality
regulation
Water purification
and water
treatment

Air quality
regulation
Waste treatment(waterpurification)

Water regulation

Regulation of water
flows
Moderation of
extreme events
Erosion prevention
Climate regulation

Erosion regulation
Climate regulation
Soil formation(supporting
service)
Pollination
Pest regulation
Disease regulation
Primary
production
Nutrient cycling(supporting
services)

Spiritual andreligious values
Aesthetic values
Cultural diversity

Recreation andecotourism
Knowledge

Maintenance of soil
fertility

Type
Provisioning
services

Regulating
services(TEEB)
Regulatingandsupporting
services(MEA)
Regulating
andmaintenanceservices(CICES)

Pollination

Mediation [of waste, toxics and othernuisances] by biota
Mediation [of waste, toxics and othernuisances] by ecosystems
Mediation of liquid flows

Mediation of mass flows
Atmospheric composition and climate
regulation
Soil formation and composition

Lifecycle maintenance, habitat and genepool protection
Pest and disease control

Biological control
Maintenance of life
cycles of
migratory species(incl. nursery
service)
Maintenance ofgenetic diversity(especially in genepool protection)
Spiritual experience

CICES Categories
Biomass (Nutrition)
Biomass (Materials from plants, algae
and animals for agricultural use)
Water (for drinking purposes) [Nutrition]
Water (for non-drinking purposes)[Materials]
Biomass (fibers and other materials fromplants, algae and animals for direct use
and processing)
Biomass (genetic materials from allbiota)
Biomass (fibers and other materials fromplants,algae and animals for direct use andprocessing)
Biomass (fibers and other materials fromplants, algae and animals for direct use
and processing)
Biomass based energy sources
Mechanical energy (animal based)[Mediation of] gaseous/air flows

Lifecycle maintenance, habitat and genepool protection
Soil formation and composition
Maintenance of water conditions
Lifecycle maintenance, habitat and genepool protection

Cultural
services

Aesthetic
information
Inspiration for
culture, art anddesignRecreation andtourism
Information for

Spiritual and/or emblematicIntellectual and representational
interactions
Intellectual and representational
interactions
Spiritual and/or emblematic
Physical and experiential interactions
Intellectual and representational

27

MEA Categories
systems andeducational values

TEEB Categories
cognitive
development

MEA provides aclassification thatis globally
recognized andused in sub global
assessments.

TEEB provides an
updatedclassification,
based on the MEA,
which is used inongoing national
TEEB studies

Type

CICES Categories
interactions
Other cultural outputs (existence,
bequest)CICES provides a hierarchical system,
building on the MEA and TEEB
classifications.

Source: EU (2013).

Annex 2: The CICES Classification
ThemesService Class
Nutrition

Service Groups
Terrestrial plant
and animal
foodstuffs

Provisioning Services

Freshwater plant
and animal
foodstuffs
Marine plant andanimal foodstuffs

Potable water
Materials

EnergyRegulating
andMaintenance
Services

Regulation ofwastesBiotic materials

Abiotic materials
Renewable
biofuels
Renewable
abiotic energy

Bioremediation
Dilution andsequestration

Flow
regulation

Regulation ofphysicalenvironment

Air flow
regulation
Water flow
regulation

Mass flow
regulation
Atmosphericregulation
Water quality

28

Service Types
Commercial cropping
Subsistence cropping
Commercial animal production
Subsistence animal production
Harvesting wild plants and animals for foodCommercial fishing (wild populations)
Subsistence fishing
Aquaculture
Harvesting fresh water plants for foodCommercial fishing (wild populations)
Subsistence fishing
Aquaculture
Harvesting marine plants for food
Water storage
Water purification
Non-food plant fibers
Non-food animal fibers
Ornamental resources
Genetic resources
Medicinal resources
Mineral resources
Plant based resources
Animal based resources
Wind
Hydro
Solar
Tidal
ThermalRemediation using plants
Remediation using micro-organisms
Dilution
Filtration
Sequestration and absorption
Windbreaks, shelter belts
Ventilation
Attenuation of runoff and discharge rates
Water storage
Sedimentation
Attenuation of wave energy
Erosion protection
Avalanche protection
Global climate regulation (including Carbon
sequestration)
Local & Regional climate regulation
Water purification and oxygenation

Themes

Service Class

Regulation of
bioticenvironment

Cultural Services

SymbolicIntellectualandExperiential

Service Groups
regulation
Pedogenesis andsoil quality
regulation
Lifecycle
maintenance &habitat protection
Pest and disease
control
Gene poolprotection
Aesthetic,
Heritage
Spiritual
Recreation andcommunity
activities
Information &knowledge

Service Types
Cooling water
Maintenance of soil fertility
Maintenance of soil structure
Pollination
Seed dispersal
Biological control mechanisms
Maintaining nursery populations
Landscape character
Cultural landscapes
Wilderness, naturalness
Sacred places or species
Charismatic or iconic wildlife or habitats
Prey for hunting or collecting
Scientific
Educational

Source: Haines-Young and Potschin (2011)29