37

Efforts to Generate Maps of Atoll Countries
Hiroya YAMANO,1,2 Hiroto SHIMAZAKI,1 Hajime KAYANNE,3 Hiromune YOKOKI,4
Toru YAMAGUCHI,5 Masashi CHIKAMORI,6 Masayuki TAMURA,7 Toshimi MURASE,8
Yasuhiro SUZUKI,9 Kazuhiro ITOU,10 Masahiko HIROSE,10 Shigeki SANO,10
Hiroshi TAKAGI,11 Masao WATANABE,11 Fujio AkIMOTO,11 Shinya WATANABE,12
Satoshi YOSHII,12 Albon ISHODA,13 Noud LEENDERS14 and Wolf FORSTREUTER14
1

Social and Environmental Systems Division, National Institute for Environmental Studies,
16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japane-mail: hyamano@nies.go.jp
2
UR 128 CoRéUs, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, BP A5 98848 Nouméa Cedex, New Caledonia
3
Department of Earth and Planetary Science, The University of Tokyo, 3-7-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
4
Center for Water Environment Studies, Ibaraki University, 4-12-1 Nakanarusawa, Hitachi, Ibaraki 316-8511, Japan
5
Department of Ethnology and Archaeology, Keio University, 2-15-45 Mita, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8345, Japan
6
Faculty of Informatics, Teikyo Heisei University, 2289-23 Uruido-Otani, Ichihara, Chiba 290-0171, Japan
7
Department of Urban and Environment Engineering, Kyoto University,
Yoshida-Honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
8
Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Aichi Prefectural University,
Kumahari, Nagakute, Aichi 480-1198, Japan
9
Disaster Management Office, Nagoya University, Furo, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
10
Tamano Consultants Co., Ltd., 1-3-15 Aoi, Higashi-ku, Nagoya 461-0004, Japan
11
Fuyo Ocean Development and Engineering Co., Ltd., 3-15-7 Kuramae, Taito-ku, Tokyo 111-0051, Japan
12
Marshalls Oceanic Institute, PO Box 1473, Majuro, MH 96960, Republic of the Marshall Islands
13
Environmental Protection Authority, Majuro, MH 96960, Republic of the Marshall Islands
14
SOPAC Secretariat, Private Mail Bag, GPO, Suva, Fiji

Abstract
This paper gives a brief overview of the current status of reef island mapping, and reports on ourefforts to generate maps for two low-lying atoll countries, the Republic of the Marshall Islands andTuvalu, for which no recent detailed land-use maps or topographic maps are available. Three topics arepresented: 1) Nationwide mapping by satellite remote sensing, 2) Shoreline change detection using
maps, aerial photographs and satellite images, and 3) Topographic mapping by digital photogrammetry.
We indicate improvements and future prospects for each topic, as well as possible analyses which could
be performed by integrating these three topics.
Key words: aerial photograph, atoll, map, reef island, remote sensing, satellite

1. Introduction
Maps for topography and land use are essential todevelopment planning and estimating resource inventory. This is especially true of atoll countries where
the islands are low and flat, which have limited
amount of land resources and would be threatened by
future projected sea-level rises. Unfortunately, however, very few recent detailed maps of atoll countries
are available.
Recent advances in remote sensing and geographical information systems could contribute to producing
Global Environmental Research9(1)/2005: 37-46
printed in Japan

maps and estimating the vulnerability of the islands.
In this paper, we overview our recent progress inapplication of remote sensing techniques to mapping
low-lying atoll countries, presenting some of our results on the Republic of the Marshall Islands andTuvalu.

2. Study Areas and Available Maps
2.1 Marshall Islands
The Republic of the Marshall Islands is located on
the eastern margin of Micronesia, and comprises 29©2005 AIRIES38

H. YAMANO et al.

atolls and five table reefs (Fig. 1). The MarshallIslands are subject to NE tradewinds year-round except in the summer. The Marshall Islands are not situated in the typhoon belt, but if struck, can suffer significant damage from typhoons (Blumenstock, 1958;
Spennemann, 1996). There is a significant gradient of
rainfall from south to north (3,987 mm/year in thesouth and 1,307 mm/year in the north), and there isalso a positive relationship between island population
density and the amount of rainfall (Williamson &Sabath, 1982). Distribution of flora is correlated withthe amount of rainfall (Fosberg, 1956, cited in

Stoddart, 1992).
The Djarrit-Uliga-Delap (D-U-D) area of Majuro
Atoll is the present-day population center and national
capital of the Marshall Islands, while the previous
population center was Laura. The shift in the population center occurred during and after World War II due
to development of the D-U-D area (Spennemann,
1996). Population in the D-U-D area in 1989 was
14,649 (Spennemann, 1992). Coastal erosion is aserious problem in Majuro (Xue, 2001). He showedthat erosion was observed on both ocean and lagoon
coasts of the east, south and southwest rims. This wasFig. 1 Republic of the Marshall Islands and Majuro Atoll. Atolls underlined are examined in Yamano
et al., and the classification results are shown in Fig. 3. Different island types are indicated bya, b and c based on classification using Landsat ETM+ images (Fig. 3).

Mapping Atoll Countries

attributed to human activities such as construction of
causeways, aggregate excavating and artificial
channels crossing through the reef flat.
In the Marshall Islands, 1:25,000 land-use maps
covering all islands were produced by the Army Map
Service (1946, 1955). A 1:25,000 coastal resource
atlas was prepared for specific atolls in 1989 (Arno &Majuro, US Army Corps of Engineers, 1989a,b).
While the atlas for Arno was based on maps preparedby the Army Map Service, the atlas for Majuro
updated the maps by using color aerial photographs
taken in 1983. Thus the atlas for Majuro includes
areas eroded and accreted between 1955 and 1983.
The atlas also includes 1:10,000 topographic maps forthe D-U-D area. Most of the recent maps were prepared by the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC). SOPAC (1997) produced a
1:10,000 geological map for Majuro, and SOPAC(1994, 1995b) produced 1:5,000 coastal morphology
maps for Rita and the D-U-D area. No topographic
maps for other islands in Majuro or other islands in
the Marshall Islands are, however, currently available.
The 1989 atlas includes fish distributions around theatoll, but it does not provide sufficient benthic information. Furthermore, the geometric accuracy of themaps and atlas remains to be examined.

39

2.2 Tuvalu
Tuvalu is located on the western margin of Polynesia, and is comprised of five atolls and four table reefs(Fig. 2). Tuvalu is within the trade wind zone and surface winds are predominantly from the east. Tropical
cyclones occasionally begin to develop close to
Tuvalu, but it is rare for them to become hurricanes
while in this area (McLean & Hosking, 1992). The
most notable event in recent years was Cyclone Bebe,
which produced a significant amount of storm ramparton the southeastern reef flat of Funafuti Atoll(Maragos et al., 1973). Sequential studies of theislands revealed that these new ramparts formed bycyclones were attached to the original islands and contributed to an increase in the land area (Baines &McLean, 1976), indicating that cyclones may haveboth erosional and depositional effects. There is a
gradient of rainfall from south to north (3,472 mm/year in the south and 2,733 mm/year in the north)(McLean & Hosking, 1991; McLean et al., 1991b). As
with the Marshall Islands, the distribution of flora iscorrelated with the amount of rainfall (Fosberg, 1956,
cited in Stoddart, 1992).
Fongafale Island of Funafuti Atoll is the national
capital of Tuvalu with a population of 2,718 in 1987
(McLean & Hosking, 1992). Fongafale has a maximum altitude of <5 m and is thus considered to be

Fig. 2 Tuvalu, Funafuti Atoll and Fongafale Island. The image for Fongafale
Island is a mosaic of orthophotos constructed by digital photogrammetry. The arrow indicates the direction of view in Fig. 5.

40

H. YAMANO et al.

threatened by projected future sea-level rises (Semet al., 1996). The central part of Fongafale is flooded
during spring high tide (Jinbo, 2002; Vatae, personalcommunication). As with Majuro, coastal degradation
is another major problem, and a beach monitoring programme on the lagoon beach was started in 1984 tounderstand the cause of lagoon beach erosion (Gillie& Harper, 1992). Artificial pits (borrow pits) are present in the northern and southern part of Fongafale
Island. In World War II, the pits and beaches were asource of construction materials for building airstrips(McQuarrie, 1994). The pits need to be filled in orreclaimed, but materials are in short supply.
In Tuvalu, the first geological map of Funafuti waspublished in 1904 by the Coral Committee of theRoyal Society (1904). In 1980, a 1:50,000 map of the
Funafuti Atoll and a 1:5,000 map of Fongafale Island
were published based on aerial photographs taken in
1973 (Government of Tuvalu, 1980). 1:20,000 maps
for all the islands were published in 1991-1992 as aseries for the Tuvalu Land Resources Survey Island
Report prepared for the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations acting as executing
agency for the United Nations Development Programme (McLean & Hosking, 1991, 1992; McLean
et al., 1991a-g). The reports present an excellent overview of the islands, and the maps included have information on landforms, soils and vegetation. The mostrecent maps published are those of Fongafale,
Nukufetau and Vaitupu (SOPAC, 1995a, 1996a,b), andthe Lands and Survey Department of Tuvalu is preparing new maps. Overall, previous maps have concentrated on land areas and little is available for marine
benthic information. No topographic maps are available. Furthermore, the geometric accuracy of the maps
in 1904 and 1980 remains to be examined.

3. Nationwide Mapping by Satellite Remote
Sensing
Describing morphology, land use, and marine benthic habitats with appropriate geometric accuracy on alarge spatial scale is a basic but very important issue
to atoll countries. For this purpose, satellite remotesensing may help to produce maps at a reasonable cost(e.g., Green et al., 1996; Mumby et al., 1997; Mumby& Edwards, 2002). In an atoll environment,
Andréfouët et al. (2003b) showed that estimates oflandscape parameters (perimeter, surface area, totalhydrodynamic aperture, and degree of hydrodynamic
aperture) are robust regardless of changes in spatial
resolution between 5 and 30 m, though high-resolution satellites are advantageous for precise estimationof the area of reef-flat spillways. For landscape-levelmapping (vegetated domain, supratidal domain, intertidal domain, and subtidal domain), satellite sensors
with medium-resolution (20-30 m) and multispectral
bands would be useful, because SPOT HRV, one of
the medium-resolution, multispectral sensors, showed

an accuracy of 88%-90% for atoll mapping on thelandscape scale (Andréfouët et al., 2001). Nationwide
coral reef inventory mapping using Landsat ETM+
was successful for the Maldives (Naseer & Hatcher,2004). Landsat ETM+ is currently used for mappingof the world’s coral reefs (Andréfouët et al., in press).
In this section, we present the results of nationwide
landscape-level mapping of the Republic of the
Marshall Islands (Fig. 1) (Yamano et al., submitted).
One application of the maps would be for analysis of
the relationship between reef-island types and humansettlement, as reef islands have diversity in size, structure and development (Yamano et al., 2005), which
could affect human settlement patterns. One way tocharacterize the islands is to use a typology approach.
In the Tuamotu Archipelago (French Polynesia),
Andréfouët et al. (2001) classified atolls on the landscape level using satellite data. They divided the rims
based on direction, identifying nine types of the rims,
and suggested potential usage of each type of rim.
This study suggests that it would be possible to determine the relationship between types of rims and status(e.g., carrying capacity) of the islands on a large spatial scale. Furthermore, once given the relationship,
the typology could serve as a diagnostic tool to assessvulnerability of islands by comparing their rim types
with present-day settlement patterns.
We used Landsat ETM+ multispectral, 30-m spatial resolution data to classify atoll rim structures. We
collected images for seven atolls for which archaeological data had been obtained (Fig. 1). We used unsupervised classification for each atoll image. Using
Landsat ETM+ bands 1 to 4, the images were classified into 16 classes, and then they were further assigned to four landscape classes (vegetation, emerged
domain without vegetation, intertidal reef flat, andsubtidal reef flat), based on prior knowledge of theatolls obtained from interviews of local residents anda detailed field survey at Majuro Atoll on September
2003. ERDAS Imagine 8.7 was used for the analysis.
The classification results are shown in Fig. 3.
After classifying the images, the atoll rims were divided into several segments based on the direction of
exposure to the ocean, following Andréfouët et al.
(2001). The surfaces covered by the different classes
were normalized using the surface of the entire reef
flat (vegetated area, emerged area without vegetation,intertidal reef flat area, and subtidal reef flat area) of
the segment. We used percentage values for 1) vegetated area to total reef flat, 2) emerged area without
vegetation to total reef flat, 3) intertidal reef flat area
to total reef flat, and 4) subtidal reef flat area to total
reef flat. Using these four normalized values, the segments were clustered using a hierarchical algorithm todefine the typology of the rims. In addition, rims that
had large developed areas (Kwajalein of Kwajalein
Atoll, and the D-U-D area of Majuro Atoll) werere-clustered to examine their original states, based onmaps of 1944 (Army Map Service, 1946).

Mapping Atoll Countries

41

Fig. 3 Classified Landsat ETM+ images for seven of the atolls in Fig. 1.
Broken lines indicate that the surface is obscured by clouds.
Reproduced after Yamano et al. (submitted).

We obtained seven classes of atoll rims, whichwere related to rim structures. The rim types correlated well with archaeological data on human settlement. Rims with large vegetated islands (Type a in Fig.
1) showed early dates of human settlement, suggesting
the stability of the islands for permanent settlement,
while rims with scattered islands (Type b in Fig. 1)
showed later dates for human settlement, suggesting
the temporary use of the islands. The typology ofthese atolls could serve as a diagnostic tool to assessvulnerability of islands by comparing it with the present-day usage. In Majuro and Kwajalein atolls, there
have been recent shifts of populations to islands characterized by later settlement dates and temporary
usage (Type c in Fig. 1); these islands increase thevulnerability of residents to storm surges and floods(Spennemann, 1996).
Satellite-based mapping could be improved in two
ways. One would be to increase the number of classes
to make inventory maps for atolls. For that purpose,

examining the accuracy of mapping of land use bysatellite remote sensing is needed, in addition to
examining the accuracy with regard to coral-reef
benthic habitats (Mumby et al., 1997; Mumby &Edwards, 2002; Andréfouët et al., 2003a). Another isapplication of typology. The typology of rims not only
provides information on human settlement but also
provides planners and managers with information to
make better management decisions for the use of atoll
resources (Andréfouët et al., 2001). This approach
could be applied to other atolls. Furthermore, by relating the typology and environmental factors, it may bepossible to clarify the important factor(s) controlling
reef-island formation and maintenance (Shimazaki
et al., 2005; Yamano et al., 2005). The global
coverage of Landsat ETM+ is quite impressive, andimages of most if not all atoll systems are available,
therefore this method can be used to asses the stability
and vulnerability of other atoll systems.

42

H. YAMANO et al.

4. Shoreline Change Detection Using Maps,
Aerial Photographs and Satellite Images
One of the major concerns regarding atoll island
status is coastal erosion (Leatherman, 1997). Severe
erosion or retreat of shorelines may be induced byprojected sea-level rises in the future (Kench &Cowell, 2002). Historical maps and/or aerial photographs have been used to elucidate the historicalshoreline changes for reef islands and beaches (e.g.,
Flood, 1986; Sherwood & Howorth, 1996; Fletcher
et al., 2003). For a better estimation of shorelinechanges using aerial photographs, georectification of
the photos must be performed. Satellite images could
also be used for detecting shoreline changes. While alarge-scale change in reef islands caused by a cyclone
was detected using SPOT HRV (spatial resolution:
20 m) (Loubersac et al., 1988), recent deployment ofhigh-resolution sensors (e.g., Ikonos, spatial resolution: 1 m (panchromatic) and 4 m (multispectral)) may
help to detect smaller-scale changes including shoreline retreat. Though the spatial resolution is low incomparison with that of aerial photographs, multispectral satellite sensors can detect shorelines without visual assessment, using a near-infrared (NIR) band, because NIR light hardly penetrates water. In addition,
the geometric accuracy is high. Thus, the use of satellite data for shoreline change detection could be feasible. Uncertainties related to positional and measurement errors need be ascertained (Moore, 2000).
Fletcher et al. (2003) showed a total uncertainty of+/−14.25 m for a combination of 1:20,000 maps andaerial photographs by calculating relative mean square(RMS) errors for uncertainties of maps, seasonal
shoreline position, tidal stages, orthorectification of
the photos and onscreen delineation of the toes of thebeaches. The RMS errors for a combination of

1:20,000 maps and satellites based on the same procedure are 14.4 m for Ikonos (spatial resolution: 4 m)
and 33.0 m for Landsat ETM+ (spatial resolution:
30 m).
In this section, we present the results of shorelinechange detection at Majuro Atoll, Marshall Islands(Fig. 1) using a combination of maps from 1944 and1983 and a satellite image (Ikonos) taken in October2000 (Yokoki et al., submitted). Changes in shorelines
between 1944 and 1983 were based on 1:25,000 maps
prepared by the US Army Corps of Engineers (1989b)
who revealed the shorelines at mean sea level using1944 and 1983 aerial photographs. The maps were
scanned at 300-dpi resolution and were georeferenced
to the 2000 Ikonos image using permanent landmarks
such as roads and buildings. A 4-m resolution Ikonos
multispectral image was analyzed to detect the shorelines in 2000. Using values of the Ikonos data NIR
band, we removed aqueous areas and estimated theshoreline at the image acquisition time. Then, we performed contextual editing to remove the areas ofsubaerially exposed reef flats that have had high NIR
values. Finally, we considered the slope angles ofbeaches estimated by the field survey to obtain the
shorelines at mean sea level. These procedures were
performed using ERDAS Imagine 8.7. The areas
bounded by the shorelines were converted to polygon
data using ESRI ArcView 3.2 and were overlayed todetect the changes over time.
Historical changes in detected shorelines (Fig. 4)
show that the tip of Laura has been eroded and thelagoon-side coast of Laura accreted (Fig. 4A). The
coasts of Majuro Island (Fig. 4B, 4C) have areas ofboth erosion and accretion from 1944 to 2000. Thus
overall, the budget along the coast of Majuro Island
appears to be balanced. The erosion suggested by Xue(2001) could be observed in the period from 1983 to2000 (Fig. 4B) or else could not be observed in our

Fig. 4 Areas of Majuro Atoll accreted and eroded between 1944 and 1983 and between
1983 and 2000, as detected from previous maps and an Ikonos image. Thechanges between 1944 and 1983 are from maps by US Army Corps of Engineers(1989b). Areas with arrows correspond to eroded points suggested by Xue (2001).

Mapping Atoll Countries

work due to uncertainty in the shoreline analysis
based on the combination of maps and satellite images.
Despite this uncertainty, the eroded and accreted areas
detected in Laura (Fig. 4A) correspond well to thesediment transportation pattern suggested by Xue(2001) and the wave energy flux pattern calculated by
Yokoki et al. (submitted).
Because observations of shoreline retreat havebeen reported at several reef islands (e.g., Leatherman,
1997), there are urgent needs to map the extent andestablish the monitoring system for future change.
Previous maps, aerial photographs, and satellite images should contribute to this. In our work, the combination of previous maps and high spatial resolution
satellite data could contribute to detection of shorelinechanges of >10 m. The detection could be improvedby using higher resolution panchromatic sensors.
Medium-resolution sensors (e.g., SPOT HRV, Terra
ASTER, and Landsat ETM+) could detect large-scalechanges such as the disappearance of an island, whichsometimes occurs in reef environments (Stoddart,
1962; Flood & Heatwole, 1986). Because there are
few recent maps or aerial photographs available foratoll countries, utilization of satellite images, accompanied by an examination of factors with uncertainty(e.g., Moore, 2000; Fletcher et al., 2003), would be
useful for detecting changes in the shorelines.

5. Topographic Mapping by Digital Photogrammetry
In order to estimate the effect of rising sea levels,
accurate topographic maps are needed because they
provide an estimation of possible inundated areas aswell as volumetric changes in the islands. Historically,
photogrammetric techniques based on a stereo pair ofvertical aerial photographs have been used to produce
topographic maps. In addition to topographic maps,
photogrammetry can produce orthophotos that havehigh geometric accuracy (Moore, 2000). Recent advances in computer technology have provided the useof digital photogrammetry that performs the photogrammetric workflow in a completely digital environment. While laser-based topographic mapping (e.g.,

43

LIDAR, Brock et al., 1999) has emerged recently,
photogrammetry is advantageous as it can be applied
to historical aerial photographs to elucidate historical
topographic changes. Lin and Oguchi (2002) reviewed
studies using photogrammetry in geomorphologicalresearch, and indicated that the vertical errors were 30
to 320 mm (SD) for 1:10,000 scale photographs (cf.
Westaway et al., 2000). Thus, the accuracy of elevations calculated could ensure estimation of areas ofpossible inundation due to rising sea levels, which are
estimated to be 90-880 mm/century (IPCC, 2001).
Digital photogrammetry can generate topographic
maps for low-altitude regions such as coastal areas(Judge & Overton, 2001) and floodplains (Lane et al.,
2000; Westaway et al., 2000), and produces favorable
results. Photogrammetry has also been used to maketopographic maps and to estimate volumetric changes
in a coral sand cay, Green Island in the Great Barrier
Reef of Australia, using multitemporal aerial photographs (BPAQ, 1989). The errors were within+/−300 mm in position and +/−100 mm in height.
These results encourage the use of photogrammetry inmapping low-lying atoll countries.
In this section, we briefly report on preliminary results of production of topographic maps for a
low-lying reef island, Fongafale Island, Funafuti Atoll,
Tuvalu (Fig. 2). We scanned ca. 1:10,000 aerial photographs of Fongafale Island taken in 1984 at a resolution of 2,400 dpi. A field campaign to collect groundcontrolling points (GCPs) was conducted in Marchand August of 2004. We searched for piers, buildings
and roads that had shown no changes since the aerial
photos were taken. We collected 18 GCPs on theisland using a two-frequency GPS base station(TT-4000SSi, Trimble Navigation Ltd., USA) and a
one-frequency GPS (GP-SX1, Topcon Corp., Japan)
with sub-centimeter precision in three dimensions. In
the campaign, we also observed land use on the islandand interviewed to local residents on flooding. The
scanned photographs were processed with the lensparameters and collected GCPs using WinAtlasDSP(KLT Inc., USA).
Figure 1 and Figure 5 show the resultant orthophoto and a preliminary bird’s eye view of FongafaleFig. 5 A bird’s eye view of Fongafale Island with topography reconstructedby digital photogrammetry.

44

H. YAMANO et al.

Island, respectively. The results indicate that there aredepressions at about the center of the island, and aprominent ridge (storm ridge) along the oceanward
coast. The depressions corresponded to areas that suffer flooding during spring high tide (Vatae, personalcommunication). Other low-altitude areas correspondto taro patches, which are confined to low, muddy
areas (e.g., Fosberg, 1949; Chikamori, 2001;
Yamaguchi et al., in press). Though quantitative assessment of the topography has not been performed
yet, the topographic map produced appears to havereconstructed the actual topography.
Aerial photographs taken 20 years ago may still
have the potential to reconstruct the topography, andmultitemporal photographs could be used to detectvolumetric changes in the islands (cf. BPAQ, 1989).
The biggest problem is that the present-day topography of atoll countries remains to be examined. This
problem could be overcome by taking aerial photographs, and in addition, using laser altimetry, though
this will depend on budgets.

6. Concluding Remarks
We have presented three examples of our efforts togenerate maps of low-lying atoll countries. Though
the availability of maps of atoll countries is limited,aerial photographs and satellite images have thepotential to produce maps, analyze historical changes,
and monitor future changes. We have also shown possible improvements for each topic we examined. In
addition to these improvements, integration of these
topics will be further needed, because reef islands are
combined products of geological, physical, and ecological factors (Yamano et al., 2005), as well as
human factors (Chikamori, 2001; Yamaguchi et al., inpress). Possible integrated analyses may include therelationship between island maintenance and sandproduction in adjacent reefs as the result of activities
of reef-building organisms, shoreline dynamics andcoastal vegetation, as well as that between geomorphology and land use, all of which would help to clarify the maintenance mechanisms of atoll islands.

Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the people who supported ourwork by providing site information and/or field support: Royal Caeser, Yosuke Minami, Soya Ando,
Daisaku Sato and Ross Togashi (Marshall Islands);
Shuichi Endo, Paani Laupepa, Hilia Vatae, Pepetua
Latasi, Kulene Sokotia Kulene, Faatasi Malologa,
Willy Telavi, Tomoe Saito, Daisaku Sato, Yuji
Kuwahara, Patrick Nunn, Roger McLean (Tuvalu) andNobuo Mimura. Ikonos images for Majuro andFunafuti atolls and aerial photographs for Fongafale
Island were provided by SOPAC. Some of the Landsat
ETM+ images of the Marshall Islands were provided

by Serge Andréfouët. Kumi Sakurai helped to arrange
the data. This research was supported by the Global
Environment Research Fund of the Ministry of theEnvironment, Japan (Project No. B15, Principal
Investigator: HK).
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(Received 10 February 2005, Accepted 11 March 2005)