Journal of Global Resources
Volume 5 (01)January 2019
ISSN: 2395-3160 (Print), 2455-2445 (Online)

Page 90-100

12
LABOUR EMIGRATION FROM INDIA: TRENDS AND ISSUES
Jeetendra D. Soni
Assistant Professor (Geography), Government Arts College, Sikar (Rajasthan) India
Visiting Scholar- University of North Texas, USA
Email: Jeetendra.soni@gmail.com
Abstract: The oil boom in the gulf region in 1970s has resulted in the beginning of large
scale infrastructural development in various Gulf countries. It had generated huge demand
for the labour in this region. This process is continued in the last four decades with ups anddown. It is assumed that this will persist in the near future. India has emerged as a big
supplier of semi-skilled and unskilled workers to the gulf region. Though, there are few
regions, especially southern states, in India from where professionals, technocrats andknowledge workers also joining this stream of emigration. Even today a large number ofsemi-skilled and unskilled labours and considerable proportion of skilled professionals
immigrate to this region from India every year (Rajan, 2011). This is not as economicallycompetitive as it was in last quarter of twentieth century for the migrant labours due to
noticeable competition from the labours of Philippines, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
Here, in this paper trends of labour emigration from India to the Gulf countries have been
discussed along with the various issues and problems related to this migration process suchas use of remittances, labour exploitation and welfare, problem of illegal migration,
vulnerability of domestic workers, education of their children, new adverse policies of gulf
countries, failure in timely renewal of their passports and implementation of social security
schemes. At the end of this paper suggestions are given for the betterment of labour
migrants for this region from India.
Key words: Labour Migration, Gulf Countries, Emigration Clearance, Remittances
Introduction
In case of the country level scenario of labour migration to West Asian region, especially to
the Gulf countries, India plays an important role in terms of a noticeable labour supplying
country. As per Annual Report 2014-15 (MOIA), the Gulf countries attracted the maximum
Indian emigrants in the last few decades. Including Emigration Clearance required and not
required categories about seven million Indian workers are estimated in Gulf countries whoare employed in this region primarily on contractual basis for a fixed tenure of two to five
years. A vast majority of migrants to the Middle East, including Gulf countries, are semiskilled and unskilled workers. There has been a consistent and steady increase in thenumber of persons emigrating for employment abroad from the last few years. On the basisof number of emigration clearances granted by offices of the Protector of Emigrants there
were 6.41 lakhs labours emigrated from India in 2010. For the years 2011, 2012, 2013 and2014 these figures were 6.27 lakhs, 7.47 lakhs, 8.17 lakhs and 8.04 lakhs respectively.
Though, the total labour emigration from India is much more if we include those labours also
who do not require emigration clearance. There are more than seven million overseas Indianlabours throughout the globe. More than 90 percent of them are in the Gulf countries andSouth East Asian destinations. In 2014, about 8.04 lakh workers emigrated from India after
obtaining emigration clearance. About 3.29 lakh out of these 8.04 lakh workers went to Saudi
Arabia alone. Among the other important destinations, nearly 2.24 lakh workers migrated to90UAE, 0.75 Lakhs to Qatar, 0.51 lakhs to Oman, and 0.22 lakhs to Malaysia. In India, Uttar
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, West Bengal and Rajasthan
states are the leading sourcing states and given in the declining order as per 2014 data on
emigration Clearance granted (Annual Report-MOIA, 2014-15). Considerable numbers of
emigrants, falling under emigration clearance not required category, are also joining thisstream of emigration. Majority of them are from southern parts of India.
According to Rajan (2011), these numbers of labour emigrants who require
emigration clearance are very small in comparison to earlier reported figures. This isbecause category of emigrants who do not require emigration check by Government of India
is growing. There are 13 categories of persons mentioned in the Emigration Act 1983 whohave been exempted from emigration check before leaving India. Here, a detailed account ofrecent trends and issues of labour emigration from India to the West Asian destinations has
been discussed on the basis of various secondary sources of information.
Research Questions
The broad objective of this paper is to understand the nature of labour emigration towards
west Asia from India along with the trends and issues associated with it.
Methodology
This research is based on the secondary data sources. The univariate analysis is carried out
in this study. In univariate analysis descriptive statistics i.e. mean and percentage analysis
are used here. The information, which has been collected through the various sources, isprocessed and then suitably represented with the help of graphs and other statistical
diagrams.
Trends of labour migration between India and Gulf countries:
The trends of labour emigration from India are quite fluctuating both in temporal and spatial
contexts. The labour supplying parts in India are showing a shift in this process. In the table
no. 1 about 11 years data on number of workers granted Emigration Clearances arepresented by major states. The figures in this table do not include those labour emigrants
who do not require emigration check before emigrating from India. This is also one of thereason for declining numbers from the southern states because in this period the educational
qualification of labour from this region have increased significantly and now after achieving
secondary level education these labour do not require Emigration Clearance.
In this table it is clear that till the year 2008 maximum number of workers granted
Emigration Clearance were from Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh states but afterthat these states were replaced by Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal , Punjab andRajasthan. Here, one of the reasons of the low labour migration from Kerala is that thepersons holding secondary level of education are exempted from emigration check required
category (Rajan, 2011). The similar reason can be given in case of Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh.

91

Table 1: Number of workers granted Emigration Clearances by major States (2004-14)
#
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

STATE
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Uttar Pradesh
27428
22558
66131
91613
139254 125783 140826 155301 191341
Bihar
21812
9366
36493
51805
60642
52207
60531
71438
84078
Tamil Nadu
108964 117050 155631 150842 128791
78841
84510
68732
78185
Kerala63512
125075 120083 150475 180703 119384 104101
86783
98178
Andhra Pr.
72580
48958
97680
105044
97530
69233
72220
71589
92803
West Bengal
8986
5102
14929
24817
26094
21187
28900
29795
36988
Punjab
25302
24088
39311
53942
54469
27291
30974
31866
37472
Rajasthan
35108
21899
50236
70896
64601
44744
47803
42239
50295
Telangana
Maharashtra
28670
29289
15356
21496
24786
19128
18123
16698
19259
Karnataka
19237
75384
24362
27014
22413
18565
17295
15394
17960
Orissa
6999
1258
4114
6696
8919
6515
7344
7255
7478
Others
56362
68826
52586
54813
40399
27394
28729
29475
33004
TOTAL
474960 548853 676912 809453 848601 610272 641356 626565 747041
Source: Compiled from various Annual Reports, Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs, GoI (2008-09 to 2014-15).

2013
218292
96894
83087
85909
103049
41916
48836
41676
19579
17798
10608
49011
816655

No. of workers granted Emigration
Clearances (in Thousands)

Number of workers granted Emigration Clearances by Major States (2004-2014)
1600

1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0

Major States

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Figure 1: Emigration Clearance by major states

92

2013

2014

2014
229444
98721
83202
66058
53104
51561
48431
48123
38531
19110
15054
13046
40493
804878

A chart has been prepared to show the fluctuations in the total labour emigration forthese destination countries especially in Gulf countries and the dominant states in terms ofvolume of workers granted Emigration Clearances. Here, in this figure no. 1, the heights ofthe columns are showing the total number of workers granted Emigration Clearances in the
period of 2004 to 2014 from particular states. Because, this labour emigration is primarily on
contractual basis and these labours are granted visa for a limited period of two–five years, so
the heights of these columns do not depict the quantum of Indian labour population settled inthese countries from these states in the concerned time period. The heights of thesecolumns are clearly showing the state wise variations in labour emigration to the Emigration
Clearance required countries excluding those workers who fall in the category of Emigration
check not required. In this period of eleven years maximum worker granted Emigration
Clearances from Uttar Pradesh and followed by Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh andBihar. Rajasthan is at sixth position in this criterion.
The year wise total number of workers granted Emigration Clearances from various
states is shown by the different colours in these columns. The different heights of the year
wise column spaces in a single composite column for a particular state and across thecolumns of different states is clearly demonstrating that there is variation in the demand forthese workers at destination countries as well as state wise supply for particular period oftime. There may some other factors also responsible for these fluctuations and mostimportant among these are political instability, changes in immigration policies at destination
countries, emergence of new labour supplying countries etc. The overall labour migrationfrom India to the Emigration Clearance required countries under emigration check required
category is showing fluctuating trends. In the last two decades there is almost two foldincrease in the labour emigration from India to these 17 countries. The figure no. 2 isshowing these trends.
Figure 2: Comparison of Emigration Clearance data for India and Rajasthan(in Thousands)

No. of workers granted
Emigration Clearances

No. of workers granted Emigration Clearances from India (1988-2014)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Year

india

Source: Compiled from Annual Reports of the Ministry of Labour and Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs, GoI.

Among the Emigration Clearance required countries, the countries of Gulf
Cooperation Council (GCC) are the most preferred destinations for Indian emigrants. In
these countries also Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates are attracting about half of thetotal Indian labour emigrants. From the following table no. 2, this is revealed that in the
duration of last 11 years (from 2004 to 2014) maximum Indian labours granted Emigration
Clearances for these two countries. The countries like Kuwait, Qatar, Oman and Bahrain areother important destinations in this context. Besides this general trend there are variations in
the year wise outflow of labour from India to these destinations. This is clearly displayed in
the line graph (figure 3).

93

Table 2: Emigration Clearance granted for Gulf Countries in last few years (2004-14)#
1

COUNTRY
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Saudi
Arabia123522 99879 134059 195437 228406 281110 275172 289297 357503 354169
2
U.A.E.
175262 194412 254774 312695 349827 130302 130910 138861 141138 202016
3
Kuwait
52064
39124
47449
48467
35562
42091
37667
45149
55868
70072
4
Qatar
16325
50222
76324
88483
82937
46292
45752
41710
63096
78367
5
Oman
33275
40931
67992
95462
89659
74963 105807 73819
84384
63398
6
Bahrain
22980
30060
37688
29966
31924
17541
15101
14323
20150
17269
7
Iraq
0
0
0
0
0
390
390
1177
917
6577
8
Others
51532
94225
58626
38943
30286
17581
30556
22229
23985
24787
Total of 17
Countries
474960 548853 676912 809453 848601 610270 641355 626565 747041 816655
Source: Compiled from various Annual Reports, Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs, GoI (2008-09 to 2014-15).

No. of workers granted Emigration
Clearances (in Thousands)Labour emigration from India by destinations (2004-14)
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

2004
2005
2006
2007
Saudi Arabia
U.A.E.

2008
2009
2010
Kuwait
Qatar

2011
2012
2013
Oman
BahrainFigure No. 3 Labour emigration from India by Destination

94

2014
Iraq

2014
329937224033
80419
75935
51318
14220
3054
25962
804878

As per the United Nations Report (2009), maximum Gulf countries realized that theimmigration level has reached too high and they were in favour of designing a policy forlowering the migration flows in future. Out of total six important Gulf countries (GCC) fivewere with the opinion to reduce migration stock in future, except Bahrain. The migration level
was felt satisfactory in Bahrain and they wanted to maintain the existing immigration level.
Such initiatives might change the scenario of labour emigration from the south Asian
countries including the Indian labour emigration for the Gulf countries in the near future.
Remittances
Kapur and McHale (2003) observed that in the recent past, there has been a noticeable
emphasis on the study of various dimensions related to remittances. Obviously, this interest
has been accelerated due to a remarkable increase in the remittance flows. The impact of
this increase has been rediscovered as a potential source of development finance. The flowof remittances from developed to developing countries rose from $31.1 billion to $76.8 billion
in the period of 1990 to 2000. Even the remittance flow is increasing with greater pace after
year 2000. Now, registered remittances amount is twice the amount of official development
assistance and 10 times higher than the net private capital transfers to developing countries.
Remittances play an increasingly important role at national level. These are relatively
stable source of external finance. During economic and political crises, remittances play a
critical role as social insurance and protect the economy of affected countries (Kapur 2003).
Remittances are more reliable foreign currencies source to prudent the economy of any
country because these are less volatile and less pro-cyclical than other capital flows such as
foreign direct investment and foreign institutional investment. India has experienced thepositive role of remittances in crisis periods. Role of remittance in the overall sustenance offamily back home is very important in case of semi-skilled and unskilled labour emigrants. In
Indian case remittances are playing crucial role in the maintenance and upliftment of thefamilies back home. In some case social and community remittances are important for thedevelopment of an area and a larger group.
In the table no. 3 given below the migrant remittance inflow is given for India and theworld for last four decades. In this period migrant remittance flow in India has increased morethan 160 times, while the total remittance inflow at world level has increased more than 60
times only. But in 1975 Indian share in the total migrant remittance inflow was only 4.5
percent which has increased to nearly 12.1 percent in 2014. In case of India the rapid growth
in remittance inflow was observed after 1994. The figure no. 4 given below is clearly
depicting this trend. In this period of two decades there has been good amount of addition inremittance inflow and in last decade India became the largest remittance receiving country in
the world. Afterwards India is constantly leading the world in migrant remittance inflow. In
2013, the migrant remittance inflow was about 70 thousand million US$ which was 3.7
percent share of the total GDP of the Indian state.

95

Table 3: Migrant remittance inflow in India and World in US$ million (1975-2014e)
Migrant remittance inflows
1975
1976
1977
India
430
643
935
World
9,529
11,06916,830Migrant remittance inflows
1985
1986
1987
India
2,472
2,243
2,663
World
34,55640,45948,817
Migrant remittance inflows
1995
1996
1997
India
6,224
8,763
10,334
World
97,889102,763
117,242
Migrant remittance inflows
2005
2006
2007
India
22,12528,334
37,217
World
279,851
324,603392,477
Source: Annual Remittances Data, The World Bank (April 2015)

1978
1,161
22,356
1988
2,317
52,361
1998
9,477
114,005
2008
49,977452,735

1979
1,441
28,222
1989
2,610
54,7491999
11,122
121,6712009
49,204
422,820

1980
2,761
35,814
1990
2,382
64,034
2000
12,845
126,750
2010
53,480457,897

1981
2,302
34,887
1991
3,294
67,754
2001
14,229140,339
2011
62,499512,3101982
2,622
36,041
1992
2,896
75,215
2002
15,707
163,489
2012
68,821
533,140

1983
1984
2,662
2,293
36,57835,361
1993
1994
3,527
5,855
75,211
85,677
2003
2004
21,01518,753
197,183
226,4262013
2014e
69,97070,389557,083
583,430
e= estimate

Figure 4: Migrant Remittance inflow in India

80,00070,00060,00050,00040,00030,00020,000

Year

96

2013

2014e

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

1989

1988

1987

1986

1985

1984

1983

1982

1981

1980

1979

1978

1977

0

1976

10,0001975

Remittances in US$ million

Migrant Remittance Inflow in India (1974-2014)

Out of the total remittances received by India, about 50 per cent of this was sent by
the workers in the Gulf region. In case of investment also they are responding well. The Gulf
based Indian emigrants are putting huge investments in the hospitality sector and some otherareas in India. The remittance receivers are generally having a bank account. These

remittances often promote financial strength of sender and recipient and usuallycontribute in the economic development in many ways. The remittances are
considered less volatile than other capital flows despite financial crises and economic
slumps remittances are reliable financial resource for the developing countries. Suchsustainability further increases if the emigrants of any countries are spread in many
countries over the globe.
Issues and Problems related to Indian Nationals in the Gulf Region
The concerns and the problems in most of the countries of West Asia especially the Gulf
region are similar. Most of the Indians in the Gulf were concerned about labour exploitation
and welfare issues, the education of their children, the exploitation of women and so on attheir place of origin and in the Gulf region.
Issues related to labour exploitation and welfare
The large proportions of Indian workers emigrate without attestation of Employment
documents. This is a major cause for their exploitation and no relief in existing system. There
are some common problems faced by the Indian emigrant labours here like non-payment ofsalary, delay in the payment of salary, absence of proper basic amenities at work places,
poor residential arrangements, non-renewal of labour card and visa, non-payment of gratuity
on termination of job, employer refusing to give permission to travel to India, discouraging
return if job conditions are found unsuitable, mislead by recruiting agents in India, pre-maturetermination of labour contracts, non-observance of terms of contracts by employers rather
denial of existing contract job conditions and signing of new contracts after arrival of labour tothe destination in disfavour of labour, many of the Indian workers are vulnerable to neglect,disease, accidents, unemployment and many more. There are also cases wherecompanies/employers do not provide return airfares to workers on completion of theircontracts.
The problem of illegal Migration
This is a big challenge to control this illegal emigration from India to the Gulf countries. There
are large number of unskilled workers, domestic servants and housemaids who are coming
through the informal channels. The recruitment agencies are playing adverse role in thisgame. There are many cases of fraud and extortion by the Recruitment agencies and there isa dire need to have checks and strong monitoring on these. After their immigration in thesecountries, due to various reasons, workers are not ready to leave. As a result of this, in many
ways they are exposed to exploitation such as imposing penalty on them, declaration ofillegal immigrant status, nonpayment of salaries, denial of security and safety measures,problems of non-payment by Insurance companies and so on. These recurring problems arealso related to those who abandon their sponsors and work illegally.
Vulnerability of Domestic Workers
Domestic workers are the most vulnerable section of the Indian community in many Gulf
countries. This section is not provided due security under the existing labour laws in manycases. They are facing problems like adverse working conditions, non-payment of salaries,
confiscation of their passports, sexual exploitation etc. Many of the housemaids are exploited
through the present system of recruitment of domestic workers. The recruitment of young

97

housemaids leads to their sexual exploitation. Though the minimum age for housemaids isfixed at 30 years, but still the problem persists through fake age certificates and otherrackets.
Education of their Children
Indian schools in many countries like Kuwait facing problems related to the procurement ofbooks published by the NCERT. These workers are also demanding for some special andeasy provisions for their children to get admission in educational institutions in India. This
concern they have raised in many Pravasi Bhartiya Diwas programmes also.
New adverse Policies
Another important concern is the aggressive policies of localization in gulf countries such as
Kuwaitization, Emiritization and categorization of companies to discourage single nationality
emigration. Though the Kuwaitization and Emititization processes may not have impact on
the blue collar workers, where Indians are mostly engaged, but it does affect the white collar
workers and future migrations.
Failure in timely renewal of their Passports
Many of the emigrant’s passports are remaining pending for renewal from the State
Governments in India. This is creating a problem of their legal status at destination. Though
the Government of India is simplifying this process and also trying to facilitate them at theirdestination.
Implementation of social security schemes:
There is a need for full implement of these schemes of social security like Pravasi Bhartiya
Bima Yojna. The problem is that large numbers of Indian workers are still not benefitted withsuch schemes. There are also complains of lack of accessible investment/pension schemes.
Other than these issues there are many concerns which must be addressed adequately likedebt burden due to managing finances for emigration process, socio-psychological insecurity
among the families back home, remittances are largely used for consumption purposes so no
economic security for future, weak skill development and accommodation at newdestinations in comparison to competitive emigrants from Philippines, Sri Lanka,
Bangladeshis etc.
Conclusion and suggestions
Human Development Report (2014) states that the undocumented / illegal Indian workers are
suffering a lot and are exposed to inhuman conditions of life in the Gulf countries. On theother side, here things are not as fetching as it was two to three decades before. Still, it isperceived lucrative for the workers to get employment in Gulf countries despite common
stories of grief and exploitation. The Saudi Arab and UAE countries are the important
destination for the Indian emigrant workers. Other most important countries in this reference
are Kuwait, Qatar and Oman. That is why the policies of these countries towards immigrants
are very important for us. This is the reason that in recent past Indian government haveshown special interest in these countries. In 1970’s mainly semiskilled and unskilled labour
emigrated from India to the gulf region to take up jobs in construction and other infrastructuredevelopment sector. But, in last two decades, demand increased for skilled and professional
manpower for operation and maintenance services, transport and communication, I. T. andother such sectors. The south-Indian region like Kerala, Tamil Nadu etc. have responded
accordingly. There, the proportion of semi-skilled and skilled workers is increasing among the
Gulf migrants. But, in case of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan etc. the conditions are almost

98

similar as it was in 1970s. There is a need for skill upgradation of prospective emigrants
through pre departure training and orientation programmes in considerable manner forchanging their efficiency and income and awareness drives for minimizing their exploitation.
The wage differences in sending and receiving places and continuous job assignments are
the main catalyst behind this emigration. There are very poor job prospects in India for themand the young workforce is pushed to join this emigration stream.
In the North Indian region these emigrants are getting information about theemployment opportunity in Gulf region by the agents or their sub agents or field catchers.
These agents and their other helping partners are not fair with these innocent, unaware andless educated prospective emigrants. They are exploiting them in all possible manners
especially in terms of heavy charges for their services. It has been found in various surveys
that about every emigrant sending remittances to their family back home, the emigration has
resulted in the increase of household income. Primarily, this increase in income havetranslated in improving food and nutrition quality, purchase of household amenities,
improvement in the residence quality etc. Most of them first try to repay their debts if any.
Then, they use remittances for arranging basic facilities including food and also for improving
the standard of living. This use of remittance is purely for consumption purpose. Only a small
proportion of these workers use remittances for productive investment and saving.
The emigration of semi-skilled and unskilled Indian labour is not very lucrative now as
it was before 2-3 decades. At present they are facing competition with Philippines,
Bangladeshi, Sri-Lankan and Pakistani labour migrants. There is negligible increase in thesalaries of workers in the last few years in the Gulf region, where inflation has increased
remarkably. It is perceived now that only the skillful workers should emigrate for the gulf
countries. The contribution of this emigration in various sectors of development cannot bedenied but in the last few years it is difficult to establish a unidirectional relationship between
migration and development equation here. This is so because a large section of emigrants
are not grading this business very profitable now.
Suggestions for improving the emigration of labour to the Gulf region
 There is need to simplify the process to get passport, visa and emigration clearance. Thisis very much necessary to erode the role of mediators in this entire process.
 The Indian embassies abroad must be approachable and helpful to deal with the
problems of emigrants rather than avoiding their concerns and exploiting them.
 There must be provisions and institutional facilities for skill upgradation, pre-departure
training and orientation of prospective emigrants. This can increase the competencies
and income prospects of these emigrants by the capacity building exercise. This is also
necessary for getting edge on their competitors from other Asian countries.
 The Indian Government must control the mediators to avoid exploitation of emigrant
workers. There must be awareness programmes for these prospective workers. It is easy
to catch them during passport making for orientation and awareness programmes.
 The Government of India as well as state governments are now making policies for thewelfare of these workers. But, these initiatives are of no use until and unless the policy
related information are not reached up to the beneficiaries.
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