Journal of Global Resources
Volume 5
July 2017
ISSN: 2395-3160 (Print), 2455-2445 (Online)

Page 8-14

02
SMART GROWTH AND RESILIENCE: LESSONS FROM COASTAL COMMUNITIES IN
THE AMERICAS
Richard Huber1, Luisa Neira2, and Richard A. Meganck3
1

Senior Program Officer, Organization of American States,
Washington, D.C., USA,
Email: rhuber@oas.org
2
Program Officer, OAS, Email: lneira@oas.org
3
Retired from UNESCO, Email: rameganck@gmail.com

Abstract: As coastal communities work towards greater resilience from both catastrophic
and longer-term environmental impacts due to mismanagement, increased consciousness
on the part of policy makers and stakeholders is beginning to create new economic
opportunities that include improved management of the very basis for their sustainability:
reef and beach rehabilitation and stabilization, improved co-management of near-shore
protected areas, and new forms of development in the coastal zone. Specific actions
addressing waste management (reduce, reuse, recycle, biogas), green hotels, aquaponics
and hydroponics, renewable energy and efficiency, and habitat restoration are among thosethat offer the most immediate return on investment, particularly in terms of the long-term
economic sustainability of vulnerable coastal settlements. The Organization of American
States (OAS) Department of Sustainable Development (DSD), in collaboration with OAS
Member States completed 25 small grants as part of the Reef Fix: Ecosystem Services
Valuation Project for the Caribbean1. The grants targeted interventions with measureable
near-term economic impacts, particularly those that are able to be scaled-up and replicatedin surrounding communities.
Key words: Coral Reefs, Coastal Zone Management.
Introduction
With major back-to-back El Nino related global coral bleaching events becoming climatechange visual indicators, there is renewed interest in community-based marine
management. Likewise, communities are increasingly appreciating that marine ecosystem,
such as mangroves, provide the benefits of environmental goods and services, from carbon
storage and storm protection, to food and materials for local communities. Exploring
management options that maintain resilience and enhance the delivery of benefits andservices across multiple scales has been the objective a small-grants program with OAS
Member States called Reef Fix that has enhanced livelihoods though stakeholder
involvement and improved decision making that contributes to socio-ecological resilience inmarine environments.
Background
Oceans cover almost three quarters of the Earth’s surface, account for over 97 percent of
the world’s water, and harbor an estimated 1 to 2 million species (Mora et al., 2011,www.coml.org/about ). At most, only a quarter of these species have even been described,
1

Additional information available at:http://www.oas.org/en/sedi/dsd/biodiversity/ReefFix/

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let alone investigated as to their ecological niche and societal applications (Appellants et al.,2012; Bouchet, 2012). Conservation and management of marine and coastal resources has
become an urgent concern as the human induced impacts of overfishing, global warming,
pollution, invasive species and unplanned near-shore development increasingly threaten thehealth of ecosystems and the essential economic and social benefits they provide to people
around the world. The 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment charges that 30 to 50
percent of ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands and near shore forests
have disappeared or been degraded to the point where any net gain for nearby communities
has been severely compromised (See Box 1.) The high seas also manifest serious stress,
but are beyond the scope of this paper.
BOX 1: Ecosystems and the Goods and Services they provide are on the decline:
Of 24 ecosystem services reviewed, only 4 services i.e., crop, livestock, aquaculture
production and carbon sequestration have improved. Two other services, fisheries andfreshwater, have been impacted to a degree that their sustainability is in question; theremaining 18 services have been degraded or declined where optimal levels ofsustainable outputs are not being achieved. Evidence regarding rates of loss ordegradation of ecosystems and ecosystem services, while aggregated, provides a relative
scale of how serious the overall situation is globally:• 35 percent of Mangroves• 30 percent of Coral Reefs• 50 percent of Wetlands• 40 percent of near-shore Global Forests have disappeared or degraded• About 60 percent of the world’s ecosystem services are degradedSource: Ninan, K.N., 2005
The years 1997, 1998, 2005, and 2015 were particularly devastating for the
Caribbean reef systems. Corals can survive many intrusions, including a bleaching event if
it is not too severe. However, if the algae loss, pollution or increased water temperatures
are prolonged, coral eventually dies. In 2005 for example, the U.S. lost half of its coral reefs
in the Caribbean in one year from an extended bleaching event, accompanied by warm
water periods and excessive flushing of agro-chemicals caused by several storm events.
BOX 2: Two urgent actions for Caribbean Sea Conservation:
1. Highlight Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) tools that work with SIDS
(small island developing states) to complete stakeholder analysis and socio-economic
valuation to improve oversight of marine resources. The objective is to meetcommitments made by SIDS to increase protected area coverage through effective
management. Lessons learned and best practices from Caribbean Challenge 2020
and Reef Fix projects offer insights into linkages where OAS Member States
implement on-the-ground conservation measures to (i) have 20 percent of marine
areas sustainably managed by 2020, (ii) utilize ecosystem goods and services
valuation methodologies (iii) implement cost effective interventions to improve marine
ecosystem health, and (iv) design revenue-raising techniques of cost recovery anduser pays/polluter pays principles.
2. Protect Ocean Life on the High Seas The UN General Assembly formallycommitted to negotiate an international agreement to maintain healthy ocean
ecosystems and the species within them. A high seas treaty also would chart a
course toward creating a network of marine protected areas in the open ocean,ensuring that special places on the high seas receive the protection they need toremain vibrant, diverse ecosystems while providing the economic benefits that coastal
communities require.

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The Organization of American States Response: The Reef Fix Grants
The OAS Grants program demonstrated that governments and NGOs collaborating to better
manage valuable national resources mutually benefit from ecosystems services valuation
data, bio-physical information, and management recommendations. Overall, the OAS
Grants program indicated that over the last decade, coastal residents have endured therepercussions of increasing pollution of the coast, increasing loss of life and property and,conflicts of interests among user groups.
Noting this, stakeholders agreed to share a common vision:• To increase the economic benefits flowing from the sustainable use of coastal
resources; and,• Catalyze new forms of development in coastal zones.
Potential solutions include:• Co-management and participatory approaches to planning, involving NGOs andcommunity-based advocacy groups;• Strong institutions with accepted mechanisms for cross-sectoral cooperation;• Enforcement of and compliance with integrated policies through the use of positive
reinforcement and incentives;• Establishment of recognized rules and sanctions accepted by the interest groups;• Valuation of socio-economic benefits demonstrating the benefits of conservation as
opposed to unplanned development;• Recovery, Restoration and Resilience projects supported by improved recognition
and measurement of socio-economic benefits from ecosystems, (and;• Public-private partnerships that maintain a seamless flow of information.
The process of closer stakeholder collaboration was assisted by the Corporate Compact(signed by 15 companies) which promoted Private Public Partnerships and the
Caribbean Challenge Initiative (CCI) to accelerate marine conservation action in the
Caribbean2 Six specific actions were endorsed by the participating countries including
marine protected areas, restoration investments, sustainable fisheries, sustainable tourism,
ecosystem-based adaptation to climate change, and marine pollution.
Valuation of Marine Ecosystems
What is the full suite of ecosystem services of a coral reef worth? In Montego Bay, Jamaica
more than 1,000 tourists and local people participated in a contingent valuation survey. The
objective was to answer a key question: “How much would you be willing to pay to protect
the coral reef?” This and other valuation techniques indicated that the total benefit
attributable to the reef in its current condition is approximately US$470 million, and thatevery 1 percent change in abundance is likely to generate a marginal benefit ofapproximately US$10 million. (Gustavson, K et al, 2000). Most of the value is attributable todirect tourism revenues, directly dependent on healthy coral reefs. Coastal protection andnon-use benefits (such as spiritual or existence value) are also important in terms ofplanning but are harder to quantify. When a cruise ship hit a reef in the Gulf of Aqaba someyears ago, Egypt sought US$10,000/ m2 of damaged reef. The coral reefs of the main2

Source:http://www.caribbeanchallengeinitiative.org/images/CCI_Summit/CORPORATE_COMPACT_CCI_S
UMMIT_FINAL_SIGNED_VERSION.pdf

10

Hawaiian Islands have an estimated worth of $9.7 billion. (Cesar, Herman et al, 2002).
These data while not comparable or in any way replicable data points, suggest that reefs arevaluable real estate. But at this point, how valuable is at best a rough estimate. What would
it cost to rehabilitate reefs that have become degraded? How much should we invest in reef
rehabilitation? Who should pay? The simple truth is that we do not have many answers tothese straightforward, yet complex questions.
Reef Fix: An Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Ecosystem Services
Valuation Project
Reef Fix, financed by the Governments of Mexico, Chile and Monaco, is a 10-year
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) country-driven program implemented incollaboration with SIDS (small island developing states) to complete stakeholder analysis,
socio-economic valuations, and protected areas management plans. Twenty-five replicableand cost effective outputs include pilot investments and capacity building actions in: (i)ecosystem goods and services valuation methodologies (ii) cost-effective interventions toimprove marine ecosystem health, and (iii) revenue raising techniques of cost recovery anduser pays/polluter pays principles.
Reef Fix achievements identified by stakeholders• Strengthened and increased participation of local communities in innovative biodiversity
conservation,• Built understanding of the importance of biodiversity conservation valuation,• Supported civil society initiatives that added value to the work of government agencies,• Supported a rigorous regional Caribbean-owned approach,• Enabled local institutions to build capacity and expand influence in the Caribbean,• Provided new information to help communities prioritize investment options (for example,
sand mining vs. hotel construction vs. mangrove restoration vs. golf course
development),• Improved capacity of NGO, CSOs, including local groups to effect tangible outputs, and• Facilitated networking and building partnerships at national and regional levels.
Overall Lessons learned to date from Reef Fix project 2012-2017
Outputs of the Reef Fix projects have assisted policymakers to better manage development
options while maximizing socio-economic benefits. Misunderstandings will however occur in
implementing any decision with any user group who lack trust in the equity of the
management solutions proposed. In several marine parks, misunderstandings produced low
levels of compliance with regulations and management directives. Reef Fix projects
highlighted economic and social benefits, and thereby enhanced awareness of marine
ecosystems benefits that may not have been immediately apparent to them.
1. As the principal inter-governmental body in the Americas, the OAS is ideally placed
to foster the collaboration that is necessary to improve management of natural
resource assets in coastal zones in the region.
2. The formation of a Project Steering Committee has great value -- As part of the OASDRD effort, several technical discussion panels and round tables were held with the
purpose of sharing lessons learned in coastal zone management by specialized
agencies and multilateral organizations.

113. Coastal zone management dialogue is transforming communities into more resilient
and livable venues: making hard choices, experimenting, taking risks – and applying
good governance practices at the local level.
4. Sustainable coastal communities are characterized as forward-looking, effective andinclusive supporting: urban design and land-use planning processes, protection of
public spaces, affordable housing and spatial planning to promote social inclusion
and infrastructure development as means to serve planned urbanization and ruralurban integration, sound finances to support provision of affordable and accessible
public services and to provide social protection, policies that promote economic
dynamism, and small-business formation and formal sector job creation.
5. Small Grants that emphasized social inclusion of civil society as an integral part ofsustainable urbanization had high success rates as well as more replicability andsustainability.
6. OAS Member States are encountering a huge demand on the part of communities todevelop functional and environmentally-friendly development plans.
7. The rapid coastal urbanization process will not be easily reversed and will require
integrated policies that span issues such as population growth, food security, andcitizen energy, and environmental security.
8. The most successful grants encouraged a new growth model focusing on creating
networks that combine skilled laborers with universities and technical schools, while
implementing improved sustainable transport, infrastructure, green building, andhigh-speed Internet aimed at manufacturing, innovation, technology development
and advanced services.
9. There was agreement to act on a number of indicators that have reached criticalthresholds, notably emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollution.
10. Identifying and sharing best practices and lessons learned from the Americas ishighly cost effective and an excellent use of development funds.
11. Setting up of a formal evaluation process for each grant is key to engaging nationaland municipal governments, community associations and NGOs throughout theAmericas.
12. The most successful projects merge the cross-cutting nature of coastal management
by empowering human settlements to chart their futures.
13. Improved transportation and pedestrian safety are crucial for sustainable
development.
14. A continually updated website allows for real-time dissemination of materials for each
sub-project.
15. The small grants included a focus on reaching disadvantaged and/or underserved
communities and promoting gender equity by allocating resources, programs, anddecision making fairly and addressing any imbalances through stakeholder
engagement and addressing the sustainability of basic services.
16. Virtually all coastal municipalities in the Americas are manifesting a healthy
competitive attitude in reaching shared goals. Based on the leadership of elected
Mayors, each city is an incubator to test the outcomes of these small grants.
Lessons learned from implementation of the Grants
Based on implementation and evaluation since 2012, the small grants demonstrate that
effective and successful ICZM project execution (Scanlon, 1988) should include the following
elements:
1. Identification of problems and causes: The identification of the underlying causesof problems and potential solutions is required to ultimately prevent or reduce
problems such as littered and eroded beaches in the long term. A cleanup effort

12alone is not sufficient to prevent reoccurrence. Controlling problems at the source isthe most efficient and effective means to reduce cost and improve quality.
2. Utilization of Economic valuation tools: Evaluating the risks to critical ecosystems
from anthropogenic factors, using the Habitat Risk Assessment models such as(RIOS, InVEST) can help with cost effective analysis of stressor activities. These
tools can then be replicated in other locations.
3. Striving for continuous improvement: Environmental quality improvements are notwithout setbacks. One must stay focused on the goal with continuous effort andeliminate the sources of the problems that affect the reaching of your goal. Ongoingevaluation of results is required to provide data for control and improvement.
4. Gradualism and realism: National or regional policies should be implemented
gradually through pilot projects or experimental programs. The establishment ofplausible and enforceable norms, standards, and guidelines is an important starting
point. Do not try to implement policies and instruments beyond the institutional
means available.
5. Institutional integration: Intra-governmental and inter-governmental integrationmust be pursued to overcome barriers and to merge institutional strengths.
6. Leadership: The environmental management sector must lead the decision-making
process by identifying stakeholders, barriers, and channels to consensus building.
7. Participation: Participation of stakeholders must be planned and based on
information building and sharing. Avoid stalemate issues that might paralyze theprocess. Equity issues must be properly identified, evaluated and addressed.
8. Market reliance: The growing reliance on markets must be incorporated into
environmental policy and incentive structures to influence behavioral changes. Avoid
high transaction and collection costs.
9. Catalyze business partnerships: Work with the decision-makers in all sectors as
those controlling the resources must be supportive of ICZM efforts.
10. Recognize and promote excellence and good behavior: This is more effective
than handing out fines, and more constructive. More people working on a solution
results in better solutions.
11. Minimize government and maximize voluntary management and partnerships:
Governments often times rely too heavily on laws, regulations and punishment.
Citizens must be involved to help set goals for excellence for society. The
governance and operational processes should be continuously improved to meetchanging marketplace situations and new stakeholder requirements.
Conclusion
Small grants awarded strategically can have a large impact if well designed andimplemented. Reef Fix projects were measured by their ability to contribute to thesustainable development and conservation goals under each of the strategic performanceindicators:• Improved sustainable land and ecosystems management interventions that mitigate andallow adaptation to climate change.
• Enhanced livelihood opportunities for targeted communities from improved structure andfunction of ecosystem services.
• Reformed policy and legislation for better management of protected areas, improved
management of water, land climate change mitigation.

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•
•
•

Monitoring and evaluation systems for improved socio-economic-environmental statuse.g. access to renewable energy, or co-management of mangrove ecosystems.
Creating permanent or self-sustaining finance mechanisms.
Establishing a network of marine areas to meet the Caribbean 2020 commitments.

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