INTERROGATIVE FEATURES
byJason Robert Ginsburg

A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the
DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
In the Graduate College
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

2009

2
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONAGRADUATE COLLEGE

As members of the Final Examination Committee, we certify that we have read thedissertation prepared by Jason Robert Ginsburg
entitled Interrogative Featuresand recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement for the
Degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
Date: 15 December 2008
Simin Karimi

Date: 15 December 2008
Andrew Barss

Date: 15 December 2008
Andrew Carnie

Date: 15 December 2008
Heidi Harley

Final approval and acceptance of this dissertation is contingent upon thecandidate’s submission of the final copies of the dissertation to the Graduate
College.
I hereby certify that I have read this dissertation prepared under my direction andrecommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement.

Date: 15 December 2008
Dissertation Director: Simin Karimi

3

STATEMENT BY AUTHORThis dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for anadvanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University
Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library.
Brief quotations from this dissertation are allowable without special permission,
provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission
for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in partmay be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate
College when in his or her judgment the proposed use of the material is in theinterests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained
from the author.

SIGNED: Jason Robert Ginsburg

4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the members of my dissertation committee Simin Karimi,
Andrew Barss, Andrew Carnie, and Heidi Harley for their excellent guidance. I
would especially like to thank my advisor Simin Karimi for all of her help. She
read numerous drafts of my work and provided excellent comments. Our numerous
meetings led to many improvements in this work. I thank Heidi Harley for her
excellent suggestions and clear explanations. Thanks go to Andrew Carnie for his
detailed comments and suggestions. I also thank my language consultants: Dalila
Ayoun, Rusty Barrett, Junko Ginsburg, Simin Karimi, Sunjing Ji, and Hyun Kyoung
Jung. I am indebted to all of my professors at the University of Arizona. Special
thanks go to Sandiway Fong for his instruction in my minor of Computational
Linguistics and Mike Hammond for his guidance, both in the Spam lab and as
department head. Much thanks go to my classmates at the University of Arizona. I
thank my parents for their support and encouragement. Lastly, I am deeply indebted
to my wife Junko for her patience and support.

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DEDICATION

To Junko and Rachel.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
CHAPTER 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
CHAPTER 2 Theoretical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Operations of the faculty of language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Lexical items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Numeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Select . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4 Merge, Move, and Agree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Phrase structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 The left periphery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Basic clause structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 Island effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.1 Government and Binding Theory accounts . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.2 Minimalist Program accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.3 The absence of island-effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7 Intervention effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8 Head movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20
20
21
22
22
23
23
25
30
38
43
44
47
64
66
68
70

CHAPTER 3 Qu-features and Qu-morphemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Evidence for a Qu-feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Multiple Qu-morphemes in a single language . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71
71
71
75
82

CHAPTER 4 Yes/no constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Types of Qu-morphemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Overt Qu-morphemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Covert Qu-morphemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3 An overt or covert Qu-morpheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83
83
83
85
92
96

7
TABLE OF CONTENTS – Continued

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.2.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Qu-morphemes in Typ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.3.1 Modern Japanese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.3.2 English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
TP-internal Qu-morphemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.4.1 Sinhala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.4.2 Okinawan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.4.3 Premodern Japanese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.4.4 Tupı́ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.4.5 Ewen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.4.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

CHAPTER 5 Qu-morphemes in wh-constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.2 Clause-peripheral Qu-morphemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.2.1 Mandarin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.2.2 Japanese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.2.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.3 English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.3.1 The standard American English facts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.3.2 Accounts of the subject/non-subject wh-construction assymmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.3.3 Analysis of English facts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.3.4 Ozark English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.3.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.4 Qu-morphemes in various positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.5 Qu-morphemes and island effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.6 Remaining problems regarding TP-internal Qu-morphemes in Sinhala 177
5.6.1 Embedded wh-constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5.6.2 Matrix wh-constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.6.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.7 Comparison with previous analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
CHAPTER 6 Wh-features in single wh-constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.2 Agree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.3 Wh-feature movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

8
TABLE OF CONTENTS – Continued
6.4
6.5

6.6
6.7
6.8

Wh-phrasal movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Partial wh-movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.5.1 German . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
6.5.2 Albanian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
6.5.3 Remaining issues concerning partial wh-movement . . . . . . 238
Wh-phrasal movement, Agree, and partial wh-movement in a single
language: Malay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
French: wh-phrasal movement and wh-feature movement in a single
language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

CHAPTER 7 Wh-movement that forms a wh-phrase . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
7.2 Wh-in-situ languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
7.3 Overt wh-movement languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
7.3.1 Basque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
7.3.2 Tlingit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
7.3.3 English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
7.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
CHAPTER 8 Multiple wh-constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.2 Agree languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
8.3 Wh-feature movement followed by Agree: Japanese . . . . . . . . . . 298
8.4 Wh-phrasal movement followed by Agree: English . . . . . . . . . . . 302
8.5 Previous analyses of additional wh-effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
8.6 Multiple wh-feature movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
8.7 Languages that disallow multiple wh-constructions . . . . . . . . . . . 314
8.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
CHAPTER 9 The weird behavior of why . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
9.2 Why is base generated in [Spec, TypP] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
9.2.1 Japanese, Korean, and Persian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
9.2.2 Mandarin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
9.3 Further evidence that why must appear in [Spec, TypP] . . . . . . . . 329
9.4 Feature movement may proceed from why in some languages . . . . . 333
9.5 Why and island effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
9.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342

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TABLE OF CONTENTS – Continued
CHAPTER 10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

10ABSTRACT

There has been a great deal of work examining the structures of yes/no and whconstructions that has led to many important developments in linguistic theory. In
this dissertation, I extend this work by developing a theory that explains how the
behavior of Qu-morphemes (question morphemes) and wh-phrases in interrogative
constructions in several different languages is influenced by ‘interrogative features.’
The interrogative features are 1) a Qu-feature, which is responsible for typing aclause as an interrogative, 2) a wh-feature, which is responsible for giving a whphrase scope, and 3) a Focus-feature, which is responsible for focusing certain relevant phrases. The main focus of this work is on explaining the influence of theseinterrogative features on the positions of question morphemes and wh-phrases. In
the first part of this work, I examine the behavior of Qu-morphemes. I account for
why a Qu-morpheme must appear in the clause periphery in certain languages, such
as Japanese, whereas it can appear in a non-clause-peripheral position in other languages, such as Sinhala. I explain how a Qu-feature associated with a Qu-morpheme
types a clause and why there is variation in the positions of Qu-morphemes. The
second part of this work focuses on the behavior of wh-phrases. I account for why whconstructions can be formed with an in-situ wh-phrase (for example, in Japanese),with movement of a wh-phrase to a scope position (for example, in English), or withmovement of a wh-phrase to a non-scopal position (for example, in some dialectsof German). I also examine other phenomena involving wh-phrases. I show how
wh-feature movement can influence well-formedness of a wh-construction. I explain
why, in certain cases, what would normally be an ill-formed construction can be
repaired via the addition of a wh-phrase. I examine why some languages, but notothers, allow multiple wh-constructions. Lastly, I investigate the odd behavior of
the wh-phrase why, which behaves differently from other wh-phrases. This work is

11novel in that it provides a unified analysis of cross-linguistic and language internalvariation in the structures of yes/no and wh-constructions.

12

ABBREVIATIONS

2p = 2nd person pronoun
3p = 3rd person pronoun
acc = accusative marker
asp = aspect marker
comp = complementizerconc = conclusive
conj = conjunct inflection
cl = classifier
D = Determiner
dat = Dative
decl = Declarative
dir = direct voicee = empty categoryemph = emphatic
erg = Ergative marker
foc = focus
fut = future tense
gen = genitivehon = honorific
ind = indicativeinf = infinitive
loc = locativeneg = negation
nom = nominative marker
past = past tense

13

perf = perfective
pl = pluralpres = present tense
Qu = question
S = sentencet = trace
tl = title prefix
top = topic marker

Notes: Throughout this work, for the sake of consistency, I have made slight changes
to example sentences from various sources. Unless otherwise indicated, English andJapanese examples are my own.

14

CHAPTER 1
Introduction

The purpose of this dissertation is to account for why there is cross linguistic, as
well as language internal, variation in the formation of interrogative constructions. I
use ‘interrogative constructions’ to refer to yes/no and wh-questions, which request
responses of a listener, and also to embedded yes/no and wh-constructions, which
do not request a response.1 Working within the framework of the Minimalist Program (cf. Chomsky 1995b), I attempt to answer the following questions. 1) Why
can interrogative constructions be formed with overt question morphemes (for example, in Sinhala and Japanese) or with no overt question morpheme (for example,
in English and Persian)? 2) Why is there cross-linguistic and language internal variation in the positions of question morphemes? For example, in Japanese a question
morpheme must appear in a clause-peripheral position, but in Sinhala a question
morpheme can appear in a non-peripheral clause-internal position. 3) Why can
wh-constructions be formed with an in-situ wh-phrase (for example, in Japanese),with movement of a wh-phrase to a scope position (for example, in English), or withmovement of a wh-phrase to a non-scopal position (for example, in some dialects ofGerman, and in Malay)? 4) Why do some languages, but not others, allow multiple
wh-constructions? While finding the answers to these questions, the goal of thework presented here is to provide a unified analysis of yes/no and wh-constructions
that demonstrates the following.
• what yes/no and wh-constructions have in common.
1

Although these embedded constructions are not questions, I consider them to be interrogatives

since they share many similarities in form with matrix yes/no and wh-constructions.

15• why there is cross-linguistic and language internal variation in the structuresof yes/no constructions.
• why there is cross-linguistic and language internal variation in the structuresof wh-constructions.
I set about achieving these explanatory goals by examining the roles of interrogative
features.
Interrogative features are elements that play a role in the formation of interrogative constructions. I focus on two distinct interrogative features: wh-features
and Qu-features (question features).2 A third type of feature, a Focus-feature, also
plays an important role in the formation of certain interrogative constructions. I
discuss evidence for the existence of these features in various languages and I attempt to show how these features influence the syntactic structures of interrogative
constructions.
Following work by Katz & Postal (1964), Aoun & Li (1993) argue that thepresence or absence of wh- and Qu-features in a clausal typing projection results indifferent types of clauses, as shown in (1).
(1)(a) [+Qu, +wh] = wh-question(b) [+Qu, -wh] = yes/no question(c) [-Qu, -wh] = statement(d) [-Qu, +wh] = exclamatory statements (e.g., How good he is! )(Aoun & Li 1993:232-233)

In this work, I focus on the types of constructions described by (1a) and (1b). Whena single Qu-feature occurs in a clausal typing projection, which I refer to as a TypP,3
2

Question features and question morphemes are often referred to in the literature with ‘Q’instead of ‘Qu.’ In order to avoid confusion with quantificational elements, which sometimes arealso referred to with a ‘Q,’ I borrow the term “Qu” from Aoun & Li (1993) and Denham (2000).
3
See chapter 2.5 for discussion of TypP.

16

and there is no wh-feature, then a yes/no construction results. When a Qu-feature
and a wh-feature co-occur in TypP, then a wh-construction results. A Qu-feature is
responsible for a construction becoming an interrogative. A wh-feature is responsible
for a wh-phrase having scope.
The first part of this work focuses on the properties and behavior of Qumorphemes in yes/no constructions.4 Typical yes/no constructions are formed with
one of the three types of Qu-morphemes given in (2).
(2)
Overt

Affix

Qu1

X

∅

Qu2

∅

X

Qu3

∅

∅

Qu1 is an overt Qu-morpheme that is an independent lexical item, and occurs in languages such as Japanese. Qu2 is a null Qu-morpheme that is an affix,
and occurs in languages such as English. Qu3 is a null Qu-morpheme that is not anaffix. This type of Qu-morpheme results in a yes/no construction that is formed via
intonation alone, as in languages such as Hopi. The Qu-morpheme, depending on
the language, either 1) appears in the clause periphery (e.g., Japanese), or 2) in alower clause-internal position (e.g., Sinhala). When in the clause periphery, I argue
that the Qu-morpheme is in a clausal typing projection that I refer to as TypP.
Variation in the position of the Qu-morpheme depends on whether a Qu-morpheme
contains only a Qu-feature as in (3a), or both a Qu-feature and a Focus-feature, asin (3b). The Qu-morpheme in (3a) occurs in a clause-peripheral position and the
Qu-morpheme in (3b) occurs in a non-peripheral position within a clause.
4

I examine yes/no constructions that have a mono-clausal structure. I do not discuss yes/noconstructions which may have a bi-clausal structure, such as Mandarin A-not-A questions (cf.
Huang 1982, Hagstrom 2006, among others).

17

(3)

(a) Qu[FQu ](b) Qu[FQu ,FF oc]

These two different types of Qu-morphemes differ with respect to their semantic
effects. The Qu-morpheme in (3a) serves the purpose of typing a clause as aninterrogative, whereas that in (3b) both types a clause as an interrogative andfocuses a phrase within the clause.
The second part of this dissertation focuses on wh-constructions.

A wh-construction is formed with the same types of Qu-morphemes used in yes/no constructions. The Qu-morpheme surfaces as an overt element, a null affix, or intonation, as in (2) above. In addition, a wh-construction crucially requires the presenceof a wh-phrase that either appears in-situ (in the position in which it receives its
theta-role), or undergoes movement. For example, in Japanese, a wh-phrase may
remain in-situ, whereas in English a single wh-phrase must move. In some cases,
such as in some dialects of German, a wh-phrase may even move to a non-scopal
position and have its scope marked by another element.
I begin my analysis of wh-constructions by examining the position of a Qumorpheme in a wh-construction. As in yes/no constructions, a Qu-morpheme canoccur in a clause-peripheral position. There are also languages that allow (andsometimes require) a Qu-morpheme to occur in a non-peripheral position. I argue
that this distinction is dependent on whether the Qu-morpheme has a Focus-feature,
as shown in (3b) above, or lacks a Focus-feature, as shown in (3a). A Focus-feature
forces a Qu-morpheme to appear in a position adjacent to a focused in-situ whphrase. Otherwise, if it lacks a Focus-feature, it appears in the clause-periphery.
Next, I examine the role of a wh-feature in a wh-construction. I argue thatthe means by which a wh-feature establishes a relationship with the clausal typing
projection TypP accounts for whether or not the wh-phrase remains in-situ or moves.
The wh-feature can undergo an Agree relation with the head of TypP. In this case,there is no movement of the wh-feature or wh-phrase to TypP. The other option

18

is for the wh-feature to move to TypP. When this movement occurs, either thewh-feature moves alone, or it moves together with its associated wh-phrase. This
movement is argued to be a different operation from Agree. These three options areshown below.
(4)
Operation Description
Agree

No movement of wh-feature or wh-phrase

Move

Wh-feature moves alone

Move

Wh-phrase moves

In the following chapters, I discuss the formation of yes/no and wh-constructions
and the roles that Qu-, wh-, and Focus-features play in their formation. I attempt toprovide a unified analysis that accounts for what yes/no and wh-constructions havein common, why some yes/no constructions have overt Qu-morphemes and others
do not, why there is variation in the positions of Qu-morphemes, and why there isvariation in the positions of wh-phrases.
The organization of this dissertation is as follows. In chapter 2, I explain thebasic theoretical background that I utilize in this work. I begin by providing abrief overview of important assumptions of the Minimalist Program about how anutterance is formed. Then I explain the basic clause structure that I utilize. Thisis followed by discussion of syntactic phenomena that play an important role in
my analysis. In chapter 3, I explain what a Qu-feature is and why it surfaces in
yes/no and wh-constructions. In chapter 4, I examine the role of the Qu-morphemein the formation of yes/no constructions. I argue that features contained withina Qu-morpheme account for cross-linguistic differences in the surface structure of
yes/no constructions. These features determine whether or not a Qu-morpheme is
pronounced and whether or not it is an affix. I next account for the fact that a Qumorpheme must occur in a clause-peripheral position in some languages, but can

19

occur TP-internally in other languages. In chapter 5, I account for cross-linguistic
variation in the positions of Qu-morphemes in wh-constructions. I examine languages in which a Qu-morpheme must appear in the clause-periphery in a whconstruction, and I examine languages in which a Qu-morpheme may either appear
in the clause-periphery or in a non-peripheral position adjacent to an in-situ whphrase. In chapter 6, I argue that the means by which a wh-feature values a probe
in the head of a clausal typing projection, TypP, determines whether or not there
is movement of a wh-element, and thus influences the form of a wh-construction. I
argue that there are three ways in which a wh-feature can form a relationship witha probe in TypP. It can form an Agree relation, it can move to Typ, or there canbe movement of a wh-phrase to the specifier of TypP, in which case the wh-feature
values the probe in Typ via a Spec-head relation. In chapter 7, I discuss how, incertain cases, a wh-feature can turn a larger phrase into a wh-phrase. I examine
how this wh-feature movement can circumvent potential island effects. In chapter
8, I discuss the roles of interrogative features in the formation of certain multiple
wh-constructions. In particular, I examine how multiple wh-features establish arelationship with a probe in the clausal typing projection TypP. In chapter 9, I
examine the behavior of the wh-phrase why, which behaves differently from otherwh-phrases in a number of languages. Chapter 10 is the conclusion.

20

CHAPTER 2
Theoretical background

2.1 Introduction
This work is written within the Principles and Parameters framework, in which
there is claimed to be an innate module of the brain that contains a universal setof principles (a Universal Grammar) that humans use to produce and understandlanguage. One of the main ideas within the Principles and Parameters program isthat languages do not differ very much underlyingly. The apparent differences inlanguages result from minor variations in the settings of principles contained within
the language module.
The Minimalist Program (Chomsky 1995b) is a modern approach to Generative
Grammar. According to Chomsky (1999:1), the Minimalist Program has the goalof answering the following question: “to what extent is the faculty of language
FL an optimal solution to minimal design specifications, conditions that must be
satisfied for language to be usable at all?”. The Minimalist Program relies on theassumptions that the properties of the faculty of language are minimalistic; they are
as simple as they can be in order to carry out their functions.
In this chapter, I discuss the basic assumptions about language that I rely on inthis work. Section 2.2 explains, from the perspective of the Minimalist Program, theoperations that are utilized by the human mind to construct phrases. Section 2.3
discusses the structures of phrases and clauses. Section 2.4 explains Rizzi’s (1997,
2001) view of the elaborated left-periphery of a clause; the part of a clause whereclausal typing occurs and where a wh-phrase obtains scope. Section 2.5 explains
the clause structure that I utilize in this work. Section 2.6 discusses what island

21

effects are and how they have been accounted for in syntactic theory, and section 2.7
does the same for intervention effects. Section 2.8 briefly discusses head movement.
Section 2.9 is the conclusion.
2.2 Operations of the faculty of language
The innate faculty of language contains a set of features that are combined to form
lexical items and phrases. I use the term ‘feature’ to refer to something akin to an‘atom’ of language that, when combined with other features, is used to constructhuman language. Chomsky (1999:7) writes:
FL [the faculty of language] specifies the features F that are available tofix each particular language . . . We adopt the conventional (usually tacit)
assumption that L [a language] makes a one-time selection [FL ] from F.
These are the features that enter into L; others can be disregarded inuse of L.
A subset of the universal set of features is utilized in a particular language, and theother features are essentially ‘set aside’ and not used in that language.
There are several operations, given in (1), that I assume are used to constructutterances from these features. These operations are built into the language faculty;
they are part of what makes the language faculty what it is.
(1)(a) Form lexical items: Combine features into bundles that become lexical
items at Spell-Out.
(b) Form a numeration: Construct a numeration from lexical items.
(c) Select: Select lexical items from the numeration.
(d) Merge: Combine two objects together.

These operations (1a-d) always occur to form all utterances.1
1

Chomsky (2006) claims that a single word utterance, such as No!, does not involve Merge.

However, it could be that even in a single word utterance, the single lexical item Merges with22

2.2.1 Lexical items
First of all, a language contains a set of lexical items. A lexical item is essentiallya bundle of features that is pronounced as dog, cat, etc., when an utterance ispronounced (at Spell-Out). Chomsky (1999:7) writes:
L [a language] assembles [FL ] [the features that have been selected foruse in a particular language] to lexical items LI of a lexicon Lex, the LIsthen entering into computations as units.
These features that make up a lexical item determine its properties, such as its
interpretation, where it can occur in an utterance, how it is pronounced, etc.
2.2.2 Numeration
Once lexical items are formed, a numeration is constructed. The language faculty
selects lexical items (actually, the feature bundles that correspond to lexical items
at Spell-Out) that it needs in order to produce a particular utterance that expresses
something akin to what the speaker desires to express. This collection of lexical
items is referred to by Chomsky (1999, 2004) as a “lexical array” if each lexical item
only occurs once, or as a “numeration” if one or more lexical items are selected fromthe lexicon more than once. For example, the sentence I am hungry is formed fromthe lexical array {I, am, hungry} since each lexical item only occurs once, but thesentence She ate the food on the table is formed from the numeration {she, ate, the2 ,food, on, table}, where the subscript 2 refers to two occurrences of the, because theoccurs twice.2 For the sake of simplicity I use the term numeration regardless ofwhether or not a lexical item is selected more than once.
another element, but the other element is null. For example, perhaps no merges with a null Tense
element.
2
A lexical array is a set; it only only contains distinct lexical items. A numeration, as I
understand it, is not a set because it contains one or more lexical items that occur more thanonce. A numeration, though, could be a set if each occurrence of a single lexical item is distinct;

23

2.2.3 SelectThe lexical items in the numeration of an utterance are Selected for insertion intoa derivation. This is an operation that Chomsky (1995b:226) refers to as Select. A
lexical item that is Selected is inserted into a derivation via the operation Merge.
2.2.4 Merge, Move, and Agree
Merge, at least on the surface, is fairly simple: two elements combine. Chomsky(1999:2) describes Merge as an operation that:. . . takes two syntactic objects α and β and forms the new object γ ={α, β}. We assume further that γ is of some determinate type: it haslabel LB (γ). In the best case, LB (γ) = LB (α) or LB (β), determinedby general algorithim.
Basically, when two elements are combined via Merge, the Merged structure has thelabel of one of the elements that has been combined. This label refers to what thephrase type is. For example, when a verb combines with a Determiner Phrase (DP),the resulting structure is a verb phrase (VP), not a DP, and so the phrase has thelabel of the verb.
Merge can apply in two situations. The first type of Merge is when an element
is selected from a Numeration and Merged to another element in the process of a
derivation. Chomsky (2004, 2006) refers to this as ‘external Merge.’ The second
type of Merge is when an element that has already been Merged into a derivation
is Merged again in a new position. Chomsky (2004, 2006) refers to this as ‘internal
Merge.’ The term ‘internal’ refers to the fact that internal Merge is an operationin which an element Merges onto a syntactic object that it is already a part of, i.e.,internal to, at least in its base position. Chomsky (2004:110) writes that when twofor example, if the1 and the2 are distinct elements. If this view is correct, then there is no need tomake a distinction between a lexical array and a numeration.

24elements α and β are Merged, “[u]nder external Merge, α and β are separate objects,
under internal Merge, one is part of the other, and Merge yields the property of“displacement”.” Crucially, internal Merge is an operation that has generally beenreferred to as ‘movement’ in the literature. In this work, I refer to ‘movement’
instead of to ‘internal Merge,’ as the notion of movement clearly describes the factthat internal Merge results in displacement. Note that movement involves Merge ofan element that has already been Merged, a view captured by Epstein et al. (1998),
who refer to this process as ‘Remerge.’ In current work in the Minimalist Program,
movement is generally thought to involve copying of an element from one position
and then re-Merging it to a new position (Chomsky 1993), (also see Cover & Nunes
2007).
Once an element has been Merged into a derivation, it can form an Agree relation
with another element in a syntactic structure. Chomsky (1999:3) refers to Agree as arelation that holds ‘between α and β, where α has interpretable inflectional featuresand β has uninterpretable ones, which delete under Agree.” It has been claimed, forexample by Chomsky (1999, chomsky00) that Agree is subject to locality effects (i.e.,
Agree can be blocked by intervening elements) and, that movement is triggered byAgree. I take a different position in this work, arguing that Agree is not subject tolocality effects and that movement need not be triggered by Agree. Specifically, there
are certain configurations in which movement is blocked; movement can be blocked
by intervening elements, and movement out of certain types of clauses is barred.
Agree, on the other hand, is not subject to these blocking effects. Furthermore,
movement is a distinct operation from Agree. I give an overview of the two types ofimportant locality effects discussed in this work; island and intervention effects in
sections 2.6-2.7. Movement is discussed in chapter 4, and all subsequent chapters.
The distinction between Agree alone versus, Agree followed by Move is discussed indetail in chapter 6, and this distinction plays an important role in the subsequent
chapters.

25

The operations of Merge, Agree, and Move differ in terms of Economy, where
Economy refers to how much work the faculty of language must put out for any
given operation. The less work an operation involves, the more economical it is.
Chomsky defines the Principle of Economy as follows, where convergence refers toa derivation that is successful (i.e., well-formed).
(2)

Principle of Economy
At each stage of a derivation, apply the most economical operation that
leads to convergence. (Chomsky 1995b:367)

Merge (external Merge) is the most economical operation, Move is the least economical, and Agree falls in-between. Merge of an element from a numeration into a
derivation must occur for any element to appear in a derivation and so it is the simplest operation. According to Chomsky (2001b:3), Merge “comes free.” Agree, on
the other hand, involves Merging an element followed by an Agree relation to checkan uninterpretable feature. Movement is the most complex operation. It involves
several steps; an element α is Merged into a derivation, an element β attracts alphaand forces it to be Merged again in a new position. A single element may undergo
this Move operation several times, when moving through different clauses, etc. If
it is the case that the most economical operations are preferred, then Merge alone
is preferable to Agree or Move, and Agree is preferable to Move. Agree and Moveoccur only when they have to. Due to its complexity, Chomsky (2000:102) refers toMove as a “last resort.”
2.3 Phrase structure
The operations Select, Merge, Agree, and Move construct phrases. I represent
phrases using a typical X-notation such as that in (3) (cf. Chomsky 1967, Jackendoff

26

1974, Jackendoff 1977, among others) as a convenience to the reader.3
(3)

XP
YP

X’
ZP

X’
X

WP

Probably the most important phrase structural relationship is that of c-command(cf. Klima 1964, Langacker 1969, Lasnik 1976, Reinhart 1976, Stowell 1981, Aoun &Sportiche 1981, among others), and the notion of c-command relies on the conceptof domination. A node dominates any nodes that are contained within its branches.
For example, in (3), the XP node branches into YP and X’. Therefore, it dominates
these nodes. Furthermore, XP dominates any nodes that these nodes dominate.
YP has no branches and does not dominate anything. But the higher X’ node
dominates ZP and the lower X’, as well as everything within X’. In this manner, XP
actually dominates all of the nodes in the tree, except for possibly itself (depending
on how domination is defined). The structural relationship of c-command is definedby Chomsky & Lasnik (1995:35) as follows.
(4)c-command
α c-commands β if α does not dominate β and every γ that dominates α
dominates β. (Chomsky & Lasnik 1995:35)

According to this definition, in (3), YP c-commands all of the nodes in the tree
except for XP. XP is the only node that dominates YP, and XP also dominates allof the nodes in the tree. Therefore, every node that dominates YP dominates all of3

Within the Minimalist Program, phrase structure is generally thought to have a structure inaccord with the ideas developed in Chomsky (1995a).

27

the other nodes, and YP then c-commands all of the other nodes, except for XP. 4,5
Another important concept involving phrase structure is that of the Extended
Projection Principle (EPP). The EPP was originally formulated as the requirementthat all clauses have a subject (Chomsky 1981:27). Chomsky & Lasnik (1995:55)
write that “The Extended Projection Principle (EPP) states that [Spec, IP] is obligatory, perhaps as a morphological property of I or by virtue of the predicational
character of VP.” The notion that the EPP is associated with IP (or TP) has been
extended to include other categories, which may or may not have an EPP feature(Chomsky 2000). This view is summed up by Miyagawa (2001:295) as follows: “theEPP-feature is associated with “core functional categories,” which are C, T, and v.”
Thus, the EPP feature is viewed as a requirement that certain functional heads havea filled specifier. Furthermore, Alexiadou & Anagnostopoulou (1998) argue that insome cases, the EPP feature can be a requirement that a head position, and notnecessarily a specifier, be filled (also see Miyagawa 2001). For example, a C headcan have an EPP feature that is satisfied by movement of an element to C rather
than to [Spec, CP]. This EPP feature will play an important role in my analyses of
wh-constructions.
I next turn to clause structure. Within the Minimalist Program, a clause is generally assumed to contain the following basic projections: Complementizer Phrase(CP), Tense Phrase (TP), verb phrase (v P), and Verb Phrase (VP). These are shownin (5).
4
5

See Epstein et al. (1998) for arguments that c-command results from Merge and Move.
See Chomsky (2006) for discussion of eliminating the notion of c-command.

28

(5)

CP
C’
C

TP
DP1

T’
T

vP
t1

v’
v

VP
V’
V

DP2

In (5), there is a split-VP shell (cf. Larson 1988, Hale & Keyser 1993, and Chomsky
1995b, among others). Also, a Determiner Phrase (DP) has raised from [Spec,v P] to [Spec, TP], in accord with the VP-internal subject hypothesis (Koopman &Sportiche 1991).
According to Phase Theory (Chomsky 1999, 2000), a clause is derived via phasesthat are constructed separately. Lexical items are Selected and are grouped into subnumerations (or subarrays). A sub-numeration is part of a numeration that consistsof just the lexical items in a particular phase. Chomsky (1999:9) defines phases
as “verbal phrases with full argument structure and CP with force indicators.”
Chomsky (2006:143) writes that CP “is shorthand for the region that Rizzi (1997)
calls the “left-periphery” (see section 2.4). Furthermore, Chomsky notes, following
work by Svenonious (2004) and Hiraiwa (2005), that DP might also be a phase,
although he does not take a position on this issue.

29

The lexical items in a sub-numeration are Merged into a derivation to form aphase. The faculty of language continues to construct phases from sub-numerations
until the numeration is emptied; all lexical items have been Selected. Once a phaseis completed, only the elements located in the head and specifier positions of thehighest projection of a phase can be accessed, as stated in the Phase-Impenetrability
Condition given in (6), where α is a phase. The head H refers to the head of
the highest projection in the phase and the edge refers to the specifier(s) of thisprojection (Chomsky 2000:108).
(6)

Phase-Impenetrability Condition
In phase α with head H, the domain of H is not accessible to operations
outside α, only H and its edge are accessible to such operations. (Chomsky
2000:108)

Chomsky (2000:108) further writes:[O]perations cannot “look into” a phase below its head H. H itself must
be visible for selection and head movement; hence, its Specs must be as
well.
Once a derivation is complete, then Spell-Out applies. Chomsky (1995b:189) refers
to Spell-Out as an operation “which switches to the PF [Phonological Form] component.” At this stage, the phases that have been produced are pronounced. Interestingly, they are pronounced in the reverse of the order that they were formed;
i.e., the phase that produced last is pronounced first. Beyond Spell-Out there is thelevel of Logical Form (LF) which is where meaning is interpreted.
The notions of probes and goals are also of importance within Phase Theory.
A probe is a feature inside of a head that ‘probes for’ a ““matching” feature[ ]that establish[es] agreement (Chomsky 2000:122).” The matching feature is a goal.
When the probe and the goal match, the probe is erased. When there is an Agreerelation, an uninterpretable feature on a probe is eliminated without any movement.

30

In this work, I will also take the position that movement of a goal, without an Agreerelation, can eliminate an uninterpretable feature on a probe.
2.4 The left periphery
The phrase structure that I utilize in this work follows closely that proposed by
Rizzi (1997, 2001). In this section, I discuss Rizzi’s proposed ‘left-periphery’ of aclause, and in the next section, I explain the clause structure that I utilize.
Rizzi (1997, 2001) argues for the existence of an elaborated CP that consists of anumber of separate projections. Rizzi’s proposal hinges on the idea that a single CP
projection cannot account for the structure of the part of the clause that he refers to
as “the left periphery” (the top part) of a clause. According to Rizzi, a CP projection
contains specifications for Force and Finiteness. Force is associated with clausetyping; whether a clause is a statement, interrogative, etc. Finiteness determines
whether a clause is finite or non-finite. These Force and Finiteness specifications may
occur together on a single C head, in which case there is no elaborated CP projection,or they may split into different projections when necessary. When a focused and/or
topicalized phrase occurs, then CP splits into several projections. Similarly, when
there are separate Force and Finite elements, then CP must take on an elaborated
structure. At the highest end of this split CP structure is a Force Phrase (ForceP).
At the lowest position is a Finite Phrase (FinP). Between these two projections is
one or more Topic Phrases (TopP). There may also be a single Focus Phrase (FocP),
which can be sandwiched between TopP projections. Rizzi’s proposed left-peripheryclause structure (Rizzi 1997:297) is shown below. The Kleene star after each TopP
represents the possibility that there may be multiple TopP projections.

31

(7)

ForceP
TopP*
FocP
TopP*
FinP
IP

Under Rizzi’s analysis, an elaborated CP occurs when there is a topicalized
and/or focused phrase that is fronted to clause-initial position in languages such
as Italian. A topicalized element presents old information and a focused element
presents new information. Rizzi (1997:285) writes:
The topic is a preposed element characteristically set off from the rest of
the clause by “comma intonation” and normally expressing old information, somehow available and salient in previous discourse. . . [A] preposed
element, bearing focal stress, introduces new information. . .
In (8), your book is a topic, presumably occuring in [Spec, TopP], and presents old
information. The rest of the construction presents new information.
(8)

Your book1 , you should give t1 to Paul (not to Bill). (Rizzi 1997:285)

In (9), the focused element YOUR BOOK, which occurs in [Spec, FocP], presents
new information, and the rest of the construction is “. . . contextually given information, knowledge that the speaker presupposes to be shared with the hearer (285).”

32

(9)

YOUR BOOK you should give t to Paul (not mine). (Rizzi 1997:285)
Rizzi points out that in Italian, elements in TopP and FocP show different syn-tactic behavior, which is further evidence that they are different projections. Firstof all, a topicalized phrase may occur with a coreferential resumptive clitic, but
a focused phrase may not. Secondly, a topicalized phrase is not subject to weakcrossover effects, but a focused phrase is. And thirdly, quantificational elements
can be focused, but not topicalized. Also, a clause may contain multiple topicalized phrases, but only a single focused phrase. Rizzi argues that these facts are a
result of focused elements being quantificational, whereas topicalized elements are
not quantificational.
Rizzi argues that the existence of a ForceP and FinP at opposite ends of anarticulated CP projection accounts for the assymetric behavior of complementizers
in Italian. For example, he argues that the finite complementizer che occurs in
ForceP and the non-finite complementizer di occurs in FinP. Example (10a) contains
the finite complementizer che and (10b) contains the non-finite complementizer di.
(10) Italian:(a) Credo [che loro apprezzerebbero molto il tuo libro].
‘I believe that they would appreciate your book very much.’(b) Credo [di apprezzare molto il tuo libro].
‘I believe ‘of’ to appreciate your book very much.’ (Rizzi 1997:288)
In each of these examples the complementizer occurs at the beginning of the embedded clause. However, when there is a Clitic Left Dislocated (CLLD) argument,
the distribution of the complementizers differs. The finite complementizer che must
precede a topicalized phrase and the non-finite complementizer di must follow a topicalized phrase. In (11a), che precedes and in (11b), di follows, the CLLD phrase il
tuo libro ‘your book.’33(11) Italian:(a) Credo [che il tuo libro, loro lo apprezzerebbero molto].
‘I believe that your book, they would appreciate it a lot.’(b) Credo [il tuo libro di apprezzarlo molto].
‘I believe, your book, ‘of’ to appreciate it a lot.’ (Rizzi 1997:288)
The examples in (12) below show that ill-formedness results when the finite chefollows and when the non-finite di precede the CLLD argument.
(12) Italian:(a) *Credo [il tuo libro che loro lo apprezzerebbero molto].
‘I believe, your book, that they would appreciate it a lot.’(b) *Credo [di il tuo libro apprezzarlo molto].
‘I believe ‘of’ your book to appreciate it a lot.’ (Rizzi 1997:288)
Rizzi accounts for these data by arguing that the finite che occurs in the ForceP
head and the non-finite di occurs in the FinP head. The finite che must precede
a topicalized phrase because TopP is in a lower position than ForceP, which is
the highest projection in a clause. The non-finite di may follow a topicalized phrase
because it is in the lowest position of the left periphery, below any TopP projections.
I next turn to Rizzi’s view of the position of a wh-phrase. When there is anelaborated CP, a wh-phrase clearly cannot occur in [Spec, CP], as there is no unique
CP projection. Rather, a wh-phrase must occur in some position within the leftperiphery. Rizzi argues that this position is [Spec, FocP]. Evidence from Italianshows that a wh-phrase may co-occur with a topicalized phrase, but not with afocused phrase. For example, in (13a), the topicalized phrase A Gianni ‘to Gianni’
precedes the wh-phrase che ‘what,’ and the result is well-formed. On the other
hand, (13b) shows that the focused phrase A GIANNI ‘to Gianni’ cannot co-occur
with a wh-phrase regardless of whether the wh-phrase precedes or follows it.

34(13) Italian:(a) A Gianni, che cosa gli hai detto‘To Gianni, what did you tell him?’(b) (*A GIANNI) che cosa(*A GIANNI) hai detto (, non a Perio)‘(TO GIANNI) what (TO GIANNI) did you tell(, not to Pero)? (Rizzi
1997:291)
These facts can be accounted for if a wh-phrase moves to [Spec, FocP]. Since there
can only be one FocP projection and it has a single specifier, a wh-phrase and afocused phrase cannot co-occur. A wh-phrase and a topicalized phrase occur inseparate projections, and so they may co-occur.
Rizzi revises this analysis in Rizzi (2001) by arguing for the existence of a uniqueinterrogative projection (Int) that is located between ForceP and FocP. This Int
projection may be sandwiched between TopP projections, as shown in (14).
(14) Force (Top*) Int (Top*) Foc (Top*) Fin IP (Rizzi 2001:289)
Following Rizzi (2001), (7) can then be revised as in (15) below, with an added IntP
projection.

35

(15)

ForceP
TopP*
IntP
TopP*
FocP
TopP*
FinP
IP

Evidence for IntP comes from the appearance of an interrogative yes/no particle
se in embedded clauses in Italian. This particle may be followed by the focusedphrase questo ‘this,’ as shown in (16a) but it may not be preceded by questo ‘this,’as shown in (16b).
(16) Italian:(a) Mi domando se QUESTO gli volessero dire (non qualcos’ altro).
‘I wonder if THIS they wanted to say to him, not something else.’(b) *Mi domando QUESTO se gli volessero dire (non qualcos’ altro).
‘I wonder THIS if they wanted to say to him, not something else.’(Rizzi 2001:289)
Because se can only be followed, and not preceded, by a focused phrase, Rizzi argues
that it must be higher than FocP. Furthermore, se can be preceded and followed by
a topic, an indication that it can occur between TopP projections, as shown below.

36(17) Italian:(a) Non so se, a Gianni, avrebbero potuto dirgli la verità.
‘I don’t know if to Gianni, they could have said the truth.’(b) Non so, a Gianni, se avrebbero potuto dirgli la verità.
‘I don’t know, to Gianni, if they could have said the truth.’ (Rizzi
2001:289)
Rizzi provides evidence that se must occur in a projection separate from ForceP.
The particle se can be preceded by a topic as shown in (17b) above, but an elementin Force cannot. For example, the declarative complementizer che, which Rizzi
argues is in Force, cannot be preceded by a topic. Example (18a) is fine because
the topic a Gianni ‘to Gianni’ follows che. However, example (18b) is ill-formed
because the topic a Gianni ‘to Gianni’ precedes che.
(18) Italian:(a) Credo che a Gianni, avrebbero dovuto dirgli la veritá.
‘I believe that to Gianni, they should have said the truth to him’(b) *Credo, a Gianni, che avrebbero dovuto dirgli la veritá.
‘I believe, to Gianni, that they should have said the truth to him’ (Rizzi
2001:289)
If se were in Force, then it should not be able to follow a topic. Further evidence
that IntP is separate from ForceP is, according to Rizzi, that Spanish contains
constructions in which both the heads of ForceP and IntP are filled. In (19), que‘that’ is in Force and si ‘if’ is in Int.

37(19) Spanish:
Maria decia que si debièramos dejarlas en paz.
‘Maria was saying that if we shouldn’t leave them in peace.’ (Plann
1982:300, per Rizzi 2001:290)
As discussed above, Rizzi (1997) argues that most wh-phrases occur in [Spec,
FocP], as they are not compatible with a focused phrase. In Rizzi (2001) this view isaltered to the idea that, at least in Italian, wh-arguments occur in [Spec, FocP] but
wh-adverbials occur in [Spec, IntP]. Whereas wh-arguments cannot co-occur withfocused phrases, as shown in (13) above, a wh-adverbial can occur with a focusedphrase. For example, in (20a), the wh-adverbial perchè ‘why’ precedes the focusedphrase questo ‘this.’ (20b) shows that the wh-adverbial cannot follow the focusedphrase. If the wh-adverbial is in IntP, then the IntP projection must be in a position
above, and separate from, FocP.
(20) Italian:(a) Perché QUESTO avremmo dovuto dirgli, non qualcos’ altro.
‘Why THIS we should have said to him, not something else?’(b) *QUESTO perché avremmo dovuto dirgli, non qualcos’ altro.
‘THIS is why we should have said to him, not something else?’ (Rizzi
2001:294)
In summary, Rizzi (1997) argues that a CP can split into a ForceP (the locus
of clause typing), a FinP (the locus of finiteness), one or more TopP projections,as well as at most one FocP projection. The later analysis in Rizzi (2001) adds an
IntP projection to the left-periphery that can house an interrogative particle in its
head position and a wh-adverbial in its specifier position. This IntP occurs between
ForceP and FocP, and it may be sandwiched between TopP projections.
I next turn to a discussion of the basic clause structure that I utilize, which issimilar to that developed by Rizzi.

38

2.5 Basic clause structure
The clause structure that I utilize in this work follows closely that of Rizzi (2001)
except that I use what I refer to as a Type Phrase (TypP) instead of Rizzi’s IntP.6
I use TypP,7 since I believe that this projection is where clausal typing elements,
and not just interrogative complementizers, occur. Rizzi argues that ForceP, not
IntP, is where clausal typing occurs. My view differs in that I see a Force head ascontaining an element that indicates that a clause is embedded (and possibly also
matrix),8 whereas a Typ head contains an element that indicates whether a clauseis a statement, interrogative, etc. The basic clause structure that I assume in thiswork is shown in (21).
(21)

ForceP
TopP*
TypP
TopP*
FocP
TopP*
FinP
TP

6

Also, in accord with recent work in the Minimalist Program, I use TP instead of IP.
I am essentially borrowing Denham’s (2000) clausal typing projection TyP.
8
It is not clear to me whether or not matrix clauses have a ForceP. I briefly discuss this issue

7

below.

39

The separate ForceP and TypP projections account for the fact that in somelanguages, a complementizer can precede a question morpheme (Qu-morpheme), asin (19) above. Under the proposed phrase structure in (21) above, the embedded
clause has the following structure in which que ‘that’ is in Force and si ‘if’ is in
Typ. Under Rizzi’s proposal, si ‘if’ would be in Int.
(22)

ForceP
Force’
Force
que
that

TypP
Typ’
Typ
si
if

TP
debièramos dejarlas en pazshouldn’t leave them in peace

Kishimoto (2005) gives the following example from Sinhala9 in which the embedded
clause contains a Qu-morpheme d@ followed by the complementizer kiy@la ‘that.’
9This is an Indo-Aryan language that is spoken in Sri Lanka (Gair & Sumangala 1991:93).

40(23) Sinhala:
Ranjit [kauru aawad@ kiy@la] dann@wa.
Ranjit whocame.A Qu thatknow.A‘Ranjit knows who came.’ (Kishimoto 2005:6)
The embedded clause has the following structure, in which d@ is in Typ and kiy@la‘that’ is in Force.
(24)

ForceP
Force’
TypP
Typ’TP
kauru aawa
who came-A

Force
kiy@la
that
Typ
d@
Qu

Japanese also can contain a Qu-morpheme followed by a complementizer, as in (25),in which kadooka ‘Qu’ is followed by to ‘COMP.’(25) Japanese:
Watashi-wa [kare-ga sore-oyatta kadooka to]tazunemashita.
I-top
he-nom that-acc did
Qucomp asked‘I asked if he did that.’
In this case, kadooka ‘Qu’ is in Typ and to is in Force.

41

(26)

ForceP
Force’TypP
Typ’TP
kare-ga sore-o yatta
he-nom that-acc did

Force
to
comp
Typ
kadookaQu

In each of these examples, the embedded complementizer co-occurs with a Qumorpheme. This fact can be accounted for if the complementizer is in Force and the
Qu-morpheme is in Typ.
Note that in the examples (19), (23), and (25), evidence for a Force head comesfrom embedded clauses. In the matrix clauses of these constructions, there is clearlyno overt Force head, and it is not clear to me whether or not there is a Forcehead in a matrix clause, although if ForceP exists in an embedded clause, it would
not be surprising if it exists in matrix clauses. However, since all clauses havesome particular type (statement, interrogative, etc.), I think that it is reasonable toassume that if a matrix clause has no overt Typ head, there is a null Typ head.
I use TypP instead of Rizzi’s IntP because there is evidence that the element that
occurs in this projection does not necessarily have to be an interrogative complementizer, and the label ‘IntP’ suggests a phrase that is only for interrogative elements.
Rather, the head of TypP is an element that is associated with typing a clause asa statement, interrogative, exclamative, etc. This can be seen clearly in Sinhala,in which the Qu-morpheme is in complementary distribution with various clausal
typing morphemes. For example, the morphemes tamay ‘certainty,’ lu ‘reportative,’nee ‘tag-Q,’ and yae ‘dubitative’ (Sumangala 1992:131) are all in complementary42

distribution with the interrogative Qu-morpheme d@, as shown in (27a-e).
(27) Sinhala:(a) Gun@paal@ heT@
gaalu yan@va d@?
Gunapaala tomorrow Galle go.AQu
‘Is Gunapala going to Galle tomorrow?’(b) Gun@paal@ heT@
gaalu yan@va tamay.
Gunapaala tomorrow Galle go.A
certainty‘It is for sure that Gunapala is going to Galle tomorrow.’(c) Gun@paal@ heT@
gaalu yan@va lu.
Gunapaala tomorrow Galle go.A
reportative‘They say that Gunapala is going to Galle tomorrow.’(d) Gun@paal@ heT@
gaalu yan@va nee?
Gunapaala tomorrow Galle go.A
tag-QU‘Gunapala is going to Galle tomorrow, isn’t that so?’(e) Gun@paal@ heT@
gaalu yan@va yae!
Gunapaala tomorrow Galle go.A
dubitative‘It is doubtful that Gunapala is going to Galle tomorrow!’ (Sumangala
1992:131)
If all of these morphemes occur in the same projection, then the label IntP is notaccurate, as these are morphemes associated with clausal typing. I therefore use thelabel TypP to indicate the position of a clausal typing morpheme. For example, theclausal typing morphemes in (27a-e) occur in Typ, as shown in (28). Since there isno overt Force element, I leave out ForceP.
(28)

TypP
Typ’
TP
...

Typ
d@/tamay/lu/nee/yae

43

One remaining issue is that of the position of a fronted wh-phrase in a whconstruction. Rizzi argues that in Italian, a fronted wh-argument is in [Spec, FocP]
and a fronted wh-adjunct is in [Spec, IntP]. In this work, I take the position that
wh-movement is to [Spec, TypP], not to [Spec, FocP]. Thus, a fronted wh-phrase ina language such as English is in [Spec, TypP]. In some languages, a wh-phrase canmove to [Spec, FocP] if movement is driven by a Focus-feature. For example, in somelanguages a wh-phrase can either remain in-situ or move to a clause-peripheral focusposition. I assume that this is not wh-movement. I discuss wh-phrasal movementin chapters 6 through 8.
2.6 Island effects
The presence and absence of island effects involving wh-phrases plays an importantrole in the analyses in the following chapters. In this section, I briefly discuss what
islands are and some reasons why they may occur.
An island is essentially a phrase out of which another phrase cannot be extracted;
it is like an island from which something cannot escape. The study of ‘islands’
originated with Ross (1967) and has led to an extensive amount of further research.
Some types of islands for extraction of wh-elements are shown in (29a-e).10(29)(a) Wh-island:*What1 do you wonder [who bought t1 ]? (Huang 1982:456)(b) Whether/If island??What1 do you wonder [whether/if John saw t1 ]? (adapted from
Lasnik & Saito 1992:11)

10

Note that I have labeled (29b) as a whether/if island, although it is generally referred to asa wh-island in the literature (e.g., see Lasnik & Saito (1992)). I think that the label wh-island isinappropriate since the embedded clause is not a wh-construction, unlike (29a) which contains anembedded wh-construction. I return to this issue in the next section.

44(c) Complex NP/DP-island:??What1 did you read [a report [that John bought t1 ]]? (Lasnik &Saito 1992:12)(d) Adjunct island:*Which book1 did John go to class [after he read t1 ]? (Lasnik & Saito
1992:12)(e) Subject island:?*Who1 did [a story about t1 ] amuse you? (Lasnik & Saito 1992:42)
These examples contain phrases that function as islands from which a wh-phrase
cannot escape. The exact cause(s) of island effects has been the subject of muchresearch and much debate, and the issue is far from resolved. Below I discuss a few
of these accounts.
2.6.1 Government and Binding Theory accounts
The notion of Subjacency, which was originally proposed by Chomsky (1973), andfurther developed in Chomsky (1977, 1981, 1986) and Lasnik and Saito (1984, 1992),
among others, is one of the clearest proposals that accounts for island effects. Hornstein et al. (2007:150) give the following definition of Subjacency, which is a revised
version of a definition given by Chomsky (1977:73).
(30) A cyclic rule cannot move a phrase from position Y to position X (orconversly) in (i), where α and β are cyclic nodes (NP and S).
(i) . . . X . . . [α . . . [β . . . Y . . . ] . . . ] . . .
Lasnik & Saito (1992:11) describe Subjacency as “one general constraint prohibiting
one step of movement from crossing two bounding nodes, where the bounding nodes
are S and NP.”
Subjacency effects can be seen in (31a-e), which are identical to (29a-e) above
except for the more detailed phrase structure labels.

45

(31)

(a) Wh-island:*What1 do [Syou wonder [who2 [S t2 bought t1 ]]]? (Huang

1982:456)(b) Whether/If island??What1 do [Syou wonder [whether/if [SJohn saw t1 ]]]? (adaptedfrom Lasnik & Saito 1992:11)(c) Complex NP/DP-island:??What1 did you read [N P

a report [t1 that [SJohn bought t1 ]]]?

(Lasnik & Saito 1992:12)(d) Adjunct island:*Which book1 did [SJohn go to class [after t1 [She read t1 ]]]?

(Lasnik & Saito 1992:12)(e) Subject island:?*Who1 did [S[N P

a story about t1 ] amuse you]? (Lasnik & Saito

1992:42)In the wh-island and whether/if island constructions (31a-b), the wh-phrase crosses
two S bounding nodes. In the complex-NP/DP island construction (31c), the whphrase crosses S and an NP bounding node. In the adjunct island (31d), the whphrase crosses two S bounding nodes and in the subject island (31e), the wh-phrase
crosses an NP and an S bounding node.
Interestingly, the specific bounding nodes appear to be subject to cross-linguistic
variation. In (32), from Spanish, the wh-phrase que libro ‘what book’ moves overtwo S nodes but the result is well-formed.

46

han
sabes [S ′ [por que]2 [S te(32) [S ′ [Que libro]1 [S nowhyto-you havewhat bookneg (you) know
regalado t1 t2 ?
given‘[What book]1 don’t you know [why they have given to you t1 ]?’ (Lasnik &Saito 1992:12)
The wh-phrase, however, only moves over one S’ node. Thus if S’ is a bounding
node instead of S, then the well-formedness of (32) is accounted for. Therefore,
in languages such as Spanish and Italian, the lack of wh-island effects has been
attributed to S’ (not S) and NP being bounding nodes (cf. Rizzi 1980, Sportiche
1981/82, Torrego 1984, Lasnik & Saito 1992, among others).
Although the Subjacency Condition can account for adjunct and subject islandeffects, as in (31d-e), another constraint, Huang’s (1982) Condition on Extraction
Domain, given in (33), has traditionally been utilized for these effects.
(33) Condition on Extraction Domain
A phrase A may be extracted out of a domain B only if B is properly
governed. (Huang 1982:506)
The requirement that extraction can only occur if a phrase is properly governed
results in a “condition that allows extraction out of maximal projections that arecomplements, but prohibits movement out of noncomplements (i.e., subjects andadjuncts) (Lasnik & Saito 1992:12).” Subject clauses and adjunct clauses are clausesthat are not complements. Thus, they cannot be properly governed (cf. Chomsky1981)11 and wh-phrases cannot be extracted out of them.
11

Government is a complex notion that has been defined in various ways. Below is a typicaldefinition of Goverment from (Lasnik & Saito 1992:14) that follows the works cited within thedefinition.
(i) α properly governs β iff α governs β and(a) α is a lexical category X0 (lexical government), or47

2.6.2 Minimalist Program accounts
Subjacency relies on the notion that there are bounding nodes and the Condition
on Extraction Domain relies on the notion of Government. Bounding nodes andGovernment, however, have been eliminated from the framework of the Minimalist
Program (cf. Chomsky 1995b), as being unnecessary. How to account for islandeffects in the Minimalist Program is problematic. Uriagereka (1999a) sums up recent
attempts.
The Minimalist Program has no general account of islands. In part, thisis because the system is designed in such a streamlined fashion - andwith the assumption that computational mechanisms exist to meet therequirements of external interfaces - that little room is left for the apparently ad hoc considerations involved in formulating island conditions.
(Uriagereka 1999a:404)
In the Minimalist Program, however, there are several theories that can account for
certain island effects.
Following Rizzi’s (1990) work on Relatived Minimality, Chomsky (1995b) proposes the Minimal Link Condition (MLC), given in (34).
(34) Minimal Link Condition (MLC)
K attracts α if there is no β, β closer to K than α, such that K attracts β.
(Chomsky 1995b:311)
The MLC requires attraction of the closest element of the relevant type. The MLC
straightforwardly accounts for the wh-island effect in (29a), repeated below.
(b) α is coindexed with β (antecedent goverment).
(ii) α governs β iff every maximal projection dominating α also dominates β and conversely.
(Aoun & Sportiche 1981)

48

(29)

(a) Wh-island
What1 do you wonder [who bought t1 ]? (Huang 1982:456)

In (29a) an attractor in the matrix CP12 attracts the closest wh-phrase, who, which
prevents what from moving to the matrix specifier of CP. Thus if what moves, there
is a violation of the MLC.
The MLC, however, does not appear to account for constructions in which awhether/if clause functions as an island, as in (29b), repeated below.
(29)(b) Whether/If island??What1 do you wonder [whether/if John saw t1 ]? (adapted from
Lasnik & Saito 1992:11)

Although the embedded clause of this type of construction is generally considereda wh-island (at least when it begins with whether ), I am not sure if the label whisland is appropriate. This is because whereas in a true wh-island construction suchas (29a), a wh-phrase is extracted out of an embedded wh-construction, in (29b) a
wh-phrase is extracted out of an embedded yes/no construction. The lexical item
if clearly is not a wh-phrase, although the facts are not so clear with respect towhether (see discussion below). If if or whether are complementizers that occur in
C of the embedded clause, they should not block movement of what. In other words,
if if or whether are not specifiers, then there is nothing in (29b) to block movementof what and result in an MLC violation. The ill-formedness of (29b) then requires
another explanation.
There is evidence suggesting that whether actually might be an XP element
in a specifier position, [Spec, CP]. There are certain instances in which if andwhether cannot occur in the same environment; whether can be followed by PRO(cf. Chomsky 1981 for discussion of PRO), but if cannot, as shown in (35a-b).
12

In this section I use the term CP, as it is what is generally used in the literature discussed

here. However, as noted above, in this work, CP corresponds to what I refer to as TypP.

49

(35)

(a) He doesn’t know [whether PRO to go to the movies].
(b) *He doesn’t know [if PRO to go to the movies]. (Kayne 1991:665)

Kayne (1991), following work by Katz & Postal (1964) and Larson (1985), argues
that whether is a wh-phrase that occurs in [Spec, CP], and he proposes that if,
unlike whether, is a head that occurs in C. Kayne accounts for the fact that if
cannot directly precede PRO, as in (35b), within the framework of Government
and Binding Theory (Chomsky 1981). PRO must be ungoverned, in accord with
Chomsky (1981). When PRO is preceded by the complementizer if in C, it isgoverned, therefore resulting in ungrammaticality. In (35a), PRO is preceded bywhether in [Spec, CP]. PRO is not lexically governed by whether, because whether
is not a head, nor is it antecedent governed because whether is not its antecedent.
In this way, whether is not an appropriate governor of PRO. Within the frameworkof the Minimalist Program, Kayne’s proposal can no longer be upheld without somemodification, since the notion of Government no longer exists. Importantly though,if and whether behave differently and this fact could be an indication that if is ahead and whether is a specifier. If this is the case, then the presence of whether
in the embedded clause of (29b) does result in an MLC violation. Still, the facts
surrounding (29b) with if remain the same; there is no MLC violation because if isa head.
Interestingly, there is evidence that suggests that both whether and if really areheads. There is, in my opinion, a fairly clear well-formedness distinction between a
wh-island construction such as (29a) and a whether/if -island construction such as(29b), repeated below.
(29)(a) Wh-island:*What1 do you wonder [who bought t1 ]? (Huang 1982:456)

50(b) Whether/If island??What1 do you wonder [whether/if John saw t1 ]? (adapted from
Lasnik & Saito 1992:11)
Both (29a) and (29b) are ill-formed, but (29a) is much worse than (29b), regardlessof whether or not whether or if appears in the embedded clause of (29b). Thisdistinction supports the idea that a wh-island differs from a whether/if island, andit might be an indication that Kayne’s proposal that whether is a specifier is notcorrect; i.e., it is a head in the same way that if is; although, then the fact that
if cannot co-occur with PRO requires explanation. If this is the case, then there is
no MLC violation in (29b), and ill-formedness must have another cause. I return tothis issue below.
Overall, the MLC is useful for accounting for wh-island effects as in (29a), as
well as for other properties of languages, such as Superiority Effects (Chomsky 1973)
and intervention effects (see section 2.7), but it does not necessarily account forwhether/if island effects. Nor does it account for island effects involving complexDPs, adjunct-clauses, and subject-clauses, as in these cases, there is no clear element
in a specifier position that blocks movement of the wh-phrase and leads to an MLC
violation. Other proposals, however, can account for these latter types of islandeffects.
Uriagereka’s (1999b) theory of Multiple Spell-Out (MSO) can account for Condition on Extraction Domain effects (adjunct and subject islands). This MSO theory
relies on the notion that subjects and adjuncts are formed separately from other elements in a clause. Essentially, subjects and adjuncts are complete syntactic objects
before they are Merged with other elements in a syntactic structure. Thus, nothingcan be extracted out of them.
The idea behind MSO is that a phrase consists of an unordered set of elementsthat at a certain point in a derivation is linearized, along the lines of Kayne’s(1994) Linear Correspondence Axiom (LCA), and sent to Spell-Out. According

51

to the LCA, linear order is established by asymmetric c-command. Asymmetric ccommand refers to a situation in which α c-commands β but β does not c-command
α. Below is a definition of the LCA that is utilized by Nunes & Uriagereka (2000:23).
(36) Linear Correspondence Axiom
A lexical item α precedes a lexical item β iff α asymmetrically c-commandsβ.
The term ‘linearized’ refers to the elements of an unordered set becoming ordered.
Uriagereka (1999b:257) writes that “if a phrase marker {α, {L,K}} collapses throughSpell-Out, the rest is {α, <L, K>}.” The brackets {} represent an unordered set,
and the brackets <> signify that the elements of the set have become ordered. The
element α represents the label of the phrase. Uriagereka (1999b:251) describes theprocess of linearization as follows.
A visual image to keep in mind is a mobile by Calder. The hanging
pieces relate in a fixed way, but are not linearly ordered with respect toone another; one way to linearize the mobile (e.g., so as to measure it)
is to lay it on the ground. The substantive part of Kayne’s axiom does
for the complex linguistic object what the ground does for the mobile:
it tells us how to map the unordered set of terms into a sequence of PF
slots.
Thus an unordered set of lexical items becomes ordered at Spell-Out.
The MSO account forces a non-complement to be sent to Spell-Out before it
is Merged with another element. In (37), from Nunes & Uriagereka (2000:22), if
the DP subject were not sent to Spell-Out before it Merged with the V’, then thelexical items contained within the DP would not asymmetrically c-command theother elements of the clause; the c-commands man, and vice-versa, but neither
lexical item asymmetrically c-commands the other elements in the verb phrase.

52

(37)

VP
DP
the man

V’
V’

PP

V
remainedAPafter the fact

proud of her
If the elements of the DP are linearized and sent to Spell-Out, then they form asingle DP, and the DP label asymmetrically c-commands the other elements of theclause, thereby deriving the appropriate word order.
The facts regarding the PP adjunct after the fact in (37) are virtually identical,
although with the added complexity that the PP be Merged to the left of its sister V’. The lexical items contained within the PP are linearized and the PP label
asymmetrically c-commands the lexical items in its V’ sister. Since the PP asymmetrically c-commands the V’, it must precede the V’ in the underlying structure,or else there will be a violation of the LCA (if α asymmetrically c-commands β then
α must precede β). A diagram is shown in (38).
(38)

V’
PP
after the factV’VremainedAP
proud of her

To obtain the appropriate word order, the V’ must move to a position above the PP
after the fact. The MSO account thus requires that a non-complement be Merged
in a position to the left of whatever it Merges with.

53

The MSO requires that a non-complement be sent to Spell-Out before Merging
with another element, thus accounting for subject and adjunct island effects. A noncomplement that has been linearized is essentially treated as a lexical item. Nunes& Uriagereka (2000:24) write that once an element is linearized, “the computational
system treats it as a lexical item.” Once a non-complement, such as a subject or
adjunct is linearized, then nothing can move out of it. For example, in (29e),
repeated below, the clausal subject a story about who is constructed via Merge andsent to Spell-Out before it is Merged with amuse you. Therefore, extraction of thewh-phrase who cannot occur.
(29)(e) Subject island:?*Who1 did [a story about t1 ] amuse you? (Lasnik & Saito 1992:42)

Under the MSO approach, a complement is not an island because it is able toestablish an asymmetric c-command relation without being linearized. For example,in (37) above, the verb remained asymmetrically c-commands all of the elements of
the AP, and thus the AP complement does not need to be sent to Spell-Out until
after Merging with the verb.
One disadvantage of the MSO account, from my perspective, is that it relieson the LCA. In order to maintain the simple notion that linear order follows fromasymmetric c-command, a great deal of extra complexity is required to accountfor surface word order. In a language that (at least on the surface) is head-final,
there must be a tremendous amount of leftward movement of consituents, and evenin the head-initial English, there are instances in which leftward movement mustoccur. For example, in (37) above, the PP must be base-generated to the left ofthe element that it Merges with, and then its sister must move to a higher position.
Thus, I find the LCA, and MSO which relies on the LCA, to be problematic.
Johnson (2002) has another account of subject and adjunct island effects, which
is very similar to Uriagereka’s MSO account. However, it has the advantage of not
relying on the LCA. Johnson uses the term ‘renumeration’ to refer to the process of

54

putting an assembled constituent back into a numeration. Renumeration, like MSO,
relies on the notion that a non-complement is linearized separately from the elementthat it is Merged with. Under the MSO account, a linearized phrase is sent to SpellOut, whereas under the renumeration account, a linearized phrase is placed backinto the numeration. Subjects and adjuncts are, according to Johnson (2002:13), a
natural class because “they are the phrases that are required to renumerate.”
Johnson relies on the following definition of an adjunct, which groups together
non-complements (adjuncts and subjects).13(39) An adjunct is a phrase whose sister is also a phrase and whose mother is not
its projection. (Johnson 2002:1)
For example, in (40), from (Johnson 2002:2), the subject DP an advocate and the
PP before the discussion are adjuncts; they are each sisters to a phrase and theirmothers are different projections.14
(40)

vP
vP
DP
an advocate

PP
v P before the discussion

v

VP
V
spoke

PP
to Betsy

An adjunct is an island, as stated in (41).
13
14This is essentially the view of adjuncts proposed by Chomsky (1995a).
If one were to represent this bare phrase structure with X’ notation, then a phrase that is asister to to a specifier would be a bar-level projection. For example, in (40), the v P sister of thesubject DP would be a v ’.

55(41) When a phrase’s underlying position in a phrase marker is such that it is asister to another phrase but doesn’t project, it is an island for extraction(Johnson 2002:3).
In (40), the subject DP an advocate and the PP before the discussion are islands
because they must be constructed in their own separate derivational workspaces andlinearized before they can be Merged with the other elements of the numeration.
Their islandhood results from their being built in a separate workspace and being
renumerated. Johnson argues that an adjunct is an island because if it were notrenumerated, then it would violate the following constraint, which requires whatevermerges with a head to be its complement.
(42) If an X0 merges with a YP, then YP must be its argument. (Johnson 2002:5)(42) prevents a non-complement from Merging with a head and requires a complement to Merge with a head. A complement, at least structurally, is defined as asister to a head, a configuration that allows the head to assign a theta-role to thecomplement.
Example (43) demonstrates what happens if the non-complement PP before thediscussion, from (40), is not renumerated. (43a) shows the underlying numeration.
(43b) shows the DP that is formed when the and discussion are selected from thenumeration and Merged. (43b) also shows what remains in the numeration after the
DP is formed. (43c) shows formation of the PP before the discussion. The derivation
falls apart at (43d). The PP before the discussion is Merged with the noun Betsy.
This operation violates (42), because the X0 noun Betsy Merges with a phrase, a
PP, that is not its complement.
(43)(a) N = {an, advocate, v , spoke, to Betsy, before, the, discussion}(b) N = {an, advocate, v , spoke, to Betsy, before}

56

DP
D
the

N
discussion(c) N = {an, advocate, v , spoke, to, Betsy}
PPP
beforeDPD
theN
discussion(d) N = {an, advocate, v , spoke, to}
NP
N
Betsy

PP
P
beforeDPD
theN
discussion

Similarly, if the subject an advocate is not constructed separately from the restof the v P and renumerated, the derivation crashes. (44a) is the underlying numeration.15 In (44b), the PP is formed. In (44c) the v P is formed. In (44d), the VP
merges with v to form a v P. At (44e), the derivation crashes because the noun, an
X0 element, Merges with a phrase, in this case a v P that is not its complement,
thereby violating (42).
(44)(a) N = {an, advocate, v , spoke, to, Betsy}(b) N = {an, advocate, v , spoke}

15

I have left out the lexical items forming the adjunct PP for the sake of simplicity.

57

PP
P
to

N
Betsy

(c) N = {an, advocate, v }
VP
V
spoke

PP
P
to

N
Betsy

(d) N = {an, advocate}
vP
v

VP
V
spoke

PP
P
to

N
Betsy

(e) N = {an}NPNadvocate

vP
v

VP
V
spoke

PP
P
to

N
Betsy

When adjuncts are renumerated, then a derivation can proceed succesfully, asI demonstrate below for example (40). The PP before the discussion is formed via

58

Merge, as shown in (45a-c) below, and then it is renumerated, as shown in (45d). It
is reinserted into the numeration as a linearized object that essentially corresponds
to a single lexical item.
(45)(a) N = {an, advocate, v , spoke, to, Betsy, before, the, discussion}(b) N = {an, advocate, v , spoke, to, Betsy, before}
DP
D
the

N
discussion(c) N = {an, advocate, v , spoke, to, Betsy}
PPP
beforeDPD
theN
discussion(d) N = {an, advocate, v , spoke, to, Betsy, [P P before the discussion]}
In a separate derivational space, the DP an advocate is formed, as shown in (46ab).16 Then it is renumerated, as shown in (46c).
(46)(a) N = {an, advocate, v , spoke, to, Betsy, [P P before the discussion]}(b) N = {v , spoke, to, Betsy, [P P before the discussion]}
DP
D
an

N
advocate(c) N = {[DP an advocate], v , spoke, to, Betsy, [P P before the discussion]}
16

Although the PP appears as a linearized element in (46a), it is not necessarily the case that it

is formed and renumerated before the DP is formed.

59

The full v P then is formed as shown in (47a-f). The PP complement to Betsy isformed and Merged with the verb and v . Then the renumerated subject and adjunctMerge with the v P.
(47)(a) N = {[DP an advocate], v , spoke, to, Betsy, [P P before the discussion]}(b) N = {[DP an advocate], v , spoke, [P P before the discussion]}
PP
P
to

N
Betsy

(c) N = {[DP an advocate], v , [P P before the discussion]}
VP
V
spoke

PP
P
to

N
Betsy

(d) N = {[DP an advocate], [P P before the discussion]}
vP
v

VP
V
spoke

PP
P
to

N
Betsy

60

(e) N = {[P P before the discussion]}vPDPan advocate

vP
v

VP
V
spoke

PP
P
to

N
Betsy

(f) N = { }vPvPDPan advocate

PP
v P before the discussion

v

VP
V
spoke

PP
to Betsy

In this manner, renumeration requires a non-complement to be linearized andreinserted into a numeration. As with the MSO account, a linearized element can be
manipulated as a whole, but the lexical items contained within it are not accessible
to further operations. Therefore, a wh-phrase contained within a renumerated noncomplement cannot move from within it, and subject and adjunct island effects areaccounted for.
Certain complex-DP island effects create a problem for the MSO and renumeration accounts. In (29c), repeated below, if the subordinate clause is an adjunct, then61

these accounts can explain the island effect. The subordinate clause must be sent
to Spell-Out or renumerated. However, if the subordinate clause is a complement,
then it should not function as an island, and extraction of a wh-phrase should bepossible.
(29)(c) Complex NP/DP-island:??What1 did you read [a report [that John bought t1 ]]? (Lasnik &Saito 1992:12)

There is evidence suggesting that a subordinate clause in certain complex-DPs is acomplement. For example, the subordinate clause within the complex-DP of (29c)is quite similar to the object clause of the verb report in (48) which clearly is acomplement.
(48) He reported that John bought a book.
Similarly, the subordinate clause in (49a) corresponds to the complement of the verb
claim in (49b).
(49)(a) *What1 do you believe [the claim [that John bought t1 ]]? (Lasnik &Saito 1992:22)(b) He claimed that John bought the book.

Nichols (2003) provides an explanation for these complex-DP effects by arguingthat the subordinate clause in this type of complex-DP really is an adjunct, despite
appearances. Nichols (2003:156) writes the following.
. . . the standard argument that (deverbal) nouns may (optionally) assign
theta roles is in actuality based on the stipulation that the complement
theta role is carried over from the verb. There is no direct evidence forthis position in the case of subordinate clauses, and, moreover . . . there
are other ways in which instances of apparent theta assignment by nouns
may be explained.

62

Nichols points out that, in constructions such as (29c), the evidence that the embedded clause is a complement to the noun comes from the resemblence between
the noun and its verbal form. However, she notes that the nouns story, idea andfact behave in the same way as claim, even though they do not have verbal forms.
For example, (50a) demonstrates that these nouns which do not have a verbal form
can be followed by a subordinate clause. (50b) shows that extraction of a wh-phrasefrom this clause results in a complex-DP island effect.
(50)(a) I believe [the claim/report/story/idea/fact [that John bought thebook]]?
(b) ??What1 do you believe [the claim/report/story/idea/fact [that Johnbought t1 ]]? (Lasnik & Saito 1992:22)

Nichols claims that because these nouns do not have transitive verbal forms, it is
not clear that their subordinate clauses, as in (50a-b) are complements. Without
going into more details (see Nichols (2003) for further arguments that this type ofsubordinate clause is an adjunct), I will assume that Nichols is correct and that thistype of subordinate clause is an adjunct.
With the assumption that the subordinate clause is an adjunct, under the renumeration account, the complex-DP island effect in (29c) is accounted for as shown in(51a-e). Beginning with the numeration in (51a), the CP adjunct clause that Johnbought what is assembled and renumerated as shown in (51b-c). The DP a report isassembled and the renumerated subordinate clause is Merged with it, as shown in(51d-e).
(51)(a) N = {a, report, that, John, bought, what}(b) N = {a, report}CPthat John bought what63(c) N = {a, report, [CP that John bought what]}(d) N = {[CP that John bought what]}DPa report(e) N = { }
DP
DP

CP

a reportthat John bought what

Since the subordinate clause is renumerated, nothing can be extracted from it,
thereby accounting for why the wh-phrase cannot move out of the complex-DP. A
derivation in which there is no renumeration is blocked because then the CP would
Merge with a head, the noun report. As shown in (52), at the point in which thenoun report is Merged with the CP, an X0 element is a sister to an XP that is not
its complement, thus violating (42).
(52)

NP
N
reportCPthat John bought what

Lastly, I note that whether/if island effects as in (29b), repeated below, which
as discussed above pose a problem for the MLC account, also pose a problem for arenumeration/MSO account.
(29)(b) Whether/If island??What1 do you wonder [whether/if John saw t1 ]? (adapted from
Lasnik & Saito 1992:11)

64

If the whether/if clause is a complement of wonder, then it should not be linearized
and sent to Spell-Out or renumerated. On the other hand, if it is an adjunct thenthe ill-formedness of this construction is accounted for; the whether/if clause isrenumerated. At this point, I do not know of any clear evidence that a whether/if
clause is an adjunct, and thus the cause of this type of island effect requires further
examination.
In summary, the Minimalist Program requires an eclectic approach to islandeffects because ‘an island’ is not a uniform element. An island is a phrase from which
an element cannot be extracted, but the cause of an island effect differs dependingon the type of island. The MLC accounts nicely for wh-island effects. MSO andrenumeration account for subject and adjunct island effects. They also can apply tocomplex-DP island effects, assuming that a subordinate clause within a complex-DP
is an adjunct. A whether/if island effect, however, remains problematic; I briefly
return to this issue in chapter 6. In the remainder of this dissertation, I will rely on
the MLC and renumeration to account for relevant island effects. I use renumeration
instead of MSO because of its advantage, as noted above, of not relying on the LCA.
2.6.3 The absence of island-effects
It is well-known that there are languages in which one can observe a lack of one ormore of the various types of island effects given in (29a-e) above. As pointed out
by Huang (1982), this lack of island effects is generally found in instances in which
a wh-phrase remains in-situ. (53a-e) are well-formed, despite corresponding to theill-formed (29a-e) above.

65(53) Mandarin:(a) No wh-island effect:
Ni xiang-zhidao [shei mai-lesheme]?
you wonder
who buy-asp what
‘What1 do you wonder [who bought t1 ]? (Huang 1982:479)(b) No whether/if island effectNi xiang-xhidao [ta xi-bu-xihuanshei]?
you wonder
he whether-or-not like who‘Who1 do you wonder [whether he likes t1 ]?’ (Lasnik & Saito 1992:32)(c) No complex-DP island effect:
Ni xihuan [DP shei xie
deshu]?
you like
who write gen book‘Who1 do you like [the book t1 wrote]?’(d) No adjunct island effect:
Ta [T ypP yinwei ni shuo shenme hua] hen shengqi?
hebecause you say whatword very angry‘What1 was he angry [because you said t1 words]?’(Aoun & Li 1993:203)(e) No subject island:[DP shei xie
deshu] zui
youqu?
who wrote gen book most interesting‘Who1 are [books that t1 wrote] most interesting?’ (Lasnik & Saito
1992:122)
These types of instances in which a wh-phrase is contained within a clause thatfunctions as an island in certain languages, but not in others, will be of importancein the following analysis, in which I examine the presence and absence of islandeffects to determine if movement of interrogative features has occurred.

66

2.7 Intervention effects
The island effects discussed in the previous section occur when a wh-phrase cannot
move out of a particular type of clause. Another type of locality effect in whichmovement of a wh-element is blocked is an ‘intervention effect.’ This phenomenon
also plays an important role in my analyses.
I use the term ‘intervention effect’ in accord with Beck (1996) and Beck & Kim(1997) to refer to ill-formedness that results when a particular scope bearing phrase,
which is a quantificational and/or focus element, c-commands a wh-phrase. Pesetsky(2000:67) summarizes intervention effects as follows.
(54) Intervention effect (universal characterization)
A semantic restriction on a quantifier (including wh) may not be separated
from that quantifier by a scope-bearing element.
Beck (1996:38) proposes the generalization that quantifiers block LF movement
based on German constructions such as those in (55a-b). In (55a), the negative
element niemanden ‘nobody,’ c-commands the wh-phrase wo ‘where.’ When thewh-phrase appears in a position preceding niemanden ‘nobody’ in (55b), the result
is well-formed.
(55) German:(a) ??Wer hat niemanden wo
angetroffen?
who
has nobody
where met
‘Who didn’t meet anybody where?’(b) Wer hat wo
niemandem angetroffen?
who has where nobody
met‘Who didn’t meet anybody where?’ (Beck 1996:6)
Below are intervention effects from Japanese. In (56a), the Negative Polarity Itemsika ‘only’ c-commands the wh-phrase nani-o ‘what-acc.’ In (56b), the wh-phrase
precedes sika ‘only,’ and the result is well-formed.

67(56) Japanese:(a) ?*Taroo-sika nani-oyoma-nai no?
Taroo-only
what-acc read-NEG Qu‘What did only Taro read?’ (Tanaka 1997:159)(b) Nani-o1 Taroo-sika t1 yoma-nai no?
what-acc Taroo-only
read-NEG Qu‘What did only Taro read?’ (Tanaka 1997:162)
Interveners were originally classified as quantificational elements, including negation, by Beck (1996) for German. However, Beck & Kim (1997:370-371) point out
that some focus phrases, which are not obviously quantificational, such as man‘only’ and to ‘also’ in Korean cause intervention effects, while some quantificational phrases such as taepupun ‘most,’ hangsang ‘always,’ and chachu ‘often’ do
not cause intervention effects. Tomioka (2007:1574) similarly points out that theJapanese subete-no/zenbu-no-NP ‘all (the) NP’ are quantificational, yet they do notcause intervention effects, whereas some DPs that are not quantificational, such as
the Japanese NP-mo/NP-to ‘NP also’ are interveners. Kim (2002, 2006) deals withthis apparently nonuniform class of interveners by taking the position that interveners in Korean are focused phrases (a class that crucially includes Negative Polarity
Items). This view is further elaborated on by Beck (2006). Tomioka (2007) refers to
the class of interveners as ‘Anti-Topic Items’ since they consist of elements that heargues cannot be topicalized in Japanese and Korean. As Tomioka notes, this viewis compatible with the notion that intervenors are focused elements. For the sake ofsimplicity, in this work I generally refer to interveners as scope bearing elements.
Karimi & Taleghani (2007) argue that the Minimal Link Condition (MLC) (see(34) above) accounts for intervention effects. This makes sense if either a wh-phrase
undergoes covert movement over an intervening scope bearing element, or if anelement associated with the wh-phrase undergoes movement of some sort, and thismovement is blocked by the intervening element; for example, supposing K attracts

68

an element associated with a wh-phrase α, but there is a closer scope bearing element
β to K that blocks this movement.
Note that under this proposal, there is a parallelism between certain wh-islandeffects and intervention effects in that they both result from violations of the MLC.
When there is a wh-island, a higher wh-phrase blocks a lower wh-phrase from obtaining scope. When there is an intervention effect, a scope bearing element blocks
a wh-phrase from obtaining scope. In each case, a scope relation is blocked by anintervening element.
In order to investigate movement of interrogative features, I examine intervention
effects later in this work. Of importance is the fact that intervention effects appear
to indicate that movement has occurred.
2.8 Head movement
Head movement plays an important role in the analyses presented in this workin that I claim that movement of X0 category elements can occur in interrogative
constructions. Head movement, as discussed in this work, refers to movement of anelement from the head position of one maximal projection to the head position ofanother, as shown in (57).
(57)

XP
X’
X
α1

YP
Y’
Y
t1

ZP

69

The nature of head movement within the Minimalist Program is controversial.
Under the view that a moved head adjoins to another head, there is a violation of
the Extension Condition (Chomsky 1995b), which is the notion that movement, via
Merge, must be to the top of a tree (thereby extending it). For example, if α is ahead that adjoins to another head X, as shown in (58), movement of alpha does notextend the tree. Rather, movement is to a position within the already constructed
spine of the tree.
(58)

XP
X
α1

YP
X

Y’
t1

ZP

Furthermore, if a head adjoins to another head, as in (58), then the moved head
does not c-command its trace (cf. Matsushansky 2006).
There have been proposals that deal with these problems. Notably, Chomsky(1995b) proposes that head movement occurs at PF. Harley (2004) proposes thathead movement results from the passing of phonological features of a head up a tree
(notably, before PF), without actual movement of the head. Since these proposals do not involve movement of a head, they get around the problematic issues of
the Extension Condition and c-command. However, both Chomsky’s and Harley’s
proposals rely on movement of phonological features alone, and thus predict thathead movement should not influence the semantics of a construction. Matsushansky(2006), on the other hand, proposes that a head adjoins to a maximal projection
and that there is a morphological operation whereby the head of the maximal projection and the moved head merge. This latter analysis involves actual movementof a head, and thus does not necessarily rule out semantic effects of head movement(see Matsushansky 2006 for discussion of this issue). In the following chapters, the70head movement that I propose has semantic effects and thus this latter analysis ismost compatible with my work.
In this work, I represent head movement as shown in (57) above, without examining whether or not head movement involves adjunction, etc. There is much thatcan be examined with respect to head movement and the proposals presented in thefollowing chapters. However, I leave aside these important issues (as my focus ison other matters) and simply assume that head movement of some form can exist
whereby either a head or a feature contained within a head moves to another head
position.
2.9 Conclusion
In this chapter, I have discussed the basic assumptions about language that will beof importance in the following chapters. I explained the operations that the facultyof language uses to construct lexical items and phrases. I discussed the importanceof the clausal-periphery for interrogative constructions and clausal typing, and I
described the basic phrase structure that I assume in this work. I then discussed two
types of phenomena; island- and intervention-effects, which I utilize as diagnostics
of movement in the following chapters. Lastly, I noted some problematic issues
concerning head movement. I next turn to analyses of interrogative constructions.

71

CHAPTER 3
Qu-features and Qu-morphemes

3.1 Introduction
I next turn to a discussion of Qu-features and the Qu-morphemes that house them.
The existence of a Qu (question) element in interrogative constructions has beenargued for by Katz & Postal (1964), Aoun & Li (1993), Chomsky (1995b), andDenham (2000), among others. In this chapter, I support these views by presenting
evidence that there is a Qu-element, specifically, a Qu-morpheme that contains a
Qu-feature in all yes/no and wh-constructions. I argue that this Qu-feature is crucial
to the formation of yes/no and wh-constructions because it is responsible for typinga clause as an interrogative.
The organization of this chapter is as follows. Section 3.2 discusses evidence
that there is a Qu-feature that is present in yes/no and wh-constructions. Section
3.3 shows that a single language can have multiple Qu-morphemes which differ incertain semantic and syntactic ways, but which still serve the same purpose of typinga clause as an interrogative. Section 3.4 is the conclusion.
3.2 Evidence for a Qu-feature
Evidence for the existence of a Qu-feature is seen most clearly in languages that haveovert Qu-morphemes. For example, in some languages, such as Japanese, Korean,
Yavapai, and Luiseño, a matrix yes/no construction is formed simply by addinga Qu-morpheme to a corresponding non-interrogative construction. Furthermore,
an identical Qu-morpheme in the same position may occur in wh-constructions. I
take the appearance of an identical Qu-morpheme in yes/no and wh-constructions

72

as evidence that a Qu-feature contained within a Qu-morpheme is responsible fortyping a clause as an interrogative.
The Japanese Qu-morpheme ka is one of several Qu-morphemes in Japanese that
occurs in both yes/no and wh-constructions. For example, the statement in (1a)becomes a yes/no construction when the Qu-morpheme ka is added to clause-final
position, as shown in (1b).
(1)

Japanese:(a) Kare-wa ie-ni
kaerimashita.
He-top home-dat went
‘He went home.’(b) Kare-wa ie-ni
kaerimashita ka?
He-top home-dat went
Qu
‘Did he go home?’

This same Qu-morpheme ka occurs in wh-constructions, as can be seen in (2). In
this example, the wh-phrase doko ‘where’ occurs together with ka ‘Qu’ to form a
wh-construction. Note that ka occurs in sentence-final position, just as in the yes/noconstruction (1b) above.
(2)

Japanese:
Kare-wa doko-ni
ikimashita ka?
He-top where-dat went
Qu
‘Where did he go?’
The Korean Qu-morpheme ni also occurs in both yes/no and wh-constructions,and like the Japanese ka, it occurs in clause-final position. When the Qu-morpheme
ni replaces the declarative morpheme ta found in (3a), a yes/no construction results,
as shown in (3b).

73

(3)

Korean:(a) Mary ka
o
ass
ta.
Mary nom come past decl
‘Mary has come.’(b) Mary ka
o
ass
ni?
Mary nom come past Qu‘Has Mary come?’ (Jang 1999:849)

When this Qu-morpheme ni co-occurs with a wh-phrase, such as nwukwu ‘who,’ asin (4), a wh-construction results, as shown below.
(4)

Korean:Nwukwu i ni?
who
be Qu
‘Who is it?’ (Jang 1999:851)
Yavapai1 is another language that contains a Qu-morpheme, in this case the mor-pheme e:, which occurs in clause-final position of both yes/no and wh-constructions.
Replacing the incompletive aspect morpheme km in (5a) with the Qu-morpheme e:in (5b) results in a yes/no construction.
(5)

Yavapai:(a) Ma:-c m-cky at-km.
2-pl
2-chop-incompletive‘You are/were chopping it.’1This is a Yuman language spoken in Arizona.

74(b) Ma:-c m-cky at-e:?
2-pl2-chop-Qu‘Are/were you chopping it?’ (Kendall 1976:107)
Similarly, the Qu-morpheme e: occurs in clause-final position in wh-constructions.
For example, in (6), e: occurs in a clause along with the wh-phrase kavyu ‘why’ toform a wh-question.
(6)

Yavapai:
Kavyu-m
Tivo:y m-qaly-e:?
why-AllocentricReferent onion 2p-dislike-Qu‘Why don’t you like onions? (Kendall 1976:109)
The Luiseño2 Qu-morpheme /s u occurs after the initial lexical item of a clausein both yes/no and wh-constructions. Compare (7a) and its corresponding yes/nocounterpart in (7b).3(7)

Luiseño(a) Xwaan ‘aamoq.
Juanhunting‘Juan is hunting.’(b) Xwaan /su ‘aamoq?
Juan
Qu hunting‘Is Juan hunting?’ (Hyde 1971:20)

In (8), the Qu-morpheme occurs after the wh-phrase hax ‘who,’ thereby forming awh-construction.
2
3This is a Uto-Aztecan language spoken in Southern California.
The examples given in Hyde (1971) do not contain word-for-word glosses, so I have provided

glosses based on other examples from the same source with identical lexical items.

75

(8)

Luiseño
Hax /su ‘owo‘aq?
who Qu working‘Who is working?’ (Hyde 1971:23)
The above examples show that interrogatives in some languages are formed

with a Qu-morpheme that shows up in identical positions in both yes/no and whconstructions. In Japanese, Korean, and Yavapai, a Qu-morpheme occurs in clausefinal position. In Luiseño, a Qu-morpheme occurs in clause-second position. I takethese facts to be evidence that a Qu-feature, contained within a Qu-morpheme, occurs in yes/no and wh-constructions in these, and possibly all, languages. In thoselanguages that lack an overt Qu-morpheme, a null Qu-morpheme is present and is
responsible for an interrogative interpretation.4
3.3 Multiple Qu-morphemes in a single language
A Qu-morpheme is not identical to a Qu-feature. Rather, it is a morpheme that
contains a Qu-feature. If a Qu-morpheme were simply the overt representation of a
Qu-feature, then a single language would probably not be able to have more than
one Qu-morpheme, or if it had more than one, all of the Qu-morphemes would
behave identically. This is not the case, as a single language may have multiple
4

This view is in agreement with Katz & Postal (1964), Aoun & Li (1993), and Denham(2000), who argue that English, Mandarin, and Babine Witsuwit’en, respectively, contain nullQu-morphemes. Cheng (1997) argues that a language either contains a wh-particle, which is essentially equivalent to a Qu-morpheme, or it has overt wh-movement, but it does not have both.
Therefore, a wh-in-situ language has a wh-particle and a wh-movement language does not. My
view, contra Cheng, is that a Qu-morpheme is always present in a yes/no or wh-construction,
regardless of whether or not a language forms wh-constructions via a wh-in-situ strategy. I basethis assumption on the existence of languages that have both overt Qu-morphemes and wh-phrasal
movement. See chapter 6 for further discussion.

76

Qu-morphemes that differ in their semantics and in their syntactic behavior, as Ishow in the following discussion. These differences are a result of Qu-morphemes
containing other features in addition to a Qu-feature.
Thai is a language with several Qu-morphemes that differ semantically and syntactically. I briefly illustrate a few of these differences.5 The Qu-morpheme máy “isused to ask about information that belongs exclusively to the addressee (Iwasaki &Ingkaphirom 2005:280)” including questions about emotions, as shown in (9).
(9)

Thai:
Dii-cay máy?
glad
Qu‘Are/were you glad?’ (Iwasaki & Ingkaphirom 2005:280)

According to Iwasaki & Ingkaphirom (2005), this Qu-morpheme cannot be usedwith a nominal predicate. However, the Qu-morpheme rú-plàaw can be used witha nominal predicate, as shown in (10), in which the Qu-morpheme co-occurs with
the nominal predicate fEEn khun-àphı́châat ‘girlfriend tl-Apichat.’(10) Thai:
Kháw pen fEEn
khun-àphı́châat r ú-plàaw?
Qu
3p
isgirlfriend tl-Apichat‘Is she Mr. Apichat’s girlfriend?’ (Iwasaki & Ingkaphirom 2005:283)
This morpheme rú-plàaw is used when the speaker considers information “to be
more public (Iwasaki & Ingkaphirom 2005:283).” Note that this is contrary to máy,shown in (9) above, which is used when the speaker “considers the information
to belong solely to the addressee (Iwasaki & Ingkaphirom 2005:283).” Thai also
contains the Qu-morpheme rú-yaN, which can be used to indicate the perfective
aspect.
5

See Iwasaki & Ingkaphirom (2005) for a more extensive discussion of the differences among

these morphemes.

77(11) Thai:
Kin r ú-yaN?
eat Qu‘Have you eaten yet?’ (Iwasaki & Ingkaphirom 2005:284)
The Qu-morpheme lˇ@ is used when the speaker “. . . has intense curiousity regarding
the information he has at hand (Iwasaki & Ingkaphirom 2005:285).”(12) Thai:
Nǐi kháN lĚEk lˇ@?
this time first Qu‘Is this your first time (experience of an earthquake)?’ (Iwasaki &Ingkaphirom 2005:285)
All of these Qu-morphemes are used to form yes/no constructions, yet they differ intheir semantics and in the types of constructions they can occur in. These differences
can be accounted for if each morpheme has its own distinct set of features, in addition
to a Qu-feature.
Korean contains several Qu-morphemes that differ in terms of politeness. Examples (13a-c) all correspond to Is it raining? in English.
(13) Korean:(a) Pi ka
o-ni?
rain nom come-Quplain(b) Pi ka
o-na?
rain nom come-Quf amiliar

78(c) Pi ka
o-nya?
rain nom come-Quneutral (Sohn 1999:269-270)
Although the meanings of examples (13a-c) are essentially the same, they each differ
in formality to the addressee. The Qu-morphemes ni, na, and nya show what Sohn
(1999) refers to as plain, familiar, and neutral levels of formality. These differences
can be accounted for if each of these Qu-morphemes has a different feature forpoliteness. More specifically, ni, na, and nya have different features that give themthe qualities that Sohn (1999) refers to as plain, familiar, and neutral.
Japanese also has Qu-morphemes that differ in their syntactic behavior and intheir semantics.
Japanese Qu-morphemes differ with respect to whether they can occur in only ayes/no construction, only a wh-construction, or both a yes/no and wh-construction.
The Qu-morphemes ka and no can both occur in either yes/no or wh-constructions.
Examples (14a-b) show these two morphemes in yes/no constructions.
(14) Japanese:(a) Gohan-o tabeta ka?
food-acc ate
Qu‘Did you eat a meal?’(b) Gohan-o tabeta no?
food-acc ate
Qu‘Did you eat a meal?’
Examples (15a-b) show these morphemes in wh-constructions.
(15) Japanese:(a) Nani-otabeta ka?
what-acc ate
Qu‘What did you eat?’

79(b) Nani-otabeta no?
what-acc ate
Qu‘What did you eat?’
In contrast, the Qu-morpheme kai can only occur in yes/no constructions. The
yes/no construction ending with kai in (16a) is fine, but the wh-construction endingin kai in (16b) is ill-formed.
(16) Japanese:(a) Kare-ga ie-ni
kaetta kai?
He-nom home-dat went Qu‘Did he go home?’(a) *Dare-ga ie-ni
kaetta kai?
who-nom home-dat went Qu
Intended: ‘Who went home?’ (Junko Ginsburg, p.c.)
The Qu-morpheme ndai can only occur in wh-constructions. This morpheme is fineat the end of the wh-construction in (17a), but is ill-formed at the end of the yes/noconstruction in (17b).
(17) Japanese:(a) Dare-ga kuru ndai?
who-nom come Qu‘Who will come?’ (Hagstrom 1998:16)(b) *Kare-ga kuru ndai?
he-nom come Qu
Intended: ‘Is he coming?’ (Junko Ginsburg, p.c.)Japanese Qu-morphemes also differ with respect to whether or not they canoccur in a matrix or embedded clause. The above examples in (14-17) show themorphemes ka, no, kai, and ndai all in matrix clauses. Of these Qu-morphemes,

80

only ka can also occur in an embedded clause. Example (18a) below is fine with ka
at the edge of the embedded clause. However, (18b-d) with no, kai, and ndai at theedge of embedded clauses are all ill-formed.
(18) Japanese:(a) Watashi-wa [kare-ga nani-otabeta ka] wakaranai.
I-top
he-nom what-acc ate
Qu don’t know
‘I don’t know what he ate.’(b) *Watashi-wa [kare-ga nani-otabeta no] wakaranai.
I-top
he-nom what-acc ate
Qu don’t know
Intended: ‘I don’t know what he ate.’(c) *Watashi-wa [kare-ga nani-otabeta kai] wakaranai.
I-top
he-nom what-acc ate
Qu don’t know
Intended: ‘I don’t know what he ate.’(d) *Watashi-wa [dare-ga kuru ndai] wakaranai.
I-top
who-nom come Qu
don’t know
Intended: ‘I don’t know what he ate.’
Japanese also contains a Qu-morpheme kadooka that can only occur in an embedded
yes/no construction. (19a) is fine with kadooka at the edge of the embedded yes/noconstruction, but (19b) is ill-formed because the embedded clause contains a whphrase, and (19c) is ill-formed because kadooka cannot occur in a matrix clause.
(19) Japanese:(a) Watashi-wa [kare-ga sore-otabeta kadooka] wakaranai.
I-top
he-nom that-acc ate
Qu
don’t know
‘I don’t know if he ate that.’(b) *Watashi-wa [kare-ga nani-otabeta kadooka] wakaranai.
I-top
he-nom what-acc ate
Qu
don’t know
Intended: ‘I don’t know what he ate.’

81(c) *Kare-ga sore-otabeta kadooka?
he-nom that-acc ate
QuIntended: ‘Did he eat that?’ (Junko Ginsburg, p.c.)
These Japanese Qu-morphemes also differ in terms of politeness, with ka being
more polite then no, and no being more polite then kai or ndai. The embedded
clause Qu-morpheme kadooka appears not to be specified for politeness. I base thisassumption on native speaker intuition that kadooka is neither polite nor impolite(Junko Ginsburg, p.c.).
The differences in these Qu-morphemes are summarized in (20). Ka and nooccur in both yes/no and wh-constructions. Kai and kadooka occur in only yes/noconstructions and ndai only occurs in wh-constructions. Only ka can occur in bothan embedded and matrix clause. All of the other Qu-morphemes except for kadooka
must occur in matrix clauses. Kadooka can only occur in an embedded clause.
Furthermore, ka is more polite than no, and no is more polite then kai or ndai.
In the chart, these three levels or politeness are referred to as polite, plain, andinformal. I have not specified kadooka for politeness.
(20)
Morpheme

yes/no

wh

ka

X

X

X

no

X

X

X

kai

X

ndai
kadookaX
X

matrix embedded
X

polite plain

informal

X
X

X

X

X

X
X

I assume that each Japanese Qu-morpheme differs in its syntactic behavior andsemantics because it contains a unique set of features. Despite these differences,these Qu-morphemes all contain a Qu-feature.

82

The Qu-morpheme data from Thai, Korean, and Japanese show that a single
language may have more than a single Qu-morpheme, and that these Qu-morphemes
are not identical to each other, since they show up in different environments. These
facts are evidence that a Qu-morpheme contains more than just a Qu-feature. Each
Qu-morpheme has its own unique set of features that differs in some way from thefeatures that make up other Qu-morphemes.
3.4 Conclusion
If the claims made here are correct, then the languages discussed in this chapter
have Qu-morphemes; i.e., a morpheme that contains a Qu-feature, as well as otherfeatures. A yes/no or wh-construction requires the presence of a Qu-feature, anda Qu-feature can only enter a derivation via attachment to a Qu-morpheme. In
the following chapters, I will argue that the Qu-feature, contained within either anovert or covert Qu-morpheme, plays an important role in the formation of yes/noand wh-constructions.

83

CHAPTER 4
Yes/no constructions

4.1 Introduction
In this chapter, I examine the formation of yes/no constructions. I argue that crosslinguistic variation in yes/no constructions results primarily from properties of Qumorphemes. I begin by demonstrating that there are various types of Qu-morphemes
which differ in terms of whether or not they are pronounced, and whether or notthey are free morphemes. Next, I examine why some Qu-morphemes appear in theclause periphery and others in a TP-internal position. I argue that a Qu-morpheme
appears in a TP-internal position if it has a Focus-feature.
This chapter is organized as follows. In section 4.2, I propose that certain features
determine whether a Qu-morpheme is pronounced, and whether or not it is an affix.
Section 4.3 discusses languages in which a Qu-morpheme must appear in the clauseperiphery. I argue that these Qu-morphemes are Merged directly in Typ. Section
4.4 discusses languages in which a Qu-morpheme can either appear TP-internallyor at the clause-periphery. Section 4.5 is the conclusion.
4.2 Types of Qu-morphemes
In this section, I propose that certain features contained within Qu-morphemes
account for cross-linguistic variation in yes/no construction formation. Specifically,
I account for why languages form yes/no constructions in the following ways: 1)
with an overt Qu-morpheme that is an independent lexical item, 2) with an overt
Qu-morpheme that affixes onto another lexical item, 3) with movement of a lexical
item but no overt Qu-morpheme, and 4) with only intonation.

84

There are several types of Qu-morphemes.

Some languages use overt Qu-morphemes in yes/no constructions and others do not, and a single language may
even allow yes/no constructions to be formed either with or without an overt Qumorpheme. As discussed in chapter 3, I assume that a Qu-morpheme is present inall yes/no constructions. When it is not pronounced, it is null. Some languages thenhave an overt Qu-morpheme, some have a null Qu-morpheme, and others have bothtypes of Qu-morpheme, one that is overt and another that is null. A Qu-morpheme
may also be an affix or an independent lexical item. I argue that the source of
these differences in Qu-morphemes lies in the [±] values of [OVERT] and [AFFIX]
features.
The table in (1) lists four possible types of Qu-morphemes in terms of the featuresthat they contain.
(1)
FEATURES(a)[+OVERT], [+AFFIX](b)[+OVERT], [-AFFIX](c)[-OVERT], [+AFFIX](d)[-OVERT], [-AFFIX](1a) describes a Qu-morpheme that is an overtly pronounced affix, (1b) an
overt free morpheme, (1c) a null affix, and (1d) a Qu-morpheme that is neither
overt nor an affix, but an intonation pattern.
In summary, a Qu-feature surfaces inside of a Qu-morpheme that is overt ornull, and that is an affix, an independent lexical item, or a particular intonation
pattern. These properties of Qu-morphemes result from the features they have. In
the following subsections, I explain how these Qu-morpheme features account forcross-linguistic variation in the forms of yes/no constructions.

85

4.2.1 Overt Qu-morphemes
There are several different types of overt Qu-morphemes. Tohono O’odham andHaida have overt Qu-morphemes that are affixes, whereas Japanese and English
have overt Qu-morphemes that are free morphemes. Example (2) shows these Qumorphemes in terms of the features that they have.
(2)
LANGUAGEFEATURES

Tohono O’odham, Haida [+OVERT], [+AFFIX]
Japanese, English[+OVERT], [-AFFIX]

I discuss these Qu-morphemes below.
Yes/no constructions in Tohono O’odham1 are formed with an overt Qumorpheme that is an affix. For example, in (3a), the subject mistol ‘cat’ occurs
in clause-initial position followed by what is generally considered to be an auxiliary(AUX) ’o (cf. Zepeda 1983, Hale 1983, Hale & Selkirk 1987, Payne 1987, Hale
2002). In the yes/no construction (3b), the subject no longer occurs in sentence
initial position. Instead, this position is filled with the Qu-morpheme n followed by
the AUX o.2(3)

Tohono O’odham:(a) Mistol ’oko:s..
cat
AUX sleeping‘The cat is/was sleeping.’

1

This is a Uto-Aztecan language spoken in southern Arizona and northern Mexico. I use theterm Tohono O’odham in accord with Hale (2002) and the conventions adopted by the tribe.
Tohono O’odham is also referred to in the linguistics literature as Papago (Hale 2002).
2
The subject mistol ‘cat’ is preceded by a determiner in (3b), but not in (3a) because “the gdeterminer never occurs at the beginning of a sentence (Zepeda 1983:8).”

86(b) N-og
mistol ko:s.?
Qu-AUX DET cat
sleeping‘Is/was the cat sleeping?’ (Zepeda 1983:13)
The Tohono O’odham Qu-morpheme n is pronounced and so it clearly has a[+OVERT] feature. It also appears to be an affix.
Evidence that n ‘Qu’ is an affix is given by Zepeda (1983:14), who writes that in a
yes/no question, “since the auxiliary combines with the n-, it loses its initial glottal
stop.” In (3a), the ’ at the beginning of ’o ‘AUX’ represents a glottal stop. This
glottal stop shows that the AUX is an independent phonological word. When the
AUX combines with the Qu-morpheme in an interrogative construction, as in (3b),the glottal stop disappears, indicating that the AUX is no longer an independent
phonological word, but has combined with the Qu-morpheme. The AUX combineswith the Qu-morpheme because the Qu-morpheme has a [+AFFIX] feature.
The Tohono O’odham Qu-morpheme is an affix, and therefore, it requires anelement to host it. The [+AFFIX] feature forces the Qu-morpheme to attract the
AUX which is the closest head, forcing the AUX to suffix onto it. In (3b), if the
Qu-morpheme n is in Typ, then the AUX raises from T to Typ, a shown in (4).
(4)

TypP
Typ’
Typ
n-o1
Qu-AUX DPTP

mistol
cat2

T
t1

T’
vP
t2 ko:ssleeping

87

The fact that the Tohono O’odham Qu-morpheme is a prefix is dependent on
the [+AFFIX] feature of the Qu-morpheme and a requirement that the AUX appear
in second position in a clause. This phenomenon whereby a clitic appears in second
position is known as Wackernagel’s law, which Hale (2002:303) describes as “theprinciple of Second Position Placement of certain elements.”3 Importantly, if the
Qu-morpheme were to suffix onto the AUX, then the AUX would end up in clauseinitial position, which is not allowed.
Haida4 also contains a Qu-morpheme that is an overt affix. Enrico (1986:103)
writes that yes/no constructions “require the clitic particle gu after the first constituent.” In other words, the Qu-morpheme gu must appear after the clause-initial
element, unlike the Tohono O’odham Qu-morpheme which must precede the clauseinitial element. Compare the statement in (5) with the yes/no construction in (6),which is formed by adding the Qu-morpheme gu to the end of the initial lexical
item.
(5)

Haida:
Bill ’la qing-gan.
Bill 3p see-Past‘She saw Bill/Bill saw her.’ (Enrico 2003:151)(6)

Haida:
Daa-gu 0 gudang?
you-Qu 3p understand‘Do you understand it?’ (Enrico 2003:132)

3
4

For discussion of why Wackernagel’s law exists, see Anderson (1993), among others.
This is a language spoken in the Queen Charlotte Islands of British Columbia, and Dall andthe southern Prince of Wales Islands in Alaska (Enrico 2003).

88

The Haida Qu-morpheme attaches onto whatever is in clause-initial position, andnotably, there is a lot of freedom as to what can appear in clause-initial position. In(7a), the Qu-morpheme gu attaches onto a pronoun, which is ambiguous between
the subject or object. In (7b), the Qu-morpheme attaches onto a locative, and in(7c) it attaches onto a pronominal subject.
(7)(a) 7laa-gu
dang skudaa-yaa?
3rdper-Qu you punch-nw‘Did you punch him?’ or ‘Did he punch you?’(b) 7anaa-gu Bill 7is?
inside-Qu Bill copula‘Is Bill inside?’(c) daa-gu king?
you-Qu see‘Do you see it?’ (Enrico 1986:104)

One limitation is that the clause initial element cannot be a verb (Enrico 1986).
Enrico (2003:131) considers the Haida Qu-morpheme to be an affix, as he glosses
it as an affix and describes it as an “interrogative clitic.” There is syntactic evidence
to support this idea. When there is no non-verbal lexical item for the Qu-morpheme
to affix onto in clause-initial position, then the dummy element huu is inserted toserve as a host. Enrico (1986:105) writes that huu is an adverbial that has “thedemonstrative meaning ‘there,’” but when used with the Qu-morpheme “huu . . . ismeaningless and it is gu that is in some sense basic.” In (8), note that gu ‘Qu’
follows this dummy huu.
(8)

Haida:
Huu-gutajuu?
Dummy-Qu be blowing/windy‘Is it windy?’ (Enrico 1986:105)

89

These facts indicate that the Haida Qu-morpheme has a [+AFFIX] feature.
Note that the Haida Qu-morpheme functions as a suffix.

Like in Tohono

O’odham, I assume that this is due to facts that are external to the Qu-morpheme.
Specifically, the clause-initial element precedes the Qu-morpheme. This is likey because it is in a higher projection, such as TopP, than where the Qu-morpheme is.
The clause initial element, like the Qu-morpheme, is in the periphery of a clause,
whereas the elements following the Qu-morpheme are located within the TP. Therefore, it may be that the Qu-morpheme suffixes onto the clause-initial element simply
because it is closest.
I next turn to the Japanese Qu-morpheme ka, which is also overt, but unlike
the Tohono O’odham and Haida Qu-morphemes, it is not an affix. The Japanese
Qu-morpheme thus contains [+OVERT] and [-AFFIX] features. Example (1) fromchapter 3, repeated below as (9), demonstrates that ka is a Qu-morpheme. The
statement in (9a) becomes a yes/no construction when the Qu-morpheme ka is
added to clause-final position as shown in (9b).
(9)

Japanese:(a) Kare-wa ie-ni
kaerimashita.
He-top home-dat went
‘He went home.’(b) Kare-wa ie-ni
kaerimashita ka?
He-top home-dat went
Qu
‘Did he go home?’
Evidence that ka ‘Qu’ is an independent lexical item is that it is not possible

to pause before a suffix, but it is possible to pause before ka ‘Qu.’ Examples (10ab) show two verbs with the present tense suffix -masu. The verb iki-masu ‘go’ iscomposed of iki ‘go’ and the suffix -masu ‘pres,’ and tabe-masu ‘eat’ consists oftabe ‘eat’ and -masu ‘pres.’ The verbs in (10a-b) are single phonological words thateach consists of two morphemes.

90(10) Japanese:(a) iki-masu
go-pres‘go’(b) tabe-masu
eat-pres‘eat’
It is ill-formed to pause when speaking between the verb roots and -masu, as shownin (11a-b) because -masu is an affix. It is possible to pause before ka ‘Qu’ as shownin (11c). Although it may be a bit odd to pause before ka ‘Qu,’ it is not nearly as
bizarre as pausing before -masu. This is then evidence that ka ‘Qu’ is not an affix.
(11) Japanese:(a) *iki-PAUSE-masu
go-PAUSE-pres‘go’(b) *tabe-PAUSE-masu
eat-PAUSE-pres‘eat’(c) ?(Anata-wa) ikimasu PAUSE ka?
(You-top)go
PAUSE Qu‘Are you going?’
English contains an [+OVERT] [-AFFIX] Qu-morpheme if that appears in embedded yes/no constructions.5 It cannot appear in wh-constructions, nor in matrix
interrogatives. Example (12a) shows a matrix statement. In its yes/no counterpart,(12b), the auxiliary should is fronted to clause-initial position where a null matrix
Qu-morpheme attaches onto it (see the next subsection for a discussion of why the5

See Baker (1970) for arguments that if is the overt realization of a Qu-morpheme.

91

auxiliary moves and attaches onto the Qu-morpheme). When this yes/no construction is placed in an embedded clause, as in (12c-d), the auxiliary cannot front toclause-initial position; instead the overt Qu-morpheme if is required.6 I hypothesizethat the auxiliary cannot front because an embedded clause cannot contain a nullQu-morpheme in English. Example (12c) in which the embedded clause contains
a fronted auxiliary is ill-formed.7 The embedded clause functions as a well-formed
embedded yes/no construction when it contains the overt Qu-morpheme if, as shownin (12d).
(12)(a) She should go.
(b) Should1 she t1 go?
(c) *I wonder [should1 she t1 go].
(d) I wonder [if she should go].

This Qu-morpheme if contains a set of features that requires it to only appear inan embedded clause.
The Qu-morpheme if is not an affix. Just as it is possible to pause before theJapanese Qu-morpheme ka, it is possible to pause before, as well as after, if. For
example, in (13), it is possible to pause between wonder and if, and between if andit’s. Even with a pause, this construction is understandable.
(13) I wonder (PAUSE) [if (PAUSE) it’s true].
Compare this example with a word that contains a clear affix, such as cat-s. It isextremely odd to pause between cat and the plural morpheme -s, because -s is anaffix that attaches onto cat.
6

Whether may also occur in this position. Whether differs in its behavior from if and thus it

is not clear to me whether or not it is a wh-phrase or a Qu-morpheme, although I suspect that it
is a Qu-morpheme. See Katz & Postal (1964), Larson (1985), and Kayne (1991), as well as thediscussion of whether and if in chapter 2.6.
7This constructions is ill-formed in ‘standard’ English. In some dialects of English, an auxiliary
can appear in the initial position of an embedded clause. See section 4.2.3.

92

4.2.2 Covert Qu-morphemes
I next discuss several different types of null Qu-morphemes; morphemes with a[-OVERT] feature. English and Spanish have Qu-morphemes that are null affixes.
Dholuo, Hopi, Swati, Mandarin Chinese, and Persian have Qu-morphemes that show
up as intonation. These Qu-morphemes and their relevant features are given in (14).
(14)
LANGUAGEFEATURES

English, Spanish[-OVERT], [+AFFIX]

Dholuo, Hopi, Swati, Mandarin, Persian[-OVERT], [-AFFIX]

English does not have an overt Qu-morpheme in matrix clauses, and so its matrix
Qu-morpheme clearly must be null, indicating it has a [-OVERT] feature. Furthermore, the Qu-morpheme causes the element in Tense to raise to Typ. This is because
the Qu-morpheme is an affix. In the statement in (15a) below, the Tense head contains the auxiliary could. In the yes/no version (15b), could has raised to Typ toserve as a host for the Qu-morpheme. The Qu-morpheme’s affix property forces theelement in T, in this case could, to raise to Typ.
(15)(a) He [T could drink the wine] .
(b) [T ypP [T yp Could1 -∅Qu he [T P [T t1 drink the wine]]]]?

When there is no element in T, then a form of do appears. Compare (16a-b). Ina statement such as (16a), the Tense head, with a value of [past] is pronounced aspart of the verb ate. In (16b), the Tense head raises to Typ where it attaches onto
the null Qu-morpheme. Since it has moved away from the verb, it can no longer be
pronounced as part of the verb, and English resorts to a form of the dummy element
do.
(16)

(a) He [T ∅P AST ate the food].

93(b) [T ypP [T yp Did1 -∅Qu [T P he [T tP AST 1 eat the food]]]]?
Spanish also has a null Qu-morpheme that is an affix. The statements in (17-18a)
become yes/no constructions, as shown in the corresponding (b) examples, when theverbal elements raise to clause-initial position.
(17) Spanish:(a) Usted es americano.
you
are American‘You are American.’(b) Es1 usted t1 americano?
are you
American‘Are you American?’ (Stein 2005:184)(18) Spanish:(a) Linda viene
tarde.
Linda is coming late
‘Linda is coming late.’(b) Viene1 Linda t1 tarde?
is coming Linda
late‘Is Linda coming late?’(Stein 2005:184)
In Spanish yes/no constructions, as in English, the Tense morpheme raises to Typ
where it affixes onto a null Qu-morpheme. However, unlike in English, Tense canraise to Typ along with a main verb that it is affixed to. In (18b), the main verb
viene ‘is coming’ raises to Typ.
Some languages can form yes/no constructions merely with intonation.8 I propose that these languages contain a Qu-morpheme with [-OVERT] and [-AFFIX]
8

Some languages of this type can also form yes/no constructions with Qu-morphemes. For

example, Japanese has overt Qu-morphemes, as discussed above, but yes/no constructions can

94features. The Qu-morpheme is neither overt, nor is it an affix, as there is no apparent movement of lexical items to indicate affixation. These Qu-morphemes have aparticular intonation pattern that influences the pronunciation of a construction. I
do not examine the exact intonation patterns here, but if Greenberg (1966) is correct, then the question intonation pattern always, or usually, shows up at the endof a clause. Greenberg (1966:80) writes that the following is a language universal.
When a yes-no question is differentiated from the corresponding assertionby an intonational pattern, the distinctive intonational features of eachof these patterns are reckoned from the end of the sentence rather thanfrom the beginning.
Intonation is used to form interrogatives in a number of languages. For example,
in Dholuo,9 according to Omondi (1982:137), “[yes/no] questions are formed fromstatements or indicative sentences by a change in intonation. Whereas statements
end in a final fall, questions end in a final rise.”(19) Dholuo:(a) Nyathi madho chak. [Final fall]‘[The/a] baby is drinking milk.’(b) Nyathi madho chak. [Final rise]‘Is [the/a] baby drinking milk?’ (Omondi 1982:138)
also be formed with intonation alone. Similarly, a yes/no construction in English can be formed
with intonation, without movement of an auxiliary. For example, ‘You’re sick?’ can function asa yes/no construction if said with the appropriate intonation, although it is not clear to me that
this is the same type of question as one with auxiliary movement, such as ‘Are you sick?’. ‘You’resick?’ is more likely to be used as an echo question asking for confirmation about information
previously heard than as a standard yes/no construction asking for new information.
9This is a language spoken in Western Kenya (Omondi 1982).

95

Kalectaca (1978:102) writes that “[u]se of special intonation is the normal way in
Hopi10 of forming questions answerable by ‘yes’ or ‘no.’” For example, (20) means
The blanket is red. or Is the blanket red? depending on the intonation.
(20) Hopi:
Taapalo paalangpu./?
blanket red‘The blanket is red./Is the blanket red?’ (Kalectaca 1978:102)
Swati11 is another language that uses intonation to form yes/no constructions. Ziervogel & Mabuza (1976:219) write that a yes/no construction is formed via “a change
of intonation in the interrogative clause” version of the following example.
(21) Swati:
Usaphila./?
‘He is still well.’/‘Is he still well?’ (Ziervogel & Mabuza 1976:219)
Mandarin Chinese also can use intonation alone to form a yes/no question. Tiee &Lance (1986:56) write that “[a] simple “yes/no” question can be formed merely byraising the pitch of one’s voice at the end of a statement.” For example, (22) could
be a statement or yes/no construction, depending on the intonation.
(22) Mandarin:
Nǐ mǎi shū./?
You buy book
‘You buy books./Did you buy books?’ (Tiee & Lance 1986:56)
Persian also forms yes/no constructions with intonation, as shown below. Risingintonation signals a yes/no construction.
10
11This is a Uto-Aztecan language spoken in northern Arizona (Kalectaca 1978).
This is a language spoken in Swaziland and South Africa (Ziervogel & Mabuza 1976).

96(23) Persian:(a) Kimea madres a-st. [Falling intonation]
Kimea school is‘Kimea is at school.’(b) Kimea madres a-st? [Rising intonation]
Kimea school is‘Is Kimea at school?’ (Simin Karimi, p.c.)
In examples (19-23), a statement and a yes/no construction are identical except
for a change in intonation. This intonation change may influence the way thatphonemes are pronounced, but it does not change the actual string of lexical items
that occur in a statement and a corresponding yes/no construction. Note that there
is no movement of a lexical item. I take this to be evidence that a Qu-morpheme inthese languages is not an affix.
4.2.3 An overt or covert Qu-morpheme
Notably, there are some English dialects that allow either an overt or a covert Qumorpheme to appear in an embedded clause.
Hiberno English has a null Qu-morpheme that occurs in embedded clauses. In
examples (24a-d), the element in Tense raises to adjoin to a null Qu-morpheme.
(24) Hiberno English:(a) Ask your father [T ypP [T yp does1 -∅Qu [T P he [T tP RES 1 want his
dinner]]]].
(b) I was wondering [T ypP [T yp would1 -∅Qu [T P he [T t1 come home for the
Christmas]]]].

97(c) Do you remember [T ypP [T yp did1 -∅Qu [T P they [T tpast1 live in
Rosemount]]]]?
(d) I’ve never found out [T ypP [T yp would1 -∅Qu [T P he [T t1 really havecome with me]]]]. (McCloskey 1991:294)
Furthermore, Hiberno English also contains the overt Qu-morpheme if. (25a)shows that Tense can raise to Typ and attach onto a null Qu-morpheme, and (25b)shows that the overt Qu-morpheme if can appear. Both Qu-morphemes cannot
co-occur, as shown in (25c), since a single head cannot be filled with two Qumorphemes.
(25) Hiberno English:(a) Ask your father [T ypP [T yp does1 -∅Qu [T P he [T tpres1 want his dinner]]]].
(b) Ask your father [T ypP [T yp ifQu he wants his dinner]].
(c) *Ask your father [T ypP [T yp ifQu does1 -∅Qu he tpres1 want his dinner]].
(McCloskey 1991:295)
The fact that both a null Qu-morpheme and an overt Qu-morpheme can appear in an
embedded clause is evidence that Hiberno English contains two types of embedded
clause Qu-morphemes which differ in terms of their featural makeup. Specifically,
if is an overt independent lexical item and the other Qu-morpheme is a null affix.
Ozark English also allows both an overt and a covert Qu-morpheme in embedded
yes/no constructions, as in (26a-b), although note that, according to Rusty Barrett(p.c.), (26b) is not as natural as (26a).
(26)(a) I don’t know [T ypP [T yp is1 -∅Qu [T P she [T t1 going]]]].
(b) I don’t know [T ypP [T yp ifQu she is going]]. (Barrett 2008)

98

As in Hiberno English, both the overt and covert Qu-morphemes cannot co-ccur,
as indicated by the ill-formedness of (27) below. This is to be expected since Typcannot simultaneously contain two Qu-morphemes.
(27) * I don’t know [T ypP [T yp ifQu is1 -∅Qu she tpres1 going]]. (Barrett 2008)
One factor that determines the use of the two possible Qu-morphemes in an
embedded yes/no construction in Hiberno and Ozark English likely involves thesemantics of the Qu-morpheme. Rusty Barrett (p.c.) notes that when a yes/noconstruction follows unless, as in (28a-b), there is a clear semantic difference. (28a),which I assume contains a [+AFFIX] Qu-morpheme, emphasizes doubt that she willgo, whereas (28b) does not emphasize doubt.
(28)(a) I won’t go unless [is she going too]. (emphasizing doubt that she will go)(b) I won’t go unless [she is going too]. (Rusty Barrett, p.c.)More examination of the semantic differences between overt and covert Qumorphemes in Hiberno and Ozark English is required, but the evidence from Ozark
English is suggestive that a speaker uses the overt Qu-morpheme in a different
situation than the covert Qu-morpheme. This is to be expected, since if a language
has multiple Qu-morphemes they are unlikely to be completely identical. If they
were identical, then why would a language need multiple ones? Also, as discussed inchapter 3.3, a number of languages have multiple Qu-morphemes which, although
identical in that they serve the function of typing a clause as an interrogative, differ
in their semantic and syntactic behavior.
4.2.4 Summary
In this section, I have argued that the features that a Qu-morpheme has play important roles in the formation of yes/no constructions. A Qu-morpheme has [±]valued [OVERT] and [AFFIX] features. A [±OVERT] feature determines whether

99

or not a Qu-morpheme is overt, and a [±AFFIX] feature determines whether itshows up as an affix or an independent lexical item. Notably, a Qu-morpheme thatis an affix can force movement of a tense element, as is the case in English andSpanish. If a Qu-morpheme has [-] values of both of these features, then it shows
up as a particular intonation pattern that indicates a yes/no construction. Thus
the particular features contained within a Qu-morpheme influence the structure ofa yes/no construction.
4.3 Qu-morphemes in Typ
Cross-linguistically, in yes/no constructions, Qu-morphemes frequently appear in aclause-peripheral position. As discussed in chapter 2.5, I claim that TypP is associated with clause typing. Typing of a clause as a yes/no construction occurs when
the Qu-feature of a Qu-morpheme checks an uninterpretable feature in Typ. Since
TypP occurs in a clause peripheral position, a clause-pheripheral Qu-morpheme islikely Merged directly in Typ. All of the languages discussed in the previous section
appear to contain clause-peripheral Qu-morphemes, assuming that a Qu-morphemethat surfaces as intonation alone is also in a clause-peripheral position. In this section I demonstrate that a Qu-morpheme in Modern Japanese and English occurs
directly in Typ. The purpose of this discussion is to show that in general (although
not always, as I discuss in section 4.4), a Qu-morpheme is Merged directly in Typ.
4.3.1 Modern Japanese
In Modern Japanese, a Qu-morpheme must appear at the end of a clause. In thefollowing Japanese example, the Qu-morpheme ka occurs in clause-final position. If
it is in any other position, the result is an ill-formed yes/no construction.
(29) Kare-wa (*ka) ie-ni(*ka) kaerimashita ka?
He-tophome-datwent
Qu‘Did he go home?’

100This example can be accounted for as shown in (30), with the Qu-morpheme Merged
directly in Typ. The FQu subscript on the Qu-morpheme represents a Qu-feature.
(30)

TypP
Typ’
TP

Typ
kaFQu
T’

kare-wa ie-ni kaerimashita‘he-top home-dat went’
Furthermore, the Japanese Qu-morpheme can only take scope in the clause inwhich it appears. Example (31a) shows a yes/no construction with an embedded
clause. The Qu-morpheme ka is in the matrix clause, which it types as a yes/noconstruction. Example (31b) with a Qu-morpheme in the embedded clause is illformed since the Qu-morpheme cannot take matrix scope.12(31)(a) Anata-wa [kare-ga gohan-o suki datta to]omottimasu ka?
you-top he-nom food-acc like didcomp thinkQu‘Do you think he liked the food?’(b) *Anata-wa [kare-ga gohan-o suki-datta ka to]omottimasu?
you-tophe-nom food-acc like-past Qu comp think‘Do you think he liked the food?’

Example (32) below contains an embedded yes/no construction. The Qu-morphemeka appears at the end of the embedded clause and it cannot take matrix scope. The
embedded clause can only be interpreted as a yes/no construction, and the matrix
clause can only be interpreted as a non-interrogative.13
12

The embedded clause requires that there be a complementizer to. I assume that to is in thehead of ForceP. See chapter 2.5 for discussion of clause structure.
13
If the matrix clause ends in rising intonation, it can be construed as an interrogative yes/noconstruction. In this case, the meaning is ‘Do you know if he came?’. But this interrogative

101(32) Anata-wa [kare-ga kitta ka] shiteiru.
you-top he-nom came Qu know(i) ‘You know if he came.’(ii) ∗Do you know (that) he came?
These facts indicate that the Qu-morpheme is Merged directly in the Typ head inwhich it has scope.
4.3.2 English
The English Qu-morpheme, like the Japanese Qu-morpheme, occurs in a fixed position, a fact that is accounted for if it is Merged directly in Typ of the clause inwhich it has scope.
The English Qu-morpheme can only appear in a clause-peripheral position corresponding to Typ. In (33-34a) the auxiliary element in T has raised to clause-initial
position to affix onto a null Qu-morpheme, as shown in the corresponding (b) examples.
(33)(a) Could he drink the wine?
(b) ∅Qu -Could1 he t1 drink the wine?

(34)(a) Did he eat the food?
(b) ∅Qu -Did1 he tpast1 eat the food?

This auxiliary is confined to clause initial position. It cannot follow the subject asin (35) and result in a yes/no construction.
interpretation must, at least under my analysis, result from the presence of a null Qu-morpheme in
the matrix clause that is separate from the Qu-morpheme of the embedded clause, as the embedded
clause must still be an interrogative.

102

(35)

(a) * ∅Qu - he did eat the food?
(b) * ∅Qu - he could drink the wine?

Similarly, in an embedded clause the overt Qu-morpheme if must occur at the
beginning of the clause, preceding the subject.14 Example (36a) is fine because if
precedes the subject he, but (36b) is ill-formed because if follows the subject.
(36)(a) I wonder [if he ate the food].
(b) *I wonder [he if ate the food].

These facts suggest that the Qu-morpheme occurs in a clause peripheral TypP head.
It cannot be preceded by a subject, since a subject occurs below Typ in [Spec, TP].
Furthermore, a Qu-morpheme in an embedded clause cannot have matrix scope.
Example (37a) contains a statement with an embedded declarative clause. Example(37b) shows that if the embedded clause contains the Qu-morpheme if, then if
cannot make the matrix clause into a yes/no construction. Note that the Qumorpheme can have embedded scope as shown in (36a) above. But in (37), the verb
think selects for a statement, and so the embedded clause cannot be an interrogative.
(37c) shows that a null Qu-morpheme in an embedded clause cannot have matrix
scope, although this is also ill-formed because a null Qu-morpheme simply cannot
appear in an embedded clause in Standard English. Example (37d) is the only way
to form a matrix yes/no construction in this case; there must be a Qu-morpheme in
the matrix clause.
(37)(a) You think [that she should go].
(b) *You think [if she should go].
(c) *You think [∅Qu -should1 she t1 go].

14

See section 4.2.1 for arguments that if is a Qu-morpheme.

103(d) ∅Qu -Do1 you tpast1 think [(that) she should go]?
The fact that the Qu-morpheme in the embedded clause cannot have matrix scopeis evidence that the Qu-morpheme must be in Typ of the clause in which it has
scope.
The English data then show that the English Qu-morpheme is simply Merged
directly in Typ where its Qu-feature types a clause as an interrogative.
4.4 TP-internal Qu-morphemes
As I discuss in chapter 2.2, it is less work to Merge a syntactic object into a derivation
then it is to Merge a syntactic object and then move it (i.e., remerge it in a newposition). Therefore, it is most economical for a Qu-morpheme to be Merged directly
in Typ from where its Qu-feature can type a clause. As discussed in section 4.3,
this option appears to be the only one in languages such as Japanese and English.
There are languages, however, that do not always require a Qu-morpheme to
be directly Merged in Typ in a yes/no construction. In these languages, a Qumorpheme can appear in a TP-internal position; i.e., a position below TP. In thefollowing examples from Sinhala, the Qu-morpheme d@ appears in TP-internal positions (see section 4.4.1 for evidence that the Qu-morpheme actually is in a TPinternal position).
(38) Sinhala:(a) Chitra [ee pot@]-d@ kieuwe?
Chitra that book-Qu read.E‘Was it that book that Chitra read?’ (Kishimoto 2005:11)(b) Siri het@-d@
waduwæd@k@r@nne?
˙˙˙Siri tomorrow-Qu
woodworking
do-PRES.E‘Is it tomorrow that Siri does woodworking?’ (Gair & Sumangala
1991:96)

104

When the Qu-morpheme is Merged in a position below Typ as in (38a-b) then an
operation in addition to the initial Merge of the Qu-morpheme is required for the
Qu-feature to type a clause. This raises the following question: why can a Qumorpheme be Merged in a position other then Typ in languages such as Sinhala? Iclaim that the answer involves a Focus-feature.
I propose that there are two types of Qu-morpheme, shown in (39a-b).
(39)(a) Qu[FQu ](b) Qu[FF oc ,FQu ]Languages such as Japanese and English contain only the Qu-morpheme in (39a),
which has a Qu-feature FQu and is Merged directly in Typ. This Qu-morpheme
merely serves the purpose of typing a clause as an interrogative. Other languages
contain the Qu-morpheme (39b), which has a Focus-feature FF oc in addition to a
Qu-feature FQu .
A Qu-morpheme that has both Qu- and Focus-features serves two functions; 1)
it types a clause as an interrogative and, 2) it focuses a particular phrase withina clause. The Qu-feature is responsible for typing a clause and the Focus-featureis responsible for focusing a phrase. I propose that this type of Qu-morpheme is
Merged in a position adjoined to a focused phrase, as shown in (40).
(40)

XP
XP

Qu[FQu ,FF oc ]The Qu-morpheme’s Focus-feature moves to the head of a Focus Phrase (FocP),
where it focuses its associated phrase, and the Qu-feature moves to Typ where it
types a clause. Following Alexiadou & Anagnostopoulou’s (1998) view that an EPP
feature can motivate head movement (see chapter 2.3), I propose that EPP featuresin FocP and TypP force movement of Qu- and Focus-features.

105

Evidence for this proposal that a Focus-feature forces a Qu-morpheme to be
Merged TP-internally comes from the interpretation of constructions with TPinternal Qu-morphemes. The phrase that the Qu-morpheme is adjacent to is emphasized in a manner consistent with the notion of ‘focus.’
Focus is an emphasized part of a sentence that presents new information (Rizzi
1997). By ‘emphasized’ I refer to an element that stands out from the rest of
the sentence via its syntactic position, pronunciation, or adjacency to a particularmorpheme that marks focus (this is the phenomenon examined in this section). A
Qu-morpheme with a Focus-feature emphasizes a particular phrase contained withina yes/no construction, and furthermore, this type of focus appears to be what Kiss
(1998) refers to as “identificational focus.”
Kiss (1998) argues that there are two types of focus: identificational focus (whichis interpreted as contrastive focus in some languages) and information focus. According to Kiss, both types of focus refer to new information that is emphasized,15
but their primary differences are 1) that an identificational focus refers to an exhaustive set (all elements of a set), whereas information focus does not, and 2) an
identificational focus appears in the specifier of a Focus Phrase (FocP) projectionin the left periphery of a clause, whereas information focus is not associated within
any particular syntactic position. For example, an identificational focus occurs in a
preverbal position in Hungarian, and as a cleft in English, whereas an information
focus occurs in a postverbal position in Hungarian and in a non-clefted construction
in English.16
Examples (41a-b) demonstrate information focus.
15

Although the information is new, it can make reference to old information by referring to apresupposed set. I thank Andrew Carnie for pointing this out to me.
16
See Kiss (1998) for further discussion of the differences between these types of focus.

106(41) Hungarian:(a) Mari ki nézett magának
egy kalapot és egy kabátot.
Mary out picked herself.dat a
hat.acc and acoat.acc‘Mary picked a hat and a coat for herself.’(b) Mari ki nézett magának
egy kalapot.
Mary out picked herself.dat a
hat.acc‘Mary picked a hat for herself.’ (Kiss 1998:250)
In (41a), a hat and a coat, in both Hungarian and English, is new information thatis emphasized, but it does not refer to an exhaustive set. Therefore, (41b) can bea logical consequence of (41a). Note that the information focus does not occur in a
special position within a clause.
The examples in (42a-b) from Hungarian, along with their corresponding English
glosses, demonstrate identificational focus.
(42) Hungarian:(a) Mari egy kalapot és egy kabátot nézett ki magának.
Mary ahat.acc and acoat.acc picked out herself.to‘It was a hat and a coat that Mary picked for herself.’(b) Mari egy kalapot nézett ki magának.
Mary ahat.acc picked out herself.to‘It was a hat that Mary picked for herself.’ (Kiss 1998:250)
In (42a), Kiss argues that a hat and a coat is an identifiational focus both in Hungarian and in the corresponding English gloss. Kiss points out that (42b) is not a“logical consequence” of (42a), because a hat and a coat is a contrastive focus thatrefers to an exhaustive set.17 The idea here is that if one says (42a), that person
expresses the idea that Mary must have picked both a hat and a coat, whereas (42b)indicates that Mary only picked a hat, and so (42a) does not imply that (42b) is
17

Kiss attributes this type of test for exhaustivity to Szabolcsi (1981).

107

true. (42a) thus refers to an exhaustive set. In (42a), a hat and a coat in both Hungarian and English is argued to be in [Spec, FocP], which corresponds to a preverbal
position in Hungarian and a cleft in English.18 Thus (42a) has an element, a hat
and a coat that for semantic and syntactic reasons, is an identificational focus.
When a Qu-morpheme occurs in a TP-internal position, as I discuss in the following subsections, the resulting constructions correspond to clefted yes/no constructions in English, such as (43) below.
(43) Was it Bob’s book and Mary’s book that Harold read?
Assuming that Kiss’ claims are correct, then the clefted phrase Bob’s book andMary’s book in (43) is an identificational focus. For example, if one answers thisquestion with a yes, then the implication is that (44) is true, and the clefted phrase
here refers to an exhaustive set, as in (42a) above.
(44) It was Bob’s book and Mary’s book that Harold read.
My analysis differs from Kiss’ analysis with respect to the FocP. Kiss argues thata phrase that is an identificational focus must appear in [Spec, FocP]. However, I
argue that this need not be the case. A phrase with an adjacent Qu-morpheme canbe an identificational focus without appearing in FocP. The focus interpretation is
obtained via movement of a Focus-feature. Specifically, a Focus-feature associatedwith a Qu-morpheme that is adjoined to a salient phrase raises to the head of FocP
and gives the phrase an identificational focus interpretation; the phrase itself need
not appear in FocP. I elaborate on this proposal in the following subsection.
Below, I argue that Sinhala, Premodern Japanese, Okinawan, Tupı́, and Ewen
are languages that have the two types of Qu-morphemes in (39a-b), one with and
one without a Focus-feature. The Qu-morpheme without a Focus-feature (this isessentially the ‘default’ type of Qu-morpheme) simply is Merged in Typ and types
18

See Kiss (1998) for further discussion of the clause structure of this type of construction.

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a clause as an interrogative. The Qu-morpheme with a Focus-feature is Merged
TP-internally, and serves the dual function of typing the clause as an interrogativeand focusing an adjoined phrase.
Before I begin my investigation of TP-internal Qu-morphemes, I note that in
the following discussion I do not discuss the [OVERT] and [AFFIX] features of the
Qu-morphemes. All of the Qu-morphemes that I examine are overt. This is simply
because it is difficult to determine if a [-OVERT] Qu-morpheme is in a TP-internal
position.19 Also, although some of the Qu-morphemes in these languages may be
affixes, to the best of my knowledge an [AFFIX] feature does not force movementof any element, and thus an [AFFIX] feature does not play a particularly importantrole in determining the syntactic structure of these constructions.
4.4.1 Sinhala
Sinhala is a language with a Qu-morpheme d@ that can appear in clause-final position. For example, the statement in (45a) becomes a yes/no construction when d@‘Qu’ is added to the end of the clause, as shown in (45b). The fact that the additionof d@ results in a yes/no construction is evidence that d@ is a Qu-morpheme. Also,
note that the verb ends in -a, glossed as ‘-A.’20 The importance of this fact will
become evident in the following discussion.
(45) Sinhala:(a) Kol@mb@t@ basekaka tien@wa.
Colombo bus
be.A‘There is a bus to Colombo.’
19

One way of determining if there is a [-OVERT] Qu-morpheme in a TP-internal position would

be to examine intonation patterns (Heidi Harley, p.c.), which is outside the scope of this work.
20
I follow Sumangala (1992) in glossing -a as ‘-A.’109(b) Kol@mb@t@ basekaka tien@wa d@?
Colombo bus
be.AQu‘Is there a bus to Colombo.’ (Gair 1970:139)
Notably, the Sinhala Qu-morpheme is not confined to clause-final position; it
can occur in a TP-internal position as a suffix on a focused phrase. In (46a), theQu-morpheme appears in the typical clause-final position, but in (46b), it appears
as an affix on the nominal ee pot@ ‘that book,’ and a yes/no construction results.
The semantics of (46a) and (46b) differ in that in (46b) the phrase ee pot@ ‘thatbook,’ to which the Qu-morpheme is affixed, is focused, as evidenced by the clefted
English gloss. Also, when the Qu-morpheme appears in a TP-internal position, theverb occurs with an -e ending, which I gloss as ‘-E.’21 This verbal ending differsfrom the ‘-A’ verbal suffix that occurs when a Qu-morpheme appears in clause-final
position, as in (45a) above.
(46) Sinhala:(a) Chitra ee
pot@ kieuwa d@?
Chitra that book read.A Qu‘Did Chitra read that book?’(b) Chitra [ee pot@]-d@ kieuwe?
Chitra that book-Qu read.E‘Was it that book that Chitra read?’ (Kishimoto 2005:11)
Example (47) below shows that the Qu-morpheme may even attach onto adjuncts
such as het@ ‘tomorrow.’˙(47) Sinhala:
Siri het@-d@
waduwæd@k@r@nne?
˙˙˙Siri tomorrow-Qu
woodworking
do-pres.E‘Is it tomorrow that Siri does woodworking?’ (Gair & Sumangala 1991:96)
21

I follow Sumangala (1992) in glossing -e as ‘-E.’

110

Three descriptive facts about these constructions are of importance for this analysis. First, the presence of the Qu-morpheme is responsible for a yes/no interrogativeinterpretation. Second, when the Qu-morpheme attaches onto a TP-internal phrase,
as in (46b) and (47), this phrase becomes focused, as indicated by the clefted glosses.
As discussed in the previous section, this appears to be identificational focus. The
third fact about these constructions is that the verb ending differs depending on
where the Qu-morpheme is pronounced. When the Qu-morpheme occurs in clausefinal position, the verb has an ‘-A’ suffix. The verb also appears with this suffix
in non-interrogative constructions such as (45a) above. When the Qu-morpheme
appears in a TP-internal position, the verb of the clause that the Qu-morpheme isassociated with occurs with the ‘-E’ ending. I next turn to an explanation for thesefacts.
When a Qu-morpheme occurs in a clause-peripheral position, it is most likely
directly Merged in Typ. First of all, direct Merge in Typ is the most economical
operation (see chapter 2.2.4). Secondly, the Typ head in Sinhala occurs clausefinally. Sinhala is an SOV language with head-final projections (Sumangala 1992).
For example, the noun minissu ‘people’ and the verb bivva ‘drink-past’ follow theircomplements in (48a-b) respectively.22(48) Sinhala:(a) NP: gamee
minissuvillage-gen people‘people of the village’(b) VP: tee bivva
tea drink-past‘drank tea’ (Sumangala 1992:41)
22

Sinhala allows scrambling. When there is scrambling, a complement need not precede its head.

However, if one considers the underlying word order of scrambled constructions to be SOV, thenthe head must follows its complement in the underlying structure.

111

Since the Qu-morpheme occurs at the end of the clause in constructions such as(46a), a natural assumption would be that it occurs in Typ, as I claimed in section
4.3 was the case in Japanese and English.
Thus, example (46a) with a clause-final Qu-morpheme can be accounted foras shown in (49). The Qu-morpheme is Merged directly in Typ, where the Qufeature values an uninterpretable clausal typing feature and types the clause as aninterrogative.
(49)

TypP
Typ’
TP

Typ
d@[FQu ]Chitra ee pot@ kieuwa‘Chitra that book read-A’
When a Qu-morpheme does not appear at the clause-periphery, as in (46b)repeated below, I have claimed that it is in a TP-internal position.
(46) Sinhala:(b) Chitra [ee pot@]-d@ kieuwe?
Chitra that book-Qu read.E‘Was it that book that Chitra read?’ (Kishimoto 2005:11)
As noted above, projections in Sinhala are head-final.

Therefore, if the Qu-morpheme d@ in (46b) were in Typ, then everything preceding it would have to
be in a higher position, such as the specifier of [TypP]. But if this were the case,then it is not clear where the verb kieuwe ‘read-E’ would occur, since Typ linearly
follows the v P projection housing the verb. The verb would have to undergo rightward movement, or be a remnant of a complex series of leftward movements. On

112

the other hand, if the Qu-morpheme occurs below the TP in a position adjoined tothe object, then the facts are accounted for straightforwardly.
In constructions such as (46b), I propose that the presence of a Focus-feature
within a Qu-morpheme forces it to be Merged TP-internally adjacent to a phrasethat is the focus of the interrogative. For example, in (50), the Qu-morpheme d@ isadjoined to an XP that is contained in a TP-internal position in a clause.
(50)

TypP
Typ’
FocP

Typ
Foc’

TP
...

Foc

XP
XP

d@[FQu ,FF oc ]...
In order to focus a phrase, the Focus-feature associated with the Qu-morpheme
must move to the head of a FocP projection. A Qu-morpheme with a Focus-featurecannot be Merged directly in Typ because then its Focus-feature 1) would not be
associated with any phrase that needs to be focused, and 2) would not be in aposition to check the feature in a FocP head, assuming that TypP is above FocP
(see the discussion of clause structure in chapter 2.5).
Other clausal typing morphemes in Sinhala can also appear TP-internally andfocus an adjacent phrase. The following examples show that tamay ‘certainty’ caneither appear in the clause periphery (51a) or clause internally (51b). When it

113

occurs TP-internally in (51b), if focuses het@ ‘tomorrow’ in the same manner that˙
the Qu-morpheme does in (47).
(51) Sinhala(a) Gun@paal@ heT@
gallu yan@va-tamay?
Gunapaala tomorrow Galle go-A-CERTAINTY‘It is for sure that Gunapala is going to Galle tomorrow.’(b) Gun@paal@ heT@-tamay
gallu yanne?
Gunapaala tomorrow-CERTAINTY Galle go.E
‘It is certainly tomorrow that Gunapala is going to Galle.’ (Sumangala
1992:131)
Also, lu ‘reportative,’ nee ‘tag question’ and yæ ‘dubitative’ can occur either clause
peripherally or clause internally (cf. Sumangala 1992:131-132). Sinhala clausal
typing morphemes, including the Qu-morpheme, thus are capable of turning a constituent into an identificational focus.
I am now in a position to account for constructions such as (46b), repeatedbelow, in which the Qu-morpheme occurs as an affix on the TP-internal phrase ee
pot@ ‘that book.’(46) Sinhala:(b) Chitra [ee pot@]-d@ kieuwe?
Chitra that book-Q read.E‘Was it that book that Chitra read?’ (Kishimoto 2005:11)
In (46b) the Qu-morpheme is Merged in a position adjoined to the object ee pot@‘that book’ as shown in (52).

114

(52)

DP
DP

d@[FF oc ,FQu ]ee pot@‘that book’
When a Qu -morpheme is Merged TP-internally in a position below FocP, asin (46b), its Focus-feature needs to check an uninterpretable feature in the head of
FocP to focus a phrase and the Qu-feature needs to check an uninterpretable feature
in Typ to type a clause. There are at least two possible ways for the features
to do this; one is via Agree between the features and Typ, and another is via
movement. I will take the position that movement is involved. This is because, as I
will discuss in chapter 5, Agree is not subject to island effects, whereas relationships
between the Qu-morpheme and Typ in Sinhala are subject to island effects. If
movement is the crucial operation, then either the Qu- and Focus-features must raisealong with the Qu-morpheme, or they must undergo feature movement (movement
without an associated lexical item). Since the Qu-morpheme clearly does not moveovertly to the clause-periphery, the most likely possibility is that its Qu- and Focusfeatures undergo feature movement. Motivation for movement of these features canbe attributed to EPP features that serve the purpose of forcing these features tomove.
Thus, if this analysis is correct, then in (46b), the Focus- and Qu-features associated with the Qu-morpheme undergo feature-movement that leaves the Qumorpheme in-situ. A diagram is shown in (53). The t[FF oc1,FQu 2] within the QuP
refers to the traces of the Focus- and Qu-features. I assume that the ‘-E’ verbal
ending is the overt pronunciation of a Focus-feature in Foc, and thus I have placed
the ‘-E’ in Foc (I discuss the verbal ending in more detail below). I also assume thatthe verb raises to T (I return to this issue below). Note that there are EPP featuresin Foc and Typ that force movement of the Focus- and Qu-features, respectively.

115

(53)

TypP
Typ’
FocP

TypEP P
FQu2
Foc’

TP
T’

FocEP P-eFF oc1-Ev’

Tkieuw3‘read’vP
DP
Chitra

DP

v
t3

DP

QuP

ee pot@‘that book’d@+t[FF oc1 ,FQu2]

In (53), the Focus-feature and Qu-feature raise together as a feature-bundle to Foc,
where the Focus-feature remains, and then the Qu-feature excorporates and raises
on to Typ.
Verbal agreement in Sinhala provides further evidence for the proposal that a
Focus-features undergoes feature movement. Verbal endings are dependent on theposition of the Qu-morpheme, or other clausal-typing morpheme. As mentioned
above, in Sinhala yes/no constructions, when the Qu-morpheme occurs clausefinally, the verb occurs with the ‘-A’ ending. The ‘-A’ ending is something akinto a default verbal ending, as suggested by Gair and Sumangala’s (1991:94) statement that the ‘-A’ affix “is the most common [verbal affix] in finite independent

116

sentences.” Below is an example of a declarative sentence with the default ‘-A’ ending on the verb.
(54) Sinhala:
Chitra pot@ gatta.
Chitra book bought.A‘Chitra bought the book.’ (Kishimoto 2005:4)
When the Qu-morpheme occurs TP-internally, the verb shows up with the ‘-E’
ending, which I assume is the pronunciation of the Focus-feature in Foc. Specifically,
movement of the Focus-feature to Foc triggers this ‘-E’ suffix. When there is no
Focus-feature in Foc, then the default ‘-A’ ending surfaces on the verb. Only tensed
verbs appear with these suffixes (Gair & Sumangala 1991). Therefore, a reasonableassumption is that a tensed verb raises as high as T, as is claimed by Gair &Sumangala (1991), and that the default ‘-A’ ending is in T. When the verb appears
with the Focus-suffix, either the verb remains in T or it raises to Foc. Which actuallyoccurs is not crucial to my analysis, thus I do not investigate this issue.
This feature movement analysis requires that features (specifically, Qu- andFocus-features) raise either over or through intervening projections that are filled,
as can be seen in (53) above. The Focus- and Qu-features associated with the Qumorpheme raise over a v P head and a TP head (not shown in the diagram). This
movement, however, appears to be a violation of the Head Movement Constraint(HMC) (Travis 1984), which states that “a head cannot be separated from its traceby an intervening head (Lasnik 2003:70).” Within the Minimalist Program, if movement of an element is blocked by an intervening head, there is a violation of the
Minimal Link Condition (see (34) in chapter 2.6). Hagstrom (1998:61) accounts forwhy this long head movement may be possible, as follows:. . . feature attraction drives movement of the closest element with therelevant feature. If a feature F is being attracted and a head H carries the117feature F, movement of H will only be blocked if there is an intervening
head which also carries the feature F. Any head which does not carry
this feature is irrelevant.
Hagstrom’s view is in accord with the notion of Relativized Minimality, proposedby Rizzi (1990). In a configuration such as (55), Rizzi (1990:2) writes that “if Z isa potential governor of some kind for Y, it will block only government of the samekind from X.”(55) . . . X . . . Z . . . Y . . . (Rizzi 1990:1)
If the notion of different types of government (Chomsky 1981) is replaced with thenotion of different types of features23 then it can be argued that Z will block a
relationship between X and Y only if Z has a particular type of feature that X andY have. For example, (56a) allows X and Y to establish a well-formed relationship(such as movement of an element from X to Y) because Z does not contain thefeature F1 that is contained by X and Y. However, (56b) is ill-formed because Z
contains the same feature F1 that X and Y have, thereby blocking any relationshipbetween X and Y.
(56)(a) . . . XF 1 . . . ZF 2 . . . YF 1 . . .
(b) . . . XF 1 . . . ZF 1 . . . YF 1 . . .
*If these views about head-movement are on the right track, then Qu- and Focusfeatures in Sinhala can move through the heads of intervening projections, at least
as long as these heads do not carry the same type of feature. Movement of these23

I note that comparing features with types of government is an overly simplistic way to viewthings, as the notions of government developed by Chomsky (1981), and much other work, arecomplex and cover a broad spectrum of syntactic phenomena.

118

features may proceed through v and T because these projections lack Qu- andFocus-type features.24
This analysis also accounts for the fact that a Qu-morpheme in Sinhala cantake scope outside of the clause that it appears in. In (57), the Qu-morpheme d@
is attached to nimal-T@ ‘Nimal-dat’ in the embedded clause and a matrix yes/noconstruction results; the embedded clause is not a yes/no construction. In this case,the verb of the embedded clause has the ‘-A’ ending and the matrix verb, which isthe verb of the clause in which the Qu-morpheme has scope, has the ‘-E’ ending; theverb of the clause that is typed as an interrogative by the Qu-morpheme appears
with the ‘-E’ ending.
(57) Sinhala:
Gunee [Siri eek@ nimal-T@-d@ dunna
kiy@la] kivve?
Gune Siri that Nimal-dat-Q give-past.A that] say-past.E‘Is it to Nimal that Gune said that Siri gave it?’ (Sumangala 1992:135)
Example (57) can be accounted for as follows. The Qu-morpheme adjoins to thephrase nimal-T@ ‘Nimal-dat.’ The Focus- and Qu-features of the Qu-morpheme
raise to the matrix Foc and Typ projections, and the Qu-morpheme remains in-situ.
This allows nimal-T@ ‘Nimal-dat’ to obtain matrix scope as a focused element and
the Qu-morpheme to type the matrix clause. Also, the Focus-feature in the matrix
Foc shows up as the ‘-E’ ending on the matrix verb. A diagram is shown below.
For the sake of simplicity, I have indicated movement of the Qu- and Focus-features
as skipping over intervening heads. However, as discussed above, these features
actually move through intervening heads, but that this movement is simply notblocked.
24

Note that I differ on this point from Rivero (1991) who argues that long head movement

can skip over intervening heads. Whether or not there is movement through or over intervening
heads is not that crucial to my analysis, however, it is an important issue that requires further
investigation than I have been able to give it here.

119

(58)

TypP
Typ’
FocP

TypEP P
FQu2
Foc’

TP
DP3
Gunee

T’

FocEP P-eFF oc1-Ev’

Tkivve3
said

vP

t3
TypP

v
t3

Siri eek@ nimal-T@-d@+t[FF oc1 ,FQu2] dunna kiy@la‘Siri that Nimal-dat-Qu
give-past.A that’
Even though the Focus- and Qu-features move through the embedded clause in(57), the ‘-E’ ending is not triggered on the embedded verb. The ‘-E’ ending only
occurs on the verb of the clause that contains the final landing cites of the Focusand Qu-features. This fact is accounted for straightforwardly if the ‘-E’ ending is
the Spell-out of a Focus-feature. The Focus-feature of the Qu-morpheme does not
sit in the embedded FocP, and thus it should not trigger the ‘-E’ ending on theembedded verb.
Lastly, there is the issue of how the Qu- and Focus-features in the embedded
clause in (57) can be attracted by elements in the matrix clause. If the Phase
Theory view that only elements in the edge of a phase are accessible to higher
operations, and the embedded TypP, being at the clause periphery, is a phase, then120

the Qu- and Focus-features must move to the edge of the embedded clause before
they can be accessible to further movement to the matrix clause. On this point, I
assume that EPP features in the Foc and Typ heads in the embedded clause attract
the Qu- and Foc-features. Since the Foc and Typ projections are at the periphery of
the embedded clause, they are at the phase edge and thus features in the embedded
Foc and Typ are accessible to attraction by EPP features in the matrix clause.
In summary, I have taken the position that the Sinhala d@ is a Qu-morphemethat types a clause as an interrogative and that where it occurs in a constructionboils down to whether or not it contains a Focus-feature. Furthermore, my analysis
relies on the notion that there is a fixed FocP projection in the clausal periphery.
My analysis differs in several ways from the earlier analysis of Sumangala (1992).
Sumangala (1992) argues that the Sinhala Qu-morpheme, along with otherclausal-typing morphemes, is a “focus marker” that occurs in the head of a FocP
projection. This FocP notably is not confined to one particular clausal position.
It may occur in the clause-periphery or TP-internally. The focused phrase is thecomplement of the Focus head and there is a null operator in the specifier of the
FocP. The null operator is required due to “The Focus-Criterion” given below.
(59) The Focus-Criterion(a) A Focus operator must be in a Spec head configuration with an X0[Focus].
(b) An X0 [Focus] must be in a Spec-head configuration with a focus
operator. (Sumangala 1992:162).
This focus operator triggers verbal agreement. Specifically, when the FocP is locatedin a TP-internal position, its operator raises to [Spec, CP]. When it passes throughthe specifier of IP (Sumangala uses IP instead of TP), it triggers the -e ending on
the verb.

121

Sumangala’s analysis works as follows. (27a), repeated below, is a yes/no construction with a clause-peripheral Qu-morpheme.
(27)(a) Gun@paal@ heT@
gaalu yan@va d@?
Gunapala tomorrow Galle go
Qu‘Is Gunapala going to Galle tomorrow?’ (Sumangala 1992:131)

Sumangala argues that the structure of this construction is as shown in (60), adaptedfrom Sumangala (1992:165). The Qu-morpheme is base-generated in the head of a
FocP,25 which is in the clause-periphery. Its complement is the IP and there is anull operator in its specifier position.
(60)

CP
C’
FocP
Op

C
Foc’

IP
Gun@paal@ heT@ gallu yan@va
Gunapala tomorrow Galle go

Foc
d@
‘Qu’

Sumangala argues that because the entire IP is the complement of Foc, the entire
IP is focused.
In a construction, such as (61), which is identical to (27a) except that the Qumorpheme appears TP-internally, Sumangala claims that the Qu-morpheme is alsobase generated in the head of a FocP projection. However, in this case FocP is in a
TP-internal position.
25

Sumangala uses FP.

122(61) Gun@paal@ heT@
gaalu d@ yanne?
Gunapala tomorrow Galle Qu go.E
‘Is it to Galle that Gunapala is going tomorrow?’ (Sumangala 1992:163)
The underlying structure of (61) is shown in (62), adapted from Sumangala(1992:165). The adverbial heT@ ‘tomorrow’ is left out of the diagram, but presumably it is adjoined to the verb phrase. In this case, because the FocP projectionis TP-internal, Sumangala argues that the null operator in [Spec, FocP] raises to[Spec, CP] to give the focused phrase scope. Furthermore, movement of the operator
through IP triggers the ‘-E’ ending on the verb.
(62)

CP
Op1

C’
IP

t1

C
I’

VP
Gun@paal@

I
-e
V’

FocP

V
yannFoc’ go

gaalu
Galle

Foc
d@
Qu

t1

Sumangala’s analysis differs from mine in several ways. Sumagala’s important
claims are that in Sinhala, the Qu-morpheme is always a Focus-morpheme, a FocP
can appear in various positions, and there is a null operator in the specifier of123

FocP. First of all, I agree with respect to the Qu-morpheme essentially being a
Focus-morpheme when it occurs TP-internally. However, it is not clear that it isa Focus-morpheme when it occurs in the clause-periphery, where it merely appears
to serve the function of typing a clause as an interrogative. Under my analysis,
the clause-peripheral Qu-morpheme lacks a Focus-feature. Secondly, Sumangala
argues that a FocP occurs wherever the Qu-morpheme is. However, a fixed FocP
projection in the clause periphery (see discussion of Rizzi (1997, 2001) in chapter
2.4) straightforwardly accounts for a focused phrase obtaining scope, and is in accord
with research on identificational focus (see discussion of Kiss (1998) in section 4.4).
Another aspect of Sumangala’s analysis is that it makes recourse to a null Focus
operator. The idea that movement of the Focus-operator triggers the verbal -E
ending works nicely, but under my analysis there is no need for movement of anull operator. There is simply movement of a Focus-feature, and this Focus-featuresurfaces as the -E ending. Also, although Sumangala’s analysis accounts for focus
effects, it does not account for the fact that a Qu-morpheme types a clause as a
yes/no construction. Since in non-focus yes/no constructions, the Qu-morpheme
appears in the clause-periphery, and this clause-peripheral position appears to be
the default position for Qu-morphemes in a number of languages, I think that clausal
typing is associated with the clause periphery, and not a TP-internal FocP position.
I account for clausal typing as resulting from Qu-feature movement. Thus, theadvantages of my analysis are as follows: 1) it accounts for the fact that bothclausal typing and identificational focus are associated with a Qu-morpheme, 2)
there is only a single FocP projection in the clausal periphery, and 3) there is no
postulation of null Focus operator movement.
4.4.2 Okinawan
Okinawan is another language that has a TP-internal Qu-morpheme that co-occurs
with verbal agreement, similar to the Sinhala Qu-morpheme.

124

Ga is a Qu-morpheme that occurs in clause-final position in wh-constructions.
Example (63a) is a statement. When the subject John is replaced with the whphrase taa ‘who’ and ga ‘Qu’ is added to clause-final position, a wh-construction
results, as shown in (63b).26(63) Okinawan:(a) John-ga
ich-u-n.
John-nom go-pres-ind‘John is going.’(b) Taa-ga
ich-u-ga?
who-nom go-pres-Qu‘Who is going?’ (Miyara 2001:27)
Although ga can appear in clause-final position in a wh-construction, it cannot
appear in this position in a yes/no construction. Instead, the Qu-morpheme -mi isused. Compare (63a) above with (64). The indicative suffix n of (63a) has been
replaced with mi in (64), resulting in a yes/no construction.
(64) Okinawan:
John-ga
ich-u-mi?
John-nom go-pres-Qu‘Is John going?’ (Miyara 2001:27)
Basically, the set of features that make-up ga are such that ga is not permitted toappear clause-finally in a yes/no construction.27
The Qu-morpheme ga, however, can appear in a TP-internal position in a yes/noconstruction. In this case, it behaves like the TP-internal Qu-morphemes of Sinhala
and Premodern Japanese. Examples (65a-b) are yes/no constructions in which the26
27

The nominative case marker ga is a different morpheme from the Qu-morpheme ga.
See chapter 5 for discussion of the use of the Okinawan Qu-morpheme ga in wh-constructions.

125

TP-internal Qu-morpheme ga focuses the subject John-ga ‘John-nom’ and types
the clause as an interrogative. Miyara’s (2001) gloss of (65a) begins with I wonder,
but it ends in a question mark indicating that it is a question, but one with afocused phrase. Since this is an interrogative construction and John is focused, thegloss most likely corresponds to ‘Is it John who is going?’. Similarly, the focusedJohn in (65b) suggests that this construction corresponds to ‘Is it John who boughta car?’. Also, note that the verbs end in -ra ‘-RA,’ which according to Miyara(2001), is required when ga appears in a TP-internal position. I take this fact to beevidence that ra is verbal agreement, similar to the verbal ending that occurs witha TP-internal Qu-morpheme in Sinhala.28(65) Okinawan:(a) John-ga-ga
ich-u-ra?
John-nom-Qu go-pres-RA‘I wonder if JOHN is going?’ (Miyara 2001:27)(b) John-ga-ga kurumaa koo-ta-ra?
John-nom-Q car
buy-past-RA‘Did JOHN buy a car?’ (Miyara 2001:42)
Miyara glosses the Qu-morpheme ga in (65a-b) as an emphasis marker (I gloss
it as ‘Qu’). I take this to be an indication that ga is responsible for focusing the
subjects in these examples. Also, ga is identical in form to the clause final Qumorpheme ga that appears in (63b), which suggests that it is a Qu-morpheme.
According to my analysis, the TP-internal ga ‘Qu’ contains a Focus-feature.
When ga is Merged in a TP-internal position, it focuses a phrase and its Focus- andQu-features raise to Foc and Typ, respectively. For example, (65a) has the structurein (66). I assume that the present tense ending -u is in T. Also, although I leave the28

Miyara glosses ga in this case as an emphasis marker and -ra as a Qu-morpheme. Since ga

appears to be responsible for typing a clause as a yes/no construction and -ra only appears when-ga is in a TP-internal position, I assume that ga is a Qu-morpheme and -ra is verbal agreement.

126

verb in v , it is possible that it moves to T. Movement of the Qu- and Focus-features
is motivated by EPP features.
(66)

TypP
Typ’
FocP

TypEP P
FQu2
Foc’

TP
T’

FocEP P-ra[FF oc1]
RA

v’

T
-u
-pres

vP
DP
DP
John-ga
John-nom-ga+t[FF oc1,FQu2 ]

v
ich
go

The Qu-morpheme adjoins onto the subject within the [Spec, v P] position. The
Focus- and Qu-features feature raises to Foc, where the Focus-feature is pronounced
as the ‘-RA’ ending, and the Qu-feature moves to Typ, where it types the clause as
an interrogative.
When the Qu-morpheme in a yes/no construction lacks a Focus-feature, it simply
surfaces in clause-final position as mi. In this case, there is no special verbal ending.
The Qu-morpheme is Merged directly in Typ, as shown in the following simplified
diagram of (64).

127

(67)

TypP
Typ’
TP

Typ
mi[FQu ]John-ga ich-u
John-nom go-pres
Okinawan thus is a language in which the form of the Qu-morpheme that occurs
in a yes/no construction differs depending on whether or not it has a Focus-feature.
The default Qu-morpheme is Merged directly in Typ and surfaces as mi. The
Qu-morpheme with a Focus-feature surfaces as ga and is Merged in a TP-internal
position adjoined to a focused phrase.
4.4.3 Premodern Japanese
In Premodern Japanese, unlike in Modern Japanese (see section 4.3.1), a Qumorpheme can also occur both in TP-internal and clause-peripheral positions. The
TP-internal Qu-morpheme, like the TP-internal Qu-morphemes of Sinhala and Okinawan, focuses an adjacent phrase. According to my analysis, Premodern Japanese
then contains two types of Qu-morphemes: one with a Focus-feature that is Merged
TP-internally and one without a Focus-feature that is Merged directly in Typ.
There are two Qu-morphemes in Premodern Japanese that can appear in a TPinternal position: ya and ka. In (68), the Qu-morpheme ya occurs in a TP-internal
position attached to the phrase ama-to ‘fisherman-as.’ In (68), the verb mira-mu‘see’ appears with an adnominal ending, which occurs when the Qu-morpheme isin a TP-internal position. This type of verbal ending is referred to as musubi in
traditional Japanese grammar, and I gloss it as ‘M’ following Hagstrom (1998).

128(68) Shirotahe-no Fujie-no ura-ni
izari-suru ama-to-ya
epithet-gen Fujie-gen beach-LOC fishing-do fisherman-as-Qu
mira-mu tabi-yuku ware-wo?
see-M
travelme-acc‘Will people take me on a trip to be a fisherman who is fishing in the gulf or
Fujie?’ (Man’youshuu no. 3607, per Watanabe 2002:188)
I assume that ama-to ‘fisherman-as’ is focused based on Watanabe’s (2002) claimthat “the focus of yes/no questions is marked by ya (180).” Thus (68) corresponds
to a rather complex, and in English somewhat marginal, clefted yes/no construction
such as ‘Is it a fisherman who is fishing in the gulf or in Fujie that the people willtake me on a trip to be?’. In (69) below, the Qu-morpheme ya follows the TPinternal nominal phrase tatu no kubi no tama ‘dragon gen head gen gem’ and it
types the clause as an interrogative. The verb torite ‘take’ appears with the musubi
endings -i-te and the verb oFas-i-tar-u ‘come’ appears with the musubi endings -i
and -u.29(69) Ofotomo no
Dainagon Fa [tatunokubi notama ya]Otomo gen Councillor top dragon gen head gen gem Qu
tor-i-teoFas-i-tar-u?
take-M-M come.HON-M-perf-M‘Did Otomo-no-Dianagon get the gems on the dragon’s head?’ (Taketori
Monogatari : 859, per Whitman 1997:161)
This construction presumably corresponds to ‘Was it the gems on the dragon’s headthat Otomo-no-Dainagon got?’. Similarly, the Premodern Japanese Qu-morphemeka, which unlike ya retains its use as a Qu-morpheme in Modern Japanese, canalso appear next to a focused phrase in a TP-internal position. In (70), ka directly
follows the TP-internal nominal phrase atamitaru tora ‘irritated tiger.’ Note that
Watanabe’s clefted gloss indicates that atamitaru tora ‘irritated tiger’ is focused.
Also, the verb hoyuru has a musubi ending ru.
29

It is interesting that the musubi endings appear on both verbs. Why exactly this would be

the case is not clear to me.

129(70) . . .

atamitaru tora-ka hoyuru? . . .
irritated tiger-Q roar-M‘Is it an irritated tiger that is roaring?’ (Man’youshuu #199, per Watanabe
2002:180)

These Qu-morphemes can also appear in clause-final position. In (71), ya occurs
in clause-final position where it follows the non-musubi conclusive form of the verb;
the verb sira-zu ‘know’ ends in the conclusive form zu.
(71) Ware wo ba
sira-zuya?
me
acc top know-not.conc Qu‘Don’t you know me?’ (Ise Monogatari, per Whitman 1997:165)(72) shows that ka can also occur in clause-final position to form a yes/no construction. Unlike ya, the Qu-morpheme ka follows a verb with a musubi ending;
Faradati-tamaF-er-u ‘squabble-HON-perf-M’ ends with the musubi ending -u.
(72) WaraFabe-to Faradati-tamaF-er-uka?
children-with squabble-HON-perf-M Qu‘Have you been fighting with the children?’ (Genji Monogatari, per Whitman
1997:165)
The Premodern Japanese facts thus are as follows. There are two Qu-morphemes,
ka and ya, that can either appear in the clause-periphery or TP-internally. Whenthey occur TP-internally, they focus an associated phrase and the verb shows up
with a musubi ending. When ya appears clause-finally, it does not trigger the musubi
ending on the verb, but the clause-final ka does.
Just as in Sinhala, the clause-final Qu-morpheme marks a yes/no construction
and the TP-internal Qu-morpheme both marks a yes/no construction and focusesa phrase. Thus, my proposal that the clause-final Qu-morpheme lacks a Focusfeature and the TP-internal Qu-morpheme contains a Focus-feature accounts forthe data. The clause-final Qu-morpheme is Merged directly in Typ, where its Qufeature types a clause as a yes/no construction and the TP-internal Qu-morpheme

130adjoins to a focused phrase. Its Qu-feature raises to Typ where it types a clause andits Focus-feature raises to Foc, where it focuses the relevant TP-internal phrase.
The facts regarding the musubi verbal endings though, are not so clear. Whenboth ya and ka occur TP-internally, they trigger the musubi endings on the verbs.
As I argued was the case in Sinhala, it is likely the case that movement of the
Focus-feature to Foc surfaces as the musubi ending. However, a problem for thisanalysis is what occurs when these Qu-morphemes appear in clause-final position.
When ya occurs in clause-final position, it does not occur with the musubi ending.
This would be expected if the musubi ending is a Focus-feature, since the clausefinal Qu-morpheme lacks a Focus-feature. However, when ka occurs clause-finally,
unlike ya, it triggers the verbal ending. Thus, regardless of whether ka occurs TPinternally or clause-peripherally, it triggers the musubi ending. The fact that theclause-peripheral Qu-morpheme triggers the musubi ending could be evidence that
this ending is not actually a Focus-feature. Another possibility is that the clause
peripheral ka actually originates in a TP-internal position adjoined to a focusedphrase, from where it undergoes movement to the clause-pheriphery, and in theprocess leaves a Focus-feature in Foc that surfaces as the musubi ending.
In summary, the Premodern Japanese facts suggest the presence of two types of
Qu-morphemes. One type contains a Focus-feature and is Merged in a TP-internal
position adjacent to a focused phrase. The Focus- and Qu-features raise to Foc andTyp, where they focus a phrase and type a clause. The other type of Qu-morpheme
is Merged directly in Typ and does not focus any TP-internal element. Although
there is a relationship between these Qu-morphemes and musubi verbal endings, it is
not clear whether or not feature movement triggers these endings, since a clause-final
ka can trigger them. This issue requires further analysis.

131

4.4.4 Tupı́
The Tupı́ languages30 of Sateré-Mawé and Assurinı́ have the same phenomenon as
Sinhala, Okinawan, and Premodern Japanese, whereby a Qu-morpheme can appear
adjacent to a TP-internal phrase. According to Brandon & Seki (1984:83), in yes/noconstructions in Sateré-Mawé and Assurinı́, “the question particle may be placed
after any major phrase (NP, VP, or PP) (83).”
The following examples in (73) are from Sateré-Mawé. In (73a-b), the Qumorpheme apo occurs in clause-final position after a subject and an adverb, respectively, and in (73c), it occurs TP-internally after a verb.
(73) Sateré-Mawé:(a) i-kahu
rakat u’iapo?
3-beautiful nom flour Qu‘Is the flour good?’ (i.e., a good thing)(b) Ere-ket kahato apo?
2s-sleep veryQu
‘Do you sleep well?’(c) Etu-nug kahu
teran apo ui-yat?
2s-make beautiful want Qu 1s-house‘Do you want to fix my house?’ (Summer Institute of Linguistics 1978,
per Brandon & Seki 1984:83-84)
Similarly, the Qu-morpheme pa can appear in various positions in Assurinı́, asshown in (74). In (74a-b) it occurs in clause-final position after a verb. In (74c-d)
it appears TP-internally, after a verb and an object, respectively.
(74) Assurinı́:(a) Karoa o-ata a-ha pa?
Karoa 3-hunt 3-go Qu‘Is Karoa hunting?’
30

These are languages spoken in Central and South America (Cable 2007:189).

132(b) O-ma’esiroa oe-raha pa?
3-things
3-take Qu‘Did she take her own things?’(c) n-a-ha-ihi
pa ne-menaka’a-pe?
NEG-3-go-NEG Qu 2s-husband jungle-to‘Didn’t your husband go to the jungle?’(d) Itasoa pa ere-reke?
triangle Qu 2s-have‘Do you have a triangle?’(Nicholson 1978, per Brandon & Seki 1984:84)
According to my analysis, in a TP-internal position, the Qu-morpheme contains
a Focus-feature that forces it to adjoin to a focused element. Note that it is not clear
from the discussion provided by Brandon & Seki (1984) whether or not the phrases
that the Qu-morpheme attaches onto are focused, but if my analysis is correct,
then I predict this to be the case. The TP-internal Qu-morpheme adjoins to afocused-phrase and its Focus- and Qu-features raise to Foc and Typ, respectively.
The clause-final Qu-morpheme lacks a Focus-feature and is Merged directly in Typ.
I have not been able to confirm whether or not there is verbal agreement that cooccurs with the Qu-morpheme, but this is an issue that is worthy of further analysis.
4.4.5 Ewen
Ewen (Lamut)31 has a Qu-morpheme gu that can appear either in clause-final orin TP-internal position. Whitman (1997:174) writes that gu ‘Qu’ “marks the focus
element in yes/no questions (Benzing 1955:111) internally to the clause; it also marks
the clause type in clause-final position.”
Example (75) shows gu ‘Qu’ in clause-final position. More specifically, there are
two Qu-morphemes, each associated with a separate clause. The first Qu-morpheme
is attached onto the verb hør-jin ‘go-fut’ and the second Qu-morpheme is attached
onto @t@-n ‘not-fut.’
31

This is a Tungusic language spoken in Siberia (Vovin 2006:143).

133(75) Ewen:
Aman-si timina
hør-jin-gu, @t@-n-gu?
father-2S tomorrow go-fut-Q not-fut-Qu‘Is your father going tomorrow or not?’ (Robbek 1989:148, per Whitman
1997:174)
Just as not in the English gloss represents an elided clause corresponding to Is
your father not going tomorrow, the same is likely the case in (75). There is a biclausal structure with gu ‘Qu’ in the final position of each clause. This clause-final
Qu-morpheme is most likely Merged directly in Typ where it types a clause as aninterrogative.
In (76), the Qu-morpheme is attached onto the TP-internal phrase asal ‘women.’(76) Ewen:
Asal-gu olra-w
b@ci-rwomen-Q fish-acc catch-3PL‘Do the women catch fish?’ ((Benzing 1955:121, per Whitman 1997:173)
I assume that this phrase is focused based on Whitman’s statement that the Qumorpheme marks a “focus element (174),” in which case (76) actually corresponds to‘Is it the women who catch fish?’ in English. The Qu-morpheme then is focusing aphrase and typing a clause, indicating that the TP-internal Qu-morpheme contains
a Focus-feature.
Although the data are sparse, gu ‘Qu’ appears to have two versions, as in theother languages discussed in this section. One form has a Focus-feature and occurs
TP-internally, and the other form lacks a Focus-feature and occurs in Typ. Unlike
in Sinhala, Premodern Japanese, and Okinawan, there is no clear verbal marking
that co-occurs with this Qu-morpheme (Whitman 1997:174). Feature movement in
Ewen then does not appear to trigger any special verbal endings.

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4.4.6 Summary
In this section, I have examined languages which allow a Qu-morpheme to either
appear in a TP-internal position or a clause-final position. I have argued that aclause-final Qu-morpheme is Merged directly in Typ. A TP-internal Qu-morpheme
contains a Focus-feature that forces it to be Merged in a TP-internal position adjoined to a focused phrase. From this position its Qu- and Focus-features undergo
movement to the clause periphery. Note that all of the languages discussed in thissection allow both a Qu-morpheme with and without a Focus-feature. The evidence
here suggests that if a language has a Qu-morpheme that contains a Focus-feature, italso contains a Qu-morpheme that lacks a Focus-feature. On the other hand, there
could be languages in which a Qu-morpheme must always contain a Focus-feature.
Further investigation of this issue is required.
4.5 Conclusion
In this chapter, I have argued that cross-linguistic variation in yes/no constructions
results from properties of Qu-morphemes. Specifically, variation depends on whether
or not a Qu-morpheme is overt or covert, or an affix or an independent lexical
item. I argued that these differences result from [±OVERT] and [±AFFIX] features.
Furthermore, the formation of a yes/no construction is dependent on where a Qumorpheme is Merged into a derivation. By default, a Qu-morpheme is Merged
directly in Typ, since it is most economical for the Qu-morpheme to be Merged
directly in the position where its Qu-feature can type a clause, presumably by valuing
an uninterpretable clausal typing feature in Typ. However, some Qu-morphemesin certain languages contain a Focus-feature which forces the Qu-morpheme to be
Merged in a TP-internal position, from where its Qu- and Focus-features undergo
movement.
In the next chapter, I examine the positions of Qu-morphemes in wh-135

constructions. I show that the analysis of clause-peripheral and TP-internal Qumorphemes developed in this chapter can be applied straightforwardly to accountfor the positions of Qu-morphemes in wh-constructions.

136

CHAPTER 5
Qu-morphemes in wh-constructions

5.1 Introduction
As discussed in chapter 4, in a yes/no construction, a Qu-morpheme either must
appear in a clause-peripheral position or in a TP-internal position, and I took theposition that TP-internal Merge is motivated by a Focus-feature contained withina Qu-morpheme. In this chapter, I extend the analysis of the positions of Qumorphemes in yes/no constructions to account for the positions of Qu-morphemes
in wh-constructions. The essential facts regarding yes/no constructions are identical,
except that in a wh-construction, when a Qu-morpheme appears in a TP-internal
position, it is adjoined to a TP-internal wh-phrase. Specifically, a Qu-morphemewith a Focus-feature adjoins to a wh-constituent. As in a yes/no construction, ina wh-construction, a Qu-morpheme by default is Merged directly in Typ, unless a
Focus-feature forces it to be Merged TP-internally. In this chapter, I account forthe position of the Qu-morpheme as being determined by whether or not it contains
a Focus-feature.
The possible positions of a Qu-morpheme are represented in (1a-c), which represents a language in which there is a clausal typing projection that is head-final at
Spell-Out.
(1)(a) [T ypP . . . wh-phrase Qu . . . ](b) [T ypP . . . [T ypP . . . wh-phrase . . . ] Qu . . . ](c) [T ypP . . . wh-phrase . . . Qu ]When the Qu-morpheme is in a TP-internal position, it either appears adjacent to awh-phrase, as in (1a), or adjacent to an embedded clause containing a wh-phrase, as

137

in (1b). The other option is for the Qu-morpheme to appear in the clause peripheryas in (1c).
Hagstrom (1998) argues that in a wh-construction in wh-in-situ languages such as
Sinhala, Okinawan, Premodern Japanese, and Modern Japanese, a Qu-morpheme
is base generated in a position adjacent to a wh-phrase. From this position the
Qu-morpheme moves to C. This movement can be overt, in which case the Qumorpheme must appear in the clause periphery, as in (1a) above, or this movement
can be at LF, in which case the Qu-morpheme appears in a TP-internal position asin (1b) and (1c). I follow Hagstrom’s view that when a Qu-morpheme appears ina TP-internal position, there is movement from the position of the Qu-morpheme.
However, whereas Hagstrom argues that there is LF movement of a Qu-morpheme,
I argue that there is movement of Qu- and Focus-features. Furthermore, unlike
Hagstrom, I take the position that a clause-final Qu-morpheme is base-generated in
Typ, and does not move to the clause periphery.
It is generally assumed in the literature that a wh-phrase receives focus. Karimi& Taleghani (2007:173), following work by Rochemont (1978, 1986), Horvath (1986),
Bresnan & Mchombo (1987), and Kiss (1998), among others, claim “that a whelement is inherently focused.” This inherent focus likely corresponds to Kiss’ notionof an information focus (see chapter 4.4), since a wh-phrase is emphasized and it
refers to new information, as the value of the wh-phrase is new information. In thefollowing discussion, a wh-phrase is by default assumed to be an information focus.
However, when a wh-phrase appears with an adjacent Qu-morpheme, it receives ‘extra focus.’ In this case, I assume that it functions as an identificational focus, in thesame manner that I argued that a TP-internal clause with an adjacent Qu-morpheme
is an identificational focus in chapter 4.4. The wh-phrase receives a special focus
interpretation, comparable to a cleft in English, and it refers to an exhaustive set.
Therefore, it corresponds to Kiss’s (1998) definition of an identificational focus (seechapter 4.4).

138

The organization of this chapter is as follows. In section 5.2, I discuss Mandarin
and Japanese, which are languages in which a Qu-morpheme must appear in a fixedclause-peripheral position. In section 5.3, I discuss Qu-morphemes in English, which
also must appear in the clause periphery. I examine the interesting asymmetries inEnglish that exist between subject and non-subject matrix wh-constructions andbetween matrix and embedded wh-constructions. I also account for some dialect
differences found in the formation of wh-constructions in English. In section 5.4, I
examine wh-constructions in which a Qu-morpheme can appear either in a clauseperipheral or a TP-internal position. Where the Qu-morpheme occurs is dependenton whether or not it contains a Focus-feature. In section 5.5, I discuss the fact that
although a Qu-morpheme can appear in a TP-internal position in languages such as
Sinhala and Okinawan, when it occurs in certain embedded clauses, there are islandeffects due to the blocking of movement of Qu- and Focus-features. In section 5.6, I
examine some problematic constructions in Sinhala in which a Qu-morpheme must
appear in a fixed TP-internal position. In section 5.7, I compare my analysis of thefacts concerning Qu-morphemes in wh-constructions with some previous analyses.
Section 5.8 is the conclusion.
5.2 Clause-peripheral Qu-morphemes
As with the formation of yes/no constructions, in wh-constructions, a Qu-morpheme
generally appears in a clause-peripheral position.
5.2.1 Mandarin
Mandarin contains a Qu-morpheme ne that can appear in a wh-construction.1 It is
optional in matrix wh-constructions, and it is absent in embedded wh-constructions(Cheng 1997:26).2
1
2

There is a different yes/no Qu-morpheme ma.
I have added the parenthesis around ne to indicate that it is optional.

139

(2)

Mandarin:
Qiaofeng mai-leshenme (ne)?
Qiaofeng buy-asp what
Qu
‘What did Qiaofeng buy?’ (Cheng 1997:22)

As in chapter 4, the position that I take is that when an overt Qu-morpheme isabsent, a null Qu-morpheme is present, and so when ne is absent, a null version
occurs.3
In Mandarin, the Qu-morpheme cannot occur in a TP-internal position. For
example, the Mandarin example (3) is ill-formed if ne does not appear in clausefinal position, as shown below.
(3)

Mandarin:
Qiaofeng (*ne) mai-le(*ne) shenme (ne)?
Qiaofeng
buy-asp
what
Qu‘What did Qiaofeng buy?’ (Sunjing Ji, p.c.)

These facts can be accounted for straightforwardly if the Qu-morpheme is Merged
directly in Typ, assuming that Typ appears in a clause-final position in Mandarin,
which is an SVO language that appears to otherwise have head-initial projections(cf. Huang (1982), among others).
5.2.2 Japanese
The Japanese Qu-morpheme ka is also confined to clause-final position in whconstructions. It cannot appear TP-internally, as shown in (4). The parenthesesaround ka indicate that it can be dropped; i.e. there is a null version of the Qumorpheme ka.
3

See Cheng (1997) for arguments supporting the claim that a null Qu-morpheme is present in

Mandarin wh-constructions.

140

(4)

Japanese:
Hideya-wa (*ka) nani-o(*ka) kaimashita (ka)?
Hideya-top
what-accboughtQu.
‘What did Hideya buy?’
Evidence in Japanese clearly shows that in a wh-construction, the Qu-morpheme

can only occur in the clause in which a wh-phrase has scope. Examples (5a-b)
demonstrate this.
(5)Japanese:[dare-ga erab-areta ka] tutaete-imasen.
(a) Sinbun-wa
newspapers-top who-nom elected-was Qu report-is not‘Newspapers do not report who was elected.’(b) Sinbun-wa[dare-ga erabare-ta to] tutaete-imasu ka?
newspapers-top who-nom elected-was that report-is
Qu‘Who1 do the newspapers report t1 was elected?’ (Nishigauchi 1990:9)

In (5a) the Qu-morpheme is in the embedded clause, which it types as an interrogative and the wh-phrase has embedded scope. In (5b), the Qu-morpheme types thematrix clause as an interrogative, and therefore the wh-phrase must have matrix
scope. This latter example shows that a wh-phrase in an embedded clause can havematrix scope as long as there is a Qu-morpheme at the edge of the matrix clause.
These facts are accounted for straightforwardly if the Qu-morpheme is Merged directly in Typ of the clause where it has scope.
Furthermore, note that whereas a matrix Qu-morpheme can be dropped inJapanese, as in (4) above, an embedded clause Qu-morpheme cannot be dropped.
For example, the Qu-morpheme ka in the embedded clause in (5a) must be present.
In a matrix clause, when a Qu-morpheme is dropped, special intonation occurs; theclause ends with a rise. One possibility is that this interrogative intonation is notallowed in an embedded clause, and thus the Qu-morpheme is required.4
4

I thank Heidi Harley (p.c.) for suggesting this to me.

141

5.2.3 Summary
The positions of the Qu-morphemes discussed in this section have been straightforward. Languages such as Mandarin and Japanese contain a Qu-morpheme witha Qu-feature that is simply Merged in the optimal position in Typ, where its Qufeature is able to directly type a clause.
5.3 English
The English Qu-morpheme also must appear in the periphery of a wh-construction.
In this section, I show that the English Qu-morpheme is Merged directly in Typ of
the clause in which it has scope. However, there is a certain degree of complexity
involved in the formation of wh-constructions in English. First of all, in a matrix
clause do-support can occur when there is movement of a non-subject wh-phrase, but
do-support cannot occur when there is movement of a subject wh-phrase. Also, ina matrix clause a tense element must move, but this is not allowed in an embedded
clause in ‘standard English,’ although some other dialects of English allow tense
movement. I account for these facts in terms of the properties of the English Qumorpheme.
5.3.1 The standard American English facts
Below I discuss the facts regarding the formation of wh-constructions in standard
American English.5 These facts do not hold of all dialects of English, an issue that
I return to.
As with English yes/no constructions (see chapter 4.3.2), a tense element moves
in a wh-construction. This can be seen clearly when a non-subject wh-phrase undergoes wh-movement. Compare the statement in (6a) with the corresponding wh5

I use ‘standard’ to refer loosely to the prominent dialects of English spoken in the UnitedStates.

142

construction in (6b).
(6)(a) Reginald has eaten dinner.
(b) What has Reginald eaten?

Whereas the auxiliary has follows the subject Reginald in the statement in (6a), it
precedes the subject in the wh-construction (6b), which is evidence that the auxiliary
has moved. When there is no overt auxiliary a form of do is inserted, as in (7).
(7)

What did she eat?
The facts become more complex when a wh-construction is formed with a fronted

subject wh-phrase. Compare (8a) and (8b).
(8)(a) John has eaten dinner.
(b) Who has eaten dinner?

Note that unlike in (6a-b), where it can be seen that the auxiliary moves, there is noclear auxiliary movement in (8). In both the statement in (8a) and the corresponding
wh-construction (8b), the auxiliary follows the subject. One possibility, which I
argue is the case below, is that the auxiliary has moves, but that the wh-phrasal
subject moves to a position higher than the auxiliary.
Examples (9a-b) are well-formed wh-constructions with subject wh-phrases.
Compare these with (7) above, which contains did.
(9)(a) Who ate dinner?
(b) What lives in forests?

Furthermore, a form of the dummy auxiliary do cannot occur. Although (10a-b)
are well-formed as emphatic wh-constructions when did receives special stress, they
are not well-formed as standard non-emphatic wh-constructions.6
6

I assume that the fact that the emphatic interpretations requires do-support, most likely in

Foc, is unrelated to the formation of a wh-construction.

143

(10)

(a) *Who did eat dinner?
(b) *What did live in forests?

In an embedded wh-construction, there does not appear to be auxiliary movement. For example, when ‘What did she eat?’ occurs in an embedded clause, it
surfaces as (11a) which lacks an auxiliary, and not as (11b).
(11)(a) I wonder [what she ate].
(b) *I wonder [what did she eat].

I next turn to an analysis of these facts. In chapter 4, I argued that an English
matrix yes/no construction contains a null [+AFFIX] Qu-morpheme. The same istrue in a wh-construction. There is a null [+AFFIX] Qu-morpheme in Typ, whichis responsible for giving a clause an interrogative interpretation. The [+AFFIX]
feature of the Qu-morpheme attracts the tense element to Typ. Furthermore, I
assume that there is wh-phrasal movement to [Spec, TypP]. Here, I focus on the
Qu-morpheme, and although extremely important, I leave aside discussion of whmovement until chapter 6.
This analysis acccounts straightforwardly for constructions such as (6b) and (8b),repeated below as (12a-b).
(12)(a) What has Reginald eaten?
(b) Who has eaten dinner?

The null [+AFFIX] Qu-morpheme in Typ attracts the Tense element. In these
constructions, T contains the auxiliary has, which raises to Typ. Diagrams of (12ab) are shown below in (13) and (14), respectively.

144

(13)
TypP
DP1
what

Typ’
Typ
∅FQu +has2

TP
DP3

Reginald

T’
T
t2

vP
t3

v’
v
eaten

t1

(14)
TypP
DP1
who

Typ’
Typ
∅FQu +has2

TP
t1

T’
T
t2

vP
t1

v’
v
eaten

DP
dinner

145

As noted above, the facts concerning when do-support is allowed are complicated.
When a non-subject wh-phrase fronts to clause-initial position, a form of do mustoccur if there is no other auxiliary element, as shown in (7), repeated below as (15a).
However, when a subject wh-phrase fronts to clause-initial position, a form of dodoes not occur even if there is no auxiliary element, as in (9a), repeated below as(15b).
(15)(a) What did she eat?
(b) Who ate dinner?

This subject-object asymmetry, whereby a non-subject wh-phrase requires dosupport, but a subject wh-phrase does not thus requires an explanation.
5.3.2 Accounts of the subject/non-subject wh-construction assymmetry
There have been a number of analyses that have examined the asymmetry between
subject and non-subject wh-phrases in English. In this subsection, I briefly review
these analyses, before I present my own analysis in the following subsection.
Within the framework of Government and Binding Theory, Koopman (1983,1984) proposes that the Empty Category Principle (ECP) accounts for the English wh-subject extraction facts. According to Koopman (1983), a wh-subject thatfronts to clause-initial position, [Spec, CP], must antecedent govern its trace. This
antecedent government is blocked if an overt tense element appears in C. An object
wh-phrase can be followed by an overt tense element in C because it need not be
antecedent governed, since it is lexically governed by a verb. One problem withthis proposal is that it requires parametrization. Specifically, a tense element does
not appear to block antecedent government in languages such as Dutch. A fronted
wh-subject can be directly followed by a moved auxiliary, as in (16) below.

146(16) Dutch:
Wie1 heeft2 t1 hem/Jan gezien t2 ?
who hashim/John seen
‘Who saw him/John?’ (Koopman 1983:349)
Another problem with this analysis is that the notion of government and the ECP
do not exist within the framework of the Minimalist Program.
Agbayani (2000) takes a different view of the subject wh-extraction facts; herelies on the notion that a subject wh-phrase remains in [Spec, TP]. Following
George (1980) and Chomsky (1986), Agbayani argues for the Vacuous Movement
Hypothesis, which is “the notion that in English local overt wh-movement takes place
except for subjects (703).” Agbayani’s proposal relies on the notion that feature
movement and phrasal (XP) movement (which he refers to as ‘category movement’)procede separately. Agbayani (2000:707) writes the following.
I propose that Universal Grammar allows feature attraction and category
movement to apply separately. Attract F adjoins a set of formal features(F) to an attracting head. A second operation, Move Cat(egory), raises
the category to a specifier position where it is in a local relation with its
formal features adjoined to the attracting head.
According to this proposal, a feature and its category have to be adjacent, where
adjacency is defined as follows.
(17) X and Y are adjacent if no elements that are visible at the interface
intervene between X and Y (Agbayani 2000:707)
Agbayani follows Chomsky’s (1995b) view that elements that are visible at the interface are “phonological features and XP- and X0 - level categories, but not segments
or X’-level categories (Agbayani 2000:707).”

147

With these assumptions, Agbayani argues that the following occurs in an English
wh-construction. A wh-feature of a non-subject wh-phrase adjoins to C. It is not
adjacent to its category (the wh-phrase that it originated in) because there is visible
material intervening between the feature and the wh-phrase. Therefore, the whphrase must raise to [Spec, CP]. When a wh-feature of a subject wh-phrase raises toC, it is adjacent to its category in [Spec, TP]. There are no visible elements between
the feature and the subject. Thus, the subject need not move. It can remain in[Spec, TP] and be adjacent to its feature.
This analysis accounts for the subject/non-subject asymmetry as resulting fromwhether or not a wh-phrase moves to [Spec, CP]. However, as I understand it, it does
not account for T to C movement in non-subject wh-constructions. Wh-movement
in a matrix clause requires T to C movement, but why exactly it requires T to C
movement is not clear. It is also not clear why there is no T to C movement in an
embedded clause.
Pesetsky & Torrego (2000) provide an analysis that relies on the notion that the
English matrix C has an uninterpretable Tense feature, uT, which has an “EPP
property” (360). This uT feature needs to be deleted via movement of another uT
into C. Specifically, the uT on C forms an Agree relation with another uT feature
which then moves to C. Movement, they argue, is driven by the EPP property thatis contained by the uT feature on C. Under this analysis, the EPP is referred to asa “subfeature of a feature” that “is a property of a feature of a head-not a propertyof the head itself (359).” Pesetsky and Torrego assume that nominative case, which
a subject contains, is a uT feature that can delete a uT feature in C.
Pesetsky & Torrego argue that when a wh-phrasal subject moves to [Spec, CP]
to check an uninterpretable wh-feature, its nominative case feature deletes the uT
on C. For example, the structure of (18a) with a fronted subject wh-phrase is thatin (18b).
(18)(a) Who bought the book?

148(b) [C, uT, uWh] [T P [Who, uT] T [V P bought the book]] (Pesetsky &Torrego 2000:363)
The wh-subject moves to [Spec, CP] to check the uWh feature. Also, the subject
contains a uT feature because it has nominative case. Therefore, the subject deletes
the uT feature on C. Since the uT feature on C is deleted, there is no need formovement of a tense element to C.
When a non-subject wh-phrase moves into [Spec, CP], the uT feature on C
remains unchecked, since a non-subject lacks nominative case. T contains a uT
feature (nominative case) which it obtains from movement of a subject into its
specifier. T then must move to C to delete the uT feature. For example, the whconstruction (19a) with a fronted object wh-phrase has the underlying structure in(19b).
(19)(a) What did Mary buy?
(b) [C, uT, uWh] [T P [Mary, uT] T [V P bought what]] (Pesetsky & Torrego
2000:363)

The wh-phrase what moves to [Spec, CP] to check the uninterpretable wh-featureuWH on C. Then T moves to C to check the uninterpretable Tense feature uT. In thismanner, when a non-subject wh-phrase undergoes wh-movement, “C must delete its
uWh and its uT in two separate operations (Pesetsky & Torrego 2000:363).”
Pesetsky and Torrego argue that in embedded wh-constructions, there is no T to
C movement because the uT feature on C does not contain an EPP feature. They
write that the“[s]tandard English embedded interrogative C lacks the EPP property
for uT (380).” For example, (20a) is well-formed because T has not been attracted
to C. (20b) is ill-formed because there is no EPP feature on C to attract the moved
tense element did.
(20)(a) Bill asked what Mary bought.

149(b) *Bill asked [what did Mary buy]. (Pesetsky & Torrego 2000:378)
In an embedded wh-construction, because the EPP feature does not attract a uT
feature, Pesetsky & Torrego claim that the uT feature is satisfied via an Agreerelation with T. In other dialects that allow T to C movement in an embedded
clause, such as Hiberno English, the embedded C can contain an EPP feature.
Pesetsky and Torrego’s analysis accounts nicely for the data, but there is agreat deal of complexity involved with the notion that C contains a uT feature that
requires nominative case. It is not clear why C would require nominative case, as
nominative case is generally associated with T.
Bobaljik (1994) provides an analysis that I find to be most appealing due toits simplicity. This analysis relies on the notion that do-support is dependent onwhether or not tense and the verb are adjacent to each other. Bobaljik argues thatthe do-support facts result from the need for tense to be adjacent to the verb incases in which there is no auxiliary that houses tense. According to Bobaljik, in
English, when tense and a verb are adjacent, even if they are in different projections,tense shows up on the verb. When tense is not adjacent to a verbal element, thendo-support is required to house tense. Bobaljik follows Halle & Marantz’s (1993)
view that in a simple declarative sentence in English “inflectional affixes and verbal
heads may merge under (some form of) adjacency (Bobaljik 1994:5).” When an
inflectional affix and a verb are adjacent, then the affix can attach onto the verb,
even if they are in different projections. For example, Bobaljik proposes that in
the configuration in (21), the heads X and Y are adjacent. The trace intervening
between these heads does not block adjacency.
(21) . . . X [Y P trace [Y ′ Y . . . (Bobaljik 1994:2)
According to my understanding of Bobaljik’s analysis, a matrix non-subject whconstruction such as (22a) has the structure in (22b).
(22)(a) When did Sam eat the horseradish? (Bobaljik 1994:7)

150(b) [CP When do+INFLP AST 1 [IP Sam t1 [V P eat the horseradish]]]?
An inflectional head INFL raises to C. The subject Sam intervenes between INFL
and the verb eat, thereby preventing INFL from affixing onto eat. Thus, a form of
do must be inserted in C to house INFL.
When a subject wh-phrase moves, the results differ notably in that the adjacency
relation between INFL and the verb is not disrupted. This can be seen in (23a-b).
(23)(a) Who ate my horseradish? (Bobaljik 1994:7)(b) [CP Who1 INFLP AST 2 [IP t1 t2 [V P eat my horseradish]]]?

(23b) shows the underlying structure of (23a). The INFL head raises to C and thesubject who raises to [Spec, CP]. Since there is no intervening subject, adjacency
is established between INFL in C and the verb in the VP. Therefore, INFL is able
to show up on the verb. The trace of the subject does not block adjacency, and so
there is no need for insertion of do.
5.3.3 Analysis of English facts
With a slight reformulation to fit with my proposals, Bobaljik’s analysis accounts
for the wh-construction facts as follows. When a non-subject wh-phrase raises to[Spec, TypP], adjacency between the Tense element which has moved to Typ andv is blocked by the intervening subject. Thus, if there is no auxiliary to house thetense element, a form of do is inserted (do-support). Below is a diagram of (15a).
The wh-phrase raises to [Spec, TypP] and the tense element raises to Typ. Since
Typ is not adjacent to v , due to the intervening subject she, a form of do is inserted
to house the tense element.7
7

Note that in a matrix yes/no construction, there always will be a subject intervening between

the Qu-morpheme and T. Thus, do-support is always required when there is no auxiliary thatcarries tense.

151

(24)
TypP
DP1
What

Typ’
Typ
∅FQu +did2

TP
DP
she3

T’
T
t2

vP
t3

v’
v
eat

DP
t1

When a subject wh-phrase moves, there is no element intervening between thetense element in Typ and v (the trace of the subject does not count as an intervener).
Therefore, tense is able to show up on the matrix verb in cases in which there is
no auxiliary. A diagram of (15b) is shown below. Adjacency is indicated by the
double-headed arrow between Typ and v .

152

(25)
TypP
DP1

Typ’

Who
Typ
∅FQu +∅P AST 2

TP
t1

T’
T
t2

vP
t1

v’
v
ate

DP
dinner

I next turn to embedded wh-constructions. Remember that in these constructions there is no movement of a tense element, as can be seen in (11a-b), repeatedbelow. Example (11b) is ill-formed as a non-emphatic wh-construction.
(11)(a) I wonder [what she ate].
(b) *I wonder [what did she eat].

I propose that an embedded wh-construction in English contains a different type of
Qu-morpheme from a matrix clause. The Qu-morpheme is [-AFFIX]. Therefore, itdoes not force a tense head to move to Typ. A simplified diagram of the embedded
clause of (11a) is shown below in (26).

153

(26)

TypP
DP
what1

Typ’
Typ
∅FQu

TP
she ate t1

An embedded clause and a matrix clause thus differ with respect to the typeof Qu-morpheme that occurs; a matrix clause contains a [+AFFIX] Qu-morpheme
and an embedded clause contains a [-AFFIX] Qu-morpheme. This difference between Qu-morphemes relies on the features that these Qu-morphemes contain. The
matrix Qu-morpheme has a [+AFFIX] feature and a feature that I loosely refer toas [+MATRIX] that requires it to only occur in a matrix clause, as shown in (27a).
The embedded Qu-morpheme has a [-AFFIX] feature and a [-MATRIX] feature that
requires it to occur in an embedded clause, as shown in (27b). It should also be
noted that both the matrix and embedded clause Qu-morphemes that occur in whconstructions are [-OVERT], unlike the [+OVERT] Qu-morpheme that occurs in
embedded yes/no constructions (see chapter 4.2.1-4.2.2).
(27)
ClauseFeatures(a)Matrix[+MATRIX], [+AFFIX], [-OVERT](b)

Embedded[-MATRIX], [-AFFIX], [-OVERT]The particular features contained within the matrix and embedded English
Qu-morphemes determine their syntactic behavior. A language could have Qumorhemes with different sets of features. As discussed in chapter 4.2.3, there are
dialects of English that differ from standard English with respect to allowing a[+AFFIX] Qu-morpheme to occur in an embedded clause in a yes/no construction.
In the next section, I discuss how in wh-constructions, dialects such as Ozark

154

English and Belfast English allow a [+AFFIX] Qu-morpheme to appear in an
embedded clause, and dialects such as South African Indian English allow a[-AFFIX] Qu-morpheme to occur in a matrix clause.
5.3.4 Ozark English
In Ozark English, wh-constructions can be formed differently than in standard
American English. In this section, I argue that these differences result from Ozark
English containing a different set of Qu-morphemes than found in Standard American English.
Ozark English, unlike in ‘standard English,’ allows both [+AFFIX] and [-AFFIX]
Qu-morphemes in an embedded wh-construction. Example (28a) shows a complex
sentence with an embedded wh-construction that is formed with movement of an
auxiliary element, as would occur in a matrix wh-construction. I assume that thestructure is as shown in (28b) with a [+AFFIX] Qu-morpheme that attracts thetense element to Typ.
(28)(a) I want to find out who is she cheating with. (Barrett 2008)(b) I want to find out [T ypP who2 [T yp ∅Qu -is1 [T P she [T t1 cheating witht2 ]]]].

Ozark English also allows an embedded wh-construction to be formed as in standard
English with no movement of a tense element, as shown in (29a). In this case, theembedded clause contains a [-AFFIX] Qu-morpheme that does not attract the tenseelement, as shown in (29b).
(29)(a) I want to find out who she is cheating with. (Barrett 2008)(b) I want to find out [T ypP who1 [T yp ∅Qu she is cheating with t1 ]].

Ozark English then appears to contain two types of Qu-morphemes that canoccur in an embedded clause, as shown in (30a-b). These Qu-morphemes differ interms of their [AFFIX] feature.

155

(30)

(a) Qu[+AF F IX](b) Qu[−AF F IX]

A matrix non-subject wh-construction in Ozark English also requires subjectauxiliary inversion (Barrett 2008). Thus, as in standard American English, a matrix
clause contains a [+AFFIX] Qu-morpheme. Unlike in standard English, in Ozark
English, the [+AFFIX] Qu-morpheme can also occur in embedded clauses. Example(31a) shows the [+AFFIX] Qu-morpheme. It has no features determining what typeof clause it can occur in. It is free to occur in either a matrix or embedded clause.
(31b), on the other hand, shows the [-AFFIX] Qu-morpheme, which has a featurethat requires it to occur in an embedded clause.
(31)(a) Qu[+AF F IX](b) Qu[−AF F IX,−M AT RIX]

Not surprisingly, these Qu-morphemes also differ in their semantics.
According to Rusty Barrett (p.c), when there is inversion (under my analysis, ‘inversion’ is caused by a [+AFFIX] Qu-morpheme), then the embedded whconstruction refers to something that need not be true - there is no specified truth
value. When there is no inversion, the content of the embedded clause is believed
to be true. For example, Barrett (2008) writes that the embedded wh-constructionin (28a) above, which contains inversion, implies “that she might not be cheating.”
On the other hand, the embedded wh-construction in (29a) above, which lacks inversion, implies that “it is certain she is cheating.” Barrett notes that this semantic
distinction also accounts for the data in (32a-b). (32a) is fine because, in all likelihood, it is true that ‘he’ has a name. (32b) is ill-formed because the embedded
clause, which is dependent on the assumption that ‘he’ has a name, is incompatible
with a Qu-morpheme that does not imply truth.
(32)(a) I wonder what his name is.

156(b) *I wonder what is his name. (Barrett 2008)
These facts suggest that the [+AFFIX] embedded clause Qu-morpheme in Ozark
English does not carry with it a truth value, whereas a [-AFFIX] Qu-morpheme
indicates that a wh-construction refers to something that a speaker believes to betrue.
Several examples demonstrate some differences between wh-constructions withand without inversion. According to Barrett, (33a), which I claim has the structure in (33b) with a [+AFFIX] Qu-morpheme, indicates that the speaker “can’t
understand a word she is saying.”(33)(a) I don’t understand what is she saying. (can’t understand a word she issaying) (Barrett 2008)(b) I don’t understand [T ypP what2 [T yp ∅Qu -is1 [T P she [T t1 saying t2 ]]]].

On the other hand, (34a), which I assume has the structure in (34b) with a [-AFFIX]
Qu-morpheme, indicates that the speaker thinks “her meaning/intention is unclear.”(34)(a) I don’t understand what she is saying. (her meaning/intention is
unclear) (Barrett 2008)(b) I don’t understand [T ypP what1 [T yp ∅Qu she is saying t1 ]].

(35a), which I assume has the structure in (35b) with a [+AFFIX] Qu-morpheme isan insult.
(35)(a) I wonder where does she buy her clothes. (insult) (Barrett 2008)(b) I wonder [T ypP where2 [T yp ∅Qu -does1 [T P she [T t1 buy her clothes t2 ]]]].

(36a), with the structure in (36b) with a [-AFFIX] Qu-morpheme, however, is acompliment.
(36)(a) I wonder where she buys her clothes. (compliment) (Barrett 2008)

157(b) I wonder [T ypP where1 [T yp ∅Qu she buys her clothes t1 ]].
The Ozark Qu-morphemes are summarized in (37a-c).
(37)
Features

Meaning(a) [+AFFIX]

No truth value

(c)

True

[-AFFIX], [-MATRIX](37a) is a Qu-morpheme that occurs in both embedded and matrix clauses,
as it lacks any specification for the type of clause that it can occur in, and it does
not carry a truth value. (37b) occurs in embedded clauses only. It is not an affix,
and thus does not trigger inversion, and it implies truth of the embedded clause.
In this section, I have only discussed Ozark English, but note that there areother English dialects which also differ from ‘standard English’ with respect towh-construction formation. Belfast English and Hiberno English allow auxiliary
movement in an embedded clause, as shown in (38) and (39).
(38) Belfast English:
I wonder [what street does he live in]. (Henry 1992:288)(39) Hiberno English:
Did he tell you [how did he do it]? (McCloskey 1991:294)
These dialects thus appear to contain a [+AFFIX] Qu-morpheme that can occur
in an embedded clause. Also, South African Indian English does not require tense
movement in a matrix clause, as shown in (40).
(40) What I must do? If my father say I must go an’ plough today, what I
can do?(Mesthrie 1992:47)
This dialect then appears to contain a matrix clause [-AFFIX] Qu-morpheme.

158

5.3.5 Summary
On the one hand, the facts regarding the Qu-morpheme in English wh-constructions
are straightforward. The Qu-morpheme is Merged directly in Typ. On the other
hand, there are certain complexities involving the [±AFFIX] value of the Qumorpheme, and also concerning where a tense element occurs. In ‘standard English,’a matrix wh-construction contains a [+AFFIX] Qu-morpheme. The [+AFFIX] feature forces the tense head to move to Typ. Tense must either surface on an auxiliary
or on a main verb; in the latter case, Tense must be adjacent to the verb. When anon-subject wh-phrase raises to [Spec, TypP], the tense head, which has moved to
Typ is not adjacent to the verb in v because of the intervening subject. Thus, if
the tense head does not already occur on an auxiliary, then a form of do must be
inserted. When a subject wh-phrase raises to [Spec, TypP], then the tense head is
adjacent to the verb. Therefore, if there is no auxiliary, tense is able to occur on
the verb, and no form of do is required. An embedded wh-construction in ‘standard
English’ contains a [-AFFIX] Qu-morpheme, and so there is no movement of a tenseelement. In Ozark English, unlike in ‘standard English,’ an embedded clause allows both [+AFFIX] and [-AFFIX] Qu-morphemes to occur. These Qu-morphemes
also differ in their semantics. Other English dialects such as Belfast, Hiberno, andSouth African Indian English similarly differ from ‘standard English’ with respect
to the types of Qu-morphemes that they contain. Note that various dialects ofEnglish demonstrate variation with respect to the requirements they place on the
Qu-morphemes in matrix and embedded clauses. A matrix Qu-morpheme must be[+AFFIX] in standard English, but not in South African Indian English. A Qumorpheme must be [-AFFIX] in embedded clauses in Standard English, but not in
Ozark English or Belfast English.

159

5.4 Qu-morphemes in various positions
In certain wh-constructions in Sinhala and Okinawan, a Qu-morpheme can either
appear adjacent to a wh-phrase in a TP-internal position, as in (41a), or separate
from it, as in (41b).8(41)(a) [T ypP . . . wh-phrase Qu . . . ](b) [T ypP . . . wh-phrase . . . Qu ]As I argued was the case in certain yes/no constructions discussed in chapter 4, in
this section I argue that when a Qu-morpheme contains a Focus-feature, it mustoccur adjacent to a wh-phrase, as in (41a). Otherwise it is Merged directly in aclause peripheral position corresponding to Typ, as shown in (41b).
In Sinhala, a Qu-morpheme can either appear adjacent to (in a TP-internal
position) or separated from (in a clause-peripheral position) certain types of whadjuncts.9 These wh-adjuncts are referred to by Hagstrom (2004:230) as “scalar
wh-words.” They include kiidenek ‘how many (animate),’ kiiyak ‘how many (inanimate),’ and kocc@r@ ‘how much.’ Example (42a) shows the Qu-morpheme in clausefinal position separated from the in-situ wh-adjunct kocc@r@ ‘how much.’ In thiscase, the default ‘-A’ ending appears on the verb. In (42b), the Qu-morpheme
appears adjacent to the wh-phrase and the special ‘-E’ ending shows up on the verb.
(42) Sinhala:(a) Sallikocc@r@ dunna d@?
money how much give.A Qu‘How much money did (you) give?’
8

In some languages, the position of the Qu-morpheme directly after the wh-phrase in (41a) andat the end of the clause in (41b) may be the opposite, with the Qu-morpheme directly preceding
the wh-phrase or appearing at the beginning of a clause.
9
I discuss wh-arguments in Sinhala in the following sections.

160(b) Sallikocc@r@ d@ dunne?
money how much Qu give.E‘How much money was it that (you) gave?’ (Sumangala 1992:248)
As can be seen in the glosses, the interpretations of these examples differ. A standard
wh-question interpretation arises when the Qu-morpheme appears in clause-final
position. When the Qu-morpheme appears TP-internally, the wh-phrase functions
as an identificational focus, as indicated by the English gloss containing a cleft (seechapter 4.4 for discussion of focus).
In Okinawan, the facts are similar. The Qu-morpheme ga may either appear
adjacent to or separated from a matrix wh-phrase. Note that unlike in Sinhala inwhich variability in the position of the Qu-morpheme in matrix clauses only occurs
with some wh-adjuncts, in Okinawan, this variability is allowed with wh-arguments.
Examples are shown in (43a-b). When the Qu-morpheme is adjacent to the whphrase in (43b), the matrix verb occurs with the special verbal agreement ending‘-RA.’10(43) Okinawan:(a) Taa-ga
ich-u-ga?
who-nom go-pres-Qu‘Who is going?’(b) Taa-ga-ga
ich-u-ra?
who-nom-QU go-pres-RA‘I wonder who on earth is going?’ (Miyara 2001:27)
The gloss provided by Miyara for (43b) indicates, via the phrase who on earth, thatwhen the Qu-morpheme is adjacent to the wh-phrase, the wh-phrase is focused.
10

As discussed in Chapter 4.4.2, I assume that ga is always a Qu-morpheme, contrary to Miyara(2001) who claims that when ga occurs TP-internally it is an emphatic marker. I also assume thatthe ‘-RA’ ending is verbal agreement, unlike Miyara who claims that it is a Qu-morpheme.

161This appears to be the same type of phenomenon found in Sinhala. The wh-phrasewith an adjacent Qu-morpheme is an identificational focus.
In Sinhala, when a wh-phrase occurs within an embedded clause that is not an
island and the wh-phrase has embedded scope, there can be two possible positions
for the Qu-morpheme. The Qu-morpheme can occur adjacent to the embedded whphrase, as shown in (44a), or it can occur at the edge of the embedded clause as in(44b).
(44)(a) [T ypP . . . [T ypP . . . wh-phrase Qu . . . ] . . . ](b) [T ypP . . . [T ypP . . . wh-phrase . . . Qu ] . . . ]However, only certain matrix verbs allow the Qu-morpheme to appear in thesetwo positions within an embedded wh-complement clause. Some of these verbs
are “dann@wa ‘know,’ hoya b@r@n@wa ‘examine,’ parikSaa k@r@n@wa ‘look into, inspect,’ and teeren@wa ‘understand’ (Kishimoto 2005:8).”11 In (45a) below, the Qumorpheme d@ follows the wh-phrase kau ‘who’ in the embedded clause, whereas in(45b), it occurs at the embedded clause-periphery, following the verb aawa, but
preceding the complementizer kiy@la ‘that.’12 In this way, the Qu-morpheme mayeither be adjacent to or separated from the wh-phrase.13
11

I discuss these verbs in more detail in section 5.6, where I also discuss verbs such as ‘ahan@wa‘ask,’ prasn@ k@r@n@wa ‘question,’ and hiten@wa ‘consider’ (Kishimoto 2005:8)” that require theQu-morpheme to appear adjacent to a wh-phrase in a complement clause.
12
These examples contain the complementizer kiy@la ‘that’ in addition to a Qu-morpheme in theembedded clause. This fact can be accounted for if kiy@la is in ForceP and the Qu-feature of the
Qu-morpheme is in TypP. See chapter 2.5 for discussion of clause structure.
13
Note that the form of the subject meaning ‘who’ differs. It is kau in (45a) and kauru in (45b).
According to Kishimoto (2005:6), “[t]he wh-word meaning ‘who’ is kauru, but when d@ is adjacentto the wh-word, -ru is dropped, as in kau d@.”162(45) Sinhala:(a) Ranjit [kau d@ aawe
kiy@la] dann@wa.
Ranjit who Q came.E thatknow.A‘Ranjit knows who came.’ (Kishimoto 2005:7)(b) Ranjit [kauru aawad@ kiy@la] dann@wa.
Ranjit whocame.A Qu thatknow.A‘Ranjit knows who came.’ (Kishimoto 2005:6)
As expected, there is a meaning difference depending on the position of the Qumorpheme. When the Qu-morpheme is adjacent to the wh-phrase, the wh-phrase
is an identificational focus, and when the Qu-morpheme is separated from the whphrase, the wh-phrase is not an identificational focus. In other words (45a) means
something along the lines of ‘Ranjit knows who it is that came.’ Although thesedifferences in interpretation are not indicated in the glosses by Kishimoto, they
are supported by Gair & Sumangala (1991), who write that the wh-phrase in an
embedded clause such as (46) below is focused when it is adjacent to a Qu-morpheme(Gair & Sumangala 1991:98). This example is comparable to (45a) above.
(46) Sinhala:[Siri mokak d@ keruwe
kiy@la] amma kalp@naa-keruwa.
Siri what
Qu do-past.E comp mother think-past.A‘Mother thought (about) what Siri did. (Gair & Sumangala 1991:98)
In (47) below, which is comparable to (45b), Gair & Sumangala (1991:96) write thatthe wh-phrase is not focused.
(47) Sinhala:[Eek@ kauru hæduwa d@] danne nææ.
that whodid.A
Qu know not‘I don’t know who could have done that.’ (Gair & Sumangala 1991:96)

163

Gair & Sumangala (1991:96) attribute the lack of focus in this type of construction
to what they refer to as “general doubt.”
If this analysis is on the right track, the Sinhala data indicate that when a Qumorpheme is adjacent to a wh-phrase, that phrase is an identificational focus. I
propose that in this case, the Qu-morpheme contains a Focus-feature. This is thesame type of Qu-morpheme that I argued occurs TP-internally in yes/no constructions in these languages, as discussed in chapter 4.4. The Focus-feature forces the
Qu-morpheme to focus a TP-internal element. The wh-phrase must have scope in aparticular clause, and as such, if anything is focused, it must be the wh-phrase, andso the Qu-morpheme adjoins to it. The structure of a wh-phrase with an adjoined
Qu-morpheme is given in (48).
(48)

whP
whP

Qu[FF oc ,FQu ]wh-phrase
The Qu- and Focus-features raise as a feature bundle from the Qu-morpheme, andthe Qu-morpheme remains in-situ. These features raise to Foc, where the Focusfeature remains and focuses the wh-phrase, and the Qu-feature raises to Typ where
it types the clause as an interrogative. Movement of these features is motivated by
EPP features. A diagram is shown in (49). The Focus-feature in Foc shows up as
the verbal agreement ending ‘-E’ in Sinhala and ‘-RA’ in Okinawan.

164

(49)

TypP
Typ’
FocP

TypEP P
FQu2
Foc’

TP

FocEP P
-E/-RA[FF oc1 ]
T’

vP

T

. . . wh-phrase+(Qu+t[FF oc1 ,FQu2 ] ) . . .
When the Qu-morpheme occurs at the edge of a clause in these languages, thewh-phrase does not receive an identificational focus interpretation. Rather, there isa standard wh-construction interpretation in which the wh-phrase is an information
focus. In this case, the Qu-morpheme lacks a Focus-feature. It is Merged directly
in Typ where it types a clause as an interrogative. A diagram is shown in (50).
Because there is no Focus-feature in Foc, the verb does not show up with the special
agreement ending.

165

(50)

TypP
Typ’
TP

Typ
Qu[FQu ]T’vPT. . . wh-phrase . . .
Also, in these constructions, a wh-feature (which is a distinct element from a Qufeature) associated with a wh-phrase establishes a relationship with Typ, thereby
giving the wh-phrase scope. I examine the behavior of wh-features in the next
chapter.
I next turn to embedded clauses which contain a wh-phrase that has matrix
scope. In both Sinhala and Okinawan, when a wh-phrase in an embedded clausehas matrix scope, a Qu-morpheme either occurs adjacent to or separated from thewh-phrase. When separated from the wh-phrase, the Qu-morpheme can either occur
at the edge of the embedded clause, or at the edge of the matrix clause. The threepossible positions of the Qu-morpheme are shown in (51a-c).
(51)(a) [T ypP . . . [T ypP . . . wh-phrase Qu . . . ] . . . ](b) [T ypP . . . [T ypP . . . wh-phrase . . . ] Qu . . . ](c) [T ypP . . . [T ypP . . . wh-phrase . . . ] . . . Qu ]Examples (52a-b) from Sinhala show that the Qu-morpheme can occur adjacentto the wh-phrase or at the edge of the embedded clause. In the latter case, notethat the Qu-morpheme follows the embedded clause complementizer, suggestingthat the Qu-morpheme is adjoined to the entire embedded clause. I assume that166

the complementizer kiy@la ‘that’ is in ForceP (see the discussion of clause structurein chapter 2.5).
(52) Sinhala:(a) Chitra [kau d@ aawakiy@la] kiiwe?
Chitra who Qu came.A that
said.E‘Who did Chitra say came?’
kiy@la] d@ kiiwe?
(b) Chitra [kauru aawacame.A that
Qu said.E
Chitra who‘Who did Chitra say came?’ (Kishimoto 2005:21)
Example (53b) shows that the Qu-morpheme can also appear at the edge of thematrix clause. Compare this with (53a) in which the Qu-morpheme is adjacent to
the wh-phrase in the embedded clause.
(53) Sinhala:(a) Ranjit [Chitra kiidenek
d@ dækka kiy@la] danne?
Ranjit Chitra how.many Qu saw.A thatknow.E‘How many (people) does Ranjit know that Chitra saw?’ (Kishimoto
2005:7)(b) Ranjit [kiidenek en@wa kiy@la] dann@wa d@?
Ranjit how.many come.A thatknow.A Qu‘How many (people) does Ranjit know will come?’ (Kishimoto 2005:6)
As discussed in chapter 4.4, when a Qu-morpheme in an embedded clause has matrix
scope, the special verbal agreement only shows up in the matrix clause. Thus, inexamples (52a) and (53a), only the matrix verb appears with the special verbal
ending ‘E.’ In (53b), in which the Qu-morpheme appears in clause-final position of
the matrix clause, the matrix verb appears with the default ‘A’ ending.
In these examples, the Qu-morpheme focuses different constituents. In (52a),
the Qu-morpheme focuses the wh-phrase and in (52b), it focuses the embedded

167

clause. These differences are not indicated in Kishimoto’s glosses, but they are
indicated in his descriptions of the meanings of these examples. Kishimoto (2005:21)
explains that an answer to (52a) can “provide just the value of the wh-phrase asa minimal answer.” However, when answering (52b), “it is necessary to repeat theembedded clause with the complementizer, alongside the value of the wh-phrase.” In(52a) the answer must refer to the wh-phrase, but not necessarily to the embedded
clause, because the wh-phrase is an identificational focus, and the embedded clauseis not. In (52b), the answer must refer to the entire embedded clause because theembedded clause is focused. Example (53b) with the Qu-morpheme at the edgeof the matrix clause presumably does not contain any TP-internal identificational
focus. This example functions like example (42a) above, which also has a clause
final Qu-morpheme, and lacks an identificational focus.
Similar examples in Okinawan are shown in (54). In (54a), the Qu-morpheme
is adjacent to the embedded clause subject taa-ga ‘who-nom’ and the matrix verb
shows the special ‘-RA’ ending. As in Sinhala, when a Qu-morpheme in an embedded clause has matrix scope, the special verbal agreement only shows up in thematrix clause (see chapter 4.4). In (54b), the Qu-morpheme is at the edge of theembedded clause, and the matrix verb again shows the ‘-RA’ ending. In (54c), theQu-morpheme is at the edge of the matrix clause and the ‘-RA’ verbal ending isabsent.
(54) Okinawan:(a) [CP Taa-ga-ga
suba
kada-n-di]
John-ooumutoo-ra?
who-nom-Qu noodles ate-ind-comp John-top think-RA‘Who the hell does John think ate the noodles?’ (Miyara 2001:52)(b) [CP Taa-ga
suba
kada-n-di]-ga
John-ooumutoo-ra?
who-nom noodles ate-ind-comp-Qu John-top think-RA‘Who the hell does John think ate the noodles?’ (Miyara 2001:38)

168(c) [CP Taa-ga
suba
kada-n-di]
John-ooumutoo-ga?
who-nom noodles ete-ind-comp John-top think-Qu‘Who does John think ate the noodles?’ (Miyara 2001:52)
My analysis given in chapter 4 that a Qu-morpheme with a Focus-feature appears
in a TP-internal position and focuses an adjacent phrase predicts the differences in
the glosses of (54a-b) when compared with (54c). In (54a-b), the glosses containing
who the hell indicate identificational focus. Although the glosses for (54a-b) are
the same, I assume that the differing positions of the Qu-morphemes indicates thatdifferent constituents are focused. In (54c), there is no focused phrase within theclause, and thus there is no focused element in the gloss.
I account as follows for these Sinhala and Okinawan examples with an embedded wh-phrase that obtains matrix scope. A TP-internal Qu-morpheme contains a
Focus-feature that forces it to be Merged in a position adjoined to either the whphrase or the embedded clause containing the wh-phrase. In each case, the Qu- andFocus-features of the Qu-morpheme move on to the matrix Foc and Typ projections. Movement is driven by EPP features. The Focus-feature in the matrix Foc is
pronounced as the verbal affix -E in Sinhala and -RA in Okinawan. The verb raises
at least to T, although possibly even to Foc. In the simplified diagram in (55), theQu-morpheme is adjoined to the wh-phrase within the embedded TypP and in (56),the Qu-morpheme is adjoined to the embedded TypP.

169

(55)

TypP
Typ’
FocP

TypEP P
FQu2
Foc’

TP

FocEP P
-E/-RA[FF oc1]
T’

vP

T

. . . [T ypP . . . wh-phrase+(Qu+t[FF oc1 ,FQu2 ] ) . . . ] . . .
(56)

TypP
Typ’
FocP

TypEP P
FQu2
Foc’

TP

FocEP P
-E/-RA[FF oc1]
T’

vP

T

. . . [T ypP . . . wh-phrase . . . ]+(Qu+t[FF oc1 ,FQu2] ) . . .
The Focus-feature raises to the matrix Foc and focuses the wh-phrase, as in (55),or it focuses the embedded clause containing the wh-phrase, as in (56), and the Qufeature raises to Typ where it types the matrix clause as an interrogative. When the

170

Qu-morpheme occurs in a clause-peripheral position, it lacks a Focus-feature and issimply Merged in the matrix Typ. A diagram is shown below.
(57)

TypP
Typ’
TP

Typ
Qu[FQu ]T’vPT. . . wh-phrase . . .
If this analysis is on the right track, in a wh-construction in languages such as
Sinhala and Okinawan, a Qu-morpheme with a Focus-feature adjoins to a wh-phrase.
Movement of the Focus-feaure to Foc gives the wh-phrase scope and also focuses it.
The Qu-morpheme’s Qu-feature also moves to Typ. When a Qu-morpheme appears
in a clause-peripheral position, it lacks a Focus-feature and is Merged directly inTyp.
5.5 Qu-morphemes and island effects
I next turn to wh-constructions in Sinhala and Okinawan that require the Qumorpheme to appear at the edge of an embedded clause. When a Qu-morpheme occurs inside of certain types of embedded clauses, such as a complex-DP, whether/if clause, or adjunct clause, then there is an island effect (see chapter 2.6). If the
Qu-morpheme occurs at the edge of this type of clause, then there is no islandeffect. The configuration in (58a) is ill-formed but that in (58b) is acceptable.
(58)(a) *[T ypP . . . [complex−DP/whether/if −clause/adjunct−clause . . . wh-phrase Qu . . . ]
...]

171

(b) [T ypP . . . [complex−DP/whether/if −clause/adjunct−clause . . . wh-phrase . . . ] Qu...]
In this section, I show that these island effects result from Qu-feature movement.
In (59a), the Qu-morpheme is adjacent to kaa-ú@ ‘who-dat’ inside of a complexDP, and ill-formedness results. The complex-DP then functions as an island. In(59b), the Qu-morpheme is adjacent to the complex-DP, and the result is wellformed.
(59) Sinhala:(a) *Oyaa [DP [T ypP Chitra kaa-ú@ d@ dunn@] pot@] kieuwe?
you
Chitra who-dat Qu gavebook read.E‘You read the book that Chitra gave to whom?
(b) Oyaa [DP [T ypP Chitra kaa-ú@ dunn@] pot@] d@ kieuwe?
you
Chitra who-dat gavebook Qu read.E‘You read the book that Chitra gave to who? (Kishimoto 2005:29)
The same is true for adjunct clauses. In the ill-formed (60a) the Qu-morpheme
is inside of the adjunct clause (the embedded TypP), and in the well-formed (60b),
the Qu-morpheme is at the edge of the clause.
(60) Sinhala:(a) *[T ypP Chitra mon@wa d@ kan@ koú@] Ranjit pudum@
Chitra what
Qu ate time Ranjit surpriseunee?
became.E‘What1 was Ranjit surprised when Chitra ate t1 ? (Kishimoto 2005:29)(a) [T ypP Chitra mon@wa kan@ koú@] d@ Ranjit pudum@ unee?
Chitra what
ate time Qu Ranjit surprise became.E‘What1 was Ranjit surprised when Chitra ate t1 ? (Kishimoto 2005:30)

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Similarly, when a wh-phrase with an adjacent Qu-morpheme occurs within an
embedded whether/if -clause the result is ill-formed, as in (61a). Otherwise, when
the Qu-morpheme is at the edge of the whether/if -clause, the result is well-formed,
as shown in (61b).
(61) Sinhala:(a) ?*Ranjit [T ypP Chitra mon@wa d@ kieuwa d@-nædd@ kiy@la]
RanjitChitra what
Qu read.A whether thatdanne?
know.E‘What1 does Ranjit know whether Chitra read t1 ?
(b) Ranjit [T ypP Chitra mon@wa kieuwa d@-nædd@ kiy@la] d@RanjitChitra what
read.A whether thatQu
danne?
know.E‘What1 does Ranjit know whether Chitra read t1 ? (Kishimoto
2005:29-30)
The facts are identical in Okinawan. Example (62a) shows a wh-phrase and adjacent Qu-morpheme in a complex-DP. This is ill-formed, but when the Qu-morpheme
is at the edge of the complex-DP, well-formedness results, as in (62b).
(62) Okinawan:(a) *[DP [T ypP taa-ga-ga
ka-chee-ru]
shimuchi]
who-nom-Qu write-have-nom book(-acc)-top
John-ooyuda-ra?
John-TOP read-RA‘[Who the hell]1 did John read the book that t1 had written?’(b) [DP [T ypP taa-ga
ka-chee-ru]
shimuchi]-ga
who-nom write-have-nom book(-acc)-top-ga
John-ooyuda-ra?
John-TOP read-RA

173‘[Who the hell]1 did John read the book that t1 had written?’ (Miyara
2001:52)
When the Qu-morpheme is within an adjunct clause as in (63a), ill-formedness
results. When it is at the edge of the adjunct clause as in (63b), the result iswell-formed.
(63) Okinawan:(a) *[T ypP Nuu-ga
chichi-gachiinaa] John-oobenkyoosa-ra?
what(-acc)-Qu listening-while
John-top studied-RA‘[What the hell]1 did John study while listening to t1 ?’(b) [T ypP Nuu
chichi-gachiinaa]-ga John-oobenkyoosa-ra?
what(-acc) listening-while-Qu
John-top studied-RA‘[What the hell]1 did John study while listening to t1 ?’ (Miyara 2001:38)
These constructions suggest that it is the position of the Qu-morpheme that determines whether or not there is an island effect. Specifically, when a Qu-morpheme
appears in certain types of clauses such as a complex-DP, whether/if -clause, or adjunct clause, there is an island effect. When the Qu-morpheme appears at the edgeof these types of clauses, there is no island effect. Hagstrom (1998) argues that when
the Qu-morpheme is contained within an island it undergoes covert movement thatcauses an island effect. I adopt this analysis, in a slightly modified version. I claimthat the Qu-morpheme does not undergo LF movement. Instead, it remains in-situ,
but its’ Qu- and Focus-features move at Spell-Out. The Qu-morpheme does not
move because in these languages, Qu- and Focus-features are able to separate fromit. These features, however, are subject to blocking effects that result in the islandeffects discussed here.
First of all, I propose that the complex-DP and adjunct-island effects have thesame cause, which is the inability to extract a feature out of an adjunct because
the adjunct has been renumerated (see discussion of renumeration in chapter 2.6.2).

174

In (59a) and (62a), the Qu-morpheme is contained within an adjunct modifier of anominal within a Complex-DP. In (60a) and (63a), the Qu-morpheme is within an
adjunct clause. According to Johnson’s (2002) notion of renumeration, an adjunctis assembled and reinserted into a numeration. It essentially functions as a fixed
lexical item, and nothing can be extracted from it. Therefore, Qu- and Focusfeatures cannot escape from an adjunct and raise to Typ and Foc. For example, in(59a), repeated below, the adjunct clause is assembled via Merge.
(59) Sinhala:(a) *Oyaa [DP [T ypP Chitra kaa-ú@ d@ dunn@] pot@] kieuwe?
you
Chitra who-dat Qu gavebook read.E‘You read the book that Chitra gave to whom? (Kishimoto 2005:29)(64) shows the numeration of (59a), after the adjunct has been assembled and renumerated.
(64) N = {Oyaa, < Chitra kaa-ú@ d@ dunn@>, pot@, kieuwe }The adjunct clause functions as a lexical item that is selected from the numerationand Merged with the nominal pot@ ‘book’ within the complex-DP. Since the adjunctclause is a fixed lexical item, Qu- and Focus-features cannot move out of it.
In a construction such as (60a), repeated below, the Qu-morpheme is also contained within an adjunct clause that is renumerated.
(60) Sinhala:(a) *[T ypP Chitra mon@wa d@ kan@ koú@] Ranjit pudum@
Chitra what
Qu ate time Ranjit surpriseunee?
became.E‘What1 was Ranjit surprised when Chitra ate t1 ? (Kishimoto 2005:29)

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The adjunct clause is formed via Merge and then put back into the numeration asa single lexical item. (65) shows the numeration of (60a), once the adjunct clauseis renumerated.
(65) N = {<Chitra mon@wa d@ kan@ koú@>, Ranjit, pudum@, unee}
This numeration results in an ill-formed construction because the Qu- and Focusfeatures are unable to move out of the adjunct-clause.
When the Qu-morpheme appears at the edge of a complex-DP or adjunct-clause,
it is an element that is base-generated outside of the clause. For example, theNumeration of (59b), repeated below, is as shown in (66).
(59) Sinhala:(b) Oyaa [DP [T ypP Chitra kaa-ú@ dunn@] pot@] d@ kieuwe?
you
Chitra who-dat gavebook Qu read.E‘You read the book that Chitra gave to who? (Kishimoto 2005:29)(66) N = {Oyaa, < Chitra kaa-ú@ dunn@>, d@ , pot@, kieuwe }The Qu-morpheme is not part of the complex-DP. The Qu-morpheme Merges with
the Complex-DP, and its Qu- and Focus-features are able to move freely to Typand Foc. The same is true when the Qu-morpheme appears outside of the adjunctclause in (60b), repeated below. It is outside of the adjunct clause, as shown in the
Numeration in (67). The Qu-morpheme is able to Merge with the adjunct-clause
and its Qu- and Focus-features can move freely to Typ and Foc.
(60) Sinhala:(b) [T ypP Chitra mon@wa kan@ koú@] d@ Ranjit pudum@ unee?
Chitra what
ate time Qu Ranjit surprise became.E‘What was Ranjit surprised when Chitra ate? (Kishimoto 2005:30)(67) N = {<Chitra mon@wa kan@ koú@>, d@, Ranjit, pudum@, unee}

176

In a construction such as (61a), repeated below, the Qu-morpheme is contained
within a whether/if -clause. In this case, unlike with an adjunct clause, ill-formedness
results from a violation of the Minimal Link (MLC) condition (see chapter 2.6 and2.7 for discussion of the MLC).
(61) Sinhala:(a) ?*Ranjit [T ypP Chitra mon@wa d@ kieuwa d@-nædd@ kiy@la]
RanjitChitra what
Qu read.A whether thatdanne?
know.E‘What1 does Ranjit know whether Chitra read t1 ?
Movement of the Qu- and Focus-features to Typ is blocked by d@-nædd@ ‘whether’in the embedded clause. This blocking effect can be accounted for as resulting fromd@-nædd@ ‘whether’ being an element of the same type (having a quantificational
element) as a Qu- and Focus-feature. I propose that movement of these features isdriven by an EPP feature in the embedded Typ, but d@-nædd@ ‘whether’ blocks thefeatures from landing in Typ, thus preventing them from moving on to the matrix
clause. A simplified diagram is shown below.
(68)

ForceP
Force’TypP
Typ’
TP
Chitra mon@wa d@+t[FF oc,FQu ] kieuwa
Chitra what Qu read-A

Force
kiy@lathat
TypEP Pd@-nædd@
whether177

In summary, a Qu-morpheme cannot appear adjacent to a wh-phrase in certain
types of embedded clauses such as complex-DPs, adjunct clauses, and whether/if clauses because movement of Qu- and Focus-features from the Qu-morpheme cannot
occur, either due to renumeration or an MLC effect. If my proposal that a Focusfeature forces TP-internal Merge of a Qu-morpheme is correct, then when a whphrase is within an island, a Qu-morpheme cannot focus the wh-phrase. The clausecontaining the wh-phrase, however, can be focused by an adjacent Qu-morpheme.
Thus, when a Qu-morpheme appears at the edge of this type of clause, the clausefunctions as an identificational focus.14
5.6 Remaining problems regarding TP-internal Qu-morphemes in Sinhala
In this section, I examine some perplexing facts regarding Qu-morphemes that must
appear in a TP-internal position in Sinhala. First of all, I discuss the fact thatcertain verbs impose restrictions on the position of the Qu-morpheme. Specifically,certain verbs require a Qu-morpheme to appear adjacent to a wh-phrase, when thewh-phrase occurs in a clausal complement to the verb. Secondly, in a matrix clause,a Qu-morpheme generally has to appear adjacent to a wh-phrase.
5.6.1 Embedded wh-constructions
As discussed in section 5.4, in Sinhala, a Qu-morpheme may either appear adjacent to or separate from a wh-phrase when the wh-phrase is in an embedded
clausal complement of certain verbs, such as “dann@wa ‘know,’ hoya b@r@n@wa ‘examine,’ parikSaa k@r@n@wa ‘look into, inspect,’ and teeren@wa ‘understand’ (Kishimoto 2005:8).” However, not all verbs that can take an interrogative complement
clause allow this freedom in the position of the Qu-morpheme.
14

In a well-formed construction of this sort in which a Qu-feature appears at the edge of apotential island, the embedded wh-phrase obtains scope without incurring an island effect. I
address this issue in chapter 6.

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When verbs such as “‘ahan@wa ‘ask,’ prasn@ k@r@n@wa ‘question,’ and hiten@wa‘consider’ (Kishimoto 2005:8),” have a complement clause that is a wh-construction,
the Qu-morpheme must appear adjacent to the wh-phrase in the configuration in(69a). (69b) is ill-formed.
(69)(a) [T ypP . . . [T ypP . . . wh-phrase Qu . . . ] . . . ](b) *[T ypP . . . [T ypP . . . wh-phrase . . . Qu ] . . . ]For example, (70a-b) show that this requirement holds when the matrix verb isæhuwa ‘asked.’ When the Qu-morpheme is adjacent to the wh-phrase in (70a), theresult is well-formed, but when it is separated from the wh-phrase in (70b), theresult is ill-formed.
(70) Sinhala:(a) Ranjit [kauru d@ aawe
kiy@la] æhuwa.
Ranjit who
Qu came.E that
asked.A‘Ranjit asked who came.’(b) *Ranjit [kauru aawad@ kiy@la] æhuwa.
Ranjit whocame.A Qu that
asked.A‘Ranjit asked who came.’ (Kishimoto 2005:8)
Whether or not a Qu-morpheme in a complement clause can separate from anassociated wh-phrase then is dependent on the matrix verb. The following examples
make this clear. Compare (70a-b) above with (45a-b), repeated below, in which thematrix verb is dann@wa ‘know.’ Whereas the Qu-morpheme can be separated fromthe wh-phrase kauru ‘who’ in (45b), the same is not true in the virtually identical(70b) above. The only difference between these constructions is the matrix verb.
(45) Sinhala:(a) Ranjit [kau d@ aawe
kiy@la] dann@wa.
Ranjit who Qu came.E thatknow.A‘Ranjit knows who came.’ (Kishimoto 2005:7)

179(b) Ranjit [kauru aawad@ kiy@la] dann@wa.
Ranjit whocame.A Qu thatknow.A‘Ranjit knows who came.’ (Kishimoto 2005:6)
Assuming that when the Qu-morpheme is adjoined to the wh-phrase, as in (70a),the wh-phrase is an identificational focus, as I have claimed is the case in the previous
section, then a wh-phrase in the complement clause of certain verbs must be an
identificational focus.
In order to determine why a wh-phrase in the complement of certain verbs must
be an identificational focus, it is necessary to examine the distinction between verbs
that require a Qu-morpheme to appear adjacent to a wh-phrase in a complement
clause and those that do not. (71) shows verbs that fall into these two categories.
This list is by no means exhaustive. Qu-separate refers to verbs that allow the Qumorpheme to separate from a wh-phrase in a complement clause and Qu-adjacentrefers to verbs that require the Qu-morpheme to be adjacent to a wh-phrase.
(71)
Qu-separate

Qu-adjacent“dann@wa ‘know’‘ahan@wa ‘ask’

hoya b@r@n@wa ‘examine’prasn@ k@r@n@wa ‘question’parikSaa k@r@n@wa ‘look into, inspect’

hiten@wa ‘consider’

teeren@wa ‘understand’
Unfortunately, it is not clear what the distinction between these two types ofverbs is. Kishimoto (2005:9) writes that “there is no correlation between the classof predicates permitting the clause-final Q-placement in the complement clause andthe class of predicates selecting a non-interrogative complement.” For example, bothdann@wa ‘know’ and hoya b@r@n@wa ‘examine’ allow the Qu-morpheme to appear
both adjacent to the wh-phrase and clause-finally in the complement clause, yet
dann@wa ‘know’ allows a declarative complement, but hoya b@r@n@wa ‘examine’180

does not, as shown below.
(72) Sihhala:
Ranjit [Chitra aawa kiy@la] dann@wa/*hoya b@r@n@wa.
Ranjit Chitra came thatknow-A/examine-A‘Ranjit knows/examines that Chitra came.’ (Kishimoto 2005:9)
The distinction between the two types of verbs likely has to do with their semantics. Gair & Sumangala (1991:96) write that when a Qu-morpheme can occur
separated from a wh-phrase in an embedded clause, the embedded clause refers to“general doubt.” If this is the case, then the class of verbs that does not allow anembedded clause to express general doubt requires the Qu-morpheme to be adjoined
to a wh-phrase, and the class of verbs that allows a complement clause to express
general doubt allows the Qu-morpheme to be separated from a wh-phrase. The verbs
in the first column of (73) allow a complement to express general doubt, whereas
the verbs in the second column do not.
(73)
Qu-separate: permit general doubt

Qu-adjacent“dann@wa ‘know’‘ahan@wa ‘ask’

hoya b@r@n@wa ‘examine’prasn@ k@r@n@wa ‘question’parikSaa k@r@n@wa ‘look into, inspect’

hiten@wa ‘consider’

teeren@wa ‘understand’
However, if general doubt is involved, why certain verbs allow an interrogative complement to express general doubt and other verbs do not becomes an issue.
Further examination of the semantic distinction between these two types of verbs
is required.

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5.6.2 Matrix wh-constructions
I next turn to another instance in Sinhala in which a Qu-morpheme must appear
adjacent to a wh-phrase. In a matrix clause, a Qu-morpheme generally must be
adjacent to its associated wh-phrase,15 as shown in (74a-b).
(74)(a) [T ypP . . . wh-phrase d@ . . . ](b) *[T ypP . . . wh-phrase . . . d@ ]For example, the Qu-morpheme must attach onto the matrix wh-phrase in (75a)below. The verb also shows up with the special ‘-E’ ending. When the Qu-morpheme
is separated from the wh-phrase in (75b), ill-formedness results.
(75) Sinhala:(a) Oyaa mokak d@ dække?
you what
Q see-past.E‘What did you see?’(b) *Oyaa mokak dække
d@?
you
what
see-past.E Qu (Sumangala 1992:212)
One possibility is that in a matrix clause, a wh-phrase of this sort simply must
be an identificational focus. If this is the case, then the Qu-morpheme contains a
Focus-feature which forces it to adjoin to the wh-phrase. There is a problem forthis analysis though. According to Sumangala, (75a) has two possible meanings,
both given in (76). Meaning (i) is a standard wh-construction in which the whphrase presumably only receives an information focus interpretation, and in (ii) the
wh-phrase functions as an identificational focus, as can be seen in the clefted gloss.
15

The exception are scalar wh-words such as kiidenek ‘how many (animate),’ kiiyak ‘how many

(inanimate),’ and kocc@r@ ‘how much.’ See example (42) above.

182(76) Sinhala:
Oyaa mokak-d@ dække?
you what-Q
see-past.E(i) ‘What did you see?’(ii) ‘What is it that you saw?’ (Sumangala 1992:212)
The fact that an identificational focus-interpretation is permitted, as indicated bymeaning (ii) is accounted for straightforwardly. The Qu-morpheme contains a Focusfeature and adjoins to the wh-phrase. The Focus- and Qu-features then undergo
movement to Foc and Typ. However, if Sumangala is correct about meaning (i)being permitted, then focus is not always the reason why the Qu-morpheme must
appear adjacent to the wh-phrase.
Why exactly a Qu-morpheme must adjoin to a non-scalar wh-phrase in a matrix
clause thus remains to be explained. Gair & Sumangala (1991) suggest that an
explanation for this distinction between scalar and non-scalar wh-phrases has to
do with the semantics of the wh-phrase, although they also express their lack ofunderstanding of this distinction. Gair & Sumangala (1991:97) write the following.
At present, we have no explanation for why quantifier [scalar] WHs
should be exceptions to the general rule [that requires a Qu-morpheme
to be adjacent to a wh-phrase], though we assume that it is a functionof their semantic character.
Note that the requirement that a Qu-morpheme occur adjacent to a non-scalar whphrase clearly is not universal. In Okinawan, a language that like Sinhala allows
some variability in the positions of Qu-morphemes in wh-constructions, the Qumorpheme can be separated from a non-scalar matrix wh-phrase, as can be seen in(43a-b) above.

183

5.6.3 Summary
In summary, the Sinhala Qu-morpheme must appear adjacent to a wh-phrase in thetwo following situations given in (77a-b).
(77)(a) an embedded clausal complement of certain matrix verbs such as‘ahan@wa ‘ask,’ prasn@ k@r@n@wa ‘question,’ and hiten@wa ‘consider’(b) a matrix clause with a non-scalar wh-phrase

These facts leave much unexplained. I have argued that in situation (77a), theQu-morpheme must occur adjacent to the wh-phrase because the wh-phrase must
be an identificational focus. Why this is the case is an issue that I leave unresolved, but the explanation appears to have to do with the semantics of a matrix
verb. If Sumangala’s claim that a wh-phrase in situation (77b) need not have an
identificational focus interpretation is correct, then there may be some constraintthat requires the Qu-morpheme to be adjacent to a non-scalar wh-phrase in a matrix
clause, regardless of whether or not the Qu-morpheme has a Focus-feature. Furthermore, if Sumangala is correct, then whereas if a Qu-morpheme has a Focus-feature
it must be adjacent to a wh-phrase, as discussed in section 5.4, the converse is notnecessarily true. If a Qu-morpheme is adjacent to a wh-phrase there may be instances in which the Qu-morpheme lacks a Focus-feature. Further examination ofthis issue is required.
5.7 Comparison with previous analyses
Previous analyses of TP-internal Qu-morphemes have relied on notions of operator
and LF movement to account for the facts. I briefly compare some of these analyses
with my own.
Kishimoto (2005) claims that in a wh-construction, a Qu-morpheme is always
Merged in a TP-internal position adjoined to a wh-constituent. Kishimoto writes

184

that “the Q-particle d@ serves primarily to delimit a wh-constituent in a wh-question(16).” As I understand this, the term ‘delimit’ refers essentially to focusing an element, as Kishimoto (2005:16-17) writes that d@ ”serves to pick out a focused constituent in a wh-question.” Evidence for this proposal is that when a Qu-morpheme
occurs in clause-final position as in (78a), a minimal answer of (78b) is fine.
(78)(a) Q: Chitra kiidenekdækka d@?
Chitra how.many saw.A Qu‘How many (people) did Chitra see?’(b) A: tundenek.
two‘Two (people).’ (Kishimoto 2005:19)

Kishimoto argues that if the Qu-morpheme were initially Merged in a clauseperipheral position it would delimit the entire wh-construction, and thus a minimal
answer that just refers to the wh-phrase should not be allowed. However, under myanalysis, a clause-final Qu-morpheme is Merged directly in Typ and it simply lacks
a Focus-feature. Therefore, in a construction such as (78a), the Qu-morpheme does
not focus the entire clause, and a minimal answer that only refers to the wh-phrase
should be acceptable.
Kishimoto argues that a Qu-morpheme is an operator that raises to the scope
position of the wh-phrase. Notably, this movement can occur either at PF, in whichcase the Qu-morpheme appears in a clause-peripheral position, or at LF, in whichcase the Qu-morpheme remains in a TP-internal position adjoined to a delimited
wh-constituent. Kishimoto proposes that a verb in the clause where the wh-phrase
has scope has a [+Q] feature that is either strong or weak. When the [+Q] feature is
weak, the verb shows up with the -E ending, and the Qu-morpheme remains in-situ
adjoined to a wh-constituent. A weak [+Q] feature can be checked at LF. Therefore,
the Qu-morpheme moves to [Spec, CP] at LF and checks the [+Q] feature. Whenthe [+Q] feature is strong, it forces overt movement of the Qu-morpheme to the185clause-periphery. Movement of the Qu-morpheme checks the strong [+Q] featureon the verb. If I understand correctly, the verb raises to C where its [+Q] featureis eliminated via “a Spec-head configuration (23)” between the verb in C and the
Qu-morpheme in [Spec, CP].
My analysis differs from Kishimoto’s in several respects with regard to the natureof a Qu-morpheme and with regard to what triggers Qu-morpheme movement. Firstof all, I assume that a Qu-morpheme is a head and not a specifier. Specifiers inSinhala appear to precede their heads. Thus, if the Qu-morpheme were a specifier,one would expect that when in the clause periphery, it would come at the beginningof a clause. The notion that the Qu-morpheme is a head accounts straightforwardly
for its clause-final position when it is not in a TP-internal position. Also, Kishimoto
accounts for whether a Qu-morpheme appears in a TP-internal or a clause-peripheral
position, and for the appearance of the verbal ending ‘-E’ in terms of a strong or
weak [+Q] feature on a verb. As I see it, a Qu-feature is responsible for typing aclause and is associated with a clause peripheral Typ projection, not with a verb.
My analysis accounts for the ‘E’ ending on a verb as simply being a moved Focusfeature, and whether or not a Qu-morpheme appears in a TP-internal or clauseperipheral position is dependent on whether or not a Qu-morpheme has a Focusfeature. An advantage of my analysis is that it directly connects the position of the
Qu-morpheme with the presence of a focus-interpretation when the Qu-morpheme
is in a TP-internal position, and with the lack of a focus interpretation when the
Qu-morpheme is in a clause-peripheral position.
I next turn to Okinawan. Sugahara (1996) argues that what I have been referring
to as a Qu-morpheme, ga, is actually a [+WH] element that is the head of a quantificational phrase QP. This particle ga takes as its complement a wh-phrase, which
Sugahara argues is an indeterminate pronominal that is bound by a null operator
that has a [+WH Scope] feature, and that is located in the specifier of the QP. The
structure of a wh-phrase with an adjacent Qu-morpheme is given as follows, from

186

Sugahara (1996:239).
(79)

QP
Op[+W HScope]

Q’
XP

Q
ga[+W H]

indeterminate pronominal
Furthermore, Sugahara argues that the verbal agreement ending ‘-RA’ has a [+WH
Scope] feature and is the head of a Modal Phrase (MP) that is located in a position
above TP, which accounts for why it follows tense. The null [+WH Scope] operator
in the [Spec, QP] position moves to the specifier of the modal phrase to check the[+WH Scope] feature of ‘-RA.’
Sugahara’s analysis has several aspects that I find problematic. First of all, if
the Qu-morpheme is the head of a TP-internal QP, then it is not clear where it iswhen it appears in a clause-peripheral position. Also, this analysis does not makea connection between the fact that the TP-internal ga is homophonous with thega that occurs in a yes/no construction. As I see it, ga occurs in yes/no and whconstructions because it is a Qu-morpheme. It is not a wh-element. Lastly, I accountfor the special verbal ending ‘-RA’ as being the pronunciation of a Focus-feature,as ‘-RA’ occurs when there is a TP-internal Qu-morpheme adjoined to a focused
wh-phrase. There is no need to postulate movement of a null wh-operator to explain
its existence.
Miyara (2001) takes a different view of the nature of the Okinawan Qu-morpheme
ga. Miyara assumes that the clause-final ga is a Qu-morpheme, but the TP-internal
ga is an emphatic particle. Thus, there are two distinct ga elements. Furthermore,
Miyara assumes that the special verbal agreement ending ‘-RA’ that occurs whena Qu-morpheme appears in a TP-internal position is a Qu-morpheme. This canbe seen in the glosses of the following constructions. In (80a), the clause final ga

187

is glossed as a Qu-morpheme, but in (80b), the TP-internal ga is glossed as anemphatic particle and the ‘-RA’ ending is glossed as a Qu-morpheme.
(80)(a) Taa-ga
ich-u-ga?
who-nom go-pres-Qu‘Who is going?’(b) Taa-ga-ga
ich-u-ra?
who-nom-emph go-pres-Qu‘Who is going?’ (Miyara 2001:27)

The glossing of the TP-internal ga as an emphatic particle is in agreement with
my notion that the TP-internal Qu-morpheme has a Focus-feature, but it misses
the connection between the TP-internal and the clause-peripheral occurences of ga.
Both versions of ga serve the function of typing a clause as an interrogative, andso I think that the Qu-morpheme label is appropriate. Furthermore, I do not think
there is any clear evidence that ‘-RA’ is a Qu-morpheme, since it only occurs when
there is a TP-internal ga, whereas ga occurs in all wh-constructions.
Hagstrom (1998) argues that in a wh-construction in wh-in-situ languages suchas Sinhala, Okinawan, Premodern Japanese, and Modern Japanese, a Qu-morpheme
is base generated in a position adjacent to a wh-phrase. From this position the Qumorpheme moves to C. This movement can be overt, in which case the Qu-morpheme
must appear in the clause periphery, or this movement can be at LF, in which case
the Qu-morpheme appears in a TP-internal position. There are two aspects of thisanalysis that I think can be revised. First of all, although Hagstrom acknowledges
that a TP-internal Qu-morpheme focuses a constituent in a yes/no construction, if I
understand correctly, his analysis does not account for the focus facts. My analysis
accounts for these facts with the notion that a TP-internal Qu-morpheme contains
a Focus-feature and focuses a particular wh-phrase. Secondly, if a Qu-morpheme
is always base generated as part of a wh-phrase in a wh-construction, then theissue arises of what happens in a yes/no construction. In yes/no constructions in188which there is no focused phrase, the Qu-morpheme appears in the clause-periphery.
Thus, in these cases, it seems most likely that the Qu-morpheme is base generated
in Typ, as there is no TP-internal phrase for it to be base generated next to. Under
my analysis, the wh-construction facts are identical; if there is no identificationallyfocused wh-phrase, then the Qu-morpheme is base generated in Typ. Thus, it is notclear that a Qu-morpheme must always be base generated in a position adjacent toa wh-phrase.
Another aspect that I differ from Hagstrom on is with respect to the special verbal endings in Sinhala. Hagstrom writes that when the Sinhala Qu-morpheme remains adjoined to a wh-phrase, the ‘-E’ suffix indicates that it will move at LF. When
the Qu-morpheme moves overtly, then the ‘-E’ suffix does not occur. Hagstrom(1998:33) writes the following.
. . . the ‘-E’ suffix is a morphological reflection of an “unsatisfied property” of the surface representation.

‘-E’ reflects a feature which is“checked” or “satisfied” by the movement of the focus or interrogative
particle to the clause periphery. If this movement has not taken place
overtly, ‘-E’ appears indicating that this movement is “yet to ocur,” i.e.
occurs covertly.
In other words, ‘-E’ indicates that the Qu-morpheme will move at LF. If the Qumorpheme moves overtly, then the ‘-E’ suffix does not occur on the verb. Therefore,“[t]he unsatisifed property marked by ‘-E’ is only resolved by a suffixation of the
focus/question particle to the verb (33).” As I see it, there is no LF movement
involved. The special verbal agreement ending is simply a Focus-feature that has
moved overtly from a TP-internal Qu-morpheme to Foc, where it is Spelled-Out as‘-E.’
In summary, although the analyses discussed in this section make interestingclaims that are worthy of closer examination, they have problems. They rely on
notions that a Qu-morpheme is a specifier, null operator movement, strong and189weak Qu-features, and/or LF movement. My analysis does not require any of theseelements. Furthermore, these analyses do not, for the most part, account for the focusing effects involving Qu-morphemes, whereas my analysis does; a Qu-morphemewith a Focus-feature focuses an associated phrase. Lastly, these analyses account for
Qu-morpheme positions in wh-constructions, but they do not extend to yes/no constructions. My analysis has the advantage of accounting for wh-construction facts
in the same manner as in yes/no constructions. The position of a Qu-morpheme
in a yes/no or wh-construction is dependent on whether or not it contains a Focusfeature.
5.8 Conclusion
In this chapter, I examined cross-linguistic variation in the positions of Qumorphemes in several different types of wh-constructions. In an optimal derivationof a wh-construction, a Qu-morpheme should be Merged directly in Typ, where
its Qu-feature can type a clause without any movement. However, this ‘optimal
derivation’ clearly does not always occur, as there are constructions in which a Qumorpheme does not appear in Typ. I have accounted for this variation as primarily
resulting from whether or not a Qu-morpheme contains a Focus-feature.
I have examined the two types of languages listed in (81). A Type 1 language
requires its Qu-morpheme to be Merged directly in Typ in the clause-periphery.
A Type 2 language allows a Qu-morpheme to either be Merged in Typ or in a
TP-internal position.
(81)
Language Type

Typ

1

X

2

X

TP-internal

X

190

In the Type 2 languages that I discussed (Sinhala and Okinawan), the position of the Qu-morpheme depends on whether or not it has a Focus-feature. If
it has a Focus-feature, it must be Merged in a TP-internal position adjoined toa wh-phrase or a constituent containing a wh-phrase. If it lacks a Focus-feature,then it is Merged in the clause-periphery in Typ. As discussed in section 5.6,
Sumangala claims that a standard non-identificational focus interpretation of awh-phrase is possible even when a Qu-morpheme is adjoined to a matrix non-scalar
wh-phrase. If true, this is an exception to this last claim that a Qu-morpheme
without a Focus-feature is Merged in the clause-periphery. However, this issue
requires further examination.
In Sinhala and Okinawan, although a Qu-morpheme can appear in a TP-internal
position, it cannot occur inside of an ‘island’ because movement of its Qu- andFocus-features cannot proceed out of the relevant clause, either because the clausehas been renumerated or because an intervening element causes an MLC violation.
However, in these languages a Qu-morpheme can be Merged in a position adjacent
to a potential island, and in this case it serves the function of focusing the island,
as well as typing the clause.
This analysis has several positive aspects. It accounts for the special focusinterpretations associated with TP-internal Qu-morphemes that occurs in whconstructions. This analysis is also compatible with the analysis of yes/no constructions in the previous chapter, and thus it accounts for similarities between
yes/no and wh-construction formation.
In this chapter, I accounted for the syntactic distribution of Qu-morphemes incertain wh-constructions. Crucially, a wh-construction contains a wh-phrase. In thenext chapter, I account for the syntactic distribution of wh-phrases by examining
the role of another interrogative feature; a wh-feature.

191

CHAPTER 6
Wh-features in single wh-constructions

6.1 Introduction
In this chapter I focus on how a wh-feature establishes a relationship with Typ insingle wh-constructions. I argue that it is this relationship that accounts for muchof the crosslinguistic variation in wh-constructions.
A wh-construction obviously requires a wh-element. When a Qu-morpheme occurs and there is no wh-phrase, as in (1a) from Japanese, a yes/no construction
results. Example (1b) is a wh-construction because the Qu-morpheme ka co-occurs
with a wh-phrase.
(1)

Japanese:(a) Anata-wa kono-hon-ga
suki desu ka?
you-top this-book-nom like be
Qu‘Do you like this book?’(b) Anata-wa nani-ga
suki desu ka?
You-nom what-nom like be
Qu‘What do you like?’

I essentially adopt the view argued for by Katz & Postal (1964), Aoun & Li (1993),
and Denham (2000), among others, that a wh-construction contains a unique whfeature that is separate from a Qu-feature. In order for a wh-construction to beformed, Typ must contain a Qu-feature to type the clause as an interrogative, andin addition, a wh-feature must value a probe in Typ. I will argue that in a whconstruction, a single Typ head contains both a Qu-feature and also a probe that isvalued by a wh-feature. This probe is responsible for giving a wh-phrase scope.

192

Evidence that both a Qu-feature and a wh-feature co-occur in TypP can be seenin languages that have both an overt Qu-morpheme and a wh-phrase that occur ina single TypP projection. In Sharanahua,1 the Qu-morpheme mun occurs in clause
final position and a wh-phrase must occur at the beginning of a clause (Scott &Frantz 1974), as shown in (2).
(2)

Sharanahua:
Ahuua
min rutu-a-mun?
What-thing you kill-compl-Qu‘What did you kill?’ (Scott & Frantz 1974:84)

Similarly, Tlingit2 requires a Qu-morpheme and a wh-phrase to appear in a clauseperipheral position (Cable 2007). In (3), the wh-phrase daa ‘what’ occurs in clauseinitial position, followed by the Qu-morpheme sá ‘Qu.’(3)

Tlingit:Daa sá kéetax/’a?
what Qu killerwhale he.eats.it‘What do killerwhales eat?’ (Cable 2007:64)

In these wh-constructions in (2) and (3), both the wh-phrase and the Qu-morpheme
are likely in TypP. The wh-phrase moves from within the TP to [Spec, TypP], andthe Qu-morpheme is in Typ. The Qu-morpheme has a Qu-feature (FQu ) and thewh-phrase has a wh-feature (Fwh ) that values a probe in Typ, as indicated by theFwh subscript on the probe Prb (see section 6.4 for further details on how the Probeis valued). Thus, the Typ head in these constructions contains a Qu-feature andalso a probe that is valued by the wh-feature. The TypP of (2) is shown in (4), andthe TypP of (3) is shown in (5).
12This a Panoan language spoken in Peru (Scott & Frantz 1974:75).
This is a “Na-Dene language of Alaska, British Columbia and the Yukon (Cable 2007:21).”

193

(4)

TypP
DP1
ahuua[Fwh ]what-thing

Typ’
TP

Typ
Prb[Fwh ] , mun[FQu ]. . . t1 . . .
(5)

TypP
DP1

Typ’

daa[Fwh ]Typwhat Prb[Fwh ] ,sá[FQu ]TP. . . t1 . . .

I discuss the details of these languages further in section 6.4. The key point hereis that wh-constructions in these languages provide evidence that both a Qu- and awh-element co-occur in the same TypP projection.
In the following sections, I argue that there are three ways, listed in (6a-c), thata wh-feature can obtain scope in Typ.
(6)(a) Agree(b) Wh-feature movement(c) Wh-phrasal movement

Movement distinguishes these three relationships. A wh-feature and a probe in
Typ can form an Agree relation (6a), which crucially does not result in island orintervention effects. A wh-feature can move to Typ (6b), or a wh-phrase can move
to [Spec, TypP] (6c). These latter movement options are subject to island andintervention effects.
I propose that which of the three basic methods in (6a-c) is utilized in a whconstruction is dependent on the following factors: 1) the presence or absence of194

an EPP feature that attracts a wh-element in Typ, and 2) the type of EPP featurethat occurs (when present). A Typ head may or may not contain an EPP featurethat attracts a wh-element, depending on the language. When there is no EPP
feature, or no EPP feature that attracts a wh-element, a wh-feature undergoes an
Agree relation with a probe in Typ. This relationship crucially does not involve
any movement. When there is an EPP feature in Typ, some form of movement of awh-element to TypP must occur. The EPP feature determines how the probe in the
scopal TypP head is valued; either by XP movement of a wh-phrase to [Spec, TypP]
or by X0 movement of a wh-feature to Typ. This notion that an EPP feature canattract an XP or an X0 element was proposed by Alexiadou & Anagnostopoulou(1998). This view is summarized by Miyagawa (2001) as follows.
The EPP may be satisfied either by moving an appropriate XP to thespecifier of the head with the EPP-feature or by raising an appropriate
head to the head with the EPP-feature (Miyagawa 2001:295).
I refer to an EPP feature that forces XP movement as an EPPXP feature3 and I
0refer to an EPP feature that forces X0 movement as an EPPX feature. These threedifferent types of wh-construction, utilizing Agree, wh-feature movement, or whphrasal movement are summarized in (7a-c). In 7a) there either is no EPP feature,or if an EPP feature is present, it does not attracts a wh-element.
(7)
Relationship

EPP

(a)

Agree

∅

(b)

Wh-feature movement

EPPX

(c)

Wh-phrasal movement

EPPXP

3

0

This is the similar to the traditional EPP feature of Chomsky (1981), although in accord with

Chomsky (1999, 2000), this EPP feature is associated with a projection other than T.

195

Example (8) shows an Agree relation between a probe Prb in Typ and the whfeature of an in-situ wh-phrase located within the TP. The probe is valued by thewh-feature of the wh-phrase, and there is no movement of a wh-element. The Agreerelation is represented by the matching Fwh1 subscripts on the probe in Typ and on
the wh-phrase within the TP.
(8)

TypP
Typ’
TP

Typ
Prb[Fwh1 ]. . . wh-phrase[Fwh1 ] . . .
0

Example (9) shows wh-feature movement. An EPPX feature located in Typattracts the wh-feature of an in-situ wh-phrase, and the wh-feature values a probe,
if present,4 as shown in (9).
(9)

TypP
Typ’
TP

TypEP P X 0
Prb+Fwh1. . . wh-phrase+tFwh1 . . .
The wh-feature is an element that I assume is contained within the head of a whphrase. So if a wh-phrase is a DP, then the wh-feature is located within the D head,
and when the wh-feature moves, it moves from this position, as shown below.
4

A probe need not be present, such as when a wh-feature moves through an embedded clauseon its way to a higher clause. In this case, I assume that the embedded clause has an EPP feature,but it does not have a probe. The probe is located in the scopal TypP head.

196

(10)

DP
D’
D
Fwh1

Example (11) shows wh-phrasal movement. In this case, an EPPXP feature
forces a wh-phrase to move to [Spec, TypP]. Then, the wh-feature associated withthe wh-phrase values a probe, if present, via a Spec-head relation.
(11)

TypP
DP1

Typ’

wh-phrase[Fwh ] TP

TypEP P XP
Prb[Fwh ]. . . t1 . . .
A crucial claim in the following sections is that Agree is not subject to intervention and island effects, whereas movement, whether it be feature movement orphrasal movement, is subject to these effects.5 Here, I take the position that an EPP
feature is sensitive to feature type, whereas Agree is only sensitive to feature content.6 Specifically, an EPP feature in Typ attracts the closest scope bearing element;
generally quantificational and/or focus elements. Thus, if a particular scope bearing element that is not a wh-feature intervenes between the EPP and a wh-element,
attraction of the wh-element is blocked. This exact nature of these blocking effects
is not entirely clear to me, but it is most likely that Ill-formedness results for oneof the following reasons: 1) a feature associated with the intervening scope bearing
element raises to Typ, but, not being a wh-feature, it is not compatible with the5

As discussed in chapter 2.2.4, Chomsky (1999, 2000), among others, takes the position that

Agree is subject to blocking effects.
6
I thank Heidi Harley (p.c.) for suggesting this to me.

197probe, 2) the wh-feature is unable to value the probe in Typ since it is not attracted
by the EPP, and/or 3) the non-wh-quantificational feature is attracted by the EPP
feature, but it is unable to move, since it is in a position where it already values
an uninterpretable feature. Agree, on the other hand, results when a probe simply
searches for a feature of the appropriate content, which in the relevant cases discussed in this chapter, is a wh-feature. Any other features of the same type, i.e.,
have a scope bearing quality, but which lack a wh-feature, are invisible to an Agreerelation, in the relevant cases discussed here. Agree may even hold when a whphrase is contained within a potential island. Thus, even if a wh-phrase is contained
within a renumerated clause, there can be an Agree relation between the wh-featureof the wh-phrase and a probe in Typ because Agree does not involve any movementout of the clause. I elaborate on these distinctions between Agree and movement in
the following sections.
In the following sections, I examine how Agree, wh-feature movement and whphrasal movement are utilized to establish a relationship between Typ and a whfeature. In section 6.2, I argue that an Agree relation occurs between Typ anda wh-feature in certain wh-in-situ languages. Section 6.3 discusses languages inwhich a wh-phrase remains in-situ but its wh-feature moves. Section 6.4 focuses on
languages in which there is wh-phrasal movement. Section 6.5 discusses languages
that allow a wh-phrase either to undergo full wh-movement to a scopal TypP or
partial wh-movement to a non-scopal TypP. Section 6.6 discusses Malay, a language
which allows Agree, full wh-movement, and partial wh-movement. Section 6.7 isabout French, a language which utilizes both overt wh-phrasal movement and whfeature movement. Section 6.8 concludes the chapter.
6.2 Agree
In this section, I argue that in single wh-constructions in Sinhala, Okinawan, andMandarin, there is no movement of a wh-element because Typ does not contain an

198

EPP feature that attracts a wh-element. Neither the wh-feature nor its associatedwh-phrase undergo any movement, and so there are no island- or intervention-effects
caused by wh-feature movement. There is, however, an Agree relation that is formed
between the probe in Typ and a wh-feature. This Agree relation gives the wh-phrase
scope and, together with a Qu-feature, types a clause as a wh-construction.
The following examples demonstrate that Sinhala is a wh-in-situ language. Example (12a) is a typical SOV construction. Example (12b) is a corresponding whconstruction in which the object has been replaced with the wh-phrase mon@wa‘what.’ Note that the object wh-phrase obtains scope but does not undergo any
movement; it occurs in the typical preverbal position.
(12) Sinhala:(a) Chitra pot@ gatta.
Chitra book bought.A
Chitra bought the book.
(b) Chitra mon@wa d@ gatte
Chitra what
Qu bought.E
What did Chitra buy? (Kishimoto 2005:3-4)
Examples (13a-b) demonstrate that Okinawan is also a wh-in-situ language. In(13a), the object shishi ‘meat’ occurs in pre-verbal position where it recieves its
theta-role in this SOV language, and in the wh-construction (13b), the object whphrase nuu ‘what’ occurs in this same position.
(13) Okinawan:(a) Taru-ya
shishi kamyi-N
Taru-top meateat-decl‘Taru eats meat.’199(b) Taru-ya
nuu kamyi-ga
Taru-top what ate-Qu‘What does Taru eat?’ (Sugahara 1996:236)
Examples (14a-b) demonstrate that Mandarin is a wh-in-situ language. In (14a)the object follows the verb and when the object is a wh-phrase, as in (14b), it
occurs in the same post-verbal position in this SVO language, thereby resulting ina wh-construction. The wh-phrase then does not need to move.
(14) Mandarin:(a) Ta pian-leLisi.
he cheat-asp Lisi
‘He cheated Lisi.’ (Huang 1982:27)(b) Ni kanjian-le shei?
you see-asp
who‘Who did you see?’ (Huang 1982:253)
In these languages, a wh-phrase clearly does not need to move at Spell-Out.
Below I present evidence that not only does the wh-phrase not move, but the whfeature does not move. Rather, the wh-feature establishes an Agree relation with aprobe in Typ.
As discussed in chapter 5, a Qu-morpheme in a wh-construction in Sinhala andOkinawan can appear in a TP-internal position adjoined to a wh-phrase, as long as
the wh-phrase is not contained within an island. When the Qu-morpheme is at theedge of an island the result is well-formed. This can be seen in the Sinhala examples(15a-b) and the Okinawan (16a-b) (these examples were originally presented as(59a-b) and (62a-b) in chapter 5).
(15) Sinhala(a) *Oyaa [DP [T ypP Chitra kaa-ú@ d@ dunn@] pot@] kieuwe?
you
Chitra who-dat Qu gavebook read.E
Intended: ‘[To whom]1 did You read [the book that Chitra gave t1 ]?

200(b) Oyaa [DP [T ypP Chitra kaa-ú@ dunn@] pot@] d@ kieuwe?
you
Chitra who-dat gavebook Qu read.E‘[To whom]1 did You read [the book that Chitra gave t1 ]? (Kishimoto
2005:29)(16) Okinawan:(a) *[DP [T ypP taa-ga-ga
ka-chee-ru]
shimuchi]
who-nom-Qu write-have-nom book(-acc)-top
John-ooyuda-ra?
John-TOP read-RA
Intended: ‘[Who the hell]1 did John read [the book that t1 had
written]?’(b) [DP [T ypP taa-ga
ka-chee-ru]
shimuchi]-ga
who-nom write-have-nom book(-acc)-top-ga
John-ooyuda-ra?
John-TOP read-RA‘[Who the hell]1 did John read [the book that t1 had written]?’ (Miyara
2001:52)
In examples (15-16a), the Qu-morpheme is contained within a complex-DP, resulting
in ill-formedness. In chapter 5, I argued that in Sinhala and Okinawan, there is
movement of Qu- and Focus-features from a Qu-morpheme and that this movementis blocked when it proceeds from within an adjunct clause (due to renumeration),or due to the MLC when it proceeds from a whether/if -clause. When the Qumorpheme is outside the complex-DP as in (15-16b), the result is well-formed. The
features associated with the Qu-morpheme are able to proceed uninhibited to their
final landing sites. A wh-feature, on the other hand, is a different element fromthese Qu- and Focus-features.
In constructions such as (15-16b), the wh-phrases are able to obtain scope despite
the fact that they are contained within complex-DPs. If the wh-feature associatedwith a wh-phrase undergoes movement, then this movement should result in islandeffects. Because of the lack of island effects, I propose that the wh-feature does201

not move, but instead, forms an Agree relation with a probe in Typ. This lack of
movement is the result of there not being an EPP feature in Typ that attracts thewh-feature; i.e., there is either no EPP feature, or if there is an EPP feature, it does
not attract a wh-element. Rather, a probe in Typ forms an Agree relation with thewh-feature.7 This Agree relation is able to hold over potential island boundaries,
because there is no movement out of the ‘island.’ A simplified diagram of the wellformed constructions in (15-16b) is shown below in (17).
(17)

TypP
Typ’
FocP
...

Typ
Prb[Fwh1 ] ,FQu3
Foc
FF oc2

TypP
TypP

Qu+t[FF oc2] +t[FQu3]. . . wh-phrase[Fwh1 ] . . .
The probe in Typ Agrees with the wh-feature, as signified by the Fwh1 subscripts
on the probe Prb in Typ and the in-situ wh-phrase. Following the discussion of
TP-internal Qu-morphemes in chapter 5, I assume that Qu- and Focus-featuresassociated with the TP-internal Qu-morpheme raise to Typ and Foc respectively.
The Focus-feature in Foc focuses the embedded clause and the Qu-morpheme types
the clause as an interrogative.
7

In these cases, there may be an EPP feature in Typ, but one that does not attract a wh-feature.

For example, in chapter 5, I argued that an EPP feature in Typ in Sinhala and Okinawan whconstructions can attract a TP-internal Qu-feature. This EPP feature crucially does not attract a
wh-feature.

202

I next turn to Mandarin Chinese. In chapter 5, I argued that the Qu-morphemein Mandarin, which either surfaces as ne or is null, is Merged directly in Typ. If thisis the case, then features associated with the Qu-morpheme cannot be responsible
for any intervention or island effects. This is because Mandarin’s Qu-morpheme
is always Merged in a position external to an island. Therefore, examination ofintervention and island effects should shed light on the behavior of the wh-feature.
If these effects are absent, as appears to be the case,8 then the argument that thewh-feature does not move is supported.
In Mandarin, a wh-phrase may be c-commanded by a quantificational element
without any resulting ill-formedness. This shows that Mandarin wh-phrases are notsubject to intervention effects (see chapter 2.7 for discussion of intervention effects).
In the well-formed (18), the quantifer zhi ‘only’ or negation bu ‘not’ c-commands
the wh-argument shenme ‘what.’(18) Mandarin:
Ta {zhi/bu} mai shenme?
he only/not sell what
‘What is the thing x such that he {only sells/does not sell} x?’ (Soh2005:147)
Even though a quantificational element intervenes between Typ and the wh-phrase,
the result is well-formed. If the wh-feature were to move, then this movement shouldbe blocked by a quantificational feature associated with zhi ‘only’ or bu ‘not,’ as is
the case in languages such as Japanese (see section 6.3).9
Similarly, there are generally no island effects in this language. The following
examples in (19) demonstrate that the wh-phrases shei ‘who’ and shenme ‘what’
8

Note though that weishenme ‘why’ is an exception. It is subject to intervention- and island-

effects. I return to this issue in chapter 9.
9Although I do not have conclusive data on intervention effects in Sinhala and Okinawan, myanalysis predicts that a wh-phrase should not be subject to intervention effects in these languages.

203

can occur within a whether/if -clause (19a), a complex-DP (19b), an adjunct clause(19c), and a complex subject (19d).
(19) Mandarin:(a) No whether/if island effect:
Ni xiang-xhidao [ta xi-bu-xihuanshei]?
you wonder
he whether-or-not like who‘Who1 do you wonder [whether he likes t1 ]?’ (Lasnik & Saito 1992:32)(b) No complex-DP island effect:
Ni xihuan [DP shei xie
deshu]?
you like
who write gen book‘Who1 do you like [the book t1 wrote]?’(c) No adjunct island effect:
Ta [T ypP yinwei ni shuo shenme hua] hen shengqi?
hebecause you say whatword very angry‘What1 was he angry [because you said t1 words]?’(Aoun & Li 1993:203)(d) No subject island effect:[DP shei xie
deshu] zui
youqu?
who wrote gen book most interesting‘Who1 are [books that t1 wrote] most interesting?’ (Lasnik & Saito
1992:122)
Examples (20a-c) below show that the wh-adjuncts sheme yuanyin ‘what reason,’nali ‘where,’ and shemesihou ‘when’ also are not subject complex-DP island effects.
(20) Mandarin:(a) [DP Ta we-le sheme yuanyin xie
deshu] zuihe forwhat
reasonwrite gen book mostyouqu?
interesting204‘[For what reason]1 are [books that he wrote t1 ] most interesting?’(Huang 1982:527)(b) [DP Ta zai nali pai dedianying] zui
hao?
he at where film gen movie
most good‘Where1 are [movies that he filmed t1 ] the best?’
hao?
dianying] zui(c) [DP Ta (zai) shemeshihou pai demost goodfilm gen moviehe (at) when
‘When1 are [movies that he filmed t1 ] the best?’ (Huang 1982:529-530)
The lack of intervention and island effects suggests that in Mandarin, a whfeature associated with a wh-phrase does not move. A probe in Typ forms an Agreerelation with the wh-feature of a wh-phrase, as shown in (21).
(21)

TypP
Typ’
TP

Typ
Prb[Fwh1 ] , FQu. . . wh-phrase[Fwh1 ] . . .
Since this is an Agree relation, it does not matter if the wh-phrase is c-commanded
by a scope bearing element or contained within a potential island.
In summary, Sinhala, Okinawan, and Mandarin are languages in which the whfeature of a wh-phrase does not move. Rather, it establishes scope by forming an
Agree relation with a probe in Typ. Evidence for Agree is that in these languages,
a wh-phrase can occur inside of a potential island. In Mandarin, there also are nointervention effects.
6.3 Wh-feature movement
I next turn to single wh-constructions in which a wh-feature undergoes feature movement. In languages such as Japanese, Korean, and Persian, I propose that the rel-

205

0

evant Typ head has an EPPX feature that attracts an X0 category wh-feature sothat it can value a probe in Typ.
Japanese, Korean, and Persian all allow a wh-phrase to remain in-situ.10 Examples (22a-b) show that Japanese is a wh-in-situ language. In (22a), the object
hon-o ‘book-ACC’ occurs in the preverbal position in this SOV language, and in(22b), the wh-phrasal object nani-o ‘what-ACC’ occurs in this same position. The
wh-phrase does not move, but a wh-question is formed.
(22) Japanese:(a) Hideya-wa hon-okatta.
Hideya-top book-acc bought.
‘Hideya bought a book.
(b) Hideya-wa nani-o
katta
no?
Hideya-top what-acc bought Qu.
‘What did Hideya buy?’
Similarly, a wh-phrase in Korean may remain in-situ. Example (23a) shows a declarative construction in this SOV language. Note that the object kae-lul ‘dog-acc’
directly precedes the verb. In the wh-construction (23b), the wh-phrasal object
muôs-ûl ‘what-acc’ remains in the preverbal position.
(23) Korean:(a) Suna-ka
chaeg-ulsa-ss-ta.
Suna-nom book-acc buy-past-decl‘Suna bought a book.’ (Hyun Kyoung Jung, p.c.)(b) Suna-ka muôs-ûl sa-ss-ni?
Sun-nom what-acc buy-past-Qu‘What did Suna buy?’ (Beck & Kim 1997:339)
10

All of these languages allow scrambling, but in an unscrambled constructions, a wh-phrase

remains in-situ.

206

Persian, similarly is an SOV language in which a wh-phrase can remain in-situ.
In (24a), the object ketâb-ro ‘book-acc’ directly precedes the verb. In (24b) the
wh-phrasal object chi-ro ‘what-acc’ appears in this same preverbal position and awh-construction results.
(24) Persian:(a) Kimea un ketâb-ro xund.
Kimea that book-acc read
‘Kimea read that book.’ (Karimi 2005:27)(b) Kimea chi-ro
xund?
Kimea what-acc read
‘Kimea read that book.’ (Simin Karimi, p.c.)In these languages, although the wh-phrase remains in-situ, there is evidence thatits wh-feature undergoes movement.
First of all, in all of these languages a Qu-morpheme appears to be Merged
directly in Typ. In chapter 5, I argued that because the Japanese Qu-morpheme
must always appear in clause-final position, it is Merged directly in Typ of the clausethat it types. Korean also requires a clause-final Qu-morpheme. Persian does not
generally have an overt Qu-morpheme in a matrix clause; although an interrogativeinterpretation is indicated via rising intonation at the end of a clause (Simin Karimi,p.c.).11 In these cases, I take the position that a null Qu-morpheme is present. I
know of no evidence that a Qu-morpheme can be Merged TP-internally in Korean
or Persian. If these languages have only a Qu-morpheme that is Merged directly in
Typ, then any intervention or island effects must result from something other thanQu-feature movement.
The following data show that Japanese, Korean, and Persian have intervention
effects. In the Japanese (25a), the Negative Polarity Item (NPI) element sika ‘only’
11

In formal Persian, there is a Qu-morpheme āya that appears clause-initially in yes/no con-structions (Simin Karimi, p.c.).

207

c-commands the wh-phrase nani-o ‘what-ACC,’ resulting in ill-formedness. In (25b)
the wh-phrase is scrambled to a position higher than the NPI and the result is wellformed.
(25) Japanese:(a) ?*Taroo-sika nani-oyoma-nai no?
Taroo-only
what-acc read-NEG Qu‘What did only Taro read?’ (Tanaka 1997:159)(b) Nani-o Taroo-sika t1 yoma-nai no?
what-acc Taroo-only
read-NEG Qu‘What did only Taro read?’ (Tanaka 1997:162)
Intervention effects in Korean are shown in (26a-b).12 When the wh-phrase muôs-ûl‘what-acc’ is c-commanded by amuto ‘anyone’ the result is ill-formedness, as shownin (26a). When the wh-phrase is scrambled to clause initial position, as shown in(26b), the result is well-formed.
(26) Korean:(a) *Amuto muôs-ûl sa-chi
anh-ass-ni?
anyonewhat-acc buy-CHI not do-past-Qu(b) Muôs-ûl1 amuto t1 sa-chi
anh-ass-ni?
what-acc anyone
buy-CHI not do-past-Qu‘What did no one buy?’ (Beck & Kim 1997:339)
Similarly, in the Persian (27a), the NPI hichkas ‘nobody’ c-commands the wh-phrase
chi-ro ‘what,’ resulting in ill-formedness.13 When the wh-phrase is scrambled to a
position above hichkas ‘nobody’ in (27b), the result is well-formed.
12

Following Beck & Kim (1997) I gloss chi as ‘CHI.’ Beck and Kim write that “[t]he status of

the verbal suffix chi is not clear (381)” and that it has been argued to be a nominalizer by someand a complementizer by others.
13
This is well-formed as an echo-question (Simin Karimi, p.c.).

208(27) Persian:(a) *Hichkas chi-rona-xarid?
nobodywhat-acc neg-bought(b) Chi-ro1 hichkas t1 na-xarid?
what-acc nobody
neg-bought‘What was it that no one bought?’ (Karimi & Taleghani 2007:180)
I turn to an explanation of the intervention effects and of the amelioration of theseeffects resulting from scrambling.
The notion that there are intervention effects, at least in Japanese and Korean,
is not uncontroversial. Tomioka points out that there is a great deal of variability inwell-formedness judgments regarding intervention effects and intervention effects are
weaker in embedded clauses than in matrix clauses. However, Tomioka acknowledges
that scrambling of a wh-phrase over a potential intervener is better than leaving thewh-phrase in a position c-commanded by an intervener, even in embedded clauses
where intervention effects are weaker. Tomioka (2007:1572) writes the following,where ‘unscrambled’ refers to a construction in which an intervener c-commands a
wh-phrase.
Although there is no denying that the scrambled version is better thanthe unscrambled counterpart, some feel that the unscrambeled examples
are merely marginal, while others find them bad enough to label themas ‘ungrammatical.’Even though there is variability in judgments and there are differences between
matrix and embedded clauses, the facts still point to the existence of intervention
effects. I leave aside the interesting complexities involving judgments of intervention
effects, although see Tomioka (2007) for a pragmatic account of the intervention
effects in Japanese anbid Korean.

209

I propose that the intervention effects in (25-27a) are the result of the blockingof wh-feature movement. The motivation for wh-feature movement is an EPPX

00

feature in Typ that attracts a wh-feature. However, the EPPX feature is sensitive
to ‘type’ - it searches for a wh-feature but if there is a close element of the same
type, then this attraction is blocked. When there is a non-wh-scope bearing element
such as an NPI closer to Typ than the wh-feature, then attraction of the wh-featureis blocked.14 As a result, the probe in Typ does not get valued by the wh-feature.
Example (28) shows the simplified structure of (25-27a). The Japanese sika ‘only,’
the Korean amuto ‘anyone,’ and the Persian hichkas ‘nobody’ are in the specifier orwhat I loosely refer to as QuantP, to indicate the quantificational nature of these0elements. The EPPX is unable to attract the wh-feature due to the intervening
quantificational feature.
14

Intervention effects appear to be caused by a class of scope bearing elements that have aquantificational and/or focus property. See chapter 2.7 for discussion of the class of elements thatcause intervention effects. For the sake of simplicity I refer to these intervening elements as scope
bearing and I place them in a projection that I refer to as a QuantP, where Quant refers to thequality of quantification. But note that quantificational alone is not necessarily an indicator of therelevant type of feature that causes intervention effects.

210

(28)

TypP
Typ’
QuantP

TypEP P X 0
Prb, Qu[FQu ]Quant’TP
Taroo-sika/amuto/hichkas+tFQuant1
Taro-only/anyone/nobody

Quant
FQuant1
T’

*

vP

T

. . . wh-phrase [Fwh ] . . .
In (25-27b), the wh-phrase appears in a scrambled position higher than the0quantificational element. In this case, the EPPX feature in Typ is able to attract
the wh-feature since there is no intervening element. A diagram is shown in (29). I
have indicated the wh-phrase as being in the specifier of a FocP projection, which I
assume houses a scrambled phrase.15
15

I leave aside discussion of the exact nature of the projection housing a scrambled phrase. For

discussion of scrambling see Saito (1985), Mahajan (1990), Saito & Fukui (1998), Bos̆ković &Takahashi (1998), Miyagawa (1997a), Miyagawa (2001), and Karimi (2005), among others.

211

(29)

TypP
Typ’
FocP

TypEP P X 0
Prb+Fwh2 ,Qu[FQu ]
Foc’

DP1
wh-phrase+t[Fwh2 ] QuantP

Foc
Quant’TP

Quant
FQuant. . . t1 . . .
I next turn to island effects in these languages. In Japanese there appear to beisland effects when a wh-phrase occurs inside of an embedded whether/if construction (see chapter 2.6 for discussion of whether/if islands). In the Japanese example(30), the wh-phrasal DP nani-o ‘what-acc’ can have scope in the embedded clause,
as indicated by the well-formed meaning (i), but according to Nishigauchi (1990), it
cannot have scope in the matrix clause, as shown by the ill-formedness of meaning(ii).
(30) Japanese:
Satookun-wa [Suzukikun-ga nani-otabeta ka] oboeteimasu ka?
Sato-top
Suzuki-nom what-acc ate
Qu rememberQu(i) ‘Does Sato remember [what Suzuki ate]?’(ii) *‘What1 does Sato remember [whether Suzuki ate t1 ]?’ (Nishigauchi
1990:30-31)
Example (31) is similar except that the embedded clause contains the Qu-morpheme
kadooka, which notably only occurs in embedded yes/no constructions; it is not212compatible with a wh-phrase (see chapter 3.3). Since the wh-phrase in the embedded clause cannot have embedded scope and is unable to have matrix scope,ill-formedness results.
(31) Japanese:*Satookun-wa [Suzukikun-ga nani-otabeta kadooka] oboeteimasu
Sato-top
Suzuki-nom what-acc ate
whetherrememberka?
Qu“What1 does Sato remember [whether Suzuki ate t1 ]?’ (Nishigauchi 1990:31)
The assumption that there are island effects of the sort shown in (30) and (31) isin accord with Nishigauchi (1990), Watanabe (1992a, 1992b), and Richards (1998,
2001), among others. However, I note that the existence of this type of island effect(generally referred to as a wh-island effect in the literature) is controversial. Watanabe (1992a:262), who claims that island effects exist in Japanese, acknowledges thatthe “degree of unacceptability varies among different speakers (262).” Nishigauchi(1990), who also claims that island effects exist, states that island effects can be
circumvented by heavy stress on a wh-phrase. Nishigauchi concludes that “a WHexpression which receives extra focus . . . is capable of taking wide scope, in violationof the WH-island effect (35).” He attributes this fact to something other than anisland effect. Kitagawa (2005, 2006), Kitagawa & Fodor (2006), and Kitagawa et al.
(2004) present arguments that when spoken with the ‘correct prosody,’ there areno wh-island effects in Japanese. With the acknowledgment that the issue of islandeffects in Japanese is not clear, I proceed with the assumption that they do exist
for some speakers.
Korean also shows whether/if -island effects. According to Yoon (2006), theKorean example (32) is fine with meaning (i) as a yes/no construction, in whichcase mwues-ul ‘what-acc’ has embedded scope and functions as an indefinite. But
the wh-construction interpretation in (ii) is ill-formed, indicating an island effect.

213(32) Korean:
Ne-nun [Yenghi-ka mwues-ul sa-ess-nunci]al-ko sip-ni?
you-top Yenghi-nom what-acc buy-past-whether want to know-Qu(i) ‘Do you want to know [whether Yenghi bought something]?’(ii) *‘What1 do you want to know [whether Yenghi bought t1 ]?’ (Yoon
2006:387)
Note that in Japanese and Korean, wh-phrases are not generally subject toComplex DP-island effects. I return to this issue in chapter 7.
The Persian examples (33a-c) show that a wh-phrase cannot be contained within
an adjunct clause (33a), a complex-DP (33b), or a whether/if -clause (33c).
(33) Persian:(a) Adjunct island:*Parviz raghsid[chonke kiunjâ bud]?
Parviz dance-3sg because who there wasIntended: ‘Who1 did Parviz dance [because t1 was there]?’ (Karimi &Taleghani 2007:180)(b) Complex-DP island:*Kimea [DP pesar-i-ro[ke to diruz
kojaa did-i]] beKimea
boy-rel-raa that you yesterday where saw-2sg to
man moarrefi
kard?
me introduced did
Intended: ‘Where1 did Kimea introduce to me [the boy you saw t1
yesterday]?’ (Simin Karimi, p.c.)(c) Whether/if -island:
Kimea az Parviz porsid [ke Haesan chi xarid]?
Kimea of Parviz asked that Hassan what bought
Intended *‘What1 did Parviz ask Kimea [whether Hassan bought t1 ]?’(Simin Karimi, p.c.)214

Examples (33a-b) are fine as echo questions, but not as wh-constructions, and (33c)
is fine as a yes/no construction, but ill-formed as a wh-construction (Simin Karimi,p.c.).
The existence of island effects in Japanese, Korean, and Persian suggests that0

the wh-feature undergoes movement. I propose that the EPPX feature in Typattracts the wh-feature of the wh-phrase, but this attraction is blocked by whether/if,
due to an MLC violation. For example, in (34), ka(dooka)/nunci/ke ‘whether’ in0Japanese, Korean, and Persian, respectively prevents the EPPX in the matrix Typfrom attracting the wh-feature of the wh-phrase contained within the embedded
clause.
(34)

TypP
Typ’
...

TypEP P X 0
Prb

TypP
Typ’
TP

Typ
ka(dooka)/nunci/ke. . . wh-phrase[Fwh ] . . .
The adjunct-island and complex-DP island effects in Persian result from renumeration of the adjunct-clause containing the wh-phrase. Once the adjunct clause isassembled and placed back into the numeration, a wh-feature cannot move out of
it. The numerations of (33a-b) are shown below in (35a-b) respectively. The adjunct clauses are linearized constituents that have been renumerated, and as such,a wh-feature cannot move out of them.
(35)(a) N = {Parviz, raghsid, <chonke ki unjâ bud>}

215(b) N = {Kimea, pesar-i-ro, <ke to diruz kojaa did-i>, be, man, moarrefi,kard}
Note that this analysis shares similarities with Maki (1995) and Maki & Ochi
(1998) who argue that in Japanese wh-constructions, there is movement of a whfeature to a [+Q] Comp position. Maki (1995) argues that wh-feature movement
occurs at LF; however, Maki & Ochi (1998) argue, as I do, that wh-feature movement
occurs before LF, and that this wh-feature movement is subject to certain islandeffects. The key point that we differ on is what drives wh-feature movement. I claim
0that an EPPX feature forces wh-feature movement, and they claim that movement
is driven by the need to “delete the strong feature of the COMP (Maki & Ochi
1998:496).” An advantage of my analysis is that it does not rely on the notion that
COMP contains a strong feature.
In summary, in languages such as Japanese, Korean, and Persian, a Typ head0

contains an EPPX feature that attracts a wh-feature to Typ, where it values aprobe. Intervention effects arise when there is an intervening element of the same
0

type, due to the inability of the EPPX feature to attract the wh-feature. Furthermore, a wh-feature cannot move out of a renumerated clause.
6.4 Wh-phrasal movement
Some languages require a wh-phrase in a simple wh-construction to move to a clause
peripheral position, a position I assume to be [Spec, TypP]. In this case, Typ contains
an EPPXP feature that attracts a wh-phrase to the [Spec, TypP] position. If thisis a scopal TypP position, then there is a probe that the wh-feature values via aSpec-head relation.
English is a wh-movement language; a wh-phrase in a single wh-construction
cannot remain in-situ. Example (36a), although fine as an echo question, is illformed as a standard wh-construction. (36b) in which the wh-phrase moves to the216front of the construction is the required form.
(36)(a) *You bought what?
(b) What1 did you buy t1 ?

Movement of a wh-phrase is accounted for as follows. The English Typ headcontains an EPPXP feature that attracts a wh-phrase to [Spec, TypP]. The whfeature associated with the wh-phrase then values the probe in Typ via a Spec-headrelation.
(37)

TypP
DP1
wh-phrase[F wh1] TypEP P XP
Prb[F wh1]

Typ’
TP
. . . t1

Unlike in languages such as Japanese, Korean, and Persian, as shown in (2527a), in English, a scope bearing element can c-command the base position of awh-phrase, as shown in (38a-b).
(38)(a) What1 did only Bob read t1 ?
(b) What1 did nobody buy t1 ?

The well-formedness here results results from phrasal movement. I assume thata quantificational feature associated with only or nobody occurs in Quant. Thisquantificational feature can block X0 movement of a wh-feature, as in Japaneseand Korean, but it will not block XP movement of a wh-phrase. A diagram of(38a-b) is shown below. The quantificational element only/nobody occurs in [Spec,
QuantP].16 I propose that the quantifier feature associated with only/nobody checks
16

It is likely that only is base-generated in this position, but nobody, being a subject, moves tothis position.

217

an uninterpretable feature in Quant. Thus, the quantifier feature is associated withthe head of QuantP and cannot block movement of an XP element.
(39)
TypP
DP1

Typ’

what[F wh1] TypEP P XP
Prb[Fwh1 ] ,∅[FQu ] +did

QuantPDP

Quant’

only/nobody1 Quant
QuantF1

TP. . . t1

I argued in the previous section that wh-feature movement is subject to island effects. Wh-phrasal movement is also subject to island effects. As is wellknown, in English movement of a wh-phrase out of certain types of clauses results
in island-effects.17 The following examples (originally presented as (29) in chapter 2.6) demonstrate that in English, a wh-phrase cannot move out of a wh-island,
whether/if island, complex-DP-island, adjunct-island, or subject-island.
(40)(a) Wh-island:*What1 do you wonder [who bought t1 ]? (Huang 1982:456)(b) Whether/If island??What1 do you wonder [whether/if John saw t1 ]? (adapted from
Lasnik & Saito 1992:11)

17

I leave aside D-linked wh-phrases. See Pesetsky (1987, 2000), among others.

218(c) Complex NP/DP-island:??What1 did you read [a report [that John bought t1 ]]? (Lasnik &Saito 1992:12)(d) Adjunct island:*Which book1 did John go to class [after he read t1 ]? (Lasnik & Saito
1992:12)(e) Subject island:?*Who1 did [a story about t1 ] amuse you? (Lasnik & Saito 1992:42)
The existence of island effects is a straightforward result of wh-movement.
The causes of these island violations, though, is not so straightforward (see chapter 2.6). The wh-island effect in (40a) can be attributed to an MLC violation. Thosein (40c-e) can be attributed to renumeration of a non-complement. In (40c) the adjunct clause modifier of the nominal report is sent to Spell-Out and renumerated.
In (40d), the adjunct clause after he read which book is renumerated and in (40e),
the subject clause is renumerated. As discussed in chapter 2.6.2, the whether/if island effect in (40b) is not easy to account for. If whether and if are heads, thenthere is no MLC violation, and if whether/if John saw what is a complement, thenthis clause should not be renumerated. On the other hand, if whether/if John saw
what is an adjunct clause, then the island effect is accounted for, since the adjunctclause would have to be renumerated. This latter possibility accounts nicely for theisland effect here. However, wonder appears to select for an interrogative clause,suggesting that the whether/if clause is a complement. Thus, I leave this issue forfurther investigation.
Sharanahua is another language with overt wh-movement.

Scott & Frantz(1974:84) write that in this language, “the interrogative word of content questions
obligatorily occurs in sentence-initial position.” In (41a), the object chasho ‘deer’appears in clause-second position in this SOV language. However, in (41b), the ob-219

ject wh-phrase ahuua ‘what-thing’ occurs in clause-initial position. It has undergone
movement.
(41) Sharanahua:(a) Min chasho rutu-a-quin.
you deerkill-compl-decl‘You killed a deer.’(b) Ahuua
min rutu-a-mun?
What-thing you kill-compl-Qu‘What did you kill?’ (Scott & Frantz 1974:84)
A Sharanahua wh-construction also contains an overt clause-final Qu-morphememun, as can be seen in (41b). Evidence that mun is a Qu-morpheme can be seen in(42). The statement in (42a) becomes a yes/no construction when the clause-final
declarative ending quin is replaced with mun ‘Qu,’ as shown in (42b).
(42) Sharanahua:(a) Min chasho rutu-a-quin.
you deerkill-compl-decl‘You killed a deer.’(b) Min chasho rutu-a-mun?
you deerkill-compl-Qu‘Did you kill a deer.’ (Frantz 1973:532)
The morpheme mun is responsible for the interrogative interpretation of this construction because it is a Qu-morpheme.
Sharanahua then is a language in which one can see both an overt Qu-morphemeand overt wh-movement. A construction such as (41b) is accounted for as shown in
(43).

220

(43)

TypP
DP1
ahuua[FW h1 ]‘what-thing’

Typ’
TP

TypEP P XP
Prb[FW h1 ] ,mun[FQu ]min t1 rutu-a‘you t1 kill-compl’
The Qu-morpheme mun is in Typ. The EPPXP feature in Typ forces the wh-phrase
ahuua ‘what-thing’ to move to [Spec, TypP]. The wh-feature associated with thewh-phrase values the probe in Typ via a Spec-head relation.
Tlingit is also a language with overt wh-movement, and like Sharanahua it has
an overt Qu-morpheme. For example, in (44), the Qu-morpheme sá follows theclause-initial wh-phrase daa.
(44) Tlingit:
Daa sá kéetax/’a?
what Qu killerwhale he.eats.it‘What do killerwhales eat?’ (Cable 2007:64)
The wh-phrase must appear in a pre-predicate position. Cable (2007:62) writes that“[i]n a Tlingit wh-question . . . the phrase understood to be the wh-operator must
appear left of the main predicate of the clause.” This fact is accounted for if the
Typ head has an EPPXP feature that forces movement of the wh-phrase to [Spec,
TypP]. Example (44) is accounted for as shown in (45).

221

(45)

TypP
DP1

Typ’

daa[Fwh1 ] TypEP P XP
‘what’ Prb[Fwh1 ] ,sá[FQu ]TP. . . t1 . . .

In this section, I have proposed that in wh-constructions in languages such as
English, Sharanahua, and Tlingit, the Typ head contains an EPPXP feature thatforces a wh-phrase to move to [Spec, TypP]. This wh-phrasal movement can result
in island effects, as is the case in English.18
6.5 Partial wh-movement
Some languages can form wh-constructions either with overt movement of a whphrase to its scope position or using partial wh-movement (McDaniel 1989) in which
a wh-phrase moves to the edge of an embedded clause, but has scope in a matrix
clause. A single language then can form a wh-construction with either wh-phrasal
movement or partial wh-movement. In this section, I attempt to explain why thisis the case.
I propose that languages that allow both full wh-movement and partial whmovement have these two options because a Typ head can contain either an EPPXP
0

feature or an EPPX feature. In a full wh-movement construction, an EPPXP featuredrives movement of a wh-phrase to a [Spec, TypP] position. If there is movement
through multiple clauses then there can be multiple EPPXP features. In a partial
wh-movement construction, first an EPPXP feature forces movement of a wh-phrase0

to [Spec, TypP] of an embedded clause (or clauses), and then an EPPX feature
18

Note that I do not have data on island effects in Sharanahua. Also, island effects in Tlingit

can be circumvented for what I believe are reasons independent of wh-phrasal movement. I returnto this issue in chapter 7.

222

forces movement of the wh-feature to the matrix Typ (and sometimes also to an
0

embedded Typ). Interestingly, in these languages the EPPX feature cannot be
used freely. Rather, it can only occur if it c-commands an EPPXP feature containedin TypP of the next lower embedded clause. I turn to an explanation of the detailsof partial wh-movement in German and Albanian.
6.5.1 German
Examples (46a-b) below demonstrate that a wh-construction in German can beformed via full wh-phrasal movement. The wh-phrase mit wem ‘with whom’ moves
overtly from the embedded clause to the initial position of the matrix clause.
(46) German:(a) [P P Mit wem]1 glaubt Hans [T ypP t1 daSS Jakob jetz t1
with whom thinks Hans
that Jakob now
spricht]]?
talks‘With whom does Hans think that Jakob is now talking?’(b) [P P Mit wem]1 glaubst du [T ypP t1 daSS Hans meint [T ypP
with whom believe youthat Hans thinks
t1 daSS Jakob t1 gesprochen hat]]?
that Jakob
talkedhas‘With whom do you believe that Hans thinks that Jakob talked?’(Cheng 2000:78)
The full wh-movement facts can be accounted for straightforwardly if each relevant
Typ head contains an EPPXP feature that forces movement of the wh-phrase to theembedded [Spec, TypP] and then to the matrix [Spec, TypP]. A simplified diagramof the full wh-movement (46a-b) is shown below in (47). An EPPXP feature locatedin both the embedded and matrix Typ heads forces overt phrasal movement of thewh-phrase. When the wh-phrase arrives in the matrix TypP, its wh-feature values
the probe in Typ via a Spec-head relation.

223

(47)
TypP
PP1

Typ’
TP
...

mit wem[Fwh1 ] TypEP P XP
with whom Prb[Fwh1 ]

TypP
t1

Typ’
TypEP P XP

TP. . . t1 . . .

In addition to full wh-phrasal movement, a wh-phrase can undergo partial whmovement. In (48), the wh-phrase mit wem ‘with whom’ raises to the specifier ofthe embedded TypP, which Cheng (2000:78) notes “does not normally host a [+wh]element since verbs such as glauben (‘to believe/think’) do not take an embedded
question.” The wh-phrase, however, has matrix scope which is marked by was in
the initial position of the matrix clause. In this case, was essentially functions as ascope marker.
(48) German:
Was1 glaubt Hans [[Mit wem]1 daSS Jakob jetz t1 spricht]]?
WH
thinks Hans with whom that Jakob now
talks‘With whom does Hans think that Jakob is now talking?’ (Cheng 2000:78)
The facts become more complex when a wh-phrase is multiply-embedded. In (49a),
the wh-phrase moves to [Spec, TypP] of the higher embedded clause. In (49b), thewh-phrase moves to [Spec, TypP] of the lower embedded clause. In both cases,

224

matrix scope is marked by was. Example (49a) contains only a single was, whereas(49b) contains was both in the higher embedded clause and in the matrix clause.
(49) German:(a) Was1 glaubst du [T ypP [Mit wem]1 Hans meint [T ypP t1
WH
believe youwith whom Hans thinks
daSS Jakob t1 gesprochen hat]]?
that Jakob
talkedhas‘With whom do you believe that Hans thinks that Jakob talked?’(b) Was1 glaubst du [T ypP was1 Hans meint [T ypP [Mit wem]1
WH
believe you
WH Hans thinks
with whom
Jakob t1 gesprochen hat]]?
Jakob
talkedhas‘With whom do you believe that Hans thinks that Jakob talked?’(Cheng 2000:79)
According to Cheng (2000), if the wh-phrase remains in the lower clause in aconstruction such as (49b), in some dialects of German, there must be the wh-scopemarker was in each higher clause. Example (50), in which the wh-phrase remains
in the lower clause and the higher embedded clause lacks a wh-scope marker, is
ill-formed.
(50) German:*Was1 glaubst du [T ypP daSS Hans meint [P P Mit wem]1
WH
believe youthat Hans thinks
with whom
Jakob t1 gesprochen hat]]?
Jakob
talkedhas‘With whom do you believe that Hans thinks that Jakob talked?’ (Cheng
2000:79)
As can be seen above, a partial wh-movement construction in German utilizes
the wh-element was. Cheng (2000:80) argues that when used as a wh-scope marker,

225

was “is the wh-feature of the wh-phrase.”19 If was is a wh-feature then, since it
is a functional element, it should be an X0 category element that occurs in Typ.
There is evidence suggesting that this is the case. (51a) shows that a wh-phrase, inthis case mit wem ‘with whom,’ may co-occur with a complementizer, daB ‘that.’
However, in (51b), was cannot co-occur with daB ‘that.’(51) German:(a) Ich weiB nicht [[P P mit wem]1 (daB) du meinst t1 daSSI
know notwith whom thatyou thinkthat
Jakob t1 gesprochen hat].
Jakob
talkedhas‘I don’t know with whom you think that Jakob has talked.’(b) Ich weiB nicht [was1 (*daB) du meinst [P P mit wem]1Iknow not WH
thatyou thinkwith whom(daB) Jakob t1 gesprochen hat].
that Jakob
talked has‘I don’t know with whom you think that Jakob has talked.’ (Cheng
2000:96)
The ill-formedness of (51b) is accounted for straightforwardly if was is a head that isin Typ. It cannot co-coccur with daB since daB is also in Typ.20 Further evidence
that was is a moved wh-feature can be seen by examining intervention and islandeffects.
Example (52a) shows that movement of a wh-phrase is not blocked by the intervening negation nicht, whereas (52b) shows that partial wh-movement is blocked
by negation. Example (52b) is fine if negation is absent.
19
20

Was also has a use as a wh-phrase corresponding to what in English.
There is another possibility, which is that daB is actually the head of a FinP (see chapters

2.4-2.5) and was is in Typ. If this is the case, then the reason why daB and was cannot co-occur
is not due to their being in the same projection. I leave this issue for further analysis.

226

(52)

(a) [Mit wem]1 glaubst du(nicht), dass Hans t1
withwhom believe you
not that Hans
gesporchen hat?
spoken has‘With whom do(n’t) you believe that Hans has spoken?’(b) Was1 glaubst du (*nicht), [Mit wem]1 Hans t1
WH
believe you notwithwhom Hans
gesporchen hat?
spoken has‘What do(n’t) you believe with whom Hans has spoken?’ (Rizzi
1994:368)

The existence of intervention effects is expected if partial wh-movement involves
feature movement. In example (52b), the wh-feature is unable to move to thematrix Typ when negation nicht intervenes between the wh-phrase and Typ.
Another piece of evidence supporting the idea that the wh-feature moves in partial wh-movement constructions is the extreme sensitivity of partial wh-movement
to islands. In the words of Cheng (2000:86), “partial wh-movement is more islandsensitive than overt extraction involving arguments.” Cheng (2000:87) gives the following examples in (53a-b), originally from Müller & Sternefeld (1996:21) and Müller(1997:18-20), which show a wh-phrase that originates in a complex-DP. When there
is movement of the wh-feature out of the complex-DP in the partial wh-movement
example in (53a), the result is worse than when there is wh-phrasal movement outof the complex-DP, as in (53b) .
(53) German (Complex-DP island):(a) *Was hast du [DP ein Gerücht t2 ] gehört [typ2 wen1 Ede
WH
have you
a
rumor
heard
whom Ede
t1 mag]?
likes

227

(b) ??Wen1 hast du [DP ein Gerücht t2 ] gehört [typ2 t1 daSSwhom
have you
a
rumor
heard
that
Ede t1 mag]?
Ede
likes
Cheng (2000) argues that these facts are the result of feature movement being moresensitive to island effects than phrasal movement. Why exactly feature movement
is more island-sensitive than phrasal movement is an issue that I return to in thenext section.
In this manner, partial wh-movement constructions appear to involve wh-phrasal
movement to an embedded TypP followed by wh-feature movement to a higher
TypP. I propose that the motivation for each type of movement is determined by
the EPP feature contained within Typ. For example, in (48), repeated below, theembedded Typ contains an EPPXP feature and the matrix Typ contains an EPPX
feature.
(48) German:
Was1 glaubt Hans [[Mit wem]1 daSS Jakob jetz t1 spricht]]?
WH
thinks Hans with whom that Jakob now
talks‘With whom does Hans think that Jakob is now talking?’ (Cheng 2000:78)
A simplified diagram is shown below in (54).

0

228

(54)

TypP
Typ’
TP
...

TypEP P X 0
Prb+was[Fwh ]

TypP
DP1

Typ’

mit wem+t[Fwh ] TypEP P XP
with whom
daB
that

TP
Jakob jetz t1 spricht
Jakob now talks

The embedded Typ contains an EPPXP feature that forces the wh-phrase to moveto the embedded [Spec, TypP]. The matrix clause, on the other hand, contains an
0

EPPX feature that forces the wh-feature of the wh-phrase to raise to the matrix
Typ head where it values a probe and is pronounced as was.21
In a partial wh-movement construction in some German dialects, there can bevariation in the position of a wh-phrase and in the number of occurrences of the whscope marker was. In (49a), repeated below, the wh-phrase mit wem ‘with whom’moves to [Spec, TypP] of the higher embedded clause and its scope is marked bywas. In (49b), the wh-phrase only moves to the [Spec, TypP] of the lower embedded
clause, and there are two occurrences of was, one in the higher embedded clause andone in the matrix clause.
210Note that in order for a Typ head to have an EPPX feature, it must c-command a Typ headin the next lower embedded clause that contains an EPPXP feature. I return to this issue insection 6.5.3.

229(49) German:(a) Was1 glaubst du [T ypP [Mit wem]1 Hans meint [T ypP t1
WH
believe youwith whom Hans thinks
daSS Jakob t1 gesprochen hat]]?
that Jakob
talkedhas‘With whom do you believe that Hans thinks that Jakob talked?’(b) Was1 glaubst du [T ypP was1 Hans meint [T ypP [Mit wem]1
WH
believe you
WH Hans thinks
with whom
Jakob t1 gesprochen hat]]?
Jakob
talkedhas‘With whom do you believe that Hans thinks that Jakob talked?’(Cheng 2000:79)
Other than the positions of the wh-phrases and the number of occurrences of was,these examples are identical. I propose that the difference between (49a) and (49b)results from the types of EPP features selected by the relevant Typ heads. In
example (49a) both embedded Typ heads contain an EPPXP feature, and the matrix
0clause Typ contains an EPPX feature, as shown in (55). The EPPXP features force
the wh-phrase to move overtly through the lower embedded [Spec, TypP] to the0higher embedded [Spec, TypP]. Then the EPPX in the matrix clause attracts thewh-feature to the matrix Typ.

230

(55)
TypP
Typ’
TP
...

TypEP P X 0
Prb+was[Fwh ]

TypP
DP1

Typ’

mit wem+t[Fwh ] TypEP P XP
with whom

TP
...
TypP

t1

Typ’
TypEP P XP
daB
that

TP
. . . t1 . . .

In example (49b) on the other hand, both the matrix and the higher embedded0clauses contain an EPPX feature. Therefore, the wh-phrase moves to the lower
embedded [Spec, TypP] to statisfy the EPPXP feature. Then, the wh-feature alone
moves to the higher embedded Typ and again to the matrix Typ, in each case to0satisfy an EPPX feature. This wh-feature is pronounced as was. A diagram isshown below.

231

(56)
TypP
Typ’
TypEP P X 0
Prb+was[Fwh1 ]

TP
...
TypP
Typ’
TP
...

TypEP P X 0
was[Fwh1 ]

TypP
DP1

Typ’

mit wem+t[Fwh1 ] TypEP P XP
with whomTP. . . t1 . . .

In this manner, the differences between these two types of constructions hinge on
the type of EPP feature that Typ contains.22
6.5.2 Albanian
Albanian is also a language with partial wh-movement, although unlike in German,
there does not appear to be an overt scope marker in a partial wh-movement con22

In these partial wh-movement constructions in which a wh-phrase is multiply embedded, the0facts regarding the positioning of the EPPX and EPPXP features are the same as in a constructionin which a wh-phrase originates in a singly embedded clause (see footnote 21). The TypP housing
the moved wh-phrase, has an EPPXP feature, and this Typ must be c-commanded by a Typ head0

with an EPPX feature in the next higher clause. I return to this issue in section 6.5.3.

232

struction.
First of all, a wh-phrase may undergo full wh-movement, as in (57).
(57) Albanian:Kë1mendon se
Maria ka takuar t1 ?
Who-acc think-2S that mary has met‘Who do you think that Mary met?’ (Turano 1998:162)
In a construction such as (57), an EPPXP feature in Typ attracts the wh-phrase to[Spec, TypP].
Example (58) is a partial wh-movement construction. It corresponds to (57)
except that instead of moving to the front of the matrix clause, the wh-phrase kë
‘who’ only moves to the front of the embedded clause. Also, the Qu-morpheme aappears in the initial position of the matrix clause. This morpheme is absent in(57). The morpheme se is presumably in ForceP.
(58) Albanian:
A1 mendon [se kë1
ka takuar Maria t1 ]?
Qu think-2S that who-acc has met
Mary‘Who do you think that Mary met?’ (Turano 1998:163)
Note that a partial wh-movement construction requires the presence of the particle a. Example (59) shows that a ‘Qu’ results in a yes/no construction, whichshows that it is a Qu-morpheme.
(59) Albanian:A kepunuar dje?
Qu have-2d worked yesterday‘Did you work yesterday?’ (Turano 1998:164)

233

Although a ‘Qu’ occurs in yes/no and partial wh-movement constructions, itdoes not occur in a full wh-movement construction, such as (57) above. Example(60) below shows that a moved wh-phrase and a ‘Qu’ cannot co-occur.
(60) *Këa mendon se
ka takuar Maria?
who-acc Qu think-2s that has met
Maria
Intended: ‘Who do you think that Mary met?’ (Turano 1998:170)
This fact can be accounted for straightforwardly as resulting from the Doubly FilledComp Filter (Keyser 1975, Chomsky & Lasnik 1977), which is a constraint, foundin some languages such as English, that in its original formulation prevents there
from being a wh-word that is directly followed by a complementizer. Within a more
modern MP framework, it is a constraint that prevents there from being both a
specifier and a head in a CP (a TypP if my clause structure is utilized).23 Specifically,
if the Doubly Filled Comp Filter holds in Albanian, then both an overt wh-phrase
and an overt Qu-morpheme cannot co-occur in a single TypP projection. In apartial wh-movement construction, there is no element in [Spec, TypP], and thus
the Qu-morpheme a is pronounced.
Turano (1998) writes that a construction such as (60) is ill-formed because,
following Koopman (1996), “for any given projection overt elements may appear
either in the head or in the Spec, but not in both positions (171).” This viewthat both the head and specifier of a projection may not be filled is essentially
identical to the Doubly Filled Comp Filter. Turano writes that in this case, boththe Qu-morpheme and the wh-phrase check a Focus-feature in the head of a FocP
projection. Since a Focus-feature cannot be checked twice, the Qu-morpheme andwh-phrase cannot co-occur. My analysis differs in that I assume that when a whphrase moves, there is still a Qu-morpheme present, but it is not pronounced. Both23

I thank Heidi Harley (p.c.) for suggesting to me that the Doubly Filled Comp Filter may be

the key to understanding this phenomenon.

234

the Qu-morpheme and wh-phrase occur in TypP and there is no checking of a Focusfeature.
The fact that a ‘Qu’ occurs in a partial wh-movement construction, but not ina full wh-movement construction leads Turano (1998:164) to argue that it “can beanalyzed as a [+WH] C0 element.” As I see the facts, a is not a wh-element. It ismerely a Qu-morpheme with a Qu-feature and when it co-occurs with a wh-feature,then a wh-construction results. First of all, as shown in (59) above, a is used totype a clause as a yes/no construction; in which case a clearly is not a [+WH]
element. Further evidence that a is not a wh-elment can be seen by examining
partial wh-movement constructions with multiply embedded wh-phrases. In (61a),
the wh-phrase kush ‘who’ is in [Spec, TypP] of the doubly-embedded clause, andthe Qu-morpheme a appears in the matrix clause. The ill-formed (61b) on the other
hand is identical to (61a) except that a also occurs in the higher embedded clause.
(61) Albanian:(a) A1 mendon [T ypP se
Maria thotë [T ypP se
kush1 ka
Qu think-2S
that Mary saysthat whohas
lexuar librin]]?
read
book-the‘Who do you think that Mary says read the book?’(b) *A1 mendon [T ypP a1 Maria thotë [T ypP se
kush1 ka
Qu think-2S
Qu Mary saysthat whohas
lexuar librin]]?
book-theead‘Who do you think that Mary says read the book?’
The ill-formedness of (61b) is accounted for straightforwardly if a is a Qu-morpheme.
It occurs in the matrix clause because this clause is an interrogative. It cannot occur
in the higher embedded clause because this clause is not an interrogative. If a werea wh-element akin to the wh-scope marker was in German then it should be able to235

occur in a non-interrogative embedded clause in a partial wh-movement construction
such as (61b), contrary to fact.
A partial wh-movement construction such as (58), repeated below, can then be
accounted for as follows.
(58) Albanian:
A1 mendon [se kë1
ka takuar Maria t1 ]?
Qu think-2S that who-acc has met
Mary‘Who do you think that Mary met?’ (Turano 1998:163)
The embedded Typ head contains an EPPXP feature that attracts the wh-phrase0kë ‘who’ to its specifier position. The matrix Typ contains an EPPX feature that
attracts the wh-feature of the wh-phrase to the matrix Typ. Since the specifier of
Typ is empty, the Qu-morpheme a, which is a separate element from the wh-feature,is pronounced without violating the Doubly Filled Comp Filter. A diagram is shown
below. Note that se ‘that’ is in the ForceP head in the embedded clause.

236

(62)
TypP
Typ’
TP
...

TypEP P X 0
Prb+Fwh1 ,a[FQu ]ForceP
Force’
se
that

TypP
DP1
kë+t[Fwh1 ]
who-acc Typ

EP P XPTyp’TPka takuar Maria t1
has met Mary

Example (61a), repeated below, contains a multiply embedded wh-phrase thathas matrix scope.
(61) Albanian:(a) A1 mendon [T ypP se
Maria thotë [T ypP se
kush1 ka
Qu think-2S
that Mary saysthat whohas
lexuar librin]]?
read
book-the‘Who do you think that Mary says read the book?’
In this case, there is an EPPXP feature in the lowest embedded Typ that forces thewh-phrase kush to move to its specifier position. The higher embedded Typ and the0matrix Typ each contain an EPPX feature that forces movement of the wh-feature.

237

The Qu-morpheme a types the matrix clause as an interrogative and thus it appears
in the matrix Typ. A simplified diagram is shown below.
(63)
TypP
Typ’
TP
...

TypEP P X 0
Prb+Fwh ,aFQu

TypP
Typ’
TP
...

TypEP P X 0t[Fwh ]

TypP
DP1
kush+t[Fwh ]
who

Typ’
TypEP P XP

TP. . . t1 . . .

In summary, partial wh-movement constructions in Albanian, like in German,
are formed when there is a Typ head that contains an EPPXP feature and a Typ0head that contains an EPPX feature.24 Unlike in German, though, a moved whfeature is not pronounced. Also, unlike in German, Albanian contains an overt
Qu-morpheme that is pronounced in a partial wh-movement construction.
24

0

As in German, the Typ head with the EPPX feature must c-command a Typ head with an

EPPXP feature. I discuss this issue in the next section.

238

6.5.3 Remaining issues concerning partial wh-movement
Both German and Albanian are languages that require movement of a wh-phrase. I
propose that there is the following constraint in these languages.
(64) The closest c-commanding Typ head of a clause with a wh-phrase must
contain an EPPXP feature.
This constraint requires movement of a wh-phrase to the specifier of the closest ccommanding TypP. If this constraint is satisfied, then there can also be an EPPX

00

feature. This constraint explains why an EPPX feature cannot occur freely in any
Typ head.
0First of all, (64) accounts for the fact that a Typ head with an EPPX featurecannot precede a Typ head with an EPPXP feature. The structure in (65), in which0an embedded Typ contains an EPPX feature that attracts a wh-feature and a higher
Typ contains an EPPXP that attracts a wh-phrase is not allowed.
(65)

TypP
Typ’
TypEP P XP

TP
...
TypP
Typ’
TypEP P X 0

TP. . . wh-phrase . . .

The EPPXP feature in the higher Typ attracts a wh-phrase from the embedded
clause. In order to arrive in the specifier of the matrix TypP, the wh-phrase would

239

have to move through the embedded [Spec, TypP], but this is not possible because0

the embedded Typ contains an EPPX feature that only attracts the wh-feature,and not the wh-phrase. According to Phase Theory, only an element at the edgeof a phase is accessible to higher phrases. Thus, if the embedded wh-phrase does
not move to the embedded [Spec, TypP], it is not able to move out of the lower
phase (the embedded TypP) and into a higher phase. Therefore, there is a ban ona construction with the configuration in (65).
The constraint in (64) also straightforwardly accounts for the fact that a whphrase cannot remain in-situ in these languages. For example, (66a-b) from German
are ill-formed because the wh-phrase does not move.
(66) German:(a) *Was1 ist er wem1 begegnet?
WH
is he whomet
(Sabel 2000:419)(b) *Was1 glaubst du [CP was1 Hans meint [CP Jakob [mitWHbelieve you
WH Hans thinks
Jakob withwem]1 gesprochen hat]]?
haswhom talked‘With whom do you believe that Hans thinks that Jakob has talked?’(Cheng 2000:80)
Similarly, the Albanian (67) is ill-formed because the wh-phrase remains in-situ.25(67) Albanian:*A pekush rrugës?
Qu saw-2s who street‘Who did you see in the street?’ (Turano 1998:150)
25

Note that (67) is well-formed as a yes/no construction meaning Did you see anyone in thestreet?’, in which case the wh-element functions as an indefinite (Turano 1998:150).

240

These are ill-formed as wh-constructions because Typ lacks an EPPXP feature,
thereby violating (64).
Cheng (2000) has a different analysis of why wh-phrasal movement must precede
wh-feature movement; however, it has some problems. Cheng (2000:81) writes thefollowing.
Following Chomsky (1995; class lecture fall 1995), I assume that overt
wh-movement involves a two-step movement: feature movement and category movement. Feature movement falls under Attract F (i.e., as aresult of feature attraction/checking) while category movement (the socalled generalized pied piping) is for PF convergence. Further, Chomsky
proposes that after a category undergoes movement, an automatic repair
strategy takes place to ensure that the feature(s) will not be scattered(Cheng 2000:81).
Cheng, following Chomsky, claims that a wh-feature raises to C and then the whphrase raises to the specifier of CP so that a repair strategy can occur. The repair
strategy is described as “a mechanism which puts the feature bundle back into thecategory (Cheng 2000:81).” The wh-feature separates from the wh-phrase, undergoes
movement to C, and then the wh-phrase moves to [Spec, CP] so that the feature
can move back into the wh-phrase. According to Cheng, a wh-phrase must move
before partial wh-movement can occur because the repair strategy must occur. If
the wh-phrase remains in-situ and its feature raises to C, then there is no point in
the derivation in which the repair strategy can occur. Cheng (2000:82) writes that“category movement is a necessary step preceding the repair strategy.”
A problem with Cheng’s analysis is that, in my opinion, it predicts that whphrasal movement should behave like wh-feature movement with respect to islandeffects. As shown in (53a-b), repeated below, partial wh-movement out of an island
is worse than full wh-movement out of an island.

241(53) German (Complex-DP island):(a) *Was hast du [DP ein Gerücht t2 ] gehört [typ2 wen1 Ede
WH
have you
a
rumor
heard
whom Ede
t1 mag]?
likes(b) ??Wen1 hast du [DP ein Gerücht t2 ] gehört [typ2 t1 daSSwhom
have you
a
rumor
heard
that
Ede t2 mag]?
Ede
likes
(Cheng 2000:87)
In constructions such as (53a), partial wh-movement involves wh-feature movement
alone out of an island. When there is wh-phrasal movement as in (53b), according
to Cheng, the wh-feature moves to C and the wh-phrase moves to [Spec, CP] for the
repair strategy to occur. Since, under Cheng’s analysis, the wh-feature undergoes
head-movement regardless of whether or not there is partial or full wh-movement,
full wh-phrasal movement out of an island should be just as bad as partial whmovement. It maybe should even be worse, since two elements (a wh-phrase anda wh-feature) move in the case of full wh-movement, but only a wh-feature moves
in the case of partial wh-movement. Yet wh-phrasal movement is not just as bad
as partial wh-movement. Partial wh-movement is more island sensitive than full
wh-movement. Cheng accounts for this fact by suggesting that category movement
somehow lessens an island violation. Cheng (2000:87) writes the following.
In cases where full movement takes place, both feature movement andcategory movement are involved. However, in such cases, the violations
incurred by feature movement are “cancelled” by category movement.
Thus, according to Cheng, category movement which follows feature movement
lessens an island effect incurred by feature movement.26 However, it is not clear
26

Cheng states that the island effects are ‘canceled’ but this is not quite correct, since islandeffects still occur, but are not as severe.

242

why category movement would lessen the severity of an island effect. Since there
is movement of two elements out of an island, an island effect should worsen. Instead, as I see it, the difference in the severity of island effects resulting from full
wh-movement versus partial wh-movement results from the difference between movement of a feature, which is an X0 category element, and XP movement of a phrase.
This view of the facts raises the question of why head-movement is more sensitive
to island effects than phrasal movement is. However, I do not have a solution at
this time. The island effects in the complex-DP constructions in (53a-b) can be
attributed to renumeration of the adjunct clause modifier of the nominal. Why
exactly movement of a wh-feature is worse than movement of a wh-phrase out of acomplex-DP is not clear to me, and is an issue that requires further examination.
In conclusion, partial wh-movement languages such as German and Albanianrequire a wh-phrase to undergo movement before its wh-feature can separate from0

it and raise to adjoin to a wh-expletive. There can only be an EPPX feature in a
Typ head if there is already an EPPXP feature in a lower embedded Typ. A partial
wh-movement construction must have the configuration shown in (68a), although
there can be any number of Typ heads with an EPPXP feature as long as they are0

c-commanded by a Typ with an EPPX feature, and there can be any number of0

Typ heads with an EPPX feature as long as they c-command a Typ head with an
EPPXP feature. The configuration in (68b) which results in wh-feature movement
preceding wh-phrasal movement, and the configuration in (68c) which results in a
wh-in-situ construction are not allowed.
(68)(a) [T ypP [T yp

EP P X0. . . [T ypP [T ypEP P XP . . . ]]]](b) *[T ypP [T ypEP P XP . . . [T ypP [T yp(c) *[T ypP [T yp

EP P X0

EP P X0. . . ]]]]

. . . ]]

The facts of (68) are forced by (64) which requires a wh-construction to have an
EPPXP feature in the closest Typ to c-command a relevant wh-phrase and by these

243

0

languages containing an EPPX feature in their lexicons.
6.6 Wh-phrasal movement, Agree, and partial wh-movement in a single language:
Malay
Malay27 is interesting in that it allows a wh-construction to be formed in a variety
of ways. Malay, like German and Albanian, allows a wh-phrase either to move to its
scope position or to undergo partial-wh-movement, and in addition, it allows a whphrase to remain in-situ. I propose that these facts are the result of Malay allowing
three different types of Typ heads, one without an EPP feature, one with an EPPXP
0

feature, and one with an EPPX feature, although as in the partial wh-movement0

languages discussed above, the EPPX feature can only occur if there is already an
EPPXP feature in a lower Typ head.
I begin by presenting the relevant data from Malay. First, a wh-phrase canundergo movement to the position where it takes scope, as in (69).
(69) Malay:
Siapa1 (yang) [Bill harap [yang t1 akan
membeli baju
Who(that) Bill hope thatwill buy clothes foruntuknya]]?
him‘Who does Bill hope will buy clothes for him?’ (Cole & Hermon 1998:224)
The second option is for a wh-phrase to remain in-situ, as shown in (70).28
27

This is a language spoken in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore. The data that I

present are from Cole & Hermon (1998) who state that their data come from “the Malay spoken
by educated speakers in Singapore.” See also Saddy (1990) for a discussion of Indonesian, which
is closely related to Malay, and which shows the same variety of wh-constructions.
28
Note that unlike a wh-phrase such as apa ‘what,’ kenapa ‘why’ cannot remain in-situ. See
chapter 9 for further discussion.

244(70) Malay:
Ali memberitahu kamu tadi
[Fatimah baca apa]?
Ali informedyoujust now Fatimah read what
‘What did Ali tell you Fatimah was reading?’ (Cole & Hermon 1998:224)
The third option is for a wh-phrase to undergo partial movement, as shown in (71).
(71) Malay:
Jon fikir [kenapa1 (yang) Mary rasa [Ali dipecatt1 ]]?
John think why(that) Mary feel Ali was fired‘Why does John think (that) Mary felt Ali was fired?’ (Cole & Hermon
1998:225)
The wh-phrase moves to the initial position of an embedded clause but has scope ina higher clause. Note that there is no overt wh-expletive.
When a wh-phrase moves to its scope position as in (69), according to my analysis, there is an EPPXP feature in Typ that forces overt movement of the wh-phrase,
and the wh-feature values the probe in Typ via a Spec-head relation. A diagram isshown in (72).
(72)

TypP
DP1
wh-phrase[Fwh ] TypEP P XP
Prb[Fwh ]Typ’TP. . . t1

Evidence supporting the idea that there is overt wh-movement is the existence ofisland effects. For example, in (73), the wh-phrase di mana ‘at where’ moves frominside a complex-DP, resulting in ill-formedness. See Cole & Hermon (1998:227-228)
for further examples.

245(73) Malay:*[Di mana]1 kamu fikir Ali suka [DP perempuan yang tinggal
At
where
you
think Ali likewoman
who livet1 ]?
Intended: ‘Where1 do you think Ali likes the woman who lives t1 ?’ (Cole &Hermon 1998:227)
The ill-formedness of this construction is accounted for straightforwardly if the
EPPXP feature in Typ is unable to attract the wh-phrase out of a renumerated
adjunct clause within the complex-DP.
When a wh-phrase remains in-situ as in (70), there are two possibilities; oneis that the wh-feature alone moves, and the other is that the wh-feature forms an
Agree relation with Typ. Evidence suggests that the latter is the case; there is an
Agree relation. This is because an in-situ wh-phrase is not subject to island effects.
Example (74) shows that the wh-phrase di mana ‘at where’ can remain in-situ andresult in a perfectly well-formed wh-construction, which is identical to the ill-formed(73), except that the wh-phrase remains in-situ.
(74) Malay:
Kamu fikir [Ali suka [DP perempuan yang tinggal di mana]]?
youthink Ali like
woman
that liveat where‘Where1 do you think Ali likes the woman who lives t1 ?’ (Cole & Hermon
1998:228)
The well-formedness of this construction can be accounted for if there is no EPP
feature in Typ. The wh-feature undergoes an Agree relation with a probe in Typ,and Agree can occur between the matrix Typ and a wh-feature contained within arenumerated wh-phrase. Since there is no movement of the wh-feature, there is no
island effect. A diagram is shown in (75).

246

(75)

TypP
Typ’
Typ
Prb[Fwh1 ]TP. . . wh-phrase[Fwh1 ] . . .

In a partial wh-movement construction, there are island effects, just as in aconstruction in which the wh-phrase moves to its scope position. Example (76a)shows that when the wh-phrase remains in-situ within the complex-DP the result iswell-formed. When the wh-phrase undergoes partial movement in (76b), the result
is ill-formed.
(76) Malay:(a) Kamu sayang [DP perempuan yang Ali fikir[yang telah
you
love
woman
that Ali thinks that alreadyberjumpa siapa]]?
meet
who‘Who1 do you love [the woman who Ali thinks met t1 ]?’[(dengan)(b) *Kamu sayang [DP perempuan yang Ali fikir
you
love
woman
that Ali thinks (with)siapa1 yang telah
jumpa t1 ]]?
whothat already meet
Intended: ‘Who1 do you love [the woman who Ali thinks met t1 ]?’ (Cole& Hermon 1998:235)
The ill-formedness of (76b) results from wh-feature movement. The wh-phrase moves
to an embedded [Spec, TypP]. Then movement of the wh-feature is blocked by thecomplex-DP.
A partial wh-movement construction can then be accounted for as shown in (77).
There is an EPPXP feature in the embedded Typ that forces wh-phrasal movement

247

0

to the embedded [Spec, TypP]. The matrix Typ contains an EPPX feature that
attracts the wh-feature from the wh-phrase within the embedded clause.
(77)

TypP
Typ’
TP
...

TypEP P X 0
Prb+ Fwh

TypP
DP1
wh-phrase+t[Fwh ] TypEP P XP
yang
that

Typ’
TP
. . . t1 . . .

Note that this partial wh-movement works just as in German and Albanian; an
0

EPPX feature can only occur if there is an an EPPXP feature in a lower embedded
clause. Remember that I claimed that German and Albanian have the constraint in(64), repeated below.
(64) The closest c-commanding Typ head of a clause with a wh-phrase must
contain an EPPXP feature.
This same constraint appears to hold in Malay, although with a twist. It is not
the case that a wh-construction always must have an EPPXP feature in Typ, as
indicated by the possibility of Agree in this language. Rather, when there is whphrasal movement of any sort, there must be EPPXP feature in Typ. Thus I revise(64) as follows.
(78) In a construction with wh-phrasal movement, the lowest c-commanding Typhead of a clause with a wh-phrase must contain an EPPXP feature.

248

The Malay wh-construction facts then raise the question of why so many different
options for forming a wh-construction are allowed in a single language. The answer
lies in the possible underlying numerations of a wh-construction. There are threebasic numerations that are allowed, as shown in (79a-c), which differ in terms ofwhether or not there is an EPP feature in Typ and the type of EPP feature that
occurs in Typ.
(79)
Wh-construction type

EPP

(a)

Wh-movement

EPPXP

(b)

Wh-in-situ∅(c)Partial wh-movement[T ypP [T yp

EP P X0. . . [T ypP [T ypEP P XP . . . ]]]]In a wh-movement construction (79a), Typ contains an EPPXP feature thatforces the wh-phrase to move to [Spec, TypP]. In a wh-in-situ construction (79b),
Typ lacks an EPP feature, and thus Agree alone occurs. In a partial wh-movement
construction, there is an EPPXP feature in an embedded Typ that forces movement0of the wh-phrase to [Spec, TypP] and there is an EPPX feature in a higher
Typ head that forces wh-feature movement. These options exist in various otherlanguages. Thus, Malay is a language which can form a wh-construction in the same
way as in English with wh-phrasal movement, as in Mandarin with no movementof a wh-element, or as in German and Albanian, with partial wh-movement.
Before I end this section, I briefly compare my analysis with that of Cole &Hermon (1998), who take a different approach to the Malay wh-construction facts.
They assume that a wh-phrase consists of an operator and a variable, and thatwhether or not the variable and operator form a single word depends on the language.
In English, they propose that an operator and variable form a single lexical item,
thus accounting for the requirement for full wh-movement in single wh-constructions,and in Chinese, an operator and variable are separate, thus accounting for why a249

wh-phrase can remain in-situ and why it is not subject to island effects. In Malay,on the other hand, they propose that the operator and variable can either be asingle lexical item, or they can be separate, and that these facts account for thewide variety of Malay wh-constructions.
Cole & Hermon (1998) take the position that in a wh-construction, a C head contains what they refer to as a “STRONG Q (wh-feature) that needs to be checked bya wh-feature that moves into the checking domain of C (Cole & Hermon 1998:223).”
In other words, there is a Q feature in C that needs to be checked by a wh-feature.
Cole & Hermon (1998) argue that there are two possibilities for the structureof a wh-phrase. One type of wh-phrase consists of an operator and a variable thatform a single lexical item, represented as “[OP+VAR].” This single wh-phrase isused in both full and partial wh-movement constructions. The other type consistsof a separated operator and variable, represented as “[OP.. ..VAR],” and this results
in a wh-in-situ construction.
Evidence that a wh-word and an operator can be separate is that a wh-word in
Malay can behave as a variable. For example, apa ‘what’ can be used in the following
example, where Cole and Hermon argue that it is “bound by the existential quantifier
represented by -pun ‘also’ (240).”(80) Malay:
Dia tidak membeli
apa-pun untuk saya.
he not MENG-buy what-also forme‘He did not buy anything for me.’ (Cole & Hermon 1998:239)
Based on this use of a wh-word as a variable, Cole & Hermon argue that a wh-word
can occur separately from an operator.
In a full wh-movement construction, there is a single lexical item [OP+VAR]
that undergoes movement to [Spec, CP] to check the STRONG Q feature in C bydischarging its wh-feature. The need to check the STRONG Q feature in C results

250

in overt wh-phrasal movement. Movement of a wh-phrase is subject to island effects,
as in (73) above.
In a partial wh-movement construction, again Cole and Hermon argue that there
is an [OP+VAR] wh-phrase, but in addition, unlike in a full wh-movement construction, there is a null wh-expletive that is Merged directly in the scopal [Spec, CP]
position, where it “satisfies the STRONG feature of Q (250).” Because the whexpletive is in the scopal [Spec, CP] position, the [OP+VAR] wh-phrase moves to anon-scopal [Spec, CP] position. Then, at LF, the operator OP moves to the scopal[Spec, CP] where it replaces the wh-expletive. From this position, the OP binds thevariable VAR. LF movement of this wh-operator is also subject to island effects, asin (76b).
In a wh-in-situ construction, Cole and Hermon argue that there is an [OP..
..VAR] structure. The operator part of the wh-phrase is base generated directly
in [Spec, CP], where it checks the STRONG Q feature, and binds the wh-phrase.
Following Tsai (1994), Reinhart (1993, 1995), and Cole & Hermon (1995), they
attribute the lack of island effects in a wh-in-situ construction to unselective bindingof the wh-phrase by the operator. Unselective binding is a proposed form of bindingin which an operator binds a variable and this binding relation is not subject tointervention effects.
There are several problems that I see with this analysis.
First of all, the motivation for wh-phrasal movement (in constructions with overt
wh-phrasal movement), and also wh-operator movement (in constructions with partial wh-movement) is the need to check a wh-feature on a STRONG Q feature in C.
This analysis thus lumps together Qu- and wh-features, which I believe are distinct
elements. The label Q indicates a feature that results in an interrogative; i.e., in a
yes/no or a wh-construction. However the STRONG Q of Cole and Hermon’s analysis requires checking by a wh-feature, and thus appears to be an element specific to awh-construction. This type of analysis appears to require that a yes/no construction

251

contain a different type of Q-feature than a wh-construction. My analysis unifies
the interrogative aspect of yes/no and wh-constructions by simply assuming that
the Qu-feature of a wh-construction is the same type of feature that appears in a
yes/no construction. The Qu-feature has nothing to do with motivating movementof a wh-element. Rather, movement is motivated by an EPP feature.
Another problem with this analysis is that it relies on the notion that a wh-phrase
consists of an operator and a variable that can be separated, either at Spell-Out(in a wh-in-situ construction), or at LF (in a partial wh-movement construction).
Specifically, because an operator is base generated in [Spec, CP], it can bind avariable wh-word in a wh-in-situ construction, or it can bind a variable wh-wordin a non-scopal [Spec, CP] position. But Bruening (2007) demonstrates that there
are problems with this view. Bruening (2007) points out that there are wh-in-situ
languages such as Turkish (a fact noted by Cole and Hermon) that do not use
wh-words as variables, and there are languages that use wh-words as indefinites,
but that require overt wh-phrasal movement, such as Pasamaquoddy. Therefore,
whether or not a wh-word can be used as a variable in a language does not predictwhether or not a wh-word can remain in-situ. One implication of Bruening’s analysis
is that it may not be the case that a wh-phrase actually consists of an operator anda variable. This notion is compatible with my analysis, in which I make no recourse
to the notion of null wh-operators.
Next, in a partial wh-movement construction, Cole and Hermon claim that anull wh-expletive is replaced at LF by movement of a null wh-operator. The null
wh-expletive checks the STRONG Q feature in the scopal C position, and the null
wh-operator undergoes movement to replace the expletive, most likely in order togive a wh-phrase scope. This analysis does not account for why a full [OP+VAR]
wh-phrase moves to a non-scopal [Spec, CP] position. If there is an expletive inserted
in the scopal C head, and the null wh-operator can move at LF, then the wh-phrase
should be able to remain in-situ at Spell-Out as its wh-operator could move at LF.

252

Under my account, a wh-phrase moves to a non-scopal [Spec, CP] position becauseof a requirement that there be an EPPXP feature to drive wh-movement (see (64)),0in which case, there can be an EPPX feature in a higher Typ head. There is no
reliance on a null wh-expletive or movement of a null wh-operator.
Lastly, in a wh-in-situ construction, Cole and Hermon rely on the notion thata wh-operator is base generated in the scopal [Spec, CP] position and unselectively
binds an associated in-situ wh-word. Under my analysis, there is an Agree relation
between a probe in Typ and the wh-feature of the wh-phrase. This Agree relation issimilar to the notion of unselective binding, although it is not an operator variable
relationship. Rather it is a probe and goal (wh-feature) relationship, and the whin-situ facts do not result from binding by a null wh-operator.
In conclusion, the basic differences between my analysis and that of Cole andHermon, are that, under my analysis, there is no wh-operator movement, nor isthere any LF movement. The wh-construction facts simply rely on the relationshipthat a wh-feature forms with a probe and whether or not a Typ head contains an
EPP feature.29
6.7 French: wh-phrasal movement and wh-feature movement in a single language
In this section, I discuss French, a language in which a wh-phrase may either occur
in-situ or undergo movement, although the option for a wh-phrase to remain in-situ
is limited.
According to Bos̆ković, wh-in-situ in French is limited to one particular situation,a matrix clause with a null complementizer, as in (81a), in which the wh-phrase qui‘who’ remains in-situ. The wh-phrase may also move to clause-initial position as in(81b).
29

Cole and Hermon also apply their analysis to other languages, with English being a language

in which a wh-phrase and operator are a single lexical item and Chinese a language in which a
wh-phrase always consists of a wh-word variable and a separate operator.

253(81) French:(a) Tu asvuqui?
you have seen whom
‘Who did you see?’(b) Qui1 as-tu
vu
t1 ?
whom have-you seen
‘Who did you see?’ (Bos̆ković 1998)
In all other environments, a wh-phrase must move. Examples (82a-b) show amatrix clause with an overt complementizer. The wh-phrase cannot remain in-situ,
as shown by the ill-formedness of (82a). (82b) in which the wh-phrase moves toclause-initial position is fine.
(82) French:(a) *Que tu asvuqui?
comp you have seen who
Intended: ‘Who have you seen?’(b) Qui1 que
tu as
vu
t1 ?
who comp you have seen
‘Who have you seen?’ (Bos̆ković 2002:352)
Example (83a) is ill-formed because the wh-phrase remains in-situ in the embedded
clause. (83b) is fine because the wh-phrase has moved to the initial position of theembedded clause.
(83) French:(a) *Pierre a
demandé [tu as
embrassé qui].
Pierre has asked
you have kissed
who
Intended: ‘Pierre has asked who you have kissed.’254(b) Pierre a
demandé [qui1 tu as
embrassé t1 ]Pierre has asked
who you have kissed‘Pierre has asked who you have kissed.’ (Bos̆ković 2002:352)
Examples (84a-b) show that when an embedded wh-phrase has matrix scope it mustmove. (84a) is ill-formed because the wh-phrase remains in-situ, whereas (84b) is
well-formed because the wh-phrase has moved to the beginning of the matrix clause.
(84) French:(a) *Jean etMarie croient [que Pierre aembrassé qui]?
Jean and Marie believe that Pierre has kissed
who
Intended: ‘Who do Jean and Marie believe that Pierre has kissed?’(b) Qui1 Jean etMarie croient-ils [que Pierre aembrassé t1 ]?
who Jean and Marie believethat Pierre has kissed‘Who do Jean and Marie believe that Pierre has kissed?’ (Bos̆ković
2002:352)
The constructions in which a wh-phrase moves overtly are accounted for straightforwardly according to my analysis. The TypP head contains an EPPXP featurethat attracts the wh-phrase to [Spec, TypP].
Accounting for what happens when a wh-phrase remains in-situ is more problematic. Bos̆ković (2000) argues that a complementizer with a strong feature can beinserted into a derivation at LF, in which case the strong feature of the complementizer forces the wh-phrase to move at LF. Since movement is at LF, the wh-phrase
remains in-situ at Spell-Out. This LF insertion can only occur in a matrix clausesince Merge must expand a tree. However, a general assumption in current work in
the Minimalist Program (Chomsky 1995b) is that LF movement does not exist. If
this is the case, then another analysis is required.
When the wh-phrase remains in-situ, there are two possibilities. One is that the0

wh-feature alone undergoes feature movement driven by an EPPX feature in Typ.

255

The other possibility is that there is an Agree relation between the probe in Typand the wh-feature, and there is no movement of the wh-feature. The existenceof intervention effects indicates that wh-feature movement is at work. When an
in-situ wh-phrase (in a matrix clause with a null complementizer) is c-commandedby “quantifiers, negation, or modals (Cheng & Rooryck 2000:11),” the result is illformedness. In (85a), the wh-phrase is c-commanded by a quantifier, in (85b) bynegation, and in (85c) by a modal.
(85)(a) *Tous les éstudiants ont rencontré qui?
allthe students have met
who
Intended: ‘Who did all the students meet?’ (Chang 1997:17, per Cheng& Rooryck 2000:11)(b) *Il n’apas rencontré qui?
he neg has neg met
who
Intended: ‘Who didn’t he meet? (Chang 1997:19, per Cheng & Rooryck
2000:11)(c) *Il peut rencontrer qui?
he can meet-sc inf who
Intended: ‘Who can he meet?’ (Cheng & Rooryck 2000:11)

The intervention effects in the ill-formed (85a-c) are accounted for straightforwardly
if the wh-feature moves, but this movement is blocked by a c-commanding scope0bearing element. There is an EPPX feature in Typ that is unable to attract thewh-feature because of the intervener, thereby resulting in ill-formedness, as shown
below.

256

(86)

TypP
Typ’
TypEP P X 0

QuantP/NegP/ModP

Quant/Neg/Mod*

TP. . . wh-phrase[Fwh ] . . .

Note that intervention effects disappear when there is overt wh-movement. Example (87a) is ill-formed because negation c-commands an in-situ wh-phrase, butwhen the wh-phrase precedes negation, as in (87b), the result is well-formed.
(87) French:(a) ?*Jean ne mange pas quoi?
Jeanneg eats
neg what
Intended: ‘What doesn’t John eat?
(b) Que ne mange-t-il pas?
negwhat neg eats
‘What doesn’t he eat? (Bos̆ković 1998)
When the wh-phrase moves to clause initial position in (87b), it undergoes XP
movement, which is not subject to intervention effects.
These facts then indicate that when a wh-phrase remains in-situ, the wh-feature0

separates from the associated wh-phrase and moves to satisfy an EPPX feature in
Typ. A simplified diagram of this type of construction is shown below.

257

(88)

TypP
Typ’
TP

TypEP P X 0
Prb+Fwh1. . . wh-phrase+tFwh1 . . .
0

If this analysis is on the right track, then in French, an EPPX feature andan EPPXP feature have a different distribution. An EPPXP feature can occur in0

any Typ head, whether it be a matrix or embedded Typ. An EPPX feature cannever occur in an embedded clause, which is why an embedded wh-phrase can neverremain in-situ and have matrix scope, as shown in (83a-b) and (84a-b) above. An
0

EPPX feature is confined to only a matrix Typ head. In a simple matrix clause,0

Typ can contain an EPPX feature. For example, (81a), repeated below as (89)0contains an EPPX feature in the matrix Typ.
(89) French:[T yp

EP P X

0

Tu as
vu
qui]?
you have seen whom

‘Who did you see?’ (Bos̆ković 1998)
0

However, the EPPX feature is incompatible with an overt complementizer. For
example, (82a-b) above have the following structures in (90a-b). (90a) is ill-formed
0

because there is an overt complementzer and an EPPX together in Typ. (90a-b),
which has wh-phrasal movement, is fine because an overt complementzer and an
EPPXP can co-occur.
(90) French:
Que tu asvuqui]?
comp you have seen who
Intended: ‘Who have you seen?’(a) *[T yp

EP P X0258(b) [T ypEP P XP Qui1 que
tu as
vu
t1 ?
who comp you have seen
‘Who have you seen?’
French thus bans the following configuration in which que co-occurs with an
0

EPPX feature.
0(91) *[T yp que, EPPX . . . ]When que co-occurs with an EPPXP feature in Typ, 91 is violated. Why exactly
this restriction holds, though, is not clear to me.
Lastly, there is no partial wh-movement in French. For example, a wh-phrase
cannot move to the edge of an embedded clause, and have matrix scope. In (92),qui ‘who’ has moved to the edge of the embedded clause, and it cannot have matrix scope. There cannot be a wh-scope marker; this is ill-formed if que ‘what’ ispresent in the matrix clause to mark scope, and it is ill-formed, if que ‘what’ is absent. It is also ill-formed regardless of whether or not there is an embedded clausecomplementizer que.
(92) *(Que) Jean at Marie croient [(que) qui1 Pierre aembrasse(what) Jean and Marie believe (that) who Pierrre has kissed
t1 ]?
‘Who do Jean and Marie believe that Pierre kissed?’ (Dalila Ayoun, p.c.)
The French facts thus raise the issue of why there is no partial wh-movement.
0

An EPPX feature should be able to attract the wh-feature of a wh-phrase thathas moved to the specifier of an embedded TypP, but this is not allowed. A whphrase cannot move to [Spec, TypP] of an embedded clause and have matrix scope.
The following configuration in which the embedded clause Typ contains an EPPXP
0

feature and the matrix clause Typ contains an EPPX feature is banned.
(93) *[T ypP [T yp

EP P X0. . . [T ypP [T ypEP P XP . . . ]]]].

259

At this point, I do not have an explanation for why this is the case. One possibility
0though is that the EPPX feature in French is ‘weak’ in the sense that it can only
attract a wh-feature that is in the same clause.
0

Lastly, another perplexing fact is that the EPPX feature is confined to a matrix
clause. It cannot occur inside of an embedded clause. Why this would be the caseis not clear.
To summarize, in French, an EPPXP feature can occur in any Typ head, whereas0

an an EPPX feature can only occur in a matrix Typ and it is incompatible with0

an overt complementizer. Why exactly an EPPX has such a limited distribution in
French though requires further investigation.
6.8 Conclusion
In this chapter I have examined wh-constructions that are formed via Agree, whphrasal movement, wh-feature movement, and/or partial wh-movement. When Typlacks an EPP feature that attracts a wh-element (either there is no EPP feature, orthere is an EPP feature, but it does not attracts a wh-element), there is an Agreerelation between a wh-feature and a probe in Typ, as shown in (94), where ‘Relation’refers to the type of relationship established between a wh-feature and Typ.
(94)
Languages

EPP

Relation

Sinhala, Okinawan, Mandarin

∅

Agree

0

When there is an EPPX feature in Typ, then there is wh-feature movement,
as shown in (95).
(95)
Languages

EPP

Japanese, Korean, Persian

EPPX

Relation
0Wh-feature movement

260

When there is an EPPXP feature in Typ, there is full wh-phrasal movement
to [Spec, TypP], as shown in (96).
(96)
Languages

EPP

Relation

English, Sharanahua, Tlingit

EPPXP

Wh-phrasal movement

Languages that permit either wh-phrasal movement or partial wh-movement0

allow both an EPPXP feature and an EPPX feature in Typ. (97a) with only an
EPPXP feature results in full wh-movement, and (97b) with both an an EPPXP
0

feature and an EPPX feature results in partial wh-movement. However, an EPPX

0

feature can only occur if an embedded clause has an EPPXP feature.
(97)0Languages

EPPXP

EPPX

(a)

German, AlbanianX∅

Wh-phrasal movement(b)German, Albanian

X

X

Partial wh-movement

Relation

Then there are languages such as Malay, which allows all strategies except
for wh-feature movement, as shown in (98a-c). (98a) states that there is an Agreerelation, in which case a wh-phrase remains in-situ, when the Typ head lacks an
EPP feature. (98b) states that there is wh-phrasal movement when all relevant Typheads contain an EPPXP feature. (98c) states that there is partial wh-movement0

when there is both an EPPXP feature and an EPPX feature. Again, the EPPX
feature can only occur if an embedded clause contains an EPPXP feature.
(98)
0

EPPXP

EPPX

(a)

∅

∅

Agree

(b)

X

∅

Wh-phrasal movement

(c)

X

X

Partial wh-movement

Relation0261

Lastly, there is French.

(99a) states that wh-phrasal movement occurs whena Typ head contains an EPPXP feature. (99b) states that wh-feature movement00occurs when a Typ head contains an EPPX feature. However, an EPPX feature
can only occur in a matrix clause with a null complementizer.
(99)
0Clause

EPPXP

EPPX

(a)

Any

X

∅

Wh-phrasal movement(b)

Matrix, null complementizer∅X

Wh-feature movement

Relation

This analysis also suggests that there is a crucial distinction between movement
triggered by an EPP feature and Agree. An EPP feature attracts elements of aparticular type, thus resulting in intervention effects when there is an intervening
element of the appropriate type but the incorrect content. EPP-driven movement isalso subject to island effects when movement is out of a renumerated clause. Agreeis a relation that is sensitive to feature content, and is not subject to intervention
effects caused by elements of a particular type, if they do not have the relevant
content. Furthermore, since Agree does not involve movement, it can hold overpotential island boundaries.
In conclusion, I have accounted for some of the variation found in single whconstructions. The relationship between a probe in Typ and a wh-element is determined by whether or not there is an EPP feature, and the type of EPP feature. Also,
further research is required to account for the French facts; specifically, why it is that00

only a matrix Typ can contain an EPPX feature and why the EPPX in a matrix
Typ is incompatible with an embedded clause that contains an EPPXP feature. In
the next chapter, I examine further influences of wh-features on wh-constructions.

262

CHAPTER 7
Wh-movement that forms a wh-phrase

7.1 Introduction
This chapter examines instances in which movement of a wh-element within a larger
phrase turns that larger phrase into a wh-constituent. For example, the complex-DPin the Japanese (1) functions as a wh-phrase due to movement of the wh-featureassociated with dare ‘who.’ I return to this type of construction later in this chapter.
(1)[DP daregakaita hon]
who-nom wrote book
‘book that who wrote’I take the position that movement of a wh-element within a larger constituent ismotivated by an EPP feature. For example, in (2), a wh-feature associated with awh-phrase embedded inside of a larger XP raises to the head X, thereby turning the0

XP into a wh-phrase. This wh-feature movement is motivated by an EPPX featurein the head X.
(2)

XP[+wh]X’
XEP P X 0
Fwh

YP
. . . wh-phrase+t[Fwh ] . . .

In (3), on the other hand, there is an EPPXP feature in the head X that attracts awh-phrase to its specifier position. The wh-feature of the wh-phrase turns the XP
into a wh-phrase.

263

(3)

XP[+wh]DP1wh-phrase[Fwh ] XEP P XP

X’
YP
. . . t1 . . .

In this chapter, I examine how this movement of a wh-element that turns a larger
phrase into a wh-phrase can circumvent potential island effects (see chapter 2.6.3
for discussion of island effects).
The organization of this chapter is as follows. In section 7.2, I examine whin-situ languages in which wh-feature movement can result in island circumvention
effects, and in section 7.3, I examine wh-movement languages in which wh-phrasal
movement can lead to island circumvention effects. Section 7.4 is the conclusion.
7.2 Wh-in-situ languages
There are wh-in-situ languages in which a wh-feature associated with a wh-phrase
raises to turn a potential island into a wh-phrase. This process allows a potential
island effect to be circumvented. In this section, I show how a reworked version of
the feature percolation analysis proposed by Nishigauchi (1986, 1990, 1999a, 1999b)
can account for island circumvention effects in the wh-in-situ languages of Japaneseand Korean.
As discussed in chapter 6, in Japanese, there are intervention effects and, atleast for some speakers, wh-island effects. However, complex-DP and adjunct-islandeffects are lacking.1 When a wh-phrase is contained within a complex-DP, as in(4a-b), the result is well-formed. There is no island effect. The wh-phrases darega ‘who-nom’ and donna riyuu-de ‘what reason-for’ can have scope outside of the1

There are complex-DP and adjunct-island effects with naze ‘why.’ See chapter 9 for discussion.

264

complex-DP.
(4)

Japanese:(a) Kimi-wa [DP [dare-ga kaita] hon]-oyomimashita ka?
you-topwho-nom wrote book-acc readQu
‘Who1 did you read [books that t1 wrote]? (Nishigauchi 1990:40)(b) Kare-ga [DP [donna riyuu-de kaita] hon]-ga
omosiroihe-nomwhat
reason-for wrote book-nom interesting
desu ka?
is
Qu‘[For what reason]1 are [books that he wrote t1 ] interesting?’(Nishigauchi 1990:92)

Similarly, wh-phrases are not subject to adjunct-island effects. Examples (5a-b)
show that doko-ni ‘where-dat’ and nani-o ‘what-acc’ can occur within an adjunctclause, labeled as TypP, and have matrix scope.
(5)

Japanese:(a) Taroo-ga [T ypP doko-ni
itta kara]umaku itta no?
Taro-nom
where-dat went because well
went Qu‘Where1 did things go well [because Taroo went t1 ?’ (Richards 2000:187)(b) Taroo-ga [T ypP nani-o
katta
kara]
umaku itta no?
Taro-nom
what-acc bought because well
went Qu‘What1 did things go well [because Taro bought t1 ]? (Junko Ginsburg,p.c.)

If an adjunct clause is renumerated (see discussion of Johnson 2002 in chapter 2.6.2)
and if there is wh-feature movement in Japanese, then the fact that a wh-phrase
can have scope outside of a complex-DP or adjunct clause requires an explanation.
Nishigauchi (1986, 1990, 1999a, 1999b) argues that wh-arguments which occur
inside of DP-islands are able to avoid an island effect, not because a wh-phrase is
not subject to island effects, but rather, because a DP-island can be pied piped at

265

LF in Japanese. According to Nishigauchi (1999b), at LF the structure of (6) is asshown in (7).
(6)

Kimi-wa [nani-okattahito]-niatta no?
you-top what-acc bought person-dat met Qu‘What1 did you see [the man who bought t1 ? (Nishigauchi 1999b:43)

(7)

LF:
[CP [DP nani1[t1 -o katta] hito]2 kimi-wa t2 ni
atta no]?
what-acc -acc bought person you-top
dat met Qu(Nishigauchi 1999b:44)

At LF the wh-phrase nani ‘what’ raises to [Spec, CP] of the relative clause modifier of the noun hito ‘person.’ Next there is feature percolation, whereby “thewh-feature is percolated through the Spec positions (Nishigauchi 1999a:275)” from[Spec, CP] of the relative clause up to [Spec, DP], thereby turning the complex-DP
into a wh-phrase. Then the complex-DP raises to [Spec, CP] of the matrix clause.
Since the entire DP becomes a wh-phrase, the wh-phrase does not move out of thecomplex-DP, and so an island violation is avoided. Nishigauchi does not, to thebest of my knowledge, discuss adjunct clauses (outside of complex-DPs); however,
his analysis can be applied to these constructions in the same manner. An adjunctclause becomes a wh-phrase, and moves to [Spec, CP] at LF.
I adopt the spirit of Nishigauchi’s analysis, which is the notion that a potential
island (adjunct clause) containing a wh-phrase becomes a wh-consituent, and assuch, there is no movement of a wh-element outside of the potential island. The
technical details of my analysis, however, are different from those of Nishigauchi, as
I assume that there is no wh-movement at LF. Rather, I take the following position.
In Japanese, a wh-feature associated with a wh-phrase contained within a complexDP or adjunct clause raises to turn the complex-DP or adjunct clause into a larger

266

wh-phrase. Then the wh-feature moves from this newly formed wh-phrase to thescopal Typ head.
Example (8) gives the structure of a clause with a wh-phrase that is contained
within a complex-DP.
(8)

TypP
Typ’
TP
...

TypEP P X 0
Prb+Fwh , ka/no[FQu ]DP[+wh]D’NP

DEP P X 0
Prb+tFwh
N’

TypP

N’
Typ’

N
TypEP P X 0
Prb+tFwh

TP. . . wh-phrase+tFwh . . .

The wh-phrase originates inside of an adjunct clause, the embedded TypP. In this0case, the embedded Typ head contains an EPPX feature that attracts the whfeature to Typ. Furthermore, the Typ head contains a probe. Valuation of thisprobe turns the adjunct clause into a wh-phrase. I assume that this non-interrogative
adjunct clause becomes a wh-phrase because there is no Qu-feature present. In otherwords, valuation of a probe by a wh-feature in the absence of a Qu-feature forms

267

a wh-phrase. The adjunct clause is renumerated, but since it is now a wh-phrase,
its wh-feature is still accessible to further operations. The D head of the complex0

DP contains an EPPX feature and a probe. The wh-feature again raises to satisfy
0

the EPPX feature and value the probe, thereby turning the complex-DP into a0wh-phrase. Lastly, the matrix Typ contains an EPPX feature and a probe. The
wh-feature thus moves to the matrix Typ and values the probe. In this last case,though, the wh-feature turns the matrix clause into a wh-construction because of
the presence of a Qu-feature.
The complex-DP island effect in (4a), repeated below, is accounted for as follows.
(4)Japanese:(a) Kimi-wa [DP [dare-ga kaita] hon]-oyomimashita ka?
you-topwho-nom wrote book-acc readQu
‘Who1 did you read books that t1 wrote? (Nishigauchi 1990:40)
0First, an EPPX feature in Typ of the embedded adjunct clause attracts the whfeature and the wh-feature values a probe, thereby turning the adjunct clause into
a wh-phrase, as shown in (9).
(9)

TypP[+wh]
Typ’
TP

TypEP P X 0
Prb+Fwhdare+tFwh -ga kaita
who-nom wrote
This adjunct clause is renumerated, but since it is now a wh-phrase, its wh-feature
is accessible to further operations; i.e., the wh-feature can move from its position
in Typ of the adjunct clause because the adjunct clause is a wh-phrase. Then the
adjunct clause is Merged with the nominal hon ‘book’ and with a null D head to

268

0

form a complex-DP, as shown in (10). The D head contains an EPPX feature that
attracts the wh-feature from the Typ head of the adjunct clause. Furthermore, theD head contains a probe that is valued by the wh-feature. Valuation of this probeturns the complex-DP into a wh-phrase.
(10)

DP[+wh]D’NP

DEP P X 0
Prb+FwhN’

TypP+tFwh

N’dare-ga kaita
who-nom wrote

N
hon
book

Then the complex-DP is Merged with the other elements of the numeration, andthe wh-feature in its D head is able to proceed freely to the matrix Typ head to0satisfy an EPPX feature and also to value a probe, thereby giving the complex-DPmatrix scope, as shown in (11).

269

(11)

TypP[+wh]
Typ’
TP
T’

DP1
kimi-wa
you-topTypEP P X 0
Prb+Fwh ,noFQu

vP

t1

v’
DP+tFwhdare-ga kaita hon-o
who-nom wrote book-acc

T-mashita
pastv
yomiread

The same analysis accounts for examples such as (5a), repeated below, in which
a wh-phrase occurs within an adjunct-clause.
(5)Japanese:(a) Taroo-ga [T ypP doko-ni
itta kara]umaku itta no?
Taro-nom
where-dat went because well
went Qu‘Where1 did things go well [because Taroo went t1 ?’ (Richards 2000:187)

As shown in (12), the wh-feature associated with doko-ni ‘where-dat’ raises to the
Typ head of the adjunct clause where it values a probe, and thus turns the adjunctclause into a wh-phrase. I assume that there is a ForceP that houses kara ‘because.’
Despite the ForceP, movement of the wh-feature can proceed from the adjunct clausebecause the entire clause has become a wh-phrase.

270

(12)

ForceP
Force’
TypP[+wh]

Force
kara
becauseTyp’
TP

TypEP P X 0
Prb+Fwhdoko+tFwh -ni itta
where-dat went
Then this adjunct clause wh-consituent Merges with the other elements of the clause,
as shown below. The wh-feature raises from the Typ head of the adjunct-clause to0

the matrix Typ to satisfy an EPPX feature and value a probe, as shown in (13).2
2

I have left out the adjunct umaku ‘well’ for the sake of simplicity. Presumably, umaku ‘well’is an adverbial that is Merged with the verb.

271

(13)

TypP[+wh]
Typ’
TP

TypEP P X 0
Prb+Fwh ,noFQu
T’

DP1
Taro-ga
you-nom

vP

t1

v’

T
-tta
past

ForcePv’
Force’

TypP[+wh]
Typ’
TP

Force
kara
becausev
igo

TypEP P X 0
Prb+Fwhdoko+tFwh -ni itta
where-dat went
Movement of the wh-feature is not blocked by intervening v and T heads because
these heads contain elements that are different from a wh-feature in type, in thatthey lack a scope bearing quality.
This analysis then relies on the notion that a complex-DP or adjunct clause canbecome a wh-phrase in Japanese. Nishigauchi (1990, 1999a) presents evidence that
this is the case with respect to a complex-DP; a wh-construction with a complex-DP,
such as (14), can be answered with a response that refers to the whole complex-DP.

272(14) Japanese:
Kimi-wa [DP dare-o egaitahon]-oyomimashita ka?
you-top
who-acc described book-acc read
Qu
‘You read a book such that it described who?’ (Nishigauchi 1999a:274)
Nishigauchi claims that the following are possible answers to (14).
(15) Japanese:(a) Gates desu.
Gates be.
‘Its Gates.’(b) Gates-oegaitahon desu.
Gates-acc described book be.
‘(It’s) the book that describes Gates.’ (Nishigauchi 1999a:276)
Nishigauchi (1999a) argues that because (15b) refers to the entire complex-DP, theentire DP must be pied-piped to [Spec, CP] of the matrix clause. The shortened
answer in (15a) is allowed because “it is a further truncated form of [(15b)] bymeans of a discourse deletion rule (276).” Under my analysis, there is no phrasal
movement. The wh-feature associated with the entire DP raises from the DP to thematrix Typ, giving the complex-DP scope. Thus, the answer in (15b) that refers to
the entire complex-DP is permitted. The availability of (15a) can be accounted for
as a shortened form of (15b), as claimed by Nishigauchi.
The same facts appear to be true when a wh-phrase originates inside of an
adjunct clause, as in (5b), repeated below.
(5)Japanese:(b) Taroo-ga [T ypP doko-ni
itta kara]umaku itta no?
Taro-nom
where-dat went because well
went Qu‘Where1 did things go well [because Taroo went t1 ?’ (Richards 2000:187)

273

According to my consultant, a response as in (16b) that refers to the entire adjunctclause is not only allowed, but it is better than a response that refers only to thewh-phrase, as in (16a).
(16)(a) ?Kyoto-ni.
Kyoto-dat.
‘To Kyoto.’(b) Kyoto-ni
itta kara.
Kyoto-dat went because.
‘Because he went to Kyoto.’ (Junko Ginsburg, p.c.)

The possibility of the response in (16b) is to be expected if the entire adjunct clausefunctions as a wh-constituent. The marginality of (16a) could be an indication that,at least for my consultant, deletion of the remainder of the adjunct clause is marked.
Korean also behaves in an identical manner to Japanese: complex-DP andadjunct-island effects are absent.

(17a) shows a wh-phrase contained within acomplex-DP and (17b) shows a wh-phrase in an adjunct clause. According to Yoon
(2006), these are well-formed.
(17) Korean:(a) [DP [Nwukuwu-ka ssu-n]
chayk]-i
epseci-ess-ni?
who-nom
write-adn book-nom disappear-past-Qu‘The book that who wrote disappeared?’(b) Ne-nun [T ypP Yenghi-ka mwues-ul machi-myen] ttena-l
you-top
Yenghi-nom what-acc finish-if
leave
ke-ni?
fut-Qu‘You are going to leave if Yenghi finishes what?’ (Yoon 2006:387)
These constructions can be accounted for in the same manner as the Japanese data
discussed above. Wh-feature movement allows potential complex-DP and adjunctisland effects to be circumvented.

274

Richards (2000) gives evidence involving the scope of multiple wh-phrases that
supports Nishigauchi’s analysis. He points out that if two wh-phrases are contained
within a complex-DP or adjunct-clause they both must have the same scope, whereas
this is not the case if they are not in a complex-DP. In (18), there are two wh-phrases
contained in an embedded clause of the sort from which wh-movement can proceed
freely. For meaning (i), both dare-ga ‘who-nom’ and dare-o ‘who-acc’ have matrix
scope. For meaning (ii), dare-ga ‘who-nom’ has matrix scope and dare-o ‘who-acc’has embedded scope.
(18) Japanese:
Keesatu-wa [dare-ga dare-okorosita ka] sirabeteiruno?
police-top who-nom who-sc acc killed
Qu are-investigating Qu(i) ‘For which x and which y are the police investigating [whether x killed y]?
(ii) ‘For which x are the police investigating [for which y, x killed y]?
(Richards 2000:188-189)
In (18), the two embedded wh-phrases can either have scope together or separately.
However, when two wh-phrases occur within a complex-DP, as in (19), both whphrases must have the same scope. (19) can only have the meaning in (i) in which
both wh-phrases have the same scope, and not the meaning in (ii) in which each
wh-phrase has a different scope.
(19) Japanese:
Keesatu-wa [Nakamura-san-ga[dare-ga dare-okorosita
police-top Nakamura-hon-nom who-nom who-sc acc killedtatemono-o] kattaka] sirabeteiru
no?
building-acc bought Qu are-investigating Qu(i) ‘For which x and which y are the police investigating [whether
Nakamura-san bought [a house where x killed y]]?
(ii) * ‘For which x are the police investigating [for which y Nakamura-sanbought [a house where x killed y]]? (Richards 2000:189-190)

275

Richards argues that the fact that both wh-phrases must have the same scope when
they are in a complex-DP is predicted if the complex-DP is pied-piped to [Spec, CP]at LF. If both wh-phrases move together inside of the complex-DP then they shouldhave the same scope. If there were no pied-piping, then one wh-phrase should be
able to have scope inside of the complex-DP and another wh-phrase should be able
to have scope outside the complex-DP, contrary to fact.
Under my analysis, these facts are accounted for in terms of wh-feature movement, and not pied-piping at LF. I propose that the Typ head of the adjunct clause0

modifier contained within the complex-DP contains an EPPX feature that attracts
the wh-feature of the higher wh-phrase. Movement of this wh-feature eliminates0

the EPPX feature. Then, in the absence of an EPP feature, the probe in Typforms an Agree relation with the lower wh-feature (see chapter 8.3 for argumentsthat a probe forms an Agree relation with a second wh-feature in Japanese). Thissecondary Agree relation comes about because the probe searches for all available
wh-features. The TypP then becomes a wh-phrase that has two wh-features. A
diagram is shown below, in which it can be seen that the wh-feature associatedwith dare-ga ‘who-nom’ raises to Typ and the wh-feature associated with dare-o‘who-acc’ forms an Agree relation with the probe in Typ.
(20)

TypP[+wh]
Typ’
TP

TypEP P X 0
Prb[F wh2] +Fwh1

dare-ga+tFw h1 dare-o[F wh2] koroshita
who-nom who-acc killed
0

The D head of the complex DP has an EPPX feature that attracts the multiple
wh-feature bundle from the adjunct TypP, thereby turning the complex-DP into asingle wh-phrase, as shown below.

276

(21)

DP[+wh]D’NP

DEP P X 0
Prb+Fwh1,wh2
N’

TypP+tFwh1,wh2

N’

dare-ga dare-o koroshita
who-nom who-acc killedNtatemonobuilding

The wh-feature bundle associated with this newly formed wh-phrase then raises tothe matrix Typ, as shown in the following simplified diagram.
(22)

TypP[+wh]
Typ’
TP
...

TypEP P X 0
Prb+Fwh1,wh2,noFQu

DP+tFwh1,wh2. . . [dare-ga dare-o koroshita tatemono]. . .
who-nom who-acc killed building
Since the complex-DP functions as a single wh-phrase which has matrix scope, it is
not possible for the lower wh-phrase to have scope in any position other than thematrix clause.
If a wh-feature can turn a complex-DP or an adjunct clause into a wh-phrase
and thereby circumvent an island effect, then the issue arises of why it cannot dothe same with a whether/if clause. For example, in (23) (originally presented as

277(31) in chapter 6), the wh-feature associated with nani-o ‘what-acc’ cannot turnthe embedded TypP into a wh-phrase from which wh-feature movement can occur.
(23) Japanese:*Satookun-wa [Suzukikun-ga nani-otabeta ka] oboeteimasu ka?
Sato-top
Suzuki-nom what-acc ate
Qu remember
Qu‘What1 does Sato remember [whether Suzuki ate t1 ]? (Nishigauchi
1990:30-31)
Richards (2000), who assumes Nishigauchi’s analysis that certain islands canpied-pipe at LF, argues that if a wh-island were to pied-pipe at LF, then “the whphrase [would be] in two scope positions at once (199).” A wh-island that appears in[Spec, CP] of a larger clause would contain a wh-phrase that is simultaneously in thespecifier of the island and the specifier of the larger clause at the same time. Thisis ruled out because “a single wh-phrase cannot take scope in two different places,
presumably for semantic reasons (Richards 2000:199).” However, under Richard’s
analysis, even within a complex-DP or adjunct clause, a wh-phrase has scope in boththe complex-DP or adjunct clause and [Spec, CP] of a matrix clause. Therefore, I
think there is another explanation.
As I see the facts, a whether/if -island effect cannot be circumvented by whfeature movement for the following reasons given in (24a-b).
(24) A wh-phrase cannot be an interrogative clause - a phrase that is typed as aninterrogative clause by a Qu-feature cannot also be a wh-phrase.
Specifically, if an embedded clause is typed as a wh-construction by both a Qufeature and a wh-feature, then this embedded clause cannot also function as a whphrase that has scope in a higher TypP. For example, (25a) shows that a whphrase can move to [Spec, TypP] in English, but a whether clause cannot. The
ill-formedness of 25b) can be accounted for as resulting from a violation of (24).

278

The clause whether Jane ate what is an embedded wh-construction, containing Quand wh-features in its Typ head. This clause cannot also function as a wh-phrasethat has scope in the matrix TypP.
(25)(a) What1 does Bill remember t1 ?
(b) [Whether Jane ate what]1 does Bill remember t1 ?

If a wh-feature were to raise to Typ of a whether/if -clause, it would turn theclause into a larger wh-phrase. For example, wh-feature movement within the embedded clause of (23) would turn the embedded clause into a wh-construction witha wh-feature in Typ, as shown below.
(26)

TypP[+wh]
Typ’
TP

TypEP P X 0
Prb+Fwh ,kaFQu

Suzukikun-ga nani+tFwh -o tabeta
Suzuki-nom what-acc ate
Then if the wh-feature were to undergo further movement to the matix Typ, asshown below, it would serve the purpose of giving the whether clause matrix scope.

279

(27)

TypP[+wh]
Typ’
TP
Satookun-wa
Sato-top

TypEP P X 0
Prb+Fwh ,kaFQu
T’

vP
t1

v’

T
-imasusc presTyp’v
oboeteremember

TypP[+wh]

TP

TypEP P X 0
Prb+tFwh ,kaFQu

Suzukikun-ga nani+tFwh -o tabeta
Suzuki-nom what-acc ate
But in this case, the whether/if clause, which is an interrogative wh-construction,is also functioning as a wh-phrase that has matrix scope, in violation of (24) above.
Notably, there are languages in which, like Japanese and Korean, a wh-phrase
remains in-situ, and there is wh-feature movement, but this wh-feature movement
cannot circumvent an island effect.3 For example, wh-phrases can remain in-situ in
Persian, but there are adjunct- and DP-island effects, as shown in (28a-b) (originally(33a-b) in chapter 6.3).
3

Wh-in-situ languages such as Mandarin, as discussed in chapter 6.2 do not have wh-feature

movement. Rather, a probe in a Typ head is able to form an Agree relation with a wh-feature.
Since there is no movement of a wh-element, there are no island effects.

280(28) Persian:(a) Adjunct island:*Parviz raghsid[chonke kiunjâ bud]?
Parviz dance-3sg because who there wasIntended: ‘Who1 did Parviz dance [because t1 was there]?’ (Karimi &Taleghani 2007:180)(b) Complex-DP island:*Kimea [DP pesar-i-ro[ke to diruz
kojaa did-i]] beKimea
boy-rel-raa that you yesterday where saw-2sg to
man moarrefi
kard?
me introduced did
Intended: ‘Where1 did Kimea introduce to me [the boy you saw t1
yesterday]?’ (Simin Karimi, p.c.)
In Persian, then, it appears as though a wh-feature cannot undergo movement thatcircumvents an island effect. This can be accounted for if a Typ head within an
adjunct clause in Persian simply cannot contain an EPP feature that can attract a
wh-feature. Therefore, there is a difference between a Typ head that occurs in an
adjunct clause in Persian as opposed to a Typ head that occurs in a non-adjunctclause.
(29) shows the structure of the adjunct clause of (28a) above.
(29)

TypP
Typ’
Typ
TP
chonkebecause ki unjâ bud
who there was281

Crucially, there is no EPP feature in the Typ head to attract the wh-feature, andtherefore, the wh-feature does not turn this clause into a wh-phrase. Since it is nota wh-phrase, its wh-feature cannot move out of the clause, which is an island (it has
been renumerated).
If this analysis is on the right track, then there is a parametric difference between
Typ heads of adjunct clauses in different langauges. In languages such as Japaneseand Korean, Typ in an adjunct clause can contain an EPP feature, whereas Typ ofan adjunct clause in languages such as Persian cannot.
Lastly, I focus on the following fact: subject-island effects are absent in languages
such as Japanese, Korean, and Persian.
(30) Japanese:[[dare-ga kaita] hon]-ga
itiban omosiroino?
who-nom wrote book-nom most interesting Qu‘Who1 are [the books that t1 wrote] most interesting? (Lasnik & Saito
1992:122)(31) Korean:
Nu-kasseun chaek-i kajang chemiit-ni?
who-nom wrote bookmost interesting-Qu‘Who1 are [the books that t1 wrote] most interesting? (Hyun Kyoung Jung,p.c)(32) Persian:[Ye ketaab az kodum nevisande] montasher shodabook of which writer
published became.
‘Which writer was [a book of t] published?’ (Simin Karimi, p.c.)
Notably, the wh-feature movement analysis can account for the lack of subject islandeffects in Japanese and Korean. The wh-feature raises t o turn the complex-subject

282

into a wh-phrase and then the wh-feature raises to the matrix Typ. However, thisanalysis cannot account for Persian, which does not appear to allow wh-feature
movement to circumvent an island effect.
One possibility is that in these languages that lack subject-island effects, a subject actually remains within the v P and that when in a v P internal position, a
subject is not an island for extraction. Karimi (2005) argues that a subject remains within the v P in Persian and that this v P internal position is not an island.
Miyagawa (2001, 2003) also argues that a subject can remain in the v P in Japanese.4
Why exactly a v P-internal subject would not be an island though is not so clear.
Following Koizumi (1995) and Lasnik (2003), Hornstein et al. (2007) write that in4

According to Miyagawa (2001, 2003), either a subject or object must raise to [Spec, TP]. If

Miyagawa is correct, the following examples raise some questions.
(i) Boru-o [dare-ga tsukutta roboto]-ga nageta no?
ball-acc who-nom made robot-nom threw Qu‘[The robot that who made] threw the ball?’(ii) [Dare-ga tsukutta roboto]-ga boru-o nageta no?
who-nom made robot-nom ball-acc threw Qu‘[The robot that who made] threw the ball?
In (i), the object boru-o ‘ball-acc’ can be in [Spec, TP], in which case the subject remains in[Spec, v P]. Thus this example does not pose a problem for the view that a v P-internal subject
is not an island. However, in (ii), if Miyagawa is correct, the subject dare-ga tsukutta roboto-ga‘the robot that who made’ must either be in [Spec, TP] or in a scrambled position above [Spec,TP], in which case the object boru-o ‘ball-acc’ would be in [Spec, TP]. In either case, the subject
clause must move. If the subject is in [Spec, TP], then it should be an island, contrary to fact, if
only v P-internal subjects are not islands (and if wh-feature movement cannot circumvent an islandeffect in Japanese). If the subject is in a scrambled position such as a FocP, then maybe since it
is in an A’-position, it can escape islandhood. On the other hand, as discussed above with respect
to adjunct clauses in Japanese, it could be that a subject does not function as an island because
wh-feature movement can turn a complex subject into a wh-phrase, in which case it would not
matter whether or not the subject has moved out of the v P.

283

Japanese and Korean, “it is reasonable to suppose that the association of subjects
internal to the VP is ultimately small-clausal (155).” Following Moro (2000), theynote that the elements of a small clause likely form a “symmetrical relation” atsome point in a derivation. I assume that the symmetrial relation would be along
the lines of that shown in (33).
(33)

vP
subjectv

If the subject is not an adjunct, in the sense of an adjunct defined by Johnson (2002)(see (39) in chapter 2.6.2), then it need not be renumerated, and an element can beextracted from it. However, this notion of a v P-internal subject being in a symmetric
relation with the verb raises some questions. For example, since both the subject
and v are in a symmetric c-command relation in (33), what prevents the label of(33) from being that of the subject (e.g., DP) and not v P? Also, it is not clear wherean object would occur if the subject and verb are in a symmetrical relation. Lacking
any clear solution at this time, I leave this issue for further analysis.
In summary, a wh-phrase can occur within an adjunct clause in wh-in-situ lan0

guages such as Japanese and Korean because these languages allow an EPPX fea0

ture to occur within the Typ head of an adjunct clause. This EPPX feature forces
movement of the wh-feature to the edge of the adjunct clause and thus allows thewh-feature to undergo further movement that is not blocked by renumeration of the
adjunct-clause. In this section, I have examined how movement of a wh-feature canturn a larger phrase into a wh-phrase in languages such as Japanese and Korean,
but not in Persian. In the next section, I examine how movement of a wh-phrase(rather than a wh-feature) within a larger phrase can turn the larger phrase into awh-phrase and circumvent potential island effects in some languages.

284

7.3 Overt wh-movement languages
In this section, I examine movement of a wh-phrase in certain island constructions.
I show that wh-phrasal movement can circumvent potential island effects in Basqueand Tlingit. This wh-phrasal movement is very similar to the wh-feature movementof the previous section. However, there is one big difference; unlike with wh-featuer
movement, when there is wh-phrasal movement that circumvents an island effect,
there is clear surface movement of a wh-phrase. I also show how wh-phrasal movement cannot circumvent potential island effects in English.
7.3.1 BasqueRichards (2000:195) points out, following Ortiz de Urbina (1989), that in Basque,when a wh-phrase is contained within a complex-DP or adjunct-clause, a potential
island effect can be avoided by overtly “pied piping the potentially offending island.”In (34a), an entire adjunct clause has fronted to clause initial position, whereasin (34b), only the wh-phrase has moved out of the clause. Fronting of the adjunctclause is better than movement of the wh-phrase out of the adjunct clause.5(34) Basque:(a) ?[T ypP Zer ikusi ondoren] joan ziren hemen-dik?
what see aftergo
aux here-from‘What did they leave [after seeing]?’5

The original source does not indicate the base position of the adjunct clause in (34a), but it

is most likely base generated in clause-final position, as in (34b). Ortiz de Urbina (1989, 2003)
claims that the basic word order in Basque is generally thought to be SOV, in which case, the baseposition of the object wh-phrase in (34b) would most likely be directly preceding the verb insideof the adjunct clause.

285(b) *Zer joan ziren hemen-dik [T ypP ikusi ondoren]?
what goaux here-fromsee after
Intended: ‘What1 did they leave [after seeing t1 ]?’ (Ortiz de Urbina
1989:249,252, per Richards 2000:195)
In (34a), I propose that the wh-phrase raises to the specifier of the adjunct clause.
From this position, the wh-phrase’s wh-feature turns the adjunct clause into a whphrase by establishing a Spec-head relation with a Probe in the Typ head. (35)shows the internal structure of the adjunct clause, which I assume is a PP. The
wh-phrase zer ‘what’ raises to the specifier of the PP to satisfy an EPPXP featurein the P head. Once the wh-phrase arrives in [Spec, PP], its wh-feature forms aSpec-head relationship with a probe in the P head, and this wh-feature turns theentire PP into a wh-phrase.
(35)

PP[+wh]DP1
zer[Fwh ]
what

P’
TypP
t1 ikusisee

PEP P XP
ondoren,Prb[Fwh ]after

Since the PP is now a wh-phrase, it is able to move directly to [Spec, TypP] of
the matrix clause. This latter movement is motivated by an EPPXP feature in thematrix Typ. There is no movement of a wh-element out of the adjunct clause, andthus, this example is well-formed. A diagram is shown below.

286

(36)

TypP
PP1[Fwh ]Typ’zer ikusi ondoren TP
what see after

TypEP P XP
Prb[Fwh ]joan ziren hemen-dik t1
go aux here-fromIn the ill-formed (34b), the wh-phrase moves overtly out of an adjunct clause thathas been renumerated, thereby resulting in ill-formedness.
Examples (37a-b) show that the same results are obtained when a wh-phrase
is base generated inside of a complex-DP; fronting a complex-DP is better thanmoving a wh-phrase out of it.6
(37) Basque:(a) ?[DP nork
idatzi zuen liburua] irakurri duPeruk?
who-erg write aux bookread
aux Peter-erg‘Who1 did Peter read the book that t1 wrote?’(b) *Norkirakurri duPeruk[DP idatzi zuen liburua]?
who-erg readaux Peter-erg
write aux book‘Who1 did Peter read the book that t1 wrote?’ (Ortiz de Urbina
1989:249,252, per Richards 2000:195)
First of all, the wh-phrase raises to the specifier of the TypP of the adjunct clausecontained within the complex-DP, as shown in (38), thus turning the adjunct clauseinto a wh-phrase.
6

Assuming an SOV basic word order, per Ortiz de Urbina (1989, 2003), the wh-phrase is most

likely base generated in the position preceding the verb in the complex-DP.

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(38)

TypP[+wh]DP1
nork[Fwh ]who-erg

Typ’
TP

TypEP P XP
Prb[Fwh ]t1 idatzi zuen liburua
write aux book
Then the adjunct clause is merged with the nominal liburua ‘book’ and with a null
D head. Next, I propose that the TypP raises to [Spec, DP]. By doing so, the whfeature of the newly formed wh-phrase forms a Spec-head relation with the D head,
thereby turning the complex-DP into a wh-phrase.
(39)

DP[+wh]TypP[Fwh ]D’nork idatzi zuen liburua NP
who-erg write aux book

DEP P X 0
Prb[Fwh ]
N’

t

N’
N
liburuabook

Next, the complex-DP moves to [Spec, TypP] of the matrix clause, where it satisfies
an EPPXP feature in the matrix Typ, and its wh-feature values a probe in Typ via
a Spec-head relation, as shown below.

288

(40)

TypP[+wh]DP1[Fwh ]nork idatzi zuen liburua
who-erg write aux book

Typ’
TP

Typ
Prb[Fwh ]t1 irakurri du Perukread aux Peter-erg
There is no movement of a wh-element out of a complex-DP, and thus the example iswell-formed. (37b) is ill-formed because the wh-phrase moves out of a renumerated
adjunct clause contained within the complex-DP.
Also of interest is that in Basque, a whether/if -clause cannot be moved to circumvent an island effect, as shown in (41a-b). Ill-formedness results regardless ofwhether the island moves (41a), or only the wh-phrase moves out of the island (41b).
(41) Basque:(a) *[Nor etorrko d-en] galdetu duzu?
whocome
aux-Q asked aux‘Who have you asked whether t has come?’(b) *Nor galdetu duzu [etorriko d-en]?
who
asked aux comeaux-Q
‘Who have you asked whether t has come?’ (Ortiz de Urbina
1990:199-200, per Richards 2000:195)
The ill-formedness of this type of construction likely has the same cause as inJapanese. A wh-phrase cannot also be an interrogative clause (see (24) above).
7.3.2 Tlingit
Another language that appears to have overt pied-piping that can circumvent anisland effect is Tlingit, which, as discussed in chapter 6.4, is a language with overt

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wh-movement and an overt Qu-morpheme. In (42) (originally given as (44) inchapter 6.4), I assume that the wh-phrase daa is in [Spec, TypP] and the Qumorpheme sá is in Typ.
(42) Tlingit:
Daa sá kéetax/’a?
what Qu killerwhale he.eats.it‘What do killerwhales eat?’ (Cable 2007:64)
Cable (2007) shows that island effects occur in Tlingit when a Qu-morpheme
is contained within a potential island, such as a complex-DP, but are absent when
the Qu-morpheme is at the edge of the potential island. As Cable notes, this issimilar to what one finds in Sinhala and Okinawan (see chapter 6.3). Example (43a)demonstrates that a wh-phrase can occur inside of a complex-DP that has fronted
to the beginning of a clause, and that is followed by a Qu-morpheme. (43b-c) showthat the Qu-morpheme cannot occur within the complex-DP, neither adjacent tonor separated from the wh-phrase.
(43) Tlingit:
tuwáa sigóo?
(a) [DP Wáa kligéiyixáat] sá i
how it.is.big.REL fish Qu your spirit it.is.happy‘How big a fish do you want?’ (A fish that is how big do you want?)(b) *[DP Wáa sá kligéiyixáat] ituwáa sigóo?
how Qu it.is.big.REL fish your spirit it.is.happy
tuwáa sigóo?
(c) *[DP [Wáa kligéiyi]
sá xáat] i
howit.is.big.REL Qu fish your spirit it.is.happy(Cable 2007:79)
Cable (2007) proposes that a Qu-morpheme is the head of what he refers to asa QP projection (not to be confused with a Quantifier Phrase), and that the Qumorpheme has a wh-phrasal complement. Thus, a wh-phrase and a Qu-morpheme

290

are base generated together. The Qu element of the QP, not the wh-phrase, isattracted to [Spec, CP]. The wh-phrase fronts with the Qu-morpheme since it iscontained within the QP.
As I see it, the Tlingit data can be accounted for in another manner. Cable
views the Qu-morpheme as always being base generated in a position adjacent to awh-phrase. However, I take the fact that a Qu-morpheme can appear in a position
separate from a wh-phrase to be evidence that this is not the case. Rather, a Qumorpheme by default is Merged directly in Typ, and a wh-phrase raises from a TPinternal position to [Spec, TypP]. Wh-phrasal movement is motivated by an EPPXP
feature in Typ. An advantage of my proposal is that it accounts for both yes/no andwh-constructions. In both types of interrogatives, a Qu-morpheme is Merged in Typ.
Cable’s proposal that a Qu-morpheme is always Merged in a position adjacent to awh-phrase requires that a yes/no Qu-morpheme appear in a different position thana Qu-morpheme that appears in a wh-construction; i.e., a yes/no Qu-morpheme
is Merged at the edge of the clause, but a Qu-morpheme that appears in a whconstruction is Merged TP-internally. However, as I see it, the Qu-morpheme inboth a yes/no and a wh-construction is the same type of element, and is Merged inexactly the same position.
Wh-phrasal movement accounts for the lack of island effects in (43a). As shownin (44), an EPPXP feature in the Typ head of the adjunct clause attracts the whphrase to [Spec, TypP]. A Spec-head relation between the wh-phrase and Typ turns
the TypP into a wh-phrase.

291

(44)

TypP[+wh]
DP1

Typ’

wáa[Fwh ]how

TP

TypEP P XP
Prb[Fwh ]t1 kligéiyi
it.is.big.REL
Next, the adjunct clause TypP raises to the specifier of the complex-DP. Again,a spec-head relation between the moved adjunct clause and the D head turns thecomplex-DP into a wh-phrase, as shown in (47).
(45)

DP[+wh]TypP[Fwh ]wáa kligéiyi
how it.is.big.REL

D’NP

DEP P X 0
Prb[Fwh ]
N’

t

N’
N
xáat
fish

Lastly, the complex-DP, which is now a wh-phrase, raises to the specifier of thematrix TypP.

292

(46)

TypP
DP1[Fwh ]Typ’

wáa kligéiyi xáat
how it.is.big.REL fishTP

Typsá[FQu ] , Prb[Fwh ]t1 i tuwáa sigóoyour spirit it.is.happy
In this manner, there is no movement of a wh-element out of a potential island;rather, the potential island (the adjunct clause contained within the complex-DP)
moves, thus circumventing an island effect.
The fact that the Qu-morpheme must follow the complex-DP, as in (43a), is also
accounted for. The complex-DP is in [Spec, TypP], and the Qu-morpheme is in
Typ. If the Qu-morpheme occurs within the complex-DP, as in examples (43b-c),
ill-formedness results because the Qu-morpheme is not in Typ, but rather within awh-phrase that is in [Spec, TypP], and the Qu-morpheme must appear in Typ totype the clause.
7.3.3 English
English is also a language with overt wh-phrasal movement. However, unlike inBasque and Tlingit, an island effect cannot be circumvented.
Examples (47a-c) show a wh-phrase that originates in a complex-DP.
(47)(a) *Who1 did you read [DP books [that t1 wrote]]?
(b) *[DP Books [that who wrote]]1 did you read t1 ?
(c) *[DP Who2 books [that t1 wrote]]2 did you read t1 ?

In (47a), the wh-phrase moves out of a complex-DP, thereby resulting in illformedness. To determine if a wh-feature can turn a complex-DP into a wh-phrase

293

and circumvent an island effect, it is necessary to examine whether or not a complexDP can be moved to clause-initial position. Example (47b) is alright as an echoquestion, but ill-formed as a wh-question. It would not be fine if one were asking forthe name of the author of a book. Thus, movement of a wh-feature cannot turn acomplex-DP into a wh-phrase and circumvent an island effect. Example (47c) is one
in which the wh-phrase has moved to the initial position of the complex-DP and thecomplex-DP has moved to the initial position of the matrix clause. Unlike in Basqueand Tlingit, in which movement of a wh-phrase within a complex-DP can circumvent a potential island effect, this clearly is not an option in English. Movementof the wh-phrase within the complex-DP and further movement of the complex-DP
results in utter gibberish. Movement of a wh-phrase within a complex-DP therefore
cannot turn the complex-DP into a larger wh-phrase.
The facts are identical with other types of clauses that function as islands. Examples (48a-c) show constructions with an adjunct clause.
(48)(a) *What1 did things go well [T ypP because he bought t1 ]?
(b) *[T ypP Because he bought what]1 did things go well t1 ?
(c) *[T ypP What2 because he bought t2 ]1 did things go well t1 ?

Examples (49a-c) show a wh-phrase contained within a whether/if clause.
(49)(a) *What1 does he remember [T ypP whether she ate t1 ] ?
(b) *[T ypP Whether she ate what]1 does he remember t1 ?
(c) *[T ypP What2 whether she ate t2 ]1 does he remember t1 ?

Movement of the potential island cannot circumvent an island effect in English.
In English, the inability for wh-phrasal movement to circumvent an island effectindicates that the head of a potential island cannot contain an EPP feature that
attracts a wh-element.

294

7.4 Conclusion
In summary, languages such as Japanese, Korean, Basque, and Tlingit allow movement of a wh-element, either a wh-feature or a wh-phrase, to circumvent a potential
island effect. In Japanese and Korean, movement of a wh-feature to the head of aclause that is a potential island turns the clause into a wh-phrase. In Basque andTlingit, movement of a wh-phrase to the specifier of a clause that is a potential island
turns the clause into a wh-phrase. Once this clause becomes a wh-phrase, there iseither movement of a wh-feature from it (in Japanese and Korean), or movement of
the entire clause (Basque and Tlingit). Since this movement does not pass throughan island, it is well-formed and an island effect is avoided.
Other languages such as Persian and English do not allow movement of a whelement to circumvent an island effect. I proposed that this is because the headsof these potential islands simply cannot contain an EPP feature that attracts a
wh-element.
I next turn to a discussion of constructions in which there are multiple whphrases.

295

CHAPTER 8
Multiple wh-constructions

8.1 Introduction
Many languages allow multiple wh-constructions in which multiple wh-phrases havescope and, presumably, multiple wh-features establish a relationship with Typ. The
facts regarding multiple wh-constructions are extraordinarily complicated, with respect to which wh-phrases can occur where, scope relations, island effects, intervention effects, etc. (for example, see Richards (2001)). Due to lack of space, I leave
most of these issues aside and focus on answering the following question: How do
multiple wh-phrases establish scope in a single clause within the system outlinedin this work? I also briefly examine why there are languages which do not allow
multiple wh-constructions.
The organization of this chapter is as follows. Section 8.2 discusses languages inwhich all wh-features form an Agree relation with Typ. I next discuss multiple whconstructions in Japanese and English in sections 8.3 and 8.4, respectively. I argue
that in these languages, movement of an initial wh-element to Typ allows a probe
in Typ to form an Agree relation with another wh-element. Section 8.5 discusses
previous analyses of the multiple wh-construction facts in Japanese and English
and compares them with the analysis presented here. Section 8.6 discusses multiple
wh-constructions in Persian, a language that does not pattern with Japanese or
English with respect to multiple wh-constructions. Section 8.7 examines languages
that disallow multiple wh-constructions altogether. Section 8.8 is the conclusion.

296

8.2 Agree languages
Sinhala and Mandarin are languages that allow multiple wh-constructions. (1) is an
example from Sinhala in which there are two wh-phrases in a matrix clause.
(1)

Sinhala:Kiidenek pot
kiiyakgatta
d@?
how many books how many bought Qu‘How many people bought how many books?’ (Sumangala 1992:236, per
Hagstrom 1998:66)

Example (2) from Mandarin also shows that multiple wh-phrases can have scope ina single clause.
(2)

Mandarin:
Shei mai-leshenme (ne)?
who buy-asp what
Qu
‘Who bought what?’ (Cheng 1997:106)
In chapter 6.2, I claimed that in these languages, a wh-feature froms an Agreerelation with a probe in Typ. Evidence is the lack of island effects in single whconstructions. In a multiple wh-construction, evidence suggests that the probe in
Typ can form an Agree relation with multiple wh-features.
Evidence that Agree is at work is that in a multiple wh-construction, none of
the wh-phrases are subject to island effects. In the Sinhala example (3) below,
both kaaT@ ‘who’ and mokak ‘what’ have matrix scope even though the wh-phrase
mokak ‘what’ is contained within a potential island because of the c-commanding
wh-phrase koheedi ‘where.’ This example is fine as long as the Qu-morpheme isoutside of the embedded clause, indicating that koheedi ‘where’ does not prevent
mokak ‘what’ from obtaining matrix scope.1
1

See chapter 5.5 for discussion of the Qu-morpheme and island effects in Sinhala wh-constructions.

297

(3)

Sinhala:KaaT@ [api koheedi mokak gatta
kiyala] mat@k@d@?
who
we where whatbuy-past that
remember Qu‘Who remembers where we bought what?’ (Sumangala 1992:183)

In the Mandarin (4), according to Richards (2001), the lowest wh-phrase shei3 ‘who,’
which is contained within a potential wh-island, can have matrix scope together withthe highest shei1 ‘who’; an answer refers to both the lowest and highest shei ‘who.’
Therefore, shei2 ‘who’ within the embedded clause does not prevent the lowest shei3‘who’ from having matrix scope.
(4)

Mandarin:
Shei1 xiang-zhidao [shei2 sha-leshei3 ]?
who
want-know who
kill-perf who‘Who wants to know who killed who?’ (Richards 2001:248)

The fact that a wh-phrase can occur in an embedded clause of this sort without
resulting in an island effect indicates that Typ forms an Agree relation with its
wh-feature.
I propose that in multiple wh-constructions in these languages, a Typ head forms
an Agree relation with multiple wh-features. For example, in the Mandarin example(2) above, the wh-feature associated with shei ‘who’ forms an Agree relation withthe probe in Typ and then the wh-feature associated with shenme ‘what’ also forms
an Agree relation with the probe in Typ. A diagram is shown below. Agree is notsensitive to island effects because there is no movement of a wh-element.

298

(5)

TypP
Typ’
TP

Typ
Prb[Fwh1 ,Fwh2 ]shei[Fwh1 ] mai-le shenme[Fwh2 ]who bought what
In this manner, in certain wh-in-situ languages, a single Typ head is able toundergo an Agree relation with multiple wh-features. I next turn to languages inwhich there is wh-feature movement.
8.3 Wh-feature movement followed by Agree: JapaneseJapanese allows multiple wh-constructions such as (6) below.
(6)

Japanese:
Dare-ga nani-okatta no?
who-nom what-acc Qu‘Who bought what?’

In chapter 6.3, I argued that in a single wh-construction in Japanese, a wh-featureassociated with an in-situ wh-phrase raises to Typ. In a multiple wh-construction,
there are two possibilities for how the secondary wh-phrase obtains scope. One isthat its wh-feature moves to Typ and the other is that its wh-feature forms an Agreerelation with a probe in Typ. Evidence indicates that Agree is at work.
Watanabe (1992a) shows that the addition of a wh-phrase outside of a potential
island can eliminate an island effect in Japanese. Following Saito (1994) and Tanaka(1997), I refer to this phenomenon as an ‘additional wh-effect.’ The marginality of(7a) is attributed to an island effect since nani-o ‘what-acc’ is contained within a299

whether/if -clause. When the wh-phrase dare-ni ‘who-dat’ is added outside of thewhether/if -clause in (7b), ill-formedness disappears.
(7)(a) ??John-wa [Mary-ga nani-okattakadooka] Tom-ni
John-top Mary-nom what-acc bought whether Tom-dat
tazuneta no?
asked
Qu‘What1 did John ask Tom [whether Mary bought t1 ]?’(b) John-wa [Mary-ga nani-okattakadooka] dare-ni
John-top Mary-nom what-acc bought whether who-dat
tazuneta no?
Qu
asked‘Who did John ask [whether Mary bought what]?’ (Watanabe
1992a:263)
The marginality of (7a) is accounted for as discussed in chapter 6.3. An EPPX

0

feature in the matrix Typ is unable to attract the wh-feature associated with nani-o‘what-acc’ due to the intervening kadooka ‘whether’ in the embedded Typ head,
thereby resulting in an MLC violation.
0

I propose that the well-formedness of (7b) is due to the fact that the EPPX feature in Typ has been satisfied and eliminated. That is, the wh-feature of the matrix
wh-phrase dare-ni ‘who-acc’ moves to the matrix Typ head where it eliminates the0

EPPX feature, as shown in (8) below; the slashes through the EPP feature indicatethat it has been eliminated.
(8)

TypP
Typ’
TP

TypE/ P/ P/ X 0
Prb+Fwh1,no[FQu ]John-wa . . . dare-ni+t[Fwh1 ] tazuneta no
John-top . . . who-dat asked Qu

300

0

Once the EPPX feature is eliminated, the Typ head is able to form an Agree relation
with the wh-feature of the wh-phrase contained within the island, as shown in (9).
(9)

TypP
Typ’
TP
...

Typ
Prb[Fwh2 ] +Fwh1,no[FQu ]TPMary-ga nani-o[Fwh2 ] katta kadooka
Mary-nom what-acc bought whether
In this manner, the probe in the matrix Typ is valued by two wh-features, thereby
giving two wh-phrases scope. An initial wh-feature moves to the probe and a second
wh-feature forms an Agree relation with it.
This same additional wh-effect can be seen with respect to intervention effects in
0Japanese. Example (10a) is ill-formed because the EPPX feature in the matrix Typis unable to attract the wh-feature associated with nani-o ‘what-acc’ due to theintervening sika ‘only,’ thereby resulting in an MLC violation. However, when a whphrase is added to the matrix clause, the intervention effect disappears, as shown in(10b), in which both the matrix and embedded wh-phrases can have matrix scope.2(10)2(a) ?*Taroo-wa [Hanako-sika nani-oyoma-nai to]
Taroo-top Hanako-only what-acc read-neg compTomoko-ni
itta no?
Tomoko-dat told Qu‘What did Taroo tell Tomoko that only Hanako read?’

I gloss sika as ‘only’ but Tanaka (1997) glosses it as ‘Foc.’

301(b) Taroo-wa [Hanako-sika nani-oyoma-nai to]dare-niTaroo-top Hanako-only what-acc read-neg comp who-dat
itta no?
told Qu‘Who did Taroo tell Tomoko that only Hanako read what?’ (Tanaka
1997:165)
In the well-formed (10b), the wh-feature associated with the matrix wh-phrase dare0ni ‘who-dat’ raises to Typ where it satisfies and eliminates the EPPX feature, as
shown below.
(11)

TypP
Typ’
TP

TypE/ P/ P/ X 0
Prb+Fwh1 ,no[FQu ]Taroo-wa . . . dare-ni+twhF 1 itta no
Taroo-top . . . who-dat told Qu
0Since the EPPX feature is no longer present, a probe in the matrix Typ head isable to Agree with the lower wh-feature associated with nani-o ‘what-acc.’ Since
this is an Agree relation, the intervening sika ‘only’ does not cause an intervention
effect. Agree is sensitive to feature content. There is no MLC violation because theprobe in Typ searches for a wh-feature and is not sensitive to intervening elementsof a similar type. A simplified diagram is shown in (12).

302

(12)

TypP
Typ’
...

Typ
Prb[Fwh2 ] +Fwh1,no[FQu ]

TypP
...
QuantP
Quant’TP
Hanako-sika+t[FQuant ]Hanako-only

Quant
Probe[FQuant ]
T’

vP

T

nani-o[whF 2] . . .
what-ACC
0

Thus, in Japanese, movement of a higher wh-feature eliminates an EPPX feature,
thereby allowing a probe in Typ to Agree with a lower wh-feature.
8.4 Wh-phrasal movement followed by Agree: English
In chapter 6.4, I argued that in a single wh-construction in English, an EPPXP
feature in Typ forces movement of a wh-phrase to [Spec, TypP]. As is well-known,
only one wh-phrase undergoes movement in English. Therefore, the EPPXP featureclearly cannot attract multiple wh-phrases. For example, (13a-b), in which bothwh-phrases have moved (assuming that a subject wh-phrase moves in English - seechapter 5.3), are ill-formed. The correct way to form this construction requires thatthe lower wh-phrase remain in-situ, as in (13c).

303

(13)

(a) *Who1 what2 t1 bought t2 ?
(b) *What2 who1 t1 bought t2 ?
(c) Who1 t1 bought what?

In English, a second wh-phrase then is able to obtain scope without overt movement.
The facts indicate that, as in Japanese, the wh-feature of this second wh-phrase
forms an Agree relation with a probe in Typ.
Mulitiple wh-constructions in English show additional wh-effects, just like inJapanese. Example (14a) is ill-formed due to the inability of the EPPXP feature in
the matrix Typ to attract what. The intervening wh-phrase who results in an MLC
violation. However, example (14b) with an additional wh-phrase in the matrix clauseis fine.
(14)(a) *What1 do you wonder [who bought t1 ]?
(b) Who1 t1 wonders [who bought what]? (Brody 1995, per Richards
1998:600)

The well-formedness of (14b) suggests that the wh-feature associated with the matrix
who eliminates an EPPXP feature in Typ, thereby allowing Typ to form an Agreerelation with the wh-feature of what in the embedded clause. Since this is an Agreerelation, what is able to have matrix scope despite being inside of a potential whisland. As shown in (15), the higher wh-phrase raises to [Spec, TypP], where it
satisfies and eliminates an EPPXP feature.

304

(15)
TypP
DP1

Typ’

who[Fwh1 ] TypE/ P/ P/ XP
Prb[Fwh1 ] ,∅F[Qu]

TP

t1

T’
T

vP
t1

v’
v
wonders...

Since the EPP feature is eliminated, the probe in Typ is able to form an Agreerelation with the wh-feature of the wh-phrase what that is contained within theembedded wh-island, as shown below.
(16)

TypP
DP1

Typ’

who[Fwh1 ]Typ
Prb[Fwh1 ,Fwh2 ] ,∅F[Qu]

TP
...
TypP

who bought what[Fwh2 ]In this manner, the probe in Typ is valued by multiple wh-features.
The following examples demonstrate the same phenomenon with a complex-DP.
In (17a), which car moves out of a complex-DP, resulting in ill-formedness since
the relative clause has been renumerated. In (17b), the matrix clause contains an

305

additional wh-phrase who. Although which car remains in-situ, it can have matrix
scope, indicating that the DP-island effect has disappeared.
(17)(a) *[Which car]1 did John persuade [DP the man who bought t1 ] to sell
the hubcaps?
(b) Who1 t1 persuaded [DP the man who bought which car] to sell the
hubcaps? (Richards 1998:605)

The well-formedness of (17b) results from the addition of a wh-phrase to the matrix
clause. In this case, the matrix wh-phrase who raises to [Spec, TypP] where it eliminates the EPPXP feature. Then the probe in Typ is able to form an Agree relation
with the wh-feature associated with which car contained within the complex-DP.
8.5 Previous analyses of additional wh-effects
I have argued that in Japanese and English, once an initial wh-element (a whfeature in Japanese, and a wh-phrase in English) moves to TypP, the EPP featureis eliminated, and a probe in Typ can form an Agree relation with another whfeature. This analysis thus accounts for additional wh-effects, as in (7a-b), (10a-b),(14a-b), and (17a-b), whereby an additional wh-phrase that c-commands an island orintervening quantificational element improves the well-formedness of a construction.
My analysis notably differs from other analyses.
Huang (1982) argues that LF movement is not subject to Subjacency (see chapter
2.6.1 for discussion of Subjacency) but overt movement is. For example, (18a) is illformed because there is overt movement of the wh-phrase who out of a complex-DP.
In (18b), the wh-phrase who contained within the complex-DP has matrix scope
together with the matrix who. Huang argues that this is fine because the lower whomoves at LF.
(18)(a) *Who1 do you like [books that criticize t1 ]?

306(b) Who likes [books that criticize who]? (Huang 1982:492)
Watanabe (1992b) follows Huang’s (1982) notion that LF movement is not subject to island effects, despite the apparent existence of island effects in wh-in-situ
languages such as Japanese. The difference between Japanese and English, Watanabe argues, is that Japanese wh-phrases have a null wh-operator, whereas English
wh-phrases do not. Both overt wh-movement in English and overt null wh-operator
movement in Japanese are subject to Subjacency.
Constructions such as (7a-b), repeated below, are accounted for by Watanabe as
follows.
(7)(a) ??John-wa [Mary-ga nani-okattakadooka] Tom-ni
John-top Mary-nom what-acc bought whether Tom-dat
tazuneta no?
asked
Qu‘What1 did John ask Tom [whether Mary bought t1 ]?’(b) John-wa [Mary-ga nani-okattakadooka] dare-ni
John-top Mary-nom what-acc bought whether who-dat
tazuneta no?
asked
Qu‘Who did John ask [whether Mary bought what]?’ (Watanabe
1992a:263)

In (7a), a null operator associated with nani-o ‘what-acc’ moves overtly out of theembedded clause to [Spec, CP]. This movement passes over two bounding nodes,
and therefore violates Subjacency. In (7b), on the other hand, the null wh-operator
associated with dare-ni ‘who-dat’ in the matrix clause raises to the matrix [Spec,CP]. Then the wh-phrase nani-o ‘what-acc’ moves at LF out of the embedded
clause and adjoins to the operator in the matrix [Spec, CP] position. Since thismovement is at LF, it is not subject to island effects. Crucially, Watanabe assumes
that if [Spec, CP] is filled at S-structure, then movement of another wh-phrase to[Spec, CP] can occur at LF.

307

Tanaka (1997) similarly accounts for additional wh-effects in terms of null whoperator movement. Whereas Watanabe discusses island effects, Tanaka focuses onintervention effects, as in (10a-b), repeated below.
(10) Japanese(a) ?Taroo-wa [Hanako-sika nani-oyoma-nai to]
Tomoko-ni
Taroo-top Hanako-only what-acc read-neg comp Tomoko-dat
itta no?
told Qu‘What did Taroo tell Tomoko that only Hanako read?’(b) Taroo-wa [Hanako-sika nani-oyoma-nai to]dare-niTaroo-top Hanako-only what-acc read-neg comp who-dat
itta no?
told Qu‘Who did Taroo tell Tomoko that only Hanako read what?’ (Tanaka
1997:165)
Tanaka’s analysis relies on the notion that intervention effects arise in a construction such as (10a) because a null operator associated with NPI sika ‘only’ blocks
movement of the null wh-operator associated with nani-o ‘what-acc.’ In (10b) thenull wh-operator associated with dare-ni ‘who-dat’ in the matrix clause moves to[Spec, CP] at S-structure. Then the wh-phrase in the embedded clause moves at
LF to the matrix [Spec, CP]. Since this movement is at LF, it is not blocked by theoperator associated with sika ‘only.’
My proposal has the advantage of not relying on LF movement nor on null whoperator movement. Huang (1982), Watanabe (1992b), and Tanaka (1997) all relyon the notion that LF movement of a wh-phrase is not subject to island effects. A
problem for this view is that it is not clear why LF movement should be so special
and not subject to island effects. Under my proposal, there is no recourse to LF
movement. An island effect does not occur when a probe can form an Agree relation with a wh-feature, and this Agree relation occurs before Spell-Out. Watanabe

308(1992b) and Tanaka (1997) also rely on the notion that in Japanese wh-constructions
there is movement of a null wh-operator. However, the same facts can be accounted
for as resulting from movement of a wh-feature, without recourse to the notion ofnull wh-operator movement.
Richards (1998, 2001) takes a different view of these additional wh-effects. He
relies on what he refers to as the “Principle of Minimal Compliance,” which is thenotion ‘that a given constraint only has to be satisfied once in a certain domain(Richards 2001:197).” The Principle of Minimal Compliance applies to a wide variety of phenomena, such as reflexivity, weak crossover, VP-ellipses, etc. Richards(2001:607) writes that “it appears to be true quite generally that in cases involving
multiple wh-movement to a single wh- complementizer, only the first-moved wh-wordwill have to obey Subjacency; the other wh-movements are free from Subjacency.”
When there is an additional wh-effect, as in (7b) and (10b), movement of an initialwh-phrase to [Spec, CP] is well-formed and obeys Subjacency. Thus, Subjacency
can be ignored with respect to movement of a lower wh-phrase.
My analysis on the one hand, makes no recourse to the notion that once a constraint is satisfied, it may be ignored. However, it may be that my analysis iscompatible with Richard’s proposal in the sense that it explains why the Principle of Minimal Compliance holds with respect to wh-constructions. According toRichards, well formed movement of a wh-element that does not violate an islandeffect allows movement to occur that is not subject to an island effect. As I see it,
well-formed movement of a wh-element eliminates an EPP feature, and allows an
Agree relation which would not normally be allowed. Thus, my analysis accounts
for why a particular constraint that results in island effects can be ameiliorated.
In summary, unlike my analysis, other proposals rely on the notion that LF
movement is not subject to island effects, movement of a null wh-operator, and thePrinciple of Minimal Compliance. Rather, I claim that additional wh-effects result
from movement of a wh-element that eliminates an EPP feature in Typ and from309

the ability of a probe in Typ to form an Agree relation with another wh-feature.
8.6 Multiple wh-feature movement
Persian also allows multiple wh-constructions, as in (19) below.
(19) Persian
Ki chi-ro xarid?
who whatbought-3sg‘Who bought what?’ (Karimi 2005:145)
In chapter 6.3, I claimed that Persian is a language in which there is wh-feature0

movement driven by an EPPX feature in Typ. Evidence suggests that unlike inJapanese and English, the wh-feature of a secondary wh-phrase undergoes feature
movement, and there is no Agree relation. This is because unlike Japanese andEnglish, Persian does not show additional wh-effects.
Example (20) demonstrates an island effect in Persian resulting from blockingof wh-feature movement from chi ‘what’ by ke ‘that’ in the embedded clause.3
This is ill-formed under the interpretation in which the wh-phrase chi ‘what’ has0matrix scope.4 Under my analysis, an EPPX feature in the matrix Typ is unable
to attract the wh-feature associated with chi ‘what’ in the embedded clause becauseof the intervening complementizer ke ‘that.’(20) *Parviz az Kimea porsid [ke Maryam chi xarid]?
Parviz of Kimea asked that Maryam what bought
Intended: ‘What did Parviz ask Kimea whether Maryam bought?’ (Simin
Karimi, p.c.)3Note that this is not quite identical to a whether/if island effect as ke is a complementizer

that can appear in both statements and interrogative constructions, whereas the English whether
and if cannot be used with statements.
4
This is fine as an echo question if chi ‘what’ has strong stress (Simin Karimi, p.c.).

310

Example (21a) corresponds to (20) above, except that there is an additional whphrase ki ‘who’ outside of the whether/if -clause. Accoring to Simin Karimi (p.c.),(21a) is well-formed as a wh-construction, but only the matrix wh-phrase is answered, as indicated by the response in (21b). A response such as that in (21c)is ill-formed because the embedded wh-phrase cannot have matrix scope, whichindicates that the embedded wh-phrase is subject to an island effect.
(21)(a) Q: Parviz az ki
porsid [ke Maryam chi xarid]?
Parviz of who asked that Maryam what bought‘Who did Parviz ask whether Maryam bought what?’ (Simin
Karimi, p.c.)(b) A: Az Kimea porsid.
of Kimea asked‘He/she asked Kimea’(c) A: *Be Kimea porsid ke
Maryam book xarid
toKimea asked that Maryam book bought‘He/she asked Kimea if Maryam bought a book.’Thus, the addition of a wh-phrase outside of an island in Persian does not alleviate
an island effect. I propose that in Persian, once a wh-feature moves to Typ to00satisfy the EPPX feature, the EPPX feature is still active and it still attracts
other wh-features.
The island effect in (21) can then be accounted for as follows. The wh-featureassociated with the higher wh-phrase ki ‘who’ raises to Typ to satisfy the EPPX

00

feature. The EPPX feature remains active so that the wh-feature associated withthe lower wh-phrase chi ‘what’ contained within the whether/if -clause also mustmove to the matrix Typ to obtain scope. This wh-feature movement, though, isblocked by ke ‘that’ in the embedded clause. A diagram of the embedded clause isshown below in (22).

311

(22)

TypP
Typ’
...

TypEP P X 0

TypP
Typ’
Typ
ke
that
*

TP
Maryam chi+[Fwh ] xarid
Maryam what bought

Evidence from intervention effects similarly shows that all wh-features move in a
multiple wh-construction. Example (23) shows an intervention effect because faghat‘only’ blocks wh-feature movement from chi ‘what’ to the matrix Typ, thereby
resulting in ill-formedness as a wh-construction. This is fine as a yes/no construction.
(23) *Parviz be Kimea goft [ke faghat Maryam chi xund-e]?
Parviz to Kimea said that only
Maryam what read-has‘What did Parviz tell Kimea that only Maryam read?’ (Simin Karimi, p.c.)
The addition of a wh-phrase to the matrix clause, as in (24a) below, again does notallow an intervention effect to be eliminated. The answer in (24b) in which only thematrix wh-phrase is answered is fine. But the answer in (24c) is ill-formed because
the embedded wh-phrase cannot have matrix scope.
(24)(a) Q: Parviz be ki
goft [ke faghat Maryam chi xund-e]?
Taroto who said that only
Maryam what read-has‘Who did Parviz tell that only Maryam read what?’(b) A: Be Kimea goft.
to Kimea said
‘He told Kimea.’

312(c) A: *Be Kimea goftkefaghat Arezu book xund-eto
Kimea asked that only
Arezu book read-has‘He told Kimea that only Arezu read a book.’ (Simin Karimi, p.c)
Again, movement of the wh-feature associated with the matrix wh-phrase, in thiscase ki ‘who,’ to the matrix Typ does not eliminate an EPP feature, and thus
the wh-feature associated with the wh-phrase in the embedded clause is subject tointervention effects.
The Persian data then show that in a multiple wh-construction, all wh-features
must move to Typ. In a construction such as (19), repeated below, each wh-feature
raises to the matrix Typ, giving its associated wh-phrase scope.
(19) Persian:
Ki chi-ro xarid?
who whatbought-3sg‘Who bought what?’ (Karimi 2005:145)
This multiple wh-feature movement can be seen in (25).

313

(25)

TypP
Typ’
TP
T’

DP1
ki+tFwh1
who

TypEP P X 0
Prb+Fwh1,Fwh2

vP

t1

T
v’

DP
chi-ro+tFwh2
what

v
xarid
bought-3sg

Evidence for multiple wh-feature movement is supported by the fact that only
a pair-list reading is possible in multiple wh-constructions. For example, Karimi(2005:146) writes the following about an answer to (19).
The answer to [(19)] is something like: ‘Kimea bought a dress, Rahjue ahat, and I bought Chomsky’s book on 9-11.’ A single-listing interpretation
is not an option, indicating that all wh-features must move to C.
On this point I agree, all wh-features move to Typ.
In an example such as (25), note that the wh-feature Fwh1 associated withki ‘who’ does not block movement of the wh-feature Fwh2 associated with chi-ro‘what.’ This fact can be accounted for if movement of a wh-feature does not leave a
trace/copy, and thus there is no trace/copy of the higher wh-feature to block movement of the lower wh-feature. Since the higher wh-feature moves to Typ first, andit does not leave a trace/copy, the lower wh-feature can raise freely to Typ.

314

In summary, in Persian, unlike in Japanese, movement of a wh-feature to Typdoes not ameliorate an EPP feature. An EPP feature remains active even if a
wh-feature has moved to it.
8.7 Languages that disallow multiple wh-constructions
There are languages that completely disallow multiple wh-constructions. In theselanguages, multiple wh-phrases cannot have scope in a single clause.5 For example,
multiple wh-constructions do not occur in Scottish Gaelic, as shown below. This is
ill-formed as a wh-construction in which both wh-phrases have scope.
(26) Scottish Gaelic:*Có abha
a’ pógadh có?
who C-rel be-past kissing
who‘Who kissed who?’ (Adger & Ramchand 2005:183)
Nor do they occur in Irish.
(27) Irish:(a) *Cé aLrinne caidé?
who comp did
what‘Who did what?’thug sé do cé?
(b) *Caidé aLcomp gave he to who
what‘What did he give to whom?’
5Note that multiple wh-phrases may occur in a single clause if a lower wh-phrase receives anecho question interpretation, but in this case, this is not a multiple wh-construction, as multiple
wh-phrases do not have scope in a single clause.

315(c) *Cé aLbhı́ ag caintlecé?
who comp was at talking with who‘Who was talking to who(m)?’ (McCloskey 1979:71)
Similarly, they are banned in Italian.
(28)(a) *Chi ha scritto che cosa?
Who has written what?’(b) *Chi è partito quando?
‘Who left when?
(c) *Quale ragazza ha dato un bacio a quale ragazzo?
‘Which girl gave a kiss to which boy?’ (Calabrese 1984, per Dayal 2005)

In languages such as Scottish Gaelic, Irish, and Italian, the fact that multiple
wh-constructions are banned suggests that the probe in Typ is unable to form a
relationship with multiple wh-features. First of all, in these languages, which all
require wh-phrasal movement, the probe in Typ is valued by the wh-feature of afronted wh-phrase that moves to satisfy an EPPXP feature. I propose that in theselanguages, once the Probe in Typ is valued, it is eliminated. Thus, it is not available
to be valued by any other wh-features.
There are two types of probes that a language may have in Typ, given in (29a-b).
(29)(a) Probe1 : Remains active once it is valued by a wh-feature.
(b) Probe2 : Eliminated once it is valued by a wh-feature.

Languages such as Sinhala, Mandarin, Japanese, English, and Persian that allow
multiple wh-constructions contain the probe in (29a) which can be valued by multiple wh-features. Languages such as Scottish Gaelic, Irish, and Italian contain theprobe in (29b) which can only be valued once.
Note that all of the languages that disallow multiple wh-constructions are languages with over wh-movement, which I have proposed results from an EPPXP

316

feature in Typ. It is possible that there are other languages that disallow multiple
wh-constructions because the probe in Typ is eliminated once it is initially valued,
but which, unlike the languages discussed here, form wh-constructions via Agreeor wh-feature movement. I suspect that languages of this sort exist, but leave thisissue for further analysis.
8.8 Conclusion
In this chapter. I have examined a few aspects of multiple wh-constructions. I
attempted to show that in languages such as Sinhala and Mandarin, multiple whfeatures can form an Agree relation with Typ. There is no movement of a whelement, and thus, a wh-element is not subject to intervention or island effects evenwhen there are multiple wh-phrases. In languages such as Japanese and English,
movement of an initial wh-element is driven by an EPP feature in Typ. Once thismovement occurs, the probe in Typ is able to form an Agree relation with anotherwh-feature. In languages such as Persian, the EPP feature in Typ remains active
even after an initial wh-feature has moved to it. Therefore, the EPP feature isable to attract other wh-features. Furthermore, in languages that allow multiple
wh-constructions, I proposed that a probe remains active once it is valued by a whfeature; i.e., a probe can be valued by multiple wh-features. However, in languages
that disallow multiple wh-constructions, such as Scottish Gaelic, Irish, and Italian,a probe is eliminated once it is valued by a wh-feature.
The table in (30) summarizes the findings regarding wh-feature movement for
multiple wh-constructions in the languages discussed in this chapter.

317

(30)
Languages
(a)
(b)
(c)

Typ

Sinhala, Mandarin
Japanese
EnglishProbe
Fwh ,Fwh

/P
/ P/
E

X0

Fwh ,FwhXP

Fwh ,Fwh

X0/ P/ P/E(d)PersianEPP

Fwh ,Fwh(e)

Scottish Gaelic,

EPPXP*Fwh ,Fwh

Irish, Italian
In Sinhala and Mandarin multiple wh-constructions (30a), Typ lacks an EPP
feature (or if there is an EPP feature, it does not attract a wh-feature),6 which
results in an Agree relation. The probe Agrees with two wh-features, as shown inthe column labeled Probe. In a Japanese and English multiple wh-construction(30b) and (30c), respectively, the EPP feature attracts an initial wh-feature(Japanese) or wh-phrase (English), and then is eliminated, as represented by theslashes through the EPP feature in the column labeled Typ. A secondary wh-featureor phrase then can form an Agree relation. In a Persian multiple wh-construction0(30d), an EPPX feature is not eliminated, and so every wh-feature must move toTyp. In all of these languages, multiple wh-features can value a probe in Typ. In
Scottish Gaelic, Irish, and Italian, a probe cannot form a relationship with multiple
wh-features, and thus a multiple wh-construction is banned.
Although no languages of this sort have been discussed here, this analysis also
predicts the existence of languages that do not allow multiple wh-constructions, butwhich utilize Agree or wh-feature movement. There could be a language that lacks
an EPP feature in Typ, as in (31a), and thus utilizes Agree, but which does notallow multiple wh-constructions because a Probe cannot be valued by multiple wh6

Note that in Sinhala, if the arguments in chapters 5.4-5.6 and in the previous section of thischapter are correct, then when there is a TP-internal Qu-morpheme, there is an EPP feature in
Typ. However, this EPP feature attracts a Qu-feature and not a wh-feature.

318

features. Also, there could be a language that has wh-feature movement resulting0

from an EPPX feature in Typ, but which does not allow multiple wh-constructions
for the same reason, as shown in (31b).
(31)
Typ

Probe

(a)
(b)

*Fwh ,Fwh
EPPX

0*Fwh ,Fwh

Further typological investigations would be useful for investigating whether
languages of this sort exist.

319

CHAPTER 9
The weird behavior of why

9.1 Introduction
Cross-linguistic evidence shows that words corresponding to why in various languages have different syntactic distributions from other wh-phrases. (1a-d) state
what some of these differences are.
(1)(a) Why is not subject to intervention effects in situations in which otherwh-phrases are subject to these effects.
(b) Why is subject to intervention effects even when other wh-phrases are
not subject to these effects.
(c) Why must appear at the clause periphery even though other wh-phrases
can remain in-situ.
(d) Why is subject to island effects even when other wh-phrases are notsubject to these effects.

An example of (1a) can be seen in Japanese. Although a wh-phrase cannot generally
be c-commanded by a scope bearing element, naze ‘why’ can, as shown below in
(2).
(2)

Japanese:{Taroo-mo/dareka-ga/daremo-ga} naze Boston-osatta no?
Taroo-also/someone-nom/everyone-nom why Boston-acc left Qu‘Why did {Taroo also/someone/everyone} leave Boston?’ (Ko 2005:873)

320

An example of (1b) can be seen in Mandarin, a language in which wh-phrases generally can be c-commanded by a scope bearing element without a resulting intervention
effect. However, when weishenme ‘why’ is c-commanded by chang/ye ‘often/also,’
the result is ill-formed, as shown in (3).
(3)

Mandarin:*Ta {chang/ye} weishenme mata?
he often/also why
scold he‘What is the reason x such that he often/also scolds/scolded him for x?’(Soh 2005:146)

An example of (1c) can be seen in Persian. Although wh-phrases can remain insitu, cherâ ‘why’ cannot. (4a) is ill-formed because cherâ ‘why’ is in a TP-internal
position. (4b) is fine because cherâ ‘why’ appears in the clause periphery.
(4)

Persian:(a) *Ali bâ
Maryam ezdevâj kard
cherâ?
Ali with Maryam marry did.3sg why(b) Ali cherâ1 bâ
Maryam ezdevâj kard
t1 ?
Ali whywith Maryam marry did-3sg‘Why did Ali marry Maryam?’ (Kahnemuyipour 2001:47, per Karimi
2005:139)

An example of (1d) can be seen in Japanese. Although wh-phrases generally are notsubject to complex-DP island effects, naze ‘why’ is, as shown in (5).
(5)

Japanese:*Kimi-wa [DP kare-ga naze kaita hon]-oyomimashita ka?
you-tophe-nom why wrote book-acc readQu
Intended: ‘Why1 did you read [books that he wrote t1 ]?’ (Nishigauchi
1990:41)

321

In this chapter, I discuss the details of this peculiar behavior of why in languages
that fall into each of the categories in (1a-d).
This odd behavior of why has been the subject of much research. Most notably, in
the Government and Binding framework, the behavior of why was often attributed
to the Empty Category Principle (ECP) (cf. Huang (1982) and Lasnik & Saito(1984), among others). Being an adjunct, why needs to be antecedent governed, as
it cannot be lexically governed. A wh-argument, on the other hand, can be either
lexically or antecedent governed. This requirement that why be antecedent governed
can account for differences between the behavior of why and other wh-phrases. One
problem for the ECP analysis is that it predicts that why and all other adjuncts
should behave in the same manner. But this is not the case. Why often behavesdifferently from other wh-adjuncts. Furthermore, the ECP has been abandoned
within the framework of the Minimalist Program.
In this chapter, I examine the behavior of why from the perspective of the Minimalist Program, and attempt to account for the facts described in (1a-d), repeatedbelow.
(1)(a) Why is not subject to intervention effects in situations in which otherwh-phrases are subject to these effects.
(b) Why is subject to intervention effects even when other wh-phrases are
not subject to these effects.
(c) Why must appear at the clause periphery even though other wh-phrases
can remain in-situ.
(d) Why is subject to island effects even when other wh-phrases are notsubject to these effects.

I show that the odd behavior of why described in (1a-c) can be accounted for byadopting a slightly modified version of Ko’s (2005) view that why is base generated

322

in the clause-periphery. I also examine the fact in (1d), but I am unable to offer aclear solution that accounts for the behavior of why in certain island constructions.
The organization of this chapter is as follows. Sections 9.2 and 9.3 present
evidence that why is base generated in [Spec, TypP] of the clause that it modifies.
In section 9.2, I discuss how the notion that why must appear in [Spec, TypP]
provides a straightforward explanation for the the odd behavior of why with respect
to intervention effects. In section 9.3, I discuss how the notion that why is basegenerated in [Spec, TypP] is supported by the fact that in certain languages, whymust appear in the clause periphery in cases in which other wh-phrases can appear
in a TP-internal position. Section 9.4 presents evidence that wh-feature movement
may proceed from why in certain instances. Section 9.5 examines the behavior of
why with respect to island effects. Section 9.6 is the conclusion.
9.2 Why is base generated in [Spec, TypP]In this section, I discuss Ko’s (2005) proposal, which I adopt with a few minorchanges, that in wh-in-situ languages, why is Merged directly in [Spec, CP]. This
proposal provides a nice explanation for the perplexing facts concerning why givenin (1a-b), repeated below.
(1)(a) Why is not subject to intervention effects in situations in which otherwh-phrases are subject to these effects.
(b) Why is subject to intervention effects even when other wh-phrases are
not subject to these effects.

Why is not subject to intervention effects in languages such as Japanese, Korean, andPersian even though other wh-phrases are (1a), whereas why appears to be subject
to intervention effects in languages such as Mandarin in which other wh-phrases arenot (1b).

323

9.2.1 Japanese, Korean, and Persian
In Japanese, Korean, and Persian, wh-phrases are generally subject to intervention
effects, as discussed in chapter 6.3. These intervention effects can be seen in (6ab) (originally (25a-b) in chapter 6.3) from Japanese, (7a-b) (originally (26a-b) inchapter 6.3) from Korean, and (8a-b) (originally (27a-b) in chapter 6.3) from Persian.
In the (a) examples, a wh-phrase is c-commanded by a scope bearing element,
resulting in an intervention effect. In the (b) examples, the wh-phrase appears
higher than the scope bearing element, and the intervention effect disappears.
(6)

Japanese:(a) ?*Taroo-sika nani-oyoma-nai no?
Taroo-only
what-acc read-NEG Qu‘What did only Taro read?’ (Tanaka 1997:159)(b) Nani-o Taroo-sika t1 yoma-nai no?
what-acc Taroo-only
read-NEG Qu‘What did only Taro read?’ (Tanaka 1997:162)(7)

Korean:(a) *Amuto muôs-ûl sa-chi
anh-ass-ni?
anyonewhat-acc buy-CHI not do-past-Qu(b) Muôs-ûl1 amuto t1 sa-chi
anh-ass-ni?
what-acc anyone
buy-CHI not do-past-Qu‘What did no one buy?’ (Beck & Kim 1997:339)(8)

Persian:(a) *Hichkas chi-rona-xarid?
nobodywhat-acc neg-bought

324(b) Chi-ro1 hichkas t1 na-xarid?
what-acc nobody
neg-bought‘What was it that no one bought?’ (Karimi & Taleghani 2007:180)
Ko (2005), following work by Miyagawa (1997b, 1999), Cho (1998), Kuwabara(1998), Watanabe (2000), Lee (2002), and Choi (2003) points out that, surprisingly,
why does not appear to be subject to intervention effects in these languages. For
example, in (9a) (originally presented as (2) above) from Japanese and (9b) from
Korean, why follows a quantificational element, yet this quantificational element
does not cause an intervention effect.
(9)(a) Japanese:{Taroo-mo/dareka-ga/daremo-ga} naze Boston-osatta
Taroo-also/someone-nom/everyone-nom why Boston-acc left
no?
Qu
‘Why did {Taroo also/someone/everyone} leave Boston?’(b) Korean:{John-man/John-to/nwukwunka-ka/nwukwuna-ka} way
John-only/John-also/someone-nom/everyone-nom
why
Boston-ul
tenass-ni?
Boston-acc left-Qu‘Why did {only john/John also/someone/everyone} leave Boston’ (Ko2005:873)

These examples are also fine if why appears above the quantificational element, asshown below.

325

(10)

(a) Japanese:
Naze {Taroo-mo/dareka-ga/daremo-ga} Boston-o
satta
why
Taroo-also/someone-nom/everyone-nom Boston-acc left
no?
Qu
‘Why did {Taroo also/someone/everyone} leave Boston?’(b) Korean:
Way {John-man/John-to/nwukwunka-ka/nwukwuna-ka}
why John-only/John-also/someone-nom/everyone-nom
Boston-ul
tenass-ni?
Boston-acc left-Qu‘Why did {only john/John also/someone/everyone} leave Boston’ (Ko2005:873)

Examples (11a-b) also show that why is not subject to intervention effects in Persian. Cherâ ‘why’ can either precede or follow the quantificational element hichkas‘nobody,’ and the result is fine.
(11)(a) Hichkas cherâ ketâb-ro
na-xarid?
nobodywhy
book-acc NEG-bought(b) Cherâ1 hichkas t1 ketâb-ro
na-xarid?
why
nobodybook-acc NEG-bought‘Why didn’t anyone buy the book?’ (Simin Karimi, p.c.)

These facts raise the obvious question of why why is not subject to intervention
effects in these languages, whereas other wh-phrases are subject to these effects.
Ko (2005) provides an answer by arguing that in Korean and Japanese why “isan adverb which is externally merged (i.e. base-generated) in [Spec,CP] of the clause
it modifies as a CP-modifier (Ko 2005:877).” According to Ko, in (9a-b) there are
no intervention effects because there is no movement of naze ‘why,’ or any element(such as a feature) associated with it. Rather, why is Merged directly in [Spec, CP]

326

and the clause initial scope bearing element appears in a higher position “either by
A’-movement . . . or by being base-generated above (877)” naze ‘why.’ According to
Ko, in (10a-b), in which why precedes the scope bearing element, why is in [Spec,CP] and the scope bearing element is below it. This analysis can also be extended
to account for the Persian data in (11a-b) in the same manner; hichkas ‘why’ is basegenerated in [Spec, TypP] and thus it can be preceded by a scope bearing element
in a FocP.
Adapting Ko’s (2005) analysis to fit with my proposals, the following picture
emerges. In matrix clauses in Japanese, Korean, and also Persian, why is not subject
to intervention effects because it is base generated in [Spec, TypP], a position above
the base position of why. When why precedes the potential intervener, why is in[Spec, TypP] and the intervenor is in a lower position within the TypP, as shown in(12). I refer to the scope bearing potential intervener as a QuantP.
(12)

TypP
AdvP
why[Fwh1 ]

Typ’
TypP

Typ
Prb[Fwh1 ] ,Qu[FQu ]. . . QuantP
Example (13) shows the structure of a construction in which why is preceded by ascope bearing element.

327

(13)

FocP
QuantP1[FQuant ]

Foc’
TypP

AdvP
why[Fwh1 ]Foc
FQuant
Typ’

TP

Typ
Prb[Fwh1 ] ,Qu[FQu ]. . . t1 . . .
Why is in [Spec, TypP], a position higher than the base position of the QuantP.
The quantifier has scrambled to a position above [Spec, TypP] that I have labeled
as FocP.1
9.2.2 Mandarin
The facts in Mandarin are the exact opposite of those in Japanese, Korean, andPersian. Although wh-phrases are not generally subject to intervention effects, as
discussed in chapter 6.2, why is an exception. In example (14) (originally (18) inchapter 6.2), the wh-phrase shenme ‘what’ is c-commanded by the scope bearing
elements zhi ‘only’ or bu ‘not,’ yet there are no intervention effects.
(14) Mandarin:
Ta {zhi/bu} mai shenme?
he only/not sell what
‘What is the thing x such that he {only sells/does not sell} x?’ (Soh2005:147)
1

In chapter 2.5, I proposed a clause structure in which TypP is above FocP, but it it may bethat a FocP can precede, as well as follow, a TypP in languages that allow a great deal of word
order flexibility, such as Japanese and Korean.

328

Notably, weishenme ‘why,’ unlike other wh-phrases cannot be c-commanded by certain scope bearing elements. When weishenme ‘why’ precedes chang ‘often’ or ye‘also’ the result is fine, as shown in (15a), but when it follows, the result is ill-formed,
as shown in (15b).2(15)(a) Ta weishenme {chang/ye} mata?
he whyoften/also scold he‘What is the reason x such hat he often/also scolds/scolded him for x?’(b) *Ta {chang/ye} weishenme mata?
he often/also why
scold he‘What is the reason x such that he often/also scolds/scolded him for x?’(Soh 2005:146)

Ko (2005) argues that the Mandarin facts are not a result of why being subject
to intervention effects, but rather, they result from Mandarin disallowing ‘scrambling.’ According to Ko, weishenme ‘why’ in Mandarin, just like why in Korean andJapanese, is Merged in [Spec, CP]. However, whereas in Korean and Japanese, ascope bearing element can appear in an A’-position above why, there is no position
above [Spec, CP] that can house this type of element. Ko provides evidence that
this is the case. (16a) shows that the definite NP Lisi can be topicalized, and (16b)shows that it may precede weishenme ‘why.’(16)(a) Lisi1 , Zhangsan shuo [(ta1 ) hen congming].
Lisi
Zhangsan said (she) very smart‘Lisi1 , Zhangsan said that she1 is very smart.
(b) Lisi1 , weishenme t1
kan-le na-ben shu?
Lisi
why
read-asp that-cl book
‘Why did Lisi read that book?’ (Ko 2005:885-886)

However, quantificational elements such as chang ‘often’ and ye ‘also’ cannot be
topicalized, and thus cannot precede weishenme ‘why,’ as in (15b) above. Thus,
there is no position above TypP for these elements to appear in.
2

This example was originally presented as (3) above.

329

The ill-formedness of a construction such as (15b) then is not due to an intervention effect, but rather, according to the analysis presented here, it is due to thefact that weishenme ‘why’ must appear in [Spec, TypP]. This position cannot be
preceded by a scrambled quantificational element. It can only be preceded by a topicalized element since the periphery of the Mandarin clause-structure is as shown in(17) below.
(17)

TopP
TypP
AdvP

TP

weishenme
why
There is a TopP projection above TypP, but there is no projection, such as a FocP
above TypP, that a quantificational element can appear in.
9.3 Further evidence that why must appear in [Spec, TypP]
The evidence discussed in the previous sections supports Ko’s (2005) claim that incertain languages, why is base generated in [Spec, CP] ([Spec, TypP] in my analysis).
In this section, I extend this analysis to account for the behavior of why describe in(1c), repeated below.
(1)(c) Why must appear at the clause periphery even though other wh-phrases
can remain in-situ.

In some languages, although a wh-phrase can appear in a TP-internal position, why
cannot. It must occur in the clause periphery. This fact supports the idea that why
is base generated in [Spec, TypP].

330

As discussed in section 6.3, wh-phrases generally may remain in-situ in Persianor undergo movement; a form of ‘scrambling,’ as shown in (18a-c).
(18)(a) Kimea diruzketâb-ro
be ki
dâd?
Kimea yesterday book-acc to who gave
‘Who did Kimea give the book to yesterday?’(b) Kimea be ki
diruzketâb-ro
dâd?
Kimea to who yesterday book-acc gave
‘Who did Kimea give the book to yesterday?’(b) Be ki
Kimea diruzketâb-rodâd?
to who Kimea yesterday book-acc gave
‘Who did Kimea give the book to yesterday?’ (Karimi 2005:136)

Karimi (2005:139) notes, following an observation by Kahnemuyipour (2001),
that cherâ ‘why’ “is subject to obligatory movement from its base position.” Forexample, (19a) is a statement with an adjunct clause and (19b) is a corresponding
interrogative construction in which the adjunct clause in (19a) has been replacedwith cherâ ‘why.’ The ill-formedness of this construction shows that cherâ ‘why’
cannot occur in a TP-internal position. Rather, cherâ ‘why’ must appear at theedge of the clause as in (19c), a position I assume to be [Spec, TypP].3(19) Persian:(a) Ali bâ
Maryam ezdevâj kard
[condust-esh dâsht].
Ali with Maryam marry did.3sg because friend-her had-3sg‘Ali married Maryam because he loved her.’(b) *Ali bâ
Maryam ezdevâj kard
cherâ?
Ali with Maryam marry did.3sg why(c) Ali cherâ1 bâ
Maryam ezdevâj kard
t1 ?
Ali whywith Maryam marry did-3sg‘Why did Ali marry Maryam?’ (Kahnemuyipour 2001:47, per Karimi
2005:139)3(19b-c) were originally presented as (4a-b).

331

In (19c), if cherâ ‘why’ is in [Spec, TypP], then the preceding subject Ali could bein a higher position, such as [Spec, FocP].4 In chapter 6.3, I argued that in Persian,a wh-feature associated with an in-situ wh-phrase raises to Typ. Although Karimi
claims that the clause-peripheral cherâ ‘why’ moves from the base position of the
adjunct clause in (19a), another possibility, consistent with the evidence presented
in the previous section, is that cherâ ‘why’ actually never moves. Rather, it is simply
Merged directly into [Spec, TypP].
As discussed in chapter 6.6, Malay allows wh-phrases to remain in-situ, as in(20), which was originally presented as (70) in chapter 6.6.
(20) Malay:
Ali memberitahu kamu tadi
[Fatimah baca apa]?
Ali informedyoujust now Fatimah read what
‘What did Ali tell you Fatimah was reading?’ (Cole & Hermon 1998:224)
Yet, according to Cole & Hermon (1998), the non-DP wh-phrase kenapa ‘why’ is an
exception. It cannot occur in a non-clause-peripheral position. When it appears inclause-initial position in (21a), the result is fine, but when it appears TP-internallyin (21b), ill-formedness results.
(21) Malay:(a) Kenapa Fatimah menangis?
why
Fatimah cry‘Why did Fatimah cry?’(b) *Fatimah kenapa menangis?
Fatimah why
cry‘Why did Fatimah cry?’ (Cole & Hermon 1998:226)
The wh-phrase kenapa ‘why’ can also appear in a partial wh-movement construction, as shown in (22), originally presened as (71) in chapter 6.6.
4

See Karimi (2005) for discussion of the positions of scrambled phrases in Persian.

332(22) Malay:
Jon fikir [kenapa1 (yang) Mary rasa [Ali dipecat
t1 ]]John think why(that) Mary feel Ali was fired‘Why does John think (that) Mary felt Ali was fired?’ (Cole & Hermon
1998:225)
Even though kenapa ‘why’ does not appear in its scope position in (22), it is in aclause-peripheral position that I assume to be [Spec, TypP]. Wh-feature movementfrom kenapa ‘why’ thus is permitted as long as kenapa ‘why’ appears in [Spec,
TypP]. Therefore, if kenapa ‘why’ is in [Spec, TypP] of the clause that it modifies,
its wh-feature can move to a higher clause.
In the wh-movement language of English, notably, why also must appear ina clause-peripheral position when it has scope in a wh-construction, even in situations in which a wh-phrase normally can appear TP-internally. In a single whconstruction, a wh-phrase must move, and therefore, the appearance of why in [Spec,
TypP] in this type of construction is expected. This example can be accounted for
if why moves to [Spec, TypP] from a position corresponding to the adjunct clausein (23b).
(23)(a) Why1 did he eat dinner t1 ?
(b) Harry ate dinner [because he was hungry].

However, as discussed in chapter 8, in a multiple wh-construction, only one whphrase moves to [Spec, TypP]. What is interesting is that why cannot appear in a
non-clause-peripheral position (and have scope) in a multiple wh-construction. For
example, whereas the lower wh-phrase what may remain in-situ and have matrix
scope in the multiple wh-construction in (24a), this is not the case in (24b), which
is ill-formed because why does not appear at the beginning of the clause. (24c) is
fine because why appears in clause-initial position.

333

(24)

(a) Who bought what?
(b) *Who e arrived why? (Reinhart 1998:30)(c) Why did who arrive?

Note that whereas why must appear clause-peripherally, other adverbials, such as
when, as in (25) need not. Although (25) may be a bit marginal under the interpretation in which both who and when have scope, I think that it is much better than(24b).
(25) ?Who arrived when?
The fact that why must appear in clause-initial position in a multiple whconstruction suggests that unlike with other wh-phrases, why must appear in [Spec,
TypP]. Furthermore, the fact that in (24c), why appears in clause-initial positioneven though there is another wh-phrase, is consistent with why being base generated
in this position. If why were base-generated within the TP below the subject who,
then it should not be able to move to clause-initial position without an MLC effectarising.
In Persian, Malay, and English, the wh-adjunct why thus does not pattern withother wh-phrases. Although Persian and Malay allow wh-phrases to appear in-situ
in single wh-constructions, and English allows a secondary wh-phrase to remain insitu in multiple wh-constructions, why must appear in the clause periphery. This
fact can be accounted for straightforwardly if why is base generated in [Spec, TypP].
9.4 Feature movement may proceed from why in some languages
Ko (2005) demonstrates that in Japanese and Korean, when why appears in an
embedded clause but has matrix scope, it is subject to intervention effects. Examples(26a-b) from Japanese and (27a-b) from Korean demonstrate this.

334(26) Japanese:(a) *John-wa [Mary-sika naze sono hon-o
yoma-nakat-ta to]John-top Mary-only why that book-acc read-not-past C
itta no?
said Qu‘What is the reason x such that John said that only Mary read thatbook for x?
(b) John-wa [naze Mary-sika sono hon-o
yoma-nakat-ta to]John-top why
Mary-only that book-acc read-not-past C
itta no?
said Qu‘What is the reason x such that John said that only Mary read thatbook for x? (Ko 2005:875)(27) Korean:(a) *John-un [amwuto way ku
chayk-ul ilk-ci-anh-ass-ta-ko]
John-top anyone
why that book-acc read-Ci-not-past-dec-C
malhayss-ni?
said-Qu‘What is the reason x such that John said that no one read that bookfor x?’(b) John-un [way amwuto ku
chayk-ul ilk-ci-anh-ass-ta-ko]
John-top why anyone
that book-acc read-Ci-not-past-dec-C
malhayss-ni?
said-Qu‘What is the reason x such that John said that no one read that bookfor x?’ (Ko 2005:875)
In (26-27a), why is contained within an embedded declarative clause, yet it musthave matrix scope because the Qu-morpheme appears in the matrix clause. According to Ko, LF movement of why is blocked by Mary-sika ‘Mary-only’ in Japaneseand amwuto ‘anyone’ in Korean. When why appears above these scope bearing
elements in (26-27b), the intervention effects disappear.

335

Ko (2005) accounts for the intervention effects in constructions such as (26-27a)
as resulting from the blocking of LF movement of why. Specifically, why needs tomove at LF to the matrix interrogative clause to have scope, yet this movement isblocked by the intervening scope bearing element. In (26-27b), why proceeds freely
to the matrix [Spec, CP] at LF.
Unlike Ko, I propose that the facts concerning embedded clauses with why canbe resolved without resorting to LF movement of why. Rather, there is movementof a wh-feature from why and this feature movement is motivated by an an EPPX

0

feature (see chapter 6). In constructions such as (26-27a) above, why is Merged0in [Spec, TypP] of the embedded clause. Then an EPPX feature contained in thematrix Typ attracts the wh-feature from why. This wh-feature movement is blockedby certain c-commanding scope bearing element. A simplified diagram is shown
below, where the inability of the EPP feature to attract the wh-feature is signified
by an arrow that is blocked.

336

(28)

TypP
Typ’
...

TypEP P X 0
PrbForceP
FocP
Foc’
...

TypP
Typ’

AdvP
why+t[whF 1]

Foc

TP

FQuant1*
Typ...
When there is no intervening scope bearing element, feature movement may proceed
uninhibited, and the result is well-formed, as shown in (29).

337

(29)

TypP
Typ’
...

TypEP P X 0
Prb+Fwh1

ForceP
FocP
Foc’
...

TypP
Typ’

whP1
why+t[Fwh1 ]

Foc

TP

Typ

...
In this manner, why can be subject to intervention effects, but only when wh-feature
movement proceeds from it.
Persian also shows these same effects in an embedded clause; why is subject
to intervention effects. Remember that cherâ ‘why’ is not subject to intervention
effects in a matrix clause (see (11a) above). However, (30) shows that cherâ ‘why’
cannot have matrix scope when it occurs in an embedded clause and is c-commanded
by faghat ‘only.’338(30) Persian:*pro fekr
mi-kon-i[(ke) faghat cherâ Kimea in xuna-ro
thought dur-do-s2sg that only
why
Kimea this house-acc
dar Tusân sâxte]?
in Tucson built-3sg‘Why1 do you think [that Kimea only built this house in Tucson t1 ]?’ (Simin
Karimi, p.c.)
The fact that cherâ ‘why’ cannot have matrix scope can be accounted for if whfeature movement is blocked by the intervening faghat ‘only.’ Note that wh-feature
movement may proceed from cherâ ‘why’ in an embedded clause to a matrix clause if
there is no intervener. In (31) below, cherâ ‘why’ modifies the verb of the embedded
clause, but it has matrix scope, as it turns the matrix clause into a wh-construction(Simin Karimi, p.c.).
(31) Persian:
pro fekr
mi-kon-i[(ke) Kimea cherâ in xuna-ro
darthought dur-do-s2sg that Kimea why
this house-acc in
Tusân sâxte]?
Tucson built-3sg‘Why1 do you think Kimea [built this house in Tucson t1 ]?’ (Karimi
2005:138-139)
The facts discussed in this section support the notion that why is Merged in[Spec,TypP] of a clause that it modifies, although, at least in some languages, itneed not be Merged in [Spec, TypP] of the clause in which it has scope. When why
is Merged in a non-scopal TypP, wh-feature movement can proceed from it, andthis wh-feature movement is subject to intervention effects. In this manner, while
adopting Ko’s proposal that why is Merged in the clause-periphery, I account for
the facts without resorting to LF movement.

339

9.5 Why and island effects
In this section I examine the odd behavior of why described in (1d), repeated below.
(1)(d) Why is subject to island effects even when other wh-phrases are notsubject to these effects.

Japanese and Mandarin shown this phenomenon described in (1d). This perplexing
fact, as discussed below, leaves a number questions unresolved.
As discussed in chapter 7, wh-phrases in Japanese are not generally subject tocomplex-DP island and adjunct island effects. (32a-b) (originally (4a) and (5a)presented in chapter 9.4) show that a wh-phrase can occur within a complex-DPand within an adjunct clause in Japanese.
(32) Japanese:(a) Kimi-wa [DP [dare-ga kaita] hon]-oyomimashita ka?
you-topwho-nom wrote book-acc readQu
‘Who1 did you read books that t1 wrote? (Nishigauchi 1990:40)(b) Taroo-ga [T ypP doko-ni
itta kara]umaku itta no?
Taro-nom
where-dat went because well
went Qu‘Where1 did things go well [because Taroo went t1 ?’ (Richards 2000:187)
However, naze ‘why’ does does not pattern with other wh-phrases with respect tocomplex-DP and adjunct island effects. When naze ‘why’ occurs within a complexDP, as in (33a) or in an adjunct clause, as in (33b), the result is ill-formed.
(33) Japanese:(a) *Kimi-wa [DP kare-ga naze kaita hon]-oyomimashita ka?
you-tophe-nom why wrote book-acc readQu
Intended: ‘Why1 did you read [books that he wrote t1 ]?’ (Nishigauchi
1990:41)

340(b) *Taroo-ga [T ypP naze itta kara]umaku itta no?
Taro-nom
why went because well
went Qu
Intended: ‘Why1 did things go well [because Taroo went t1 ]?’ (Junko
Ginsburg, p.c.)
In chapter 7, I argued, following Nichigauchi (1986, 1990, 1999a, 1999b), that inJapanese, a wh-phrase can avoid DP- and adjunct island effects via wh-feature movement; the wh-feature raises to turn the potential island into a wh-phrase and thus
circumvent an island effect. These examples in (33a-b) clearly show that movementof a wh-feature associated with naze ‘why’ cannot circumvent an island effect.
One possibility, proposed by Nishigauchi (1990) is that a mismatch between thesyntactic category of naze ‘why’ and the ‘island’ that contains it is the cause of
these effects. According to Nishigauchi (1990:89), “a WH-phrase must be identicalin syntactic category with the dominating node in order for the [+WH]-feature tobe percolated to the latter.” In order for a wh-phrase to circumvent a complex-NP
island effect, the wh-phrase must be a nominal. For example, since naze ‘why’ is nota nominal, its wh-feature is incompatible with a complex-NP. However, a problem
for this analysis is that naze ‘why’ is subject to adjunct island effects, as in (33b),even though it is an adjunct. There is also the problem of accounting for why
adjuncts other than naze ‘why’ are not subject to island effects, even though theseadjuncts do not appear to be nominals (for example, see (4b) and (5a) in chapter
7.2).
I have taken the position that naze ‘why’ is Merged directly in [Spec, TypP]. As
shown above, when Merged in [Spec, TypP], the wh-feature of naze ‘why’ can moveto a higher clause. Therefore, even if naze ‘why’ were Merged in [Spec, TypP] within
an adjunct clause, the inability of its wh-feature to undergo further movement is
not accounted for. The facts thus indicate that the wh-feature of naze ‘why,’ unlike
the wh-features of other wh-phrases, simply cannot turn a larger phrase into a whphrase; the wh-feature of naze ‘why’ cannot turn a complex-DP or an adjunct clause341

into a wh-phrase. At this point, I do not have any solution that can account for thisbehavior of the wh-feature of naze ‘why.’
I next turn to Mandarin, in which, unlike other wh-phrases in this language,
weishenme ‘why’ is subject to island effects. Examples (34a-b) (originally (19b-c)in chapter 6.2) show that a wh-phrase can occur within a complex-DP or adjunctclause in Mandarin.
(34) Mandarin:(a) Ni xihuan [DP shei xie
deshu]?
you like
who write gen book‘Who1 do you like [the book t1 wrote]?’(b) Ta [T ypP yinwei ni shuo shenme hua] hen shengqi?
hebecause you say whatword very angry‘What1 was he angry [because you said t1 words]?’(Aoun & Li 1993:203)
In chapter 6.2, I argued that these facts result from a probe in Typ being able
to form an Agree relation with the wh-feature of a wh-phrase in these types of
constructions. Yet, examples (35a-b) show that weishenme ‘why’ cannot scope
outside of a complex-DP or adjunct clause, as shown in the following examples.
(35) Mandarin(a) *Ni xihuan [DP ta weishenme xie
deshu]?
you like
he whywrite gen book
Intended: ‘Why1 do you like [the book he wrote t1 ]?’(b) *Ta [T ypP yinwei ni shuo weishenme hua] hen shengqi?
hebecause you say why
word very angry
Intended: ‘Why1 was he angry [because you said words t1 ]?’(Aoun & Li
1993:203-204)
These facts suggest that a Typ head cannot form an Agree relation with the whfeature of weishenme ‘why’ when weishenme ‘why’ is in a complex-DP or adjunctclause. Why exactly this is the case is not clear to me.

342

9.6 Conclusion
In conclusion, many of the facts concerning the syntactic behavior of why are accounted for straightforwardly if Ko’s (2005) analysis is adopted; why is base generated in [Spec, TypP] (Ko uses [Spec, CP]). The odd fact that why appears to be
immune to intervention effects in Japanese, Korean, and Persian is accounted for as
resulting from why being base generated in a position above the base position of apotential intervener. As long as there is no wh-feature movement from why, there
are no intervention effects. In this chapter, I showed how Ko’s proposal that why isbase generated in the clause periphery straightforwardly accounts for the fact thatin languages such as Persian, Malay, and English, why clearly cannot occur in a TPinternal position (and have scope) even though other wh-phrases can. However, as
pointed out by Ko, when why appears in [Spec, TypP] of an embedded clause, it issubject to intervention effects. I proposed that when why is Merged in [Spec, TypP]of an embedded clause in languages such as Japanese, Korean, or Persian, and has
matrix scope, its wh-feature raises to the matrix Typ. This wh-feature movement
is subject to intervention effects. Unlike Ko, I account for these intervention effects
as resulting from feature movement, and not from LF movement of a wh-phrase.
The facts regarding island effects and why are perplexing. Whereas wh-phrases
are not generally subject to complex-DP and adjunct island effects in Japanese, why
is subject to these effects. I suggested that this fact could be an indication thatthe wh-feature associated with why is unable to move to the relevant position in
Japanese to turn a larger phrase into a wh-phrase and circumvent an island effect.
In Mandarin, the fact that why is subject to island effects appears to result from theinability of an Agree relation to be formed between Typ and the wh-feature of why
when why is within an island. Why exactly a wh-feature behaves in these ways withrespect to island effects, though, is not clear to me, and requires further analysis.
In conclusion the facts concerning why raise a few perplexing questions, given

343

below.
(36)(a) Why does why have to be Merged in [Spec, TypP]?
(b) Why can’t wh-feature movement from why circumvent an island effectin languages such as Japanese?
(c) Why can’t the wh-feature of why form an Agree relation when why iscontained within an island in languages such as Mandarin?

I suspect that investigation of the semantics of why may lead to some answers tothese questions.

344

CHAPTER 10
Conclusion

In this dissertation, I have accounted for cross-linguistic and language internal variation in the formation of yes/no and wh-constructions. In this chapter, I summarize
the main findings of this work concerning the formation of interrogative constructions and I discuss remaining issues.
My analysis began in chapter 3, where I argued that a Qu-feature is required totype a clause as an interrogative construction, and it does so by appearing in thehead of a clausal typing projection that I refer to as TypP. I discussed how somelanguages contain identical overt Qu-morphemes that appear in both yes/no andwh-constructions, and I claimed that this is evidence that a Qu-feature is required
in both yes/no and wh-constructions. I argued that when an overt Qu-morpheme
is absent in an interrogative construction, a covert Qu-morpheme is present.
In chapter 4, I focused on yes/no constructions. I argued that a certain amountof cross-linguistic and language internal variation in yes/no constructions is dependent on the properties of a Qu-morpheme; specifically whether or not it is overt, andwhether or not it is an affix. I also discussed the fact that a yes/no construction,
depending on the language, may be formed with a Qu-morpheme in a clause peripheral position, or in a TP-internal position. I argued that by default a Qu-morpheme
is Merged directly in Typ in the clause periphery. However, a Qu-morpheme appears in a TP-internal position when it contains a Focus-feature that forces it to
be Merged into a derivation in a position adjacent to a focused phrase. Evidence
for this proposal is that a TP-internal phrase with an adjacent Qu-morpheme isinterpreted as an identificational focus. When a Qu-morpheme appears in a TPinternal position, its Qu- and Focus-features move to the heads of a TypP and a

345

FocP, respectively, and this movement can be detected via the existence of islandeffects.
Next, in chapter 5, I examined the positions of Qu-morphemes in whconstructions. As in a yes/no construction, in a wh-construction, a Qu-morphemeby default is Merged directly in Typ. I also extended my analysis of TP-internal
Qu-morphemes in yes/no constructions to account for TP-internal Qu-morphemes in
wh-constructions. In some languages, a Qu-morpheme may contain a Focus-feature
which forces it to be Merged in a position adjacent to a wh-phrase in a TP-internal
position, that is, if the wh-phrase is in-situ. In these cases, a wh-phrase appears
to receive a special identificational focus interpretation, although there is a possible exception in Sinhala that requires further examination. I also showed that theproperties of a Qu-morpheme, specifically, whether or not it is an affix, influence
the form of a wh-construction in certain English dialects.
In chapter 6, I examined how a wh-feature establishes a relationship with a probe
in Typ. I argued that depending on the language, 1) a wh-feature can form an Agreerelation with a probe in Typ, 2) a wh-feature can move to Typ, or 3) a wh-phrase
can move to [Spec, TypP]. Which option is chosen is dependent on the Typ head.
When Typ lacks an EPP feature, then there is an Agree relation. When Typ con0

tains an EPPX feature, then there is wh-feature movement, and when there is an
EPPXP feature, there is wh-phrasal movement. In order to distinguish between
Agree and wh-feature movement, I examined the presence and absence of intervention and island effects. I also examined languages with partial wh-movement, which
I argued results when a lower Typ head contains an EPPXP feature and a higher0c-commanding Typ head contains an EPPX feature. The lower Typ head with the
EPPXP feature attracts a wh-phrase to its specifier position and the higher Typ0head with an EPPX feature attracts a wh-feature.
In chapter 7, I investigated instances in which movement of a wh-element within alarger non-wh-phrase can turn that phrase into a wh-constitutent. This phenomenon

346

can lead to island circumvention effects. In certain languages, movement of a whfeature or a wh-phrase to the head or specifier, respectively, of a potential island
turns the potential island into a wh-phrase. Then either wh-feature movement canproceed from the newly formed wh-phrase, or the wh-phrase itself can undergo
movement. I found that island circumvention effects can occur when a wh-phrase
is contained within a complex-DP or an adjunct clauses, although not when it iscontained within a whether/if -island. I proposed that this wh-movement that turns
a larger phrase into a wh-phrase is motivated by an EPP feature, which attracts
the wh-element. I also discussed how some languages do not allow movement of awh-element to circumvent island effects. In these languages, the head of a potential
island cannot contain an EPP feature.
In chapter 8, I examined multiple wh-constructions. I argued that in certain
languages such as Japanese and English, a probe in Typ can form an Agree relation
with a secondary wh-feature once movement of an initial wh-element to TypP eliminates an EPP feature. However, in some languages such as Persian, Agree is not an
option for secondary wh-features because movement of a wh-element to TypP does
not eliminate the EPP feature. Also, in some languages which disallow multiple
wh-constructions, a Typ head simply cannot form any relation with a secondary
wh-phrase. I proposed that this was the result of the probe in Typ being eliminated after it is valued by a single wh-feature. In languages which allow multiple
wh-constructions, a probe in Typ can be valued by multiple wh-features.
In chapter 9, I examined the behavior of why, which does not pattern with otherwh-phrases. I argued that why’s odd behavior results from a requirement that it
appear in [Spec, TypP], even in situations in which a wh-phrase generally can remain
in-situ. Thus, the Typ head of a clause containing why must have an EPPXP feature.
Interestingly, there are instances in languages that allow wh-feature movement, such
as Malay, Japanese, Korean, and Persian, in which why can appear in [Spec, TypP]of a clause in which it does not have scope. In these cases, the wh-feature associated347with why undergoes feature movement from why in the specifier of the non-scopal
TypP to the Typ head where it has scope.
In summary, if the arguments presented in this dissertation are on the right track,then cross-linguistic variation in interrogative constructions boils down to several
important parameters given in (1a-f).
(1)(a) A Qu-morpheme has either a [+OVERT] or a [-OVERT] feature.
(b) A Qu-morpheme has either a [+AFFIX] or a [-AFFIX] feature.
(c) A Qu-morpheme may or may not have a Focus-feature.
(d) In a wh-constructions, Typ contains an EPPXP feature that attracts a0wh-phrase, an EPPX feature that attracts a wh-feature, or no EPP
feature that attracts a wh-elment.
(e) A probe may or may not be eliminated by a wh-feature.
(f) An EPP feature may or may not be eliminated by movement of awh-feature.
(1a) accounts for whether or not a Qu-morpheme is overtly pronounced in an interrogative construction. (1b) accounts for whether or not a Qu-morpheme attaches
onto another lexical item. (1c) accounts for whether a Qu-morpheme appears in a
TP-internal position or in a clause-peripheral position. (1d) accounts for whether
there is wh-phrasal movement, wh-feature movement, or no movement at all ina wh-construction. (1e) accounts for whether or not a language allows multiple
wh-constructions; if a probe is eliminated by a wh-feature (via Agree, wh-feature
movement, or wh-phrasal movement), then multiple wh-constructions do not occur.
(1f) accounts for whether or not a secondary wh-phrase forms an Agree relation
with a probe in Typ (in languages that allow multiple wh-constructions); if an EPP
feature is eliminated and a probe remains active, then a secondary wh-feature forms
an Agree relation with the probe in Typ. I illustrate how these parameter settings

348

account for the wh-construction facts in some of the languages that I have discussed
in this work.
In English the facts are as shown in (2).
(2)

EnglishClause

Qu[±OV ERT ]Qu[±AF F IX]

Matrix[-OVERT][+AFFIX]

Embedded[+OVERT][-AFFIX]

QuFF oc
∅

Typ
EPPXP

Mult-wh:

Mult-wh:Prb

EPP

Fwh ,Fwh/ P/ P/ XP
E

In a matrix clause, there is a [-OVERT] and [+AFFIX] Qu-morpheme, whereas
an embedded clause contains a [+OVERT] and [-AFFIX] Qu-morpheme. English
does not allow a Qu-morpheme to contain a Focus-feature. A Typ head (in awh-construction) contains an EPPXP feature that attracts a wh-phrase. A probe is
not eliminated by movement of a wh-element; multiple wh-phrases can have scope.
Lastly, movement of a wh-feature eliminates an EPPXP feature from Typ, and thus
secondary wh-features form an Agree relation with a probe in Typ.
The Japanese and Korean facts are shown in (3).
(3)

Japanese/Korean

Qu[±OV ERT ][+OVERT]

Qu[±AF F IX][-AFFIX]

QuFF oc
∅

Typ
X0

EPP

Mult-wh:Prb

Mult-wh:EPP

Fwh ,Fwh/ P/ P/ X
E

0There is a [+OVERT] and [-AFFIX] Qu-morpheme that lacks a Focus-feature.
0

Typ contains an EPPX feature. A probe can be valued by multiple wh-features0and movement of an initial wh-feature eliminates the EPPX feature from Typ; i.e.
secondary wh-features form an Agree relation with a probe in Typ.
The Persian facts are summarized in (4).

349

(4)

Persian

Qu[±OV ERT ]Qu[±AF F IX][-OVERT]

QuFF oc∅[-AFFIX]

Typ
X0

EPP

Mult-wh:Prb

Mult-wh:EPP

Fwh ,Fwh

EPP

The Persian Qu-morpheme is null and is not an affix.

It also lack a Focus-feature. Typ contains an EPPX 0 feature. A probe can be valued by multiple
wh-features, and movement of a wh-feature does not eliminate the EPP feature; asecondary wh-feature must move to Typ .
The Sinhala facts are summarized in (5).
(5)

Sinhala

Qu[±OV ERT ]Qu[±AF F IX][+OVERT]?

QuFF oc
∅,X

Typ
X0

(EPP

Mult-wh:Prb)

Fwh ,Fwh

In Sinhala there is a [+OVERT] Qu-morpheme.

I am not sure whether or

not it is an affix. Note that if it is an affix, this does not appear to have an important influence on the structure of interrogative constructions (the Qu-morpheme
does not appear to force movement of a tense element, etc., for the purpose of
affixation). Sinhala has Qu-morphemes both with and without a Focus-feature, as
signified by the ∅ and X marks. The Typ head generally lacks an EPP feature.
It lacks an EPP feature in a wh-construction. However, Typ can contain an EPP
feature that attracts a TP-internal Qu-feature. Since this EPP feature attracts
a feature, it would have to be an EPPX 0 feature. In other cases in which the
Qu-morpheme is base generated in Typ, then there is no EPP feature. Lastly,
multiple wh-features can value a probe in Typ.
The Mandarin facts are summarized in (6).
(6)

Mandarin
Qu[±OV ERT ]Qu[±AF F IX]

QuFF oc[+OVERT]/[-OVERT][-AFFIX]∅

Typ

Mult-wh:Prb
Fwh ,Fwh

350

The Mandarin Qu-morpheme can be overt or covert.

It is not an affix, andit lacks a Focus-feature. The Typ head lacks an EPP feature and a probe in Typcan be valued by multiple wh-features.
I have also discussed various other languages here, although not in enough detailto be able to provide the settings of all of the parameters listed above. Notable
though, is that German, Albanian, and Malay require both EPPXP and EPPX

0

features to surface in partial wh-movement constructions. Scottish Gaelic, Irish,
and Italian are languages in which movement of a wh-feature appears to eliminate
a probe in Typ, thereby preventing the occurrence of multiple wh-constructions.
The analyses presented here also raise a number of unresolved issues.
I have argued that a Qu-morpheme can contain a Focus-feature based on evidence that TP-internal elements with an adjacent Qu-morpheme receive an identificational focus interpretation in some languages such as Sinhala, Okinawan, Premodern Japanese, etc. These languages allow a single lexical item to both type aclause and focus a particular element in a clause. In other languages such as English and Japanese, a Qu-morpheme and focus are not connected in this manner, asa Qu-morpheme does not contain a Focus-feature. If this analysis is correct, thensome languages have a close connection between a Qu- and a Focus-feature, whereas
others do not. Further examination of interrogative interpretations and their connections, or disconnections, from focus might provide clues as to why languages
differ in this manner.
My analyses of wh-constructions rely on the notion that there is cross-linguistic
variation in EPP features; with some languages having an EPPXP feature in Typ0(resulting in wh-phrasal movement), some an EPPX feature (resulting in wh-feature
movement), some allowing both types of EPP feature (resulting in partial whmovement), and some disallowing an EPP feature altogether (resulting in Agree).
What exactly the EPP feature is, and why there are different types of EPP feature,
if there really are different types, is an issue that requires further investigation.

351

In this work, I have taken the position that there is a difference between Agreeand movement triggered by the EPP. Specifically, Agree is a relation that is not
subject to blocking effects (island effects, intervention effects, etc.) because it issensitive to feature content. When α forms an Agree relation with β, α searches
specifically for β. Intervening elements that are of the same type as β do not block
Agree. For example if γ and β are quantificational, and γ intervenes between α
and β, γ does not block Agree, because γ has a different content from β. The EPP
feature on the other hand, is sensitive to type. Thus, if α has an EPP feature that
attracts β, but γ intervenes and is of the same type as β, attraction of β is blocked.
However, further investigation of the nature of Agree and the EPP feature may beneeded to clarify why Agree and the EPP differ in these ways.
There are also other unresolved issues concerning wh-constructions. Althougha wh-phrase may remain in-situ in a matrix clause with a null complementizerin French, in which case there is wh-feature movement, why exactly wh-in-situ is
confined to this one particular environment is not clear. Lastly, evidence indicatesthat why must appear in a specifier of a TypP, even in languages that generally
allow a wh-phrase to remain in-situ. Why exactly this is the case requires further
examination.
In conclusion, I hope that further research will shed light on the the proposedparameters in (1a-f) and on the various other issues brought up in this dissertation.

352

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