Advisory
CircularP’u
U.S. Department ofTransportation
FederalAviation
Administration

Subject: AERONAUTICAL.

DECISION MAKING

1. PURPOSE. This Advisory Circular (AC)provides introductory material, backgroundinformation, and reference material on
Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM). The
material in this AC provides a systematic
approach to risk assessment and stressmanagementin aviation, illustrates how personal
attitudescan influence decision making and how
thoseattitudescan be modified to enhancesafety
in the cockpit.
This AC also provides
instructors with methods for teaching ADM
techniques and skills in conjunction withconventional flight instruction. However, thisAC is not intendedto replacethe complete bodyof knowledge contained in the ADM related
reference materials listed in paragraph 4, butratherto supportthem and to serve as a catalyst
for further study.
2. APPLICATION. The material containedin
this AC is applicable to pilots who operate
airplanes or helicopters under Federal Aviation
Regulations (FAR) Parts 61, 91, 121, 125, 133,
135, and 141.
3. FOCUS. This AC is designedto explain therisks associatedwith aviation activities to pilots.
Underlying behavioralcausesof typical accidents
and the effects of stress on ADM areemphasized. These materials provide a means
for an individual to develop an “Attitude Profile”
through a self-assessmentinventory and provide
detailed explanations of preflight and in-flightstressmanagementtechniques. The assumption
is that persons exposed to these behavioral
techniqueswill developa positive attitudetoward

Date: 12/13/w
Initiated by: AFS-820

AC No: 60-22

safety and learn ways to manage stress while
recognizingand avoiding unnecessaryrisk. This
AC is a learning tool that will help enable apersonto make an intelligent determinationas to
the risk involved before beginning a flight. It is
intended that the reader recognize risk factors
such as weather,weight and balance,recencyof
experience, environment, and cockpit stressmanagementso as to deal effectively with them.
4. RELATED REFERENCE MATERIAL.
Twelve years of ADM research,development,
and testing culminated in 1987 with the
publication of six manuals oriented to thedecision making needsof variously rated pilots.
These manuals provide multifaceted materials
designed to reduce the number of decision
related accidents (the type of accidents which
account for 52 percent of fatal general aviation
pilot error accidents). The effectivenessof thesematerials has been validated in six independentstudies where student pilots received suchtraining in conjunction with the standardflying
curriculum. When tested, the pilots who hadreceived ADM training made fewer in-flighterrOrs than those who had not received ADM
training. The differences were statisticallysignificant and ranged from about 10 to50 percentfewer judgment errors. In the operational environment, an operator flying about
400,000 hours annually demonstrateda 54 percent reduction in accident rate after using thesematerials for recurrency training. For detailed
information regarding exposure to risk
assessment, stress management, interpersonal

12/13/91

AC 60-22

crew coordinationand communication, and other
ADM techniques,the readeris directedto oneor
more of the manuals which may be obtained
from National Technical Information Service.

Report Number

Title

DOT/FAA/PM-86/46

Aeronautical Decision
Making- Cockpit
Resource Manageme.nt.
NTIS
identification
number ADA205 115,
price $23.00.

a. Published Documents.
(Rice ofindividual documents is subject to change
without notice.)
Report Number

Title

DOT/FAA/PM-86/4 1

Aeronautical Decision
Making for Student andPrivate Pilots. NTIS
identification number
ADA182549,
price$23.00.

b. Any of the series of ADM training
manuals may be obtained by writing or calling:
Mailing Address: National Technical
Information Service
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, Virginia 22 161
Telephone:

DOT/FAA/PM-86/42

DOT/FAA/PM-86/43

DOT/FAA/PM-86/44

DOT/FAA/PM-86/45

ii

Aeronautical Decision
Making for Commercial
NTIS
Pilots.
identification number
ADA198772,
price$17.00.
Aeronautical Decision
Making for Instrument
Pilots.
NTIS
identification number
N8724880,price $17.00.
Aeronautical Decision
Making for Instructor
Pilots (how to teach
ADM).
NTIS
identification number
ADA182611,
price$17.00.
Aeronautical Decision
Making for Helicopter
Pilots.
NTIS
identification number
ADA180325,
price$23.00.

(703) 487-4650 (orders)(800) 336-4700(rush ordersonly)(703)478-4780(title identification
branch)5. DEFINITIONS.
a. ~~ is a systematicapproachto themental process used by aircraft pilots toconsistently determine the best course of action
in responseto a given set of circumstances.
b. Attitude is a personal motivational
predispositionto respondto persons,situations,or events in a given manner that can,nevertheless,be changed or modified throughtraining. A sort of mental shortcut to decision
making.
c. Attitude Management is the ability torecognizehazardousattitudesin oneself and thewillingness to modify them as necessarythroughthe applicationof an appropriate
antidote thought.
d
Cockpit Resource Management,(CRM), in multiperson crew configurations, isthe effective use of all personneland material

Par 4

AC 60- 22

12/13/91

assets available to a flight crew. CRM
emphasizes good communication and otherinterpersonalrelationship skills.
e. Headwork is required to accomplish
a conscious, rational thought process when
making decisions. Good decision making
involves risk identification and assessment,
information processing,and problem solving.
f. Judgment is the mental process ofrecognizing and analyzing all pertinent
information in a particular situation, a rational
evaluationof alternativeactionsin responseto it,
and a timely decision on which action to take.
is the embodiment of
personaltraits andcharacteristicsof an individualthat are set at a very early age and extremely
resistantto change.
g.

k. Situational Awareness is the accurate
perception and understandingof all the factors
and conditions within the four fundamental risk
elements that affect safety before, during, andafter the flight.
1
Skills and Procedures are theprocedural, psychomotor, and perceptual skills
usedto control a specific aircraft or its systems.
They are the stick and rudder or airmanshipabilities that are gained through conventional
training, are perfected, and become almost
automatic through experience.

Personality

h. Poor Judgment (PJ) Chain is aseriesof mistakes that may lead to an accidentor
incident.
‘Iwo basic principles generally
associatedwith the creationof a PJ chain are: (1)one bad decision often leads to another;and (2)as a string of bad decisionsgrows, it reducesthe
number of subsequentalternativesfor continued
safe flight. ADM is intended to break the PJ
chain beforeit can causean accidentor incident.
i. Risk Management is the part of thedecision making process which relies on
situational awareness,problem recognition, andgood judgment to reduce risks associatedwith
each flight.
.

3 Risk Elements in ADM take into
considerationthe four fundamentalrisk elements:
the pilot, the aircraft, the environment, and theTh&as
C. Accardi
Director,
Flight

Par 5

type of operation that .comprise any given
aviation situation.

Standards

m. Stress Management is the personal
analysisof the kinds of stressexperiencedwhile
flying, the application of appropriate stressassessmenttools, and other coping mechanisms.
n.
VOR is a very high frequency
omnidirectional rangestation.
Comments
COMMENTSINVITED.
regardingthis publication should be directed to:6

Federal Aviation Administration
Flight StandardsNational Field Office,
AFS-500 (Advisory Circular Staff)
P.O. Box 20034, Gateway Building
Dulles International Airport
Washington,DC 2004l-2034
Every comment will not necessarily generatea
direct acknowledgement to the commenter.
Comments received will be considered in thedevelopment of upcoming revisions to AC’s orother related technical material.

Serviceiii (and iv)

AC 600 22

12/13/91

CONTENTS

PageNo.
CHAPTER1. INTRODUCIION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
i. General ...~~ . . . .
2. ADM Process. . . . . . . . .. . .
3. Conventional
DecisionMalung
4. Operational
Pitfalls . . . . . . . .
l

CHAPTER2. HAZARDOUSAITITUDE INVENTORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5. AttitudeAssessment
Test ................................................

5
5

6. Self-Assessment
Hazardous
AttitudeInventoryTest .............................
7. Instructionsfor Takingthe Self-Assessment
Hazardous
AttitudeInventoryTest. .................................................
8. ScoringInstructions.. ..................................................
9. AttitudeProfile........................................................
10. SampleSituations
for AdvancedRatedPilots
11. ProfileExplanation
12. Summary.. .........................................................

5
7
7
7
8
9

..................................

....................................................

CHAPTER3. DEALINGWITH HAZARDOUSATTITUDES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
13. HazardousAttitudes.. ................................................
14. Antidotesfor Hazardous
Attitudes ........................................
15. AntidoteRecallExercise...............................................
16. TheImportanceof Reinforcement
Exercises.................................
17. Instructionsfor UsingReinforcement
Exercises

11
11
11
12
12

...............................

CHAPTER4. STRESSAND FLYING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17l

18. WhatIs Stress......................................................
19. How Much Stress Is in YourLife? ........................................
20. Is StressBad .......................................................
21. HandlingStressIn Plying ..............................................

17
17
17
17

CHAFI’ER5. RISK MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
22. Assessing
Risk ......................................................
23. TheDecideModel ...................................................

21
21

V

AC 60- 22

12/13/91
CONTENTS (Continued)
Page No.

CHAPTER6. IDENTIFYINGTHE ENEMY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-; . . . . . . . . . .. . . 23
23
.23
24
24
25

.........................
24. General.......................
25. PersonalC;lkcklfs;‘::::::::::::::::::::::::::.
26. How To Be A SafePilot
27, Developmentof GoodDecisionMakingSkills
28. Successful
DecisionMaking ............................................
...............................................

................................

CHAPTER7. TEACHINGADM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...*.
29. purpose...................................................’........
30. Background........................................................2
31. TheFlightInstructor’sRolein ADM Training................................
32. Principlesof ADM Training ............................................
33. Teachingthe BehavioralAspectsof ADM ...................................
34. Teachingthe ApplicationExercises........................................
35. In-night Instruction: TheLessonPlans ....................................
36. In-FlightInstruction:TheTrainingScenario.................................
37. TypicalTrainingScenarios..............................................
38. Managementof ADM Training ..........................................

27
27
7
27
27
28
28
29
29
29
29

APPENDIX1. SAMPLEATTITUDEINVENTORYANSWERSHEET. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1 Page)
APPENDIX 2. SCORING FORM .........................................

(1 Page)

APPENDIX3. AnITUDE PROFILE.......................................

(1 Page)

APPENDIX4. ANTIDOTERECALLEXERCISE..............................

(1 Page)

APPENDIX5. LIFE EVENTS STRESS TEST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1 Page)

AC 60-22

12/13/91

CHAPTER

1. INTRODUCTION

1. GENERAL. Contrary to popularopinion, Stepsfor gooddecisionmakingarx:
goodjudgmentcanbe taught. Heretoforeit was(1) Identifyingpersonalattitudeshazarsupposed
to begainedonlyasa naturalby-product.
of experience.As pilots continuedto log acci- dousto safeflight.
dent-freeflight hours,a corresponding
increaseof(2) Learning behavior modification
goodjudgmentwasalsoassumed.
techniques.

2. ADM PROCESS.

(3) Leaminghow to recognizeandcopewith stress.
a. ADlU builds upon thefoun&tion of conventional decision making (figure I), butenhances(4) Developing
risk assessment
skills.
the processto decreasethe probabilityof pilot
erxx. ADM providesa shctured, systematic
approachto analyzingchanges
that occurduringa(5) Using all resourcesin a multicrew
flight andhowthesechanges
mightaffecta flight’s situation.
safe outcome. The ADM processaddresses
allaspectsof decisionmakingin thecockpitandiden(6) Evaluatingthe effectivenessof one’stifies the stepsinvolvedin gooddecisionmaking. ADM skills.

v
CHANGE/~
OCCURS

REcoGM2lE
CHAJWEFIGURE 1s CONVENTIONAL

Chap 1Par 1

DECISION MAKING PROCESS

1

AC 609 22

3.

12/13/91

CONVENTIONALDECISION

MAKING.

a. In conventional decision making, theneedfor a decision is triggered by recognitionthat
somethinghas changedor an expectedchangedid
not occur. Recognition of the change, or nonchange, in the situation is a vital step in any
decision making process. Not noticing the change
in the situation can lead directly to a mishap(figure 1). The change indicates that an appropriate responseor action is necessaryin order tomodify the situation (or, at least, one of the elements that comprise it) andbring about a desired
new situation. Therefore, situational awarenessis
the key to successfulandsafe decisionmaking. At

this point in the process,the pilot is faced with aneed to evaluate the entire range of possible responsesto the detectedchange and to determine
the best courseof action.
-b. Figure 2 illustrates the ADA4 process,how this process expands conventional decision
making, andshowsthe interactionsof the ADM
steps and how these steps can produce a safe
outcome. Starting with the recognition of change,
andfollowingwith an assessmentof alternatives,a decision to act or not act is made, and the results
aremonitored. ADM enhancesthe conventional
decision making processwith an awarenessof theimportance of attitudes in decision making, a

HEADWORKPROCESSFIGURE

2. AERONAUTICALDECISION

MAKINGPROCESS

Chap 12

Par 3

AC 60-22

12/13/91.

learned ability to search for and establish therelevanceof all information, and the motivation tochooseand executethe actionswhich assuresafety
in a timeframe permitted by the situation. Theseelements of ADM are discussedin depth as they
relate to the specific discipline in each of the
training manuals.
4. OPERATIONAL PITFALLS. There are anumber of classic behavioral traps into whichpilots have been-knownto fall. Pilots, particularly
those with considerable experience, as a rulealways try to complete a flight as planned,pleasepassengers,meet schedules,and generally demonstrate that they have the “right stuff.” This
much-talked-about“right stuff’ is a fragile image.
The basic drive to demonstratethe “right stuff’ canhave an adverseeffect on safety and can impose an
unrealistic assessmentof piloting skills understressI% conditions. These tendenciesultimately
may lead to practicesthat are dangerousand often
illegal, and may lead to a mishap. All experienced
pilots have fallen prey to, or have been temptedby, one or more of thesetendenciesin their flying
careers.These dangeroustendenciesor behavior
patterns,which must be identified and eliminated,
include:a. Peer Pressure.
Poor decision making
basedupon emotional responseto peersratherthan
evaluating a situation objectively.
b.

Mind Set. The inability to recognizeand

cope with changesin the situation different fromthose anticipatedor planned.
c. Get-There-Ztis.
This tendency,common
among pilots, clouds the vision and impairs judgment by causing a fixation on the original goal ordestinationcombined with a total disregardfor any
alternative courseof action.

d. Duck-Under Syndrome. The tendencyto
sneak a peek by descendingbelow minimums during an approach. Based on a belief that there isalways a built-in “fudge” factor that can be used oron an unwillingness to admit defeat and shoot a
missed approach.

Chap 1Par 3

e. Scud Running.
Pushing the capabilitiesof the pilot and the aircraft to the limits by trying
to maintain visual contact with the terrain while
trying to avoid physical contact with it. This
attitudeis characterizedby theold pilot’s joke: “Ifit’s too bad to go IFR, we’ll go VFR.”

f. Continuing visualjlight rules (VFR) into
instrument conditions often leads to spatial disorientation or collision with ground/obstacles. It iseven more dangerousif the pilot is not instrument
qualified or current.
g. Getting Behind the Aircraft.
Allowing
events or the situation to control your actions
ratherthanthe other way around. Characterizedby
a constant stateof surpriseat what happensnext.

h. Loss of Positional or Situation Awareness. Another caseof getting behind the aircraft
which results in not knowing where you are, aninability to recognize deterioratingcircumstances,
and/orthe misjudgment of the rate of deterioration.
i. Operating Without Adequate Fuel Reserves. Ignoring minimum fuel reserverequirements,
either VFR or Instrument Flight Rules (IFR), is
generally the result of overconfidcncc, lack offlight planning, or ignoring the regulations.
.
J

Descent

Below

the Minimum

EnrouteThe duck-under syndrome (mcntioncd
above) manifesting itself during the en routeportion of an IFR flight.

A&de.

k. Flying Outside the Envelope. Unjustified
reliance on the (usually mistaken) belief that theaircraft’s high performance capability meets thedemandsimposed by the pilot’s (usually ovcrcstimated) flying skills.
1
specions,

Neglect of Flight Planning, Preflight ZnChecklists, Etc. Unjustified relianceon

the pilot’s short and long term memory, regularflying skills, repetitive and familiar routes,etc.

3 (and 4)

12/13/91

AC 609 22

CHAPTER. -2. HAZARDOUS

5. ATTITUDE ASSESSMENT TEST. In each

ADM manual,a chapteraddresses
five hazardous
attitudesthat can affect a pilot’sjudgment,and.
how thesehazardous
attitudescanhaveanimpact
on safeflying. Subsequent
chaptersin eachof the
ADM manuals
providemethodsof modifyingthesehazardous
attitudes.
6. SELF-ASSESSMENT HAZARDOUS ATT&TUDE INVENTORY TEST. EachADM student

shouldtakethe Self-Assessment
Hazardous
Attitude InventoryTest in order to gain a realistic
perspective
on his/herattitudestowardflying. The
inventory test requiresthe pilot to provide a
response
whichmostaccuratelyreflectsthereasoningbehindhis/herdecision.Thepilotmustchoose
one of the five given reasonsfor makingthat
decision,eventhoughthe pilot may not consider
anyof the five choicesacceptable.Theinventory
test presentsextremecasesof incorrect pilot
decisionmakingin an effort to introducethe five
typesof hazardous
attitudesdescribedin Chapter
3 of this AC.
7. INSTRUCTIONS FOR TAKING THE
SELF-ASSESSMENT HAZARDOUS ATTITUDE INVENTORY TEST.

..a. ReadOvereach of the six situationsand
the five choicescontainedin the inventorytest.
Keepin mindthat thereareno correctanswers.

ATTITUDE

INVENTORY

Situation1 (Example)
a. -- 1

(your leastlikely reason) .

b. -- 3c. -- 5(yourmostlikely reason)d. -- 2e. -- 4
FIGURE 3. SAMPLESET OF RANKORDEREDANSWERS

Situation 1. You areon a flight to anunfamiliar,
ruralairport. Flightservicestatesthat VFR flightis not recommended
sinceheavycoastalfog is
forecastto moveinto the destinationairportarea
aboutthe time you expectto land. Youfirst considerreturningto yourhomebasewherevisibility
is still good, but decideinsteadto continue asplannedandlandsafelyaftersomeproblems.Why
did youreachthis decision?
a. Youhateto admitthat you cannotcompleteyouroriginalflight plan.
b. You resentthe suggestion
by flight servicethat you shouldchangeyour mind.

b. Decide which one of the jive choices is
the most likely reasonfor the decisionmade.
c. You feel surethat things will turn out
Using a copy of the Attitude InventoryAnswer safely,andthat thereis no danger.
Sheet(appendixl), placethe number5 in thed. Youreasonthatsinceyour actionswould
spaceprovided.
makeno real difference,you might as well conc. Continue by ranking in declining order tinue.
the remainingfour probablereasonsfrom 4 (nextmostlikely) to 3, 2, and 1 (leastlikely) until alle. You feel the needto decidequickly,sofive blankshavebeenfilled. (Figure3 providesan
exampleof how the alternatives
mightberanked.) youtakethe simplestalternative.

Chap 2Par 5

5

AC 60- 22

12/13/91.

Situation 2. Whiletaxiingfor takeoff,younotice

Situation 4. Youwerebriefedaboutpossible
icingthat your right brakepedalis softerthanthe left, conditions,but did not think therewould be any
Once airborne,you are sufficiently concerned problemsinceIour departureairporttemperature
abouttheproblemto radiofor information.Since was60 9 (15 C). As you nearyour destination,strongwindsare reportedat your destination,
freezingpreciI#ation,whichclings
an youencounter
experienced
pilot whois a passenger
recommends to your aircraft. Your passenger,
who is a morethat youabandon
the flight andreturnto yourde- experienced
pilot, beginsto panic. You consider
partureairport. Youchooseto continuethe flight turningbackto the departureairport,but continue
and experienceno further difficulties. Why did instead.Why did younot return?
you continue?
a. I havemadeit thisf&r. Whatis the usein
a. You feel that suggestions
madein this turningbacknow?
typeof situationareusualIyoverlycautious.
b. The panicof the passenger
makesyoub. Yourbrakeshaveneverfailedbefore,so thinkit will not happento me - I haveencountered
you doubtthat theywill this time.
ice beforeandnothinghappened.

c. Youfeel that you canleavethe decisionc. Why is he panicking?I canhandlethis
to thetowerat your destination.
situationjust like I havedonebefore.
d. Youimmediately
decidethat youwantto
continue.

d. FAA regulationsexaggerate
the dangers
of icing. I canhandlethis situation.

e. Youaresurethat if anyonecouldhandlee. I havegot to do something. Descend!
the landing,you canThat will make everyonerealizethat I am incontrol.
Situalion 3. Your regular airplane has been
groundedbecauseof an airframepmblem. You
arescheduled
in anotherairplaneanddiscoverit is Situation 5. You do not botherto checkweather
a modelyou are not familiar with. After your conditionsat your destination.En route,you enpreflight,you decideto takeoff on yourbusiness counterheadwinds.Yourfuel supplyis adequate
trip asplanned.Whatwasyourreasoning?
to reachyour destination,but thereis almostno
reservefor emergencies.
You continuethe flighta. Youfeel thata difficult situationwill notandlandwith a nearlydry tank. Whatmostinfluariseso thereis no reasonnot to go.
encedyouto do this?
b. Youtell yourselfthat if therewere any
a. Being unhappywith the pressureof
danger,youwouldnothavebeenofferedtheplane. havingto choosewhat to do, you make a snap
decision.
c. You are in a hurry anddo not want totakethe timeto thinkof alternatechoices.
b. Youdonot wantyour friendsto hearthat
youhadto turn back.
d. You do not want to admit that you may
havetroubleflying anunfamiliarairplane.
c. You feel that flight manuals always
understate
the safetymarginin fuel tank capacity.
e. You are convincedthat your flight instructorwasmuchtooconservative
andpessimisticd. You believethat all thingsusuallyturn
whenhe cautioned
you to be thoroughlycheckedout in anunfamiliaraircraft.
out well, andthis will beno exception.

6

Chap 2
Par 7

12/13/91.

e. You reasonthat the situation has alreadybeen determinedbecausethe destination is closer
than any other airport
Situation 6. You are 40 minutes late for a trip ina small airplane. Since the aircraft handled wellon the previous day’s flight, you decide to skip
most of the preflight check. What leads you tothis decision?

AC 601 22

c. You must get to the businessmeetingin 2 hours and cannot wait.
d. You don’t allow an icing forecasttostop you; weather briefers -are usually overly
cautious.
e. There is nothing you can do aboutatmosphericconditions.

a. You simply take the first approach to
making up time that comes to mind.

Situ&m

8. Commercial Pilot ADM Situation.
Your passengershave shown up almost an hourlate. You are going to an airport that requires ab. You feel that your reputationfor being on reservation. Which of the following alternatives
time demandsthat you cut comers when necessary. best illustrates your reaction?
c. You believe that some of the preflight inspection is just a waste of time.

a. You think to yourself, if I hurry,
maybe I can still make it.

d. You seeno reasonto think that something
unfortunatewill happenduring this flight.

b. Nothing will happen if I miss thisreservation.

e. If any problems develop, the responsibility would not be yours. It is the maintenanceof
the airplanethat really makes the difference.

c. I’m smart enoughto talk our way inwhen we arrive.

8. SAMPLE SITUATIONS FOR ADVANCEDRATED PILOTS.

d. I can’t help it if my passengerswerelate. I don’t control them.
e. The Feds wouldn’t darekeep me out.

a. Paragraph 7 presented examples of six
situations from the student/private pilot ADM
manual. For pilots with advancedratings, the remaining ADM manuals provide similar situations
and self-assessmenttests. The following are
example situations taken from thesetexts.
Situation 7. Instrument Pilot ADM Situation.
You plan an important business flight under
instrumentconditions in an aircraft with no deicing
equipment through an area in which light tomoderate rime or mixed icing in clouds, andprecipitation above the freezing level has been
forecast. You decide to make the trip, thinking:Situation 9. Helicopter Pilot ADM Situation.
You are to fly a helicopter which you know is old
and has been poorly maintained. A higher thannormal turbine outlet temperature on startup isindicated, and you suspectthe fuel control. Two
fellow companypilots, travelling as passengers,do
not want to be delayed. After 5 minutes of debate,
you agreeto make the trip. Why did you permit
yourself to be persuaded?
a. You feel that you must always proveyour ability as a pilot, even under less than ideal
circumstances.

a. You believe your skills are goodenoughto handle ice accumulationon the aircraft.

b. You believe that regulations overemphasizesafety in this kind of situation.

b. You have beenin this situation manytimes and nothing has happened.

c. You think that the fuel control willcertainly last for just one more flight.

Chap 2Par 7

7

AC 60-22

12/13/91,-.

d. You feel that your opinionmay be
wrongsincethetwo otherpilotsarewillingto takethe risk.

10. ATTITUDEPROFILE.

Using the total

scoresfor eachScaleI-V from appendix2, place
an “X” on the correspondingscaleprofile inappendix3. Noticethatthe scorevaluesrun frome. The thought of changingarrange- bottomto top, sothat the highestvalueshouldbe
merGGoying, so youjump at the suggestion at the highestpointon the profilesheet. Straightsof the otherpilots.
linesshouldbedrawnfrom thescorein eachscale
to the scorein the next scale(connectthe “X’s”)
so that the profile resemblesa graph Note theSituation 10. Instructot Pilot ALM Situation. hazardousattitudeshownat the bottom of each
You perforni-a slip demonstration
duringan ap- scaleon appendix3.
preachto landingandfly theaircraftto theleft of
the runwaycenterlineto a positionwhichwould 11. PROFILE EXPLANATION.
The profile
makeanattempted
landingpossiblebutdangerous. graphindicatesthecomparative
tendencyfor eachYoureturncontrolof theaircraftto thestudentand of the five hazardousattitudes. The higherthe
instructhim to “executeproper landingproce- relativerank (first, second,third, etc.),the greater
dures.” Whichof the followingbestcharacterizes thepropensityto respondwith thathazardous
attiyourattitudeaboutputtingthestudentandyourself tude. Thepilot shouldkeepin mindhis/herresultsin this situation?
while reviewingthe explanationAn explanationof the pilot’sprofile startswith the descriptionofa. I can alwayshandlethis evenif he an alI-too-common
flight situation.
CiUK-

now.-

b. Whateverhappens,it’s up to him
c. I’ve neverhada problemdoingthis

in ti=sL
betterd. Thequickerwe getthroughthis, thea. A pilbt of a shgbengine aitct@t checks
theweatherandnotesthat thereis a possibilityof
a thunderstorm
at thedestination
airport. Thepilot
hasneveroperatedanaircraftin badweatherandknowsthata flight instructorwouldadviseagainst
flying. Despitethis knowledge,
thepilot takesoff,crashesin poor weather,andis seriouslyinjured.

b. Why &es thfs occw so oflen? Because
many accidentsinvolvepilots who allow themTheseaircraft cantake a lot worse selvesto be influencedby oneor moreof the fivee.
landingsthanthe manualssuggest.
basic hazardousattitudes. Theseattitudesget
pilotsintotroubleby causingthemto takechances
9. SCORINGINSTRUCTIONS.
After com- that invite an accident. (The five hazardous
pletingtheinventorytesLtransfertheresponses
for attitudesarethe onesrecordedon the assessment
eachalternativefrom the completedAttitudeIn- inventoryjust completed.)
ventoryAnswerSheet(appendix1) to the appropriatesectionof the ScoringForm (appendix2). 12. SUMMARY.
Totalthe rankingscoresfor eachscaleandenter
the total in the spaceprovidedat the bottomofa. The pilot should use the profile to detereachcolumn. The total scorzfor eachsituation minewhichhazardous
attitudesdominatedhis/her
mustbe 15,whilethetotalfor situations1through responses.
Theprofilewill illustratewhichhazard6 must be 90. If the totals are not 15 and90, ous thoughtpatternshave a greatertendencyto
reviewfor possibleerrorsin the transferof scorns influencea pilot’sjudgment. The inventorytest
andcheckaddition.Thesetotalsarethenmarked mayindicatetheactualtendencyof thepilot; howon the AttitudeFWfile (appendix3) whereindi- ever,exhibitingattitudessimilarto thosedescribedcatedfor situations1 through6.
arecommonandnormal;As a pilot’sflying career

8

Chap 2
Par 3

u/13/91

progresses,the ability to identify thesehazardous
attitudes will help the pilot counteract his/her
hazardousthoughts. The goal of this exerciseis tobalanceall thoughts against possible outcomessothat actions are nonhazardous. A critical part ofADM training is leaming to examine the thinking’processandcontrol hazardousattitudes.Flying will
become safer if a pilot is able to identify and act
upon hazardousattitudes.

Chap 2
Par 12

AC 60-22

b. In reviewing the five hazardousattitudes
in Chapter3, a pilot shouldpay particular attention
to hazardousattitudesthat may characterizehis/her
own tendencies. Hazardous attitudes occur toevery pilot to some degreeat some time. Problems
arise when these hazardousattitudes occur’regulary and/or to an extreme. Therefore, a pilot
shouldlearn to recognizethesehazardousattitudes
in order to take corrective action.

9 (and 10)

:AC 600 22

17/1[3/91:

CHAPTER

3. DEALINGWITH

HAZARDOUS

ATTITUDES

13. HAZARDOUS
ATTITUDES.
ADM addres- asbeingableto makea greatdealof differencein
sesthe followingfive hazardous
attitudes.
whathappens
to them. Whenthingsgo well, thepilot is aptto think that’sgood-luck. Whenthings
a. Antiauthority (don’t tell me!). This go badly,thepilot mayfeelthat someone
is 6ut to
attitudeis foundin peoplewhodo not like anyone get me, or attributeit to badluck. Thepilot will
tellingthemwhat to do. In a sensethey aresay- leavethe action to others,for better or worse.
ing no onecantell mewhatto do. Theymaybe Sometimes,suchpilots will evengo alongwith
resentfulof havingsomeone
tell themwhatto do unreasonable
requests
just to be a “niceguy.”or mayregardrules,regulations,andproceduresassilly or unnecessary.
However,it is alwaysyour 14. ANTIDOTESFOR HAZARDOUS
ATTIprerogative
to questionauthorityif you feelit is in TUDES.
err0r.
a. Hazatious attitudes which contribute tob. Impulsivity (do somethingquickly!) is the poorpilotjudgmentcanbeeffectivelycounteracted
attitudeof peoplewhofrequentlyfeel the needto by redirecting
thathazardous
attitudesothatapprodo something-anything-immediately.
Theydo not priateactioncanbe taken. Recognitionof hazarstopto thinkaboutwhattheyareaboutto do,they dousthoughtsis thefirst stepin neutralizingthem
do not selectthe bestalternative,andthey do the in the ADM process.This chapteris designedto
first thingthat comesto mind.
familiarizethepilot with a meansof counteracting
hazardousattitudeswith an appropriateantidote

c. InvulnerabilQy (it won’t happen to me).

thought.

Many peoplefeel thataccidents
happento others,
but neverto them. They know accidentscan
b. When a pilot recognizes a thought as
happen,and they know that anyonecan be af- hazardous,
the pilot shouldlabelthat thoughtas
fected.Theyneverreallyfeelor believethatthey hazardous,
thencorrectthatthoughtby statingthe
will bepersonallyinvolved.Pilotswho think this corresponding
antidote.Antidotesshouldbememway aremorelikely to takechancesandincrease orizedfor eachof the hazardous
attitudesso thatrisk.
theyautomatically
cometo mindwhenneeded.
d. Macho (I can do it). pilots who artz
alwaystrying to provethat they are better thananyoneelseare thinkingI can do it - I’ll show
them. Pilotswith this typeof attitudewill try toprove themselvesby taking risks in order toimpressothers.Whilethispatternis thoughtto bea malecharacteristic,
womenareequallysuscep
tible.

15. ANTIDOTE

RECALL

EXERCISE.

The

hazardousattitudeantidotes(figure 4) shouldbe
learnedthoroughlyandpracticed.Makea copyof
the AntidoteRecallExerciseform (appendix4)
and,withoutreferzingto the text, write the characteristicthoughtfor eachhazardous
attitudeandits
appropriateantidote. Checkthe statementsand
continueif they are correct. If not, continued
e. Resignation (what’s the use?). Pilots studyof the antidotesis recommended
until they
who think what’stheuse?do not seethemselves arememorized.

Chap 3
Par 1311

12/13/91

AC 600 22

16. THE IMPORTANCE OF REINFORCEMENT EXERCISES. The basic definitions, theself-assessmenttest, the hazardousattitudes, andthe antidotes representthe foundation for understandingthe factors of good ADM. However,they
representonly about 10 percent of the important
processof learning and putting ADM into practice.
The other 90 percentcan be achievedonly throughcompletion of all of the situation exercisesin theappropriate manual (i.e., Student/Private, Instrument, Commercial, etc.) and applying the principles learned to each and every flight. Some
examplesof the reinforcementexercisesfrom eachof the manuals follow. These are presentedas
examples of the types of decision errors whichhave contributed to accidentsin the past.
\.
I

HAZARDOUS
ATTITUDE
Antiauthority:
tell me.

Don’t(1) Situation: As you enter the landing
pattern, you normally lower the flaps. The towersuddenly changesthe active -runway. Distracted,
you forget to use the before-landingchecklist. On
short final you find yourself dangerouslylow witha high sink rate. Glancing down, you realize thatyou forgot to extend the flaps. Which of the following alternativesbest illustrates the impulsivity
reaction?
(i) You feel that nothing is goingto happenbecauseyou have made intentional
no-flap landings before.

.,(ii) You laugh and think, “Boy, thislow approachwill impress people on the ground.”t(iii) You think that using a checklist
is a stupid requirement.

ANTIDOTE
Follow the rules. They
are usually right.

Impulsivi ty: Do
something quickly.

Not so fast. Think
first.

Invulnerability: It
won’t happen to me.

It could happen to me.

Macho: I can do it.

Taking chances isfoolish.

Resignation: What’s
the use?

I’m not helpless. I canmake a difference.

,a. The Impulsivity Hazardous Attitude.

(iv) You immediately grab the flap
handle and add full flaps.
(v) You think that it all dependson
whether you get an updraft or downdraft now.
/

(2) Explanation of Alternatives:h

FIGURE 4. THE FIVE ANTIDOTES
17. INSTRUCTIONSFOR USING REINFORCEMENT EXERCISES. Read each of thefollowing situations. At the end of eachsituation,an alternative should be selectedwhich best illustratesthe reactions of a pilot who is thinking aparticular hazardous attitude. After the mostappropriate alternative is selected, refer to the
explanation of alternatives page for the proper
response. This page will provide the correct
answer. If the selectionis accurate,proceedto thenext situation. If an incorrect alternative wasselected, the reader should review the situation
again and select another alternative. Repeat theexerciseuntil the correct alternativeis selected.

(i) Feeling that nothing bad canhappen suggests the invulnerability hazardous
attitude (it won’t happen to me). Go back to thesituation and select anotheralternative.
(ii) When you are thinking about
impressingpeopleon the ground, watch out for themacho hazardousattitude (I can do it). This cancost you dearly. Go back to the situation andselect anotheralternative.
(iii) Thinking that checklists arestupid suggeststhat you feel that aircraft designers,
the Government,and your instructor, all of whomurge the use of checklists, are wrong. This suggeststhe antiauthorityhazardousattitude(don’t tellme). Go back to the situation and select anotheralternative.

Chap 3
12

Par 16

AC 600 22

12/13/91(iv) Right! Immediately adding full
flaps without thinking is an example of theimpulsivity hazardous attitude (do something
quickly). Unfortunately,in this situation, full flaps
will probably only increasethe sink rate. Go on to
the next situation.
(v) If you areconvinced that it is up
to the wind, this implies the hazardousattitude ofresignation (what’s the use). Go back to thesituation and select anotheralternative.
(3) A Good Attitude. Distractionscan be
dangerous-always use your checklist.
b.

The Antiauthority

Hazardous

Attitude.

(1) Situation: You approachthe VOR
and the controller asks if you want to executethe
entire VOR procedureor will you accept a rightturn of more than 90’ to intercept the final approach course. You state that you will make theturn directly onto final at 2,000 feet although thiswill pressyou to get properly establishedon final.
Which of the following alternativesbest illustrates
the antiauthority reaction?
(i) It was not your idea to make theapproachlike this.
(ii) A controller is not going to
influence the way I fly.
(iii) You do not need the full approach;you know you are a good instrumentpilot.
(iv) You are in a hurry and do notwish to bother with the full approach.
(v) You know the controllerswill be
impressedwith this approach.
(2) Explanation of Alternatives.
(i) By assuming someoneelse has
responsibility for your approach,you exhibit the
resignation attitude (what’s the use?). Go back tothe situation and select anotheralternative.

Chap 3

Par 17(ii) Right! The regulations are forsomeone else attitude assumes controllers areinterfering with your business. You are thinking inan antiauthority manner. Go--on to the next situation.
(iii) Here you are taking the invulnerability stand (it won’t happen to me). You
think of yourself as invulnerable. Go back to thesituation and select anotheralternative.
(iv) This is the impulsivity hazardous
attitude (I must act now, there’s no time). Go
back to the situation and selectanotheralternative.
(v) The desire to impress anotherinfluences your decision. This is the macho
attitude (I’ll show you - I can do it). Go back tothe situation and select anotheralternative.
(3) A GoodAttitude. Make as much time
available on an approachas possible. You may
need it.
c.

The Macho Hazardous

Attitude.

(1) Situation: On a trip to the west
coast, you make an en route refueling stop at an
airport in the Rockies. After refueling, the density
altitude prior to your departure is reported as
10,500feet. You are at maximum takeoff weight
when you depart. At the presentrate of climb, youwill just barely clearthe minimum crossingaltitude(MCA) at the next intersectionon your flight route.
Which of the following alternativesbest illustrates
the macho reaction?
(i) There is really nothing you cando about it; it is up to air traffic control (ATC) tomake sure you clear.
(ii) The MCA’s have plenty ofleeway for clearance. So what if you are a little
low.
(iii) You are a good pilot and will
make it.

13

AC 60022

12/13/91(i) It’s too late to fix it now.

(iv) When you see that you cannot
climb enough, you immediately inform ATC ofyour situation without determining your intentions.

(ii) You can handle a little problem
like this.

(v) Mountain flying is not any
different from any other flying and you have neverrun into any problems before. Nothing will happen.

(iii) What’s the worst that could
happen?
(iv) I certainly didn’t break it. It ’s
not my fault.

(2) xplanation of Alternatives.
(i) Assuming someone else isresponsible for you is the resignation hazardous
attitude. Go back to the situation and selectanotheralternative.

(v) You barely need the pressurization at the filed altitude anyway.
(2) Explanation of Alternatives.

(ii) This is the antiauthority hazardous attitude (don’t tell me). Go back to the situation and select anotheralternative.

(i) This is the impulsivity hazardous
attitude (there’s no time - I must do something
quickly). Go back to the situation and selectanotheralternative.

(iii) Right! Thinking I’ll show you I can do it, is the macho hazardousattitude.

(ii) This is the macho hazardous
attitude showing through (I can do it). Go back tothe situation and select anotheralternative.

(iv) Acting before thinking, this is
the impulsivity hazardousattitude (do something
quickly). Go back to the situation and selectanotheralternative.

(iii) Right! Nothing bad is going tohappento you becauseof your invulnerability. Go
on to the next situation.

(v) This is the invulnerability hazardousattitude (it won’t happento me). Go backto the situation and select anotheralternative.

(iv) This is the resignationhazardous
attitude - what’s the use?- where someoneelse isresponsible. Go back to the situation and selectanotheralternative.

(3) A Good Attitude. Be aware of yourlimitations and don’t exceedthem.
d.

The Invulnerability

Hazardous

Attitude.

(1) Situation: While preflighting thepressurization system, you discover that the rateadjustment control is inoperative. Knowing thatyou can manually control the cabin pressure,you
opt to disregard this discrepancy and depart onyour trip. You will have to handle the system
yourself. Which of the following alternativesbest
illustrates the invulnerability
reaction?

14(v) This type of thinking is characteristic of the antiauthority attitude (rules andregulations are made to be broken). Go back tothe situation and select anotheralternative.
(3) A Good Attitude. Settle for nothing
less than full operating systems.
e. The Resignation

Hazardous

Attitude.

(1) Situation: Your copilot shows up for
duty and you notice that the copilot’s behavior is

Chap 3
Par 17

AC 60-22

12/13/91
somewhatout of the ordinary. You know your copilot has had a cold. When questioned,the copilot said maybe it was the antihistamine thathe/she took the night before. Although youraircraft requires a crew of two, you decide toignore your copilot’s drowsiness and inattention.
Which of the following alternativesbest illustrates
the resignation reaction?
anyway.

(i) You could fly this jet by yourself-(ii) You two have flown together
many times, and everythinghasalways worked outfine.

(2) Explanation of Alternatives.
(i) This is a trait of the macho
hazardousattitude (I can do it). Go back to thesituation and select anotheralternative.
(ii) This is the invulnerability attitude(it won’t happento me). Go back to the situationand select anotheralternative.
(iii) Right! When you feel as if it isout of your control, you are exhibiting the resignation hazardousattitude.

(iii) What else can you do? He was
assignedthis flight too.

(iv) This is the antiauthority hazardous attitude (the rules and regulations don’t apply
to me). Go back to the situation and selectanotheralternative.

(iv) He/she might not be within theregulations, but he/she says he/she’s okay andthat’s what counts.

(v) This is
the impulsivi ty
hazardous attitude (do something quickly). Go
back to the situation and select anotheralternative.

(v) There is really no time to callanothercopilot now.

(3) A Good Attitude. Don’t let othersdo
your thinking for you.

Chap 3
Par 1715 (and 16)

AC 60-22

u/13/91

CHAPTER

4. STRESS AND FLYING

18. WHAT IS STRESS?
Stressis a term used stress-adaption
limitations.Whenwe exceedthis
to describethe body’s nonspecificresponseto level, stressoverloadmay lead-- to poor healthor
demands
placedon it, whetherthesedemands
are illness.
pleasantor unpleasantin nature.The demandsona pilot can range from unexpectedwindshear 20. IS STRESS BAD? Stressis a response
to aencounteredon a landingto a lostwallet. Piloting set of circumstancesthat inducesa changein a
the aircraftis thepilot’sresponsibility.Therefore, pilot’scurrentphysiologicaland/orpsychologicala healthypilot shouldperformat his/heroptimum patternsof functioningforcingthepilot to adaptto
level and makedecisionsto the best of his/her thesechanges.Stressis an inevitableandnecesability. Numerousphysicaland physiological sarypart of life that addsmotivationto life andconditionsin a pilot’s personaland professional heightens
a pilot’sresponse
to meetanychallenge.
life, as well as the natureof flight itself, can In fact, performanceof a task will generallyimhamperthis ability. Eventhougha pilot holdsa provewith the onsetof stress,but will peakand
medicalcertificatestatingthat the pilot meetsthe then begin to degraderapidly as stresslevels
healthrequirements
for a particulartype of flight exceeda pilot’s adaptiveabilitiesto handlethe
operation,the decisionwhetherthe pilot is fit to situation
fly is strictlythe pilot’s.
21. HANDLINGSTRESS IN FLYING.

Acci-

dentsoften occurwhenflying task requirements
exceeda pilot’scapabilities.A superiorpilot uses
a. If you hop to succeed
at reducingstress superiorjudgmentto avoid stressfulsituations
associatedwith crisis managementin the air or whichmight call for useof superiorskills. The
with yourjob, it is essential
to beginby makinga differencebetweenpilot capabilitiesandtask repersonalassessmentof stressin all areasof your quirements
is the marginof safety(figure 5). In
life. Youmay facemajorstressorssuchasa loss this example,themarginof safetyis minimaldurof income, seriousillness,death of a family ing the approach
underidealconditions.For thismember,changein residence,or birth of a baby, pilot, a coldandfatiguemay reducethe minimalplus a multitudeof comparatively
minor positive marginof safetyaswell asthe over%llmarginof
andnegativestressors.Thesemajor and minor safetythroughoutthe flight.
stressors
haveacumulative
effectwhichconstitutes
yourtotalstress-adaption
capabilitywhichcanvarya. Wess is insidious. Stresshasa gradualfrom year to year. To enhanceyour awareness and cumulativeeffect that developsslowly, so
aboutthe sourcesof stressin your life, the life slowly that stresscan.bewell established
beforechangeprofile questionnaire(appendix5) is pre- becomingapparent.A pilot maythink that he/she
sented.Placea checkin the Happened columnif is handlingeverythingquite well, when in fact
you haveexperienced
the eventdescribedin the there are subtlesignsthat the pilot is beyond
last 12months.Totalyour scoreat the endof the his/herabilityto respondappropriately.
questionnaire.
b. Stressis cumulative. A generalized
stressb. The more change you have, the more reactioncan developas a result of accumulated
likely you areto suffera declinein health. As a stress.Thereis a limit to a pilot’sadaptivenature.
ruleof thumb,if youscoreover20 checks,mostly Thislimit, the stresstolerancelevel,is basedon ain the top half of the checklist, you have an pilot’s ability to copewith the situation. If the
80 percentchanceof a serioushealthchange.If
numberor intensityof the stressorsbecomestoo
you have about20 checksdistributedover the great,the pilot is susceptible
to an environmental
checklist,you haveabouta 50 percentchanceof overload. At this point, a pilot’s performanceillnessin thenearfuture. Eachof ushaspersonal beginsto declineandjudgmentdeteriorates.
19. HOW MUCH

Chap 4
Par 18

STRESS IS IN YOUR

LIFE?

17

AC 60-22

12/13/91

REQUIREMENTS

PRE FLIGHT

HOVER

TAKE

OFF

CRUISETIME

FIGUREAPPROACH&LANDING

HOVER

I----==

5. THE MARGIN OF SAFETY

c. Signs of inadequate coping. The indicators of excessive
stressoften showasthreetypes(1) Becomeknowledgeable
aboutstress.

d. Life StressManagement. There aremany
techniquesavailable that can help reducethe stressin yourlife or helpyoucopewith it better.Not allof the following ideasmay be the solution,butsome of themshouldbe effectivefor you.

e. Cockpit Stress Management. Good
cockpitstressmanagement
beginswith good life
stressmanagement.Many of the stress coping
techniques
practicedfor life stressmanagementarenot usuallypracticalin flight. Rather,you must
conditionyourselfto relax and think rationallyof symptoms:(1) emotional,(2) physical,and(3)(2) Takea realisticassessmentof yourbehavioral. Thesesymptomsdiffer depending self.
upon whetheraggression
is focusedinwardor outward. Thoseindividualswho typicallyturn their(3) Takea systematicapproachto probaggressive
feelingsinwardoften demonstrate
the lem solving.
emotionalsymptomsof depression,
preoccupation,sadness,
andwithdrawal.Theindividualwhotypi(4) Developa life style that will buffercally takesout frustrationon otherpeopleor ob- againsttheeffectsof stress.
jects exhibitsfew physicalsymptoms. On theotherhand,emotionalsymptomsmayshowup as(5) Practicebehavioral
management
techovercompensation,
denial, suspicion,paranoia, niques.
agitation,restlessness,
defensiveness,
excesssensitivity to criticism, argumentativeness,arrogance,(6) Establishand maintain a strong
andhostility.
supportnetwork.

18

Chap 4
Par 21

12/13/91

AC 60~ 22

when stressappears.The following checklist outlines somethoughtson cockpit stressmanagement.
(1) Avoid situations that distract you
from flying the aircraft.

right now?” If the pilot cannot answer with anabsolute“yes,” then the pilot should not fly. The
following checklist is intended for a pilot’s personal preflight use. A pilot may elect to caky acopy in his/her flight bag and onboardthe aircraft.

(2) Reduce your workload to reducestress levels. This will create a proper environment in which to make good decisions.

(1) Do I feel well? Is there anything
wrong with me at all?

(3) Xan emergencydoesoccur,becalm.
Think for a moment,weigh the alternatives,then(2) Have I taken any medication in thelast 12 hours?

act.
(4) Maintain proficiency in your aircraft;
proficiency builds confidence. Familiarize yourself
thoroughly with your aircraft, its systems, andemergencyprocedures.

(3) Have I had as little as one ounce ofalcohol in the last 12 hours?
(4) Am I tired? Did I get a good night’s
sleep last night?

(5) Know and respectyour own personal
limits.
(6) Do not let little mistakes bother you
until they build into a big thing. Wait until after
you land, then “debrief’ and analyzepast actions.
(7) If flying is adding to your stress,
either stop flying or seek professional help tomanageyour stresswithin acceptablelimits.
f. Flight Fitness. A “Go/No-Go” decision
is made before each flight. The pilot should not
only preflight check the aircraft, but also
his/herself on each and every flight. A pilot
should ask, “Could I passmy medical examination

Chap 4
Par 21(5) Am I under undue stress? Am I
emotional right now?
(6) Have I eaten a sensible meal andtaken in a good load of protein? Do I have aprotein snack, such as cheese, meat or nuts,
aboard?
(7) Am I dehydrated?Do I needto takenoncarbonatedliquids such as wateror fruit juices?
(8) Am I equipped with sunglasses,ear
protectors,appropriateclothing?

19 (and 20)

AC 609 22

12/13/91
-

’

-

.

CHAPTER

5. RISK MANAGEMENT

22. ASSESSING
RISK. Riskmanagement
is the The DecideModel,comprisedof a six stepproresponsibilityof everyoneinvolvedin aviation. cess,is intendedto providethepilot with a logicaldecisionmaking.TheQecide
Theflight operations
manager,
for example,whois wayof approaching
facedwith thedecisionastojust howhardto push Model is described in greater detail in’a pilot to go, becomesa partyto the risk manage- DOT/FAA/PM-86/43, Aeronautical Decision
ment process. It is understandablefrom an Makingfor InstrumentPilots.
economicpointof viewthatthemail,checks,boss,
passenger,whatever,must get through. Thisb. The six elements of the DecideModelquestion“Is the successof the task worth the represent
a continuous
loopdecision
processwhichrisk?”mustalwaysbekeptin mindduringdecision canbeusedto assista pilot in thedecisionmaking
making. Risk managementin ADM is discussed processwhenhe/sheis facedwith a changein ain detail in DOT/FAA/PM-86/43,Aeronautical situationthat requiresa judgment. This Decide
DecisionMakingfor InstrumentPilots.
Modelisprimarilyfocusedontheintellectualcomponent,butcanhaveanimpactonthemotivational
componentof judgmentas well. If a pilot prac23. THE DECIDE MODEL.
ticesthe DecideModelin all decisionmaking,its
usecan becomevery naturalandcouldresult ina. A good fool to usein makinggoodaero- better decisionsbeingmadeunderall types ofnauticaldecisions
is theDecideModel (figure6). situations.

1. Detect. Thedecisionmakerdetectsthe fact that changehasoccurred.
2. Estimate.Thedecisionmakerestimates
the needto counteror reactto the change.
3. Choose.Thedecisionmakerchoosesa desirableoutcome(in termsof success)for the flight.
4. Identify. Thedecisionmakeridentifiesactionswhichcouldsuccessfully
controlthe change.
5. Do. Thedecisionmakertakesthenecessary
action.
6. Evaluate.Thedecisionmakerevaluates
the effect(s)of his actioncounteringthe change.
FIGURE 6. The DECIDE MODEL

Chap 5
Par 2221 (and 22)

12/13/91

AC 60-22

CHAPTER

6. IDENTIFYING

24. GENERAL.
a. Most preventable accidents have one
common factor: human error, rather than a me:
chanical malfunction. Pilots who are involved in
accidentsgenerally know what went wrong. Veryoften, the pilot was aware of the possible hazards
when the decision the pilot made led to the wrong
course of action. In the interest of expediency,
cost savings, self-gratification, or other often
irrelevant factors, the incorrect course of action
was chosen. This cycle of decisions began at theflight planning desk with decisions made on how
much fuel to carry, the route, the alternateroute,and adequate weather conditions. This cycle
continues throughout the flight with decisions
made on speed, altitude, and when to descend.
Each flight is a sequenceof choices with certain
milestones in the sequencethat require particulardetermination and discretion.
b. Flying is rapidly changing from a physical to a mental task. Initial instruction to manipulate and control an aircraft requiresapproximately
1 to 2 years. However, training to command an
aircraft intelligently involves a decadeor two ofexperienceand periodic recurrenttraining. ADM
is designedto reducethe extremely long andsometimes painful process of learning how to makegood judgment decisions based upon experiencealone. While it is true that simple errors of equipment operation are seldom serious, mistakes injudgment can be fatal.
CHECKLIST.
One essential
decision point before a flight is the checklist ofbasic principles that cannotbe compromised. This
personal checklist should include the fundamental
tenets applicable to every flight. Once a pilot
decideswhat not to do, the decision on what needs
to be done becomesclear. Consider the following
never’s as factors that contribute significantly tounsafe flight:
25. PERSONAL

a. Flight while under the influence ofalcohol or drugs, including applicable prescription
drugs, is a never. Several drinks of an alcoholic
beveragewill influence thought and reaction for

THE ENEMY

approximately 24 hours, while heavy drinking will
have lingering effects for up to 36 hours or longer.
Effects from the use of marijuana remain in thesystem for at least a week. The concept should be
obvious that flight safety is measurably compromised within thosetime periods. The side effects
and duration of all prescription drugs are well
documentedand available from a local pharmacist,
the family physician, a drug addiction agency,orthe SurgeonGeneral.
b. Flight with a known medical deficiency
is never expedientor legal (FAR 6 61.53).
c. Flight outside the certified flight envelope
is never safe. Weight, balance,speed,maneuvers,
G-loading, and flight in known icing should be
limited to flight manual parameters. Beyond that,you are in the wilderness and all discoveriescould
be unhappyexperiences.
d. Flight with less than the required minimum fuel is never reasonable. The applicable
FAR’s are sufficiently liberal.
Twenty or
30 minutes fuel in VFR conditions (dependingon
aircraft category) and acceptable IFR reserves
should be adequateto provide for contingencies.
e. VFRjZight into instrumentmeteorologicalconditions is neverjustified.
f. Descent below the applicable minimum
enroutealtitude anywhereis neverjustified.
g. Casual neglect of any applicablechecklist
is never justified. A checklist may be larger orsmaller, however, certain standards should beestablishedfor all flights so that the first decision
point is whether or not to begin the flight. Thiscan be the toughestdecision.

h. Aircraft accident statistics show thatpilots should be conducting preflight checklists onthemselvesas well as their aircraft. Pilot impairment contributesto many more accidentsthan failures of aircraft systems. The following version of
the “I’M SAFE” personalchecklist (figure 7) contains all of the most common categoriesof pilot

Chap 6
Par 2423

AC 60-22

12/13/91

impairmentand can easily be committed tomemory.
26. HOWTO BE A SAFE PILOT.

a. A p&t doesnot haveto bea geniusto bea safepilot. However,a pilot shouldbe anemo-

1. Illness.
2. Medication.
3. Stress.
4. Alcohol.

5. Fatigue.
6. Eating.

smoking,speeding,overeating,etc.), the pilot is,
nonetheless,drivenby his or her own emotions.
d. Existing rules would go a long way toremedythe accidentrate; however,personality
traitsthatcauseirrationalbehavioralsomakepilots
pmneto disregard
the rulesthatwouldassuresafe
operations.

Do I haveanysymptoms?
HaveI beentakingprescriptionor over-the-counter
drugs?
Am I underpsychologicalpressurefrom the job? Do I havemoney,health,orfamily problems?
Have-I-been
drinkingwithin 8 hours?Within24 hours?
Am I tired andnot adequately
rested?
HaveI eatenenoughof the properfoodsto keepadequately
nourishedduringthe
entireflight?
FIGURE 7. The Y’M

SAFE”

Checklist

tionallystablepersonwho canacceptthe fact thate. When a pilot exhibits oneor moreof thehe/sheis not in possessionof all factsor skillsfor five hazardous
attitudesor irrationalbehavior,thatall situationsandbe willing to acceptthe recom- pilot may alsobe exposingany emotionalweakmendationsof thosewho specialize
in evaluating, nessesin his/herpersonality.
assessing,andadministering
aviationprocedures.
27. DEVELOPMENTOF GOOD DECISION
b. Reaching QI consensus on all matters MAKING SKILLS.
within the aviationcommunitycanprovedifficult,if not impossible.Eventhoughthe rulesandproa. The developmentof gooddecisionmakceduresaredesigned
to servemostof the people ing skills is far more difficult than developing
mostof thetime, a pilot canalwaysarguefor dif- goodflying skills,but it canbedone. Goodjudgferentwaysof doingthings. An experienced,
ma- mentmaymeannot flying while underthe influturepilot will acceptandfollow therulesandpro- enceof anymedication,whenit is too windy,orcedureswhichwill benefittheaviationcommunity. refusinga revenueflight when it would require
The immature,emotionallyunbalanced
pilot has flying in marginalweather.
strong tendenciesto satisfy a personalneed
regardlessof the consequences.
b. Many pilots fuil to makeproperdecisions;sometimesdue to a lack of knowledge,but too
c. Some pilots break rules simply for the oftentheresultof a humantendencyto rationalize
immediategratificationof someemotionalneed. a situationuntil it appears
justifiable.Whena pilot
Eventhoughthe pilot may know that this emo- reallywantsto do something(suchasloadingthat
tionalneedis not considereda healthyhabit(e.g., onelastpassenger
whencloseto maximumgross

24

Chap 6
Par 25‘,

12/13/91

AC 600 22.

weight, or performing a high speed,low altitudepass),the pilot can generally make himself/herself
believethat it was all right to do it. A pilot can be
his/her own worst enemy.

When a pilot operatesan aircraft, human lives areheld in the balance. Therefore,a pilot has a moral
responsibility to operate in the safest possible
manner.
-c. In addition to the FAR, AC’s, articles in
e. Aviation has reacheda new plateau. Acmagazines, books written by expert pilots and quiring aeronauticalknowledge, airmanship skills,
instructors, Pilot Proficiency Programs, Airman’s and proficiency arerelatively easy. Navigation has
Information Manual, NOTAM’s, Airworthiness been reduced to calculator simplicity. Modem
Directives, and Biennial Flight Reviews, there are autopilotsandelectronicdisplays havesignificantly
some do’s and do not’s that can ensurethe preven- reduced a pilot’s workload. Today’s technology
tion of most accidents. All of this information is requiresadministrativemanagementand aeronautisafety-oriented.Not following this safety-oriented cal decision making skills as prerequisites for
information is similar to not following the advice safety and efficiency.
of a doctor or lawyer.
d. The most important decision a pilot will
make is to learn and adhere to published rules,
procedures, and recommendations. Pilots, bylearning and adheringto thesepublished rules andprocedures,can take most hazardsout of flying.

Chap 6
Par 27

28. SUCCESSFUL DECISION
MAKING.
Successful decision making is measured by apilot’s consistent ability to keep himself/herself,
any passengers,and the aircraft in good condition
regardlessof the conditions of any given flight.

25 (and 26)

AC 609 22

12/13/91..

CHAPTER

7. TEACHING

ADM

29. PURPOSE. TheADM manualfor Instructor 32. PRINCIPLESOF ADM TRAINING.
Pilots (DOT/FAA/PM-86/W)containsall of thenecessarybackgroundmaterialto teacheffectively
a. The ADM manual forstudentandprivate
the subjectmaterialof the companion
publication pilotsis simpleandrepetitivefor two reasons:entitled“Aeronautical
DecisionMakingfor Student
andPrivatePilots” (DOT/FAA/PM-86/41).This(1) The simplicity provides frequent
chapterprovidesa brief introductionandoverview positivereinforcement;
andon the processof teachingADM.
(2) Therepetitionbuildsgoodjudgment
30. BACKGROUND.
The instructor’sADM habitsand&reshesmemoryso that information
trainingmanualis a resultof 10yearsof research, canbe readilyrecalledin a varietyof circumstandevelopment,
testing,andevaluationof the effec- ces,evenwhenunderstress.
tivenessof judgmentanddecisionmaking. It is arevisionof the prototypepublication“Judgment
TrainingManualfor InstructorPilots,”whichwasb. The scenatios in the studentandprivate
developed
jointlyby theFederal
AviationAdminis- pilot ADM manualshouldstimulatethe student’s
tration, General Aviation Manufacturers interestandappreciationof the needfor goodpilot
Association,
andTransportCanadain an effort to judgmentandADM.
improvegeneralaviationsafety.
c. The instructor hasa profoundeffecton a
31. THE FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR’SROLE IN
studentasa rolemodelandasanopinionshaper.
ADM

TRAINING.

(1) Use of the ADM conceptsto guidea. Although the information in this chapter conversations
with the studentfocusesthe instrucis designedto helppilots overcomea varietyof tion onjudgment-related
trainingandincreases
thecircumstances
whichmayresultin poorpilotjudg- student’s
abilityto provideself-generated
feedback.
ment,theflight instructoris thekeyelementof thisprogram. The flight instructor’sattitude andapproachto flying may often influencestudents(2) Knowinghow to recognizeand remorethananyspecificlesson.By alwayssetting spondto hazardous
attitudesandhighstressis very
a goodexampleandby givingstudents
supportand importantto exercisinggoodpilotjudgment. The
encouragement
throughoutthis program,a flight instructorshouldencourage
thestudentto develop
instructorhelpsstudentsdevelopgoodjudgment theseskillsbut, in doingso, shouldneverattempt
andsoundflying practices.
to analyzeor modifythe student’spersonality.
b. To help prepare for this role, thought
shouldbe given to the differencesbetweenthe
instructoras an evaluatorand the instructorascoach. Theevaluatorseeshis/herrole as oneof
tellingthe studentwhatto do,thenmonitoringthe
student’sperformance.In contrast,think of the
instructorin a slightlydifferentperspective;
someone who activelystimulateslearning,suchas a“coach.” The instructornot only makesassignmentsandobserves
the results,he/shealsohelps
the studentlearnthroughdemonstration
andpersonalized
instruction.

Chap 7
Par 29(3) The student learns conceptsand
behavioraltechniques
andrepeatedlyappliesthis
learningto relevantflight situationsduringgroundandflight training.
d. The basic instructional principles which
follow aresimple,but application
doestakesome
practice. Whenyou first try to applythem you
mayfeelsomewhatawkward,but youwill become
morecomfortablewith them eventually.After a
few months, the use of theseprinciples will
becomeautomatic.

27

AC 60-22

12/13/91(1) Behaviorpositivelyreinforcedwill
continue.

(1) “PreflightandAircraftSystems”after
aircraftandaircraftsystems.

(2) Behaviorfollowed by punishment(2) “Weight/Balance
and Performance”
maydecrease.
after performanceandwei@ andbalance.
tives.

(3) Beveryspecificaboutleamingobjec-(4) Reinforcegenerouslyin the earlystagesof learning.

(3) “OfficialPxwedures
andCommunications” afterairportsandcommunications,aviation
regulations,andtheAirman’sInformationManualin Canada- the AIR(4) “Cross-CountryFlying” after basic(5) Shiftslowlyfromcontinuous
to occa- navigationandradionavigation.
sionalreinforcement.
(5) “PhysiologicalFactors and Night(6) Shapeexistingbehaviorinto desired Flying” after medicalfactors and cross-country
behavior.
flying.

b. Description of Mate&L Eachsectionof
Chapter8 of theAeronautical
DecisionMakingfor
Student and Private Pilots documentpresentsa. Generali Studentsmust be exposedto exerciseswhich test the student’sjudgmentand
this materialearly in their pilot training,ideally decisionmaking knowledgein the previously
during the first quarterof the studentstandard mentioned
topicareas.Theseexercises
requirethe
privatepilot trainingcourse.
studentto usethetermsandconceptslearnedin all
previouslessons.Encourage
thestudents
to reviewb. Description of Mate&l in the Student
earliermaterialasnecessary.
After thestudenthas
and P&ate Manual (DOTlF~lPM-86l41). 7&ecompletedeachsection,discussthe answers;No
approaches
arepresented
in thismanualto improve answerkey is provided,but bear in mind that,the pilot’sjudgmentand decisionmakingskills. althoughresponses
to mostof the questionsmay
The first approachpresentsan analyticalmethod be relativelyobvious,thereareno absolutelyrightfor makingdecisions
andevaluatingrisk (Chapters or wronganswers.
2 and3). Thesecondapproach(Chapters4,s and6) addresses
the pilot’s hazardousattitudesand 35. IN-FLIGHT
INSTRUCTION:
THE LESsubstitutesoneswhich promotegoodjudgment. SON PLANS.
The third approach(Chapter7) dealswith overcominghigh stresswhich reducesjudgmentand
a. General. How doesa flight instructor
decisionmakingabilities.
combineeducational
principleswith the concepts
in thismanualto improvea student’s
judgmentand
34. TEACHING
THE APPLICATION
EXERdecisionmaking?By givingthestudenta seriesof
CISES.
practical,“hands-on”lessons
in whichyouobserve
performance
andresponseto specificbehavior.Do
a. GeneraL The followingmaterial,con- not commenton intentionsor motivations. Use
tained in Chapter 8 of DOT/FAA/PM-86/41, rewards(praise)frequentlyand avoid criticism
AeronauticalDecisionMaking for Studentand (punishment)as much as possible. Errors orPrivatePilots,shouldbe integrated,whereappro- misjudgments
by the studentshouldbe viewedas
priate,into the topicsof the conventional
ground opportunitiesfor learning,not as occasionsfor
trainingsyllabus.
criticism.
33. TEACHINGTHEASPECTS OF ADM.

BEHAVIORAL‘, .

12/13/91

AC 60922

b. The Lessons.

studentto makean unsafejudgmentor decision.
Why? Because
it is importantfor the studentto(1) In thisunit, whileon routinetraining becomeskilledat recognizing
andreplacinghazarflights, you will give your students“activities” dous attitudesand unsafetendencieswith good
designedto furtherdeveloptheir appreciation
for. judgmentbehavior.
-thedecisionmakingconcepts
baseduponanactual
preflightor in-flight“hands-on”experience.
37. TYPICAL TRAINING SCENARIOS. This
(2) Take15minutesor so for your own sectionof the instructor’smanualprovidesa narpreparation
thefirst few timesyouwork with each rativeof a typicaljudgmenttrainingsession.You
lesson.
mightfind it usefulin formulatingyour own ideas
for conducting
yourownjudgmenttrainingflights.
(3) Startthelessons
whenthestudenthas As mentionedearlier,all necessarypreparation
theabilityto controltheaircraftconfidentlyduring shouldbecompleted
beforethestudent’sexpected
the most basic maneuvers. Use your own arrivaltime.
judgment,but a suggested
startingpoint is about
threeflight lessonsbeforeyou expectthe student
38. MANAGEMENT OF ADM TRAINING.
to solo.
(4) At leastthreelessons
eachareneededa. This training program is morethanjust
to teach risk assessment
in decisionmaking, a collectionof relatedfactsandideasfor students
hazardous
attituderecognition,andstressmanage- to learn. It is a carefullydesigned
educational
sysment, for a total of nine lessons. Eachlesson tem. Using this integratedsystemproducesan
shouldtakeno morethan5 minutesandshouldbe overallresultgreaterthanthat attainableby ranintegratedinto thenormall-to-2 hourflight train- dom presentationof the individudlparts. To
achievethemaximumbenefitsof this system,you
ing period.
mustmanagethe instructioncarefully.
(5) The instructor’s ADM manual
provides18 lessonplansfor in-flight teachingof
b. The material&presentedin this chapterof
the instructor’smanualarelistedbelow. Theyare
thesementalprocesses.
designed
to aid both the individualinstructorand
36. IN-FLIGHT
INSTRUCTION:
THE
thetrainingsupervisor
for a groupof flight instructors; i.e., the chiefpilot engaged
in decisionmakTRAINING SCENARIO.
decision
ing trainingactivities. The aeronauticala. Purpose. Thepurposeof this chapterof makingtrainingmaterialsare:theinstructor’smanualis to furtherencourage
thestudentto use judgment and decisionmaking
skills. Yourdutiesaretwo-fold; (1) youmustset(1) Scheduleof StudentWork. A mastertrainingactivitiesfor students.
up situationsto stimulatethe student’sdecision planfor schedulingmakingprocess,and (2) you must respondto
studentbehaviorin a mannerthat encourages
safe(2) Set of Master Copies. Original
documentsof all the instructionalmaterialsand
judgmentsanddecisions.
formsrequiredto teachthis trainingcurriculum.
b. The Scenarios. Practice situations,providedin this sectionof the manual,create(3) Answer Keys for the Postcheck
Exercises.
circumstancesthat may actuallyencouragetheChap 7
Par 35
(and

29
30)

? p1? PP

IIIII

Y.

0
=I

? a? PP

? a9

IIIII

IIIII

IIIII

? a? PP)

? a9

? a9

IIIII

IIIII

PP

PP

? a9

PP

PP

IIIII

,cDa9

Fe>

IIIII

AC 60-22

Appendix 2

12/13/91

APPENDIX2. SCORING FORMSITUATION SCALE I

SCALE IISCALEIIISCALEIVSCALE V

1.

e

a

d

2.

d

e

C

15

3.

C

d

b

15

4.

e

C

a

15

5.

a

b

e

15

6.

a

b

e

15

Items1-6
Subtotal
7.

C

8.

a

15

9.

e

15

10.

d

b

15

Items7-10
Subtotal
Items l-10
GrandTotal

1

AC GO-22
Appendix 3

12/13/91

APPENDIX 3. ATTITUDE PROFILESCALE ISCALE IISCALE IVSCALE IIISCALE V

50

SO

50

50

50 c Mark X’s hclow
this line il’ youanswered ;rll ten
situations

40

40

40

40

40

30

30

30

30

30 t Mark X’s hclow
this line if you
only answcrcd
situations one thru
SiX

20

20

20

20

20 t

Mark X’s below
this line il’ you
only answcrcd
situation
scvcn
ten

10

Antiauthority

10

Impulsivity

10

Invulnerabflity

10

Macho

thru

10

Resignation1

AC 60-22
Appendix 1

12/13/91
APPENDIXHAZARDOUS

4. ANTIDOTE

THOUGHTRECALL EXERCISEANTIDOTE.

--ANTIAUTHORITY=
IMPULSIVITY=INVULNERAB&ITYz
J

MACHO:

1

AC 60-22.

12/13/91

Appendix

APPENDIX
Item No.

5. LIFE

Happened (X)

1.
2.
3
4:
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10 .
11
12:
13
14:
15.
16.
17 .
18 .
19 .
20 .
21 .
22 .
23 .
24 .
25 .
26 .
27 .
28 .
29 .
30 .
31 .
32 .
33 .
34 .
35 .
36 .
37 .
38 .
39 .
40 .
41 .
42 .
43 .
44 .

EVENTS

5

STRESS TESTLife Event
Death of a spouse
Divorce
Marital Separation
Jail term
Death of close family member
Personal injury
Marriage
Lost your job
Marital reconciliation
Retirement
Change in health of family member
Pregnancy
Sex difficulties
Gain of new family member
Business - budgets, schedules, deadlines
Change in fmancial state
Family member on drugs or alcohol
Death of close friend
Change to different line of work
Change in number of arguments with spouse or partner
Mortgage or loan over $10,000
Foreclosure of mortgage or loan
Change in responsibilities at work
Son or daughter leaving home
Trouble with in-laws or partner’s family
Outstanding personal achievement
Spouse or partner begins or stops work
You begin or end work
Change in living conditions
Revision of personal habits
Trouble with boss or instructor
Change in work hours or conditions
Change in residence
Change in school or teaching institution
Change in recreational activities
Change in church activities
Change in social activities
Mortgage or loan less than $10,000
Change in sleeping habits
Change in number of family social events
Change in eating habits
Vacation
Christmas
Minor violations of the law

Total number of checks for the past 12 months.

1*U.S. Government

Printing Office: 1996 - 405571/55733

U.S.Depaftmentof TransportaM
Federal Am
Adminis?rufion
800 Independence
Ave., S.W.
Washington,
D.C. 20591

FORWARDING
AND RETURN* POSTAGEGUARANTEED

Official Business
Penalty for Private

Use $300--