IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

Contents
Rice Yield Variation Associated with Time-dependent Shifts in Area Cultivated by Farmers inNortheast Thailand
Yuki Toyama, Kazuki Miyatani, Asres Elias
and Kumi Yasunobu
The Effect of GlobalGAP Certification on Horticulture Production in Kenya
Jane Githiga, Asres Elia and Kumi Yasunobu
Identifying the Japanese Foreign Technical Intern and Training Program (TITP) in the Agriculture
Sector and Its Outstanding Training Models: A Case Study of Indonesia
Fadhilla Izzaty Syaukat, Katsumori Hatanaka, Nina N.
Shimoguchi and Ramadhona SavilleCharacterizing Salinity and Salinity Matrixes in the Burdekin and Fitzroy Catchments, Queensland,
Australia
Fiona H.M. Henderson and Barry N. Noller
A Comparison of Organic Matter Dynamics Among Degraded, Dam-Restored, and Preserved Peat
Swamp Forests
Tetsuya Shimamura, Rie Neishi, Erna S. Poesie, Kuniyasu
Momose, Ikuo Ninomiya and Swido H. Limin
Crop Growth Model for Hydroponic Cultivation of Solanum lycopersicum (Tomato) in a Semiautomated System
Antonio Perez-Fuentes, Sarvesh Maskey, Dickson M.
Mazibuko, Hiromu Okazawa, Takahiko Nakamura and Ayako
Sekiyama
Physical Structure Assessment of Rivers Used by Grazing Livestock
Yuri Yamazaki
Effects of Aeration and pH on the Performance of Lactic Acid Bacteria-Attached Carbon Fiber
Electrode
Narong Touch, Kota Shigetomi and Tadashi Hibino
Discussion on Influencing and Limiting Factors on Sustainable Grape Farming in Yamanashi
Prefecture of Japan
Mohammad Mirwais Yusufi and Machito Mihara
The Current Situation of Farmers’ Practice of Rice Seed Use in Cambodia: An Exploratory Study in
Takeo Province
Yuki Toyama, Asres Elias and Kumi Yasunobu
Efficiency of No-till Transplanter Use in Conservation Agriculture Tomato (Solanum lycopersicumL.) Production Systems in Battambang Province, Cambodia
Sokleng Mang, Lyhour Hin Hong Chheang, Sophoanrith Ro,
Ted S. Kornecki and Manuel R. Reyes
Improving the Farm Business and Resilience of New Farmers: Case of a Greenhouse Tomato Farmer
in H City, Tokyo
Nina N. Shimoguchi, Rika Terano, Ramadhona Saville,
Hettige Samitha Lakshan Gunasekara and Katsumori
Hatanaka

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14

21

27

35

41

47

53

60

66

72

Effect of Pollination by the Apis mellifera on Yield and Fruit Productivity Quality of Greenhouse
Produced Sweet Net Melon in Cambodia
Chhouk Chheang and Sopheak Tith

79

Impact of Technology Adoption on the Economic Well-being of Rice Farmers in Cambodia
Viseth Prum, Yuchiro Amekawa and Shoichi Ito

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

Consumption of the Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz Fruit in Cambodia: An Exploratory Study
Sothea Kong, Hisako Nomura, Tamon Baba, Hiroyuki
Hattori, Samnang Nguon and Kasumi Ito
Considering Environmental Standards Based on Soils and Water Quality in the Biotopes Around
Urban Areas in Japan
Madoka Kurotaki and Machito Mihara
Effects of Adding Coconut Charcoal on Soil Physical Properties and Maize Performance
Peioneti ‘O E Halapaini Lui and Machito Mihara
Impact of Agricultural Certification for Silk Farmers: Case Study of Khon Kaen Province, Northeast
ThailandMoeka Numata, Mallika Srisutham and Aya Suzuki
Extension Needs of Farmers Engaged in Buffalo Raising around Kaeng Lawa Reservoir Wetland,
Ban Phai District, Khon Kaen Province, Thailand
Patcharaporn Phumchantuk, Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai and
Machito Mihara
Factors Influencing Adoption of Ecosystem-Based Adaptation Practices: The Case of Small-Scale
Maize Farming in Morogoro Region, Tanzania
Upendo Saitabau Mollel, Katsumori Hatanaka, Ramadhona
Saville and Nina N. Shimoguchi
Nutritional and Cost-Benefit Analysis of Some Traditional Thai Foods and Beverages Prepared from
Sacred Lotus
Natsima Tokhun, Weerawat Ounsaneha, Kanokwan
Punaaterkoon, Patsara Wongsudi, Rattanaporn Puttapornthip
and Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai
Co-digestion of Ensiled Napier Grass and Commercial Bakery Wastewater for Bioenergy Production
Natagarn Tongphanpharn, Natsima Tokhun, Montip Jankaew
and Chuleemas Boonthai Iwai
Farmers’ Perspectives on Ecosystem Services Provided by Tree Windbreak System in Ovche Pole
Region, Macedonia
Ognen Onchevski and Machito Mihara
Factors Influencing Accounting Practices for Biological Assets: The Case of Selected Agritourism
Farms in the Philippines
Hanna D. Miranda-Quibot and Yasuo Ohe
Assessing Locals’ Perceptions on the Environmental, Economic, and Socio-Cultural Impacts ofAgritourism Versus Conventional Farming in Tanzania
Issa Abrahaman Kachenje and Yasuo Ohe
Determination of Factors Affecting the Performance of Sediment Microbial Fuel Cells by Long-Term
Electricity Generation Using Lactic Acid Bacteria–Attached Electrodes
Narong Touch and Tadashi Hibino

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

Research article
erd

Rice Yield Variation Associated with Time-dependent Shifts
in Area Cultivated by Farmers in Northeast Thailand
YUKI TOYAMA*The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Tottori University, Tottori City, Japan
Email: yukiuki1019@gmail.com

KAZUKI MIYATANI
Graduate School of Sustainability Science, Tottori University, Tottori City, JapanASRES ELIAS
Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, Tottori City, JapanKUMI YASUNOBUFaculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, Tottori City, Japan
Received 20 May 2023

Accepted 15 March 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The rice area cultivated by individual farmers in Northeast Thailand has gradually
decreased since the 2010s. As Northeast Thailand is a major rice-growing region in
Thailand, this trend might suggest a potential decline in total rice production at the national
level. In order to examine this concern, we investigated fluctuations in the scale of riceproduction among individual farmers in Northeast Thailand from 2010 to 2019, focusing on
the relationship between cultivated area and rice yield. This study used household panel datacollected by Thailand Vietnam Socio-Economic Panel project. We compared 445 farmers
who reduced their rice cultivation area with 208 who expanded it, comparing rice yield,
production disposal, and input usage. The results indicate a decrease in the number offarmers cultivating a rice area of more than 3.2 ha and an increase in those cultivating lessthan 1.6 ha during the period. The farmers who enlarged their rice cultivation area had ahigher yield in 2010 than those who reduced it, but their unit yield fell below that of the
reducing group by 2016. This finding suggests difficulties for farmers who increase the area
under rice production in sustaining the intensity of production over time.
Keywords rice farmer, farm size strata, rice yield, agricultural inputs, Northeast Thailand

INTRODUCTION
Thailand ranks among the world's leading producers and exporters of rice, holding the sixth position
in production and the second position in exports in 2020 (FAO, 2022). However, the rice productivityof Thailand lags behind that of competing countries in the international market. Thailand’s riceproductivity was 2.7 tons/ha, with that of India (4.1 tons/ha), Pakistan (3.8 tons/ha), and Vietnam(6.0 tons/ha) higher than Thailand in 2020-2021 (USDA, 2022). Even though other countries kept
increasing their rice yield, Thailand’s yield stagnated in the 2010s. To keep the competitiveness ofThailand as a rice exporter, improving rice productivity is an urgent issue.
In this regard, rice farmers in Northeast Thailand should be a major target. In Thailand, there
are two major rice ecosystems: rainfed lowland rice and irrigated lowland rice. Rainfed lowland rice
is mainly produced in the region, just in the wet season (Jun-Nov). Irrigated lowland rice is mainly
produced in Central Thailand, in both wet- and dry-season (Feb-May). Coverage of rainfed lowland
rice reaches around 80% of total rice paddies in Thailand. The yield of rainfed lowland rice ispersistently lower than irrigated lowland rice due to frequent strikes of drought and flood. While theyield of dry-season rice has stagnated over the past 30 years, the yield of wet-season rice hascontinued to increase (Suwanmontri et al., 2020). Notably, Northeast Thailand accounts for more
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

than half of the country's wet-season rice production (OAE, 2022). The region has experienced
significant progress in the commercialization of rice farming in recent decades. Marketing channels
for rice have been established, connecting rice farmers in Northeast Thailand directly to theinternational market. This offers farmers more opportunities for rice sales (Suebpongsang et al.,2020). Farmers are increasingly obtaining high-yield seeds and chemical fertilizers through market
channels and using them widely (Promkhambut et al., 2023). Additionally, rapid mechanization of
farmwork is occurring to address labor shortages (Baird et al., 2022). These facts suggest that therainfed lowland rice has greater potential for yield growth compared to the irrigated lowland rice.
However, the data disclosed by the Office of Agricultural Economics (OAE) indicated that therice area cultivated by individual farmers in Northeast Thailand kept decreasing over the last decade(Toyama et al., 2022). Previous studies mentioned the trend of the stratum structure of rice production
scale by individual farmers (Shigetomi, 2015; Inoue, 2015). The studies found that the upper stratumof rice farmers diminished, and the rice farm size became standardized to the middle scale. However,the discussion was based on the census data up to the 2000s. The trend observed in the OAE data
during the 2010s, which generally shifted towards lower strata, clearly deviated from the earlier trendof mid-size farms. It is expected that if farmers withdraw from rice production and the cultivatedarea of rice decreases, maintaining total rice production will be challenging. However, detailed
evidence is necessary to validate the feasibility of this concern.
OBJECTIVE
The objectives of the current study are twofold: 1) understanding the changes in cultivated area andunit yield of rice production by individual farmers in Northeast Thailand in the 2010s based onhousehold panel data, and 2) investigating the relationship between changes in cultivated area andrice yield.
METHODOLOGYThis study used household panel data collected by the Thailand Vietnam Socio-Economic Panelproject (TVSEP, 2015a). Upon registration, we received the requested data free of charge. The
household survey was implemented with a sample of 2,186 households (HHs) in 220 villages in 3
provinces (Ubon Ratchathani: 970 HHs, Buriram: 819 HHs, and Nakhon Phanom: 397 HHs) in
Northeast Thailand. The sampling procedure consisted of a 3-stage cluster sampling design (TVSEP,
2015b). We used the data from 5 surveys in 2010, 2013, 2016, 2017, and 2019. While the survey
included non-farm households, this study focuses specifically on rice farmers. Therefore, from the2,186 surveyed households, 1,051 households that engaged in rice production between 2010 and2019 were selected as the "rice farmer" sample (Ubon Ratchathani: 468, Buriram: 405, Nakhon
Phanom: 178). We excluded 1,135 households because they were not targeted in one or other surveys(TVSEP, 2015b) or had no rice production in the period.
Firstly, we observed the general trend of rice areas cultivated by individual rice farmers andtracked how the rice farmers changed the area from 2010 to 2019. Then, we selected the farmers
enlarging and reducing their rice-cultivated area. To categorize farmers in the enlarging group, weselected those whose rice-cultivated area in 2010 was less than the average of five surveys and in
2019 exceeded the average. For the reducing group, we identified farmers whose area in 2010
surpassed the five-survey average and in 2019 fell below the average. As a result, 208 and 445
farmers were selected as the enlarging and reducing farmers, respectively.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Change of Rice-Cultivated Area by Surveyed Farmers in Three ProvincesⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

Figure 1 shows the changes in rice area cultivated by individual farmers from 2010 to 2019. We
classified the rice-cultivated area into five strata (strata A-E, from the largest to smallest). The
boundaries for farm strata were defined at 0.96 ha (or 6 rai, “rai” being the local unit of area in
Thailand with 1 rai = 0.16 ha), 1.60 ha (10 rai), 3.20 ha (20 rai) and 6.40 ha (40 rai), in line with thestatistical data of the Office of Agricultural Economics (OAE) in Thailand. The trend in ricecultivated areas in the TVSEP data was almost the same as in the OAE data. The ratio of stratum B(more than or equal to 3.20 ha but less than 6.40 ha) decreased in all provinces, and the ratio of strata
D (more than or equal to 0.96 ha but less than 1.60-ha) and E (less than 0.96-ha) increased clearly in
Buriram and Ubon Ratchathani.

Source) Household panel data in Thailand was collected by the TVSEP project. Remark) *1 rai = 0.16 ha.

Fig. 1 Changes in the rice area cultivated by farmers from 2010 to 2019
Table 1 Movement of farmers between rice-cultivated area strata from 2010 to 2019
All
Strata*
A
B
C
2010
D
E
Total
Delta (2010-19)

2019
C
D
17
8
102
27
197
78
41
51
33
26
390 190
18
51

A
17
16
2
0
3
38
-43

B
35
121
35
4
12
207
-92

A
6

B
34
35

C
16
79
42

6
-62

69
-105

137
-12

A
2
10
2
0
3
17

B

C

18
29
4
11
62

33
34
29
96

ReduceStrata
A
B
C
2010
D
E
Total
Delta (2010-19)
Enlarge2010

Strata
A
B
C
D
E
Total

All (%**)
E
4
33
60
43
86
226
66

Total
81
299
372
139
160
1051
-

Strata
A
B
C
2010
D
E
Total
Delta (2010-19)

97
63

E
4
33
53
26
20
136
116

Total
68
174
149
34
20
445
-

Reduce (%**)
Strata
A
B
C
2010
D
E
Total
Delta (2010-19)

2019
D

E

Total
2
28
64
42
72
208

Enlarge (%**)
Strata
A
B
C
2010
D
E
Total

2019
D
8
27
54
8

4
15
19

14
14

2019
A
2
2
0
0
0
4
-4

B
3
12
3
0
1
20
-9

C
2
10
19
4
3
37
2

D
1
3
7
5
2
18
5

A
1

B
8
8

C
4
18
9

3

Total
8
28
35
13
15
100
-

D
2
6
12
2

E
1
7
12
6
4
30
26

Total
15
39
33
8
4
100
-

1
-14

16
-24

31
-3

22
14

A
1
5
1
0
1
8

B

C

D

E

2
7
9

7
7

Total
1
13
31
20
35
100

9
14
2
5
30

16
16
14
46

-11

-28

-

2019

2019

Delta (2010-19) 15
34
32 -23 -58
Delta (2010-19) 7
16
15
Source) Same as Table 1. Remarks) *The ranges of each stratum are the same as in Figure 1,**Dividing the number of farmers in each column by the total number of farmers in each categoryⒸ ISERD

E
0
3
6
4
8
22
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

Table 1 illustrates the major flows of farmers between the strata from 2010 to 2019. The mostsignificant flow of farmers was from B in 2010 to C (more than or equal to 1.60 ha but less than 3.20ha) in 2019, namely, 102 farmers, or almost 10% of all surveyed farmers. Regarding flows to lower
strata, flows from C to D and C to E were larger than others. On the other hand, farmers moving to
the upper strata were observed in the following paths: from C to B, D to C, and E to C. As a result,the number of farmers in strata A and B (more than or equal to 3.20 ha) decreased and the numberof farmers in strata C, D, and E increased. We made the same kinds of tables for the reducing andenlarging groups of farmers. The major flows in both groups were similar to the table of all surveyed
farmers. In the reducing group, the numbers of farmers in strata A, B, and C decreased and thenumber of farmers in strata D and E increased. In contrast, in the enlarging group, the numbers offarmers in strata A, B, and C increased and the number of farmers in strata D and E decreased.
The shift from the upper strata (A and B) to the lower strata (D and E) can be attributed to two
primary factors: declining family farm labor and the fragmentation of farmland through inheritance.
The decline of family farm labor is a general trend among farmers in Northeast Thailand, driven by
population aging and outflow to urban areas (add source). As farmers struggle to secure sufficientlabor, reducing rice-cultivated areas might be one of the coping strategies. Additionally, the region's
custom of dividing farmland among children upon inheritance has led to the gradual fragmentationof holdings over generations. This phenomenon likely influences individual farmers' decisions
regarding their rice-cultivated area.
Table 2 Status of rice production by reducing and enlarging groups from 2010 to 2019
Rice-cultivated Total cultivated Area cultivated
The ratio of riceRatio of homearea (ha/farm) area (ha/farm) others (ha/farm) cultivated area (%)
consumption (%)
2010 2019 2010 2019 2010
2019
2010
2019
2010
2019
Reducing
445 4.25
1.79
4.72
2.44
0.46
0.65
93
84
40
47
A
68 10.93
3.55 11.51
4.64
0.58
1.09
95
85
29
34
B
174 4.35
2.04
4.68
2.70
0.33
0.66
95
83
36
43
C
149 2.27
1.15
2.84
1.69
0.57
0.54
90
83
43
50
D and E
54 0.96
0.53
1.39
0.85
0.43
0.32
87
85
58
68
Enlarging208 1.66
3.08
2.15
3.63
0.48
0.56
85
91
52
47
A and B
30 4.32
6.13
4.82
6.36
0.50
0.24
93
96
37
29
C
64 2.06
3.30
2.26
3.83
0.20
0.53
96
94
45
44
D
42 1.17
2.16
1.63
2.46
0.46
0.30
88
93
52
53
E
72 0.49
2.14
1.24
3.01
0.75
0.87
69
84
69
54
Source) Same as Table 1. Remarks) *Strata from A-E are the same as Figure 1.
**Most farmers produced KDML105 and RD6 as non-glutinous variety and glutinous variety, respectively.
Classified
group*N

Yield and Input Use by Farmers Reducing and Enlarging Rice-Cultivated Area
Table 2 shows the status of rice production by individual farmers in the reducing and enlarging
groups. Regarding the reducing group, both the rice-cultivated area and the total cultivated area
decreased from 4.25 ha to 1.79 ha and from 4.72 ha to 2.44 ha, respectively, but the cultivated area
for other crops increased from 0.46 ha to 0.65 ha. Farmers in the enlarging group increased cultivatedarea for both rice and other crops from 1.66 ha to 3.08 ha and from 0.48 ha to 0.56 ha, respectively.
As a result, the ratio of rice-cultivated area dropped from 93% to 84% in the reducing group and rosefrom 85% to 91% in the enlarging group. We also examined the ratio of home consumption of rice
to total production in each group. Small-scale farmers tended to produce rice for home consumption
in both groups. While the ratio in the reducing group rose from 40% to 47%, the ratio in the enlarging
group dropped from 52% to 47%. This trend may reflect changes in the purpose of rice production
among farmers in each group.
As a general trend among surveyed farmers, rice yield per unit area fluctuated and it was difficult
to identify either a decreasing or an increasing trend (Table 3). The average yield for farmers in theenlarging group was lower than the average for all farmers and the average for the reducing groupfrom 2010 to 2019. In 2010, the yield of the enlarging group was significantly higher than the
reducing group, but in 2017 and 2019, the yield of the enlarging group was significantly lower than
the reducing group. We also compared Z-scores of the expenditure of fertilizer used and workingⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

hours for rice cultivation between the reducing and enlarging groups (Fig. 2). Regarding fertilizer
expenditure and working hours, the total input of the reducing group was greater than that of theenlarging group in 2010, but this trend reversed by 2019, with the enlarging group demonstrating
higher total input. Conversely, while the input per unit area of the enlarging group exceeded that of
the reducing group in 2010, the input per unit area of the reducing group was higher in 2019.
Table 3 Change of unit rice yield by enlarging and reducing group
Category
Reducing group(N=445)

Enlarging group(N=208)Strata*Total avg.
A
B
C
D+E
Total avg.
A+B
C
D
E

N
445
68
174
149
54
208
30
64
42
72

2010
1.78**
1.58
1.68
1.89
2.04
2.23**
2.06
2.06
2.03
2.63

2013
1.89
1.83
1.74
1.89
2.33
1.96
1.60
2.02
2.05
1.97

2016
2.39
2.13
2.38
2.50
2.40
2.31
2.21
2.19
2.36
2.42

2017
2.39**
2.36
2.35
2.41
2.43
2.16**
2.34
1.93
2.13
2.31

2019
1.91**
1.70
1.87
1.98
2.20
1.54**
1.78
1.43
1.58
1.52

(unit: ton/ha)
Source) Same as Table 1. Remark) *Strata from A-E are the same as Figure 1. **p<0.01 between the enlarging andreducing group examined by the student’s t-test.
Expenditure of fertilizer used for rice production(per unit area)(per household)(per unit area)

Z-score**(per household)Working hours for rice production*

Source) Same as Fig. 1. Remarks) *Because there was no data on working hours in 2010, we only used the data from2013 to 2019. **Z-scores of each group’s means in all surveyed farmers. The reason for using the Z-score to capture thetransition is that the forms of fertilizer and labor input data in the TVSEP survey changed across the years, potentiallyweakening the data's continuity.

Fig. 2 Change of fertilizer and family labor use by enlarging and reducing group
These results suggest that farmers in the enlarging group did not maintain the intensity of theirrice production during the surveyed period. The following possibilities may explain this observation.
First, the farmers in the enlarging group may not be accumulating farmland as a result of the strategic
expansion of farm size. In Northeast Thailand, most farmers trade farmland among relatives andneighbors (Shigetomi, 2015). When farmers in the region find it difficult to continue rice farming
due to poor health or labor/capital shortages, they tend to look for someone to look after their paddy
fields temporarily. If the farmers who look after the others’ paddy fields do not aim to increase riceproductivity, extensive rice farming may be the most rational practice for them. The high risk ofnatural disasters also leads farmers to reduce the inputs they use to cultivate rice. As most of
Northeast Thailand is a flood and drought-prone area, farmers in the region have to cope with therisk of losing rice yield every year (Kaida et al., 1985). In this situation, investment in rice farming
may be limited, especially among farmers with large paddy field areas. The above possible behaviors
may be enabled by increasing the off-farm income of rural residents in the region. As the importanceof rice farming as an income source gradually declines (Takeuchi, 2010), farmers are potentiallyinduced to adopt such strategies.
CONCLUSIONⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

Based on the household panel data from 2010 to 2019 in 3 provinces of Northeast Thailand, thenumber of farmers having more than 3.20 ha of rice-cultivated area decreased between 2010 and
2019, and the number of farmers with less than 1.60 ha of rice-cultivated area increased during thesame period. To understand the relationship between the trend of cultivated area, yield, and inputs
on rice production, we classified farmers into two groups: those who either reduced or enlarged theirrice-cultivated area from 2010 to 2019. In 2010, farmers who reduced their rice-cultivated area had
lower yields than those who enlarged their area. However, by 2019, the yield of the reducing farmers
had surpassed that of the enlarging farmers. Regarding two key agricultural inputs for rice cultivation– fertilizer and labor – farmers who enlarged their rice-cultivated area used higher amounts per unit
area in 2010 than those who reduced the area. Interestingly, by 2019, this trend had reversed, withthe reducing farmers using more fertilizer and labor per unit area than the enlarging farmers.
The results suggested that while some farmers in Northeast Thailand reduced their ricecultivation area, other farmers increased their rice cultivation area. However, this expansion was
associated with a decrease in both yield and input levels per unit area. This raises concerns that
farmers who aim to continue expanding rice production may be unable to maintain the intensity of
their operations. Several possible explanations exist for this disinvestment among enlarging farmers:
customary land transactions among relatives and neighbors, the high risk of natural disasters, and theincreasing availability of off-farm income opportunities. To maintain and improve rice productivity
in Northeast Thailand, targeted support is needed for these farmers to incentivize them to invest
capital and labor into rice production.
A limitation of the current study is that we could not demonstrate the mechanisms behind the
reduction of the rice-cultivated area by individual farmers and the decline in rice production intensity
among enlarging farmers, based on actual field data. To confirm the hypothesized reasons we
discussed above, further studies are needed using data on livelihoods, incomes, land transactions,and social relationships of rice farmers in the region.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We acknowledge the financial support of a Sasakawa Scientific Research Grant (2022-1016) fromthe Japan Science Society. This study relies on data from the Thailand Vietnam Socio-Economic
Panel project (https://www.tvsep.de) funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG).
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Suebpongsang, P., Ekasingh, B. and Cramb, R. 2020. Commercialization of rice farming in Northeast Thailand.
In Cramb, R. (Eds.), White Gold: The Commercialization of Rice Farming in the Lower Mekong Basin,
39–68, Springer Nature, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-0998-8_2Ⓒ ISERD

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Suwanmontri, P., Kamoshita, A. and Fukai, S. 2020. Recent changes in rice production in rainfed lowland andirrigated ecosystems in Thailand. Plant Production Science, 24 (1), 15-28, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.
org/10.1080 /1343943X.2020.1787182
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tvsep.de/en/survey-documents
Toyama, Y., Elias, A., Yasunobu, K. and Utaranakorn, P. 2022. Discussion about a model in operation andaccumulation of joint-use fund management by rice farmer groups. International Journal of Environmental
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United States, Retrieved from URL https://ipad.fas.usda.gov/countrysummaryⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

Research article
erd

The Effect of GlobalGAP Certification on Horticulture
Production in Kenya
JANE GITHIGA*
United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Tottori University, Tottori City, Japan
Email: githigajane@gmail.com

ASRES ELIAS
United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Tottori University, Tottori City, JapanKUMI YASUNOBU
United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Tottori University, Tottori City, Japan
Received 20 May 2023

Accepted 18 March 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Promoting sustainable production systems is one of the pillars of sustainable
development. Rural development strategies, therefore, should enhance production systems
that are sustainable for the future. In Kenya, horticulture exports are a state-induced
development strategy meant to raise incomes, improve productivity, and eradicate poverty
in rural areas. However, with the ongoing proliferation of regulatory standards and stiffcompetition, horticulture is becoming increasingly challenging for producers in developing
countries. Phytosanitary standards have become a de facto requirement for participating in
the lucrative market, intended to bridge the information asymmetry between buyers andproducers and serve as an assurance of food safety and environmentally conscious
production systems, thereby ensuring that more areas of production are certified.
Consequently, buyers prefer producers certified by at least one of the internationallyrecognized schemes. Producers strive for certification, often certifying only a portion of theirproducing area to meet the standards, which can hinder the promotion of sustainableagricultural practices. This study aimed to assess the recent priorities for Kenyan
horticulture in terms of more certified producers or more certified areas of production, what
the trends are, and how these trends affect production. Using panel data obtained from
GlobalGAP and FAOStat (2008 to 2020), the study found that the number of certified
producers and the certified production area (ha) have both increased. The Pseudo–Poisson
Maximum Likelihood (PPML) estimator shows that increasing the number of certified
producers has a significant effect on exported volumes and total value, while the area undercertified production for both covered and uncovered crops has no significant effect. This
could imply that farmers are keen on maintaining the market requirements as opposed toincreasing the certified area.
Keywords GlobalGAP, certification, horticulture, regulatory standards, Kenya

INTRODUCTION
Facilitating global market access for developing countries has been a significant achievement during
the past two decades (Balié, 2020). This is because of the income opportunities it draws from a ruraldevelopment perspective (McCalla and Nash, 2019). However, researchers have yet to reach aconsensus on the benefits of certifications for the long-term growth of agricultural systems,
specifically for resource-poor farmers (Pingali, 2017). Some researchers have argued that theexpensive nature of these standards may exclude farmers with limited resources if they do not comply(Krauss and Krishnan, 2022; Ouma, 2010; Shepherd, 2015) others have referred to the certification
standards as a “protectionism” strategy employed by developed countries to limit competition fromdeveloping countries, in response to the removal of tariffs and subsidies in World Trade OrganizationⒸ ISERD

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(WTO) Doha 2002 agreement (Boza Martinez, 2015; Fiankor et al., 2020; Weinberger and Lumpkin,2007).
Utilizing certification standards can serve as a strategic advantage to meet the rising demand for
fresh produce and enhance competitiveness in global markets (Asfaw et al., 2010; Boza Martinez,
2015; Jaffee and Masakure, 2005). Moreover, certification standards build trust between producers
and consumers by addressing disparities in information, thereby facilitating trade. However, eventhough certification standards are not mandatory, they have effectively become the prevailingpractice as producers strive to maintain relationships with buyers who have a preference for certified
producers. Even so, it is still debatable whether producers from developing countries gain any
advantages from certifications such as market access, which would potentially increase sales revenue
or increase production and improve production practices. Highlighting the issue of arguments
surrounding the expansion of certification requirements (Balié, 2020; Bennett, 2017; Fiankor et al.,2017; Dolan and Humphrey, 2000; Kariuki, 2014; Krauss and Krishnan, 2022). Other works ofliterature have highlighted the impending high sunk cost of adopting certification for smallholder
farmers (Fiankor et al., 2020; Mithöfer et al., 2009; Tallontire et al., 2014) except for Henson et al.
(2011) who found that despite increasing costs burden, certified middle and large-scale farmers earnhigher incomes. Other strands of literature explore the determinants of the decision to certify (Henson
et al., 2011; Kariuki, 2014). Some of the literature speculates on the potential benefits of certifications,
possibly because of data limitations. Regardless, a gap still exists between theoretical knowledge andempirical evidence on the effect of certification on production. To our knowledge, very little research
has provided empirical evidence on this important aspect, with exceptions (Fiankor et al., 2020;
Henson et al., 2011), who utilized cross-sectional data to assess the effect of certification on export
value.
Hence, using panel data, this paper goes beyond asking the most important question from adevelopment perspective: more certified producers or more certified land areas; what is more
important? In that case, how does it affect production?
METHODOLOGY
The data used in the study were obtained from the GlobalGAP database (2008-2020), encompassing
information on the number of certified producers, the area of certified land (in hectares), and the typeof crops, such as fruits, vegetables, or cut flowers. Additionally, it detailed whether the crops weregrown in a shaded greenhouse or similar structure, or an open field. We also utilize data from
FAOstat and the Horticultural Crops Directorate in Kenya to obtain data on product volume andmarket volume. This study adopts the econometric models used by Fiankor et al. (2020). The Poison
Pseudo-Maximum Likelihood (PPML) estimator is used as certification data is likely issues ofheteroscedasticity as data is disaggregated trade data and to account for zeros in the trade data. Each
product was run differently to account for possible heterogeneity within products (Shepherd andWilson, 2013). The model is specified as Eq. (1)𝑋𝑖𝑡 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑖𝑡 + 𝜆𝑖 + 𝑡 + 𝛽0 + 𝛽1 𝑙𝑛 𝐺𝐴𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑡 + 𝛽2 𝑙𝑛 𝑌𝑖𝑡 + 𝛽3 𝑙𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡 + 𝛽4 no. prdcts𝑖𝑡 +𝛽5 𝑛𝑜. 𝑚𝑟𝑘𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑡 + 𝛽6 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑡 + 𝛽7 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑡 +𝑒𝑖𝑡

(1)

The dependent variable Xit represents the level of certification of product i at time t, indicatedby the count of certified producers and certified area in hectares. The independent variables include
product demand, indicated by export volumes, which, in major markets, drive higher certification
allocation. Product characteristics (e.g., number of products exported), market access (e.g., numberof markets), and production specifics, distinguishing between open-field crops and covered ones,
like greenhouse or shaded cultivation. This is because certification is likely to affect the demand for
produce grown in open fields and covered crops and the farmers’ decisions on how to allocate land.
Nonetheless, field management is different in terms of pest and disease control; open field crops arelikely to use more chemicals to control pests and diseases, which attracts more keenness on measuresof health and safety and making sure producers do not exceed maximum pesticide limits. On theother hand, buyers and retailers are sometimes willing to pay a premium on certified crops producedⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

under a controlled environment, and farmers might be moved to allocate more certified areas into
covered growing structures. t is time and 𝑒𝑖𝑡 is the error term.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Trends of GlobalGAP Certification in Kenyan Horticulture

Certified area (ha)Certified area (ha)The number of certified producers and certified areas has increased from 2008 to 2020, as shown in
Fig. 1(a). There was a spike in the certified area in 2009-2010 because of the banning of Kenyan
horticulture in EU markets due to exceeding maximum residue limits. Many certified fruits andvegetables are produced in open fields which take up space of land compared to cut flowers andcovered crops, which take significantly less area. Vegetables and fruits consist of majority producers
consisting of small-scale farmers compared to cut flowers owned by multinational companies
operating on covered crops mostly greenhouses.

a) Certified land areab) Certified producers

Source: own calculations using GlobalGAP data F& V is fruits and vegetables

Fig. 1 The trend of GlobalGAP certified producers and land area by productFigure 1 (b) shows the trend of certified producers and the number of certificates in 2008-2020,
which has been increasing. The number of certified producers for fruits and vegetables is higher than
the number of certificates issued; this is because some farmers get certified as individuals and others
as groups, as also found by Tallontire et al. (2014).
The Effects of GlobalGAP Certification on Horticulture
The key variables examined in this study include the volumes of exported horticulture, market count,and production characteristics, such as the area of covered and open field crops, the number of
products, and the impact of certified producers on these variables over time. The certification metrics
will be discussed individually while making a comparison between the products. The impact is moresignificant for certified producers than for certified land areas. Specifically, a percentage rise in thenumber of certified producers has a greater beneficial influence on horticulture production compared
to a one percent increase in certified land areas. The computed elasticity coefficients exhibit apositive and statistically significant relationship with the variables of exported volumes, number ofmarkets, number of products, and method of production, i.e., covered and open field crops. Moreprecisely, a rise in the number of certified producers leads to a 0.93% increase in open-field crops, a2.9% increase in market access, and a 5.4% increase in the number of products exported.
Nevertheless, the coefficient estimates for the total certified land area are negative, indicating that a
1% increase in certified producers results in a 1.4% decrease in the certified area. This indicates thatthe number of certified producers has been growing at a faster pace than the expansion of certified
areas. This could be because the farmers' decision to obtain certification and expand their certifiedⒸ ISERD

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area is influenced by the utility they expect to gain from the certification. However, if the decision
to certify is driven by market regulations and the need to maintain buyer relationships rather than theactual benefits, the utility remains unchanged (Gichuki et al., 2020).
Open-field crop fields show a more significant influence in comparison to covered crop areas.
This is because around 80% of vegetable producers in Kenya are small-scale farmers who
predominantly cultivate their crops in open fields. With the tightening of Phytosanitary regulations,
small-scale farmers are expected to face increased scrutiny due to the imposition of limits on
pesticide residue. This is particularly relevant for open-field crops, which are more susceptible topests, diseases, and other environmental challenges compared to crops grown in controlledenvironments. Another explanation is that contracting companies are eager to comply with market
standards to sustain their presence in the market (Tallontire et al., 2014).
Table 1 Results of the effect of the certification PPML model (benchmark model)

LnGAP hectares
LnGAP producer
LnOpenfieldcrops
LnCoveredcrops
LnVol (MT)LnNo.
Markets
LnNo.
Products
Cons

Pooled data
Certified land
Certifiedarea
producers-1.409**(0.543)-0.028*(0.017)0.928***
0.928**(0.119)(0.422)0.132**
1.470***(0.053)(0.501)
0.002
2.909***(0.056)(0.690)0.231
5.410***(0.377)(1.533)-0.513**3.873**(0.205)(1.555)1.484-73.15***(1.911)(17.065)

Fruits and vegetable
Certified land
Certifiedarea
producers-1.549**(0.595)-0.002(0.029)0.423**
1.187*(0.173)(0.677)0.810***
1.132(0.202)(0.895)0.220***
3.638***(0.035)(1.192)0.401
6.740**(0.460)(3.099)-1.39**
3.003(0.546)(4.174)-1.164-80.82***(2.206)(22.078)

Cut flowers
CertifiedCertifiedland area
producers-6.309 **(2.0010.137***(0.027)0.832***
0.016-0.005(0.003)0.041(0.031)-0.058(0.041)0.669***(0.138)6.294**(1.879)0.863**(0.328)-0.129***(0.042)-1.152***(0.188)-2.453***(0.612)
12.787***(1.935)

R2

.952

.9196

.930

.882

.947

.932

Observations

26

26

13

13

13

13

Notes: Robust product clustered standard errors in parentheses. ***, **, * denote significance at 1%, 5% and 10%
respectively. LnOpenfield is whether the crop is produced in an open field while LnCovered is if produced in a production
structure. LnVol is the volume exported product, and year-fixed effects are included in all regressions.

The impact on the certified land area is significantly less in all variables when compared to theimpact of certified producers. The lack of significance in the exported volumes of crops and somemarkets may be attributed to GlobalGAP’s emphasis on environmental and social responsibility,
which may not directly influence yields and hence does not have a substantial impact on the volumes
exported. The number of markets accessed is not significantly influenced by the certified area, as
farmers may not be aware of the advantages of certification. Additionally, expanding the area ofcertification may not have a significant impact on market access if farmers continue to sell to thesame buyers. Like certified producers, the impact of certified open fields is greater, with significantly
lower volumes, namely 0.78% accordingly.
On an individual basis, the volumes of exported fruits and vegetables grew by 0.22% due to arise in certified producers. Similarly, the number of markets accessed for fruits & vegetables
increased to 6.7% for a % increase in unit land area. In this case, the number of certified producers
increased by 2.9%. The resulting coefficient of elasticity for certified producers led to a 5.4% rise in
the number of markets accessed and a 3.8% increase in the number of products produced.
Controlling for Fixed Effects of Global Gap CertificationⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

The study followed Fiankor et al. (2020) and introduced fixed effects as described in Table 2 toconfirm the robustness of our model to possible endogeneity. This confirms that there is no big
change; however, the effect of power changes in certified land where both volumes and markets are
significant. The coefficient estimate for uncovered crops reduces to 0.78% but is still higher than thatof covered crops, The model results confirm that our estimate is valid. Further time and product fixed
effects allow the difference in yield between varieties, and yield may vary across years and seasons;specifically, the volumes of fruits and vegetables increase by 2.9% with a % percent increase in aunit area of certified land.
Table 2 Results of fixed effects on certification for the PPML model

LnGAP Hectares
LnGAP producer
LnOpenfieldcrops
LnCovered
LnVol (MT)
LnNo. Markets
LnNo. Products

Pooled data
CertifiedCertifiedland area
producers-1.41***(.021)-.003(.003).786***
1.462***(.014)(.022).211***.932***(.006)(.013).027***
2.921***(.008)(.027).449***
5.435***(.035)(.07)-1.626***
3.797***(.055)(.112)

Fruits and vegetables
CertifiedCertifiedland area
producers-1.549***(.021)-.002(.005).423***
1.132***(.017)(.024).22***
1.187***(.008)(.015).81***
3.638***(.023)(.031).401***
6.74***(.051)(.081)-1.39**
3.003***(.069)(.113)

Cut flowers
CertifiedCertifiedland area
producers-6.309*(3.783)-.018**(.009).156***.863(.052)(.65).838***
6.294**
(.03)
3.147
-.005
-.129*(.009)(.07)-.014-1.152***(.057)(.342)-.095-2.453*(.179)(1.387)

Mean dependentvar5933.795597.38

8700.111143.92

2852.08

54.69

Observations

26

26

13

13

13

13

SD dependentvar4549.415597.30

4516.9011902.82

1380.934.121

Notes: Robust product clustered standard errors in parentheses. ***, **, * denote significance at 1%, 5% andrespectively., LnOpenfield crops are whether the crop is produced in the open field while LnCovered is produced in a
production structure. LnVol is the volume exported product, and year-fixed effects are included in all regressions.

CONCLUSION
Food safety regulation is likely to increase as demand for fresh produce increases and the world
further opens in international trade. Increasing more certified producers has been more economicallysignificant compared to the certified land area. Farmers' certification from 2008 to 2020 has been apriority perhaps for market access. Further, the volumes of exported have increased confirming thatcertification can be an important catalyst of trade growth. Production characteristics and types ofcrops are important in determining the benefits of certification. Nonetheless, both measures ofcertification, i.e., certified land and certified producers, are important as one caters to the economic
needs in terms of enhancing continued business while certified land area can potentially lead toincreased production, ensuring environmentally conscious production systems. While the data usedin this study offers valuable insights into trends and certification practices in Kenyan horticulture, italso presents a limitation due to the aggregated nature of the data, which might obscure regional or
local variations in certification and horticulture production.

Ⓒ ISERD

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REFERENCES
Asfaw, S., Mithöfer, D. and Waibel, H. 2010. Agrifood supply chain, private-sector standards, and farmers’
health, Evidence from Kenya. Agricultural Economics, 41 (3-4), Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.
1111/j.1574-0862.2010.00443.x
Balié, J. 2020. The trade-offs of healthy food from sustainable agriculture in the Global South. Global Food
Security, 26, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100384
Bennett, E.A. 2017. Who governs socially oriented voluntary sustainability standards, Not the producers ofcertified products. World Development, 91, 53-69, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.
2016.10.010
Boza Martinez, S. 2015. Assessing the impact of sanitary, phytosanitary, and technical requirements on foodand agricultural trade, What does current research tell us? SECO/WTI Academic Cooperation ProjectWorking Paper Series 2013/02, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2614352
Dolan, C. and Humphrey, J. 2000. Governance and trade in fresh vegetables, The impact of UK supermarkets
on the African horticulture industry. Journal of Development Studies, 37 (2), 147-176, Retrieved from DOI
https://doi.org/10.1080/713600072
Fiankor, D.D.D., Flachsbarth, I., Masood, A. and Brümmer, B. 2020. Does GlobalGAP certification promoteagrifood exports? European Review of Agricultural Economics, 47 (1), 247-272, Retrieved from DOI
https://doi.org/10.1093/erae/jbz023
Gichuki, C.N., Gicheha, S.K. and Kamau, C.W. 2020. Do food certification standards guarantee small-sized
farming enterprises access to better markets, Effectiveness of marketing contracts in Kenya. International
Journal of Social Economics, 47 (4), 445-459, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSE-08-20190501
Henson, S., Masakure, O. and Cranfield, J. 2011. Do fresh produce exporters in Sub-Saharan Africa benefit
from GlobalGAP certification? World Development, 39 (3), 375-386, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.worlddev.2010.06.012
Jaffee, S. and Masakure, O. 2005. Strategic use of private standards to enhance international competitiveness,
Vegetable exports from Kenya and elsewhere. Food Policy, 30 (3), 316-333, Retrieved from DOI
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2005.05.009
Kariuki, I.M. 2014. Transition to certification schemes and implications for market access, GlobalGAP
perspectives in Kenya. Agricultural Sciences, 5 (12), 1100-1111, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/
10.4236/as.2014.512120
Krauss, J.E. and Krishnan, A. 2022. Global decisions versus local realities, Sustainability standards, priorities
and upgrading dynamics in agricultural global production networks. Global Networks, 22 (1), 65-88,
Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1111/glob.12325
McCalla, A.F. and Nash, J. (eds.) 2007. Reforming Agricultural Trade for Developing Countries (Vol. 2),
Quantifying the Impact of Multilateral Trade Reform. World Bank Publications.
Mithöfer, D., Waibel, H. and Asfaw, S. 2009. Investment in compliance with GlobalGAP standards, Does it
pay off for small-scale producers in Kenya? Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture, 48 (4), 337.
Ouma, S. 2010. Global Standards, Local Realities: Private Agrifood Governance and the Restructuring of the
Kenyan Horticulture Industry. Retrieved from URL www.economicgeography.org
Pingali, P., Aiyar, A., Abraham, M. and Rahman, A. 2019. Linking farms to markets: Reducing transaction
costs and enhancing bargaining power. 193-214, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03014409-8_8
Shepherd, B. and Wilson, N.L.W. 2013. Product standards and developing country agricultural exports, Thecase of the European Union. Food Policy, 42, 1-10, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.foodpol.2013.06.003
Tallontire, A., Opondo, M. and Nelson, V. 2014. Contingent spaces for smallholder participation in GlobalGAP,
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Research article
erd

Identifying the Japanese Foreign Technical Intern andTraining Program (TITP) in the Agriculture Sector and Its
Outstanding Training Models: A Case Study of Indonesia
FADHILLA IZZATY SYAUKAT*
Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: fs208499@nodai.ac.jp

KATSUMORI HATANAKA
Faculty of International Agriculture and Food Studies, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo,
Japan

NINA N. SHIMOGUCHI
Faculty of International Agriculture and Food Studies, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo,
Japan

RAMADHONA SAVILLE
Faculty of International Agriculture and Food Studies, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo,
Japan
Received 21 May 2023

Accepted 20 March 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The Japanese government established the Foreign Technical Intern and Training
Program (TITP) for developing countries, enabling trainees from these countries to improve
technology, skills, and practical knowledge in an actual work environment and apply theirskills when they return home. However, due to issues including improper wage payments
and overwork, this approach has received harsh criticism from human rights organizations
inside and outside Japan. Previous research has primarily focused on the negative aspects ofthis program, with little emphasis placed on its positive impacts. TITP is considered criticalfor Indonesia because it provides high-paying jobs for "unskilled" youth, accounting for
more than half of the unemployed population. This research aimed to summarize the current
general condition of the TITP, classify the different programs under TITP, and compare thesocio-economic conditions of the alumni after finishing TITP and returning to Indonesia.
Based on the findings, we can assert that the TITP in the agriculture sector has attracted
TITP alumni to pursue a career in agriculture, thereby contributing to an increase in young
farmers, desperately needed to ensure the future of Indonesia's agriculture. The majority ofalumni became farmer entrepreneurs. The average income of TITP alumni working in the
agriculture sector was found to be more than three times that of the average Indonesian
farmer's monthly income. The main programs realized under the TITP and reviewed in thecurrent study included the Industrial Training Program (ITP) and the Technical Intern
Program (TIP). These programs were compared with the NT Farm (NTF) in Fukui, whichis recognized for its exceptional training methodology, including entrepreneurshipdevelopment training. All NTF alumni now own land, and their average income is slightly
higher compared to that of the ITP and TIP alumni.
Keywords TITP, agriculture entrepreneurship, young farmers

INTRODUCTION
The Indonesian Institute of Science (LIPI) survey on the national farmers in 2017 concluded thatIndonesia is on the verge of an agriculture crisis in the long term. This is due to the decrease inagriculture households and the aging of farmers, which is not accompanied by the regeneration of
the farmers. Regeneration is a key to sustainability. However, many youths (aged 18-35) assume thatⒸ ISERD

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agricultural enterprises are less profitable, old-fashioned, dirty, muddy, and provide low income.
Hence these assumptions, only 21.95% of the youth engage in agriculture, fisheries, and forestry
sectors. Access to meaningful employment is also challenging, particularly for the 1.7 million youth
entering the workforce annually. Youth account for over 50% of Indonesia's unemployed population.
Indonesia lacks qualified young farmers. Training is a principal means of developing humanresources to achieve this goal. Japan provides technical training for developing countries under theForeign Technical Intern and Training Program (TITP) in many sectors, including agriculture. In
2021, Indonesia sent hundreds of its youth to this program since 1984 and is still actively engaged tothis day (Gusnelly and Riskianingrum, 2019). The main goal of TITP is to enhance the technology,
skills, and knowledge pragmatically and practically in an actual work environment so trainees fromdeveloping countries can apply their skills when they return to their home countries. However, thisapproach encounters severe criticism from human rights organizations inside and outside Japan due
to several issues it has caused.
Past studies (Chiavacci 2012, Ratnayake et. al. 2020, Tong 2019) mainly focus on the negativeside of this program, while good qualities are hardly recognized. TITP is considered highly importantfor Indonesia as it provides high-paying jobs for the "unskilled" youth, accounting for over 50% of
the unemployed population. In recent years, the Indonesian government strongly supported the TITP,
claiming it attracts youth to engage in agriculture, and many of its alumni return to Indonesia andbecome agriculture entrepreneurs. However, scientific literature proving these statements could not
be found. This study is needed to clarify the condition of the TITP alumni, especially in the
agriculture sector.
OBJECTIVE
This study uses examples of Indonesian trainees and trainee alumni who have conducted training andinternships over the past 26 years to illustrate the common condition of Indonesian trainees in the
agriculture industry under TITP. It also examines cases of outstanding training models, including thealumni's current livelihood after conducting TITP in the agriculture sector in Japan.
METHODOLOGY
Primary data was gathered through direct observation of training, in-depth interviews, and online
questionnaires conducted from November 2021- August 2022. This study interviewed two farmers
employing Indonesian trainees under two separate programs: under the kenshuseido or Industrial
Training Program (ITP) and under ginou jisshuseido or Technical Intern Program (TIP). NTF is afarm that oversees Indonesian trainees under TIP. Both ITP and TIP are part of TITP.
Eleven trainees conducting internships under TIP and all trainees (four people) from NTF werealso interviewed to grasp the general condition of training in the agriculture sector. Alumni of the
programs were also interviewed to understand their perspective toward TITP and their current sourceof income and livelihood. Of the interviewed alumni, 36 are graduates of ITP, 12 are alumni of theNTF, and 15 are TIP alumni other than NTF alumni. In total, 80 respondents are analyzed for thisresearch.
Secondary sources, such as scientific journals or publications, articles, and reports, were also
used in this study. The data was analyzed through comparative analysis since it is descriptive andqualitative in nature. Comparative analysis is essential, especially in clarifying different training
methods, to help understand how the different methods affect the trainees' livelihood. In the future,
this study aims to aid in developing an adequate training method that will result in a better livelihoodfor its alumni.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
General Condition of TITP for Indonesian Trainees in the Agriculture SectorⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

In 1984 the Indonesian and Japanese governments approved an agriculture internship program forIndonesian youth called the Industrial Training Program (ITP). In the agriculture sector, the Ministryof Agriculture selects young farmers or children of farmers to work and receive training at a Japanesefarm for around one year. Problems arose, primarily due to the restriction of giving a wage to trainees
under the kenshuu visa. Only allowance, far below the standard wage, is permitted in addition to allaccommodation, including lodging and food, that the farmer provides. In response to the issues, theJapanese government 1993 introduced a new program called the Technical Intern Training Program(TITP), where unskilled labor from developing countries will train and work for 3 to 5 years in 14
sectors, including agriculture while receiving an hourly wage. Currently, TIP is more commonly
known as TITP.
The program aims to transfer technical knowledge and skills from Japan to developing countries.
Nevertheless, previous studies state that the program has not successfully improved intern trainees'
skills in technical expertise and matters. The trainees learned more about Japanese work ethics (5S;
Seiri, Seton, Seiso, Seiketsu, Shitsuke) and habits, creating networking opportunities, and earningmoney, which helped them open their own business back home (Ratnayake et al., 2016). Recently,
in 2019, the Special Skilled Worker Program (SSW – Tokutei Ginou) was launched to help solve theproblems faced under TITP.
In terms of the number of TITP trainees in Japan, the total number has consistently increased.
Indonesian trainees are in fourth place for the total number of trainees. Every year the number ofIndonesian trainees in Japan has increased and is predicted to multiply. Figure 1 shows the numberof Indonesian trainees from 2012 to 2019.

Fig. 1 Number of Indonesian trainees in Japan
Source: Japan Ministry of Justice Statistics on Foreign Residents

While these figures indicate the demand, the TITP has gained attention and multiple criticisms.
Domestic and foreign organizations called for the program's abolition due to the alleged exacerbatedcases of human rights and labor violations. Nearly every year since 2010, the US Department of State
Trafficking in Persons Report 5 calls out to Japan to improve its foreign labor schemes as it operates
under the auspices of TITP. Meanwhile, the United Nations Human Rights Committee expressed
concern about many reports of sexual abuse, labor-related deaths, and conditions that could amount
to forced labor in the TITP (OHCHR, 2014). Sending countries acknowledge the mistreatment.
However, each country has its stance (JICA, 2019). Unlike most countries, the Indonesian
government considers this program as a means of developing human resources, particularly in the
agricultural sector (JICA, 2021). In 2021, more than 3,427 Indonesian trainees worked in the
agriculture sector, putting them in second place after the construction sector.
The Indonesian government supports this program and claims it is a good source of social
remittance and prospers new agriculture leaders and entrepreneurs, even though entrepreneurship isⒸ ISERD

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not part of the training they receive. From an interview with the Head of the Agricultural Education
Center, Agricultural Human Resources Extension, and Development Agency (BPPSDMP) of theIndonesian Ministry of Agriculture, it is understood that since the end of 2021, the government has
been planning to start a new program to send selected Indonesian youth to the TITP or SSW programin the agriculture sector by providing agriculture entrepreneurship training prior departure and after
graduating from the program to help them get a head start in building their agriculture enterprise inIndonesia. To aid in the development of such programs, this research would like to highlight twocases of adequate training methods of TITP in the agriculture sector and the livelihood of their alumni.
One is the ITP training conducted in cooperation with the Indonesian Ministry of Agriculture, andthe second case will be training conducted at the NTF.
Differences between ITP, TIP, and NTF Training Methods
Table 1 shows the main differences between each program compiled from interviews and secondary
data. It reveals that the most significant differences are divided into three aspects; 1) the trainees
selected for the program, 2) the pre-departure training and education received during the program,and 3) the trainee's wage and accommodation while in Japan. In ITP and NTF, youth with anagriculture background become one of the main requirements. Including this precondition ensures
the trainees have preexisting knowledge and interest in agriculture and have a significant chance ofperforming better than those with no agriculture background. Work in agriculture is demanding andrequires a great deal of energy. Respondents mentioned that many trainees could not keep up withwork on a farm and tended to quit before the contract ended. This requirement will help prevent thatsort of case from happening. As for NTF, all trainees finished their contract; some even extended it
for another year or two.
Table 1 Main differences between the ITP, TIP, and the NTF
Program element

Kenshu (ITP)

Pre-departure training

P4S or Organization
under the Indonesian
Ministry of Agriculture(MA)

Ginou Jisshu(TIP)
Registered Training
Organization (LPK),
pays a minimal 10
million IDR

Trainee candidates

Young farmers orfamilies of farmers

Anyone who is under istraining under the LPK

Selection of the trainee

Selected by the farmergroup under MA

Selected by the farmer
via LPK through online
interview

Selected by the principleof Tanjung Sari SMK

Length of training

Up to 1 year

2 - 5 years

3 years

Training/education in
ProgramFinancial literacy
education

Before and in the middleof the program

None

Yes, weekly

Yes (starting with 2021)

None

Yes

Wage
(hourly, more than¥100,000/month)
Not provided(paid by the trainee)

Wage(hourly, more than¥100,000/month)
Not provided(paid by the trainee)

Paid

Paid

IncomeAllowance(around ¥40,000/month)

Accommodations(lodging and food)Provided, by the farmer

Overtime work

Not allowed, not paid

NTF farm in Fukui(NTF)
No requirements apartfrom attending a
Japanese language
school in Indonesia
Alumni of Tanjung Sari
Agriculture Vocational
High School (SMK)

The second aspect is from the training and education received by the trainees. The pre-departure
training for trainee candidates of ITP is conducted in an Agriculture and Rural Training Center (orⒸ ISERD

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P4S in Indonesian). P4S is a community institution owned and managed by farmers directly toincrease the development of agricultural human resources through training, extension, and education
with the support of the Ministry of Agriculture. There are 1,562 P4S centers in Indonesia, one inalmost every district. Since the trainees are spread throughout Indonesia, they will intern in thenearest P4S for at least three months. The trainees of NTF are all alumni of Tanjung Sari Agriculture
Vocational High School (SMK), located in West Java. This vocational school is one of Indonesia's
best agriculture vocational schools. Two hard-working exceptional alumni are selected by theschool's principal every year. Regarding the cost to become a trainee in Japan, standard TITP
programs applied through a registered training sending organization (or LPK in Indonesian) charge
the trainees at least 10,000,000 IDR or around 670 USD. Some even charge more than 2,000 USD.
Under the ITP and NTF, this kind of fee is unnecessary. As for ITP trainees, pre-departure training in
P4S is less than 150 USD, while under NTF the trainees only need to pay for private Japanese lessons
before their departure to Japan.
Unlike the common ITP, both ITP and NTF provide agriculture training during the program. In
ITP, trainees receive intensive Japanese language and culture, plus an introduction to agriculture in
Japan, for around two weeks before being spread all around Japan to work on a farm. The
appointment of the farm where they will intern is also decided based on their agriculture experienceand interests. In the summer, they will participate in hands-on agriculture training given by farmers
in various fields. This is conducted for around three weeks.
In NTF, trainees and the farm owner will have weekly classes to discuss agriculture andentrepreneurship. At the beginning of the program, each trainee is asked to make a business plan onwhat they would like to do with the money they saved from working in NTF. Each week they will
give an update on their business plan. The CEO of NTF also provides financial literacy education
and advises on investments made for their business plan. Trainees interviewed say they have alreadystarted to invest their money in their business, like buying land, cattle, and machinery, just after one
year of working. For alumni, NTF also provides loans to help expand their business. The main goalof NTF in employing Indonesian trainees is to help them become wise agripreneurs.
The final main difference is the wage (allowance) and accommodation provided. During theinternship, ITP trainees are given an allowance of 40,000 JPY or around 312 USD per month.
However, all accommodation expenses are paid by the farmer. As for trainees in NTF, they receive amonthly wage of more than 100,000 JPY (around 780 USD) after taxes and insurance charges. NTF
trainees are also paid an hourly wage for any overtime work done. However, lodging and foodexpenses are borne by the trainees. This wage is almost more than ten times the average income ofIndonesian farmers of around 1,400,000 IDR or around 92 USD per month.
Current Condition and Livelihood of Industrial Training Program Alumni and NTF Alumni
This study hypothesized that alumni of NTF will become more prosperous farmers (in terms of higher
income and assets owned) compared to alumni of the other programs due to the agriculture andentrepreneurship education they received. This study accepts it with the following discussions as
support. NTF currently has 13 alumni. When respondents were categorized into three groups; ITP(n=36), TIP (n=15), and NTF (n=12), only 52% of alumni of NTF had farmer parents, and only 25%of the alumni worked in the agriculture sector before coming to Japan. While 92% of ITP alumni had
farmer parents, 86% of the respondents were farmers or worked in the agriculture sector before TITP.
After finishing the program, currently, 97% of the ITP alumni are farmers, own agriculture
entrepreneurship, or work in the agriculture sector, or an 11% increase from before conducting TITP.
As many as 92% of NTF alumni currently earn an income from the agriculture sector, a significant
increase from 25%. Land is considered an essential asset, especially in agriculture-related sectors.
As for land owned or cultivated, 92% of ITP trainees owned the land before coming to Japan. Unlike
ITP alumni, only 42% of NTF trainees owned land before training in Japan. Nevertheless, interviews
reveal that all NTF alumni (100%) currently own land and do farming as their primary or secondary
source of income. Figure 2 shows the details.

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

Fig. 2 Condition of ITP and NTF alumni (%)
Another contributing factor that needs to be considered is that 92% of the NTF alumni returned
to Sumedang or Bandung, West Java. Land prices have become higher in this area due to theconstruction of highways nearby, and many agricultural lands have been converted to other uses.
Hence, the fact that NTF alumni have land and are still cultivated in this area is a notable factor tobe considered, as they have contributed to sustaining the number of farmers in the area. Regarding
the average income of alumni, NTF alumni earn an average of 4,791,667 IDR (around 320 USD)
compared to ITP alumni with 4,693,548 IDR (approximately 310 USD) and TIP alumni with
4,750,000 IDR (around 316 USD). Even though the nominal is almost equal, with regards to the land
owned, NTF alumni have a higher value in assets due to the higher price of land in the area.
CONCLUSION
Based on this study's findings, it is concluded that TITP in the agriculture sector has successfully
attracted its alumni to proceed with a career in the agriculture sector, contributing to more young
farmers, which is critical for the future of Indonesia's agriculture. The hypothesis set that alumni of
NTF will become more prosperous farmers compared to alumni of the other programs due to theagriculture and entrepreneurship education they received can be accepted because all NTF alumni
became farmers as their primary or secondary source of livelihood. All NTF respondents own theirland, 92% in Bandung and Sumedang, West Java, where land prices are high. Regarding income, themajority of ITP, TIP, and NTF alumni earn three times the average income of farmers in Indonesia.
Future studies should elaborate on the factors impacting the TITP alumni's livelihood and develop a
recommendation for training for agriculture trainees to generate more high-quality young farmers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sincere appreciation is extended to JST SPRING, Grant Number JPMJSP2122, for supporting thisstudy and all respondents involved in this research.
REFERENCES
Anwarudin, O., et. al. 2020. Process and approach to farmer regeneration through multi-strategy Indonesia.
Jurnal Penelitian Dan Pengembangan Pertanian, 39 (2), 73-85, Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.21082/
jp3.v39n2.2020.p73-85
Chiavacci, D. 2012. Hanging concepts of valuable foreign workers and their consequences. Asien: The German
Journal of Contemporary Asia, 124, 27–47.Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-69838.
Godo, Y. 2019. Japan's new policy on foreign laborers and its impact on the agricultural industry. FFTC
Agricultural Policy Platform, Japan, Retrieved from https://ap.fftc.org.tw/article/1633
Gusnelly and Riskianingrum, D. 2019, Apprenticeship of Indonesian farmer youth to Japan: 1984-2016, InⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

Indonesian, Patrawidya, Bogor, Indonesia.
IDCJ and JICA. 2019. The Republic of Indonesia data collection survey on Indonesian ex-participants of the
JICA training program final report Ministry of State Secretariat Indonesia, Indonesia.
JICA. 2021. Final report of southeast asia region information gathering/confirmation study on potential
linkages between local development and ODA. (in Japanese) Retrieved from: https://openjicareport.
jica.go.jp/
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). 2014. UN migrant rights expert urges Japan
to increase protection of migrants. Retrieved from: http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/Display
News.aspx?NewsID=9950&LangI D=E
Ratnayake, P., De Silvia, and Kage, S. 2020. Workforce development with Japanese technical intern training
program in Asia: Performance, opportunities and challenges. The Economic Review of Saga University,
49 (3), 1-31.
Tong, Yaqina. 2019. The actuality of accepting technical intern trainees in Japan and the reconsideration of thetechnical intern training program. The Bulletin of the Center for Research on Regional Economic Systems
Hiroshima University, 30, 33-46.

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Research article
erdCharacterizing Salinity and Salinity Matrixes in the
Burdekin and Fitzroy Catchments, Queensland, Australia
FIONA H.M. HENDERSON
University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
Email: fiona.h.henderson@gmail.com

BARRY N. NOLLER
University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
Received 21 July 2023

Accepted 21 March 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract In Australia, salinity is a significant issue plaguing freshwater systems, especiallyin catchments modified by mining activities. River salinity varies in composition fromchanges in aquifer lithology, natural salt deposits and salt accumulation due to land altering
activities (e.g., mining and agriculture). Complex salinity matrixes arise when different
salinity sources and compositions are diluted into freshwater systems. Monitoring waterway
salinity and characterizing salinity matrixes is vital to mitigating adverse impacts on
agriculture, drinking water supplies and ecosystem health. However, to date, few studies
have focused on characterizing salinity in freshwater systems based on source. In this paper,
case studies drawn from the Burdekin and Fitzroy catchments, Queensland, arecharacterized for different salinities associated with mining and natural geogenic
mineralization. Salinity coefficients (k e ), a ratio of total dissolved solids (TDS in mg/L) toelectrical conductivity (EC in 𝜇𝑆 /cm), are utilized to identify variations in salinity
composition. Long-term water quality data (1964-2023) is retrieved from the Queensland
Government’s water monitoring program. Findings indicate that mining activities in both
catchments have a significant influence on freshwater salinity matrixes, driving lower k evalues (0.561-0.587). A novel method for analyzing long-term 𝑘𝑒 data is introduced,
utilizing the slope (m) of 𝑘𝑒 in cumulative distribution plots. Significant variations in slope
in the Fitzroy (m: 9.6, 5.3, 2.3) and in the Burdekin River (m: 8.9, 1.6, 1.0, 0.7) reveal
influences on local mineralization and industry, not readily evident when only considering
average 𝑘𝑒 . This study demonstrates that utilizing known geochemical, EC and TDS
relationships and 𝑘𝑒 is an effective preliminary method for identifying salinity complexity,
composition and source. Salinity in the Fitzroy catchment surpasses aquatic toxicity
thresholds (EC50: 2410 µS/cm), revealing significant risks to freshwater aquatic species.
Keywords salinity, salinity characterization, water quality, mining, ecosystem health

INTRODUCTION
Freshwater salinization is an emerging global issue impacting water quality and ecosystem health.
Salinity refers to dissolved salts, minerals, or ions in water, with major ions consisting of: sodium(Na+), magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+), potassium (K+), sulfate (SO42-), bicarbonate (HCO3-), andchloride (Cl-). Electrical conductivity (EC) or specific conductance, is the ability of an aqueous
substance to conduct an electric current. Total dissolved solid (TDS) or ionic concentration, is thetotal concentration of salts present within a solution (Hem, 1989). Charged ionic species in solution
drives conductance. For example, pure deionized water has very low EC (< 5 µS/cm), containing nosalts. Both EC and TDS are quantitative measures of salinity.
The correlation between ionic concentration and specific conductance is well established; as ion
concentration increases, conductance increases, thus EC can infer ionic concentration (Hem, 1989).
The mathematical relationship between ionic concentration and specific conductance can be
described in Eq. (1) as:Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

𝑘𝑒 = 𝑇𝐷𝑆/𝐸𝐶(1)

Where, 𝑘𝑒 is the salinity coefficient, EC is electrical conductivity in µS/cm and TDS is total
dissolved solids in mg/L. As EC of a solution increases, TDS increases, resulting in a linear
relationship between EC and TDS. This direct relationship applies to both anion and cation
components of compounds in a solution. It is common to utilize EC readings and predefined 𝑘𝑒 (e.g.,
U.S. standard of 0.64-0.66) to determine TDS (Hem, 1989). Natural waters however, are not simple
solutions, containing both ionic and undissociated species that range widely in amount andproportion (Hem, 1989). Ionic mobility, is the capacity of ions to move through a solution, whichtransfers charges and enables a conduction of current. Ionic mobility decreases with increasing
concentration, owing to interference and interactions among ions (Hem, 1989). Factors such astemperature, solvent, specific ions and high salinity (or ionic concentration) can cause interferences
and non-linear behaviour in the EC and TDS relationship, resulting in variable 𝑘𝑒 coefficients (Hem,1989). Therefore, large variations in 𝑘𝑒 can convey salinity matrix complexity.
In literature it is well established that 𝑘𝑒 is variable in some freshwater systems. However, there
is limited data identifying specific 𝑘𝑒 associated with local geology and mining (Table 1). The given
table identifies a range of 𝑘𝑒 values and associations to geogenic and mining influences in literature.
Table 1 𝒌𝒆 value ranges in literature𝑘𝑒 Ranges
0.64 - 0.66
0.59 - 0.72
0.54 - 0.96
0.90 - ≥ 1.00
0.24 - 1.34

Description
US Geological Survey Standard Coefficient at 25°C
Australian surface waters (EC range 50 - 1000 µS/cm)
Natural waters
Natural waters influenced by dolerite or schist
South Africa Mine Waters (EC range of 70 -16000 µS/cm)

Reference
Hem (1989)
McNeil & Cox (2000)
Parker (2001)
Parker (2001)
Hubert & Wolkersdorfer (2015)

Complex salinity matrixes of multiple contaminants arise when different salinity sources (i.e.,mine water and industrial effluent) are diluted into freshwater systems (Kaushal et al., 2021). These
irregular salinity compositions are of varying ionic strength, pH, redox, and temperature (e.g., mine
pit water discharge can increase water temperatures by 3.9℃); collectively influencing adsorption,
contaminant mobilization and ecotoxicity risk (Wright et al., 2017). High salinity (>1000 µS/cm)
can impact freshwater aquatic specie reproduction and cause death (Mann et al., 2014).
OBJECTIVE
This study’s objective is to demonstrate the application of 𝑘𝑒 as a preliminary method to identify andcharacterize complex salinity matrixes in highly altered freshwater environments. This paper aims toinvestigate salinity matrixes in the Burdekin and Fitzroy catchment by (1) identifying 𝑘𝑒 values
associated with mining (Fig. 1, Table 2), and (2) 𝑘𝑒 cumulative distribution plots (Fig. 2) todistinguish long-term influences of local geogenic mineralization and industry. This study further
examines the impact of salinity composition on ecosystem health, by comparing salinity data toaquatic toxicity thresholds for 6 freshwater species (Fig. 3) (Mann et al., 2014).
METHODOLOGYThe Burdekin (~130,000 km2) and Fitzroy (~142,000 km2) catchments have extensive gold (Charters
Towers, Ravenswood, and Mt. Morgan) and coal mining (Collinsville, and Callide), sugarcane
farming, grazing, and hydrological alterations (Burdekin Falls Dam: 1,860,000 ML and Fitzroy River
Dam: 480,000 ML) (Fig. 1). These subtropical river systems are two of the largest coastal river inputs
to the Great Barrier Reef (GBR), a world heritage listed site. The Burdekin and Fitzroy catchments
were chosen as case studies due to their established mining developments and the potential impact
upon protected ecosystems.

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In this study, water quality data is retrieved from the Queensland Government’s Water
Monitoring Information Portal (WMIP). The WMIP database provides long-term water quality
measurements (1964 – 2023) for both TDS and EC (Queensland Government, 2023). A total of 21
gauging stations were chosen; 10 sites in the Fitzroy and 11 in the Burdekin River (Fig. 1). Siteselection focused on gauging stations downstream from mining developments. Sites located intributaries, without anthropogenic activity were utilized as a comparison to natural geogenic inputs.

Fig. 1 Fitzroy and Burdekin catchments with electrical conductivity at gauging station sites
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 2 provides mean TDS, EC, and 𝑘𝑒 in the Burdekin and Fitzroy Rivers. In both catchments,
river waters in proximity to mining areas (nickel [Ni], scandium [Sc], gold [Au] and coal) arecorrelated to lower 𝑘𝑒 values (0.561 - 0.587) (Table 2). Sites B2 and B3 positioned near Greenvale(Ni and Sc), have a 𝑘𝑒 range of 0.576 to 0.587. Charters Towers and Ravenswood (Au), B7 and B8,
have a 𝑘𝑒 range of 0.571 to 0.583. Sites in proximity or downstream of coal mining operations (F2,
F3, F7, F8 and B10) have a 𝑘𝑒 between 0.561 and 0.584. B10 is downstream of the decommissioned
Collinsville coal power station (operated from 1967-2018) and the mean 𝑘𝑒 of 0.570 likely captures
previous inputs. Henderson et al. (2022), linked lead isotopes (207Pb/206Pb and 208Pb/206Pb) to coal fly
ash signatures in Burdekin waterways, further validating the influence of the coal power station. F9,
is located at a junction of tributaries downstream of coal and gold mining and likely captures acomplex salinity composition from multiple sources, driving a higher 𝑘𝑒 of 0.685.
Sites outside of mining operations in the Burdekin (B1, B9 and B11) and the Fitzroy (F1, F4,
F5, F6 and F10) have notably different 𝑘𝑒 (Burdekin: 0.607-0.628 and Fitzroy: 0.608-0.643),
reflecting reduced ionic complexity and a stronger association to 𝑘𝑒 standard (0.64-0.66). B4, B5,
and B6 are located in areas of minimal anthropogenic activity but have high and low 𝑘𝑒 ranges (B4:0.725, B5: 0.777, B6: 0.580). Exposed pegmatites and granites are prominent at B4 and B5, likely
contributing to high silica content in the water column. Eroded basalts at B6 increase Mg-CaNaHCO3, impacting local water chemistries. High 𝑘𝑒 ratios are driven by the prominence of weaklyⒸ ISERD

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ionized cations and anions; from pesticides, organic compounds, dissolved gases, and neutral salts(calcium carbonate, silicates, and boron) (Day and Nightingale, 1984; Hubert and Wolkersdorfer,2015). Alternatively, low 𝑘𝑒 are reflective of waters high in free acid, alkalinity, NaHCO3 and NaCl.
(Hills et al., 2022; Hubert and Wolkersdorfer, 2015). These geochemical trends align with ourfindings of low 𝑘𝑒 associated with mining and basalt mineralization and high 𝑘𝑒 driven by dissolved
silica from local geology.
Table 2 Mean total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), and salinity factor(𝒌𝒆 ) in the Burdekin and Fitzroy catchments
Station a
120123A
120107B
120110A
120120A
120112A
120106B
120122A
120002C
120015A
120205A
120006B
130410A
130404A
130401A
130504B
130106A
130105B
130327A
130306B
130003B
130005A

Site
B1
B2
B3
B4
B5
B6
B7
B8
B9
B10
B11
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
F8
F9
F10

Nb
24
31
151
36
35
71
30
187
92
56
201
47
130
138
47
86
14
82
123
106
223

Description
Burdekin: Valley of Lagoons
Burdekin: Blue Range (Ni, Sc)
Burdekin: Blue Range (Ni, Sc)
Burdekin: Mt. Bradley
Burdekin: Star R.
Burdekin: Basalt R.
Burdekin: Charters Towers (Au)
Burdekin: Ravenswood (Au)
Burdekin Falls Dam
Burdekin: Bowen R. (Coal)
Burdekin: Home Hill
Fitzroy: Upper Isaac
Fitzroy: Connors (Coal)
Fitzroy: Lower Isaac (Coal)
Fitzroy: Blackwater
Fitzroy: Mackenzie
Fitzroy: Mackenzie
Fitzroy: Callide (Coal)
Fitzroy: Callide (Coal)
Fitzroy: (Coal, Au)
Fitzroy: Rockhampton

TDS (mg/L)c
295 ± 81.8
258 ± 72.2
229 ± 83.5
42 ± 9.6
82 ± 58
400 ± 156
222 ± 80.1
174 ± 58.3
108 ± 33.6
144 ± 64.2
130 ± 53.0
182 ± 141
195 ± 73.0
187 ± 67.0
140 ± 76.0
128 ± 46.0
107 ± 32.0
228 ± 143955 ± 1299
242 ± 190
164 ± 111

EC (µS/cm)c
487 ± 134448 ± 121394 ± 150
60 ± 15117 ± 102690 ± 263
394 ± 152
301 ± 108179 ± 64.5
253 ± 110222 ± 94.4
313 ± 259
352 ± 140335 ± 129228 ± 145
213 ± 89.0
171 ± 62.0
399 ± 262
1684 ± 2243
370 ± 337
284 ± 204

𝑘𝑒 c
0.607 ± 0.016
0.576 ± 0.022
0.587 ± 0.033
0.725 ± 0.236
0.777 ± 0.354
0.580 ± 0.029
0.571 ± 0.030
0.583 ± 0.038
0.615 ± 0.044
0.570 ± 0.076
0.628 ± 0.547
0.629 ± 0.181
0.561 ± 0.056
0.568 ± 0.057
0.637 ± 0.054
0.613 ± 0.079
0.643 ± 0.052
0.584 ± 0.037
0.565 ± 0.035
0.685 ± 0.146
0.608 ± 0.072

Source: a WMPI Database retrieved 2023, b. number of samples between 1964-2023, and c mean± standard deviation

Figure 2 shows the cumulative distribution of 𝑘𝑒 in the Burdekin and Fitzroy Rivers
between 1964 and 2023. In freshwater environments, the proportions and quantity ofdissolved salts naturally fluctuate over time (Walton, 1989). In Fig. 2, differences in 𝑘𝑒 slope
offers an additional approach to identify geogenic mineralization and industry influences onriver chemistries. Fig. 2A demonstrates three types of salinity matrixes which correspond to
shifts in 𝑘𝑒 , slope (m) (m: 9.6, 5.3, 2.3). Fitzroy is heavily impacted by mining activity, withsites F2, F3, F7, and F8 aligning with slope m: 9.6.

Fig. 2 Cumulative distribution of 𝒌𝒆 values for the Fitzroy (A) and Burdekin Rivers (B)Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

Sites not impacted by mining (F1, F4, F5, F6, F10) fall under slope m: 5.3. As previously
identified, F9 is located at a junction of multiple tributaries downstream from coal and gold mining
sites. F9 has the largest 𝑘𝑒 variation (m: 2.3) within the Fitzroy catchment, reflecting the ioniccomplexity from multiple salinity sources. Fig 2B indicates four distinct 𝑘𝑒 slopes (m: 8.9, 1.6, 1.0,0.7) in the Burdekin River. B1, B2, B3, B6, B7, B8, and B10 align with m: 8.9 (𝑘𝑒 : 0.70-0.607). B4(m: 1.6) and B5 (m: 1.0), have a significantly larger variation of 𝑘𝑒 , indicating geogenic influences
previously established by mean 𝑘𝑒 (B4: 0.725, B5: 0.777).
B11 is also distinctive (m: 0.7) and although not previously apparent by its mean 𝑘𝑒 (0.628), thecumulative distribution curve demonstrates B11 has a complex ionic composition. Located in theestuary B11 variations are likely driven by pesticide run-off from nearby sugarcane farming and thesugar mill industry established at Home Hill (Henderson et al., 2022).
Figure 3 compares both acute and chronic EC50 (effective concentration; where 50% of the
toxicity response is observed) toxicity thresholds to salinity levels in the Burdekin and Fitzroy Rivers.
Mann et al. (2014) dosed test species in solutions representative of coal mine water to generate
freshwater toxicity limits identified in Fig. 3. The majority (95%) of Burdekin and Fitzroy sites havesalinity levels well below aquatic toxicity limits (Fig. 3). F8 ( 𝑘𝑒 : 0.565) however, has high salinity
levels (EC maximum: 11,500 µS/cm); four out of five test species surpassed the ecotoxicity limit,
indicating the high toxicity response of aquatic species at this location. These results align with
Chapman and Simpson (2005) findings, a study which outlined issues of acid mine drainage andheavy metal toxicity (aluminum and copper) from mine water at Mt. Morgan (EC 12,900 µS/cm; pH
2.7).

Fig. 3 Aquatic ecotoxicity data retrieved from Mann et al. (2014). Electrical conductivity
versus total dissolved solids for the Burdekin and Fitzroy Rivers
CONCLUSION
In highly altered freshwater environments, river salinity reflects a blend of ionic compositions fromdiverse anthropogenic and natural sources. The Fitzroy and Burdekin River waters are heavily
influenced by mining activities, which are characterized by lower 𝑘𝑒 (0.561-0.587). An innovative
approach utilizing the slope (m) in 𝑘𝑒 cumulative distribution plots reveal distinct differences in 𝑘𝑒
slope (m: 9.6, 5.3, 2.) in Fitzroy and in the Burdekin River (m :8.9, 1.6, 1.0, 0.7). This slope-based
analysis offers an additional approach to examine salinity distribution structure in freshwater systemsⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

and provides additional insights, not readily evident when only considering mean 𝑘𝑒 (B11 m: 0.7,
𝑘𝑒 : 0.628). High salinity values at F8 exceed Mann et al.'s (2014) EC50 aquatic species limit(minimum 2410 µS/cm), demonstrating high risks to ecosystem health from coal and gold mining at
this location.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I acknowledge my mentor, Barry N. Noller, for his effort and support in writing this paper. I
acknowledge the use of WMIP Queensland Government database.
REFERENCES
Chapman, H. and Simpson, S. 2005. Toxicity of acid water from Mt. Morgan mine site, Central Queensland,
to the freshwater shrimp Cardinna indistincta. Australiasian Journal of Ecotoxicology, 11, 93-99,
Retrieved from URL http://www.leusch.info/ecotox/aje/archives/vol11p93.pdf
Day, B. and Nightingale, H. 1984. Relationships between ground-water silica, total dissolved solids, andspecific electrical conductivity. Ground Water, 22 (1), 80-85, Retrieved from URL https://ngwa.
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1984.tb01479.x
Hem, J.D. 1989. Studies and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural waters. Third edition.
United States Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2254. US Geological Survey, Department of theInterior. US Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 20402, USA.
Henderson, F., Noller, B. and Komarova, T. 2022. Utilizing lead isotope tracing to investigate sustainableagriculture practice in the Burdekin catchment, Australia. International Journal of Environmental and Rural
Development, 13 (1), 112-117.
Hills, K., Hyne, R. and Kefford, B. 2022. Bicarbonate alone does not totally explain the toxicity from major
ions of coal bed derived waters to freshwater invertebrates. Ectoxicology, 31, 967-975, Retrieved from DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-022-02552-4
Hubert, E. and Wolkersdorfer, C. 2015. Establishing a conversion factor between electrical conductivity andtotal dissolved solids in South African mine waters. Water SA, 41 (4), 490-500, Retrieved from
URL https://scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S1816-79502015000400008
Kaushal, S., Likens, G., Pace M., Reimer, J., Maas, C., Galella, J., Utz, R., Duan, S., Kryger, J., Yaculak, A.,
Boger, W., Bailey, N., Haq, S., Wood, K., Wessel, B., Park, C. and Collison, D. 2021. Freshwatersalinizationn syndrome, From emerging global problem to managing risks. Biogeochemistry, 154, 255292, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-021-00784-w
Mann, R., Vink, S., Micevska, T., Hobbs, D. and Smith, R. 2014. Are variations in ionic proportions important
for the derivation of trigger values for saline mine discharge waters? Australian Bulletin of Ecotoxicology
and Environmental Chemistry, 1, 1-11, Retrieved from URL https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264048347
McNeil, V. and Cox, M. 2000. Relationship between conductivity and analysed composition in a large set of
natural surface-water samples, Queensland, Australia. Environmental Geology, 39 (12), 1325-1333,
Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1007/s002549900033
Parker, G. 2001. Nabarlek, Chemistry issues. In The rehabilitation of Nabarlek Uranium Mine: Proceedings ofa Workshop. Darwin, NT, Australia, 18-19 April 2000, Supervising Scientist Report 160, Supervising
Scientist, Darwin, NT, 53-75.
Queensland Government. 2015. Water Monitoring Information Portal (WMIP). Queensland Government,
Department of Regional Development, Manufacturing and Water, Retrieved from URL https://watermonitoring.information.qld.gov.au/
Walton, N. 1989. Electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids, What is their precise relationship?
Desalination, 72 (3), 275-292, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1016/0011-9164(89)80012-8
Wright, I., Belmer, N. and Davies, P. 2017. Coal mine water pollution and ecological impairment of one ofAustralia's most 'protected' high conservation-value rivers. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 228 (90), 1-18,
Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-017-3278-8Ⓒ ISERD

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Research article
erd

A Comparison of Organic Matter Dynamics Among
Degraded, Dam-Restored, and Preserved Peat Swamp
Forests
TETSUYA SHIMAMURA*
Graduate School of Agriculture, Ehime University, Matsuyama, Japan
Email: simamura@agr.ehime-u.ac.jp

RIE NEISHI
Graduate School of Agriculture, Ehime University, Matsuyama, Japan

ERNA S. POESIECIMTROP, University of Palangka Raya, Palangka Raya, Indonesia

KUNIYASU MOMOSE
Faculty of Agriculture, Ehime University, Matsuyama, JapanIKUO NINOMIYA
Graduate School of Agriculture, Ehime University, Matsuyama, JapanSWIDO H. LIMIN
CIMTROP, University of Palangka Raya, Palangka Raya, Indonesia
Received 21 July 2023

Accepted 22 March 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The exploitation of tropical peatlands has triggered serious environmental
problems such as deforestation and peat fires, loss of biodiversity, and emission ofgreenhouse gases. This process includes peat drainage and drying, followed by peat
degradation. Dam construction is expected to decrease the vulnerability of peatlands to fires
and improve the regeneration of degraded peatland. This study investigated the effects of
dam restoration for peat swamp forests degraded by drainage on the dynamics of organic
matter that regulate peat conditions. We compared the organic matter dynamics of three
types of forest in Palagnkaraya, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia: less-drained (almost natural),drained (degraded), and dam-restored forest. Both drained and dam-restored forests
experienced drainage in 1995; however, dams were constructed at the dam-restored site in2005. Within each site, we measured litterfall, fine root production, and decomposition as
indices of the peat accumulation rate, water table, and soil moisture. The mean groundwaterlevel at the dam construction site was significantly higher than that of the drained forest.
Litterfall was highest in the drained forest and lowest in the dam-restored site. The
decomposition rates were not significantly different among the sites. We estimated thechanges in peat mass using a model. The amounts of peat accumulation after 5 years were
found to be 3.46, -1.60, and -2.86 kg/m2 in the less-drained, drained, and dam-restored sites,
respectively. These results showed that peat deposition decreased at the dam construction
site but decreased less in the drained forest. A possible explanation for the observed results
is increased primary production in drained forests caused by reduced flooding stress andincreased nutrient supply from oxidized peat for primary producers.
Keywords tropical peat swamp forest, dam restoration, decomposition, production

INTRODUCTION
The extensive peatland areas in Southeast Asia have been degraded by exploitation (Shimamura,2016). The conversion of peatland to farmland involves processes such as drainage of peatland, clearⒸ ISERD

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cutting, and field burning. These activities have led to various environmental issues, including
increased greenhouse gas emissions, loss of biodiversity, and peat fires. Excavated channels wereused for logging and to dry out the peat, but excessive drainage has severely degraded the peatland.
As peat dries, it becomes more susceptible to fires and undergoes faster aerobic decomposition. Peatconsists mainly of dead plant matter and, when dried, behaves like kindling and firewood, burning
easily. Consequently, drainage increases peat vulnerability to fire. Similarly, drainage exposes peatto an aerobic environment. Aerobic conditions accelerate decomposition, whereas flooded andanaerobic conditions inhibit peat decomposition. The frequent fires and accelerated aerobic
decomposition result in the release of carbon accumulated in peat into the atmosphere as greenhousegases. To address this issue and conserve peat, dams have been constructed. The goal of dam
construction is to reduce the risk of fire and prevent aerobic peat decomposition by restoring waterlevels and re-saturating degraded peat.
Previous studies that examined carbon flux found that dam construction does not significantly
improve carbon deposition (Jauhiainen et al., 2008; Darusman et al., 2022). However, there is limited
knowledge about the impact of dam construction on organic matter dynamics, such as primary
production and decomposition processes, which directly regulate changes in peat deposition.
OBJECTIVES
The objective of this study was to clarify the effects of dam restoration of peatlands on organic matter
dynamics. To this end, we investigated and compared 1) water table and soil moisture, 2) above- andbelow-ground production, and 3) decomposition processes in undrained, drained, and restored peatswamp forests.
METHODOLOGY
Study Area
This study was conducted in tropical peat swamp forests in two areas: Setia Alam (2°18’ S, 113°55’
E) and Kalampangan (2°20’ S, 114°2’ E), Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. The mean (SD) annual
temperature and rainfall averages between 2009 and 2020 were 29.1 (0.63) °C and 2725 (1161) mm,
respectively (https://weatherspark.com/). Seasonality in rainfall is not fixed; however, in most years,
a distinct dry season is evident from May to August.

Fig. 1 Dam constructed in the canal near the restored forest
Setia Alam is situated in the Natural Laboratory of Tropical Peat Swamp Forest, which is locatedin the upper watershed of the Sabangau River. This area consists of large, continuous areas ofrelatively undisturbed and undrained forests. Although the forests had been logged selectively until
the late 1990s, they remained relatively intact because it was designated a National Park in 2006.
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The Kalampangan site is located between the Sabangau River and a large canal that runs from
north to south. The large canal (25 m wide × 3.5-4.5 m deep) that was excavated in 1996 and 1997
functioned to facilitate drainage of the forest (Page et al., 2009). In June-August 2005, the canal was
blocked at several points by small dams to facilitate hydrological restoration (Jauhiainen et al., 2008).
We established three sets of rectangular plots (50 m × 20 m) in the undrained forest (UF) in
Sabangau, and the drained forest (DF) and restored forest (RF) in the Kalampangan site. Most of the
field research was conducted between September 2005 and October 2006.
Water Table and Soil Moisture
The groundwater level (GWL) was measured monthly at a dip well between October 2005 andOctober 2006. The dip well was located at the centre of each plot. A PVC pipe perforated with small
holes was vertically inserted into the peat, allowing the water level inside the pipe to be measured.
We established five points within each plot to measure soil moisture monthly. The distance
between the points was more than 10 m. The volumetric water content of surface peat soil wasmeasured monthly using a time domain reflectometry probe (UIZ3635-50mV) between September
2005 and September 2006, but not between October and November 2005 as we failed to collect data.
Organic Matter Dynamics
Litter was collected monthly in each plot from October 2005 to October 2006, using ten litter traps
per plot. Each litter trap was a rectangular basket (0.75 m × 0.75 m) made from a 2 mm nylon meshsuspended from strings, and the device was held 1 m above the ground. After collection, the litter
samples were sorted into leaves, flowers, branches, fruits, bark, and others, dried to a constant mass,
and weighed. Traps were placed at points selected through random computation from grids of 5m
intervals within each plot.
The litter deposits above the peat surface were collected in September and November 2005 andFebruary and May 2006. All recognizable above-ground litter was harvested from five quadrats (50cm × 50 cm) in each plot. When traces of disturbance from the previous sampling were observed,
samples were collected at the nearest intact site. After collection, the litter samples were immediately
dried in a self-made drying room to a constant mass and weighed.
The decomposition processes of leaf litter were studied using the litter bag method. To unify thelitter samples, the leaves of Combretocarpus rotundatus (Miq.), one of the dominant species, wereused. The litter (20 g in dry weight) was enclosed in a litter bag (20 cm × 15 cm) made ofpolypropylene cloth with a mesh size of 2 mm. Litter bags were set in September 2005. Five locations
within each plot were selected, and five litter bags were placed on the ground floor at each selected
point. The distance between each point was more than 20 m. Samples were collected five times in
one year: October 2005, January 2006, April 2006, July 2006, and September 2006. A sample wascollected from each sampling point. After transport to the laboratory, the dry weight loss wasdetermined by drying the samples to a constant mass at 80 °C. Decomposition rates were estimatedusing Olson’s k (Olson, 1963), given by Eq. (1):𝑊t = 𝑊0 × 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡(1)Where Wt is the litter weight after a given period, W0 is the original litter weight, k is thedecomposition rate, and t is time.
Ingrowth cores (20 cm length, 10 cm diameter), which were made of 2 mm nylon mesh, werefilled with root-free soil and installed in the ground (0-20 cm in depth). The soil used for this purpose
was taken from a nearby location, and care was taken to fill the cores so that the bulk densities weresimilar to the original levels. Ten locations per plot (distanced 10 m or more from each other) wereselected, and an ingrowth core was buried in September 2005 and harvested 1 year later. At harvest,
12 cores from the UF were lost or broken. Consequently, the sample numbers were 13 from the UF
and 25 from the others (DF and RF). After transporting them to the laboratory, root samples fromeach core were dried at 80 °C until they reached a constant mass and were then weighed.
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Estimation of Change in Peat Depth
To understand the differences in the regimes of organic matter dynamics among the three types offorests, we used a model that simulates changes in peat depth (Shimamura and Momose, 2005). In
the simulation, peat was characterized by two horizons: surface aerobic acrotelm and deeper
anaerobic catotelm. Differences in acrotelm thickness strongly contributed to differences in peat
thickness and peat deposition. On the other hand, the depth of the catotelm layer was defined by theheight of the water table and the bottom of the peat. The peat deposition model expressed by Eq. (2)was used to simulate peat deposition in the acrotelm layer, which is influenced by organic matter
dynamics.
mA = A exp(pA/b-kA)t + skL(pL/kL-mL0) exp(-kLt) / (kL + (pA/b-kA)) - (spL-mCkC) / (pA/b-kA) (2)where mA is the acrotelm layer mass, A is an integral constant, pA is the root input per unit depth, b
is the bulk density of the acrotelm layer, kA is the rate of mass loss from the acrotelm materials
through respiration, t is the time, s is the portion of fragmented litter not lost from soils by respirationor leaching, kL is the decomposition constant of litter, pL is litterfall mass, mC is the catotelm layer
mass, mC is the mass of the catotelm layer, and kC is the decomposition constant of the catotelm layer.
Eq. (3) yields the integral constant A.
A = mA0 − skL(pL / kL - mL0) / (kL + (pA / b - kA)) + (spL − mCkC) / (pA / b - kA)(3)

where mA0 is the initial acrotelm layer mass and mL0 is the initial mass of the litter layer. In this study,
we focused on the changes in peat mass and thickness over a relatively short period (5-10 years). Thechange in elevation (Δh) is given by Eq. (4).
Δh = (mA - mA0) / b(4)

Most variables in the model were estimated based on the present study; however, for thevariables kA, s, and kC, we applied data from PI9 and PI12 in Brady (1997) to the DF, RF, and UF
sites, as the bulk densities of these combinations were similar. For variable b, we used data collectedfrom the study sites (Shimamura et al., unpublished data).

Fig. 2 Monthly precipitation at Cilik Riwut
Airport and water table for UF(open circle), DF (shaded triangle),and RF (open triangle)

Fig. 3 Estimated surface peat moisture for
UF (open circle), DF (shaded triangle)
and RF (open triangle)

RESULTS
Water Table and Soil MoistureDuring the study period, the rainy season began in November 2005 and ended in June 2006 (Fig. 2).
The GWLs of the study sites showed similar trends; they increased during the rainy season andⒸ ISERD

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decreased during the dry season. The GWL at the UF sites was the highest throughout the study
period. The GWL of the RF sites was higher than that of the DF sites, except between April and May
2006. The mean annual (SD) GWLs were -7.5 (18.6), -43.5 (23.2), and -37.8 (20.2) cm in the UF,
DF, and RF, respectively. The results of the General Linear Model (GLM) analysis showed that there
were significant effects based on the month (F12,78 = 66.5, p < 0.001) and site (F2,78 = 190, p < 0.001),
but the interaction between month and site was not significant (F24,78 = 1.6, p = 0.056). Post-hoc
multiple comparisons (Holm’s method) showed that all pairs of sites showed significant differences(p < 0.01).
The rank of the estimated annual mean soil moisture among the three sites was in the order UF> RF > DF, and the values (SD) were 0.812 (0.286), 0.670 (0.196), and 0.593 (0.214), respectively.
It should be noted that the estimated values at the UF sites often exceeded 1.0; such values are notrealistically possible but can be used as a guide. The results of GLM analysis showed that there weresignificant effects based on month (F10,551 = 58.1, p < 0.001), site (F2,551 = 63.7, p < 0.001), andinteraction between the two (F20,551 = 3.8, p < 0.001). Post-hoc multi-comparison (Holm) showed thatall pairs of sites showed significant differences (p < 0.01) (Fig. 3).
Table 1 Summary of organic matter dynamics and the values appliedin the peat surface profiling model
Litterfall (kg/m2/y)Initial mass of litter layer (kg/m2)
Litter decomposition constantFine root production (kg/m3)
Initial acrotelm thickness (water table) (m)Leaf litter respiration rate*
Peat loss rate in acrotelm*
Proportion of fragmentation loss of litter**
Bulk density (kg/m3)***
Output to catotelm (mckc) (kg/m2/year)****
Catotelm
Peat thickness***

UF
1.03a
0.738
0.708
3.44a
0.075a0.06810.00103
0.904
71
1.06

DF
1.10a
0.787
0.749
2.25b
0.435b
0.06810.0094
0.909
129
1.70

RF
0.923b
0.744
0.737
1.86b
0.378c0.06810.0094
0.907
129
1.95

4

5.07

5.12

Note: Means for different variables within a row followed by the same letter are not significantly different at p = 0.05.
*Data from Brady (1997), **calculated from: leaf litter respiration rate/litter decomposition constant, *** Shimamura etal. (unpublished data). The values of kc and mc were obtained from Brady (1997) and Shimamura et al. (unpublisheddata), respectively.

Above and Belowground Production
The rank of annual litterfall among the three sites was in the order DF > UF > RF, and the values(SD) were 11.0 (3.07), 10.3 (2.12), and 9.23 (2.27) ton/ha/year, respectively. The monthly amount oflitterfall was higher during the dry season, when the GWL was low. The results of GLM analysis
showed that there were significant effects based on month (F12,1105 = 12.4, p < 0.001), site (F2,1105 =
1.90, p < 0.001), plot (F6,1105 = 4.04, p < 0.001), and the interaction between month and site (F24,1105= 1.61, p < 0.001). Multiple comparison (Holm) showed that the annual litterfall of the RF site wassignificantly lower than that of both UF and DF, and that there was no significant difference between
UF and DF (Table 1, Fig. 4). The rank in above-ground litter mass among the sites was in the order
DF > RF > UF, and the values (SD) were 7.87 (2.24), 7.44 (2.00), and 7.38 (4.82) ton/ha, respectively.
The results of GLM analysis showed that neither month, site, nor the interaction had significant
effects on above-ground litter deposition. The rank of root production among the sites was in theorder UF > DF > RF, and values (SD) were 3.44 (2.00), 2.25 (0.97), and 1.86 (1.28) kg/m3/year,
respectively (Fig. 5). The results of GLM analysis showed that there was a significant effect of site
(F2,59 = 5.86, p < 0.01). Post-hoc multiple comparison (Holm) showed that the annual root productionof UF was significantly higher than that of the other sites, whereas there was no significant difference
between RF and DF. The ranking of litter decomposition constants among the sites was in the order
DF > RF > UF, and the values (SEB) were 0.749 (0.016), 0.737 (0.021), and 0.708 (0.027),Ⓒ ISERD

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respectively (Table 1, Fig. 6). The results of GLM analysis showed a significant effect of time (F1,216= 51.1, p < 0.001) but no significant effect of site or interaction.

Ground litter Dep osition(ton/ha)

12

8

4

0
S

O

N

D

J

F

M

A

M

M onth(Sep 2005 - M ay 2006)

Fig. 5 Seasonal changes in the mass of litter
deposition on the forest floor for UF(open circle), DF (shaded triangle),and RF (open triangle)

Fig. 4 Monthly litterfall for UF (open circle),
DF (shaded triangle), and RF (opentriangle)

(a)

(b)

(c)

Litter mass (ratio)1

y = exp(-0.708t)
0.1
Sep

Dec

M ar

Jun

Sep Sep

y = exp(-0.749t)

Dec

M ar

Jun

Sep Sep

y = exp(-0.737t)

Dec

M ar

Jun

Sep

Fig. 6 Changes in the dry weight of Combretcarpus rotundatus leaf litter
during the decomposition experiment for UF (a: open circle),
DF (b: shaded triangle), and RF (c: open triangle)
According to the model estimation, peat deposition increased in UF, whereas it decreased in DF
and RF. The thickness of the acrotelm layer rose to 4.9, -1.2, and -2.2 cm 5 years later in CF, DF, andRF, respectively. The amount of peat layer increased to 3.46, -1.60, and -2.86 kg/m2 5 years later in
UF, DF, and RF, respectively (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7 Changes in a) peat deposition and b) peat surface height within 10 years
as simulated by the model for UF (solid line), DF (dotted line), andRF (broken line)Ⓒ ISERD

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DISCUSSION
The results of this study showed that the difference in mean annual GWL between DF and RF
was 5.6 cm. Compared with the GWL of UF, which was near the peat surface during the wet season,
the GWL of RF did not improve significantly. This is in line with the results of a previous study(Jauhiainen et al., 2008). This result was attributed to water seeping away from the dam surrounding
the peat. The estimated volumetric soil moisture showed a trend similar to that of GWL. Soil moistureat the RF site was higher than that at the DF site, although it was far lower than that at the UF site.
These results indicate that both GWL and surface soil moisture improved to some extent upon dam
construction but did not return to pre-drainage levels.
Above-ground litter production was significantly higher in the DF site than in the RF site,whereas it was lower in RF than in UF. We do not know exactly if dam construction reduced thesurface production to such an extent. One possible explanation for the decrease in production is theincrease in flooding stress in RF. In general, flood tolerance may have a physiological cost because
anaerobic conditions under the water level require oxygen transportation from above-ground organs.
In addition, a lowered water table level puts peat under aerobic conditions and promotes
decomposition. As peat decomposes, the plant-available nutrients are released. As a result, aboveground production increases. A higher water table level caused by dam construction possibly masked
these effects and led to a decrease in above-ground production at the RF site. However, this does not
explain why the UF site has a higher litter production than the RF site, despite having the highest
water table. This possibly be explained by the condition of the UF site. The UF site is remote fromthe other two sites and is less intact. Therefore, the above-ground biomass is slightly higher than theother two sites (Neishi et al., unpublished data). It is possible that this difference in above-groundbiomass may have led to the difference in litterfall volumes.
Belowground production was highest at the UF site, where the GWL was the highest. This result
seems to contradict the case of above-ground production. Trees in wetland forests often allocate more
to root biomass than other forms of forests, which can be attributed to their tolerance against watersaturating conditions (Khan et al., 2009). Thus, the flooding stress associated with the higher watertable at the UF site increased the belowground production.
The higher water table level at the UF site is assumed to have reduced aerobic decomposition,
resulting in a large amount of undecomposed litter deposits. However, neither the leaf litter
decomposition constant nor above-ground litter deposition showed a significant effect on the sites.
We are not sure why a significant difference in the decomposition constant was not found. In general,
aerobic decomposition requires an appropriate humidity range. If this range is exceeded, the rate ofdecomposition decreases significantly. The sites where the experiments were conducted were on thepeat surface and above the mean GWL, and it is possible that this is because none of the sites deviatedfrom the appropriate humidity range. If there is a difference in the decomposition process among thesites, it would have been detected in the belowground process.
CONCLUSION
We found that restoration of peatlands by dam construction did not increase carbon storage. The
possible reasons for this result are a decrease in above-ground production and no change in thedecomposition rate at the peat surface. On the other hand, we found that dam construction led tosome improvement in water levels and surface peat moisture content, which possibly reduced the firerisk to some extent. In addition, this study indicates the importance of organic matter dynamics inthe subsurface area, particularly at the height where the water table changes due to dam construction;
this was not investigated. Further studies are required to better understand the effects of dam
construction on peat restoration.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSⒸ ISERD

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This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP 19H00560. We thank Kitso Kusin,
Alim Sahara, and staff members of CIMTROP, Palangka Raya University for their assistance.
REFERENCES
Brady, M.A. 1997. Organic matter dynamics of coastal peat deposits in Sumatra, Indonesia. Ph. D. Dissertation,
Department of Forestry, University of British Columbia, Canada.
Darusman, T., Murdiyarso, D., Impron, I., Chaniago, I.A. and Lestari, D.P. 2022. Carbon dynamics in rewetted
tropical peat swamp forests. Climate, 10, 35.
Jauhiainen, J., Limin, S., Silvennoinen, H. and Vasandar, H. 2008. Carbon dioxide and methane fluxes indrained tropical peat before and after hydrological restoration. Ecology, 89, 3503-3514.
Khan, M.N.I., Suwa, R. and Hagihara, A. 2009. Biomass and above-ground net primary production in a
subtropical mangrove stand of Kandelia obovate (S., L.) Yong at Manko Wetland, Okinawa, Japan.
Wetlands Ecology and Management, 17, 585-599.
Olson, J. S. 1963. Energy storage and the balance of producers and decomposers in ecological systems. Ecology,
44, 322-331.
Shimamura, T. 2016. An overview of tropical peat swamps. In Mizuno, K., Fujita, M.S. and Kawai, S. (Eds.),
Catastrophe and Regeneration in Indonesia’s Peatlands, NUS Press, Singapore, 123-147.
Shimamura, T. and Momose, K. 2005. Organic matter dynamics control plant species coexistence in a tropicalpeat swamp forest. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 272, 1503-1510.

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Research article
erdCrop Growth Model for Hydroponic Cultivation of
Solanum lycopersicum (Tomato) in a Semi-automatedSystemANTONIO PEREZ-FUENTES
Graduate School of Agro-Environmental Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, JapanSARVESH MASKEY
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan

DICKSON M. MAZIBUKO
Graduate School of Agro-Environmental Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan

HIROMU OKAZAWA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Email: h1okazaw@nodai.ac.jp

TAKAHIKO NAKAMURA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan

AYAKO SEKIYAMA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Received 29 September 2023

Accepted 27 March 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Hydroponics can be integrated into Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA),
in combination with greenhouses. They can successfully optimize the use of fertilizers andwater for arid zones. Elevated costs of this type of agriculture lead farmers to implement
semiautomated systems and use recyclable materials to stabilize plant productivity. This
paper discusses the different growth ratios of tomato plants estimated with logistic curves
when tap water with fertilizer (T1), reclaimed water (T2), and renewable water (T3) areused; additionally, a new module is presented to avoid underestimation of plant height when
fertilization is carried out at the flowering stage. This model was adapted only for treatment
1. Logistic curves were created with low RMSE values using the least-square method.
Despite presenting better mass volume and fruit quantity on reclaimed water treatment at
the final stage of the plant, a t-test revealed that there is not a significant difference among
treatments of renewable and reclaimed water for the height of plants. The adjustment of alogistic equation with the inclusion of a linear module allowed to decrease in the RMSE
from 73 to 21 mm.
Keywords logistic models, tomato, hydroponics, wastewater, semi-automated systems

INTRODUCTION
Hydroponics and Wastewater
Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) is getting attention due to high productivity andadaptation to environmental changes. Saving resources is the main advantage of the direct applicationof nutrients to the plant's roots (Benke and Tomkins, 2018). To ensure this, automatic systems are
installed to monitor water, air, CO2, and other parameters; the higher the technology, elevation of thecosts are inevitable. In automated systems, the balance of nutrients is usually pumped to the systemⒸ ISERD

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considering optimum values of EC and pH values in the water; in others, the amount of nutrients is
applied manually depending on the stage of the crop.
Most hydroponic nutrient solutions are based on non-renewable sources, which eventually willcause depletion and/or inaccessibility by some farmers (Mikkelsen, 2019). The inclusion ofwastewater in hydroponic systems offers an alternative use for wastes and has been analyzed fromdifferent perspectives, such as nutrient absorption or as a purifying system (Carvalho, 2018; Ottoson,2005). However, it has been found that the use of wastewater in hydroponics is not enough tocomplete a crop cycle but can be achieved with the addition of fertilizers (Magwaza et al., 2020;
Cifuentes-Torres et al., 2021; Da silva et al., 2018).
Meselmani (2022) recognizes the importance of a balanced amount of nutrients, pH, andoxygen, and appoints that excessive use of fertilizer is not required to secure crop productivity. Soliset al., (2020) attempted to establish recommendations for nutrient amounts but failed due to theinteraction of several parameters engaged in plant growth, nevertheless, they found that the solution
replacement periodically provides better results than those systems with single applications.
Tomato plants are known for having an undetermined growth, the ripening of fruits is not
uniform, and farmers tend to harvest up to 3 times per season, being able to extend the life cycle ofthese plants inside greenhouses. In semiautomated systems, the late application of fertilizers
combined with a large difference in day and night temperatures may cause the elongation of stemsof plants, consequently, it can interfere with harvesting works and spacing inside a greenhouse(Myster and Moe, 1995). Although many authors are investigating the role of wastewater inhydroponics, there has not been integration of logistic models on plant growth. Furthermore, since
the difference between reclaimed and recycled water relies on the number of microorganisms keeping
it alive, therefore oxygenation and contents of N and P vary.
Crop Growth Models
Growth models also called mathematical models are useful equations to represent physicalphenomena of real life. Simulations and predictions can successfully be modeled with the rightparameters. Since the growth ratio of the crops is directly related to the nutrient content in the water,
sigmoid models have a high accuracy in estimating the growth of crops due to their similar tendency
to plant phenology (Di Crescenzo et al., 2021). Within these models, a logistic curve is characterized
by a “s” shape; crop growth can be well represented with this type of graph due to slow growth in
the early stage, fast vegetative development, and cessation of activities for the end-of-life cycle.
OBJECTIVE
Using a hydroponic system, the purpose of this study is 1) to compare the growth of tomato plants
using logistic curves when reclaimed and renewable water is applied and 2) to adjust a logistic
equation when additional fertilizer is introduced.
Table 1 Chemical properties of water in every treatment (ppm)
T-N

T-P

Cations
Anions
Na+
K+
Mg+
Ca+
ClNO2NO3PO4SO4T1 1.71 0.47
8.11
2.02
4.81
19.30
6.74
0.19
2.72
0.01 18.80
T2 8.75 1.83
126.5018.10 10.40
31.40
173.000.00
31.10
0.07 92.50
T3 7.46 1.86
115.0017.10 10.90
31.60
160.500.82
21.70
0.17 86.50
Source: Own analysis at the Laboratory of Hydro-structure Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture.

METHODOLOGY
The experiment was carried out inside a semiautomated greenhouse located in the facilities of the
Hokubu-Daini Wastewater Treatment Plant in Yokohama City, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. Tomato
seeds were transplanted after 7 days of sown on a portion of a hydroponic plot of 10 m x 1 m. ThreeⒸ ISERD

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treatments were set: T1) tap water and fertilizers, T2) reclaimed water (with secondary treatment),
and T3) renewable water (with tertiary treatment) (Table 1); the composition of the fertilizer applied
to T1 is shown in Table 2. Fertilizer applications were made on the 1st and 49th days after
transplanting (d). Daily temperature and relative humidity were registered using a Hobo datalogger.
Table 2 Nutrient content in soluble fertilizer OAT House No.1＆ No.2 (ppm)
TN

AN

NN

P2O5

K2O

MgO

MnO

B2O3

CaO

Fe

Cu

OAT House
260
23
233
120
405
60
1.5
1.5
230
3
0.03
No.1 & No.2
TN=Total Nitrogen, AN= Ammonia Nitrogen, NN=Nitrate Nitrogen, Source: oat-agri.co.jp

Zn

Mo

EC
(dS/m)

0.1

0.03

2.6

The creation of logistic curves was following Eq. 1 (Bacaër, 2011).
𝑦=

𝑘

(1)

1+𝑏𝑒 −𝑐𝑥

Where y is the dependent variable, k is the upper limit of plant height, x is the independent
variable, and b and c are coefficients. Recently Fang et al. (2022) compared Gompertz curves andlogistic curves, and even when GDD (growing degree-days) models provide a slightly better
performance than those when using DAT (days after transplanting) as independent variables, there
is no great difference to be considered as a discriminant for DAT.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Temperature
Daily temperature data in Fig. 3 shows that higher temperatures were recorded at the beginning of
the experiment, having peaks of 39℃; on the other hand, the lower temperatures were registered atnight by the end of the experiment due to winter proximity. Regimes of CO2 were kept below 500
ppm during the experiment.

Note: day and night averages were estimated from 6:00 to 18:00 and from 18:00 to 6:00, respectively.

Fig. 1 Temperature recorded with Hobo datalogger
Growing Logistic Models
For height estimation, parameter K in Eq. 1 was substituted by the maximum height measured inevery treatment. Coefficient b stands for crop growth in the middle of the period, a low value of b
represents high crop growth, while a high value indicates small growth. The growth ratio of tomato
is denoted with a c letter in the equation. To find optimal values of b and c, the Solver function in
Excel was selected to calculate them by the least squares method. Height “y” is the dependent
variable of “x” which represents the change in days after transplant (d).
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When comparing the evolution of crop growth among the two types of wastewaters, it wasobserved that there are similar values for maximum plant height on T2 and T3 (T2=1,141 mm,
T3=1,052 mm), the T-test shows that there was not a significant difference on plant height among
T2 and T3 of the data collected weekly. On the other hand, b values represent the amount of crop
growth during the middle of the period in observation (35 days), pointing out that the developmentof crops on T2 was almost two times that of those on T3 (T2: b=284, T3: b=489) (Table 3). However,regarding crop growth ratio, it is observed that plants under both treatments had a relatively similarc coefficient value, showing that there is no significant difference among them.
Table 3 Parameters of logistic equations with single logistic curves for each treatment
K (mm)ｂ (adim)ｃ (adim)
RMSE

T1

T2

T3

1,506
39.7
0.0874
73

1,141
283.9
0.1191
28

1,051
489
0.134
23

Fig. 2 a) Estimated height for treatment with reclaimed water (T2) andb) Estimated height for treatment with renewable water (T3)
The amount of crop (b) and growth ratio (c) had much better performance on T1, though a high
RMSE was obtained. It was noted that the reason for the high RMSE was derived from the second
application of fertilizer in this treatment, therefore a new module was adapted to the equation to beable to simulate this event. The new module was integrated with the difference between the lastmeasure previous the application of fertilizer and the estimated height with a logistic curve. For the
new logistic curve, K, which represents the maximum plant growth, was taken as the maximum
height before the application of fertilizer. The module resulted in a linear equation after the second
fertilization. The parameters of the equations are shown in Table 4.
Table 4 Adjustment parameters for the combined model

K (mm)ｂ (adim)ｃ (adim)d (adim)e (adim)

Original
Logistic curve

Adjustedlogistic curve

LinearmoduleCombined
equations

1506
39.7
0.0874
RMSE=73898.8
2120.1785
RMSE=18

-

898.8
212
0.178527.76
159.87
RMSE=21Ⓒ ISERD38

27.76
159.87R2=0.98

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

To estimate the plant height after transplant (y) and the height after second fertilization (y1) in
T1, it is necessary to introduce the values of days after transplant (x) and days after second
fertilization (x1). Eq. 2 can be used to estimate plant height before fertilization while Eq. 3 includes
Eq. 2 to obtain estimations after fertilization.
𝑦=

898.8

(2)

1+212−0.1785𝑥

𝑦1 = 𝑦 + 27.76𝑥1 + 159.87

a

(3)

b

Fig. 3 a) Height estimation with a single logistic curve andb) Adjustment of estimation model after fertilization
With the modified equations, RMSE was improved from 73 to 21 mm (Table 4), therefore theinclusion of the new module significantly improved the estimation of plant height when sudden
fertilization is considered.
Despite the constant decrease of temperature from the beginning until the end of the season (Fig.
1), the estimation of plant height when being irrigated either by renewable water or reclaimed water
can be predicted with a single logistic curve (Figs. 2a, 2b). The growth of plants with wastewater isa great opportunity for the reuse of Nitrogen and Phosphorus, the correct implementation of thenutrient is necessary to avoid the overgrowth of steam, moreover, fertilizer application should beselected based on the nutrient content to enhance fruit development and considering the proper stageof the crop.
CONCLUSION
In principle, the use of logistic curves can highly estimate the growth of tomato plants insemiautomated systems when being irrigated either by renewable or reclaimed water and when theirnatural phenology is not perturbed; despite having notable differences in the amount of growth by
the middle of the period there were no significant differences in the growth ratio among these twotreatments. When sudden fertilization occurs, a logistic curve can be expanded with a new modulethat estimates the plant height according to the days after fertilization. This model can improve height
estimation for these plants under greenhouses and can be used to avoid the overgrowth of plants
inside these facilities. Since the “x” variable on the modified logistic curve depends directly on thedaily phenology performance in each crop, this module can be studied and adopted in similar crops
such as shrubs, herbs, and other vegetables.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSⒸ ISERD

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This research would not be possible without the collaboration of Yokohama City and the HokubuDaini wastewater treatment plant. We are thankful to the students at Tokyo University of Agriculture
for their cooperation with this experiment.
REFERENCES
Al Meselmani, M.A. 2022. Nutrient solution for hydroponics. In Recent Research and Advances in Soilless
Culture, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101604
Bacaër, N. 2011. Verhulst and the logistic equation (1838). Springer London EBooks, 35-39, Retrieved from
DOI https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-85729-115-8_6
Benke, K. and Tomkins, B. 2017. Future food-production systems, Vertical farming, and controlledenvironment agriculture. Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy, 13 (1), 13-26, Retrieved from DOI
https://doi.org/10.1080/15487733.2017.1394054
Cifuentes‐Torres, L., Mendoza‐Espinosa, L.G., Correa‐Reyes, G. and Daesslé, L.W. 2020. Hydroponics with
wastewater: a review of trends and opportunities. Water and Environment Journal, 35 (1), 166-180,
Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1111/wej.12617
Da Silva, C.C.R., Bastos, R.G. and Souza, C.F. 2018. Influence of the use of wastewater on nutrient absorption
and production of lettuce grown in a hydroponic system. Agricultural Water Management, 203, 311-321,
Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2018.03.028
Di Crescenzo, A., Paraggio, P., Román-Román, P. and Torres-Ruiz, F. 2021. Applications of the multisigmoidal deterministic and stochastic logistic models for plant dynamics. Applied Mathematical
Modelling, 92, 884-904, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apm.2020.11.046
Fang, S.L., Kuo, Y.H., Kang, L., Chen, C.C., Hsieh, C.Y., Yao, M.H., and Kuo, B.J. 2022. Using sigmoid
growth models to simulate greenhouse tomato growth and development. Horticulturae, 8 (11), 1021,
Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8111021
Magwaza, S.T., Magwaza, L.S., Odindo, A.O., Mditshwa, A. and Buckley, C. 2020. Partially treated domestic
wastewater as a nutrient source for tomatoes (Lycopersicum solanum) grown in a hydroponic system, Effecton nutrient absorption and yield. Heliyon, 6 (12), e05745, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05745
Mikkelsen, R.F. 2019. Sources of phosphorus for plants, Past, present, and future. Better Crops with Plant
Food, 103 (1), 17-21.
Myster, J. and Moe, R. 1995. Effect of diurnal temperature alternations on plant morphology in somegreenhouse crops - a mini-review. Scientia Horticulturae, 62 (4), 205-215, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4238(95)00783-p
Ottoson, J., Norström, A. and Dalhammar, G. 2005. Removal of micro-organisms in a small-scale hydroponics
wastewater treatment system. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 40 (6), 443-447, Retrieved from DOI
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-765x.2005.01689.x
Solis-Toapanta, E., Fisher, P.B. and Gómez, C. 2020. Effects of nutrient solution management and environment
on tomato in small-scale hydroponics. Horttechnology, 30 (6), 697-705, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.21273/horttech04685-20Ⓒ ISERD

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Research article
erdPhysical Structure Assessment of Rivers Used by Grazing
Livestock
YURI YAMAZAKI*
Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, Tottori, Japan
Email: y.yaamazaki@tottori-u.ac.jp
Received 19 October 2023

Accepted 28 March 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract In recent years, the demand for meat has increased due to changing dietary habits
as well as global population growth. In response to the increased demand for livestock
products, grassland ecosystems are increasingly used for grazing and feed crop production,
raising concerns about the negative environmental impacts caused by the expansion of
livestock production. The author has studied a beef cattle farm that is one of the few farms
in Japan that uses forest grazing. There have been concerns about the negative impact offarming grazing livestock near water bodies. When considering sustainable grazing
livestock farming, the challenge is to conserve water quality and propose appropriate habitat
design to conserve biodiversity. River ecosystem studies require an assessment of thephysical environment and surveys of the number of organisms. RHS-HQA is a method
developed in the UK and is a relatively easy survey method for obtaining information. This
study investigated how grazing cattle use the rivers present in their pastures. A physicalenvironment survey using the RHS-HQA was also carried out to investigate the status of theriver on the grazing land. Based on these results, the environmental design of pastureland
for sustainable grazing livestock production was discussed, with particular attention to rivers
and other riparian areas. The results of the RHS-HQA showed that the river flowing throughthe target farm was maintained in its natural state, with diverse flow and bed material and asuitable bank environment for biological habitat. Also, the results suggest that bymaintaining riparian forest between the grazing land and the river, riverbanks are less likely
to become bare or collapse even when grazing cattle use rivers.
Keywords physical structure assessment, RHS-HQA, forest-grazing,
pasture-based livestock

INTRODUCTION
There is no question that one of the international challenges we face today is the food problem.
Developing countries, the main areas of population growth, have reported a change in diet, shiftingfrom a grain-based diet to a growing demand for meat. The FAO has projected meat consumption to2050 based on trends in meat consumption from 1961 to 2013; meat consumption is projected toincrease rapidly from 376 million tons in 2013 to 557 million tons in 2050.
Jiaguo et al. (2017) investigated the sustainability of current land use and management practices
in the Asian Dry Belt, where grassland ecosystems are increasingly used for grazing and forage crop
production to meet the increasing demand for livestock products. As a result of their survey, theyreported that "While current approaches alleviate the urgent need for short-term livestock production,
they need to long-term vulnerability in food security. Trade-offs between short gains and long-termlosses, between food for humans and animals, and between agricultural intensification andenvironmental degradation need to be holistically examined for the region's sustainable
development". The relationships between different ecosystem services are very complex; improving
the function of one ecosystem service may have "synergies" that enhance the function of otherecosystem services but may also cause "trade-offs" that reduce the function of other ecosystemservices.

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The author has studied a beef cattle farm that uses forest grazing as one of the few examples inJapan. A small waterway and part of a river flow through the farm, and grazing cattle can also use
these water bodies. There have been concerns about the negative impact of grazing livestock farming
on water bodies. When considering sustainable grazing livestock farming, the challenge is toconserve water quality and propose appropriate habitat design to conserve biodiversity.
River ecosystem studies require a physical environment assessment and surveys of the numberof organisms. The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) aims to improve all water bodies
to good ecological and environmental status; the ecological assessment includes biology,hydrogeomorphology, and chemical physics assessment items. Several countries and institutions
have proposed river physical environment surveys, with HABSDORE, AUSRIVAS, and SEQ-MP
being prominent. RHS-HQA is a method developed in the UK (Raven et al., 1998), which has been
implemented in many cases (Costa and Vieila, 2021; Stefanidis et al., 2022) and is a relatively easy
survey method for obtaining information. RHS-HQA has been applied in Japan by Oishi et al. (2006)
and Nakajima et al. (2010); this study used this assessment method in a stream survey in a forest
grazing area.
OBJECTIVE
This study investigated how grazing cattle use the rivers present in their pastures. A physicalenvironment survey using the RHS-HQA was also carried out to investigate the current status of theriver on the grazing land. Based on these results, the environmental design of pastureland forsustainable grazing livestock production was discussed, with particular attention to rivers and otherriparian areas.
METHODOLOGY
Overview of Forest Grazing
The research target is the beef cattle grazing farm (K Farm), located in the eastern part of Hokkaido,
Japan. The site covers an area of approximately 100 ha and includes pastureland, grassland, forests,
rivers and waterways, a former cattle barn (no longer used as a barn), and storage facilities. The farmis raised with Aberdeen Angus and, as of 2020, had a stock of approximately 100 head. The pastureis open from April to November, and grass harvested from the K Farm’s meadows is fed from
December to March, as snow cover prevents grass from foraging on pasture. In addition, the pasturesand forests are separated by roads and rivers on the property (Fig. 1(a)).
Behavior Survey of Grazing Cattle
Fifteen sensor cameras (Ltl-6210 PLUS, Zhuhai Ltl Acorn Electronics Inc.) were installed on grazing
cattle movement routes and at gates on the property to observe cattle behavior. The sensor camera
was fixed at a height in the pasture, such as a tree or gate, where cattle could not reach, using a belt
attached to the camera. Day and night still images were taken in infrared sensor mode. Sensor
cameras have been installed continuously since 2018, but this report only presents the results of one
sensor camera installed in the river (the location is shown in Fig. 1) from April to November 2020.
River Habitat Quality Assessment (RHS) with Habitat Quality Assessment (HQA)
The RHS-HQA was conducted on the river (the S River) flowing through the K Farm. The S Riveris a class B river in Hokkaido, with a channel length of 19.0 km and a catchment area of 2,029 km2.
In this report, a 500 m section of the S River (red line in Fig. 1(a); Fig. 2(b)), where the K Farm’s
pasture (Pasture-R1 and Pasture-R2 in Fig. 1(a)) is adjacent, was the study site.
The RHS is a system to assess the characteristics of the river environment based on indicatorsof the physical environment. The RHS is carried out along the 500 m length of river channel.
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

Fig. 1 (a) Schematic diagram of the K Farm; (b) Aerial images of the target
site of the RHS; (c) Sensor camera installed in a tree near the S River

Fig. 2 (a) Dimensions for spot-check; (b) View of the S Rivertaken from near the sensor camera
Observations are made at ten equally spaced spot-checks along the channel, whilst information
on valley form and land-use in the river corridor provides additional context (Fig. 2(a)). Spot-checks
are designed to record predominant channel, bank, and river corridor features at 10 locations spaced
evenly along the 500 m RHS site. In this study, observations were made on six of the RHS survey
sections (C, E-H and J). Section C records the cross-sectional shape of the river and the number ofriffles, pool, unvegetated point bar, and vegetated point bar. Section E and F records physicalattributes and bank top land-use vegetation structure on each spot-check points. Sections G records
channel vegetation types on each spot-check point. Section H records land-use within 50 m of bank
top on each spot-check point. Section J records the extent of trees and associated features of 500 m
RHS site.
The results of the RHS are scored according to the HQA scoring system. The HQA is designed
to assess the diversity and naturalness of the physical structure of biological habitats and is a system
for assigning scores to items relating to the natural environment obtained from the RHS at a single
site. The HQA gives a higher score if there are many spots with different attributes within the RHS
site, or if the site has physical environment attributes that are important for riverine organisms.
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Actual Use of Rivers by Grazing Cattle
Figure 3 shows the total number of daily photographs of the sensor cameras installed on the rivers
took from April to November 2020. Note that the sensor camera was set up so that the sensors
responded at five minutes intervals after taking a picture. Therefore, if grazing cattle stay in one
location for an extended period, multiple photos are taken in an hour. Here, the total number of
pictures taken within an hour was converted into one shot to investigate daily usage around the riverduring the grazing period. Grazing cattle were observed to move between other pastures on theproperty, appearing in the riverside pasture at approximately one-month intervals, staying there forabout two weeks, and then moving back to other pastures. The number of days spent in each grazingarea is thought to depend on the grass condition, but in 2020 the grazing areas by the river were used
more frequently compared to other pastures. Next, the total number of shots by time is shown in Fig.
4. Here, the number of shots taken within an hour was directly tabulated to consider the time spentaround the river. Grazing cattle were active from sunrise to sunset, with many shots taken between
4:00 and 18:00. Noon showed the highest frequency and duration of stay. Still, there was no
significant tendency to use the river area at a specific time. Therefore, grazing cattle freely enter andleave the rivers while staying in the pasture around them.

Fig. 3 The total number of daily photographs of the sensor camera

Fig. 4 Total number of photographs of the sensor camera by time
Survey Results of the Physical Environment of the River in the Grazing Area
The RHS-HQA scores of the S River are shown in Table 1. The total score of the S River was 60.
This score is higher than those reported for other rivers in Japan (Oishi et al., 2006; Nakajima et al.,2010) and can be regarded as a physical environment in which the natural environment is maintained.
High scores in four sections were characterized: flow type in section E1, riverbed morphology in E2,bank features in E4, and land use within 50 m of the bank in H. A wide variety of flow types andriverbed materials were identified at each spot in the S River (Fig. 5(a)). The upper reaches of the S
River have many meandering channels (Fig. 5(b)), and many vegetation bars and pools (Fig. 5(c))
were observed. Thus, the meanders of the river, formed by the action of the river's flow, areconsidered essential elements of the physical environment of the river and are the reason for the high
HQA score.

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Table 1 The score of the RHS-HQA

Fig. 5 (a) Variety of flow types and riverbed materials; (b) Meandering channels;(c) Vegetation bars
DISCUSSION
The results of the physical environment survey showed that the S river in the pasture was maintainedin its natural state, with diverse flow and bed material and a suitable bank environment for biologicalhabitat. Here, we discuss the relationship between rivers and grazing livestock production.
First, using water troughs is a method of supplying water to livestock in grazing. In contrast,
using rivers or waterways in pastureland, as in the K farm, can save labor in providing water to water
troughs and allow grazing cattle to always drink fresh water (Fig. 6(a)). This can be evaluated as asynergistic effect of the river functions on the supply of livestock products by forest grazing.
Using the river by grazing cattle may have adverse effects, such as soil erosion due to trampling
and bare banks due to foraging. No river repairs or other improvements were observed in the study
section of this report, where grazing cattle frequently used the river. Also, there is no bare bank orseverely eroded condition. One factor contributing to these is the riparian forest. The study section
maintains a riparian forest of about 3-5 m in width between the grazing land and the river (Fig. 6(b)).
The opening part of this riparian forest set up a cattle movement route like a gate. The riparian forest
restricts the movement of cattle, and the path of movement of the grazing area of the river is fixed.
This may inhibit cattle from staying in the river and inside the riparian forest for long periods, thereby
preserving the river environment. On the other hand, there is also concern that the presence of riparian
forest within the grazing area may represent a trade-off for vegetation within the grazing area. In R1
and R2 pastures, grass declined on the edge of the riparian forest, and an invasion of bamboo andwildflowers was observed (Fig. 6(c)). Grazing cattle did not use the part of bamboo grass
encroachment during high pasture growth season from May to September. However, they have also
been observed to forage for weeds in April, when pasture grasses have not grown sufficiently
immediately after the snow melts, and in October and November, when pasture grass growth isⒸ ISERD

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suppressed due to lower temperatures because they cannot forage for sufficient grass in the pasture.
In addition, forest floor vegetation in woodlands, including riparian forests, tends to be maintainedeven when pasture biomass is reduced due to a lack of sunlight or insufficient rainfall. The
establishment of riparian forests in grazing areas may be described as securing an alternative foodresource to pasture grasses.

Fig. 6 (a) Cattle using the S River; (b) Riparian Forest on the S River;(c) Invasion of bamboo into the riparian forest
CONCLUSION
The forest grazing of the K farm can both maintain the physical environment as a habitat for diverse
organisms and use it for grazing. One of the factors contributing to this was the preservation of
riparian forests. In the future, a comprehensive assessment of the river environment should be carriedout, including analysis of river water quality and biological surveys. In addition, a more detailed
analysis of the synergies/trade-offs of ecosystem services from forest grazing should also be carriedout to accumulate knowledge on sustainable forest grazing.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Mr. Satoshi Honda for his cooperation with the RHS-HQA survey. This work
was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP20K15639.
REFERENCES
Jiaguo, Q., Xiaoping, X., Ranjeet, J., Pavel, G. and Jiquan, C. 2017. Understanding livestock production andsustainability of grassland ecosystems in the Asian Dry Belt. Ecological Processes, 6 (22), 1-10, Retrieved
from DOI https://doi.org/10.1186/s13717-017-0087-3
Nakajima, T., Yamashita, Y. and Kanayama, A. 2010. A habitat evaluation by RHS and HQA in downstream
reaches of the Shimokubo Dam in the Kanna River, Saitama Prefecture. Ecology and Civil Engineering, 13(1), 37-47, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.3825/ece.13.37
Oishi, T., Amano, K. and Ozawa, T. 2006. Maruyama river environmental evaluation with application of RHSHQA, Ecology and Civil Engineering, 8 (2), 179-191, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.3825/ece.8.179
Raven, P.J., Holmes, N.T.H., Dawson, F.H. and Everard, M. 1998. Quality assessment using River Habitat
Survey data. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 8(4), 477-499, Retrieved from
DOI https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0755(199807/08)8:4<477: AID-AQC299>3.0.CO;2-K
Stefanidis, K., Kouvarda, T., Latsious, A., Papaioammou, G., Gritzalis, K. and Dimitriou, E. 2022. A
comparative evaluation of hydro morphological assessment methods applied in rivers of Greece. Hydrology,
9(3), 43, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology9030043Ⓒ ISERD

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Research article
erd

Effects of Aeration and pH on the Performance of Lactic
Acid Bacteria-Attached Carbon Fiber Electrode
NARONG TOUCH*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: nt207118@nodai.ac.jp

KOTA SHIGETOMI
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, JapanTADASHI HIBINO
Graduate School of Advanced Science and Engineering, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima,
Japan
Received 29 October 2023

Accepted 29 March 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and iron ions dissolved from steelmaking slag (SS),when attached to an electrode surface, improve the performance of carbon fiber electrodes.
However, the electrode potential decreases during the attachment (fermentation without
aeration), leading to decreased electrode performance when used as a cathode. Additionally,
SS dissolution increases the solution pH, which can affect the survival rate of LAB. This
study examines the effects of aeration on an electrode potential and solution pH on thesurvival rate of LAB in solution during fermentation. In the experiments, SS, LAB beverage,
bamboo powder, and carbon fiber electrodes were placed in a bottle with and without
aeration. Temporal measurements of the solution pH, iron ion concentrations, adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), and electrode potential were performed. The results showed that
aeration could prevent a 0.5-fold decrease in the electrode potential due to fermentation. The
solution pH temporarily increased and exceeded eight during the fermentation, suggestingthat SS had been dissolved. ATP began to decrease when the solution pH exceeded 8,
indicating that the solution pH influences the survival rate of LAB. It is recommended thatthe fermentation should be conducted within three days. Furthermore, to improve theperformance of a sediment microbial fuel cell (SMFC), the electrodes with and without
aeration should be used as the cathode and anode of SMFC, respectively.
Keywords Carbon fiber electrode, steelmaking slag, lactic acid bacteria, aeration, pH

INTRODUCTION
Microbial fuel cell technology (MFCT), which can be used to treat organic waste, household sewage,
and agricultural wastewater, as well as supply electricity to homes and recycle resources back on
farmlands, has drawn the interest of many researchers. It is believed that MFCT will provide
numerous benefits for addressing and solving social issues such as organic waste disposal and energy
scarcity, particularly in developing countries. However, the performance of MFCT remains low andmust be improved before it can be used in practice. Increasing electrode performance is one way to
improve the MFCT performance. According to Yamasaki et al. (2018), various potential losses occur
during electron flow to an electrode. One of these is activation loss, which significantly impacts
electrode performance. Pretreating the electrode is widely used to minimize activation loss.
Adsorption of bacteria or metal ions on an electrode surface is one way to improve electrode
performance. Wang et al. (2009) successfully enhanced electrode performance by activating bacteria
at the electrode, resulting in lower potential losses. The improved electrode performance caused bybacterial attachment and biofilm formation has been widely studied using cyclic voltammetry(Carmona-Martinez et al., 2011; Kang et al., 2012). Nishimura et al. (2018) reported that ferric ionsⒸ ISERD

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dissolved from steelmaking slag (SS) improved sediment microbial fuel cell (SMFC) performance.
Using SS and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in the anode of SMFC could enhance SMFC performance(Touch et al., 2020).
On this basis, research into the changes in the performance of carbon fiber electrodes caused by
the attachment of iron ions (Fe) dissolved from SS and LAB on the electrode surface has begun(Touch et al., 2022). The performance of the carbon fiber electrode improved after attaching(fermentation without aeration) LAB and Fe dissolved from SS on the electrode surface. However, theelectrode potential decreases during the fermentation without aeration, decreasing electrode
performance when used as a cathode. Therefore, aeration should be provided during the fermentation.
Additionally, the dissolution of SS increased the solution pH, which may impact the survival rate of
LAB.
OBJECTIVE
This study investigates the effects of aeration on an electrode potential and solution pH on thesurvival rate of LAB in the solution during fermentation. Changes in the electrode potential owing
to the fermentation are subsequently investigated. Moreover, polarization (current–voltage relation)is measured to detect alterations in SMFC performance when the fermented electrodes are used as
the cathode and anode for the long-term current generation.
METHODOLOGY
Experimental Materials and Procedures
Touch et al. (2022) proposed a simple attachment process of iron ions dissolved from SS and LAB
on the surface of carbon fibers. An attachment process similar to Touch et al. (2022) was used in thisstudy.
Three liters of tap water were filled into cylindrical bottles with inner diameters and heights of
158 and 193 mm, respectively. Fig. 1 shows a schematic of a bottle with a 20-mm depth of SS and a
10-mL lactic-fermenting beverage (a commercial product). 3g of bamboo powder was added to thebottles, and fermentation reduced the solution pH. This process facilitates the dissolution of iron fromSS, and nutrients from bamboo powder can activate LAB. An air stone was placed on the SS layer
in the case with aeration, and carbon fiber electrodes were positioned 90 mm from the bottle bottom.

Fig. 1 Experimental devices and materials
Carbon cloth (News Company, PL200-E) was used as the electrode material, and it waspreheated at 500°C for 1 h to improve its performance (Nagatsu et al., 2014). The heated carbon clothwith a 100-mm width and length was separated into fibers to form a brush-type electrode (Fig. 1).
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Four electrodes were placed in a bottle without aeration, four electrodes in a bottle with aeration, andeight electrodes in a bottle filled with only tap water (Fig. 1, Control).
Operations and Measurements
Experiments were conducted for 22 days following the schematic in Fig. 2. At 3, 7, 10, and 22 days
after the experiment began, the potential of each electrode was measured using a voltmeter and an
Ag/AgCl reference electrode.
The pH, redox potential (ORP), Fe concentration, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) of thesolution were measured on the day of measuring electrode potential. The pH and ORP were measured
using a pH/ORP meter (Horiba, D-50), Fe concentration was measured using PACKTEST (Kyoritsu
Corp., WAK), and ATP was measured using a lumitester (Kikkoman, Lumitester-Smart).
The fermented and control electrodes extracted from the bottles on Day 3 were used as thecathode and anode of SMFCs to examine the long-term performance of SMFCs for electricity
generation (Fig. 2b). For the electrical current generation, an external resistance of 1 Ω was loaded
between the anode and cathode. Several polarization measurements were performed throughout theelectricity generation using the circuit in Fig. 2a to examine the performances of SMFCs. In thepolarization measurement, an external resistance with 1 Ω–9.1 kΩ was loaded between the anodeand cathode. Cell voltage was recorded 1 min after loading each external resistance and used to
calculate the current according to Ohm’s law: I = U/Rex, where U [V] is the voltage, I [A] is thecurrent, and Rex [Ω] is the external resistance. The power P was calculated using P = IU. Current andpower densities were obtained by dividing these values by the surface area of the electrode, i.e., 0.01
m2. The maximum current density was also determined using polarization, as Nagatsu et al. (2014)
described.
120 mmV

Anode

And Control
electrodes
Without aeration

100 mmFor a fixed
potential of -0.64 V

External resistance

Potentiostat

R

3-day fermented
electrodes

Tap water

30 mm

1Ω

V

Paddy soil

Polarization measurements

Extract Electrodefrom each bottle(3, 7, 10, 22 days)

50 mm

With aeration

Cathode(b) Long-term current generation (60 days)(a) Polarization measurements

Fig. 2 Operation and measurement methods
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effects of Aeration on the Electrode Performance
Touch et al. (2022) discovered that the electrode potential decreased during fermentation without
aeration. However, they were unclear about the decreasing characteristics of the electrode potential
under the fermentation with and without aeration. Fig. 3 showed a comparison of the electrodepotential and the solution ORP.
The electrode potential was 0.21 V on average for the control electrode during the experiment.
On Day 3, the electrode potential decreased to 0.13 and 0.01 V for the electrodes fermented with andwithout aeration, respectively (Fig. 3a). Although aeration was performed, electrode potential
decreased due to the fermentation of the bamboo powder. However, a 0.05 V decrease in theelectrode potential was observed when aeration was performed, whereas a 0.11V decrease in theelectrode potential was observed without aeration. Without aeration, the electrode potential further
decreased to − 0.29 V (on Day 10) but increased to 0.31 V (on Day 10) when aeration was performed.
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

As expected, aeration can reduce the decline in electrode potential caused by fermentation.
Interestingly, the electrode potential with aeration was high compared to that of the control electrode,suggesting that the higher performance of the electrode was due to the adsorption of LAB and iron
ions on the electrode surface when aeration was conducted. Although without aeration, the electrodepotential increased from -0.29 to 0.17 V (Day 10 to 22), suggesting that the fermentation of bamboo
powder intensively occurs during only the first ten days. Furthermore, it was observed that theelectrode potential had a high correlation (R = 0.96) with the solution ORP (Fig. 3b), indicating thatthe electrode potential depends on the characteristics of the solution. The electrode potential
decreased when the electrode was place in a solution with a low ORP.
Electrode potential (V vs. Ag/AgCl)

Electrode potential (V vs. Ag/AgCl)

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

Control-0.1

Aeration-0.2

No aeration
-0.3
0

5

10
15
Operation time (day)

20

0.4

0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1

-0.3

-0.4

25

(a) Electrode potential

R=0.96

-0.2
-0.2
0
0.2
Solution ORP (V vs Ag/AgCl)

0.4(b) Correlation of solution ORP with electrode potential

Fig. 3 Electrode potential under different conditions and its relationship with solution ORP
Effects of Dissolution of Steelmaking Slag on LAB

140000120000

Solution pH

8100000

7.5

80000

7

Control
Aeration
No aeration

6.5

60000
40000

(ATP: Solid plots)

6

20000

5.5
5

0
0

5

10
15
20
Operation time (day)Fe concentration (mg/L)

98.5

ATP in solution (RLU)

Figure 4 depicts the temporal changes in the solution pH, ATP, and Fe concentration. On Day 3, thesolution pH for the control case was 7.6, for the aerated case was 8.3, and for the unaerated case was
6.7 (Fig. 4a, open plots). The solution pH differed due to bamboo fermentation (acidification) anddissolution of SS (alkalization).
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

Control
Aeration
No aeration

025(a) Solution pH and ATP in solution

5
10
15
Operation time (day)2025(b) Fe concentration in solution

Fig. 4 Temporal changes in pH, ATP, and Fe concentration
The pH of a solution generally rises when SS is dissolved, whereas it decreases due to the releaseof organic acids during bamboo fermentation. With aeration, the SS dissolution was significant inchanges the solution pH because the released organic acids were oxidized. This is the cause of theincrease in solution pH in the aerated case. However, without aeration, the solution pH decreased to
6.1 on Day 7 due to the release of organic acids. When the fermentation was completed, theⒸ ISERD

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accumulated organic acids started to oxidize. In addition to the SS dissolution, this oxidation
contributed to the increasing pH, as shown in Fig. 4a.
Fe concentration increased in both cases with and without aeration (Fig. 4b), indicating SS
dissolution during fermentation. Remarkably, a 20-fold high in Fe concentration was observed in theunaerated case compared with that of aerated case, suggesting that fermentation without aeration caneffectively facilitate the dissolution of Fe from SS.
The decreasing ATP appeared when the pH was 8.0 for the control case, 8.3 for the aerated case,and 7.3 for the aerated case (Fig. 4a, solid plots). This ensured that an increase in solution pH
influenced the survival rate of LAB. It is thought from this result that pH should be kept at less than8, and preferably in an acidic state during the fermentation.
Overall, the fermentation period should be less than three days, especially if aeration is used.
To increase the performance of SMFC, the electrode fermented with aeration should be used as thecathode, and the electrode fermented without aeration should be used as the anode. As shown in Fig.
2, experiments were conducted to verify our suggestion, and the experimental results are discussed
in the following section.
Long-Term Performance of the Fermented Electrode35

Maximum current density (mA/m2)

Maximum power density (mW/m2)

Figures 5a and 5b show the comparison of performance (power and current density) of SMFCs whenusing the electrodes with and without fermentation. As expected, the maximum power density (Pmax)
and current density (Imax) of SMFCs that used fermented electrodes were higher than those that used
control electrodes (without fermentation). When fermented electrodes were used, Pmax was 27
mW/m2 (Fig. 5a) and Imax was 2000 mA/m2 (Fig. 5b) on Day 31. Compared with those that used
control electrodes, a 1.7-fold increase in Pmax and a 5-fold increase in Imax were observed. As
discussed earlier (Fig. 3), the cathode is more effective when fermented with aeration, and the anodeis more effective when fermented without aeration. This increased electromotive force, which
increased the current density.
However, the performance was approximately the same on Day 60, suggesting that thefermented electrode is still effective within 60 days. Generally, the quality of cathode water
temporally varies along with electricity generation, specifically an increase in pH (Touch et al., 2017).
It is assumed that the increase in pH of cathode water influences the survival rate of LAB attachedon the cathode, leading to a decrease in SMFC performance.

30
25

20
15
10
Control

5

Fermented electrode

0

0

10

20
30
40
50
Operation time (day)6070(a) Maximum power density

3500
Control
3000

Fermented electrode

2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0

10

20
30
40
50
Operation time (day)6070(b) Maximum current density

Fig. 5 Temporal variations of maximum power and current densities
CONCLUSION
This study used laboratory tests to confirm the impact of aeration on electrode potential and solution
pH on the survival rate of LAB in the solution during fermentation. Although aeration was conductedduring the fermentation, a 0.05 V decrease in the electrode potential was observed. However, thisⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

decrease was smaller than without aeration (a 0.11 V decrease). Interestingly, fermented electrodepotential was higher than without fermentation when aeration was conducted for more than sevendays. The increase in solution pH during the fermentation affected the survival rate of LAB. Basedon these results, it is recommended to complete the fermentation within three days, particularly inthe case of aeration. Furthermore, during the fermentation, the solution pH should be kept at or lessthan 8 and preferably in an acidic state. It was also found that a decrease in pH during thefermentation aided the dissolution of Fe from the SS. Using electrodes fermented with and without
aeration as the cathode and anode, respectively, it was possible to improve the SMFC performance.
However, the improved performance was kept within 60 days due to changes in the quality of cathodewater caused by long-term electricity generation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the partial funding from JSPS: Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research (B) (Grant Number: JP-21H01437). The authors would also like to thank the students of
the Rural Environmental Engineering Laboratory, Tokyo University of Agriculture, for their efforts
in collecting data.
REFERENCES
Carmona-Martinez, A.A., Harnisch, F., Fitzgerald, L.A., Biffinger, J.C., Ringeisen, B.R. and Schröder, U. 2021.
Cyclic voltametric analysis of the electron transfer of Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 and nanofilament andcytochrome knock-out mutants. Bioelectrochemistry, 81, 74-80, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.bioelechem.2011.02.006
Kang, J., Kim, T., Tak, Y., Lee, J.H. and Yoon, J. 2012. Cyclic voltammetry for monitoring bacterial
attachment and biofilm formation. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 18 (2), 800-807,
Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2011.10.002
Nagatsu, Y., Tachiuchi, K., Touch, N. and Hibino, T. 2014. Factors for improving the performance of sedimentmicrobial fuel cell. Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineers Ser B2 (Coastal Engineering), 70 (2), 10661070, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.2208/kaigan.70.I_1066 (in Japanese)
Nishimura, K., Yamaji, S., Touch, N. and Hibino, T. 2018. Usable output of sediment microbial fuel cell under
the use of steel slag mixed-sediment as a fuel. Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineers Ser B2 (Coastal
Engineering), 74 (2), 1183-1188, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.2208/kaigan.74.I_1183 (inJapanese)
Touch, N. and Hibino, T. 2022. Enhancement of carbon fiber electrode performance using lactic acid bacteria
and steelmaking slag. International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, 13 (1), 130-135.
Touch, N. and Nakamura, T. 2020. Methods for improving the performance of paddy soil-used sedimentmicrobial fuel cells. International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, 11 (2), 1-6, Retrieved
from DOI https://doi.org/10.32115/ijerd.11.2_1
Touch, N., Yamaji, S., Nagama, K., Takata, H. and Hibino, T. 2017. Solar-cell combined sediment microbial
fuel cell for preserving sediment and water environments. International Journal of Environmental
Protection, 7 (1), 37-45, Retrieved from URL http://paper.academicpub.org/Paper?id=17530
Wang, X., Feng, Y., Ren, N., Wang, H., Lee, H., Li, N. and Zhoa, Q. 2009. Accelerated start-up of twochambered microbial fuel cells, Effect of anodic positive poised potential. Electrochimica Acta, 54 (3),1109-1114, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2008.07.085
Yamasaki, R., Maeda T. and Wood, T.K. 2018. Electron carriers increase electricity production in methane
microbial fuel cells that reverse methanogenesis. Biotechnology for Biofuels, 11, 211 (10 pages), Retrieved
from DOI https://doi.org/10.1186/s13068-018-1208-7Ⓒ ISERD

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Research article
erdDiscussion on Influencing and Limiting Factors on
Sustainable Grape Farming in Yamanashi Prefecture ofJapan
MOHAMMAD MIRWAIS YUSUFIGraduate School of Agro-Environmental Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan

MACHITO MIHARA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Email: m-mihara@nodai.ac.jp
Received 31 October 2023

Accepted 5 April 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Viticulture has been an important agricultural sector throughout history in many
countries. In Japan, grape-growing areas cover 17,800 ha, and the estimated annual grape
production is 172,700 tons. The leading prefecture for grape production and winemaking is
Yamanashi Prefecture. The land area under grapevine cultivation in Yamanashi Prefectureis around 3,780 ha with an estimated production of 36,900 tons per year, while grape
production and winemaking are two key sources of income for local farmers. However,despite many advances in grape and wine production, these sectors face significant
challenges both in Yamanashi Prefecture and across Japan, including a shortage of qualified
labor. There is a lack of information and studies that focus on examining factors impacting
the grape and wine industry in Yamanashi Prefecture. The objectives of the current study
were 1) to examine the economic characteristics of grape farmers in Yamanashi Prefecture,2) to evaluate factors influencing and limiting the contribution of grape farming tohousehold income, and 3) to assess challenges facing grape farmers and wine producers inthe study area. Field surveys in the form of structured and semi-structured questionnaires
were conducted with grape farmers and wine producers during the ripening and harvesting
grape season in 2022. Data were analyzed descriptively using SPSS software. The result
indicated that on average, 80% of farmers in Yamanashi Prefecture were part-time farmers
and had 1 to 3 ha of land, of which 40% was under grape cultivation and 60% under peach
cultivation. The majority of respondents (88%) had a university education, while 12% had
only a high school education, with female grape growers predominating (60%). The
majority of the produced grape (80%) was sold fresh and only 20% was used for making
wine. Most of the grape growers used the pergola method for training vines and preferredsandy and silty soil, with 90% of respondents using sprinkler irrigation. The results indicatedthat key environmental factors affecting grape bunches were light exposure, temperature,humidity, wind, rainfall, and the physiology of the grapevine by water and nutrients. The
result showed that initial investments, labor inputs, small size of land parcels, and the
depopulation of rural areas are the core factors that influence and limit the contribution ofgrape farming to household income. Therefore, if these issues are not considered, the longterm viability of sustainable grape production and winemaking in Yamanashi Prefecture will
be at risk.
Keywords grapevine, challenges, influences, and limiting factors, Yamanashi JapanINTRODUCTION
Viticulture has been an important agricultural arm throughout history in many countries. The main
reason is that it can economically evaluate table grapes as fresh food, dried fruit, fruit juice, wine,and other processed products. Like other crops, grape growing is impacted by environmental
conditions, such as soil and climate (Helder et al., 2019). The environmental conditions play anⒸ ISERD

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important role in determining yields and grape quality potential (Cornelis et al., 2019). Also, climate
is an important influencing and limiting factor on grapevine physiological development, vegetative
growth, phenology, and production, and consequently on grape quality and sustainable grape farming(Petrie et al., 2017). In Japan Yamanashi prefecture is one of the leading grape producers and people
are mainly farmers and they economically depend on agriculture. Grape production and making wine
are two of the sources on which their income depends (Fig. 1a). In Yamanashi Prefecture the revenues
from agricultural production are driven largely by yield and table grape price was around 3,000 to
3,500 yen per kilogram and wine price can vary from 1,000 up to 4,000 per bottle. According to
Figure 1b, in Yamanashi Prefecture of Japan, the annual grape production value is 60.7 billion yen
and Yamanashi, Nagano, Yamagata, and Okayama are the main grapes producing Prefectures.
Although prosperous and full of facilities, Yamanashi Prefecture consists of major problem thatexists in the whole agricultural society of Japan. The aging issue in the agricultural society and low
birth rates is a huge and growing problems in Japan. In Yamanashi Prefecture, the total population
is 817,192, and the geographic area is 4,465 km2. In 2019, the population aged 65 years and above
Yamanashi was 250,000 persons 2019 growing at an average annual rate of 1.94% (Statistics handof the book of Japan, 2021). Hiring has become an issue at vineyards and wineries, although wine
grape cultivation is not as laborious as table grapes cultivation. As they mentioned, an experienced
farmer can only manage up to 1 ha of vineyard.
aPotential grape volume percentage chart- high rank
Prefectures
2.5

2.4 1.8

2.7
3.97

24.13

4.6

8.27

9.9

15.5

Yamanashi
NaganoYamagata
Okayama
Fukuoka
Hokkaido
Osaka
Aomori
Aichi
Hiroshimab

1.1

Agriculture production Value of
Yamanashi Billion yen
6.5

Fruits4

Vegetables
Livestock

13.5

Rice
14.2

60.7

Flowers

Others

Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries

Fig. 1 (a) Main grape producing Prefectures in Japan and (b) Agriculture production value
The output of grape production in terms of yield and quality can be optimized through the choiceof plant material, such as variety, clone, and rootstock, and through the choice of viticulture
techniques, such as training system, and Production costs can be reduced largely throughmechanization. Based on Table 1 the average grapes yield was 10.47 tons/ha, and according to theinterviewer’s response the quantity and quality of grapes were significantly affected by rainfall rateand humidity. Temperatures have become increasingly warmer during the period of grape ripening.
This resulted in differences in annual production and quality. Additionally, as increased temperatures
increase the evaporative demand driving both vine transpiration and soil evaporation, the soil waterbalance over the season will become increasingly dry (Jackson, et al., 1993). Grape growers andstakeholders should become aware of this problem to timely plan and adopt these measures to ensure
the future sustainability of this important crop.
Table 1 grape growing areas and production of five years all prefectures of Japan
Production years
Growing areas (ha)2015
18,1002016
18,0002017
18,0002018
17,9002019
17,800
Average yield in five years
Source: Annual Report, MAFF 2019

Fruiting areas (ha)17,10017,00016,90016,70016,600Ⓒ ISERD54

Production (ton)180,500
179,200
176,100
174,700
172,700
10.47

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

OBJECTIVE
The people of Yamanashi prefecture of Japan are mainly farmers, They economically depend on
agriculture. Grape production and making wine are two of the sources on which their income
depends. Therfore the objectives of this study were 1) to examine the social economic characteristics
of grape farmers, 2) to find factors influencing and limiting the contribution of grape farming tohousehold income, and 3) to assess challenges facing grape farmers and wine producers in the area.
METHODOLOGY
The research study was conducted during the harvesting season of grapes in 2022 in Katsunuma, oneof the nine main grape-producing districts of Koshu city in Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan. As you cansee in Fig. 3, which is located near the center of Honshu. Katsunuma has a favorable climate that
nurtures the grapevine. The main material of the study was the data collected from grape-producing
households and wine producers in the village of Kami Kuribara in the Katsunuma district. The total
number of grape-producing households was 50 in the study area. The data were obtained randomly
from 30 head of grape-producing households through face-to-face interviews using pre-preparedstructured and semi-structured questionnaires related to socio-demographic characteristics of thegrape-producing household, farm size, yield, farm management, and influencing and limiting factors(questionnaires translated into Japanese).

Source: https://www.nippon.com/en/guide-to-japan/pref19/

Fig. 3 Map of the study area
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Increasing grapevine farms will cause difficulty in the capability of managing the grape farms.
According to table 2 result indicated that the average age of those involved in grapevines and wineries
is above 60 years old, with a minimum of 30- to 40-year-old. This can quickly become a problem forvineyards and get more serious in the coming years. On top of this, skill and knowledge are only
strengthened at maturity age so, if these experienced farmers passed away the next generation will
feel short of knowledge. Another problem was emigration, the majority of the younger generations
immigrated to the cities in finding better job opportunities. In addition, grapevines take on average
three to five years before their harvest can be made. During this period no profit can be made fromthe harvest. Profits are only earned at a later stage and may not be enough at the beginning.
According to Table 2, the majority of grape producers (76%) were aged 50-60 years and 24%
were less than 40 years. Grape farming was more predominantly 60% female activity, 40% male,followed by married individuals who constituted 80%. On the other hand, political and economic
obstacles, such as licenses and taxes make it harder for young generations to join which was
expressed during interview by grape producers. The majority of the respondents (88%) had university
education, while (12%) had high school. Household members less than 3 constitute (80%) of farmers
and 4 and above were (20%). Compare with Afghanistan grape producers; in Japan, grape growersⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

are highly skilled, constantly updating their knowledge of cultivating and management, and areinterested in adopting new technologies and practices (Yusufi, 2019).
There is a comprehensive education program at all levels. Many universities are active in thefield of practical skills of grape cultivators, and government agricultural agencies properly introduce
education in new ways and technology arising from research centers. It proved that knowledge andskill, research, and extension are the core influencing factors for sustainable grape farming.
Table 2 Socio-demographic characteristics of grape farmers
Grape farmers of Kabul
N=30

Grape farmers of
Yamanashi
N=30

30-40
50-60

10(33.3)
20(66.0)12(24)
38(76)

Male
FemaleMarital status
MarriedSingleEducation
None
High school
University
Household size<= 3
4 and above

25(83.3)
5(16.60)

12(40)
18(60)

20(66.6)
10(33.3)24(80)
6(20)

12(40)
15(50)
3(10)

0(0)
9(12)
21(88)

10(33.3)
20(66.6)24(80)
6(20)Variable
Age

Sex

Source: Field survey, 2022 (Parentheses shows percentage)

According to Table 3, in Yamanashi Prefecture around 80% of farmers were part-time farmers
and land size was between 1 and 3 ha (40%) of the land was covered by vineyards and (60%) bypeach. Distance between rows and plants 7x10 meters and plantation of 50 up to 100 plants per ha
was common and the majority of the farmers prefer sandy and silt soil for grapevine with theapplication of 1 to 3 tons of chemical, organic, and compost fertilizer per ha only one time in thewinter season. Most of the grapevines trained Pergola with sprinkler irrigation method which wasvery popular and gave good results for grape production, especially varieties such as Kyoho, Muscat
Bailey A, Koshu, Delaware, Merlot, and Chardonnay.
In this connection, (80%) of produced grape was used as fresh grapes and only (20%) of thetotal grape was used for winemaking. Regarding grapes, the yield result indicated an average of 10.47
tons per ha with approximately 90 kg per vine. Despite existing problems, the contribution of grape
farming to annual household income was around (20%).
Average Rank Formula
Descriptive statistics, particularly tabulation, were used to summarize the data. To determine theconstraints and factors that influenced decline in agricultural production, average ranking for each of
the ranked causes was used to determine the most influential factors using the formula given below.
Average rank 𝑃𝑎 =𝑋1 𝑃1 +𝑋2 𝑃2 +𝑋3 𝑃3 +⋯+𝑋𝑛 𝑃𝑛
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡(1)

Where xi is the response count for each choice and Pi is the ranked position.
Based on Table 4 the results revealed that initial investment, resistant seedling to pests anddiseases, influence of climate and shortage of labour average rank were 1.3, 1.3, 1.6, 1.6 respectively
and the severest problems which were expressed by (80%) of grape growers followed by highplanting materials 70%, high cost of fertilizer 63.3%, replacement of varieties 66.6%, and high cost
Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1of fertilizer 63.3% average ranked were 1.5, 1.5, 1.6, 1.6, respectively. Pests’ leafhoppers and spider
mites, and major diseases were powdery mildew and downy mildew. All above factors had
significant influence on growth, yield, quality of grapes and sustainable grape farming.
Table 3 Shows respondents results in Yamanashi Prefecture
Characteristics of grape farms
Occupation
Size of land per grape farmer
Part time farmers
Purpose of grape production
Share of grape to annual income household
Fresh grape consumption
Grape to process to wine
Wineries
Varieties of grape cultivated in Yamanashi
Grapevine training method
Distance between rows and plants
Grapevine age
Yield of per grapevine
Good yield giving age grapevine
Kinds of soil is good for grapevines
Kind of fertilizer apply in grapevine
Amount of fertilizer apply in grapevine
Appropriate season to apply fertilizers
Noticed of pests and insects
Source of irrigation
Method of irrigation
Source: (Field survey, 2022)

Respondents’ results
Occupation of majority (80%) of the grape farmers was agriculture
Most of farmers had from 1 to 3 hectares, and 60% land was for peach
80% of farmers are part time farmers
Table grape consumption and making wine
Contribution of grapes to annual income of household is 20%
Majority (80%) grape is produced used as table grape consumption
Only 20% of the total grape production is used for making wine
In Yamanashi Prefecture 39 wineries are producing wine
Kyoho, Muscat Bailey A, Koshu, Delaware, Merlot, Chardonnay
Most of grape farmers used Pergola method for training of vines
7 x 10 with plantation of 50 to 100 plants per hectare is common
Most of the grapevines were between 10 to 30 years old
The average yield per grapevine was 90 kg
Over 5 years old
Majority of the respondents prefer sandy and silt soil for grapevine
Chemical fertilizer, organic fertilizer, and compost
Commonly 1-3 tons applied each year in grapevines
The best season to apply fertilizer is winter season
Nematode, powdery mildew
Surface water such as river, lake, and rainfall
Majority 90% use sprinkler irrigation method in grapevines

Table 4 Shows the most influential and limiting factors experienced by grape farms
Rank
3rd
4th
AverageHigh initial investment21
1.3
High cost of planting materials
32
1.5
Replacement of variety is very difficult
41
1.5High cost of fertilizer
42
1.6
Shortage of labour
32
1.6
Pests and diseases
53
1.8High cost of new agriculture technologies
32
1.7High resistant seedling to pests and diseases
21
1.3
Impacts of climate (rain and humidity)
32
1.6
Limited access to quality seedlings
73
2.3
Limited access to financial services
75
1.9
Land fragmentation
4
2
1.7
Rank
Constraints
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
AverageHigh initial investment
24(80.0)32
1
1.3High cost of planting materials
21(70.0)
432
1.5
Replacement of variety is very difficult20(66.6)54
1
1.5High cost of fertilizer
19(63.3)5
42
1.6
Shortage of labour
18(60.0)732
1.6
Pests and diseases
16(53.3)6
53
1.8High cost of new agriculture technologies
15(50.0)1032
1.7High resistant seedling to pests and diseases
23(76.6)
42
1
1.3
Impacts of climate (rain and humidity)
22(73.3)3
32
1.6
Limited access to quality seedlings
12(40.0)873
2.3
Limited access to financial services
10(33.3)87
5
1.9Land fragmentation
17(56.6)7
42
1.7
Source: field survey, 2022 (Parentheses indicate the percentages) (Average rank low number shows severe problems)
Constraints

1st24(80.0)21(70.0)20(66.6)
19(63.3)
18(60.0)16(53.3)
15(50.0)23(76.6)
22(73.3)
12(40.0)10(33.3)
17(56.6)

2nd
3
4
5
5
7
6
10
4
3
8
8
7

Environmental conditions play an important role in determining not only yield but also grape
quality potential. In winegrowing regions, growers have historically adjusted their plant materialⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

selections and viticulture techniques through trial and research to achieve the best possible
compromise between yield, quality, and production costs. In each location environmental conditions
are different, so there is no general recipe that can be applied everywhere. This explains why plantmaterials and viticulture techniques vary so much across grape-growing regions of the world.
According to Table 5, in July 2012 there were 167.2 sunshine hours while in July 2020 total sunshine
was 78.5 hours the rainy season was long, and the precipitation was so heavy in July 2020. Therefore,
the respondent mentioned that the harvested grapes were good that year, but the yield was relatively
low because the rainy season was long, and the precipitation was so heavy in July. The quality of
harvested grapes was good, but the yield was relatively low because of heavy rainfall around 317
mm more in 2020 in comparison with the rainfall in July 2012.
Table 5 Effects of rainfall, temperature and sunshine on grape yield and quality
2020

Total rainfall(mm)

Total sunshine(hrs.)

Average temperature
Daily Max.
temperature
33.9
39.3
35.8

Daily Min.
temperature
18.0
20.9
9.9

July
432.0
Aug
50.0
Sep
48.5
2012
July
115.5
31.3
21.4
Aug
23.0
34.8
21.8
Sep
22.0
30.6
18.5
Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2020

Daily Avetemperature
23.8
28.0
23.4

78.5
245.8
125.7

25.3
27.0
23.5

167.2
238.6
173.8

CONCLUSION
Grape is one of the important economic fruit crops found in the Yamanashi Prefecture of Japan.
Findings indicated that in Yamanashi Prefecture around (80%) of farmers were part-time farmers
and had between 1 and 3 ha of land which (40%) of the land was cultivated grape and (60%) peach.
The majority of the respondents (88%) had university education, while (12%) had high school.
Female grape growers were (60%) more predominantly than male farmers and (80%) of the produced
grape was used fresh and only (20%) for making wine. Most of the grape growers used the Pergola
method for training vines and prefer sandy and silt soil with (90%) of responders using sprinklers
irrigation. Results on influencing and limiting factors indicated initial investment, resistant seedlingsto pests and diseases, heavy rainfall and humidity, shortage of labor, high cost of fertilizer (63.3%),
replacement of varieties (66.6%), and high cost of planting materials (70%), were the core
influencing and limiting factors on sustainable grape farming which were expressed by (80%) ofgrape growers. The use of late-ripening and humidity-resistant plant material (varieties, clones, androotstocks) is an environmentally friendly and cost-effective tool for adaptation and sustainable grape
farming in Yamanashi Prefecture of Japan.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSFirst of all, without the guidance of ALLAH, this work would not have been done successfully. I
would like to express my deepest thanks and gratitude to my laboratory colleagues for insightfulcomments and encouragement throughout my research. I would like to express my appreciation to
Tokyo university of Agriculture (TUA) and Japanese government (MEXT) scholarship for financial
support too.
REFERENCES
Fraga, H., Pinto, J.G. and Santos, J.A. 2019. Climate change projections for chilling and heat forcing conditions
in European vineyards and olive orchards, A multi-model assessment. Climatic Change, 152, 179-193,Ⓒ ISERD

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Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-018-2337
Mihara, M. 2006. The effect of natural weed buffer on soil and nitrogen losses in Japan. Catena, 65 (3), 265271, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2005.12.001
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan (MAFF). 2018. The 94th statistical yearbook of
Ministry Of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Retrieved from URL https://www.maff.go.jp/e/data/stat/94th/index.html
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan (MAFF). 2019. The 95th statistical yearbook of
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Retrieved from URL https://www.maff.go.jp/e/data/stat/95th/index.html
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan (MAFF). 2020. The 96th statistical yearbook of
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Retrieved from URL https://www.maff.go.jp/e/data/stat/96th/index.html
Morgan, R. 1995. Soil erosion and conservation, Second ed. Longman Group, UK Limited, UK.
Muhammad, A., Kita, I. Soichi, N., and Yano, A. 2006. A decision support system for real-time water level
management. International Conference on Hydrological Sciences, China, 1-8.
Nippon.com. 2023. Yamanashi prefecture. Retrieved from URL https://www.nippon.com/en/guide-tojapan/pref19/
Petrie, P.R., Brook, S.J., Moran, M.A. and Sadras, V.O. 2017. Pruning after budburst to delay and spread grape
maturity. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 23 (3), 378-389.
van Leeuwen, C., Tregoat, O., Choné, X., Gaudillère, J. P., and Pernet, D. 2008. Different environmental
conditions, different results, The effect of controlled environmental stress on grape quality potential, andthe way to monitor it. In Proceedings of the 13th Australian Wine Industry Technical Conference, Adelaide,
Australia, 29 July-2 August 2007.
van Leeuwen, C., Destrac-Irvine, A., Dubernet, M., Duchêne, E., Gowdy, M., Marguerit, E., Pieri, P., Parker,
A., de Rességuier, L. and Ollat, N. 2019. An update on the impact of climate change in viticulture andpotential adaptations. Agronomy, 9 (9), 514, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy
9090514
Vipul, S., Tiwari, K. and Manjushree, S. 2010. Prioritization of micro watersheds on the basis of soil erosion
hazard using remote sensing and geographic information system. International Journal of Water Resources
and Environmental Engineering, 2 (3), 130-136, Retrieved from URL https://academicjournals.org/journal/IJWREE/article-abstract/C85C1B91768
Yusufi, M. 2017. Pre and postharvest losses and marketing of grapes in Afghanistan, Case study in Mirbachkot,
Shakardara and Kalakan districts of Kabul. International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development,
8 (1), 153-159, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.32115/ijerd.8.1_156
Yusufi, M. 2019. Effects of management and constraints on grape farming, Case Study in Mirbachakot,
Shakardara and Kalakan districts of Kabul. International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development,
10 (1), 10-16, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.32115/ijerd.10.1_10Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

Research article
erd

The Current Situation of Farmers’ Practice of Rice Seed
Use in Cambodia: An Exploratory Study in Takeo Province
YUKI TOYAMA*
United Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tottori University, Tottori City, Japan
Email: yukiuki1019@gmail.com

ASRES ELIAS
Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, Tottori City, JapanKUMI YASUNOBUFaculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, Tottori City, Japan
Received 1 November 2023

Accepted 8 April 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Rice productivity in Cambodia has increased dramatically in recent decades. The
main factor behind this breakthrough has been the spread of irrigation and modern rice
varieties. However, the formal rice seed supply system is still not well established, and most
farmers use seed collected by themselves. In this situation, it is difficult to maintain the newvarieties’ field performance. This study investigated the current situation of farmers' riceseed treatment practices and the concern that these practices hinder the improvement of riceproductivity in Cambodia. Data for this study were collected from 80 conveniently selected
farmers in irrigated and rainfed areas in Takeo Province of Cambodia. Farmers in theirrigated area cultivated modern varieties and sold most of their production, while farmers
in the rainfed area grew traditional and improved varieties and used them for homeconsumption. In both areas, farmers procured rice seed through self-collection, and when
they changed the variety cultivated, they mostly procured seed from relatives or neighboring
farmers. This fact suggested that most farmers did not purchase formally produced seeds.
The seed used per hectare in the irrigated area was two times higher than in the rainfed area.
In addition, the rice yield per seed used in the irrigated area was lower than in the rainfed
area, even though farmers in the irrigated area were growing modern varieties.
Keywords seed renewal, variety adoption, irrigation access, farmer-to-farmer transaction

INTRODUCTION
In recent decades, rice productivity increased rapidly in Cambodia. Even though the unit rice yieldwas 2.06 ton/ha in 2001, the unit yield rose to 3.75 ton/ha in 2020 (FAOSTAT). This rapid growth
was due to the diffusion of modern varieties, increased use of fertilizer and improvement of irrigation
access (Cramb et al., 2020; Kodo et al., 2021). Even these agricultural inputs increased and/or
improved, supplying good quality rice seeds was one of the remained subjects of rice production in
Cambodia. Although the significance of investment for rice seed was confirmed to increase
productivity, most farmers prepare rice seeds by self-collection (ADB, 2014).
In Cambodia, the formal rice seed supply system was composed of Agricultural Quality
Improvement Program (AQIP) seed company established by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry
and Fisheries (MAFF), Tuol Samrong seed farm established by the World Bank project, and someother private seed producers (Chamroeun et al., 2015). The Cambodia Agricultural Research andDevelopment Institute (CARDI) distribute the breeder’s seeds to the seed producers and they
multiple seeds and sell them to farmers, retailers and millers. However, the production of rice seeds
cannot satisfy the demand of formally produced rice seeds at present. Against this situation, some
programs aiming to improve rice seed quality used by farmers and to establish the system of seedⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

certification were launched in 2022, which were supported by overseas institutions (APSA, 2022;
GAFSP, 2022).
Regarding the established seed supply system, participation of rice farmers is one of theimportant requirements. No matter how good seeds are provided, if farmers prefer to obtain seeds by
self-collection or farmer-to-farmer transaction to reduce cost, rice productivity should not be
improved. To consider how to involve farmers in the refined seed supply system, it is necessary tounderstand the present farmers’ practices of rice seed use.
OBJECTIVE
To find some implications for the refinement of rice seed supply system in Cambodia, we set thefollowing objectives: 1) Grasp an actual situation regarding the practice of rice seed use among
farmers in a rice production area in Cambodia, and 2) Explore concerns regarding rice production
due to the present practices of farmers’ seed use.
METHODOLOGY
The data for this study was collected through face-to-face interviews with farmers using a structured
questionnaire. To grasp the farmers practices under the different precondition of rice production, we
selected 2 survey sites: Borei Cholsar district as an irrigated area and Tam Kak district as a rainfed
area, both located in Takeo Province in southern Cambodia which is one of the major rice production
areas in the nation (Chhun et al., 2020). Since this study was intended as an exploratory study baseon the objectives, we adopted a convenience sampling method and selected 40 farmers in each site.
The survey was conducted in January and February of 2022. The contents of the questionnaire wereas follows: land possession and use, income sources, methods and outputs of rice production, andtreatment of rice seed. We collected information on 3 cropping seasons: wet season (WS) in 2021,
early wet season (EWS) in 2021, and dry season (DS) in 2020-21.
Table 1 Overview of labor and land possession among surveyed farmers
Total
farmland(ha)

Labor-land
ratio(person/ha)

0.0

1.0

3.3

0.9

Rainfed
40
4.6
2.4
1.2
0.8
0.4
Source: Made by authors with the data of the survey in January 2022

0.4

1.6

4.1

N

Irrigated

40

Family Family farmmemberlabor(person)(person)Own farmland
Rent-inpaddy (ha)

Area

4.3

1.7

Family offfarm labor(person)

Paddy
(ha)

Others
(ha)

0.8

2.3

Table 2 Annual income of surveyed farmers by each income source (Unit: US$*/year)
Area

N

Rice
4,349
305

Agriculture
Non-rice crop
Livestock
0
175
82
105

Farm labor
0157

Off-farm
income1,105
2,789

Irrigated
40
Rainfed**39
Source: Same as Table 1.
* Exchanged from “Riel” with the rate on November 17th, 2022: 1 US$ = 4,150 Riel.
** From the averages in Tam Kok, we exclude one farm which the rice income was abnormally high.

Total in
2021
5,629
3,438

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Rice Production among Surveyed Farmers in Irrigated and Rainfed Area
Table 1 gives an overview of the labor and land holdings of the farmers surveyed. Although theamount of land owned in the irrigated area was more than twice that of the rainfed area, the amountof labor in the irrigated area was less than that in the rainfed area. Thus, there was a large differenceⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

in the labor-land ratio between the irrigated area (0.9) and the rainfed area (4.1). Regarding the sourceof income (Table 2), the sale of rice was the main source of income for farmers in the irrigated area.
In contrast, income from rice was much lower for rainfed farmers than for irrigated farmers, and offfarm income was a major source of income for most of them.

Source: Same as Table 1.
Remarks) * Frequency of farmers who conducted each type of rice crop in 40 farmers in each area.
** WS = Wet season, DS = Dry season and EWS = Early wet season.

Fig. 1 Crop calendar of rice production among surveyed farmers in 2020-21
Table 3 Water access, variety, and scale of rice production among the surveyed farmers
Area

Irrigated

Rainfed

Crop

N

WS
DS
EWS
AnnualWS
EWS
Annual

20
35
15
40
39
13
40

Irrigation (Freq.*)
Surface
GroundRain-fed
water
water
0
19
1
2
33
1
1
14
0
33
6

6
10

0
0

Variety adoption (Freq.*)
ModernImproved Traditionalvariety** variety**variety**
20
0
0
35
0
0
15
0
0
0
9

33
4

14
1

Cultivatedarea (ha)
***
2.15
2.78
1.56
4.19
1.22
0.43
1.33

Source: Same as Table 1.
(Remarks) * Frequencies of farmers in the number of who practiced each crop, shown in the "N" column. If farmers
usemore than one type of irrigation, we count them for all. “Surface water” includes canals, pond, lake and river.
** “Modern variety” is which bred by IRRI and mainly cultivated in Vietnam, e.g., IR504 and OM5451. “Improved
variety” is a pure line of traditional variety, which is generally processed by CARDI, e.g., Phka Malis and Phka
Rumduol*** Averages of the farmers producing rice in each cropping season.

The rice cropping schedule of the surveyed farmers is described in Fig. 1. In the irrigated area,
farmers cultivated rice in all 3 cropping seasons in a year. The main cropping season in the irrigatedarea was DS. On the other hand, farmers in the rainfed area cultivated rice in WS and EWS in a year
and most farmers cultivated rice in WS. Almost all farmers used direct seeding in the wetland andhired contractors with combine harvesters for harvesting. The average number of rice crops in a year
by area was 1.75 and 1.30 in the irrigated and rainfed areas, respectively.
Table 3 shows the status of water access, variety adoption and land use in relation to riceproduction among the farmers surveyed. In the irrigated area, most farmers had annual access toirrigation water from canal, pond, lake and river, and all farmers cultivated the modern varieties thatwere photoperiod insensitive and short maturing, such as IR504 and OM5451. These modern
varieties are popular in Vietnam and most of their production is exported to Vietnam (Chhun et al.,2020). In contrast, farmers in the rainfed area cultivated rice with rainwater in WS, but most farmers
cultivating rice in EWS used surface water irrigation. The rice varieties grown were traditionalvarieties and improved varieties (pure line of traditional varieties) in WS, and in EWS the farmersⒸ ISERD

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grow modern varieties as in the irrigated area. Regarding the rice cultivated area, the aggregated area
planted in the irrigated area (4.19 ha) was three times greater than that in the rainfed area (1.33 ha).
Table 4 shows the rice yield and its disposal among the farmers surveyed. The production andyield of rice in the irrigated area was higher than in the rainfed area. While farmers in the irrigatedarea sold almost 90% of their rice yield, farmers in the rainfed area disposed of half of their yield for
consumption. In both areas, about 10% of production was saved as rice seed. Although the total salesof rice were higher in the irrigated area than in the rainfed area, the unit price of rice was lower in
the irrigated area than in the rainfed area. For EWS in the rainfed area, the price was closer to that in
the irrigated area than for WS. This indicated that the price of modern varieties such as IR504 andOM5451 was lower than traditional and improved varieties. Kodo (2021) mentioned that farmers
produce varieties that are popular in Vietnam because they are easy to sell. Rice traders buy rice forVietnam from farmers at a low price, but always buy the entire quantity brought by farmers,
regardless of its quality. From the above, farmers in irrigated areas made rice production morecommercial than rainfed areas, and they adopted the strategy to sell large number of modern varieties
even if the price was lower than traditional and improved varieties.
Table 4 Yield and disposal of rice production by each area and cropping season
Area

Crop

N

Production
(ton)

Yield
(ton/ha)Disposal of rice yield (%)
For
AnimalSold
For seed
home
feed
79.7
6.7
12.4
1.2
85.8
2.2
11.1
0.8
75.7
6.7
17.7
0.2
87.2
2.7
9.4
0.7
34.3
51.3
11.9
1.4
34.4
42.4
12.6
10.0
34.9
49.6
12.3
2.0

Unit rice
price(US$/ton)
195.4
205.8
198.9
201.7
285.2
241.0
278.6

Total rice
sales
(US$*)
1,975
3,047
1,227
4,349
275
113
305

WS
20
11.2
4.7
DS
35
14.4
5.0
Irrigated
EWS
15
7.2
4.3
Annual
40
21.2
4.8
WS**
38
3.1
3.0
Rainfed EWS
13
0.9
2.3
Annual** 39
3.4
2.8
Source: Same as Table 1.
(Remarks) *Exchanged from “Riel” with the rate on November 17 th, 2022: 1 US$ = 4,150 Riel.
**From “WS” and “Annual”in Tam Kok, we exclude one farm which the unit price and total sales are abnormally high.

Rice Seed Use and Procurement among Surveyed Farmers
The amount of seed used per unit in the irrigated area was twice that of the rainfed area (Table 5).
While farmers in the rainfed area collected their own rice seed, farmers in the irrigated area bought
half of their seed from other farmers and/or material dealers. In addition, the rice yield per unit seed
input differed between the areas (Table 6). The rice yield per unit seed use in the irrigated area (12.3
kg/1 kg seed) was lower than in the rainfed area (16.0 kg/1 kg seed). However, the yield per seed use
was not significantly different in the EWS and the difference was more significant in the WS than in
the annual aggregation. This result suggests that the difference in yield per seed between modern andtraditional and improved varieties was clearly observed.
Table 5 Usage and sources of rice seed by each area
Area

Total usage ofseed (kg)*

Unit usage of seed (kg/ha)
Annual*

WS**

DS**

Irrigated
1,676
408.3
413.6
417.4
Rainfed
206
215.1
194.8
Source: Same as Table 1.
(Remarks) *Average of 40 farmers in each area.
**Average of the farmers producing rice in each cropping season.

EWS**
391.0
261.8

Ratio of seed source (%)*
SelfOther
Materialcollection
farmers
dealers
50
37
13
91
9
-

In terms of sources of rice seed, farmers in the irrigated area renewed half of their seed, but themain source of renewed seed was farmer-to-farmer transactions, and the proportion of rice seedprocured from material dealers was only 13% (Table 5). And in the rainfed areas, there were no
farmers who bought rice seed from dealers, and most rice seed was produced by self-propagation.
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Even when a new variety was introduced, most farmers in both areas bought seed from other farmers(Table 7). Table 8 shows farmers' perceptions of the negative effects of rice seed spoilage. Most
farmers recognized the problems caused by contamination of rice seed by other varieties and weed
seed. Regarding variety mixture, while farmers in the irrigated area emphasized the reduction in yield,
most farmers in the rainfed area mentioned difficulties in selling due to low grain quality.
Table 6 Rice production per seed use by each area and cropping season
Cropping season
Area classification
No. of farmers
Production per seed use (kg/1kg seed)

AnnualIrrigated Rainfed
40
40
12.3*
16.0*

WS
Irrigated Rainfed
20
39
12.1**
17.0**

DS
Irrigated
35
12.5

EWS
Irrigated Rainfed
15
13
11.0
10.8

Source: Same as Table 1.
(Remarks) *p < 0.05 and **p < 0.01 on a paired t-test between Borei Cholsar and Tam Kak.

Table 7 Transactions of new varieties’ seed
Area

Counterpart

Farmer
Supplier
Irrigated Government
OthersN**
Farmer
Supplier
Rainfed Government
OthersN**

Buy in
cash
16
14
4
1
27
21
0
4
2
25

Buy in
kind
2
1
0
0
3
2
0
2
0
4

Table 8 Negative effects of contamination

ExGiftchange
5
9
1
0
0
2
0
0
6
11
9
5
0
1
0
0
0
0
9
6

Source: Same as Table 1.
(Remarks) *Multiple answer question.
**Numbers of farmers who answered that get seeds ineach way from any counterpart.

Byvariety
mixtureBy weedseed

Reasons of negative
effects*
Low yield
Difficult to sell
Low price
Difference of growth
OthersHard to control weed
Increase of herbicide
Low yield
Difficult to sell
Others

BC**

TK**

25
8
1
0
0
17
13
7
1
0

7
25
2
3
3
27
3
3
3
2

Source: Same as Table 1.
(Remarks) *Categories based on the answers of open
questions. **Frequencies in 40 farmers in each are
any counterpart.

CONCLUSION
This study explored the actual situation of farmers' practices of rice seed procurement and use in an
irrigated and a rainfed area, and discussed the concerns of rice production driven by farmers' practices.
The situation of rice production was clearly different between the irrigated and rainfed areas due tothe accessibility of irrigation. Farmers in the irrigated area grew rice in both the wet and dry seasons,
adopted modern varieties and produced rice commercially. In contrast, farmers in the rainfed area
produced rice only in the rainy season, using traditional varieties, and more than half of the
production was used for their own consumption.
Rice seed procurement and use practices also differed between the irrigated and rainfed areas.
Farmers in the irrigated area used much more rice seed per unit of planted area and procured half ofthe seed from external sources: specified material suppliers and other farmers. On the other hand,
farmers in the rainfed area mostly used rice seed they collected themselves. Even though farmers in
the irrigated area used the modern varieties and achieved higher land productivity than that in therainfed area, the rice yield per seed use in the irrigated area was significantly lower than in the rainfed
area. In addition, the yield per seed use in EWS in the rainfed area was also lower than in otherseasons, and farmers cultivated modern varieties in this season. Therefore, the yield per seed use ofmodern varieties was lower than that of traditional and improved varieties among the farmers
surveyed. The reasons for this situation were considered to be low quality and overuse of rice seed.
The farmers surveyed in both areas procured most of their seed through self-collection or farmer-tofarmer transactions, even when new varieties were introduced. Farmers recognised the following
effects of using low quality seed: reduced yield, falling farmgate prices, severe weed problems andincreased use of herbicides. In addition, farmers in irrigated areas achieved high rice yields byincreasing the planting density of modern varieties. In general, high planting densities interfere withⒸ ISERD

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plant uptake of light and nutrients. This is considered a major cause of low yield per seed input inthe irrigated area.
In this study, we found the possibility that the benefits of modern varieties have not been fully
demonstrated, and the situation caused by the overuse of their seeds. If most farmers always use toomuch rice seed, meeting the demand for good quality seed becomes a difficult challenge for thegovernment. In order to confirm this hypothesis, we need to conduct further studies on the sample
representing the farmers growing modern varieties in the surveyed area.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to Dr. Sareth Chea, Head of Socio-economics at the Cambodian Agricultural
Research and Development Institute (CARDI), for his cooperation in the field survey, and his
valuable comments on the drafting of this paper.
REFERENCES
Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2014. Improving rice production and commercialization in Cambodia,
Findings from a farm investment climate assessment. Manila, Philippines, Retrieved from URL https://www.adb.org/ publications/improving-rice-production-and-commercialization-cambodia
Chamroeun, M., Eliste, P., Stanelle, J.R. and Mak, S. 2015. Cambodia, Overview of a Cambodian seed sector,
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development in The World Bank, Washington, D.C., USA,
Retrieved from URL https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/427071468188680084/
Cramb, R., Sareth, C. and Vuthy, T. 2020. The commercialization of rice farming in Cambodia. In White Gold:The Commercialization of Rice Farming in the Lower Mekong Basin, Springer Nature, St. Lucia,
Queensland, Australia, 227-246, Retrieved from URL https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-150998-8
Chhun, C., Vuthy, T. and Keosothea, N. 2020. The production, marketing, and export of rice in Takeo. In
White Gold: The Commercialization of Rice Farming in the Lower Mekong Basin, Springer Nature, St.
Lucia, Queensland, Australia, 247-260, Retrieved from URL https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978981-15-0998-8
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2022. FAOSTAT, Rome, Italy, Retrieved from URL https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/
Global Agricultural and Food Security Program (GAFSP). 2022. Strengthening rice production in Cambodia.
Retrieved from URL https://www.gafspfund.org/news/strengthening-rice-production-cambodia
Kodo, T., Homma, K., Kobayashi, S., Yagura, K., Hor, S. and Kim, S. 2021. Effects of irrigation facilities
development on cultivation management and productivity of rice in Cambodia, Implications based oncomparison of adjacent irrigated and non-irrigated areas in Pursat Province. Japanese Journal of Southeast
Asian Studies, 59 (1), 101-118, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.20495/tak.59.1_101(in Japanese)
The Asia and Pacific Seed Association (APSA). 2022. Cambodia seed industry news. Retrieved from URL
https://web.apsaseed.org/news/cambodia-seed-industryⒸ ISERD

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Research article
erd

Efficiency of No-till Transplanter Use in Conservation
Agriculture Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) Production
Systems in Battambang Province, Cambodia
SOKLENG MANG*
Faculty of Agronomy and Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Royal University of Agriculture,
Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: soklengmang@gmail.com

LYHOUR HIN
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

HONG CHHEANG
Faculty of Agronomy, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

SOPHOANRITH RO
Faculty of Agronomy, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

TED S. KORNECKI
USDA-ARS, National Soil Dynamics Laboratory, Auburn, AL, USA

MANUEL R. REYES
Sustainable Intensification Innovation Lab, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
Received 2 November 2023

Accepted 9 April 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Cambodian farmers have gradually started growing no-tilled vegetables, but
production is low due to manual practices. No-till transplanter use in conservation agriculture(CA) can boost small-holder vegetable production and decrease production costs. Thus, thispaper aimed (1) to compare the working capacity of a no-till vegetable transplanter with apunch planter work in CA (Conservation agriculture) and hand planting in CT (Conventionaltillage) and (2) to assess the economic performance of the equipment. The experiment was
conducted in Battambang province, Cambodia, from January to August 2022. The experiment
was arranged in RCBD with three treatments, plating using a no-till vegetable transplanter,punch planter, and manual or hand plating, each replicated four times. Tomato seedlings wereused for this experiment. As a result, the no-till vegetable transplanter's working capacity was
shown to be 16 h/ ha, or nearly three times faster than punch plater and hand plating andcould transplant 10 seedlings per minute. Plant spacing and density were similar for all thetreatments at 0.8 m, and the plant density of the hand planter and punch planter was 11,660
plants/ha compared to the no-till transplanter at 9,921 plants/ha. Economic recovery is
attainable at the break-even point of 18.20 ha/y for the transplanter.
Keywords conservation agriculture, cover crop, economic recovery, machinery, sunn hemp

INTRODUCTION
Farmland areas in Cambodia increased from 27% in 2000 to 32.8% in 2020 (176,520 km2) (World
Bank, 2022); however, the main local vegetable market is dependent on imports, which represent
more than 65% of the domestic demand (Chea, 2022). Some challenges that have been identified
include labor force outflows from the agricultural sector to the construction and industrial sectors,
and the lack of mechanization to support farm work, with annual labor demand in vegetableproduction reaching 169.85 days/ha (World Bank, 2015). Conventional tillage (CT) practices inⒸ ISERD

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vegetable production may cause soil disturbance, soil nutrient loss, and unsustainable farming. To
minimize these issues, conservation agriculture (CA) is practiced in line with three principles:
minimum tillage, permanent soil organic cover, and crop diversification. These components work wellwith the support of farm machinery and tools, which can address labor shortages, improve productivity,and save time and cost. Sustainable mechanization considers economic, social, environmental andcultural aspects, when contributing to the sustainable agriculture production (FAO, 2022). In
Cambodia, CA was established in 2004 and launched as a key development target in Battambang
province (CASIC, 2020), and later adopted in vegetable production (Manuel, 2015). A priority targetof mechanization is the propagation of no-till vegetable transplanter (NVT) by the National Soil
Dynamic Laboratory (NSDL). An NVT funded by USAID was imported to Cambodia for adaptation
with small-holder farmers (Jones et al., 2019). The performance of the NVT has demonstrated highfield effectiveness, eases planting labor in CA, and is economically affordable for small and mediumsized farmers.
OBJECTIVE
The objectives of this study were (1) to compare the working capacity of a no-till vegetabletransplanter with a punch planter work in CA and hand planting in CT and (2) to assess the economic
performance of the no-till vegetable transplanter.
METHODOLOGY
The experiment was conducted in the upland area in Ratanak Mondul district, Battambang province,
Cambodia (12.93062, 102.85632) from January to August 2022, where average temperature andrainfall were from 25.80°C to 29.60°C and 14 mm to 200 mm, respectively (Climate Data, 2021).
The soil type is clay loam, with a pH range from 7.00 – 7.15.
Experimental Design
The whole experimental plot was 175 m2 and planted with a mixture of two cover crops: sunn hemp
(Crotalaria juncea L.) and millet (Cenchrus americanus L.) at the rate of 25 and 15 kg/ha,
respectively. The experimental design was a randomized complete block design (RCBD) thatconsisted of three treatments, namely NSDL NVT, no-till punch planter, and CT hand planting, eachof which had four replicates. Thus, at the age of 60 days, the cover crop was crimped for no-till plots
and plowed for CT plots. The size of each replicate was 5 m x 25 m, with a row space of 2 m foreasy tractor turning. One month after crimping/disking, tomato seedlings (Solanum lycopersicum L.)
were prepared for planting at the age of 6 weeks for all the treatments.
No-Till Vegetable Transplanter and Oggun Tractor
The NVT is a single-row transplanter mounted with a tractor and was designed by the no-tillvegetable transplanter. In operation, it needs two people, one driving the tractor and one operating
the no-till vegetable transplanter. In the process, the no-till planter is working dependent
mechanisms, as the main power source of the transplanter is a DC electric motor with a speed control
box. The motor transmits force by a roller chain link to a rack and pinion gear, which transfers therotational motion to the linear motion of a stainless-steel bar comprising six vertical rack holders.
The seedling bar continues to travel from left to right when the toggle switch of the control box shifts,
and the direction also changes automatically. In addition, the ports that are attached to the rack holdthe seedling until the bottom spring-loaded door is opened to allow the seedlings to fall by gravity
into the kicker chamber. The spring-loaded kicker positions the plant in the furrow previously openedby the no-till disc coulter and double disk openers. The two closing wheels press the sides of the
furrow to the plant to provide sufficient root-to-soil contact for optimum growth of the seedling(Kornecki and Kichler, 2018).
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The Oggun II tractor is an open-source design with special consideration for small-scale farming
applications. The tractor is operated by a hydraulic system for rear-wheel drive, weighing around725 kg, and uses as its power source a 16.5-kW Honda GX690 gasoline engine (Think Oggun, 2020).
The dimensions of the tractor are 3.71 m long x 2 m wide, with 0.73 m ground clearance and midmount implement clearance of 1.15 m for a clear view of the front working implement during
operation (Kornecki et al., 2012).
Punch Planter
The punch planter used in the experiment was the Weasel Bulb Planter, designed to work easily witha comfortable T-bar grip. The process starts with pushing the handle and placing a foot on thefootplate to press the sharp blade cylinder and pointed tip into the ground, allowing it to slide into
the ground effortlessly and the cores to pop out with ease. The Weasel Bulb Planter weighs less than
1.24 kg and is about 0.90 m long (Garden Weasel, 2022).
Data Collection
During the operation of NVT, transplanting speed, field capacity, number of plants per minute, plantdensity, plant angle, plant spacing, missing plant, and fuel consumption of tractor were collected for
calculating variable cost. The speed was measured by recording three forward times in each plot,
which were converted to operation speed. The field capacity depends on the total time of fulloperation and working width for converting to a hectare (FAO, 1994). Fuel consumption on eachplot was measured by every vegetable transplanter after finishing each plot; firstly, the gasoline tank
was filled fully after finishing the operation, and the tank was refilled by the measuring glass(Hancock et al., 1991).
Field capacity (ha h-1) =𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑 (ℎ𝑎)𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑦𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (ℎ𝑟)(1)

The number of plants per minute was selected from four rows in 25 m to count the plants ineach row and divided by time spent in each row. Plant density was measured by counting the numberof plants in each plot and selecting two samples in each plot to report in a hectare. Plant angle wasmeasured in ten samples by using an angle ruler. Plant spacing was measured in 10 samples, and if
the plant spacing was bigger than 1.5 meters, it was counted as one missing plant. Missing hills refers
to the percentage of seedlings damaged or wrongly planted in each row.
Break-Even Point
Break-even point analysis (BEP) is the relationship between fixed costs, variable costs, and returns.
A BEP is defined as an investment that generates a positive return and can be determined graphicallyor with simple mathematics. BEP computes according to the following formula:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 (𝑈𝑆𝐷 𝑦 −1 )BEP (ha y-1) = (𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑒𝑒 (𝑈𝑆𝐷 ℎ𝑎−1 ) – 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 (𝑈𝑆𝐷 ℎ𝑎−1 )(2)Fixed costs include equipment depreciation, interest costs, TIH (Taxes, insurance, and housing),
and general overhead expenses. Depreciation cost depends on a salvage value of 10%, a lifespan of
10 years, and a new condition value, and to simplify calculation TIH: 1% is determined lumped
together. The variable cost includes the cost of goods sold or production expenses such as labor andpower costs, feed, fuel, and other capital asset investments (Edwards, 2015; Gutierrez and Dalsted,2012).
Data Analysis and Interpretation
The collected data was analyzed by using analysis of variance (ANOVA) in R (version 4.2.2) and
RStudio 4.1.0, which are free software and available online. If the test was significantly different,Ⓒ ISERD

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the least significant distance (LSD) was performed to separate the means in each treatment with anerror level of 5% (confidence level of 95%).
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Transplanting Speed and Field Capacity
According to Table 1, transplanting speed was significantly different (p<0.001). The average speedof hand-planting, punch-planter, and NVT was 0.140 km/h, 0.150 km/h, and 0.625 km/h,
respectively. The result indicated that using the NVT was 3 times faster than other methods, while
the speed of punch-planter and hand-planting was similar. However, the operational speed of the
NVT used in this study was lower when compared to an automatic tomato transplanter studied by
Zamani et al. (2016), whose operation was in the range of 1-2 km/h.
The field capacity of NVT was significantly (p<0.001) faster than the hand and punch planter
at 0.07 ha/h, 0.01 ha/h, and 0.02 ha/h respectively (Table 1). The labor requirement for planting
tomatoes a hectare per day using the NVT corresponded to 16 h/ha. Meanwhile, hand planting andpunch planter required 68 h/ha (Table 1). In line with our study, other study also mentioned thebenefits of a transplanter; for instance, the field capacity of a single-row walking transplanter was
found to be 22 h/ha, which is equivalent to an 88% labor reduction over hand planting (Park et al.,2005). Likewise, another study revealed that the field capacity was approximately 0.0343 ha/h(Dhupal and Sahu, 2020).
Number of Plants per Minute and Plant Density
Planting rate was shown that the transplanter provided the highest number of seedlings, mostly 10 plants
min-1, significantly (p<0.001) from hand, and punch planter was planted approximately 2.80 plants
min-1 (Table 1). Based on observations, transplanting mechanization improved the time seeding ratecompared to man work (manual work).
The difference in plant density was significant (p<0.001); the transplanter planted fewer
seedlings than hand planting and the punch planter at 9,921 plants/ha, 11,666 plants/ha, and 11,666
plants/ha, respectively (Table 1). However, the plant population still followed the recommended
tomato planting density of between 8,000 and 14,000 plants/ha (Jones, 1999).
Plant Angle and Plant Spacing
The plant angle was significantly different (p<0.001) between the tested methods. The hand planting
and punch planter had a bigger angle than the NVT (Table 1) with angles of 76.40o, 79.70o, and58.80o, respectively. The reason the NVT made smaller angles was that the angle was affected by theseedling root being soft with gravitational drop off about 1 meter high into the furrow, making theseedling unstable. Another reason is that the soil clods on the surface were not broken into small
pieces properly or smoothly; when the closing wheel turned the soil to fill the roof in action, the plant
moved the geometry.
The difference in plant spacing was not significant among the planting treatments, and spacing
was around 0.80 m for each treatment (Table 1). It was bigger than the FAO standard for tomato
plant spacing in the field, which ranges from 0.30 m to 0.60 m. The serial performance of a twowheel tractor mounted with a row no-till plant transplanter evaluated between 2017 and 2019delivered tomato spacing of between 0.59-0.70 m (Kornecki and Reyes, 2020).
Missing Plant Ratio and Fuel Consumption
Missing plant ratio (plant damage) was measured in NSDL NVT plots that after planting had spacing
between rows larger than 1.5 m, and was 15.83% per hectare. Dhupal and Sahu (2020) recorded aⒸ ISERD

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missing plant ratio of less than 5.33% at three different speeds 0.29 km/h, 0.28 km/h, and 0.27 km/h.
Fuel consumption during operation was at 4.20 L/hr at 90% power.
Table 1 Performance and plant physics for different planting methods
Residueretention
Hand planter
Punch planter
NSDL NVT
p-valueCV (%)Overall mean

Speed
(km/h)
0.14b ± 0.00
0.15b ± 0.00
0.61a ± 0.03
<0.001***
7.43

No. of plants(per min)2.73b ± 0.18
2.82b ± 0.13
9.84a ± 2.34
<0.001***
25.76

Plant no.
(plants/ha )11,666a ± 5
11,666a ± 8
9,921b ±<0.001***
2,237
11.41

Field capacity Plant angle(ha/h)(°)
0.01b ± 0.00 76.35a ± 7.73
0.02b ± 0.00 79.70a ± 7.17
0.07a ± 0.00 58.85b ± 17.6
<0.001***<0.001***
11.41
16.47

Plant spacing(m)
0.80 ± 7.73
0.80 ± 7.17
0.80 ± 17.6
0.95
N/S
0.79

* Means significant at p<0.05, ** significant at p<0.01, *** significant at p<0.001,
Different alphabetic letters are used to denote significant differences between the treatments

Break-even Point (BEP)
The initial investment cost of the Oggun tractor was 12,500 USD (Table 2). Its annual working hours
were determined at 150 h/year for 15 years of economic life with a salvage cost of 10% per year,
accounting for a depreciation cost of 1,125 USD/y. The service fee sum of the total operation andownership cost was 213.75 USD ha-1, in terms of 10 USD/day of labor cost (Carter et al., 1997). The
investment cost of the NSDL NVT was 3,000 USD for a unit in new condition with a 6-year life span, 50 annual
hours, and a depreciation cost of 450 USD/ha. The break-even area of the Oggun tractor-mounted NVT
was 18.20 ha/y. Hin et al. (2020) found a similar result with a break-even area was 18.30 ha/y.
Table 2 Calculation of annual break-even area for the Oggun mounted transplanter
BE
Investment cost
Salvage value
Economic life
Annual hour
Total FC
Total VC
Service fees
BE area

Unit
USD
USD
y
h/y
USD/y
USD/ha
USD/haha/yOggun
12,500.00
1,250.00
10.00
150.001,443.75
105.52213.7518.20

NVT3,000.00
300.006.00
50.00
526.50-Total
15,500.00
1,550.00
1,970.25-

CONCLUSION
An important trend in promoting sustainable labor and vegetable production in Cambodia is thewidespread implementation of CA by small-scale farmers while employing small and mid-size
agricultural machinery. The NVT arrangement on an Oggun tractor showed that it may cut hard laborand time by a factor of three when compared to manual labor. The planting experiment's findings
showed that, in comparison to punch and hand planters, the NVT method's shortcomings included ahigher percentage of missing plants and smaller plant angles. However, from an economic
standpoint, the result was still acceptable. The break-even point – a measure of the method's
economic performance – is the most crucial component in determining the viability of conservation
agricultural gear. According to the study, the tested NVT setup's break-even point was 18.20 ha/ywith a service price of 213 USD/y. This suggests the NVT owner should have more planting spacethan is necessary or the option to provide NVT services to other farmers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSⒸ ISERD

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The authors wish to express our sincere thanks to the Higher Education Improvement Project (HEIP),
Appropriate Scale Mechanization Consortium for Sustainable Intensification (ASMC), Center of
Excellence on Sustainable Agricultural Intensification and Nutrition (CE SAIN), Collaborative
Research on Sustainable Intensification Innovation Lab (SIIL), the United States Agency forInternational Development (USAID) for financial support. We also appreciate the Conservation
Agriculture for Research and Development Center (CARDEC), CIRAD, Cleber LLC for support ontechnical, equipment, and advice. Finally, we would like to acknowledge the farmer for collaborationand experimental field provision in this research.
REFERENCES
Carter, S., Macdonald, N.J. and Cheng, D.C.B. 1997. Basic finance for marketers. FAO.
CASIC Committee. 2020. Conservation Agriculture and Sustainable Intensification Consortium.
Climate Data. 2021. Battambang climate, Cambodia. Retrieved from URL https://en.climate-data.org/asia/
cambodia/battambang/battambang-3145/
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Research article
erd

Improving the Farm Business and Resilience of New
Farmers: Case of a Greenhouse Tomato Farmer in H City,
Tokyo
NINA N. SHIMOGUCHI
Faculty of International Agriculture and Food Studies, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan

RIKA TERANO*
Faculty of International Agriculture and Food Studies, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Email: rt200005@nodai.ac.jp

RAMADHONA SAVILLE
Faculty of International Agriculture and Food Studies, Tokyo University of Agriculture, JapanHETTIGE SAMITHA LAKSHAN GUNASEKARA
Graduate School of International Food and Agricultural Science,
Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, JapanKATSUMORI HATANAKA
Faculty of International Agriculture and Food Studies, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Received 3 November 2023

Accepted 15 April 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Among new farmers, farming discontinuation within a few years is prevalent due
to various issues, including difficulty securing farmland, insufficient technology adoption,
low income, and weak branding. In recent years, the importance of recruitment and support
services for new farmers has been gaining recognition. Therefore, studies that can provide
insights and innovations to improve the business operations and resilience of each new
farmer are relevant and timely. Tomato is the most common fruit vegetable consumed freshor processed in Japan. For new farmers, tomatoes are considered one of the favored highvalue commodities for production. In response to the needs of a young female new farmer
who ventured into greenhouse tomato farming in H City, Tokyo, this study aims to clarify
the consumption and purchasing behavior satisfaction and brand familiarity of randomly
selected tomato consumers. We conducted a consumer survey from May to June 2022.
Although we had 470 respondents, we only utilized responses from 213 consumerrespondents to capture the characteristics and preferences of those who experienced buying
tomatoes from the selected farm (NF Farm). Through this case study approach, the survey
revealed that supermarkets (31%) were the main place of purchase for fresh tomatoes due
to convenience, followed by direct stores (28%) and unmanned stores (17%) owing to bothconvenience and good product quality. Results indicated that cherry tomatoes were the mostwidely consumed across all seasons, while summer was the season with highest
consumption of all tomato types, with prices ranging between 101 JPY and 500 JPY (1 USD= 133.9 JPY). After only 5 years in business, NF Farm seemed to have gained a fan base.
Unfortunately, 63.8% of consumer-respondents indicated no knowledge of the farm logo.
Most related the farm to the name of the farmer. Thus, there is a need for NF Farm to reevaluate its farm brand (e.g., logo, farm name, labeling) so that it will be properly recognizedeven by its long-time customers.
Keywords new farmers, preference, brand familiarity, farm resilience, women farmerⒸ ISERD

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INTRODUCTION
Japanese agriculture faces various challenges, including the need for more farmer successors and anincreasing number of aging farmers. Among new farmers, farming discontinuation within a few years
is prevalent due to various issues (MIC Japan, 2019), including difficulty securing farmland,
insufficient technology adoption, low income, and weak branding. In recent years, the importance ofrecruitment and support services (including financial and technical aspects) for new farmers has been
gaining recognition (McGreevy et al., 2019; Fujisaki and Saitou, 2020). There are also studies
focusing on the challenges of support systems for new farmers during the entry process into
agriculture (Okamato and Miyake, 2022) and the roles of marketing-related policy support (Yoshida
and Yagi, 2019).
According to the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF Japan, 2022b), thenumber of new farmers is experiencing a decrease from 55,670 persons in 2017 to 52,290 persons in
2021. New farmers aged 49 years old and younger showed a similar downtrend from 20,760 persons
in 2017 to 18,420 persons in 2021. On the other hand, the number of new female farmers has beenon the increase, with the number of newly employed and newly applied female farmers increasing
by 6.9% and 11.1%, respectively.
Tomato is the most common fruit vegetable consumed fresh or processed in Japan. In terms ofagricultural income produced, tomatoes had the highest share (10%) among vegetables (MAFF Japan,2023). For new farmers, tomato is considered one of the preferred high-value commodities for
production. However, with a wide variety of tomatoes available in the market, new farmers seemed
to face various issues related to price, market competitors, market channels, sweetness, production
management, and brand recognition. These same challenges may influence a new farmer’s decision
to continue or discontinue farming. Therefore, studies that will provide insights and innovations toimprove farm business operations and resilience of each new farmer are relevant and timely.
Resilience is vital for farmers for adapting to the current and changing environment (Shimoguchi
and Mojica, 2016). The provision of accessible markets may encourage these farmers to continue
farming (Shimoguchi et al., 2020).
It should be noted that this study has been conducted in consultation with the young female new
farmer in H City to address her inquiries and concerns about her venture into greenhouse tomato
farming, including understanding her consumers and clarifying brand status, with an aim of
improving her farming business and resilience.
OBJECTIVE
This study aimed to identify the characteristics of consumers, determine their fresh tomato
purchasing and consumption behavior in general, and clarify consumer satisfaction and their brandfamiliarity with the greenhouse tomato farm (thereafter, NF Farm) managed by a young female
farmer in H City, Tokyo.
METHODOLOGY
Based on an interview conducted in March 2022, it became clear that NF Farm needed assistance indetermining its consumer base, identifying their perception of the taste and price of tomatoes,
evaluating their satisfaction level, and clarifying their farm recognition. A total of 470 consumerrespondents were collected from the fresh tomato consumer survey conducted from 1 May to 30 June
2022 in H City, Tokyo. To capture a wide range of consumers, this study was conducted in the places
where the tomatoes of NF Farm are being sold, specifically a mujin hanbai store (which refers to an
unmanned store using an honor system for payment and located on the farm premises), three (3) retailstores, SNS, and events. We utilized three survey methods using a structured questionnaire, namely:
face-to-face survey, online survey via quick response (QR) code shown in in-store point-of-purchase(POP) displays, and online survey via near-field communication (NFC) tag placed on POP displays.
The structured questionnaire consisted of three parts: (1) consumer profile, (2) fresh tomatoⒸ ISERD73

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

purchasing and consumption behavior, and (2) knowledge, tomato preference, and recognition of the
NF Farm logo. Moreover, a four-point Likert scale was used to determine their satisfaction level with
NF tomatoes.
After identifying those who have experienced buying tomatoes from our selected farmer, survey
results from 213 consumer-respondents were utilized and analyzed using descriptive analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Profile of NF FarmNF Farm was established in 2019 by a young female aspiring farmer. Under the provisions of therevised Law on Productive Green Areas (also known as seisan ryokuchi ho in Japanese), she wasable to rent a 2,000 m2 plot of land in 2018, where she operates a greenhouse for tomato production(including cherry, medium size, and large size tomatoes), produces seasonal vegetables (e.g.,cabbage, zucchini) on an open-field, and processes some of the harvested tomatoes into puree.
Freshly harvested vegetables are sold at an unmanned store (commonly known as mujin hanbai inJapanese) located on the farm. In addition to this mujin hanbai, NF Farm also sells via JA direct
stores, supermarkets, specialty retail stores, events (e.g., Marche, weekend markets), and its own
online store.
Characteristics of the Consumer-respondents

Number of consumerrespondents

Based on survey results from the 213 consumer-respondents, the average age was 52 years old. In
terms of gender, there were fewer males than females. Regarding the distribution by age and family
structure, Fig. 1 indicates a wide age range of consumer-respondents. Family structures have fourtypes: couples with children, couples living alone, and extended family. Most respondents arecouples with children in the age range of 30 to 59 years, followed by couples and those living alone.
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10-19

20-29

30-39

40-49

50-59

60-69

70-79

80-89

Age range (year)
Couple with Children

CoupleLiving Alone

Extended Family

Fig. 1 Number of tomato consumer-respondents by age range and family structure (n=213)
Purchasing and Consumption Behavior of the Tomato Consumer-respondents
Table 1 shows the consumer-respondents’ purchasing behavior in terms of preferred place ofpurchase for fresh tomatoes and the reason for choosing that place. There were four types of placesof purchase: supermarket, direct store, mujin hanbai, and other, and four types of reasons:convenience, quality, price, and other. Regarding choice of place of purchase, the supermarket was
their top choice (66 consumer-respondents, 31%) in purchasing fresh tomatoes, followed by direct
store (60 consumer-respondents, 28%) and mujin hanbai (38 consumer-respondents, 18%). Most of
the consumer-respondents chose the supermarket due to convenience. The direct store was preferredby 32 and 16 consumer-respondents due to good quality and convenience, respectively. Similar toⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

the reason for choosing direct stores, consumer-respondents valued convenience and quality forchoosing mujin hanbai. The results also indicate that affordability was not a primary reason forpurchase. We assume that there were no significant price gaps among these stores for fresh tomatoes.
Moreover, convenience and quality seemed to be more important when choosing a place of purchase.
Some consumer-respondents mentioned that they purchase NF Farm tomatoes as their way of
supporting this young female farmer.
Table 1 Number of tomato consumer-respondents by place of purchase andreason for choosing the place (n=213)
Reason for choosing
the place
Convenience
Good quality
Affordable price
Other
Total

Supermarket
41
9
2
14
66

Place of purchase
Direct store
Mujin hanbai
16
17
32
19
1
1
11
1
60
38

Other
13
16
0
20
49

Total
87
72
4
46
213

Notes: Mujin hanbai refers to an unmanned store with an honor system for payment.
Pearson's Chi-squared test (p-value = 6.201e-07)

Regarding the frequency of purchasing fresh tomatoes, cherry tomatoes seemed to be purchasedon a regular basis (74% of the consumer-respondents) compared to medium size (irregular basis
48%) and large size (59%) tomatoes (p-value = 7.341E-14). If the consumer-respondent purchases
once a week, cherry tomato was their main choice (49%). This is expected, since cherry tomatoes areoften used in lunch boxes and salads in Japan.
In Japan, tomatoes are produced all year round. However, it is assumed that consumers have a
specific preference for the type of tomato to purchase and how it is utilized depending on the season.
Figure 2 shows the utilization of tomatoes by type and season. This information is important forfarmers in planning what type of tomatoes to produce by season. Types of tomatoes were categorized
into cherry, medium size, large size, and combination, while utilization was divided into salad, lunchbox, cooked, and others. For all seasons, cherry tomatoes showed to be the main type consumed, andmostly used for salads. Since this finding is in line with MAFF Japan's (2022a) report that cherry
tomato is the most commonly produced tomato, accounting for 21% of total harvested volume, it canbe said the cherry tomatoes are still popular for both consumption and production. Moreover, summer
is an exception, with the high consumption frequency of all tomato types can be seen whencomparing with all seasons. In terms of tomato utilization, tomato salads had the highest frequency
in both types and seasons.

Fig. 2 Utilization of tomato by type of tomato and season (n=213)Ⓒ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

Level of Satisfaction with NF Farm Tomatoes and Preferred Price
Table 2 shows the satisfaction level of consumer-respondents with the NF Farm tomatoes based on
various factors: freshness, color, taste, size, acidity, hardness of peel, sweetness, and price. Looking
at the average satisfaction level calculated using the Likert scale, consumer-respondents weresatisfied with all factors, with freshness (3.52) as the top factor, followed by color (3.43), taste (3.38),
and size (3.38). Since NF Farm harvests tomatoes daily and supplies them to most of its clients on
the same day, consumer-respondents seemed to acknowledge that the tomatoes are freshly harvested.
Moreover, price is the least important for them, conveying that some of them purchase tomatoes aspart of supporting the initiatives of this young female farmer.
Table 2 Satisfaction level with NF Farm tomatoes (n=213)
Factors
Freshness
Color
Taste
Size
Acidity
Hardness of peel
SweetnessPrice

Average
3.52
3.43
3.38
3.38
3.27
3.25
3.23
3.07

SD
0.54
0.56
0.60
0.54
0.57
0.58
0.60
0.60

Note: Satisfaction level is based on the following scale: 1 – very unsatisfied, 2 – unsatisfied,
3 – satisfied, 4 – very satisfied

Table 3 shows the cross-tabulation between the price range of tomatoes and taste satisfaction
among the consumer-respondents. Price categories ranged from 100 JPY and below to 1,001 JPY
and above. Most of the consumer-respondents (94%) were either very satisfied or satisfied with the
NF Farm tomato taste, especially those consumer-respondents paying a price range of “101 to 300”
JPY and “301 to 500” JPY. This may also convey that the NF Farm needs to keep the tomato priceranging between 101 JPY and 500 JPY.
Table 3 Tomato price range and taste satisfaction for NF Farm tomatoes (n=213)
Tomato price range(JPY)
100 and below
101 to 300
301 to 500
501 to 700
701 to 1,000
1,001 and above
No Answer
Total

Taste satisfaction
Verysatisfied
1
33
37
13
9
0
0
93

SatisfiedUnsatisfied

0
40
50
6
3
1
9
109

0
2
4
1
1
1
1
10

Very
unsatisfied
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1

Total
1
76
91
20
13
2
10
213

Notes: (1) Pearson's Chi-squared test (p-value =0.0390),(2) Exchange rate is 1 USD = 133.9 JPY (June 2022, MUFG Bank)

Brand Familiarity of the Consumer-respondents
Table 4 explains the consumer-respondent’s familiarity with NF Farm and its brand. Cross tabulation
was conducted between sources of initial NF Farm and length that the respondents know about thefarm. Among the listed information sources, “living nearby and mujin hanbai” was the most common
reason followed by “media”, “SNS and event”, and "acquaintance”. The majority of the consumerrespondents have known NF Farm more than a year ago. Although “living nearby and mujin hanbai”
seemed to be an effective way as initial source of information, there is a need to determine the impactof SNS and other publicity as a method of disseminating information about the farm.
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Table 4 Number of consumer-respondents by first knowledge and purchase,recent tomato purchase and brand recognition of the NF Farm (n=213)

Particularfactors

First time to know about the farmand purchase tomato
One year ago,
Between lessWithin six
and above
than one year
monthsand six months
ago

Source of Information
Living nearby and mujin hanbai
Media (TV and newspaper)
SNS and event
Acquaintance
Most recent purchaseWithin a week
Few weeks ago
Few months ago
One year ago
OthersBrand recognition
Yes
No
Total

Total

111
20
14
15

22
1
3
2

14
4
5
2

147
25
22
19

72
48
24
13
5

6
13
8
0
1

9
11
3
0
0

87
72
35
13
6

60
102
162

10
18
28

7
16
23

77
136
213

Notes: Mujin hanbai refers to unmanned stores.

For those people who knew the farm longer than a year, their most recent purchase of NF Farm
tomatoes was within a week or a few weeks ago. This implies that the longer consumer-respondents
knew about NF Farm, the more frequently they purchased NF Farm tomatoes. However, despite thefamiliarity and purchasing behavior among the consumer-respondents, they seemed not to recognize
the brand by logo and name (63.8%). Instead of a logo, consumer-respondents knew the farm by thename of the farmer. This offers additional evidence for the lack of brand recognition among theconsumer-respondents, and that the publicity efforts through SNS and other information sources are
not sufficiently effective in raising recognition of NF Farm and its products.
CONCLUSION
Consumer-respondents were mostly female (77%) with an average age of 52.2 years old. Couples
with children (44%) were the most common, followed by couples (27%). In purchasing fresh
tomatoes, the supermarket (31%) was the main place of purchase due to convenience, followed bydirect stores (28%) and mujin hanbai (17%) because of convenience and good quality. Cherry
tomatoes seemed to be the most widely consumed of all seasons, and summer was the season withthe highest consumption of all tomato types.
With regard to NF Farm tomatoes, consumer-respondents were most satisfied with theirfreshness. This is a given factor, since tomatoes are shipped to retails stores immediately after harvest.
Price had the lowest satisfaction rating, conveying that consumer-respondents seemed do not mind
the price as an act of support to the farmer initiative. With only a few years in business, NF Farm
seemed to have gained a fanbase. Unfortunately, 63.8% of consumer-respondents indicated noknowledge regarding the farm logo. Most related the farm to the name of farmer.
This study recommends that NF Farm increase and improve production of cherry tomatoes
because of their apparent all year-round demand, while keeping the price within the 101 to 500-yen
range. Since most consumer-respondents consider convenience and good quality when choosing aplace of sale, NF Farm needs to increase its supply to supermarkets.
For further study, there is a need to re-evaluate the NF Farm brand (e.g., logo, farm name,labelling) so that it will be properly recognized by consumers. Moreover, determining theⒸ ISERD

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characteristics of NF Farm’s repeat customers may give further insights on how to maintain good
relationships with them while achieving sustainability of its farm business.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to extend their sincere appreciation to NF Farm, consumer-respondents, and retailstores for their support and cooperation.
REFERENCES
Fujisaki, H., and Saitou, A. 2020. Actual state of new farmers around Hirosaki City, Aomori Prefecture, in thedays of career choice by oneself. Journal of the Japanese Society of Irrigation, Drainage and RuralEngineering, 88 (3), 193-196. (in Japanese)
McGreevy, S., Kobayashi, M. and Tanaka, K. 2019. Agrarian pathways for the next generation of Japanese
farmers. Canadian Journal of Development Studies, 40 (2), 272-290.
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF Japan). 2022a. Production quantity and harvested areafor vegetables. Retrieved from URL https://www.maff.go.jp/j/tokei/kouhyou/sakumotu/sakkyou_yasai/ (inJapanese)
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF Japan). 2022b. Summary of the annual report on food,agriculture and rural areas in Japan. Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan.
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF Japan). 2023. Agricultural income produced. Retrieved
from URL https://www.maff.go.jp/j/tokei/kouhyou/nougyou_sansyutu/ (in Japanese)
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication (MIC Japan). 2019. Administrative evaluation and monitoring
regarding securing agricultural labor force, focusing on measures to promote new agricultural employment.
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication, Japan.
Okamoto, N. and Miyake, S. 2022. Issues of the new farmers support system in the new entry process inagriculture in Town A, Iwate Prefecture. Journal of the City Planning Institute of Japan, 57 (3), 538-545.
Shimoguchi, N.N. and Mojica, L. 2016. Adaptation strategies to changing environment by an organic farm in
Laguna, Philippines. International Journal of Environment and Rural Development, 7 (2), 93-98, Retrieved
from URL https://doi.org/10.32115/ijerd.7.2_93
Shimoguchi, N.N., Mora, J.A.M. and Aquino, E.C. 2020. Coping strategies of Japanese farmers to recent
challenges in K City, Chiba, Japan. International Journal of Environment and Rural Development, 11 (2),134-139, Retrieved from URL https://doi.org/10.32115/ijerd.11.2_134
Yoshida, S. and Yagi, H. 2019. Roles of marketing-related policy support in new farmers. Journal of Rural
Planning Association, 38 (3), 397-404. (in Japanese)Ⓒ ISERD

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Research article
erd

Effect of Pollination by the Apis mellifera on Yield and Fruit
Productivity Quality of Greenhouse Produced Sweet Net
Melon in Cambodia
CHHOUK CHHEANG*
Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture and Food Processing,
National Meanchey University, Banteay Meanchey Province, Cambodia
Email: chheang.chhouk.mcu@moeys.gov.kh

SOPHEAK TITH
Faculty of Agriculture and Food Processing, National Meanchey University,
Sisophon City, Banteay Meanchey Province, Cambodia
Received 9 December 2023

Accepted 19 April 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Sweet net melon (Cucumis melo L.) is an annual climbing plant famous for its
delicious fleshy fruit. It is one of the most widely cultivated and consumed worldwide. This
study aimed to investigate the efficacy of pollination employing Apis mellifera L.
(Hymenoptera: Apidae) on yield and growth in greenhouse conditions, compared to the
traditional method of hand cross-pollination and self-pollination. The experiment was laidout using a completely randomized design (CRD) with 3 treatments and one hundred
replications: T1 represented self-pollination, T2 – hand cross-pollination, and T3 – Apis
mellifera pollination. Plant growth, fruit yield, and sugar content were analyzed by using a
portable refractometer. Results revealed that the Apis mellifera pollination had resulted in asignificantly greater fruit set of sweet net melon than hand cross-pollination and selfpollination (100%, 74%, and 62%, respectively). Furthermore, Apis mellifera hadsignificantly enhanced fruit yield compared to self-pollination and hand cross-pollination. In
addition, self-pollination, hand cross-pollination, and Apis mellifera pollination were notsignificantly different in terms of sweetness, fruit thickness, fruit weight, number of seeds
per fruit, and fruit size. Therefore, pollination by Apis mellifera can be used to increase fruit
yield and ensure food security, in line with Cambodia's National Strategy for Food Security
and Nutrition from 2019 to 2023. In addition, pollination by Apis mellifera may be one of themost powerful tools for agricultural adaptation to climate change.
Keywords: Apis mellifera, pollination, thickness, flower

INTRODUCTION
Sweet net melon (Cucumis melo L.) is an annual climbing plant. It is widely cultivated and consumed
in flesh fruit (Kesh and Kaushik, 2021; Revanasidda and Belavadi, 2019; Silva et al., 2020). The
reports indicated that world melon production increased by 9% between 2012 and 2016, thecultivated area increased by 9000 ha, and the fruit yield increased from 24.6 tons/ha-1 to 25 tons/ha1 (FAOSTAT, 2017). Nut et al. (2019) have reported that, in Cambodia, tens of thousands of melons
are produced every year by local farmers. Melon plants have a shorter life, about 3 and 4 months,
where anthesis and pollination occur 30 to 35 days after sowing. Following pollination, fruit
development and growth are harvested 70 days after sowing (Azmi et al., 2019). Flowers of melon
plants tend to be monoecious (Grumet et al. 2007) – in fact, they are either male or female, and both
occur on the same plant. Generally, plants with monoecious flowers need pollinators, especiallyinsects, to ensure enough pollination (Azmi et al., 2019; Dasgan et al., 1999).
Melon is typically grown in greenhouses; however, inadequate pollination prevents the highest
levels of output and quality because suitable insects cannot enter the enclosed greenhouses,
preventing pollinators from entering (Kwon and Saeed, 2003; Dasgan et al., 1999). To solve theseⒸ ISERD

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pollination problems, staff are employed to hand-pollinate melon flowers, but this approach is more
inefficient and economically costly than the use of insects as natural pollinators to increase crop yieldand quality (Azmi et al., 2019). For melon fresh fruit, quality is what mostly influences consumers'
conduct and formulates recurring buying habits and brand loyalty within a reasonable price(Kyriacou et al., 2018).
Many greenhouses’ crops depend on bee species for pollination (Sadeh et al., 2007). The
European honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) are the most frequent floral visitor of crops worldwide (Hunget al., 2018). The foraging behavior of honeybees, which collect nectar and pollen to maintain theircolonies, provides multiple benefits to plant pollination (Young et al., 2007). Thus, honeybees are
the main pollinators for increasing crop yields, where they provide commercial pollination services
to plants grown in greenhouses (Lee et al., 2018).
OBJECTIVE
The aim of the study is to investigate the effect of pollination by Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera:
Apidae) on the yield and quality of net sweet melon in the greenhouse, compared with hand crosspollination and self-pollination.
METHODOLOGY
Experimental Conditions
Sweet net melon plants (C. melo var. mellon sweet net 77) were cultivated from seed on the seedtrays in a 24 × 32 m greenhouse at the Faculty of Agriculture and Food Processing, National
Meanchey University (NMU), Cambodia, which is located at latitude of 13°34'52.2"N and longitudeof 102°55'50.3"E from February 1st to April 23rd, 2022. Seeds were purchased from Known-You
Seed co, ltd, a company product in Taiwan. The seed was soaked in 40-degree water within one anda half hours to two hours and planted in moist peat moss in the seed tray and covered with Green
Garden Shade Net. After 10 days, germinated seedlings were transplanted into white grow bags
consisting of (40 × 40 × 50 cm) that contained 5 kg of coco peat and placed in the greenhouses. Eachgrow bag was fertilized with 5 g of amino acid 5% + 12.3.3 + OM 35% and irrigated by a dripping
fertigation system (A and B Solid Fertilizer recommendation). Branches were removed to allow
growth of the main stem, and supporting red plastic ropes were provided at each grow bag to facilitate
plant climbing to supporter wires. The colonies of Apis mellifera were provided by the Khmer
Beekeeping Farm, with more than 30,000 adults per hive. Two hives of Apis mellifera were used in
the greenhouse while experimenting.
Treatments and Experimental Design
The experiments were laid out using completely randomized design (CRD) with a hundred
replications. There were 300 plots, and each plot size was 0.8 × 1 m. There were two rows in eachplot with a plant spacing of 0.4 × 0.4 m, and the plant population per plot was 4 plants. The
experimental plots were divided into three treatments as the following:
Table 1 Treatment and adaptation of the pollination control
Treatment
Treatment 1
Treatment 2
Treatment 3

Pollination method
Self-pollination
Hand cross-pollination
Apis mellifera

Control
Uncontrolled
Human pollinator
Bee pollinatorⒸ ISERD

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Fig. 1 T1 Self-pollination: use net size 3 × 3 mm to cover female flowers to protect against
contamination by bees (a), T2 Hand cross-pollination: use white paper to coverfemale flowers to protect against contamination by bees and self-pollination (b), T3
Apis mellifera: use bees to pollinate (c)Data Collection
Ten days after pollination, the fruit set on 100 plants from different treatments was recorded. The
sweet net melons were harvested at 70 to 75 days using sharp knives or scissors. Generally, the ripe
sweet net melons have senesced tendrils (Relf and Mcdaniel, 2020), and the minimum recommended
sugar level for this fruit is 8 Brix. Below that level, the melons are not usually suitable for the market(Villanueva et al., 2004). Average fruit yield from 100 plants per treatment was also recorded, and100 fruits from each of the 100 replication plants were chosen for weight, size, average number ofseeds per fruit, and total soluble solids (TSS) content as a measure of sweetness. We measured theaverage number of seeds per fruit because a higher number of seeds leads to larger and heavier fruits(Cruz et al., 2005). First, the fruits were weighed (kg) using an electronic balance, and size (cm) was
measured using a measuring tape. Then, the seeds were cut open to remove seeds. The thickness ofthe fruit flesh was cut into two wedges and measured the thickness. TSS content (Brix) of the fruit
was tested from extracted juice, where a drop of juice from each cube was pipetted onto a screen
panel of a portable refractometer.
Data Analysis
Data were collected from all samples of the three treatments and entered into Microsoft Excel. The
data were statistically analyzed using R software (version 4.1.3).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Sweet Net Melon Production
Table 2 shows that the average fruit set (%) of sweet net melon in treatment T3 = 100% wassignificantly different compared to other treatments. Thus, honey bees are the main pollinators forincreasing crop yields. This probably provided commercial pollination services to plants grown ingreenhouses (Lee et al., 2018). Meanwhile, T1 = 62% and T2 = 74% were not significantly different.
This phenomenon may result from greenhouse cultivation, where high yields of sweet net melons
are hindered by insufficient pollination due to the restricted access of pollinating insects within theenclosed structure. Pollinators are unable to enter greenhouses (Kwon and Saeed, 2003; Dasgan etal., 1999), necessitating manual pollination by staff. However, this approach is less efficient andmore expensive than utilizing natural pollinators to enhance crop yield and quality (Azmi et al.,Ⓒ ISERD

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2019). Besides, the average yield of sweet net melon in treatment T1 = 0.66 kg and T2 = 0.78 kg per
fruit were not significantly different from each other, but if compared with treatment T3 = 1.05 kg,
it was significantly different. It indicates that the yield of sweet net melon is related to the fruit set.
Table 2 Effect of pollination method on fruit set and yield of sweet net melon fruit
Treatment
T1 = Self-pollination
T2 = Hand cross-pollination
T3 = Apis mellifera

Fruit set (%)
62 ± 0.49a
74 ± 0.44a
100 ± 0.00b

Average yield (kg per plant)
0.66 ± 0.53a
0.78 ± 0.49a
1.05 ± 0.18b

Note: Data are meant ± SD. Different letters within a column indicate treatment differences at P < 0.05 (n = 100)

Sweet Net Melon Quality
Table 3 shows that the average total soluble solids were not significantly different, respectively. TSS
is a genuine indicator of melon-consuming quality, with a minimum standard of ten percent
recommended. The effect of the irrigation schedule was also considered with respect to increasing
melon quality. To date, the recommended practice has been to cause an irrigation deficit close to fruit
harvest, with the intent of drying out or stressing the plant to bring on maturity and increase sugar
accumulation. Irrigation showed that keeping plants stress-free close to harvest and during harvest
facilitated the production of sweet fruit (Long, 2005) from the same variety applied in the experiment(Albuquerque et al., 2006).
Table 3 Effect of pollination method on TSS content, flesh, weight, seed production, andsize of sweet net melon fruit
Treatment

TSS (Brix)

Flesh (cm)Weight (kg)

T1
T2
T3

13.49 ± 1.59ns
13.20 ± 1.92ns
13.24 ± 1.89ns

3.9 ± 0.54ns
3.78 ± 0.41ns
3.8 ± 0.44ns

1.03 ± 0.19ns
1.02 ± 0.16ns
1.06 ± 0.20ns

Number ofseeds per fruit
393 ± 77.24ns
388 ± 64.04ns
400 ± 68.16ns

Size (cm)38.24 ± 2.16ns
38.39 ±2.01ns
38.82 ±2.70ns

Noted: Data are means ± SD. Different letters within a column indicate treatment differences at P < 0.05 (n = 100).

The average fruit thickness in treatment T1 = 3.9 cm, T2 = 3.78 cm, and T3 = 3.8 cm were notsignificant amounts in treatment. This phenomenon may arise from using the same variety(Albuquerque et al., 2006) and the fertilizer, irrigation, and cultivation conditions applied in theexperiment (Simsek and Comlekcioglu, 2011).
All the treatments have the average weight, T1 = 1.03 kg, T2 = 1.02 kg, and T3 = 1.06 kg,
number of seeds per fruit, T1 = 393, T2 = 388, and T3 = 400, and size, T1 = 38.24 cm, T2 = 38.39
cm, and T3 = 38.82 cm, were not significantly different. Cultivars of melons with an average weightof 0.6 - 2.5 kg planted in greenhouses have been in high demand overseas (Lyan et al., 2021).
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this study showed that Apis mellifera pollination produced a greater fruit set of sweet
net melon than hand cross-pollination and self-pollination. Pollination by Apis mellifera produced ahigher yield than self-pollination and hand cross-pollination. Self-pollination, hand cross-pollination,
and Apis mellifera pollination did not affect the sweetness, thickness of the fruit flesh, weight,
number of seeds per fruit, and size of sweet net melon fruits.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank National Meanchey University (NMU) for provision of the research funds.
We would also like to thank the lecturers at the Faculty of Agriculture and Food Processing and theⒸ ISERD

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staff of NMU for their good feedback and encouragement of the experiment implementation team.
We additionally thank all the students who have given their energy and enthusiasm to actively
participate in helping during this study.
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S.N. 2019. Effects of pollination by the Indo-Malaya stingless bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) on the qualityof greenhouse-produced rockmelon. Journal of Economic Entomology, 112, 20-24, Retrieved from DOI
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Cruz, D.D.O., Freitas, B.M., Silva, L.A.D., Silva, E.M.S.D. and Bomfim, I.G.A. 2005. Pollination efficiencyof the stingless bee Melipona subnitida on greenhouse sweet pepper. Pesquisa Agropecuaria Brasileira, 40,
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Hung, K.L.J., Kingston, J.M., Albrecht, M., Holway, D.A. and Kohn, J.R. 2018. The worldwide importance ofhoney bees as pollinators in natural habitats. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 285, 20172140, Retrieved
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Kyriacou, M.C., Leskovar, D.I., Colla, G. and Rouphael, Y. 2018. Watermelon and melon fruit quality, The
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Lee, K.Y., Lim, J., Yoon, H.J. and Ko, H.J. 2018. Effect of climatic conditions on pollination behavior ofhoneybees (Apis mellifera L.) in the greenhouse cultivation of watermelon (Citrullus lanatus L.). Journalof Apiculture, 33, 239-250, Retrieved from DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.17519/apiculture.2018.11.33.4.239
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Science, Central Queensland University, Australia.
Lyan, E.E., Ismoilov, O. and Kim, V.V. 2021. Assessment of the melon collection with the purpose of intentificationof prospective lines for selective us in conditions of closel ground. Middle European Scientific Bulletin, 12, 413418, Retrieved from URL https://cejsr.academicjournal.io/index.php/journal/article/view/574
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Relf, D. and McDaniel, A. 2020. Cucumbers, melons and squash. Virginia Cooperative Extension, 426, 426406, Retrieved from URL https://www.pubs.ext.vt.edu/426/426-406/426-406.html
Revanasidda, A. and Belavadi, V. V. 2019. Floral biology and pollination in Cucumis melo L., a tropicalandromonoecious cucurbit. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology, 22, 215-225, Retrieved from DOI
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Sadeh, A., Shmida, A. and Keasar, T. 2007. The carpenter bee Xylocopa pubescens as an agricultural pollinatorin greenhouses. Apidologie, 38, 508-517, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1051/apido:2007036
Silva, M.A., Albuquerque, T.G., Alves, R.C., Oliveira, M.B.P. and Costa, H.S. 2020. Melon (Cucumis meloL.) by-products, Potential food ingredients for novel functional foods? Trends in Food Science andTechnology, 98, 181-189, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2018.07.005
Simsek, M. and Comlekcioglu, N. 2011. Effects of different irrigation regimes and nitrogen levels on yield andⒸ ISERD

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quality of melon ( Cucumis melo L.). African Journal of Biotechnology, 10, 10009-10018, Retrieved from
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from DOI https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.94.7.1267Ⓒ ISERD

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Research article
erd

Impact of Technology Adoption on the Economic Wellbeing of Rice Farmers in Cambodia
VISETH PRUM*
Independent Research Agency, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Email: prumviseth@gmail.com

YUCHIRO AMEKAWA
The College of International Relations, Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto, JapanSHOICHI ITO
Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Kyushu, Japan
Received 7 December 2023

Accepted 22 April 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Variety is a key factor in the quality and productivity of paddy rice. In 2010, theRoyal Government of Cambodia promulgated a paddy/rice policy that introduced 10 highyielding rice varieties to farmers. This study investigated the socio-economic factors
influencing farmers’ decisions to adopt these high-yielding rice varieties while examining
the impact of their adoption on yields and profits. Probit regression and propensity scorematching methods were applied for analysis. The empirical results of the probit regression
indicated that factors such as gender (male), paddy field size, and distance to a paved road
had a significantly positive influence on farmers’ adoption of the improved rice varieties.
Meanwhile, household size, the number of paddy field plots owned, car ownership, off-farm
job engagement, and the number of cows owned had a significantly negative effect. The
results from propensity score matching methods revealed that farmers who had adopted
high-yielding rice varieties experienced a significantly positive impact on yields and profits.
Keywords technology adoption, economic well-being, high-yielding rice varieties,
Cambodia

INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is a vital sector for economic growth and development in Cambodia. Paddy rice inCambodia is grown mainly under rainfed conditions, and the adoption of high-yielding rice varieties
is generally limited. Constraints in policy promotion and technology dissemination have led to thelow uptake of new technologies and the corresponding limitation in rice yield (FAO, 2010). The
average rice yield in Cambodia in 2013 was 3.3 t/ha, the lowest among selected ASEAN countries.
Vietnam led with an average paddy rice yield of 6.2 t/ha, followed by Indonesia (5.7 t/ha), Lao PDR(4.1 t/ha), and Thailand (3.5 t/ha), respectively (ADB, 2014). In an effort to boost rice productionand enhance the net farm income of farmers, the Royal Government of Cambodia introduced a totalof 10 high-yielding rice varieties. According to research conducted by CARDI (2011), all 10 rice
varieties yielded higher than traditional varieties, with the total average being 18 percent higher.
Generally, farmers tend to abstain from adopting new farming technology due to the risks anduncertainties it may pose. However, once they observe improvements in outcomes resulting from its
use, they become more willing to adopt it, leading to faster diffusion (Feder and Umali, 1993).
To assess the effects of adopting new technology, a simple comparison between adopters andnon-adopters without controlling for differences in characteristics can lead to biased estimations(Faltermeier and Abdulai, 2009). Therefore, this study utilizes the propensity score matching method
to control variations in farmers’ characteristics.

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OBJECTIVE
This case study aims to identify the socio-economic factors influencing farmers’ decisions to adopt
high-yielding rice varieties and to examine the effects of adoption on their economic well-being in
Bati district, Takeo province, Cambodia.
METHODOLOGY
A two-stage sampling technique was employed in this study. The first stage involved purposive
sampling, wherein two communes in the Bati district of Takeo province were selected. In the second
stage, random sampling was conducted using a random integer generator website (Randomness andIntegrity Services Ltd., 2010). Farmers cultivating any of the 10 high-yielding rice varieties werecategorized as adopters, while those still cultivating traditional varieties were classified as nonadopters. This selection, initially proposed as a ‘dichotomous choice’ by Feder et al. (1985), wasfollowed (Awotide et al., 2011). Consequently, 151 adopter farmers and 151 non-adopter farmers,
totaling 302 farmers, were selected as the respondent household sample. The field survey took placefrom late August to early October 2014, and semi-structured face-to-face interviews were conducted.

Fig. 1 Map of the study area
Farmers’ adoption of technology may be influenced more by their individual characteristics
than by their farming practices. A straightforward comparison without accounting for these varying
characteristics can lead to biased estimations. Therefore, the study utilized a propensity scorematching method to control for differences in farmers’ characteristics. Following Beker and Ichino(2002), a two-step procedure was employed for propensity score matching. In the first step, aprobability model was estimated to determine the propensity scores of each farmer. In this study, theprobit model was defined as Eq. (1):Di = α0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + … βnXn + εi(1)where Di is a dummy dependent variable indicating the adoption of the improved rice varieties, X is
the independent variable to be estimated, β represents the coefficients to be estimated, α0 is theintercept term, and εi is the error term. Moving on to the second step, each farmer in the adoptergroup was paired with a traditional rice farmer having similar propensity score values to estimate theaverage treatment effect. The propensity score matching equation is written as Eq. (2):(2)

Pscore = 1 / (1 + e-Di)

In this matching method, both single nearest neighbor matching (NNM) and kernel-basedmatching (KBM) were employed. The covariate balance test is typically necessary to ensure thequality of the matching. Asfaw and Shiferaw (2010) introduced overall covariate balance test criteria
both before and after matching. Sianesi (2004) proposed that the pseudo R2 should decrease afterⒸ ISERD

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matching to validate the success of the matching process, and joint significance should be rejected
post-matching. Additionally, the mean bias should decrease after matching to affirm the quality ofthe matching. Rosenbaum and Robin (1985) recommended the use of mean absolute standardized
bias (MASB), where a standardized difference should be less than 20% to confirm the success of thematching process.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Descriptive Results
Table 1 presents the summary statistics of the basic profile of the respondent farmers and the resultsof t-tests indicating statistical differences between the two farmer groups. Several variables indicatethat the adopter group has significantly lower values than the non-adopter group. These variables
include household size, the number of paddy field plots owned, ownership of cars, ownership ofcows, off-farm job engagement, livestock sales, income from off-farm activities, farming labor, andthe receipt of extension service. The non-adopter farmers leverage larger family sizes to engage inmore off-farm jobs and raise more livestock, leading to increased income. The non-adopters, withsignificantly higher off-farm income and livestock sales, and a greater percentage of households
owning a car, appear to be economically wealthier than the adopters in terms of their non-farmeconomic status. Additionally, the non-adopters own more paddy field plots than the adopters. Thishigher number of plots for rice cultivation may require more farming labor, making it challenging
for the non-adopters to embrace labor-intensive new technology as their family members are
significantly committed to off-farm activities. Furthermore, limited contact with extension service isobserved among the adopters due to the scarcity of extension officers in the communities.
Table 1 Socio-economic and demographic profile of the respondent farmers
Variables

Unit

Adopters(n=151)
Mean
SD
4.54
1.43
47.95
12.84
5.17
3.08
0.83
0.38
0.99
0.64
1.66
0.83
4.85
2.29
6.84
1.67
0.02
0.14
0.76
0.43
1.27
1.34
0.14
0.35

Non-adopters(n=151)
Mean
SD
5.03
1.68
47.09
12.61
5.00
3.43
0.70
0.46
0.81
0.52
2.35
1.42
3.64
1.99
6.23
1.66
0.09
0.29
0.68
0.47
1.68
1.41
0.70
0.46

Differencet-TestHousehold size
No. person-0.49***
2.73
Age
Years
0.86
0.59
Education
Years
0.17
0.46
Gender (1=men)
Dummy
0.13***
2.73
Paddy field sizeHa
0.19***
2.79
Number of paddy field plots Number-0.70***
5.19
Distance to paved roadsKm
1.22***
4.93
Distance to the market
Km
0.61***
3.18
Own cars (1=yes)
Dummy-0.07***
2.77
Own motorbikes (1=yes)
Dummy
0.08
1.54
Own cows
Number
-0.41***
2.30
Engage in off farm job
Dummy-0.56***
11.83(1=yes)Livestock sales
USD/year55.76
290.14169.17713.84-113.41*
1.81
Farmgate price per kg (rice) USD/kg
0.31
0.02
0.25
0.03
0.06***
20.53
Off farm income
USD/year
101.17391.82747.92
1,223.29 -646.75***
6.19
Sell rice (1=yes)
Dummy
0.92
0.71
0.42
0.49
0.50***
10.96
Has source of water (1=yes) Dummy
0.17
0.37
0.09
0.28
0.08**
2.09
Farming labor
No. person
2.91
1.05
3.95
1.33
-1.04***
7.54
Receive extension service
Dummy
0.08
0.27
0.25
0.44
-0.17***
4.12(1=yes)
Yield
t/ha
3.25
0.79
2.02
0.61
1.23***
15.10
Gross revenue
USD/ha980.48634.72385.60253.10594.88***10.70
Fixed cost
USD/ha
51.84
75.50
14.95
20.99
37.38***
5.79
Total variable cost
USD/ha554.18285.64301.95161.97252.23***
9.44
Profit
USD/ha426.30392.2483.65
137.33342.65***
10.13
Source: Own survey, 2014
Note: p < 0.01***, p < 0.05**, p < 0.1*; family labor cost has been included in the calculation; 1 USD was equivalent
to 4,065 Riel (National Bank of Cambodia as of 1 September 2014)Ⓒ ISERD

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Meanwhile, the variables for which the adopter group in Table 1 exhibited a significantly higher
value than the non-adopter group are gender, paddy field size, distance to paved roads, distance tothe market, farmgate rice price, whether selling rice or not, and accessibility to water source. The
adopter farmers have significantly more males than the non-adopters, probably because this pertains
to the more labor-intensive features of improved rice farming, such as land preparation andapplication of synthetic pesticides, than traditional rice farming. Additionally, the adopter farmers
own a significantly larger paddy field than the non-adopter farmers. This is likely because highyielding rice varieties are more commercially oriented than traditional varieties in terms of market
demand, and their benefits are better cultivated by growing them in a larger paddy field. The
commercial orientation of the high-yielding varieties is also evident in the higher farmgate pricereceived by the adopters compared to the non-adopters. The adopter farmers have a longer distanceto paved roads and markets than the non-adopter farmers, probably because buyers tend to visit theirrice farms to make purchases, while the non-adopter farmers must sell their rice themselves at thenearest market. The dummy results for ‘sell rice’ suggest that significantly more adopter farmers
cultivate rice for commercial purposes, whereas significantly more non-adopter farmers focus on
subsistence purposes only. Additionally, the adopter farmers have significantly better access to water
than the non-adopters, possibly because high-yielding rice varieties generally require much morewater than traditional rice varieties. Education and age are not statistically significant.
The yield, gross revenue, and profit generated by the adopter farmers from paddy rice farmingare 1.23 t/ha, 594.88 USD/ha, and 342.65 USD/ha higher, respectively, than those by the non-adopter
farmers. The fixed cost and total cost incurred by the adopter group are significantly higher than the
non-adopter group because improved rice varieties require more labor and other inputs. Additionally,
improved rice farming serves as their main household income source, with off-farm income
accounting for only about 9.4% of their total household income. However, from this simple
comparison, we cannot yet conclude that the farmers who adopted any of the improved rice varieties
had a positive impact on yields and profits. This is because the better performance of the adopted
farmers might have been influenced by certain characteristics that differ from the non-adopter
farmers. Hence, it is necessary to control for these differences through propensity score matching.
Propensity Score Matching Results
Table 2 shows the results of the probit regression for factors influencing the probability of adopting
any of the 10 high-yielding rice varieties. The results align with the findings from the descriptive
analysis. Gender, paddy field size, and distance to paved roads are positively associated with the
adoption of improved rice farming. This implies that a unit increase in each of these variables willlead to a higher adoption of the high-yielding rice varieties, as explained in the previous section.
Additionally, household size, the number of rice plots owned, the number of cars owned, the numberof cows owned, and off-farm job engagement show a significantly negative association with the
adoption of improved rice varieties. This suggests that a unit increase in each of these variables willlead to less adoption of the high-yielding rice varieties, as mentioned above.
Table 3 shows the results of the effects of improved paddy rice farming on the economic wellbeing of farmer households. The adopter farmers obtained significantly higher yields than the nonadopter farmers, with differences ranging from 1.34 t/ha to 1.43 t/ha. This result is consistent withprevious studies by Wiredu et al. (2010) in Northern Ghana, and by Saka and Lawal (2009) inSouthwestern Nigeria. Regarding the effect on profits (net farm income), the differences are also
positive and statistically significant in favor of the adopter farmers for all four matching methods,
ranging from 324.27 USD/ha to 333.98 USD/ha. These results suggest that the adopter farmers
achieved significantly higher economic well-being from paddy rice farming than the non-adopters.
This finding aligns with some previous studies, such as Hossain et al. (2006) and Mendola (2006) in
Bangladesh.
Moreover, Nguezet et al. (2011) from Nigeria, Wiredu et al. (2014) from Northern Ghana, andWang et al. (2012) from six provinces of Cambodia identified relevant results, such as a significantly
positive impact of improved paddy rice farming on the gross revenue from it. In contrast, Rahnam(2003) from Bangladesh showed that commercial rice production based on the use of high-yieldingⒸ ISERD

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varieties exhibited a sheer lack of efficiency, as the profit was little due to a combination of technicaland allocative inefficiencies in modern rice production.
Table 2 Results of probit regression for the determinants of adoption
Adoption
Household size
Age
Education
GenderPaddy field size
Number of paddy field plots
Distance to the paved road
Distance to market
Own cars
Own motorbikes
Own cows
Engage in off-farm job
Constant
Number of observations
Log likelihood
LR chi2
Pro>Chi2
Pseudo R2

Coeff.
-0.18***
0.01
0.04
0.57**
0.72***-0.50***
0.20***
0.04-1.21**
0.21-0.13*-1.54***-0.21

Std. Err.
0.07
0.01
0.03
0.25
0.21
0.11
0.05
0.06
0.47
0.22
0.07
0.20
0.72

z
-2.66
0.90
1.17
2.25
3.47
-4.38
3.97
0.59
-2.55
0.93
-1.86
-7.71
-0.29

P>z
0.01
0.37
0.24
0.02
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.55
0.01
0.35
0.06
0.00
0.77
302.00-117.93182.810.00
0.44

Source: Own survey, 2014
Note: p < 0.01***, p < 0.05**, p < 0.1*

Table 3 Average treatment effects of technology adoption on yields and profits
OutcomeYield

ProfitMatching
methodNNM (1)
NNM (5)
KBM (0.03)
KBM (0.06)
NNM (1)
NNM (5)
KBM (0.03)
KBM (0.06)

ATT
Non-adopters
1.83
1.82
1.89
1.91
47.06
40.02
48.08
43.69

Adopters
3.25
3.25
3.25
3.25
374.00374.00374.00374.00

Diff.
1.42
1.43
1.35
1.34
326.94333.98324.27330.31t-stat7.84***
9.35***
8.45***
8.72***
6.42***
7.81***
7.25***
7.71***

Note: p < 0.01***, ATT: average treatment effect on treated; Yield: Paddy rice yield (t/ha); Profit: from paddy rice
farming (USD); family labor cost has been included in the calculation; 1USD was equivalent to 4,065 Riel; NNM (1):single nearest neighbor matching with replacement and common support; NNM (5): five nearest neighbor matching withreplacement and common support; KBM (0.03): kernel-based matching with bandwidth 0.03 and common support; KBM(0.06): kernel-based matching with bandwidth 0.06 and common support.

Table 4 presents the results from covariate balancing tests for matching processes. The pseudoR2, indicating how well the covariates explain the probability of improved technology adoption, was
44% before matching. After matching, the values decreased by only about 2-4%. The small
differences before and after matching suggest no systematic differences in the distribution ofcovariates between the adopter and non-adopter groups. Additionally, the p-values of the likelihood
ratio tests consistently indicated that the joint significance of the covariates was rejected after
matching.
Furthermore, the results of the overall covariate balancing tests in Table 4 show that thestandardized mean differences for the covariates used in the estimation process were 39.40% before
matching. After matching, they decreased in the range of 8.30-9.30%. Through the matching process,the total bias was reduced by 76.40-78.93%. Significant bias still exists, and addressing it may require
an increase in the sample size. The combination of a low pseudo-R2, insignificant p-values of thelikelihood ratio test after matching, low mean standardized bias, and high total bias reductionⒸ ISERD

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suggests that the specification of the propensity score estimation process successfully balanced the
distribution of covariates between the adopters and the non-adopters.
Table 4 Matching quality indicators before and after matching
Matching
methodPseudo R2
BeforeAfter

NNM (1)

0.44

0.04

NNM (5)

0.44

0.02

KBM (0.03)

0.44

0.02

KBM (0.06)

0.44

0.02

LR chi2 (p-value)
Before182.81(0.000)***182.81(0.000)***182.81(0.000)***182.81(0.000)***

After
15.56
(0.212)9.70(0.642)9.37(0.671)7.44(0.828)Mean standardize
bias
BeforeAfter

Total %
bias
reduction

39.40

9.30

76.40

39.40

9.10

76.90

39.40

8.30

78.93

39.40

8.70

77.92

Source: Own survey, 2014; Note: p < 0.01***; NNM (1): single nearest neighbor matching with replacement andcommon support; NNM (5): five nearest neighbors matching with replacement and common support; KBM (0.03): kernelbased matching with bandwidth 0.03 and common support; KBM (0.06): kernel-based matching with bandwidth 0.06
and common support.

CONCLUSION
The results from the propensity score matching methods revealed that the farmers who adopted highyielding rice varieties had a positive impact on yields and profits from paddy rice production. We
recommend that the Government of Cambodia prioritize rice farmers with smaller households andlarger paddy sizes, especially those with limited off-farm opportunities, in their efforts to promote
the adoption of high-yielding rice varieties in the nation. Careful support and training should be
provided to female-headed farmer households to encourage women’s involvement in improved rice
farming, addressing issues such as poor access to information, limited skills due to low education,
and a shortage of farm labor. Additionally, establishing an agricultural land policy to commercialize
agricultural land and improving infrastructure for water access and market connectivity should beconsidered.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We extend our sincere gratitude to Professor Hiroshi Isoda for his valuable advice and guidance
throughout this study, Professor Kolawole Ogundari for his unwavering technical support, and the
JDS program for generously providing the scholarship that facilitated the lead author’s master’sstudies. Also, this study constitutes a master’s thesis approved at Kyushu University in September
2015.
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Research article
erdConsumption of the Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz Fruit inCambodia: An Exploratory Study
SOTHEA KONG*
Graduate School, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
Email: kong_sothea@yahoo.com

HISAKO NOMURA
Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, JapanTAMON BABA
College of Letters, Ritsumeikan University, Japan

HIROYUKI HATTORI
Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
Asian Satellite Campus Institute, Nagoya University, Nagoya, JapanSAMNANG NGUON
Graduate School, Royal University of Agriculture, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

KASUMI ITOInternational Center for Research and Education in Agriculture, Nagoya University, Japan
Received 18 February 2024

Accepted 3 June 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract In Cambodia, most historical materials have been lost due to the genocide and thebook-burning policy under the Pol Pot regime, and therefore, limited scientific records ofthe names, raw materials, manufacturing methods, and ingredients of traditional foods exist
today. Current changes in the Cambodian lifestyle, such as the westernization of eating
habits and increased food safety awareness, are driving factors that may result in the gradualdisappearance of traditional foods. The Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz fruit, known as
Madenh or Romdenh in Khmer, is one example of a traditional food under pressure fromchanging eating habits. This study aimed to identify the consumption trends of Elaeocarpus
hygrophilus Kurz and its processed products. The field survey revealed six ways of eating
Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz, including pickled, smashed-in-sugar, raw, caramelized,
pickled-in-honey, and pickled-in-rice liquor. Additionally, the results of interviews with 514
customers in the local market about their habits regarding the product showed that younger
customers tended to consume more pickled, smashed-in-sugar, and fresh fruit than the older
generations. Further studies on the nutritional content of these products are needed to
explore their relationship with eating habits and to prevent the decline in traditional foodpreferences.
Keywords consumption, Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz, Cambodia, traditional foods

INTRODUCTION
From ancient times, Khmer residents used a variety of indigenous foods in their staple diets,
including rice, fish, fruits, edible flowers, a pungent fermented paste called Prohoc, and fermented
alcoholic beverages (Tully, 2005). Although these foods are an important aspect of Cambodia’snational culture, they are mostly served only in traditional festivities such as Phcum Ben and the
Khmer New Year, or weddings and funerals (Deth et al., 2020). The daily eating habits and traditional
processing methods of the ubiquitous Prohoc and fermented alcoholic wines have been visiblyⒸ ISERD

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passed from generation to generation. For example, most Cambodian residents living in rural areas
frequently catch fish from the Tonlé Sap Lake and nearby streams during the pick seasons to process
Prohoc (LeGrand et al., 2020). The Ethnic Khmer groups including Khmer Khork, Suoy, Kuy,
Kroung, Kravet, Lun, Tampuan, Phnong, and Kachok residing in the northern-eastern part ofCambodia still use traditional homemade starter culture for making fermented rice (Tapae in Khmer),rice liquor, and palm liquor (Yamamoto and Matsumoto, 2011). The local varieties of fermented(pickled) vegetables such as cucumber, mustard green, carrot, bean sprouts, cabbage, and daikon
radish are popular (Chrun et al., 2017). The types of fermented meat include fish sauce, fish paste,
shrimp paste, sour fermented paste, and salted fish, among others (Ly et al., 2020). A major fruit
product in Cambodia is a pickled olive-like green fruit called Madenh or Romdenh in Khmer. In
Cambodia, the scientific name Planchonella obovata is often used for this fruit and tree because thelocal Khmer-English dictionary uses the name. However, it was necessary to identify the species
because neighboring countries such as Vietnam and Thailand use different scientific names for
similar products with almost the same color, shape, and way of eating. This paper uses the scientificname Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz as the result of identification by herbarium specimen using
samples from several provinces in Cambodia1).
The fruit is mostly harvested from flooded areas and Cambodian people commonly use it as a
traditional remedy, with pregnant women in particular consuming it after baby delivery to improveblood circulation (Dy, 2000). In Vietnam, the Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz fruit is processed
through fermentation, into jam, and pickled with rice wine; these products are highly consumed byrural and urban Vietnamese people because of the specific taste (Giang, 2023). In Thailand, it is used
as a traditional medicine for reducing body overheating and stimulating saliva secretion (Kuria et al.,2021). Although these products are widely sold at wet markets in Cambodia and highly consumed,
the available varieties and consumption trends of the fruit have not yet been examined. In particular,
current changes in the Cambodian lifestyle, including the Westernization of eating habits andincreased awareness of food safety, are enhancing the risk that such traditional foods may disappear
unnoticed.

Fig. 1 Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz tree and related products
OBJECTIVE
This study aimed to identify the existing varieties and consumption trends of the Elaeocarpus
hygrophilus Kurz fruit products in Cambodia by examining the consumption habits and demographic
characteristics of Cambodian residents.

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METHODOLOGY
A total of 514 participants were selected from 25 provinces in Cambodia, covering two markets perprovince and at least 10 to 12 customers per market. Face-to-face interviews were conducted from
September to October 2022.
A two-pronged analysis method was employed. First, descriptive statistics were used to explore
the respondents’ demographics – age group, gender, religion, and nationality; motives – sensory
characteristics and product type awareness; consumption habits – product types, eating location, andoccasion; and the consumption frequency of Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz products. Second,ordered probit models were used to investigate the relationship between consumption frequency andparticipants’ demographics, consumption habits, and motives for consuming Elaeocarpus
hygrophilus Kurz products. These models were not used for interpreting the consumption frequencies(never, low, medium, and high); therefore, marginal effects were used to predict the probability ofsuch levels.
Before starting the ordered probit models, the main variables of demographics, consumption
habits, and motives, which were included as dummy variables and displayed as independent
variables, were examined carefully for multicollinearity with the consumption frequency (dependent
variable) of Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz products; if the values of variance-inflating factors (VIF)
are higher than 5 to 10, multicollinearity might occur among the independent variables in the
regression models. However, in this study, the VIF values with the ordered probit model were
between 1 and 1.81, which was acceptable (Shrestha, 2020). Therefore, the final suitable independent
variables used after checking VIF included demographics – age groups (Age 1—Age 5), gender –product type, eating location, occasion (Pchum Ben, Khmer New Year, wedding, water festival, andrecreation), and motives (taste, smell, color, appearance, and health benefit), independently.
Consumption frequency (dependent variable) was measured on a scale from “0” (never) to“high” (every day or two to three times per week; low = once every three months or one to two times
a year; medium = once per week or month). This scale was further used to measure the consumptionof four popular products of Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz fruit, including fresh, pickled, smashedin-sugar, and caramelized. Thus, the ordered probit models generalized the consumption frequencyof each product by changing a unit whenever an independent variable unit increased or decreased.
Age 6 and Age 7 showed high collinearity; therefore, they were excluded from the ordered probit
models. A detailed description of the variables is presented in Table 1.
According to Lanfranchi (2019), the ordered probit model was formed as follows Eq. (1).
𝑦𝑖∗ = 𝛽𝑥𝑖 + 𝜀𝑖

(1)*Where yi is an unobserved dependent continuous variable (consumption frequency) of i (i = 0(never), 1 (low), 2 (medium), 3 (high)), xi, a matrix of known values of independent explanatory
variables (demographics, consumption habits, and motives of respondents), β is a vector of unknown
slop parameters to be estimated, and εi, a vector of stochastic error-term (standard normal
distribution). The variable y is observable and the relationship between y and μi is referred to as thethreshold point function (cut-off points; yi*) that is predicted along with the regression coefficient.
Consumption frequency (y = 0, 1, 2, 3) was determined following Eq. (2).
y = 0 if y* ≤ 0, y = 1 if 0 ≤ y* ≤ µ1, y = 2 if µ1 ≤ y* ≤ µ2, and y = 3 if y* ≤ µ2

(2)

Where μ1 and μ2, (0 ˂ μ1 ˂ μ2) are threshold parameters of y* that are predicted with β. The formof probability of consumption frequency was estimated according to Eq. (3):Prob (y=0) = Φ (-βx), Prob (y=1) = Φ (µ1 - βx) – Φ (-βx),…, prob (y=3) = 1- Φ (µ2 – βx) (3)Where Φ is the normal cumulative distribution function. The ordered probit model was predictedby using maximum likelihood estimation (Gebre and Rahut, 2021). The interpretation was based on
the β parameters through the independent variable impact on consumption frequency. In the postestimation, marginal effects were used to estimate the different scales of consumption frequency
levels by estimating a change in its probability concurrently with a change in the unit of anⒸ ISERD

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independent variable (Cantillo et al., 2021). All data were analyzed using the STATA version 13
statistical software.
Table 1 Variable description
Type of variable
Dependent variable
Food consumption
frequency
Independent
variable
Demographics
Age 1
Age 2
Age 3
Age 4
Age 5
Age 6
Age 7
GenderConsumption habit
Production type
Eating location

Description of variable

Category

Expectedsign

0 = never; 1 = low; 2 = medium; 3 = highContinuous

1 = if age is less than 19 years; 0 = otherwise
1 = if age is between 20–29 years; 0 = otherwise
1 = if age is between 30–39 years; 0 = otherwise
1 = if age is between 40–49 years; 0 = otherwise
1 = if age is between 50–59 years; 0 = otherwise
1 = if age is between 60–99 years; 0 = otherwise
1 = if age is more than 70 years; 0 = otherwise
1 = male; 0 = otherwise

Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy

+/+/+/+/+/+/+/+/-

Dummy

+

Dummy

+

Dummy

+

Dummy

+

Dummy

+

Dummy

+

Dummy

+

Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy

+
+
+
+
+

1 = if the consumer processes Elaeocarpus
hygrophilus Kurz themselves; 0 = otherwise
1 = if the consumer eats such products at home; 0= otherwise

Occasion festivities
Pchum Ben
Khmer new year
Wedding
Water festival
Recreation
Motives
Taste
Smell
Color
Appearance
Health benefit

1 = if consumed during Phcum Ben festival; 0 =otherwise
1 = if consumed during Khmer New Year; 0 =otherwise
1 = if consumed during wedding; 0 = otherwise
1 = if consumed during water festival; 0 =otherwise
1 = if consumed during recreation; 0 = otherwise
1 = if taste is important; 0 = otherwise
1 = if smell is important; 0 = otherwise
1 = if color is important; 0 = otherwise
1 = if appearance is important; 0 = otherwise
1 = if health is important; 0 = otherwise

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 2 displays the detailed demographic characteristics of the respondents. Their age groups
included 50 years and older (200 respondents; 38.10%), those of 30-49 years old (185 respondents;
35.99%), and younger than 30 years (129 respondents; 25.10%). The number of female respondents
was 383 (74.51%); most were Buddhists (511; 99.41%) and all of them were Cambodian bynationality.
Table 3 shows respondents’ motives for consuming Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz based on
sensory characteristics and product type awareness. A total of 449 consumers (87.35%) preferred thetaste of Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz products.
Table 4 shows the consumption habits of Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz products. A total of six
available products were identified in this study, including pickled, smashed-in-sugar, fresh,
caramelized, pickled-in-honey, and pickled-in-rice liquor. Among all the products, the former four
products were consumed the most. The number of consumers who bought pickled Elaeocarpus
hygrophilus Kurz from markets was 415 (80.73%), whereas only 26 respondents (5.05%) made itⒸ ISERD

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themselves. The smashed-in-sugar products were bought by 355 respondents (69.06%). A total of
238 respondents (46.30%) tended to consume store-bought pickled Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz
and 215 respondents (41.82%) bought smashed-in-sugar products. As consumers today may not haveenough time to make these products by themselves, purchasing and eating both products out-of-homewere likely more desired. According to Mihalopoulos and Demoussis (2001), consumers facing time
constraints mostly opt for eating out, rather than home cooking. During the Pchum Ben festival, 220(42.80%), 123 (23.93%), and 73 respondents (14.20%) reported eating the pickled, smashed-insugar, and fresh varieties, respectively, while during the Khmer New Year, wedding ceremonies, andthe water festival, 52 (10.11%), 31 (6.03%), and 54 respondents (10.50%), respectively, consumed
these products. The pickled, smashed-in-sugar, and fresh products were commonly consumed as asnack during break times at work or during Cambodian festivities, suggesting that a high frequency
of snack consumption is based on occasional festivities, location, and food availability (Mackenbach
et al., 2022).
Table 5 shows the consumption frequency of these products, indicating three, based on
consumer preference, including the pickled variety (12 respondents; 2.33%), smashed-in-sugar
variety (13 respondents; 2.52%), and the fresh fruit (four respondents; 0.77%), which they consume
every day among other products. These findings indicate that the high consumption frequency of
Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz products is relatively related to people’s tastes. Therefore, taste is theprimary driver of food preference, and it is the most important factor influencing food choices basedon individual judgment (Chan and Zhang, 2022).
Table 2 Demographics of respondents
Classification
Age group

GenderReligion

Nationality

Description
≤29
30-49
≥50
Male
FemaleBuddhist
MuslimChristianCambodianFrequency (%)
129(25.10)185(35.99)200(38.10)131(25.48)383(74.51)511(99.41)1(0.19)
2(0.38)
514(100.00)

Table 3 Motives in Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz
Classification
Sensory characteristic
Taste
Smell
Color
Appearance
Health benefit
Product type awarenessPickledSmashed-in-sugar
Fresh
Caramelized
Pickled-in-honey
Pickled-in-rice-liquor

Frequency (%)
449
37
24
150
21

(87.35)(7.19)(4.66)(29.18)(4.08)

485
337
152
70
1
3

(94.40)(65.60)(29.60)(13.60)(0.02)(0.60)

Figure 2 illustrates the consumption trends of Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz products byprovince. Regarding the relationship between consumption trends and geographical areas, we found
six products available in Cambodia. The pickled product showed the highest number and ratio in allprovinces of Cambodia, being chosen by 441 respondents (85.80%), implying that it was 75%–100%
available for consumption in all provinces. The fresh fruit was moderately consumed, based on a
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0%–24% to 75%–100% availability. Hence, three products – pickled, smashed-in-sugar, and fresh
fruit – might be consumed more based on their availability, especially in markets, in all Cambodian
provinces. While the caramelized product might also be available, only 48 respondents (9.34%)
consumed it, demonstrating less interest in the product. The other two products – pickled-in-honeyand pickled-in-rice liquor – showed less consumption in each province, implying that they were lesscommercial and more homemade products that some prepared when having spare time. Therefore,
four available products – pickled, smashed-in-sugar, fresh, and caramelized – were used for analysis.
Laos

Laos
Laos

20
23
17

20

19

22

21

5

20 19

17

20

10

20

20

18

14

5

17

20

22

16

14

13

18
9

19

20

6

17

7
15

10

20

10
14
16
18

3

13

3

9

8

1

12

11
12 6
2

13
19

2

13

12

6

0

11

Laos

Laos

Laos

10

Fresh fruit (n=223 (43.39%))

Smashed-in-sugar (n=378 (73.54%))

3

15

8

17

Pickled (n=441 (85.80%))

5

2
19

9
20

19

19
20

18

15

17

15 12
19

5

18

1

3

1

5
4

1
2

5
1

2

5
3

2

5

1

Pickled-in-rice-liquor (n=1 (0.19%))

Pickled-in-honey (n=2 (0.39%))

Caramelized (n=48 (9.34%))

Legend:75-100%50-74%

25-49%

0-24%

Fig. 2 Consumption trends of Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz in all Cambodian provinces
Table 4 Consumption habits related to Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz products

Product types
Buy
Own
processing
Eating location
At homeOutsideOccasions
Pchum Ben
Khmer newyear
Wedding
Water
festival
Recreation

Caramelized(%)

Pickledin-honey(%)

Pickledin-riceliquor(%)

Pickled (%)

Smashed-insugar (%)

415(80.73)355(69.06)208(40.46)43(8.36)

0(0.00)

0(0.00)

26(5.05)

21(4.08)

16(3.11)

5(0.97)

2(0.38)

1(0.19)

202
238(39.30)(46.30)160
215(31.12)(41.82)12992(25.09)(17.89)1727(3.30)(5.25)

2
0(0.38)(0.38)

1
0(0.19)(0.00)

220(42.80)123(23.93)73(14.20)29(5.64)

0(0.00)

0(0.00)

52(10.11)4(3.51)

19(3.69)

19(3.69)

0(0.00)

0(0.00)

31(6.03)

19(3.69)

9(1.75)

9(1.75)

0(0.00)

0(0.00)

54(10.50)56(10.89)23(4.47)

5(0.97)

0(0.00)

0(0.00)

213(41.43)

121(23.52)92(17.89)40(7.78)

0(0.00)

0(0.00)

Fresh (%)

Table 6 shows the results of the ordered probit model on consumers’ habits and demographic
characteristics. The chi-squared statistics from the models were statically significant (P < 0.00; χ 2(18) = 184.70, 155.02, 388.04, and 105.81, Pro > chi-square = 0.00) for each product, suggesting thatthe models have a good fit (Oyetunde-Usman et al., 2021). We found that four group ages (Age 1–Ⓒ ISERD

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Age 4) were positively significant at 1% and 10% with the pickled and smashed-in-sugar productsof Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz, respectively. Although the fresh fruit was not statisticallysignificant, it showed a positive sign. Therefore, these age groups were more likely to eat more
pickled, smashed-in-sugar, and fresh fruit. However, the coefficient was negative for the Age 4 andAge 5 groups with the caramelized product. Furthermore, consumers older than 49 years were lesslikely to eat the caramelized product, which may be determined by health problems. Interestingly,
production type was positively and significantly correlated with the caramelized, pickled, andsmashed-in-sugar variants at 1%, 5%, and 10%, respectively, meaning that consumers who
considered making these products at home were more likely to eat them than those who purchased.
This shows that home producers seemed to be overly concerned about food safety if they purchased
these products from local wet markets, as they have no expiry date and labeling.
Table 5 Consumption frequency of Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz products
Consumption
frequency
Never
1-2 times peryear
1 time per
three months
1 time permonth
1 time perweek
2-3 times per
week
Every dayTotal
samples

Pickled (%)

Smashed-insugar (%)

73(14.20)138(26.84)291(56.61)465(90.66)512(99.61)513(99.81)66(12.84)52(10.11)51(9.92)

30(5.83)

2(0.38)

1(0.18)

126(24.51)

86(16.73)70(13.61)9(1.75)

0(0.00)

0(0.00)

140(27.23)107(20.81)66(12.84)6(1.16)

0(0.00)

0(0.00)

64(12.45)79(15.37)23(4.47)

0(0.00)

0(0.00)

0(0.00)

33(6.42)

39(7.58)

9(1.75)

2(0.38)

0(0.00)

0(0.00)

12(2.33)

13(2.52)

4(0.77)

1(0.19)

0(0.00)

0(0.00)

514

100

514

100

514

100

514

100

514

100

514

100

Fresh (%)

Caramelized(%)

Pickled-inhoney (%)

Pickled-in-riceliquor (%)

Eating location was shown in a positively significant correlation at 1% with all four producttypes. Consumers tended to eat these products at home rather than outside. Regarding occasions,
Pchum Ben, the water festival, and recreation were positively and significantly correlated at 1%, 5%,
and 10% with the fresh fruit, smashed-in-sugar, and pickled products, respectively. Furthermore,consumers who considered these events important were more likely to consume the products. In
addition, the taste and appearance of the fresh and pickled fruit were positively and significantly
correlated at 1% and 10%, respectively, implying that consumers who perceived them importanttended to have more on both fresh and pickled fruit compared to those who did not. However,consumers were less likely to eat the caramelized item for reasons such as unwanted sweetness andfood abstention. Thus, the pickled and fresh fruit seemed to gain more interest from consumers
because of health benefit reasons.
In the post-estimation of the ordered probit model, the marginal effect results of the pickled,smashed-in-sugar, fresh, and caramelized products are shown in Tables 7–10, respectively. In thispart of the study, the overall probabilities of low, medium, and high consumption were estimated forall products of Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz. We found that age groups were significantly
associated with all levels of consumption frequency of the pickled product (Tables 7–10, Fig. 3), withthe probability of low consumption decreasing by age group (Age 1 = 12.00%, Age 2 = 10.00%, Age
3 = 8.00%, Age 4 = 9.00%, Age 5 = 1.00% less likely of a low consumption). Regarding the smashedin-sugar product (Fig. 3), age groups were significantly associated with consumption frequency,
meaning that the average consumption increased by age group (Age 1 = 7.00%, Age 2 = 10.00%,
Age 3 = 9.00%, Age 4 = 9.00%, Age 5 = 6.00%). These results indicate that younger people are more
likely to eat pickled and smashed-in-sugar products than the older population. The latter may deal
with health problems in terms of chronic diseases, such as high blood pressure or food allergies,
resulting in fermented food abstention. Health conditions and dietary requirements are the main
factors leading to changes in food consumption habits in older generations (O’Mahony et al., 2023).

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Table 6 Ordered probit including consumer habits and demographic characteristics
Pickled
Coef.
Std. Err
Age 1
1.12*** (0.23)
Age 2
0.77*** (0.17)
Age 3
0.62*** (0.17)
Age 4
0.67*** (0.17)
Age 5
0.03
(0.19)
Gender
0.10(0.13)
Production type 0.70**(0.25)
Eating location
0.62*** (0.12)
Pchum Ben
0.55*** (0.12)
Khmer new year -0.01(0.09)
Wedding
0.22(0.09)
Water festival
0.15**(0.05)
Recreation
0.09*** (0.02)
Taste
0.34
(0.18)
Smell-0.25(0.25)
Color
0.38(0.28)
Appearance
0.28*(0.14)
Good health0.45(0.29)
Cut points
cut 1
0.31***
cut 2
0.95***
cut 3
3.38***
Log-likelihood 441.43
LR chi2 (18)184.70Prob > chi2
0.00
Pseudo R2
0.17
Variables

Smashed-in-sugar
Coef.
Std. Err
0.47*(0.22)
0.62*** (0.16)
0.50*** (0.15)
0.57*** (0.16)
0.33(0.19)-0.12(0.12)
0.53*(0.26)
0.84*** (0.12)
0.35*(0.14)
0.10(0.15)
0.04(0.98)
0.11*(0.05)
0.12*** (0.28)
0.31(0.17)
0.23(0.24)
0.03(0.26)-0.15(0.14)-0.09(0.27)
0.40***
0.78***
2.68***

Fresh fruit
Coef.
Std. Err
0.50(0.27)
0.16(0.19)
0.03(0.19)
0.42*(0.19)
0.02(0.23)-0.13(0.15)
0.30(0.31)
1.60*** (0.14)
1.06*** (0.17)
0.24(0.15)
0.13(0.15)
0.21*** (0.07)
0.23*** (0.03)
0.49*(0.22)-1.29*** (0.38)-0.11(0.34)
0.63*** (0.16)
0.90**(0.29)
1.69***
2.24***
4.66***-515.32
155.020.00
0.13-323.72
388.040.00
0.37

Caramelized
Coef.
Std. Err
0.25(0.38)
0.33(0.27)
0.19(0.25)-0.01(0.30)-0.12(0.34)
0.14(0.20)
2.66*** (0.63)
2.64*** (0.34)-0.65(0.54)-0.11(0.32)-1.52(87.70)-0.84(81.22)0.08(0.07)
0.11(0.29)-0.48(0.37)
0.65(0.34)
0.32(0.22)-3.36*** (1.03)
1.91***
2.71***
3.74***-146.46105.810.00
0.27*, **, and *** indicate that the coefficient is statistically significant at the 10%, 5%, and 1% levels, respectively.

In Table 9 and Fig. 3, Age 1 and Age 4 were positively and significantly associated with fresh
fruit consumption frequency, showing that consumers older than 19 were 2.00% more likely to havea low consumption of fresh fruit than those younger than 19 years. Interestingly, the Age 1 groupwere 17.00% more likely to have an average consumption of fresh fruit. Consumers in the Age 4group (over 49 years) were 3.00% more likely to have low consumption of fresh fruit, surprisingly,
being 13.00% more likely to reach the average consumption. Although other age groups were notsignificantly correlated with the fresh fruit, positive trends were observed. Older adults were more
likely to eat the fresh fruit of Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz. Younger ages habitually prefer toconsume young fresh fruits, for example, young mango or wooden apple. This habit may not change
when they become older, because of their adopted food experience and taste preferences from theirchildhood (Brady et al., 2022).
However, in Table 10 and Fig. 3, Age 4 was negatively and significantly correlated with theconsumption frequency of the caramelized product of Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz; Age 5 showeda similar negative trend but was not statistically significant. Results showed that older adults (in bothage groups) were 1.00% less likely to have a low consumption. The sweet taste of the caramelized
product determines adults over 49 years to consume it less, especially if they are faced with serious
health consequences (e.g., diabetes), which usually result in diet restrictions on the consumption ofconfectionary and sugary products (Cheah et al., 2023).
Our findings showed that production type was significantly correlated with all levels of
consumption frequency of the pickled and smashed-in-sugar Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz,
meaning that consumers who made these products at home were 9.00% and 4.00%, respectively, lesslikely to manifest low consumption of both products than those who purchased the products (Tables
7 and 8). However, the home producers were 11.00% (pickled) and 7.00% (smashed-in-sugar) more
likely to have high and medium consumption of these products than purchasers. Consequently,Ⓒ ISERD

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although the number of product purchasers was higher than that of home producers (for all products),
the latter may show higher consumption because they make these products in large amounts, enjoying
them with their families or friends. In contrast, while the number of purchasers is higher than that ofhome producers (Table 4), they seem to consume a smaller amount, as a small amount of money
needs to be paid. Moreover, in Cambodia, those who make and consume their homemade products
may care more about food safety issues, as the products sold in local wet markets lack labels, andexpiry dates, are freely open-cover, and may contain unknown food additives, presenting health risks
through food-borne diseases. Purchasing unhealthy foods may cause serious health problems due tomicrobial and chemical hazards (Ishra et al., 2022).
The eating location was shown to have the same trends as the production type. It wassignificantly associated with all levels of consumption frequency of pickled, smashed-in-sugar, andfresh fruit.
This means that consumers who preferred eating at home in the pickled and the smashed-insugar products increased the probabilities 8.00% and 6.00% each from low consumption to 10.00%
and 14.00%, respectively, of moderate consumption compared to those who preferred eating out.
Surprisingly, consumers who ate the fresh fruit at home were 52.00% more likely to achieve theaverage consumption than those eating out. Those who preferred eating the pickled, smashed-insugar, and fresh fruit at home tended to exhibit a positive emotional experience regarding food safety
than those who did not; hence, their preference for processing these products by themselves at home,and freely enjoying their consumption. This result is similar to Lu et al.’s (2011) study, whichconcluded that consumers’ positive emotional experiences in eating meals at home in North America
were due to engaging in healthier meal choices because of ensuring food safety and long-term healthbenefits.
Regarding occasions, we found that Pchum Ben, the water festival, and recreation weresignificantly associated with pickled, smashed-in-sugar, and fresh fruit. Consumers who regarded
Pchum Ben as important were 7.00% and 2.00% less likely to register a low consumption of pickled
and smashed-in-sugar fruit, respectively, than those who did not. This may be because someCambodian people changed their habitual food consumption by adopting quality and safety standards
for their foods, leading to lower consumption of unstandardized local foods. Moreover, the newlifestyle and better-off income of local consumers stimulate them to change their habitualconsumption. For instance, consumers with a high income living in South Korea prefer to consume
organic foods because of an enhanced quality of life (Han and Lee, 2022). Furthermore, the pickled
and smashed-in-sugar products were respectively 10.00% and 7.00% more likely to reach themedium level of consumption than others. Pchum Ben showed the highest probability (37%) of
consumers reaching medium consumption of the fresh fruit product, followed by the water festival
and recreation (Table 8). This implies that those with low income are less concerned about foodsafety compared to those with better-off income; therefore, they may purchase any available orcheaper food, regardless of its poorer quality or safety. In particular, when celebrating occasions in
Cambodia, consumers gather with their families and enjoy these products as snack foods. Similarly,
during the Chinese New Year, the Chinese food known as Chap Chye is consumed in large quantities
due to family reunions for dinner (Chien and Karim, 2016).
Our findings showed that gender was not significantly correlated with any level of consumption
frequency of the pickled, smashed-in-sugar, fresh, and caramelized products of Elaeocarpus
hygrophilus Kurz; however, the coefficient showed positive and negative trends (Tables 7–10). Males
were 2.00% and 1.00% more likely to have a moderate consumption of the pickled and caramelized
products, respectively, and 1.00% more likely to have a high consumption of both, compared tofemales (Tables 6 and 9). However, they were 3.00% less likely to have a moderate consumption of
the smashed-in-sugar and fresh fruits, and 1.00% less likely to have a high consumption of theseproducts compared to females. The taste of smashed-in-sugar and fresh fruit of Elaeocarpus
hygrophilus Kurz is a little sour and bitter, which makes them more appreciated by women as they
are usually consumed with dried or fresh spicy chili, which are considered the favorite foods ofCambodian women (Yang et al., 2018). Moreover, in Cambodian culture and tradition, women havean active role in food preparation and are more likely to know about fermented foods than men;
therefore, they may feel more interested in food consumption than men (Ganiyusufoglu et al., 2022).
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Table 7 Marginal effects of consumption frequency on the pickled product
Variables

Never
Coef.
Std. Err
Age 1-0.08***(0.01)
Age 2-0.08***(0.02)
Age 3-0.07***(0.02)
Age 4-0.07***(0.02)
Age 5-0.01(0.03)
Gender
-0.01(0.02)
Production type -0.06***(0.02)
Eating location -0.08***(0.02)
Pchum Ben
-0.08***(0.01)
Khmer new year 0.01
(0.01)
Wedding-0.03(0.01)
Water festival-0.02**(0.01)
Recreation-0.01***(0.04)
Taste-0.06(0.04)
Smell
0.04(0.05)
Color-0.04(0.03)
Appearance-0.04*(0.02)
Good health-0.05*(0.02)

Consumption frequency of the pickled product
Low
MediumHigh
Coef.
Std. Err Coef.
Std. Err Coef.
Std. Err-0.12***(0.02)-0.01(0.05)
0.22**(0.07)-0.10***(0.02)
0.07***(0.01)
0.11***(0.04)-0.08***(0.02)
0.07***(0.01)
0.08**(0.03)-0.09***(0.02)
0.06***(0.02)
0.09**(0.03)-0.01(0.03)
0.01(0.04)
0.01(0.02)-0.01(0.02)
0.02(0.02)
0.01(0.01)-0.09***(0.03)
0.04(0.03)
0.11*(0.06)-0.08***(0.02)
0.10***(0.02)
0.06***(0.02)-0.07***(0.02)
0.10***(0.02)
0.05***(0.02)
0.01(0.01)-0.01(0.02)-0.01(0.01)-0.03(0.01)
0.04(0.02)
0.02(0.09)-0.02**(0.01)
0.03**(0.01)
0.01**(0.01)-0.01***(0.00)
0.01***(0.01)
0.01***(0.00)-0.05(0.03)
0.08(0.05)
0.02*(0.01)
0.03(0.04)-0.06(0.07)-0.02(0.02)-0.05(0.04)
0.04**(0.02)
0.05(0.05)-0.04*(0.02)
0.05(0.02)
0.03(0.02)-0.06(0.04)
0.05***(0.01)
0.06(0.05)*, **, and *** indicate that the coefficient is statistically significant at the 10%, 5%, and 1% levels, respectively.
“0” represents the lowest frequency (never), “1” represents low (once every three months or one to two times a year),“2” represents medium (once a week or once a month); “3” represents high (every day or one to two times per week);
variable inflation factor (VIF) < 1.48.

Table 8 Marginal effects of consumption frequency on the smashed-in-sugar productConsumption frequency of the smashed-in-sugar product
Never
Low
MediumHigh
Coef.
Std. Err
Coef.
Std. Err
Coef.
Std. Err
Coef.
Std. Err
Age 1-0.11**(0.05)-0.03(0.02)
0.07***(0.02)
0.08(0.05)
Age 2-0.15***(0.03)-0.05***(0.02)
0.10***(0.02)
0.10**(0.03)
Age 3-0.13***(0.04)-0.03**(0.01)
0.09***(0.02)
0.07*(0.03)
Age 4-0.14***(0.03)-0.04**(0.02)
0.09***(0.02)
0.09*(0.04)
Age 5-0.08(0.05)-0.02(0.02)
0.06(0.03)
0.05(0.04)
Gender
0.03(0.04)
0.01(0.01)-0.03(0.03)-0.01(0.01)
Production type-0.12**(0.05)-0.04(0.02)
0.07***(0.02)
0.09(0.06)
Eating location-0.21***(0.03)-0.06***(0.01)
0.14***(0.02)
0.13***(0.03)
Pchum Ben
-0.09**(0.04)-0.02*(0.01)
0.07**(0.02)
0.05*(0.02)
Khmer new year -0.03(0.04)-0.01(0.01)
0.02(0.04)
0.01(0.02)
Wedding-0.01(0.03)-0.01(0.01)
0.09(0.02)
0.01(0.01)
Water festival-0.03(0.01)-0.01*(0.00)
0.02*(0.01)
0.01*(0.01)
Recreation-0.03***(0.01)-0.01***(0.00)
0.03***(0.01)
0.02***(0.00)
Taste-0.10(0.06)-0.01(0.01)
0.08(0.05)
0.03*(0.02)
Smell-0.06(0.06)-0.01(0.02)
0.04(0.04)
0.03(0.04)
Color-0.01(0.08)-0.01(0.02)
0.01(0.06)
0.01(0.03)
Appearance
0.04(0.04)
0.01(0.01)-0.04(0.04)-0.02(0.02)
Good health
0.02(0.09)
0.01(0.02)-0.02(0.07)-0.01(0.03)*, **, and *** indicate that the coefficient is statistically significant at the 10%, 5%, and 1% levels, respectively.
“0” represents the lowest frequency (never), “1” represents low (once every three months or one to two times a year),“2” represents medium (once a week or once a month); “3” represents high (every day or one to two times per week);
variable inflation factor (VIF) < 1.53.
Variables

Food color showed a significant correlation with the consumption frequency of the pickled
product, suggesting that consumers who perceived its color as important were 4.00% more likely toreach medium consumption than others (Table 7). Taste and appearance (Table 9) showed asignificant correlation with the consumption frequency of fresh fruit: consumers who considered thetaste and appearance of the product as important were 5.00% and 4.00%, respectively, more likely tohave a low consumption of this product. Additionally, those who perceived the taste and appearanceⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1of the fresh fruit as important were 12.00% and 20.00%, respectively, more likely to have a medium
consumption of it. Perhaps, Cambodian people tend to prefer the pickled and fresh fruit of
Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz because they seem interested in the fresh color, adoptable taste, andgood appearance of the products. A relevant study found that consumers in the Netherlands preferredconsuming carrots with an attractive color suggestive of freshness and naturalness (Schifferstein etal., 2019). Furthermore, eating fresh fruits is simply a habit for some Cambodians, as they have done
this since childhood. High consumption of specific foods is closely related to taste pleasantness andfood familiarity (Gumussoy and Rogers, 2023).
Among sensory attributes, the smell was negatively significant in all levels of consumption
frequency of the fresh fruit of Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz, meaning that 15.00% of the consumers
who considered the smell of fresh fruit important were less likely to have low consumption, and23.00% were less likely to reach the medium consumption of this product compared to those who
did not. Perhaps, consumers who do not consider the smell of fresh fruit important intend to eat moreof it as their focus may be on its taste and appearance, which is similar to the case of mandarins, as
their taste and appearance are the main drivers of fruit preference and acceptance by eaters (Gámbaro
et al., 2021). Additionally, whether young or mature, this fruit does not have a strong smell, resulting
in a low focus on this aspect. In our study, older age groups (Table 9) are likely to consume less fresh
fruit because of unwanted tastes, health issues, and strong smell recognition ability, leading them tohave less interest in its consumption than the younger generations. As shown in prior studies, peopleof older ages have a stronger ability to recognize smell than younger people due to different brain
functioning, thereby choosing high-quality food for consumption (Honnens et al., 2023).
Table 9 Marginal effects of consumption frequency on the fresh fruit product
Never
Variables
Coef.
Std. Err
Age 1
-0.19
(0.11)
Age 2-0.06(0.08)
Age 3-0.02(0.07)
Age 4-0.17(0.07)
Age 5-0.01(0.01)
Gender
0.05(0.06)
Production type -0.12(0.12)
Eating location -0.57 *** (0.04)
Pchum Ben
-0.39 *** (0.05)
Khmer new year -0.09(0.06)
Wedding-0.05(0.06)
Water festival -0.09 ** (0.03)
Recreation-0.09 *** (0.01)
Taste-0.18 * (0.07)
Smell
0.37 *** (0.06)
Color
0.04
(0.01)
Appearance-0.25 *** (0.10)
Good health-0.33 *** (0.09)

Consumption frequency of the fresh fruit product
Low
MediumCoef.
Std. Err
Coef.
Std. Err
0.02 *** (0.01)
0.17(0.10)
0.01(0.01)
0.05(0.06)
0.01(0.02)
0.01(0.06)
0.03 ** (0.01)
0.13 * (0.07)
0.01(0.02)
0.01(0.07)-0.01(0.01)-0.03(0.04)
0.02(0.01)
0.10(0.11)
0.02(0.02)
0.52 *** (0.04)
0.02(0.02)
0.37 *** (0.06)
0.02(0.01)
0.07(0.05)
0.01(0.01)
0.04(0.04)
0.02 ** (0.01)
0.06 *** (0.02)
0.02 *** (0.00)
0.07 *** (0.01)
0.05(0.03)
0.12 ** (0.05)-0.15 *** (0.04)-0.23 *** (0.32)-0.01(0.04)-0.03(0.09)
0.04 *** (0.01)
0.20 *** (0.06)
0.01(0.02)
0.31 ** (0.11)

Coef.
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
-0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
-0.01
-0.01
0.01
0.01

High
Std. Err(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)* (0.01)* (0.01)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)(0.00)* (0.00)(0.00)(0.00)* (0.00)(0.01)*, **, and *** indicate that the coefficient is statistically significant at the 10%, 5%, and 1% levels, respectively.
“0” represents the lowest frequency (never), “1” represents low (once every three months or one to two times a year),“2” represents medium (once a week or once a month); “3” represents high (every day or one to two times per week;
variable inflation factor (VIF) < 1.41.

Interestingly, we found that good health benefits were positively significant in the consumption
frequency of the pickled (Table 7) and fresh fruit (Table 9) of Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz.
Consumers who perceived pickled products as having health benefits were 5.00% more likely toreach medium consumption, and surprisingly, 31.00% more likely to reach the medium consumptionof fresh fruit compared to those who did not. It seems that in Cambodia, some of the local people
take into account that the Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz plant is used as a traditional remedy forcuring some ailments, including fever, and flu, or improving women’s blood circulation after givingⒸ ISERD

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birth. Moreover, it enriches the essential vitamin intake. Therefore, consuming this fruit relates toself-care and health awareness. The awareness of the health benefits of foods stimulates consumers
to pay increasing attention to their food consumption (Yang et al., 2023). Moreover, in Cambodia,
fresh fruit consumption depends on people’s attitudes and regional location; for example, consumers
may adopt their friend's and relatives’ consumption patterns of eating pickled and fresh fruits forpleasantness. The social environment and influence of other people have a direct impact on foodchoices (Pluck and Morrison-Saunders, 2022).
Table 10 Marginal effects of consumption frequency on the caramelized productConsumption frequency of the caramelized product
Never
Low
MediumHigh
Coef.
Std. Err
Coef.
Std. Err
Coef.
Std. Err
Coef.
Std. Err
Age 1
-0.02
(0.25)
0.02(0.18)
0.01(0.07)
0.01(0.01)
Age 2-0.03(0.32)
0.02(0.23)
0.01(0.10)
0.01(0.01)
Age 3-0.01(0.17)
0.01(0.13)
0.03(0.05)
0.01(0.00)
Age 4
0.01*(0.03)-0.01*(0.02)-0.01(0.01)-9.77(0.00)
Age 5
0.01(0.10)-0.01(0.08)-0.01(0.02)-0.01(0.00)
Gender
-0.01(0.13)
0.01(0.10)
0.01(0.03)
0.01(0.00)
Production type -0.77(1.01)
0.24(1.14)
0.35(0.69)
0.17(1.46)
Eating location-0.76(1.15)
0.25(1.01)
0.34(0.81)
0.15(1.35)
Pchum Ben
0.04
(0.39)-0.03(0.30)-0.01(0.08)-0.01(0.00)
Khmer new year 0.01
(0.11)-0.01(0.08)-0.01(0.03)-0.01(0.00)
Wedding
0.13*(6.77)-0.11*(5.65)-0.02(1.09)-0.01(0.05)
Water festival
0.07*(6.87)-0.06*(5.66)-0.01(1.16)-0.01(0.05)
Recreation-0.01(0.07)
0.01(0.06)
0.01(0.02)
0.01(0.00)
Taste-0.01(0.10)
0.01(0.07)
0.01(0.02)
0.01(0.00)
Smell
0.03(0.32)-0.02(0.25)-0.01(0.07)-0.01(0.00)
Color-0.09(0.73)
0.07(0.46)
0.02(0.25)
0.01(0.03)
Appearance-0.03(0.30)
0.02(0.22)
0.01(0.08)
0.01(0.01)
Good health
0.05(0.63)-0.04*(0.50)-0.01(0.12)-0.01(0.01)
Variables*, **, and *** indicate that the coefficient is statistically significant at the 10%, 5%, and 1% levels, respectively.
“0” represents the lowest frequency (never), “1” represents low (once every three months or one to two times a year),“2” represents medium (once a week or once a month); “3” represents high (every day or one to two times per week;
variable inflation factor (VIF) < 1.81.

Fig. 3 Marginal effects of age groups and consumption of Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz
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CONCLUSION
This study analyzed six products of the Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz fruit that are found in
Cambodia, including pickled, smashed-in-sugar, fresh, caramelized, pickled-in-honey, and pickledin-rice liquor products. The pickled, smashed-in-sugar, fresh, and caramelized Elaeocarpus
hygrophilus Kurz products were found more likely to be consumed. Most consumers purchase themfrom markets rather than processing them at home, and they tend to eat more of the pickled, smashedin-sugar, and fresh fruits. Younger people tended to have a medium consumption of pickled,smashed-in-sugar, and fresh fruits, while older generations tended to eat less caramelized products
because of their unwanted sweet taste and health risks. Men tended to have a medium consumptionof pickled and caramelized products compared to women because they preferred the sweet taste
preference; however, women tended to have a medium consumption of smashed-in-sugar and fresh
fruits due to their preferences for acidic, bitter, and spicy foods. The consumers who prepared pickled
and smashed-in-sugar products at home showed a medium consumption of both products. Homefood eaters showed a similar trend. Regarding occasions, those who considered Pchum Ben importanttended to have a medium consumption of pickled, smashed-in-sugar, and fresh fruits. Consumers
perceiving taste and appearance as important tended to show a medium consumption of fresh fruit.
All products widely sold at local markets lack expiry dates, proper packaging, and labeling.
Therefore, future research should focus on consumer knowledge, behavior, and existing issues on
consumption to find the challenges in developing effective strategies to improve such products. The
basic nutritional facts and bioactive compounds of the Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz products have
not yet been identified, which could explain the difficulty in improving labeling for homemade foodprocessors. Hence, nutritional evaluation and physiochemical properties, especially for fresh fruit
should be identified as they serve for functional ingredient information, traditional product labelingenhancement, and consumer health promotion.
Note)1) The unknown plant specimens were investigated by using archived herbarium specimens ( Belhumeur et al., 2008. The
fresh plant specimens such as leaves, flowers, fruits, and branches were collected from Svay Rieng province, Cambodia,
in September 2023. They were dried in a micro-oven for 48 hours at 80 ℃; however, the fruits were dried for 72 hours
with the same temperature set to remove water inside. Then the dried specimens were taken photographs and packed into
folders with right labels. After that, a common approach was used in plant species identification; meanwhile, unknown
dried segments of plant were checked their shapes with the known species in herbarium specimens that were kept andpreserved in long time. Both were shown in the same characteristics in shapes of leaves, flowers, or fruits; thereby, verifying
in genuine species as Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was supported by the Transnational Doctoral Programs for Leading Professionals in AsianCountries, Nagoya University Scholarship, Japan. We would like to thank the Nagoya University
Asian Satellite Campuses Institute for its support.
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Research article
erdConsidering Environmental Standards Based on Soils andWater Quality in the Biotopes around Urban Areas in
Japan
MADOKA KUROTAKI
Graduate School of Agro-Environmental Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: 12521002@nodai.ac.jp

MACHITO MIHARA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: m-mihara@nodai.ac.jp
Received 3 March 2024

Accepted 10 May 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Biotope, where the ecosystems have been lost due to industrial development andurbanization, should be restored to rehabilitate the organisms of the original inhabitants.
Although there are more than 1,500 school biotopes in Japan, few research have been
conducted for evaluating their soil and water quality. Compared to lakes and rivers, biotopes
have problems as there is less data on soil and water quality. Furthermore, there were no‘environmental standards for biotopes,’ so it was hard to evaluate if their soil and waterconditions are appropriate for biotopes. Accordingly, the aims of this study are to determine
soil and water quality in several biotopes and to develop a draft of environmental standards
for biotopes. Various surveys were conducted by disseminating questionnaires toelementary school students on current management systems and their perception of thefunction of biotopes. Also, soil and water samples were collected from a public park andfour elementary schools in Tokyo and Kanagawa Prefectures for quality analysis. As
biological characteristics, coliforms and E. coli were measured from soil samples. Also, total
nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), pH, EC, SS, coliforms and E. coli were measured
from water samples. The results of TN and TP tended to increase in summer due to theincrease in algae. The school that keeps bantams and goats near the biotope detectedcoliforms and E. coli. The excrement of these animals may cause contamination. However,
the results from the questionnaire survey indicated that the water appears to be clean.
Accordingly, there was a difference in their perception and water quality condition.
Therefore, the draft of environmental standards, TN and TP values may be consistent withthe standards for the lakes, although there are size differences between lakes and biotopes.
However, the standards on coliforms and E. coli should be more restricted, since children
often play with biotopes.
Keywords biotope, environmental standards, E. coli, TokyoINTRODUCTION
Biotopes are places designed for the restoration and rehabilitation of organisms that have been lostby industrial development and urbanization. The term ‘biotope’ was introduced by a German scientist
in the early the 20th century and additional concept of ‘biocenosis’ was formulated in German. This
concept (‘ecosystem = biotope + biocenosis’) became accepted in German, French, Russian and other
Europe gradually. The new interpretation of the term (‘biotope = habitat + community’) appeared in
the United Kingdom in the early 1990s while classifying ‘marine habitats’ of the coastal zone. Since
then, this meaning was also used in international European environmental documents (Olein andDucrotoy, 2006).
In Germany, biotopes have been attracting attention since the 1970s, when environmental
problems happened by industrialization became more serious. In Japan, biotopes have been made inⒸ ISERD

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various places since the end of the 20th century, including water areas such as tidal flats, wetlands,
lakes, and rivers, as well as forests and grasslands. This concept, which had begun in Germany andother European countries, has spread to Japan. Recently in Japan, schools, NPOs, NGOs, andcompanies have been making various efforts to make biotopes. Not only naturally occurring
biological environments, but also artificially created spaces can be said to be biotopes. Since they areenvironmentally closed water systems, they are prone to water pollution and need to be improved.
Although there are more than 1,500 school biotopes in Japan since 2002 by Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, few research have been conducted for evaluating their soil
and water quality. Also, research for biotopes is not more than that for lakes and rivers. In Japan, theenvironmental standards for lakes and rivers were made by Ministry of the Environment but notsuitable to biotopes.
OBJECTIVE
The aim of this study is to investigate the biotopes’ soil and water quality, as well as to understandthe public's perception of it, in order to develop a draft of environmental standards for biotopes.
METHODOLOGY
Soil and water samples were collected at 4 different locations: Kuwabukuro Biotope Park, Toho
Gakuen Primary School, Aikawa Elementary School, Todoroki Elementary School, andKomatsugawa Elementary School, which are in Tokyo and Kanagawa Prefectures. These schools
were nominated for Biotope Competition by Ecosystem Conservation Society, Japan. Since thebiotope in Komatsugawa Elementary School doesn’t have the area for water, only soil was sampled.
The sampling was conducted in three seasons April to May (spring), July to September(summer) and November (autumn). From soil samples, biological characteristics such as coliformand E. coli were measured. For water samples, the biological and chemical characteristics such as
total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), pH, electric conductivity (EC), suspended solids (SS), E.
coli and coliform were measured. Water velocity was also measured in each biotope. TN and TP
were measured by the spectrophotometric method and coliforms and E. coli were used in the dilution
plate method. Additional surveys were conducted by disseminating the questionnaire sheets to 70
students in Toho Gakuen Primary School on current management systems and their perception of thefunction of biotopes.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the most sampling sites, SS indicated high values during the summer. The presence of algae in thewater resulted higher SS values. For Todoroki, tap water was introduced at any time, lower SS wereobserved than other sites. As some biotopes are closed, the pH values sometimes exceeded 8.0 (Fig.
1). In Kuwabukuro and Aikawa, SS and EC were high, as they received rainwater directly.
Figure 2 showed the results of total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) in each season in
5 biotopes. The indicators of eutrophication are the value higher than 0.2 mg/L for TN and higher
than 0.02 mg/L for TP (Kudo and Watanabe, 2014). Based on the criteria of TN and TP values, Toho,
Kuwabukuro and Aikawa were identified as eutrophication. The accumulation of nutrients fromsurface runoff with rainfall and dead vegetation may promote eutrophication. Nitrogen andphosphorus are nutrients for phytoplankton, phytoplankton also increases with nutrients in biotope.
Additionally, organic pollution happened with organic matters such as dead plants and animals.
From the results indicated in Fig. 2, TN and TP as well as SS tended to increase in summer due
to the increases in algae. Although the water in the Kuwabukuro, which has an area at 1,800 m2, isconnected with river water, the water velocity observed was 0 m/s as well as other biotopes. TN
during the summer in the biotope of Toho Gakuen Primary School was 9.18 mg/L. It was because of
the pesticide applied for eliminating rats during the summer. Also, Aikawa indicated the highest in
TP, as no in-flow was observed in this biotope.
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Fig. 1 Suspended solids (SS), pH and EC in biotopes

Fig. 2 Total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) in biotopes
Table 1 Coliforms and E. coli in biotopes
Soli

Water

Sampling AreaseasonColiform（cfu/g）

Toho

Spring3.9×104

Summer3

7.2×10

ND

ND

ND

Autum

5.9×104

4.7×103

ND

ND

Spring

ND

ND

9.3×105

ND

Summer

ND

ND

4.1×105

4.5×103

Autum

5.2×103

4.5×103

ND

ND

Spring

ND

ND

ND

ND

Summer

ND

ND

ND

6.3×103

Autum

ND

ND

ND

ND

Spring

ND

ND

ND

ND

Summer

1.7×105

9.3×103

6.0×103

8.0×103Autum

1.2×104

5.0×103

ND

ND

Spring3

5.7×10

2.6×103

ーー

Summer

1.4×105

1.3×105

ー

ー

Autum

5.1×105

1.2×105

ーー

AikawaTodoroki

Kuwabukuro

Komatsugawa

E.coli（cfu/g）

Coliform（cfu/ml）

E.coli（cfu/ml）

5.5×103

5.7×104

3.0×104

ND : Non Detected, ー : No sampleⒸ ISERD

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There were no water samples in Komatsugawa because this biotope doesn’t have water areas.
In all of the sampling biotope locations, animals such as goats, rabbits, chickens, and monkeys were
kept or wild animals such as cats, birds and raccoon dogs were observed. Therefore, the excrementof these animals may affect the results of Table 1.
At Toho Gakuen Elementary School, no E. coli was detected in August 2021. In the case of
Aikawa, there was no animal shelter, but wild animals often visited the biotope. Additionally, there
is no history of changing the water in this biotope, accordingly the survival of coliforms and E. coli
were detected. These results indicated high risks of contamination for humans, especially children.
However, at the biotope in Todoroki Elementary School, no coliforms and E. coli were detected
except during the summer, as the water in the biotope was changed several times per year using tap
water. Additionally, wild birds were observed near a sampling point in Kuwabukuro Biotope Park
since summer, so coliforms and E. coli were detected in summer and autumn.
Q1: Do you know the biotope in your school?

Q2: Do you know what the objectives and rolesof biotopes are?

Q3: Do you think the water looks clean or not?

Q4: What do you expect for biotope in future?

Fig. 3 Results of Questionnaire Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4
According to Q1 in Fig. 3, almost all students in Toho Gakuen Primary School knew theirbiotope. However, only 50% of students understood the objectives and roles of the biotope from theresults of Q2. They have been keeping bantams and goats near biotopes, and they have become theprimary source of coliforms and E. coli. However, more than 70% of students thought the water
looked almost clean from the results of Q3. Accordingly, there was a difference in their perception
and water quality condition. From the results of Q4, it was clear that around 70% of students tended
to be concerned with biodiversity and nature protection. In fact, the answers of water purification
were only 17%. On the other hand, Q5 which was free answer question in the questionnaire. Certain
number of respondents answered, ‘I would like to ask the people who visits our biotope not to throw
away garbage.’ and ‘I want to try water purification.’ This indicated that they are willing to work on
environmental issues including water pollution.

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Table 2 Draft of environmental standards in biotopes
Evaluation TN (mg/L)

TP (mg/L)

SS (mg/L)AA

0.2 or less0.02 or less1 or lessA

0.5 or less0.05 or less5 or lessB

1.0 or less0.10 or less15 or lessC

2.0 or less0.20 or less30 or lessD

3.0 or less0.25 or less45 or lessE

3.5or less

0.30or less60 or lesspH
6.5 or more
8.5 or less
6.5 or more
8.5 or less
6.5 or more
8.5 or less
6.0 or more
8.5 or less
6.0 or more
8.5 or less
6.0 or more
8.5 or lessE.coli［90％］（cfu/100ml）
0
20

or less300

or less

1000

or less-

On the basis of the experimental results, the draft of environmental standards for biotopes was
proposed as shown in Table 2. The values of TN and TP may be consistent with the standards for thelakes, although there are size differences between lakes and biotopes. However, since children often
play with water in biotopes, the standards for coliforms and E. coli should be more restricted.
CONCLUSION
School biotopes are prone to eutrophication due to the accumulation of nutrients with rainfall anddead plants because the water is not changed frequently (Kudo and Watanabe, 2014). The values ofTN and TP showed that eutrophication is progressing. The sources of supplying nutrients are various,
such as domestic wastewater, industrial wastewater, chemicals for water treatment, drainage throughgravity outlets, dead vegetation from forests, carcasses and excrements of wild animals, undergroundwater, sediments, aquatic animals and plants, rainfall, fallen ash, etc. In this case, the effective
measures against increasing nutrients seem to be removing sediments and changing water frequently.
For the draft of environmental standards, TN, and TP values may be consistent with thestandards for the lakes, although there are size differences between lakes and biotopes. However, thestandards on coliforms and E. coli should be more restricted, since children often study and play withbiotopes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our appreciation to Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan. We are also
grateful to our laboratory members for their encouragement and continuous support.
REFERENCES
Center for Environmental Studies. 2020. Annual Monitoring Report in Kuwabukuro Biotope Park.
Imaoka, M., Hirayama, k., Hirayama, K. and Sato, H. 1995. Variation of values of pH and some other water
qualities of a river in urban area in Kofu. Reports of the Faculty of Engineering, Yamanashi University,46, 69-77.
Kaneko, S. 1991. Method of measuring microbes. Nippon Shokuhin Kogyo Gakkaishi, 38 (6), 570-574.
Kimura, M. 2011. A study on the local community partnerships involved with elementary school biotopes.
Environmental Science, 24 (4), 363-371.
Konohira, E., Shindo, J., Yoshioka, T. and Toda, T. 2006. Stream water chemistry in Japan. Journal of Japanese
Association of Hydrological Sciences, 36, 145-149.
Kudo, Y. and Watanabe, M. 2014. Controlling the growth of spirogyra in the school biotope. Memoirs of
Akashi National College of Technology, 56, 21-26.
Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan. 2009. Status of the water environment. Retrieved from htⒸ ISERD

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tps://www.env.go.jp/water/confs/fpwq/01/mat03_1.pdf.
Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan. 2010. Administrative response to eutrophication control.
Retrieved from https://www.env.go.jp/earth/coop/coop/document/mle2_j/009.pdf
Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan. 2011. Retrieved from https://www.env.go.jp/hourei/add/
e018.pdf
Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan. 2020. Public water quality measurement results for 2019.
Retrieved from https://www.env.go.jp/water/suiiki/r1/r1-1_r.pdf
Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan. 2022. Appendix of environmental standards for water pollution. Retrieved from https://www.env.go.jp/kijun/mizu.html
Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan. 2022. Environmental standards for water pollution. Retrieved from https://www.env.go.jp/kijun/wt2-1-2.html
Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan. 2020. Environmental standards, items requiring monitoring, and guideline values for water pollution. Retrieved from https://www.env.go.jp/water/suiiki/r1/r1-2.pdf.
Oba, K. and Tomiyama, S. 1971. Eutrophication and detergent phosphate. Journal of Oleo Science, 20 (6).
368-378.
Ohgoshi, M. and Kumagai, Y. 2002. A study of the use of a biotope in an elementary schoolyard forenvironment education. J. JILA, 65 (5), 743-746.
Olenin, S. and Ducrotoy, J. 2006. The concept of biotope in marine ecology and coastal management. Marine
Pollution Bulletin, 53, 20-29.
Shiodawara, K. and Andoh, H. 2013. A survey of elementary school nature activity programs utilizing theschool biotope. Journal of Research in Science Education, 54 (2), 189-199.
Tezuka, M., Satou, Y. and Nakamura, M. 2005. The effect of inflow nutrients loads in high discharge on algal
growth in enclosed water areas. Journal of JSCE, 804, Ⅶ-37, 101-111.
Wanami, K., Ishii, M. and Kise, H. 2010. The survey of the coliform count in river water in Tokyo (1), Behaviorof Escherichia coli and coliform bacteria in the Tama river water. Annual Report of the Tokyo
Metropolitan Research Institute for Environmental Protection, 9-19.
Yasutsune, M. 2016. A case study on school biotope at elementary school in Fukuoka City. Journal of Chikushi
Jogakuen University and Junior College, 11, 165-174.

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Research article
erd

Effects of Adding Coconut Charcoal on Soil Physical
Properties and Maize Performance
PEIONETI ‘O E HALAPAINI LUIGraduate School of Agro-Environmental Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Email: peionetilui@yahoo.com

MACHITO MIHARA*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Email: m-mihara@nodai.ac.jp
Received 13 April 2024

Accepted 15 May 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Tonga is a tropical nation that faces susceptibility to the effects of climate change,
with one of the primary challenges for its agricultural sector being the impact of El-Nino
leading to prolonged periods of drought. The resulting economic crisis in the region was
notable during the 2015-2016 drought season, leading to food shortages and a subsequent
increase in food prices. This necessitated the importation of more expensive perishable
goods to supplement locally produced items. This study aimed to investigate the use of
coconut charcoal as a soil water amendment to mitigate water scarcity during drought
periods. The findings demonstrated that incorporating 10 % of coconut charcoal withparticle sizes of less than 1 mm into the soil can enhance soil physical properties, particularly
in terms of maintaining optimal soil water levels of 50 kPa to 100 kPa for plant vegetative
growth and grain growth 100 kPa to 1200 kPa. This amendment was found to alleviate plantwater stress by prolonging the period before soil dryness occurs, benefiting vegetative
growth and grain development stages. In conclusion, the incorporation of coconut charcoal
as a soil amendment showed significant improvement in overall plant performance, such as
an average increase in leaf area from 33.7 cm2 to 93.9 cm2. This suggests that coconut
charcoal can be a viable recommendation as a soil amendment, aiding in the conservationof water resources and reducing irrigation costs and other expenses for small-scale farmers.
This approach could enhance the resilience of Tonga's agricultural sector and small farmers
in coping with drought conditions attributed to El-Nino. Consequently, this strategy could
help diminish the need for importing perishable agricultural products from abroad during
drought periods.
Keywords El-Nino, drought, coconut charcoal, optimal soil water levels,
soil water amendment

INTRODUCTION
Tonga, situated within the Pacific Island Countries, encompasses a collection of 172 coral andvolcanic islands positioned between latitudes 15° to 24° degrees South and longitudes 173° to 177°
degrees West. The country experiences a tropical climate characterized by an average annual rainfallof 1,728 mm, and an annual mean humidity of 77%, with temperatures ranging from a minimum of
8.7°C to a maximum of 33.1°C. This region faces agricultural challenges during El-Nino, leading toprolonged periods of drought. The El-Nino event from 2015 to 2016 resulted in a significant
reduction in annual precipitation, adversely affecting agricultural production in Tonga. The
consequent lack of rainfall during this period led to water scarcity for irrigation, prompting an
economic crisis that escalated food prices and jeopardized food security in the region.
The food deficit in Tonga has necessitated the importation of perishable goods, leading to higher
prices compared to local produce. For instance, the cost of 1 kg of local tomatoes at USD 0.60 was
notably cheaper than imported tomatoes at USD 6.00, resulting in market inflation (Finau, 2015).
Despite this, only a few commercial farmers have made substantial investments in installing effectiveⒸ ISERD

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irrigation systems relying on underground water sources (Waterloo and Ijzermans, 2017). This study
aimed to address these challenges by focusing on preserving water in the soil, making it moreaccessible for agricultural use. The predominant soil type on the main island of Tongatapu is andosol
clay soil, covering 90% of the land due to volcanic eruptions (Gibbs, 1976). Tongatapu's coconut
production accounts for approximately 99 million nuts annually (Manu, 2018). It is noted thatcharcoal can influence soil water retention and aggregate stability, thereby improving crop water
availability (Piccolo et al., 1996).
Tryon (1948) examined the impact of charcoal additions on soil moisture availability in soils
with different textures. The experiment utilized coconut charcoal from Sri Lanka on Japaneseandosol clay soil, similar to the texture of Tongatapu's andosol clay soil. Coconut charcoal, readily
available in Tonga and other tropical regions, has the potential to enhance agricultural practices. In
Tonga, many households have coconut charcoal residue from their underground ovens (ngoto ‘umu),
primarily used for cooking rather than agricultural purposes. This research aimed to demonstrate thebeneficial effects of coconut charcoal residue on soil physical properties and plant performance. It
highlighted that coconut charcoal residue is not a waste product but a valuable resource that can beutilized by the agricultural sector, particularly during drought seasons, as a soil water amendment.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of adding coconut charcoal on soil
physical properties and plant performance.
METHODOLOGY
Preparation of Coconut Charcoal
The process of preparing coconut charcoal involves heating the coconut residue raw materials to atemperature that increases gradually until it reaches 350°C within 15 minutes. The ratio of raw
materials used is 2.5:1.0 for coconut charcoal production (Perera et al., 2013). The charcoal is thenpounded and crushed into small particles, which are sieved to obtain different particle sizes of 3 mm,
2 mm, 1 mm, and less than 1 mm.
Preparation of Pot Plants
In the preparation of pot plants for the current study, the same andosol soil was added to each pot,
along with crushed coconut charcoal in varying particle sizes of 3 mm, 2 mm, 1 mm, and less than 1
mm. Different application rates of coconut charcoal, such as 2.5%, 5.0%, 7.5%, and 10%, were mixed
into the soil in each pot. One pot served as the control group, containing only andosol soil without
any added coconut charcoal.
Direct Sowing the Corn Seeds
Corn seeds were directly sown in each pot, with three seeds planted to ensure germination. Thinningwas done subsequently, leaving one seedling to grow for visual observation purposes throughout the
study. This experimental setup aimed to assess the impact of different particle sizes and application
rates of coconut charcoal on plant growth and soil physical properties in comparison to the control
group without charcoal amendment.
Irrigation
As part of the irrigation process used in the experiment, hand irrigation was conducted using a spring
can with an amount of 500 ml of water per pot plant, totaling 10 L for the 20 pot plants. IrrigationⒸ ISERD

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was applied as needed for optimal plant growth. When the soil indicated dryness below the comfort
range, irrigation was applied to maintain soil moisture for the plants.
Experimental Layout
The experimental layout followed the Random Complete Block Design (RCBD) methodology
proposed by Clewer and Scarisbrick (2001). The design involved five treatments that were replicatedfour times, with the coconut charcoal mixtures applied at a depth of 10 cm in the pots. The experiment
was carried out in a glasshouse at the Tokyo University of Agriculture, as indicated in Fig. 1, below,
to ensure controlled environmental conditions and accurate data collection. This experimental layout
allows for the systematic comparison of the different treatments and their effects on plant growth andsoil physical properties.
Treatment 1 (T1) :Treatment 2 (T2) :Treatment 3 (T3) :Treatment 4 (T4) :Treatment 5 (T5) :Soil (97.5%) + Charcoal (2.5%, 3 mm)
Soil (95.0%) + Charcoal (5.0%, 2 mm)
Soil (92.5%) + Charcoal (7.5%, 1 mm)
Soil (90.0%) + Charcoal (10.0%, <1 mm)
Soil (100.0%) Control (without charcoal)Fig. 1 Experimental layout
Installation of Sensor
In the experiment, soil water content was monitored using TEROS 21 sensors to provide a morecomprehensive understanding of soil moisture dynamics. Unlike traditional sensors that measurewater content alone, the TEROS 21 sensor measures water potential, indicating the availability ofwater to plants and its movement within the soil (Campbell et al., 2010). Additionally, S-SDM-M005
sensors were used to measure water content percentages in the soil.
Five TEROS 21 sensors were installed at a depth of 5 cm, while S-SDM-M005 sensors wereplaced at a depth of 10 cm in each pot of the five treatments. This setup allows for detailed monitoringof soil and water conditions at different depths. Data collection was done using Zentra Utility and
HOBO Ware software for accurate and reliable measurements throughout the experiment.
Measuring Leaf Area
Leaf area measurements were taken using a measuring tape to determine the length and width of theleaves in centimeters, following the method described by Chanda and Singh (2002). These
measurements were recorded to compare the leaf area among the different treatments and analyze
any significant differences that may indicate the impact of coconut charcoal on plant growth anddevelopment. The leaf area calculated was given by the following Eq. (1).
Leaf area (LA) = leaf width (W) x leaf length (L)Ⓒ ISERD

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Statistical analysis was conducted using ANOVA Single Factor, as displayed in Table 1 below,
revealing that treatment 4 (T4) has the highest average leaf area of 93.9 cm2. This indicates that theaddition of coconut charcoal has positively contributed to increasing the size of the leaves, ultimately
enhancing plant performance in terms of leaf development.
On the other hand, the control treatment, or treatment 5 (T5), which did not involve the additionof coconut charcoal, exhibited the lowest average leaf area of 33.7 cm2. This suggests that plants inthis treatment had smaller leaves compared to those treated with coconut charcoal, emphasizing thepotential beneficial effect of coconut charcoal on leaf size and, by extension, plant growth andperformance.
Table 1 Average leaf area for each treatment
GroupsCount

Sum

Average (cm2)

Variance

T1
T2
T3
T4
T5

4
4
4
4
4

251.8
246.6
162.9
375.6
134.8

62.95061.65040.72593.90033.70084.94
199.53113.96128.04306.81

Fig. 2 Measuring of leaf area

ANOVA single factor average leaf area

Table 2 displays the comparison of the P-values for the average leaf area among the different
treatments. The results indicated that there was a significant difference in leaf area among thetreatments, except for the comparisons between T1-T2, T2-T3, and T3-T4, where no significant
difference was observed. This suggests that the impact of treatments on leaf area varied, with specifictreatments showing distinct effects on leaf development and size. Further analysis of the data canprovide insights into the specific effects of each treatment on plant performance and growth.
Table 2 Compared P-value of average leaf area for each treatment
Treatment

P-value

T1 vs T2
0.535256248
T1 vs T3
0.019770135
T1 vs T4
0.011535978
T1 vs T5
0.025427129
T2 vs T3
0.054299548
T2 vs T4
0.014394010
T2 vs T5
0.047533118
T3 vs T4
0.000566231
T3 vs T5
0.518949725
T4 vs T5
0.000493836
ANOVA single factor P-value comparison

Highly significant (H.S)
Significant (S)Non-significant (N.S)
N.S ≥ 0.05 (5 %)S ≤ 0.05 (5 %)S ≤ 0.05 (5 %)S ≤ 0.05 (5 %)N.S ≥ 0.05 (5 %)S ≤ 0.05 (5 %)S ≤ 0.05 (5 %)H.S ≤ 0.001 (.1 %)N.S ≥ 0.05 (5 %)H.S ≤ 0.001 (.1 %)Escalation / Abbreviationd (N.S)b* (S)b* (S)b* (S)e (N.S)c* (S)
c* (S)
a** (H.S)
f (N.S)a** (H.S)

The bar graph in Fig. 3 demonstrates an evident and statistically significant difference in the
average leaf area between treatment groups T3-T4 and T4-T5, with a P-value of less than or equal to0.001 (0.1%). Furthermore, the confidence interval for this difference is 99.99%. Additionally,
comparisons between treatment groups T1-T3, T1-T4, T1-T5, T2-T4, and T2-T5 also revealed
statistically significant differences, with a P-value of less than or equal to 0.05 (5%) and a confidence
interval of 95%.
Table 3 shows that Treatment 4 (T4) exhibited a notably high average soil water matric potential,
making it a suitable option for farmers looking to use soil water amendments (Fig. 4). This rangealigned with the favorable/comfort range of soil water matric potential conducive to maize growth,
typically falling between 50 - 1200 kPa (Campbell et al., 2010).
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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

a**, b*, c*b*, dc*, d, ea**, b*, e, fa**, b*, c*, f

T1

T2

T3
Treatment

T4

T5

Fig. 3 Average leaf area for each treatment
Table 3 Average soil water matric potential for each treatment
GroupsCount
Sum
Average (kPa)
T1
228-760074.51-3333.66013
T2
228-703200.3-3084.21186
T3
228-439837.87-1929.11346
T4
228-148724.54-652.300595
T5
228-732918.35-3214.55417
ANOVA single factor average soil water matric potential

Variance
9570332.2
9548436
6001146.4
1117680
7508437.7

The ANOVA single factor statistical analysis
comparing T1-T2 and T1-T5, as well as T2-T5, revealed
no significant differences with a p-value greater than orequal to 0.05. However, contrasts between T1-T3, T2T3, T3-T5, T1-T4, T2-T4, T3-T4, and T4-T5 exhibited
highly significant differences with a p-value of less thanFig. 4 Measuring of soil wateror equal to 0.001 in terms of soil water matric potential
matric potential
kPa.
In Fig. 5, the impact of the various treatments on both soil temperature and soil water matricpotential is depicted. The measurements suggested that an increase in soil temperature, particularly
within the range of 30 to 40 degrees Celsius, had led to a decrease in the soil water matric potential
measured in kilopascals. The average values for T1 were 3333.66 kPa, T2 - 3084.21 kPa, T3 1929.11 kPa, T4 - 652.30 kPa, and T5 - 3214.55 kPa over a specific period. It was observed that all
treatments experienced rapid drying within a few days, except for T3 and T4, which exhibited aslightly slower drying rate.
Table 4 Compared P-value of soil water matric potential for each treatment
Treatment

P-value

T1 vs T2
0.389458216
T1 vs T3
1.23E-07
T1 vs T4
1.50172E-30
T1 vs T5
0.6636359
T2 vs T3
1.21916E-05
T2 vs T4
4.81429E-26
T2 vs T5
0.63391606
T3 vs T4
2.12078E-12
T3 vs T5
1.99896E-07
T4 vs T5
8.69324E-34
ANOVA Single Factor P-value ComparisonⒸ ISERD

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Highly significant (H.S)
Significant (S)Non-significant (N.S)
N.S ≥ 0.050 (5.0%)
H.S ≤ 0.001 (0.1%)
H.S ≤ 0.001 (0.1%)
N.S ≥ 0.050 (5.0%)
H.S ≤ 0.001 (0.1%)
H.S ≤ 0.001 (0.1%)
N.S ≥ 0.050 (5.0%)
H.S ≤ 0.001 (0.1%)
H.S ≤ 0.001 (0.1%)
H.S ≤ 0.001 (0.1%)

IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

Fig. 5 Soil water matric potential and soil temperature
CONCLUSION
The comprehensive findings suggested that incorporating 10% coconut charcoal with a particle sizeof less than 1mm as a soil amendment can enhance the soil's physical properties, leading to improved
water-holding capacity and a reduction in plant water deficit. Furthermore, the inclusion of coconut
charcoal as an amendment can boost overall plant performance, particularly in terms of leaf area,
which saw an increase from 33.7 cm2 to 93.9 cm2.
As a result, coconut charcoal emerged as a recommended soil amendment that not only aids inconserving water resources but also helps diminish financial burdens related to irrigation and otherassociated expenses like the installation of irrigation systems, ultimately reducing labor time forsmall-scale farmers. Additionally, with the agricultural sector in Tonga and small farmers able toprovide an ample supply for the local market, the daily basic needs of the populace can be adequately
met. This proactive approach can help avoid excessive imports of perishable agricultural products
from overseas during periods of drought, particularly those triggered by phenomena such as El-Nino.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I extend my sincere gratitude to my sponsor the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) for
the great opportunity to travel over here and undertake this MA program at the Tokyo University ofAgriculture.
REFERENCES
Campbell, C.S., Bissey, L.L., Cobos, D.R., Dunne, K.M., Campbell, G.S. and Brown, D.J. 2010. Insights into
soil water use through interpreting moisture sensor data. Journal of the Japanese Society of Soil Physics,
114, 19-22.
Chanda, S.V. and Singh, Y.D. 2002. Estimation of leaf area in wheat using linear measurements. Plant Breeding
and Seed Science, 46 (2), 75-79.
Clewer, A.G. and Scarisbrick., D.H. 2001. Practical statistics and experimental design for plant and cropscience. John Wiley and Sons Ltd., New York.
Finau, A.M. 2015. Tonga Consumer Price Index Report.
Gibbs, H.S. 1976. Soils of Tongatapu, Tonga. In New Zealand Soil Survey Report 35, Wellington, New
Zealand, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.7931/DL1-SSR-35
Manu, V. 2018. Report for the 54th Asian Pacific Coconut Community Session/Ministerial Meeting. 24-28
September 2018, Selangor, Malaysia.
Perera, W.N.U., Herath, H.M.S.K. and Asanka, J.R.K. 2013. Determination of shell charcoal yield of different
coconut varieties in Sri Lanka under optimum temperature conditions. In Proceedings of the ResearchⒸ ISERD

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Symposium of Uva Wellassa University, 39-41, Retrieved from URL https://erepo.lib.uwu.ac.lk/server/api/core/bitstreams/1090ed11-58f3-459d-8577-5f48cb1c26ab/content
Piccolo, A., Pietramellara, G. and Mbagwu, J.S.C. 1996. Effects of coal-derived humic substances on water
retention and structural stability of Mediterranean soils. Soil Use and Management, 12 (4), 209-213.
Tryon, E.H. 1948. Effect of charcoal on certain physical, chemical, and biological properties of forest soils.
Ecological Monographs, 18 (1), 81-115.
Waterloo, M.J. and Ijzermans, S. 2017. Groundwater availability in relation to water demands in Tongatapu.
DRR-Team scoping mission Kingdom of Tonga on groundwater resources and irrigation systems.

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Research article

Impact of Agricultural Certification for Silk Farmers:
Case Study of Khon Kaen Province, Northeast Thailand
MOEKA NUMATA*
Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Chiba, Japan
Email: moeka.n.0530@gmail.com

MALLIKA SRISUTHAM
Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand

AYA SUZUKI
Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Chiba, Japan
Received 15 April 2024

Accepted 5 June 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Despite rapid economic growth, income inequality between rural and urban areas
remains an important social issue in Thailand. In 2020, the disparity between the Northeast
region, which has the lowest GRP per capita, and the East region, which has the highest GRP
per capita, was approximately 5.05 times. Northeast Thailand is an agricultural area and isfamous for silk production. According to the Queen Sirikit Department of Sericulture, in 2017
sericulture silk yarn production in the Northeast region was 520 metric tons and engaged
82,071 households (or approximately 80% of all households in the region). Improving the silk
industry in the Northeast is essential for economic development in this region. Obtaining
certifications that guarantee quality is considered one effective way to increase farmers'
income. Hence, this study aimed to clarify the factors that play a role in obtaining certificationand the impact of obtaining certification on farmers’ profits from silk weaving. We examinedthe case of farmers in Khon Kaen province in Northeast Thailand and focused on four
certifications: Organic Thailand, Geographical Indication (GI), OTOP, and Peacock. We
conducted both quantitative and qualitative analyses based on the primary data collected
through in-person interviews with 103 farmers from October to November 2022. The results
showed that the important factors affecting profits from silk weaving are design, the type ofdyestuffs, and the ability to access markets where products fetch high prices. To identify the
key factors to obtain certification, we used logistic regression, and to evaluate the impact of
the certifications, we conducted a two-sample t-test. Statistical analysis results revealed thatjoining a farmers’ community and the number of processes involved in sericulture are two
important factors in obtaining certifications and that farmers who have certifications tend toearn more income compared to non-certificated farmers.
Keywords agricultural certification, sericulture, logistic regression, two-sample t-test,
Thailand

INTRODUCTION
In Thailand, economic inequality between rural and urban areas is an important social problem. In
2020, the economic gap between the Northeast, the region with the lowest GRP per capita, and theEast, the region with the highest GRP per capita, was approximately 5.05 times (Gross Regional andProvincial Product Chain Volume Measure 2020 Edition). The main industry in the Northeast is
agriculture, which accounts for about 20% of the region’s gross domestic product. Therefore,
improving agriculture is necessary to reduce the economic gap.
To increase farmers’ income, we can consider the following three methods. The first is toincrease farmers’ land, and the second is to increase the yield. The last one is increasing the price perunit of the crop. In Thailand, almost all the arable land is already used, and the expansion ofagricultural areas is no longer relevant. Further, many farmlands have environmental problemsⒸ ISERD

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because of the overuse of chemical fertilizers (Tirado et al., 2008). Hence, of the three methods, thefirst two are not feasible in considering environmental conservation. Therefore, producing high-value
crops is essential to improve farmers’ income. Furthermore, high quality with agricultural
certifications or labels is one promising method for farmers to take. The last decades have seen a risein the public interest in the consumption and production of ethical foods, such as organic food andfair trade (Vermeir and Verbeke, 2006). Acquiring agricultural certification also often has positive
impacts on farmers’ net income. However, the crops that have been studied are limited, such as
chocolate, fruits, and coffee (Meemken, 2020).
Thailand is known for its silk production, and in 2020 the amount of production of silk yarn was
520 metric tons, ranking fifth in the world (International Sericultural Commission, 2020). According
to the report of Queen Sirikit's Department of Sericulture, the Northeast area is one of the main
production areas of silk. In 2017 sericulture practices covered 57 out of the total 77 provinces inThailand. The mulberry area was 7,553 ha and 82,071 households conducted sericulture. Around
80% of households conducting sericulture lived in Northeast Thailand. The origins of the Thai silk
industry are not known in detail but according to the ASEAN GI database, 2024, in Chonnabot
district, Khon Kaen, silk was used as a gift for King Rama I (1737-1809) as early as in the 18th
century.
OBJECTIVE
This paper studies the silk sector and agriculture certifications, taking the case of Khon Kaen
province in Thailand. In this paper, we focus on four certifications. The first label is Organic Thailand
which is organic certification in Thailand. The second is Geographical Indication (GI), certified toprotect the locality and traditionality of the product. The third one is OTOP which means One
Tambon One Product. Tambon means village in Thai and this certification encourages ruraldevelopment, and the last certification is Peacock which is an exclusive certification that indicatesthe quality of Thai silk.
METHODOLOGY
We have two research questions: what factors are related to obtaining certification and what kind of
impact does the certification bring to silk farmers’ annual income from silk weaving? To clarify those
two research questions, we conducted face-to-face interviews and questionnaire surveys in Khon
Kaen province, Northeast Thailand (Fig. 1). Black dots indicate the locations of the farmers who
were interviewed. We conducted two rounds of fieldwork. The first survey was from August 1 st to
August 5th, and the second survey was from October 23rd to November 11th. The total number offarmers who answered our questionnaire was 103.
To examine determinants to obtain certificates, we chose variables as such years of education
completed, gender, and whether to join farmers’ communities (Table 1). We conducted a logistic
regression to examine the important factors of obtaining certifications.
We used the following model Eq. (1) varying the number of control variables in the five models we
conducted.
Y = f (X’ β)(1)Where Y is equal to 1 if the farmer has certification and zero otherwise, and X is a vector ofindependent variables, which includes education, age, experience, area_ha, full-time, seripeople,
and steps, depending on the models.
Comparing the mean values between certified and non-certified farmers, the three areas withparticularly large differences in mean values were experience, land area, and the number ofsericultural processes conducted in their households (Table 2). We will analyze using logistic
regression whether those factors are statistically significant.

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In addition, to determine the certification’s effect on silk farmers, we conducted a two-sample
t-test. We examine each research question not only by quantitative analysis but also by qualitative
analysis based on information obtained through interviews and other means.

Fig. 1 The map of the study site
Table 1 List of independent variables
Farmer’s age
Years of education completed= 1 if the farmer is a woman, = 0 otherwise
Years of agricultural experience= 1 if the farmer is a full-time silk farmer, = 0 otherwise
Number of family members
Size of land that the farmer owns (ha)Number of family members who are involved in sericulture
Number of processes in silk production that the farmer is engaged in= 1 if the farmer belongs to a community, = 0 otherwise

age
edu
genderexperience
fulltimefamily number
Area haseripeople
steps
community

Table 2 List of independent variables’ mean and standard deviation
Group

Obs.

1
0

46
24

Mean

Std. dev.

56.08
10.34
58.54
10.94
-2.56
Difference
1
46
7.74
2.74
Education
0
24
6.54
1.98
1.2
Difference
1
43
0.9
0.29
gender
0
24
0.92
0.28
0
Difference
1
34
30.74
15.53
experience
0
20
26.1
18.44
4.64
Difference
1
33
0.73
0.45
fulltime
0
18
0.83
0.38
-0.11
Difference
1
40
3.3
3.54
area_ha
0
20
1.37
1.33
1.94
Difference
1
44
1.7
1.49
seripeople
0
19
1.42
0.69
0.28
Difference
1
46
3.76
1.88
steps
0
24
2.38
1.95
1.39
Difference
Note: Group=1 means the farmer joins the community and Group=0 means the farmer doesn’t join the community

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RESULT AND DISCUSSION
From the result of the regressions, the steps were statistically significant, indicating that it is an
important factor in obtaining certifications (Table 3). We estimated Average Marginal Effects(AME). If a farmer adds one more process, the probability of certification increases by 8.84% (Model
5). In sericulture, there are six main processes to make silk weaving. These are mulberry cultivation,silkworm bleeding, reeling yarn, dyeing, weaving, and selling.
From the interviews, we found that some farmers who perform a smaller number of processes
are concerned by the recent increase in the cost of purchasing raw silk while the purchase priceremained the same for finished silk fabrics. However, raising silkworms requires skills, and it isdifficult for some farmers to increase the number of processes if they are also engaged in non-farming
jobs in cities or growing other crops. In addition, opportunities to learn the skill to raise silkworms
are also limited as these skills are often taught in communities or in an area where sericulture is
traditionally practiced.
Table 3 Results of logistic regression
Model 1
Obs:54GOF:-34.24edu
age
experiencearea_hafulltime
seripeople
steps

AME
0.02
0.00
0.00

P>|z|
0.37
0.63
0.24

Model 2
Obs:48GOF:-26.78

AME
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.12

P>|z|
0.52
0.57
0.17
0.12

Model 3
Obs:38GOF:-24.91Model 4
Obs: 49
GOF:-29.22

AME
0.04
0.00
0.00

P>|z|
0.30
0.63
0.72

-0.01

0.96

Model 5
Obs: 54
GOF:
-31.4

AME
0.02
0.00
0.00

P>|z|
0.45
0.39
0.17

0.00

0.761

AME
0.00
0.00
0.00

P>|z|
0.45
0.86
0.24

0.08

0.02**

Note p>0.01 ***, p>0.05 **, p>0.1*

The community variable was not included in the regressions because the variable is concernedwith endogeneity, but we determined it to be an important factor as a result of the interviews. The
importance of being part of a community can be discussed from two aspects. The first is that one
must join the community to obtain OTOP, and the second is that the Queen Sirikit Department of
Sericulture (QSDS) offers technical improvement workshops for certification, but these are offered
on a community basis. The main purpose of the community is to provide technical training so if the
farmer doesn’t join any community, the farmer finds it difficult to improve their sericulture skills.
From our survey, 54 of the farmers joined some kind of community and out of 46 farmers who havecertifications, 44 of them belong to the community while out of 24 non-certificated farmers, 1 ofthem joined the community.
We also examine the impact of agricultural certification on farmers’ annual income from silk
textiles1. Table 4 reports the results of the t-tests between the certified and non-certified farmers. We
find that certified farmers tend to obtain 15,702 THB more income annually, and the difference isstatistically significant at the 1% level.
Table 4 Results of two sample t-testsGroup
Non-certified
CertifiedDifference

Obs.
13
36

Mean
19692.31
35394.44-15702.1

Std. err.
2923.873305.6

Std. dev.
10542.17
19833.62
t = -2.71

1

We do not use regressions to examine the impact of certification on income due to the issue of endogeneity of certification
variable and unavailability of instrumental variables to correct for this bias.

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Focusing on each certification, there were significant differences in the number of certifications
obtained by farmers. The certification with the highest number of farmers obtaining it was OTOP,
with 26 farmers obtaining it. Peacock was next, with 17 holders. On the other hand, GI and Organic
Thailand had two each. While OTOP and Peacock are popular certifications among silk farmers in
Khon Kaen, Organic Thailand and GI are not as popular. In the interview, the leader of the farmers’community that has GI and Organic Thailand said GI is not easy to obtain because the certificationis one of the international labels that have many requirements.
We find that certifications positively impact farmers’ income and joining farmers’ communities
and conducting more processes of sericulture contribute to obtaining certifications. However, many
farmers still find it difficult to join the community and obtain certifications. There are mainly two
reasons. Firstly, lack of connection with the community that conducts training and informationexchange about silk. In our survey, one community welcomes anyone who wants to join while
another community refuses new members because they are concerned about their relationships withexisting members and village residents. In addition, because joining the farmer’s community is acommon culture in Thailand, while farmer communities are already organized, the types ofcommunities are diverse, and farmers can be found belonging to more than one community. This
leads to the next reason we will discuss for the lack of time to take training.
Secondly, the time constraints for farmers to join communities. Sometimes farmers leave thecommunity because of a lack of time they need to give to take training. Moreover, silk has
traditionally been a sideline business for farmers, and many farmers grow silk apart from engaging
in non-agricultural work or growing other crops.
One type of support that may help farmers in such situations is to offer financial assistance suchas microfinance. While they start engaging more with the sericulture sector to join communities andlearn skills, they may rely on this assistance to supplement the loss of income that may otherwise
have been realized with their non-farm work. If the government can offer such assistance until the
farmers’ sericulture business takes off, the farmers may be able to upgrade their products and obtaincertifications to benefit from higher income. In addition, in the private sector, where silk is consumed,
it is important that buyers and others properly understand certification and promote it to consumers
to encourage consumption.
CONCLUSION
In this study, we conducted an interview and questionnaire survey with silk farmers in Khon Kaen,
Northeastern Thailand to identify the important factors in acquiring a certification and the effects ofcertification. The results showed that increasing the process of sericulture and community
participation are two important factors for obtaining certifications. We also found that certification
has a statistically significant positive impact on farmers’ income. Certified farmers earn 15,702 THB
higher annual income from silk weaving than non-certified farmers. On the other hand, improving
technology is important to increase the number of processes, and one way to improve technology is
to belong to the community and attend training. However, farmers face challenges such as a lack ofconnections to join communities and a lack of time to attend training. Therefore, the government
needs to provide more financial support to farmers and information on how to attend training.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to express our deepest gratitude to the 103 silk farmers and QSDS staff in Khon Kaenfor their generous cooperation in conducting this study, Koshi Yoshida, and Jin Sato for providing
valuable comments, and students of Khon Kaen University who assisted with our surveys.
REFERENCESASEAN GI Database. 2024. Retrieved from URL http://www.asean-gidatabase.org/gidatabase/
International Sericultural Commission. 2020. Retrieved from URL https://www.inserco.org/en/statisticsⒸ ISERD

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Meemken, E.M. 2020. Do smallholder farmers benefit from sustainability standards, A systematic review andmeta-analysis. Global Food Security, 26, 100373.
National Statistical Office. 2013. Agricultural census, Northeastern region, 978-974-11-3094-8.
Office of the National Economic and Social Development Council, Gross Regional and Provincial Product
Chain Volume Measure 2020 Edition.
The Queen Sirikit Department of Sericulture data Catalog. 2017. Retrieved from URL https://catalog.qsds.go.th/en/
Tirado, R., Englande, A.J., Promakasikorn, L. and Novotny, V. 2008. Use of agrochemicals in Thailand andits consequences for the environment. Greenpeace Research Laboratories, Technical Note 03/2008.
Vermeir, I. and Verbeke, W. 2006. Sustainable food consumption, Exploring the consumer attitude–behavioral
intention gap. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 19, 169-194.

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Research article
erdExtension Needs of Farmers Engaged in Buffalo Raisingaround Kaeng Lawa Reservoir Wetland, Ban Phai District,Khon Kaen Province, Thailand
PATCHARAPORN PHUMCHANTUK*Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
E-mail: patphum@kku.ac.th

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand

MACHITO MIHARA
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Received 9 Nov 2023

Accepted 10 June 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Buffalo raised by smallholder farmers play important roles for agricultural
production, including providing draught power and fertilizer. Buffalo are suited to poor
feeding management and adapt to hot-humid tropical climate conditions. Recently theswamp buffalo population of Thailand has been declining. The objectives of the current
study are to examine the socio-economic background of Thai farmers engaged in buffalo
raising, buffalo raising practices, and farmer needs in terms of extension work focused on
buffalo raising. Data collection for the study consisted of questionnaires submitted to 45
farmers in May – October 2020 by convenience sampling. SPSS for Windows was used foranalysis to determine the percentage, mean, minimum, and maximum values. In-depth
interviews were conducted with farmers who were members of a buffalo-raising group, andwith several village headmen and local staff in communities around the Kaeng Lawa
Reservoir wetland, in Ban Phai District, Khon Kaen Province, Thailand. The results
indicated that members of the buffalo-raising group had an average of 23.9 years’ experiencein buffalo raising, with an average of 8-9 heads of buffalo per household. The majority offarmers (92.1%) sold their buffalo per head to local merchants, while the average annual
income from buffalo sales was 63,233.71 baht per household. Additionally, farmers soldbuffalo manure by 20 kg bag for 20-25 baht, earning 2,000 – 3,000 baht a year. The
extension work on buffalo raising showed that farmers needed the following: 1) knowledge,in particular on selecting and buying female breeders, breeding improvements, keeping
buffalo manure and added value of buffalo manure; 2) training; 82.22% of farmers wanted
training provided at the village level, while 75.56 % requested livestock officers as training
facilitators; and 3) support, in particular with buying high-quality breeders from governmentorganizations, services on injections for animal health, provision of vaccinations andprevention of disease.
Keywords buffalo raising, agriculture extension, buffalo raising extension

INTRODUCTION
Thai people's livelihood in the past depended on buffalo labor for agriculture. Historically, buffalo
are part of Thai people's lives. Currently, the role of buffalo is changing and being replaced bymodern technology arising from farm mechanization. As a result, the significance of the past role ofbuffalo is being lost, and the buffalo population, as a critical part of the rice farming industry has
declined rapidly. The value and price of buffalo has also declined (Bangkok Post, 2019). The
Provincial Livestock Office and Office of Agriculture Economics (2021) reported that statistics ofbuffalo in Thailand has decreased from 1.70 million in 2000 to 1.26 million in 2020In some areasⒸ ISERD

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buffalo raising is still a valued agricultural animal activity for small householders, but the production
has unfortunately declined in recent decades (Pineda et al., 2021). Moreover, buffalo have becomea niche market, conservation activity and hobby.
The Kaeng Lawa Reservoir wetland, located in Ban Phai District, Khon Kaen Province,
Thailand currently has about 2,000 buffalo around the reservoir, and is the biggest group of buffalo
in Northeast Thailand (Department of Livestock, 2022 ). About 120 farmers in a community
enterprise there may help to drive the agriculture in the region sustainably as well as providing socioeconomic outputs farmers and their practices on buffalo raising. Thus, the study on needs for
agriculture extension on buffalo raising of farmers in Kaeng Lawa reservoir wetland, Khon Kaen
was needed.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this research was to study some selected social and socio-economic backgrounds ofThai buffalo raising farmers, practices on buffalo raising and needs for extension on buffalo raisingof farmers around Kaeng Lawa reservoir wetland, located in Ban Phai District, Khon Kaen Province,
Thailand.
METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted by individual interviews to 45 buffalo raising farmers around Kaeng Lawa
reservoir wetland in Ban Phai District, Khon Kaen Province, Northeastern Thailand (Figures 1 and
2). The population details were collected by questionnaire in May - October 2020 by conveniencesampling. A questionnaire was created by generating from the literature review. The instrument
consisted of three parts. The first part was related to the farmers’ background (education background,experience, and number of buffalo). The second part was focused on practices on buffalo raising.
The third part was related to the needs for extension on buffalo raising of farmers. All parts of thequestionnaire contained multiple choices, fill in the blank, and choose all were used. The answers
were from individual farms. SPSS for Windows was used for analysis of data to determine
percentage, mean, minimum and maximum. An in-depth interview was done with 5 village headmen
who live near the Kaeng Lawa reservoir and the local staff.

Fig. 1 Kaeng Lawa reservoir wetland

Fig. 2 Herd of buffalo in the wetland

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Socio-economic Background of Surveyed Farmers
The results indicated that farmers were a mean of 56.40 years old. Most farmers (82.22%) had
finished primary school level, 15.56% of them had finished high school, and 2.22% of them had no
education. Kudting and Wongsaman (2010) stated that farmers with low education level had noⒸ ISERD

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problems and dissents for raising the buffaloes, and the main things were the experiences and theknowledge passing from earlier generations. The main career of farmers was rice farming (66.67%).
Farmers in the region received revenue mainly from rice production (71.11%), livestock production(17.78%), and other sources (11.11%). The majority of farmers raised buffalo as the second career(74.61%) more than the first career (25.39%). The land for raising buffalo was free areas around
Kaeng Lawa Reservoir wetland (80.00%) and their own land (20.00%) and 23.90 years’ experienceon buffalo raising (Table 1).
Table 1 Socio-economic background of buffalo raising farmers around Kaeng Lawa
Reservoir, Khon Kaen Province, Thailand
Personal information
1. Age (year)
≤ 50
51-60
>60
Mean 56.40, Maximum 73, Minimum 39
2. Education level
No education level
Primary school
High school
3. Main career
Rice farming
Buffalo rising
Fisherman
Employment
4. Main income
Rice production
livestock production
Other sources
5. Buffalo rising land
free areas around Kaeng Lawa Reservoir wetland
their own land
6. The experience on buffalo raising (year)
≤ 10
11-30
> 30
Mean 23.90, Maximum 63, Minimum 33

Number (n=45)

Percent (%)

7
31
7

15.56
68.88
15.56

1
37
7

2.22
82.22
15.56

30
6
5
4

66.67
13.33
11.11
8.89

32
8
5

71.11
17.77
11.11

36
9

80.00
20.00

3
33
9

6.97
73.33
20.00

Buffalo Raising Practices
Farmers had buffalo for the average of 8-9 heads per household. Most farmers did not use any feed
concentrate, and no feed that was used with another to improve the nutritive balance (92.16%). Only
7.84% of farmers sometimes used concentrate to feed their buffaloes because source of roughage
was from natural grassland (89.47%), grown by themselves (10.53%). The primarily farmers raisedbuffalo by natural pasture (100%). About 71.33% of farmers gave supplemental minerals to theirbuffaloes, those supplemental minerals from department of livestock support. Some farmers
preferred to breed their buffaloes by natural matching (60.38%), more than artificial insemination(39.62%) because most of the buffaloes were in the field. Almost all buffaloes got vaccination(97.78%) and all buffaloes were treated against parasites. The majority of them (92.1%) sold theirbuffaloes per head to local merchants and earned the annual income of 63,233.71 baht per household.
Farmers dried some buffaloes manure from the pen and sold it for 20-25 baht a bag (Figs. 3 and 4),
earning 2,000 – 3,000 baht a year (Table 2).
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Table 2 Buffalo-raising practices of farmers around Kaeng Lawa Reservoir,
Khon Kaen Province, Thailand
Practices
Number of buffaloes (head)
<5
5-20
>20
Mean 8.56, Maximum 47, Minimum 2
Feeding the concentrate foodYes
No, feeding only roughage- free natural grassland- grow grassland
Giving supplemental minerals
Yes
No
Breeding
Matching by natural
Artificial insemination
Vaccination
Yes
No
Market place
Local merchant
Meat selling
Buffalo annual income (baht)≤20,000
20,000-50,000>50,000
Mean 63,233.71, Maximum 800,00 Minimum15,000

Fig. 3 Buffaloes in the pen with their manure

Number (n=45)

Percent (%)

6
30
9

13.33
66.67
20.00

4
41
(37)
(4)

7.84
92.16
(89.47)(10.53)

33
12

73.33
26.67

27
18

60.38
39.62

44
1

97.78
2.22

41
4

92.16
7.84

11
29
5

24.44
64.44
11.11

Fig. 4 Bags of buffalo manure for sale

Farmer Extension Needs with Regard to Buffalo-Raising
Regarding the extension on buffalo raising, it was found that farmers had needs in the following: 1)
Knowledge aspect; having the high level (>70%) of needs in the topics; selecting and buying female
breeder (95.56), breeding improvement (100%) for reducing genetic disorder and also improving the
productivity related to Na-Chiangmai (2000) who stated that development of buffalo breeding
schemes in Thailand have shown higher performance of calves after breeding program by the
National Buffalo Breeding and Research Program, keeping buffalo manure and added values ofbuffalo manure (100%); 2) Training course aspect; 82.22% of farmers needed training provided atthe village, 75.56% would like have livestock officers to be resource person of training; and 3)
Support aspect; the farmers had high level of needs in the items; 71.11% of buying good breederⒸ ISERD

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from government organization, 82.22% of service on injection for animal health, 82.22% ofproviding vaccination and prevention of disease (Table 3).
The in-depth interview found reproduction of buffalo under intensive farm management
conditions, farmers raised buffalo by natural pasture which less feeding in flooding rainy season,
buffaloes breeding were in their herds with closed blood and buffalo manure was released to theenvironment; water and air pollutions, because numbers of buffaloes around Kaeng Lawa reservoir
was clumped in small upper areas. The situation was different than that indicated in the report ofFood and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2022) on buffalo in Thale Noi wetland, wide area in thesouthern Thailand found essential part of wetland ecology, maintaining water quality.
Table 3 Needs for extension on buffalo raising of farmers around Kaeng Lawa Reservoir,
Khon Kaen Province, Thailand
Needs
Knowledge aspectselecting and buying female breeder
breeding improvement
keeping buffalo manure and added values of buffalo manure
Training course aspect
training provide at the village
livestock officers to be resource person of training
Support aspectbuying good breeder from government organization
service on injection for animal healthproviding vaccination and prevention of disease

Number (n=45)

Percent (%)

43
45
45

95.56
100.00100.00

37
34

82.22
75.56

32
37
37

71.11
82.22
82.22

CONCLUSION
Most farmers who raise buffalo have a high level of needs with regard to breeders and breeding
improvement. Although the National Buffalo Breeding and Research Program in Thailand wasestablished in 1981, a program suitable for free-range buffalo as well as for intensive buffalo raisingby smallholder farmers is still needed, particularly due to the aging of the farming population.
Moreover, storage of buffalo manure and added value of buffalo manure is a major aspect of the BioCircular-Green' Economy Model (BCG Model), which aims to develop high-value products andservices that are eco-friendly and require less resource input, while conserving natural and biologicalresources. One way of creating added-value organic fertilizer from buffalo manure is via vermitechnology, i.e., by utilizing earthworms for composting organic material. This can reduce waste andincrease the income of buffalo-raising farmers.
REFERENCES
Bangkok Post. 2019. Buffalo population in decline. Bangkok, Thailand, Retrieved from URL
https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/general/1677816/buffalo-population-in-decline?fbclid=IwAR1_
pc0i_kMKc_WqFaVnkvvioV-hc5tMsqn_KN3K8YbAGRF09Y8GIv1n5C8
Department of Livestock. 2023. Numbers of farm animals and livestock in Thailand. Annual Report of the
Department of Livestock, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Thailand.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2022. Thale Noi wetland pastoral agro-ecosystem, Thailand.
Retrieved from URL https://www.fao.org/giahs/giahsaroundtheworld/designated-sites/asia-and-thepacific/thailand-thale-noi/detailed-information/en/
Kudting, D. and Wongsaman, C. 2010. Needs for extension on buffalo raising of Thai buffalo conservationand development groups members in Khon Kaen province. Master’s thesis, Khon Kaen University,
Thailand.

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Na-Chiangmai, A. 2000. Buffalo breeding program in Thailand. Workshop on Animal Recording for Improved
Breeding and Management Strategies for Buffaloes, ICAR Technical Series - No 3. Retrieved from URL
https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/3959/CS1_27.pdf?sequence=1
Pineda, P.S., Flores, E.B., Herrera, J.R.V. and Low, W.Y. 2021. Opportunities and challenges for improving
the productivity of swamp buffaloes in Southeastern Asia. Frontiers in Genetics, 12, 629861, Retrieved
from URL https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.629861/full
Provincial Livestock Office and Office of Agriculture Economics. 2021. Statistics of buffalo in Thailand.
Bangkok, Thailand, Retrieved from URL https://ebook.lib.ku.ac.th/ibic/buf-th/61-statistic-buffaloⒸ ISERD

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Research article
erd

Factors Influencing Adoption of Ecosystem-Based

Adaptation Practices: The Case of Small-Scale Maize
Farming in Morogoro Region, Tanzania
UPENDO SAITABAU MOLLEL*
Graduate School of International Food and Agricultural Studies,Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Email: mollelupendo561@gmail.com

KATSUMORI HATANAKA
Department of Agribusiness Management, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan

RAMADHONA SAVILLE
Department of Agribusiness Management, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan

NINA N. SHIMOGUCHI
Department of Agribusiness Management, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Received 25 April 2024

Accepted 11 June 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Maize is the main staple crop in Tanzania; it is produced in almost all
agroecological regions of the country, with production dominated by small-scale rain-fed
farming. Maize production in Tanzania is constrained by climate change impacts such as
rises in temperature, changes in rainfall patterns, and increases in plant diseases, insects,
pests, floods, and droughts. Small-scale maize farmers have low climate change adaptation
capacity, as the majority still use unsustainable farming practices such as monoculture,
intensive tillage, and burning of crop residues, all of which increase the farmers’
vulnerability to climate change impacts. Sustainable farming practices, in particular
Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) practices such as the ones considered in this study, arebelieved to contribute significantly to restoring and conserving agroecosystems, increasingmaize productivity and resilience towards climate change. This study aimed to identify thecommon EbA practices adopted by farmers in Tanzania and to determine the factors
influencing adoption of EbA practices in maize farming. The study was conducted in the
Kilosa district of the Morogoro region of Tanzania. Both primary and secondary data wereused in the study. Primary data was collected through key informant interviews with theagricultural extension officers and a semi-structured questionnaire survey administered to
350 farmers. The T-test and the Tobit regression model were used for data analysis. Basedon the T-test results, commonly adopted EbA practices included crop rotation, maize-legumeintercropping, and improved seeds. Based on the Tobit regression analysis, farm size,
household income, land ownership, access to climate information, labor, knowledge of EbApractices, and membership in the farmer field schools were found to significantly influence
the adoption of EbA practices in maize farming. This study highlighted the importance ofthe government's role in increasing EbA knowledge dissemination to the farmers throughimproving the training facilities in the farmer field schools and increasing opportunities forthe farmers to have access to credit from financial service providers, allowing maize farmers
to boost their income and become able to adopt more EbA practices.
Keywords maize farming, climate change, ecosystem-based adaptation practices,
Tobit regression model

INTRODUCTIONⒸ ISERD

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Maize is an important food crop in Tanzania as it accounts for over 70% of the national starchrequirement for human consumption (Mkonda and Xinhua, 2017) and approximately 65% of thesmallholder farming households depend on maize for the provision of both food and income(Anderson et al., 2016). Between 65% and 85% of maize produced is consumed by the householdproducing it while only 20% to 35% is used for commercial purposes (Lana et al., 2017). According
to USAID (2010), maize is produced in almost all agroecological regions in the country. It ischaracterized by small-scale production (Baregu et al., 2015) and is mainly rain-fed as only 3% of
the total planted area is irrigated (URT, 2016). In most African countries including Tanzania, maize
production is affected by climate change effects as approximately 70% to 80% of maize losses arecaused by droughts and floods (Amondo and Simtowe, 2018). Furthermore, with the increasing
adverse impacts of climate change, maize yield in Tanzania has been predicted to decline at the local
level by 37% in 2050 (Msongaleli et al., 2015). This decrease in the maize yield will affect thehousehold food security and income of the most rural households in the country.
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2018), Tanzania is among
the countries that are most vulnerable to climate change as most of the farmers are suffering from its
negative impacts. In addition, the country is ranked among the 13th countries with weak adaptation
capacity to climate change (IPCC, 2014). Most of the farmers still employ unsustainable farm
practices such as monoculture, intensive tillage, and burning or removal of crop residues after harvest
from the farmland, which degrades the health of the agroecosystem (Agula et al., 2018) and exposes
the farmers to be more vulnerable to climate change impacts.
The farmers need to use sustainable farm practices which are considered as Ecosystem-based
Adaptation (EbA) practices in this study. EbA refers to the use of ecosystem services and biodiversity
as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change(Nalau et al., 2018). EbA practices ensure sustainable management, conservation, and restoration ofnatural resources and ecosystems that support and protect agricultural livelihoods such as nutrient
cycling provision, soil formation, water infiltration, pollination, pest and disease regulation, andcarbon sequestration (Abdelmagied and Mpheshea, 2020; Daigneault et al., 2016). The common
example of EbA practices at the farm scale is the use of agroforestry to combat the effects of hightemperatures, heavy rains, and other climate change impacts on crops and livestock (Siles et al.,2010) and has the potential to tackle food insecurity and increase the resilience of the farmers towards
the impacts of climate change (Catacutan et al., 2017). Despite the importance of maize farming andthe benefits of EbA practices in the cultivated ecosystems, less is known about the common EbApractices adopted by small-scale maize farmers and the factors influencing the adoption of EbApractices in maize farming in Tanzania. Based on various literatures, eight EbA practices wereselected for this study which were crop rotation, maize-legume intercropping, agroforestry, mulching,
improved seeds, organic manure, zero tillage, and planting maize on contour ridges.
Description of the Eight Selected EbA Practices in Maize Farming
Crop rotation is the practice of growing a sequence of crops on the same land cycle after cycle (Duryet al., 2012). Maize-legume intercropping is the cultivation of maize intercropped with legumes suchas common beans, soybeans, groundnuts, or cowpeas for a specific period or the entire growing
season. Agroforestry practice in maize farming is the integration of trees and maize crops in the sameland. Mulching in this study is a practice that consists of leaving a layer of crop residues on the soil
surface for soil and water conservation. The use of improved seeds as an EbA practice in this study
is the use of improved maize seeds in maize farming because they are high-yielding and tolerant todiseases and drought compared to recycled seeds. The use of organic manure in maize farming either
from plant or animal sources helps to improve soil fertility. Zero tillage is a practice in which seeds
are placed into untilled soil by opening a narrow slot, trench, or hole of only sufficient width anddepth to obtain proper seed placement and coverage (Derpsch et al., 2014). Planting maize on contour
ridges involves the construction of small earth structures across the slopes on cultivated land to
decrease runoff, increase water infiltration, and capture rainfall close to the crop root system.

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OBJECTIVE
The general objective of this study was to analyze the factors influencing the adoption of EbApractices in maize farming. The specific objectives were to identify the common EbA practices
adopted by farmers and to determine the factors influencing the adoption of EbA practices in maize
farming.
METHODOLOGY
Study Area, Data Collection and Analysis
The study was conducted in the Kilosa district of the Morogorogo region in the eastern part of
Tanzania. The district is characterized by a semi-humid climate with an average annual rainfall
between 800 mm to 1,600 mm and an average annual temperature ranging from 19℃ to 30℃. The
study area was selected because most of the smallholder farmers are engaged in maize farming andthe district experiences climate change impacts (Vatn et al., 2017). According to the population
census conducted by the United Republic of Tanzania in 2022, the total population of Kilosa districtin 2022 was 617,032 people of which 80% are framers (URT, 2022). With the support of the district
agricultural extension officer, purposive sampling was used to select 10 divisions in the Kilosa
district with potential for maize farming and with many smallholder maize farmers. The 10 selecteddivisions were Kidete, Zombo, Madoto, Kimamba B, Msowero, Ulaya, Mhenda, Masanze,
Magomeni and Rudewa divisions. From each division, 35 farmers were randomly selected which
made a total of 350 farmers. This study employed a cross-sectional research design in data collection.
Primary data were collected between January 7th to February 11th in 2023 through key informant
interviews with the agricultural extension officers and a semi-structured questionnaire survey
administered to 350 farmers who were randomly selected. Data analysis was conducted using the Ttest and Tobit regression model.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Ecosystem-based Adaptation Practices Adopted in Maize Farming
Table 1 shows that the common EbA practices adopted in maize farming were crop rotation (115
adapters), maize-legume intercropping (205 adapters), and improved seeds (127 adapters). Maizelegume intercropping had the largest number of adopters which shows that most small-scale maize
farmers prefer this practice because it reduces the risk of total crop failure as when one crop fails,
farmers can still benefit from another crop on the farm.
Table 1 T-test result of EbA practices adopted on maize farming (n=350 farmers)
No.

EbA practices
adoptedAdopters(farmers)

Non-adopters(farmers)

12

Crop rotation
Maize-legumeintercropping
Agroforestry
Mulching
Planting maize on
contour ridges
Improved seeds
Zero-tillage
Organic manure

115
205

3
4
5
6
7
8

Yield of nonadopters(kg/ha)1,132709

p-value

235
145

Yield ofadopters(kg/ha)
3,490
2,754

39
70
9

311
280
341

4,600
3,673
3,011

1,569
1,465
1,878

0.000
0.000
0.050

127
17
22

223
333
328

3,546
3,853
3,786

973
1,808
1,781

0.000
0.002
0.000

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0.000
0.000

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The result is in line with the study of Rusinamhhodzia et al. (2012) who found that smallholder
farmers of Central Mozambique prefer intercropping because it reduces the risk of total crop failure
and improves productivity. Table 1 also shows that all the EbA practices have a significant impact onmaize yield as adopters of EbA practices have higher maize yield compared to non-adopters. The
result is consistent with the study of Abdelmagied and Mpheshea (2020) that EbA practices improve
agricultural productivity.
Factors Influencing Adoption of EbA Practices in Maize Farming
The Tobit model, which is also called the censored regression model is designed to estimate linear
relationships between variables when there is either left- or right-censoring in the dependent variable(Tobin, 1958). Tobit model uses both the data at the threshold and those above the threshold toestimate the model. The tobit model measures not only the adoption decision but also the intensityof the use of technology once adopted (Tobin, 1958).
In this study, the Tobit regression model was used to analyze the factors influencing the adoptionof EbA practices in maize farming. In the Tobit model, the dependent variable Y is ecosystem-based
adaptation practices adopted by the farmers on maize farming measured using the adaptive index
which was obtained by taking the number of EbA practices adopted by the maize farmers divided by
the total number of EbA practices available to the farmers as given in Eq. 1.
𝑌 = 𝛽0 + ∑10
𝑖=1 𝛽𝑖 𝑋𝑖 + 𝑒(1)

Where 𝛽0 is the intercept of Y, 𝛽𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1, 2, ....,10 is a regression coefficient with respect tothe independent variable 𝑋𝑖 and 𝑒 is the error term. The independent variables used in the model
are shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Description of the independent variables used in the Tobit model
Variables
Age
GenderHousehold size
Farm size
Household income
Land ownership
Access to climate
information
Access to labour
force
Knowledge of EbApractices
Membership in
farmer field school

Description
Age of household head ( years)
Dummy ( 1= male, 0 = female)
Number of household head size
Total maize farm size of the farmer in hectares
Total annual household income of the farmer from both on-farm and off-farmactivities in Tanzanian shillings
Dummy (1 = the farmer own the maize farm, 0 = the farmer rent the maize farm)
Dummy (1 = the farmer has access to climate information, 0 = the farmer does nothave access to climate information)
Dummy (1 = the farmer has access to family labour or can afford the costs of hiredlabour, 0 = the farmer does not have access to family labour and can not afford thecosts of hired labour)
Dummy (1= the farmer has knowledge of how to use EbA practices and theimportance of EbA practices in the farm, 0 = the farmer does not have knowledge on
how to use EbA practices and the significance of EbA practices in the farm )Dummy (1= the farmer is a member in the farmer field school, 0= the farmer is not amember in the farmer field school)

The discussion of the Tobit regression results in Table 3 is as follows, the model was selected
because it had the smallest Akaike Information Criterion, and the value of the log-likelihood washigher which corresponds to a better fit of the data in comparison to other models.
Farm size was statistically significant (p<0.1) with a positive coefficient showing that theincrease in farm size increases the likelihood of the farmer to adopt EbA practices in maize farming.
Large farm size provides enough space for the farmer to adopt a wide range of EbA practices in thefarm like the use of different kinds of crop diversification such as intercropping, and crop rotationcompared to farmers with small farm sizes. This is similarly in line with a study by Belay et al. (2017)
who found that large farm size provides farmers with an opportunity to practice crop diversification
which helps to reduce risks associated with unpredictable weather changes.
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Household income had a significant (p<0.001) positive effect on the adoption of EbA practices
in maize farming. In this study, the household income was the combination of the income generated
by the farmer from both on-farm and off-farm activities. The increase in the household income of the
farmer increases the probability of the farmer to adopt more EbA practices in the farm. Small-scale
farmers need to have sufficient income to afford the cost of using several EbA practices in thecultivated field. For example, using improved maize seeds, organic manure, cost of controlling weeds
in a zero-tilled farm, and labor cost in some of the labour-intensive EbA practices such as planting
maize on contour ridges. This result is in line with the previous findings that the increase in income
enhances the likelihood of the farmer to invest in more productive farm inputs such as improved
seeds and practicing crop diversification in the farm (Kom et al., 2020).
Land ownership had a positive coefficient and statistically significant (p<0.001) influence on
the adoption of EbA practices in maize farming indicating that the increase in the access of the
farmers to land ownership increases the probability of the farmers being concerned with theconservation and protection of the farmlands for short- and long-term benefits. Hence, the farmers
will adopt more EbA practices such as water and soil conservation measures (mulching, organic
manure, agroforestry, contour farming, crop rotation, intercropping, zero tillage) compared to therented farmlands because the farmers do not have full access to the land. The result is consistent withthe study of Tran et al. (2019) whose findings showed that land ownership had a positive influenceon the adoption of climate-smart agriculture technologies.
Access to climate information influences the adoption of EbA practices in maize farming as it
was statistically significant (p<0.001) with a positive coefficient showing that farmers who haveaccess to information regarding climate events such as temperature and rain intensity are more likely
to adopt EbA practices to combat the effects of climate variability in farming. For instance, if the
farmers know that there will be low rainfall, they will anticipate planting maize on the contour ridges
as an in-situ water harvesting technique to increase surface run-off storage near the cropped area.
The finding is in line with the study of Rahman et al. (2021) who found that climate information is a
crucial factor determining climate change adaptation.
Access to the labour force was statistically significant (p<0.05) with a positive coefficient whichindicates that the increase in the access of the farmer to farm labor also increases the probability of
the farmer adopting more EbA practices in maize farming. Access to labor implies the ability of the
farmer to afford labor costs especially hired labour or the availability of a family labour force to thefarmer. Some of the EbA practices are labor intensive such as the application of organic manure in
the farm, mulching, planting maize on the contour ridges, and maize-legume intercropping require
the farmer to have access to farm labour either family labour, hired labour, or communal labour tohelp with farm work. This result is consistent with the previous study of Ng´ombe et al. (2017) whosefindings showed that the availability of labour was positively correlated with the adoption ofconservation agriculture practices in Zambia.
Knowledge of EbA practices significantly (p<0.001) influences the adoption of EbA practices
in maize farming. The positive coefficient shows that the more the farmers get knowledge on how to
use EbA practices in the farm and the importance of EbA practices in the cultivated ecosystem, thehigher the likelihood of adopting EbA practices in maize farming. For instance, if the farmers know
the usefulness of EbA practices like mulching, they will not burn or remove crop residues from thefield instead they will use it for mulching purposes to increase organic matter and soil moisture
content. This finding is similarly in line with the previous study conducted in Ghana by Agula et al.
(2018) who found that farmers who know the biological function of ecosystem-based farmmanagement practices have higher probabilities of adoption compared to farmers without adequate
knowledge on the usefulness of ecosystem-based farm management practices.
Membership in the farmer field school is an important variable influencing the adoption of EbApractices in maize farming. The coefficient of the farmer field school is positive and statisticallysignificant (p<0.05) indicating that the increase in the participation of the farmers in the farmer field
school to gain knowledge from the training on how to use EbA practices in the farm, increases higher
chances for the adoption of EbA practices in maize farming. Farmer field schools in the study area
train the farmers on several EbA practices such as effective ways of practicing zero-tillage, planting
maize on contour ridges, maize-legume intercropping, and agroforestry. This finding is consistentⒸ ISERD

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with the study of Bhutto et al. (2018) who found that participation of the farmers in the farmer field
school programs positively influenced the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices.
Table 3 Tobit regression result of the factors influencing adoption of EbA practices (n=350)
Coefficients(Intercept)
Age
GenderHousehold size
Farm size
Household income
Land ownership
Access to climate information
Access to the labor force
Knowledge of EbA practices
Membership in farmer school
Log (scale)

Estimate-1.812e-01
3.132e-04-3.663e-04-4.916e-03
9.877e-03
1.736e-07
1.199e-01
1.863e-01
3.389e-02
1.270e-01
5.452e-02-2.456e+00

Std. Error
3.262e-02
4.935e-04
1.471e-02
3.304e-03
5.880e-03
2.749e-08
1.461e-02
2.052e-02
1.395e-02
1.928e-02
2.301e-02
7.175e-02

z value-5.5570.635-0.025-1.488
1.680
6.316
8.207
9.081
2.429
6.585
2.369
-34.232

pr(>|z|)0.000 ***
0.526
0.980
0.137
0.093.
0.000 ***
0.000***
0.000 ***
0.015*
0.000 ***
0.018 *
0.000***

Note: ***p< 0.001, **p< 0.01, *p< 0.05 and . p< 0.1, Source: Field survey in Tanzania, 2023

CONCLUSION
The common EbA practices adopted by the maize farmers in the Kilosa district in Tanzania were
found to be crop rotation, maize-legume intercropping and the use of improved seeds. The adoptionof EbA practices were found to have significant impact on maize yield, as the adopters of EbApractices had higher maize yield compared to non-adopters of EbA practices. Factors influencing the
adoption of EbA practices in maize farming were identified as farm size, household income, landownership, access to climate information, access to labour force, knowledge of the EbA practices,and membership of the farmers in the farmer field school. This study highlighted the importance ofthe government's role in increasing EbA knowledge dissemination to smallholder farmers throughimproving the training facilities in farmer field schools. It is also important for the government toincrease opportunities for smallholder maize farmers to have access to credit from financial service
providers to boost their income and become able to adopt more EbA practices in maize farming.
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Research article
erdNutritional and Cost-Benefit Analysis of Some Traditional
Thai Foods and Beverages Prepared from Sacred Lotus
NATSIMA TOKHUN*
Faculty of Science and Technology, Valaya Alongkorn Rajabhat University
under the Royal Patronage Pathum Thani Province, Thailand
Email: natsima@vru.ac.th

WEERAWAT OUNSANEHA
Faculty of Science and Technology, Valaya Alongkorn Rajabhat University
under the Royal Patronage Pathum Thani Province, Thailand

KANOKWAN PUNAATERKOON
Faculty of Science and Technology, Valaya Alongkorn Rajabhat University
under the Royal Patronage Pathum Thani Province, Thailand

PATSARA WONGSUDI
Faculty of Science and Technology, Valaya Alongkorn Rajabhat University
under the Royal Patronage Pathum Thani Province, Thailand

RATTANAPORN PUTTAPORNTHIP
Faculty of Science and Technology, Valaya Alongkorn Rajabhat University
under the Royal Patronage Pathum Thani Province, Thailand

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Received 1 May 2024

Accepted 14 June 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract In Thailand, the sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) is used as an ingredientfor healthy food and beverage production and plays a role in Buddhist rituals. In particular,
dried lotus petal tea and jasmine rice wrapped in lotus leaves are a staple of traditional foodmenus, but detailed nutritional information on these products is lacking. Hence, theobjective of this research was to standardize some traditional value-added Thai foods andbeverages made from lotus and assess their nutritional value. First, a recipe for rice mixed
with lotus seed, shrimp, and chicken wrapped in lotus leaves was standardized as a maincourse, to be served along with lotus petal tea. Subsequently, a nutritional analysis of thetwo products was carried out for the purpose of nutritional information labeling. The
estimated nutritional values in both products were assessed according to the criteria ofPercentage of Thai Recommended Daily Intakes for population over 6 years of age (% Thai
RDI) with a 2,000-kcal diet. The results showed that the nutritional value of rice wrappedin lotus leaves per net weight of 180 g as a percentage of RDI (excluding a nutritional
analysis of the lotus leaves) was 390 kcal (20%) of total energy, 14 g (22%) of total fat, 285
mg (95%) of cholesterol, 18 g of protein, 48 g (16%) of total carbohydrate, 620 mg (31%)
of sodium, and vitamin A, B1, and B2. For the nutrition value of a lotus petal teacup per 100
g net weight, only 20 mg (1%) of sodium was found. Lastly, the preliminary results of thisstudy were evaluated based on a value index over five years. The findings revelated that thevalue addition of sacred lotus represented 8,859 Thai Baht of net present value (NPV), a
benefit-cost ratio (BCR) of 1.34, and 8.1% of internal rate of return (IRR), and showed thebreak-even value of the project budget. Therefore, the result findings are expected toenhance development of sacred lotus products oriented towards green production.
Keywords lotus, traditional food, nutrition information, Thai RDI, green productⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-1

INTRODUCTION
Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.), commonly known as the sacred lotus, belongs to the
Nelumbonaceae family and is a significant aquatic economic plant (Pal and Day, 2013). This species
holds religious importance in Southeast Asia, including Thailand, where various parts of the lotus
plant, such as the flower, seed, leaf, and rhizome, are utilized as food ingredients and traditional
herbs (Dhanarasu and Al-Hazimi, 2013; On-nom et al., 2023). The lotus has been extensively studied
for its nutritional composition. For instance, lotus seeds are a rich source of lipids (0.22-3.68%),
proteins (10.60-28.19%), carbohydrates (61.3-70.1%), vitamins (0.13-4.6 mg/kg of B1, B2, B6, C,
and E), minerals, and bioactive compounds (Shin et al., 1999; Zheng et al., 2003; Indrayan et al.,2005; Wu et al., 2007; Bhat and Sridhar, 2008; Zeng et al., 2011; Luo et al., 2016; Shahzad et al.,2021; Bangar et al., 2022). In Thailand, lotus seeds are commonly used in various food products,
such as stir-fried lotus seeds with dried chili paste, lotus seed flour, lotus seed butter, lotus seed cream,
and lotus seed milk (Punnaterkoon et al., 2016; Petcharat et al., 2009). For the local people in Pathum
Thani province, the sacred lotus holds significance as they utilize it to craft lotus flower and stamen
tea. Additionally, the fragrant aromas of its petals and leaves make them suitable for wrapping food(Meesuk, 2001; Changthom, 2021; Ridhowati et al., 2023). Some examples include rice wrapped inlotus leaves, herb appetizers wrapped in sacred lotus petals (Miang Kham), spicy sacred lotus petal
salad (Yam), and fried crispy sacred lotus petals. This reflects the cost-effective utilization ofdifferent parts of the sacred lotus. However, the products derived from the sacred lotus still lackcredibility in terms of quality and have limited reach among consumers. Therefore, there is a need todevelop community products that enhance consumer awareness through food analysis, nutrition
labeling, and environmentally friendly production.
The country’s Bio-Circular-Green (BCG) Economy and Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs) connect the bio-economic system to the cost-effective use of biological resources, generatevalue-added cultural food menus for community economies, and mitigate environmental problems
stemming from food waste—one of the primary sources of GHG emissions from human activities.
Estimates suggest that 8-10% of global greenhouse gas emissions are associated with unconsumed
food. The UNEP Food Waste Index Report (2021) reveals a household food waste measure in
Thailand of 79 kg/capita/year, equivalent to 5,478,532 tons/year. Moreover, the project's outcome
and impact pathways are evaluated using the concept of social return assessment (SROI),
incorporating techniques such as monetization, benefit transfer, and project cost-effectivenessmeasurement with the net present value, benefit-cost ratio, and internal rate of return indices. This
assessment aims to maximize the cost-effectiveness of budget expenditures.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study was to examine the nutritional status and the cost-benefit value of
traditional Thai foods and beverages prepared from sacred lotus.
METHODOLOGYExamine the menus of local food and healthy beverages across all 77 provinces of Thailand. Choose
a cultural menu from the sacred lotus that can evolve into a series of single-dish menus and a healthy
drink, including rice wrapped in sacred lotus leaves and dried sacred lotus petal tea. Furthermore,these menus should be positioned for promotion as food and beverage options, contributing to the
reduction of global warming by evaluating their carbon footprint in the future.
The process for preparing rice wrapped in sacred lotus petals involves the following steps: First,
6.44 mL of vegetable oil, 1.00 g of ground white pepper, 2.66 tsp oyster sauce, 1.44 g of caster sugar,
and a 3.33 mL mixture of blac k and light soy sauces. Combine these with a 6.66 g mixture of lotus
seeds, 4.44 g of shrimp, 4.44 g of mushrooms, and 37.77 g of steamed jasmine jasmine rice. Next,
scoop this mixture onto the middle of sacred lotus leaves, arranging ingredients such as 10 g of pork
Chinese sausage, 10 g of salted egg, and 22.22 g of chicken on the rice. Proceed to wrap the sacredⒸ ISERD

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lotus leaves and steam the package for 30 minutes. Each package of rice wrapped in sacred lotus
leaves has a net weight of 180 g. Preparing dried sacred lotus petal tea involves separating the sacred
lotus flower components, with the stamen section completely dried indoors. Simultaneously, thepetals are washed and cut into small pieces of 0.5 centimeters before being dried indoors as well.
Each package of dried sacred lotus petal tea has a net weight of 100 g, primarily composed of 60%
sacred lotus petals, 20% stamens, and 20% pandan leaves as main components. The product samples
were randomly collected: fifteen packages of rice wrapped in sacred lotus leaves with a total weightof 2,700 g and ten packages of dried sacred lotus petal tea with a total weight of 1,000 g. Foodanalysis and nutritional labeling were done by the Foundation for Industrial Development National
Food Institute, Thailand. The processes and analytical methods for food analysis are outlined in Table
1. The nutritional analysis data is utilized to calculate the values of energy, sugar, fat, and sodium incomparison to the corresponding nutrient content per unit package, as specified in Notification No.
182 (1998) of the Ministry of Public Health (2012).
Table 1 Test methods for nutritional analysis
Items
Ash
Calcium
Calories from fat
Cholesterol
Dietary fiber
Iron
Moisture
Protein (N x 6.25)
Saturated fat
SodiumTotal carbohydrate
Total calories
Total fat
Total sugars
Vitamin A
Vitamin B1
Vitamin B2

Test methods
AOAC (2019) 945.38C
In-house method T9152 based on AOAC (2019) 984.27
Methods of analysis for nutrition labeling 1993, chapter 1,5In-house method T992 based on the J. of AOAC International, Vol. 76, No.4, 1993
In-house method T995 based on AOAC (2019) 985.29
In-house method T9152 based on AOAC (2019) 984.27
AOAC (2019) 945.38B
In-house method T927 based on AOAC (2019) 991.20
In-house method T974 based on AOAC (2019) 996.06
In-house method T9152 based on AOAC (2019) 984.27
Methods of analysis for nutrition labeling 1993, chapter 1,5
Methods of analysis for nutrition labeling 1993, chapter 1,5
AOAC (2019) 945.38F
In-house method T997 based on AOAC (2019) 982.14
In-house method T969 based on AOAC (2019) 992.06
In-house method T970 based on AOAC (2019) 942.23
In-house method T971 based on AOAC (2019) 970.65

The research project at Valaya Alongkorn Rajabhat University under the Royal Patronage
Pathum Thani Province has received budget allocation and obtianed the profit from sales at theuniversity market. The study aims to evaluate economic impact through a benefit- cost analysis
method, utilizing the ex-ante evaluation model for an additional 5 years. This extended assessment
is conducted while the project is ongoing, measuring the investment value with quantitative indicessuch as Net Percent Value (NPV), Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR), and Internal Rate of Return (IRR).The
assessment data is gathered through participant interviews, employing instruments designed toevaluate project cost-effectiveness (Wongjinda, 2021; Jaijit et al., 2017), as represented in Eqs. (1-3).
n

NPV = ∑(Bt-Ct) ∕(1+r)t
t=0
n

n

t=0
n

t=0

(1)

BCR = ∑ Bt ∕ (1+r)t/ ∑ Ct ∕ (1+r)t(2)

IRR = ∑(Bt-Ct) ∕ (1+r)t = 0

(3)

t=0

These equations involve variables t ( project duration in years) , Bt ( project benefit in year t inbaht per year), Ct (project research cost in year t in Thai baht per year), and r (discount rate in percentage).
Before initiating the research project, the researcher sought certification from the Human
Research Ethics Committee of Valaya Alongkorn Rajabhat University under the Royal Patronage
Pathum Thani Province. This certification aligns with the ethical guidelines for research involvingⒸ ISERD141

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human subjects, meeting international standards outlined in COA No. 0049/ 2566 and REC No.
0049/2566.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of the nutritional analysis for rice wrapped in sacred lotus leaves and dried sacred
lotus petal tea are presented in Table 2.
Table 2 The results of nutritional analysis
Test items
Total energy
Calories from fat
Total calories
Total fate
Saturated fat
Cholesterol
Protein
Total carbohydrate
Dietary fiber
Sugar
SodiumIron
Calcium
Vitamin A
Vitamin B1
Vitamin B2
Ash
Moisture

Rice wrapped in sacred lotus leaves
Amount1 packThai RDI(per 100 g)(per 180 g)(%)
390.00 kcal
130.00 kcal
220.00 kcal
8.00
g
14.00
g
22
2.60
g
4.50
g
23
157.00mg 285.00 mg
95
10.20
g
18.00
g
26.70
g
48.00
g
16
1.70
g
3.00
g
3.80
g
7.00
g
346.00mg 620.00 mg
31
1.18
mg
2.12 mg15
57.00
mg 102.60 mg
15
51.00
µg
91.80 µg
100.05
g0.09 mg60.13
g0.23 mg15
1.57
g2.83 mg
53.56
g
96.41
g

Dried lotus petal tea
Amount1 glass
Thai RDI(per 100 g)(250 ml, 5 g)(%)
0.00 kcal
1.00

kcal
0.00

g

0.00

Not detected 0.00
0.20
g < 1.00

g
g

0.00
0.00

g
mg

0.00
1.00

Not detected< 9.62

0.00
20.00

mg

0.10
g
Not detected
99.72
g

Note: Percent Thai Recommended Daily Intakes for the population over 6 years of age (% Thai RDI) are based on a2000 kcal diet. Serving size 1 glass (250 ml, 5 g of dried lotus petal tea) and serving size 1 pack (180 g of rice wrappedin lotus leaves)

The findings indicate that rice wrapped in sacred lotus leaves, with a net weight of 180 g,
provides a total of 390 kcal. of energy and contains five macronutrient groups for Thai people: 18 gof protein, 14 g (22%) of total fat, 48 g (16%) of total carbohydrate, and minerals: 102.60 mg (15%)
of calcium and 1.18 mg (15%) of iron. Additionally, it includes vitamins A, B1, and B2. The productalso offers nutrients beneficial to the gastrointestinal tract, such as dietary fiber, while monitoring
against overeating includes cholesterol, sodium, saturated fat, and sugar (Surakarnkul, 2011). These
monitored nutrients are reported on the Guideline Daily Amounts (GDA) nutritional label, with the
maximum daily consumption recommended at 20% of total energy, 11% of sugar, 22% of fat, and
31% of sodium. Regarding the nutrition value of a cup of dried sacred lotus petal tea per net weightof 100 g, only 20 mg ( 1% ) of sodium was found. Both products' nutritional values meet thepercentage of Thai recommended daily intakes for the population over 6 years of age (% Thai RDI)
based on a 2,000-kcal diet (Ministry of Public Health, 2012). The results suggest that both products
can be integrated into food and beverage businesses. In addition to providing nutritional information,
they exhibit similar nutrient content to popular Thai foods, such as chicken pad Thai with rice noodles(energy: 159 kcal/100 g, protein: 6.36 g/100 g, total fat: 3.53 g/100 g, total carbohydrate: 24.7 g/100g) ( USDA, 2021) . Moreover, the standard recipe developed from jasmine rice wrapped in sacred
lotus leaves into a single- dish menu served with dried sacred lotus petal tea can incorporate
environmentally friendly ingredients and cater to a diverse consumer base, including Islam,vegetarians, and health enthusiasts. This development can potentially upgrade products from thesacred lotus toward green products in the next phase of the carbon footprint assessment.

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The project’ s results, focused on creating value- added traditional Thai food and healthy drinks
from the sacred lotus to green products, initially considered economic returns (income) and evaluatedthe value index for the next 5 years. The creation of value-added dried sacred lotus petal tea and ricewrapped in sacred lotus leaves demonstrated that the return from this project exceeds the investment,
making the investment worthwhile. Specifically, there is a NPV of 8,859 Thai Baht, an IRR of 8.1%,
and a BCR of 1.34, indicating that for every 1 Thai Baht invested, 1.34 baht is returned. According
to the criteria for measuring the value of capital ( NPV > 0, BCR > 0, and IRR > the interest rate of
the source of investment ( 5% ) ( Vijitsrikamol, 2021) ) , the evaluation results affirm the value of
spending the project budget. However, in the future, at the end of the project, a Social Return on
Investment ( SROI) evaluation for the sustainable development of the Thai traditional food andbeverage from the sacred lotus project should be conducted.
CONCLUSION
In the initial phase of the research project, the goal was to transform jasmine rice wrapped in sacred
lotus leaves into a single dish, served with royal lobster tea, with a focus on standardizing the recipe.
This standardized recipe can be adapted to incorporate local, environmentally friendly ingredientsand cater to a diverse range of consumer groups. The product includes a nutritional information label
adhering to GDA and Thai RDI criteria. Additionally, it boasts a nutrient content comparable topopular Thai dishes, contributing to the acceptance and creation of value-added traditional Thaimenus and healthy drinks from the sacred lotus over the next five years. This represents the outcomeof the cost-effectiveness evaluation of the budget expenditure, yielding indices of NPV, IRR, andBCR. In conclusion, it is essential to conduct a SROI evaluation. This evaluation should further
extend to green products through a carbon footprint assessment. Products obtained from using lotus
plant components do not create food waste and can generate income for the community. This linkage
aims to connect the bio-economy system and reduce GHG emissions from food production.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was financially supported by Valaya Alongkorn Rajabhat University under the Royal
Patronage Pathum Thani Province (contract reference number RD 023/2566).
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Research article
erd

Co-digestion of Ensiled Napier Grass and Commercial
Bakery Wastewater for Bioenergy Production
NATAGARN TONGPHANPHARN*
Faculty of Science and Technology, Valaya Alongkorn Rajabhat University
under the Royal Patronage Pathum Thani Province, Thailand
Email: natagarn@vru.ac.th

NATSIMA TOKHUN
Faculty of Science and Technology, Valaya Alongkorn Rajabhat University
under the Royal Patronage Pathum Thani Province, Thailand

MONTIP JANKAEWFaculty of Science and Technology, Valaya Alongkorn Rajabhat University
under the Royal Patronage Pathum Thani Province, Thailand

CHULEEMAS BOONTHAI IWAI
Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Received 25 April 2024

Accepted 17 June 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Bioenergy derived from anaerobic digestion has gained attention for a decade
because of its ability to convert waste into biogas. The advantages of this biotechnology
could substitute conventional energy, lower greenhouse gas emissions, and produce lessbiodegradable waste. This study focused on methane production from ensiled Napier grass(Pak Chong 1) by co-digestion with anaerobic mixed cultures of an Expanded Granular
Sludge Bed (EGSB) from a bakery factory. The ratio of co-digestion between ensiled Napiergrass feedstock and inoculum (F/I ratio) was 1:1 and 1:3 based on volatile solids (VS). The
potential of methane production was evaluated using a batch experiment for 30 days in thelaboratory at room temperature (32–35 ± 5 ºC). To enhance biogas production, an alkaline
pre-treatment of Napier grass was prepared by adding 1% NaOH. The results demonstrated
that the methane production potential of the F/I ratio at 1:1 and 1:3 was 311.11 ± 29 and
255.56 ± 91 mL CH4/g COD, respectively. The maximum energy production based onmethane production was approximately 9.17 kJ/L. The range of pH was 6.96 ± 0.2 to 9.93
± 0.2 and the percentage of SS, TS, and COD removal were 60.10, 24.69, and 48.63,
respectively. The results of this study indicated that the feedstock and inoculum ratio (F/I)
including pretreatment of feedstock and inoculum is necessary for biogas potential
production. The potential biogas production of the CSTR reactor and its economic feasibility
should be further considered.
Keywords anaerobic co-digestion, methane production, Napier grass, bakehousewastewater

INTRODUCTION
Currently, biogas obtained from waste conversion has gained substantial attention due to its benefits.
Biogas can be used as a substitute for fossil fuels, and it can reduce the CO2 and greenhouse gas
emissions of the waste treatment process. Anaerobic digestion is one of the traditional technologies
for the biological treatment of organic waste (Ren et al., 2018). Previously, anaerobic digestion, in
which organic compounds are degraded and converted to biogas in the absence of O2, was generally
used in many single biodegradable feedstocks including domestic or industrial waste, kitchen waste,
and agricultural waste (Zarkaya et al., 2013; Pandey et al., 2019). Agriculture residues or crops are
the second feedstocks that are utilized as sources of renewable energy. The complex substrates suchⒸ ISERD

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as cellulose and hemicellulose contain primarily glucose and xylose which could be fermented to
produce bioenergy using the process of microorganisms. Lignocellulosic biomass could provide
approximately 10% of the world’s energy. (Zhang et al., 2007; Sawadeenarunat et al., 2016).
Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) has considerable attention as a promising crop for energy
production, due to the fact that it is fast-growing, easy to harvest, has a high biomass, is highly
lignocellulosic, and is environmentally friendly (Mehmood et al., 2017). Although it is native toAfrica, it has been cultivated in many tropical regions of the world, including Thailand. Napier grass(Pakchong 1 strain) is not only one of the available biomass sources in Thailand (approximately
221,760,000 tonnes) but also has a high potential for bioenergy production from perennial grasses(Waramit and Chaugool, 2014; Sawasdee and Pisutpaisal, 2021). However, the anaerobic digestionof a single lignocellulosic feedstock has limitations including low biogas production efficiency, long
duration, and acidification. Several studies have shown later that co-digestion results in higher biogas
production compared to using a single feedstock. Successful research demonstrated that co-digestionof dairy manure with wheat straw and chicken manure produced more methane than using a single
feedstock (Wang et al., 2012). Wall et al., (2014) reported that co-digestion of silage and dairy slurryyielded the highest specific methane yield of 349 L CH4/kg VS. Typically, pretreatment is also
considered an advanced option to enhance the biogas production of anaerobic digestion because it isnecessary to break down lignin to hydrolyze cellulose and hemicellulose. Pretreatment methods are
generally categorized as physical (grinding or milling), chemical (acid and alkaline), and biologicalmethods (Vargas et al., 2015). Furthermore, grass silage is one of the appropriate options to minimize
the feedstock preparation costs and provide adequate raw materials for biogas production operations.
Grass ensiling is a simple preservation method that is implemented in biomass to extend the storage
time (Pahlow et al., 2003). The bakery factory or bakehouse industry typically consumes an amountof water and energy while wastewater from the processes also causes environmental impacts. On theother hand, this kind of wastewater contains highly biodegradable and organic compounds including
nutrients, carbohydrates, and lipids which are suitable for bioenergy production of anaerobic
digestion (Ali et al., 2017; Pilarska, 2018).
OBJECTIVE
The study aimed to investigate the methane production potential and the energy recovery from theco-digestion of ensiled Napier grass with commercial bakery wastewater in a batch experiment toachieve optimal proportions of substrates for further scale-up experiments.
METHODOLOGYThis study investigated the methane production potential of the co-digestion of ensiled Napier grasswith commercial bakery wastewater on a laboratory scale as follows:
Inoculum and Feedstocks
In this study, anaerobic sludge obtained from an expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB) from abakehouse wastewater treatment process (Bangkok, Thailand) was provided as an inoculum. It waspreserved in the refrigerator at 4 ºC. Before use, the anaerobic mixed culture was activated by adding
5% CH3COOH under anaerobic conditions for a week. In this experiment, the 1:1 and 1:3 ratios ofco-digestion between ensiled Napier grass feedstock and inoculum (F/I ratio) were investigated,while the initial pH of this was adjusted to a neutral level.
Preparation of the Ensiled Napier Grass
Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) Pakchong 1 strain was collected from the Lamtakhong
demonstration field of the Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (Nakhon
Ratchasima, Thailand). The grass was harvested at 70 days old and delivered to the laboratory. TheⒸ ISERD

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fresh grasses were chopped into small pieces (1-2 cm) by machine. Afterwards, 1L of thecompressed-grass extraction was ensiled in the laboratory reactor and sealed airtight with a screw
top for 60 days. Before the experiment, the ensiled Napier grass suspension was passed through a 47
mm filter to remove all the debris. The physiochemical characteristics of ensiled Napier grass were
evaluated, including pH, TS, SS, TKN, TP, and VFA. In addition, alkaline pre-treatment of ensiled
Napier grass was applied in this study by adding 1% NaOH (W/V) for 1 hour.
Methane Production and Analytical Method
Methane production was conducted in a batch experiment in the laboratory. The biological methane
potential (BMP) was evaluated using the following 1:1 and 1:3 ratios of F/I with an initial pH of 6.8–
7.2. The headspace of the BMP bottle was flushed with nitrogen gas for 5 minutes to displace the air,and the bottle was sealed with a rubber stopper. All BMP experiments were set up at a temperatureof 32–35 ± 5 ºC for 30 days. During the experiment, the daily methane gas was measured using thewetted gas syringe method (Owen et al., 1979). Methane production potential was calculated as thefollowing equation (Eq. 1), while the energy production was calculated from the maximum methane
converting to energy unit (kJ/L) (Sittijunda, 2015). All treatments were carried out in triplicate. The
results are given as average values with standard deviations.
Methane production potential =Total CH4 production (mL)g COD of substrate(1)

pH was measured using a pH meter (Hach 1130, USA). Concentrations of COD, TS, and VS
were analyzed according to the standard methods of water quality (APHA, 2015). The energy
production in this study was estimated based on methane production and its heating value (Sittijunda,
2015).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
An ensiled Napier grass was applied to co-digestion with commercial bakery wastewater in thisstudy. The ensiled Napier grass characteristics, including pH, TS, SS, COD, and VFA, were 4.08 ±0.1, 32.2 ± 0.38 g/L, 12.53 ± 0.38 g/L, 45.28 ± 0.44 g/L, and 3.52 ± 0.29 g/L, respectively. Due tothe low pH of ensiled Napier grass, which could affect the hydrolysis reactions, 1% NaOH wasprovided to neutralize the pH level. The initial pH values were 6.8-7.2 and gradually increased to
8.1-9.3 at the end of the experiment. The increase in pH might relate to the concentration of NH3 inthe systems, which affected methanogen bacteria and the methane production potential. As in theprevious study, Sompong (2019) reported that the high concentration of NH3 influenced themethanogenic bacteria and tended to decrease methane production. Thus, pH values during anaerobic
digestion processes including VFA should be considered for enhancing the methane production
yields.
The daily methane production of both F/I ratios is shown in Figure 1. The maximum methane
production of the 1:1 ratio was 230 ± 15 mL on the day 15th and 170 ± 20 mL of the 1:3 ratio at the
day 14th. The COD removal percentages of 1:1 and 1:3 ratios were 48.63 and 43.11, while thepercentages of SS and TS removal for the 1:1 ratio were 60.10 and 24.69, and 55.70 and 23.85 forthe 1:3 ratio of F/I, respectively (Table 1). The energy production was determined based on theconversion of the maximum methane production, the density of methane, and its heating value(Sittijunda, 2015). The energy production of 1:1 and 1:3 F/I ratios were 9.17 and 6.81 kJ/L,
respectively.
The results suggested that the co-digestion of feedstock and inoculum showed better methane
production potential than a single substrate. According to a study by Sirirote et al. (2014), the highest
cumulative biogas production of 26.25 L was obtained using a ratio of Napier grass and inoculum of
1:2. Comparing the previous study, the methane production potential of this co-digestion study(255.56 and 311.11 mL CH4/g COD) showed higher methane production than single Napier grassdigestion (122.4 mL CH4/g TVS) (Sawasdee and Pisutpaisal, 2021). Many studies reported theⒸ ISERD

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methane production yields of different feedstocks and inoculums, for instance, the co-digestion of
USAB granular and hydrolysate Napier grass (1:1) produced 40.9 percentage of methane yield(Sittijunda, 2015), and the sludge digested with ice cream wastewater was provided 320-340 mL
CH4/g COD (Ince, 1998). This indicated that the presence of organic materials is a crucial factor in
the process of biogas production through anaerobic digestion. In a previous study, Sittijunda (2015)
noticed that the amount of methane produced is affected by variables such as the organic loading
rate, the particular substrate utilized, and the temperature at which the process is carried out.
Furthermore, several pre-treatment methods of feedstocks are selected to enhance the biogas
production yields. Grass ensiling is a method selected to make feedstock preparation more costeffective, promote biomass degradation, and increase methane production (McEniry et al., 2014).
The results suggested that ensiled Napier grass digested with commercial bakery wastewater can
produce biogas and reduce greenhouse gases. However, it is necessary to conduct further researchon scaling up the systems to obtain the required energy, using double-batch or CSTR reactors andinvestigating economic feasibility.

Fig. 1 The methane production of 1:1 and 1:3 ratios of F/I
Table 1 The removal percentage of COD, SS, TS, methane production potential, andenergy production of the co-digestion of ensiled Napier grass and commercial
bakery wastewaterF/I ratio% COD
removal%SS
removal% TSremovalCH4 production
potential(mL CH4/g COD)

Maximum CH4
production(mL)

Energyproduction(kJ/L)

1:1

48.63

60.10

24.69

311.11 ± 29

230 ± 15

9.17

1:3

43.11

55.70

23.85

255.56 ± 91

170 ± 20

6.81

CONCLUSION
The results demonstrated that the co-digestion of ensiled Napier grass and commercial bakery
wastewater can produce methane and energy. The study determined that the optimal feedstock andinoculum ratio was 1:1, resulting in a methane production potential of 311.11 ± 29 mL CH4/g COD
and energy production of 9.17 kJ/L. Additionally, it was found to remove 43.11 to 48.63% of COD,
55.70 to 60.10% of SS, and 23.85 to 24.69% of TS. Therefore, this study indicated that co-digestingof ensiled Napier grass with commercial bakery wastewater can generate biogas and reduceⒸ ISERD

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greenhouse gas emissions. To enhance the methane production yield, pH, VFA, and methanogenbacteria dynamics could be necessarily considered for further research.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express their gratitude to Thailand Institute of Scientific and TechnologicalResearch, Environmental Science Program, Faculty of Science and Technology, Valaya Alongkorn
Rajabhat University under the Royal Patronage Pathum Thani Province and Integrated Water
Resource Management Research and Development Center in Northeast Thailand, Faculty ofAgriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand, for instruments, laboratory and financial support.
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McEniry, J., Allen, E., Murphy, J.D. and O'Kiely, P. 2014. Grass for biogas production: The impact of silage
fermentation characteristics on methane yield in two contrasting biomethane potential test systems.
Renewable Energy, 63, 524-530.
Mehmood, M.A., Ibrahim, M., Rashid, U., Nawaz, M., Ali, S., Hussain, A. and Gull, M. 2017. Biomass
production for bioenergy using marginal lands. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 9, 3-21.
Owen, W.F., Stuckey, D.C., Healy, J.J.B., Young, L.Y. and McCarty, P.L. 1979. Bioassay for monitoringbiochemical methane potential and anaerobic toxicity. Water Research, 13, 485-492.
Pahlow, G., Muck, R.E., Driehuis, F., Elferink, S. and Spoelstra, S.F. 2003. Microbiology of ensiling. In Silage
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Pandey, A., Larroche, C., Gnansounou, E., Khanal, S.K., Dussap, C-G. and Ricke, S. 2019. Biofuels:
Alternative feedstocks and conversion processes for the production of liquid and gaseous biofuels. In
Biomass, Biofuels, Biochemicals (2nd ed.), Elsevier, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1016/C2018-000957-3.
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Sittijunda, S. 2015. Biogas production from hydrolysate Napier grass by co-digestion with slaughterhousewastewater using anaerobic mixed cultures. KKU Research Journal, 20 (3), 323-336.
Sompong, O. 2019. Biogas production from chicken manure co-digested with Napier grass and food waste bysolid state anaerobic. Burapha Science Journal, 817-834.
Vargas, J.A., Castro, R.S., Gonzalez, R.I.C., Mondragon, F.A. and Mendez-Acosta, H.O. 2015. Methane
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municipal solid waste (OFMSW) via anaerobic process: Application methodology for Malaysian condition.
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Research article
erd

Farmers’ Perspectives on Ecosystem Services Provided byTree Windbreak System in Ovche Pole Region, Macedonia
OGNEN ONCHEVSKI
Graduate School of Agro-environmental Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Email: ogneoncevski@hotmail.com

MACHITO MIHARA*
Faculty of Regional Environmental Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Email: m-mihara@nodai.ac.jp
Received 9 May 2023

Accepted 20 June 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Ovche Pole Region is the second largest agricultural area in Macedonia. It is aplain with a dry climate, characterized by low precipitation and high ambient temperaturesduring the growing period and prevailing winds which are frequently present throughout theyear. During the 1950s, the government took a large-scale operation for the establishmentof tree windbreaks (field shelterbelts) that would reduce wind velocity, protect agriculturalland, and increase crop productivity. Even though these systems perform importantfunctions, approximately half of the initial tree windbreak area is lost mainly due to land usechange. Today a significant area of the existing tree windbreak belts is damaged. Actions
for the protection, rehabilitation, and restoration of these systems are needed, however,
without active support and understanding of farmers’ perspectives on tree windbreaksystems, any activity would be without major and long-term success. Therefore, theobjectives of this study are to: (1) examine farmers’ attitudes toward the tree windbreaksystem and their rehabilitation, and (2) assess farmers’ awareness and perceptions of
ecosystem services provided by the tree windbreak system. In this aim a semi-structured
questionnaire was developed and following the convenience sampling method distributed to
72 farmers to gather the needed information. Data analysis showed that in general farmers
have positively valued the tree windbreak systems and agreed that rehabilitation andrestoration are needed. Regarding the ecosystem functions, the results indicate that farmers
gave uniform answers in some cases, the farmers had split perceptions. According tofarmers’ responses, the most important ecosystem service provided by the tree windbreaks
is climate regulation, this is followed by the reduction of soil erosion and runoff and thesource of provisional materials function.
Keywords tree windbreak systems, ecosystem services, farmer’s perceptions, attitudes

INTRODUCTION
Tree windbreaks, shelterbelts, and hedgerows are linear barriers that usually consist of a single row
or multiple rows of trees, and shrubs mainly used to protect the land from the adverse effects of wind
(Alemu 2016; Brandle et al. 2021). Besides the wind protection effect, these systems perform
multiple ecosystem functions such as microclimate regulation, soil protection, biomass production,
wildlife habitat, recreational and cultural sites, etc. (Ruppert et al, 2020). On a larger scale,windbreaks provide societal benefits both locally and on a regional scale (Brandle et al. 2021)
Weninger et al (2021) in their systematic review of 222 studies concluded windbreak ecosystemservices showed a clear dominance of effects that are considered positive by a major part of society.
Because of the many benefits, tree windbreaks were extensively established across the world,
especially in Australia, Argentina, and northern parts of China, North America, Russia, and someformer USSR republics as well as other countries in Europe (Brandle et al. 2021; Jose et al 2029;
Ruppert et al. 2020; Sarah et al 2021). However, many recent studies report a decline in thewindbreak area and a subsequent loss of landscape functionality (Enrica et al. 2023; Weninger et alⒸ ISERD

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IJERD – International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (2024) 15-12021). During the 1950s, the government of Macedonia, at that time part of the Socialist Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia, took a large-scale operation for the establishment of tree windbreaks acrossthe country. Among several others, in the Ovche Pole Region – the area of interest in this study, there
was a massive action for the establishment of tree windbreak systems. In total 556 hectares of land
were planted. Even though these systems perform important functions, approximately half of theinitial tree windbreak area is lost mainly due to land use change. Today a significant area of theexisting tree windbreak belts is damaged. Actions for the protection, rehabilitation, and restorationof these systems are needed. (Onchevski et al, 2022). Without the active support of stakeholders offarmers’ perspectives on tree windbreak systems, any activity would be without major and long-term
success (Camilli et al. 2018; García de Jalón et al. 2018; Khatri et al 2023; Ruppert et al.2020; RoisDíaz et al. 2018; Thevs et al. 2017). Because there are no research studies, little is known about
farmers’ perspectives on agroforestry practices in Macedonia so far, in particular the tree windbreaks.
OBJECTIVE
To fill the gap mentioned in the introduction, the objectives of this study are to (1) examine farmers’
attitudes toward the tree windbreak system and their rehabilitation, and (2) assess farmers'
perceptions of ecosystem services provided by the tree windbreak system.

METHODOLOGY
Research Area Description
Ovche Pole Region is a plain located in the east-central part of Macedonia taking an area of 649 km2(Fig. 1). It is the second largest agricultural region in Macedonia, part of the semi-arid and sub-humid
agroecological zone of the country (Aksoy et al. 2020).

Fig. 1 Geographical position of Macedonia (a) and research area (b)The regional climatic conditions are dry and are characterized by low precipitation and highambient temperatures during the growing period as well as year-round prevailing winds. Northernwinds are most dominant, blowing throughout the entire year, with an average frequency of 188%
and an average speed of 4.6 m/sec. Tree windbreaks are planted in the southwest to northeast
direction perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing northwest winds. and take around 555.66
ha in total. The rows of trees are 10 to 20 meters wide with different lengths starting from 0.5 km forthe shortest and 15 km for the longest. They are forming a rectangle grid pattern and agriculture
parcels that are approximately 1000 m in length and 250 m in width. The dominant and most
distributed tree species in the windbreaks are the Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), followed byField elm (Ulmus minor), Ash (Fraxinus ornus), Almond (Prunus amygdalus), and others.

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Fig. 2 Photos showing the tree windbreaks in the research area
Data Collection and Analysis
The study was conducted from the 7th of September to the 7th of October 2019. A semi-structured
questionnaire was developed and distributed to farmers to gather primary data. Using theconvenience sampling method, 72 farmers took part in the questionnaire survey, out of a populationof 375 registered farmers. The questionnaire was designed to have three sections. The first section
contained questions related to the socioeconomic characteristics of farmers. The second section
captured farmers’ attitudes toward the tree windbreak system in general and the third section captured
farmers’ awareness and perceptions of ecosystem services provided by the tree windbreak. In thissection, farmers were asked to answer one Likert scale question and one raking question. The firstquestion was composed of 12 statements that referred to an ecosystem service. In the second
question, farmers were asked to rank the ecosystem services by importance. Simple descriptive
statistics such as frequency distribution and percentage were used to interpret and present data.
Secondary data on climate/weather, land use, soils, and demography were obtained from publishedor unpublished sources. The number of registered farmers was provided by The Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry and Water Management (MAFWM). In addition to the primary data, relevant
literature on agroforestry, tree windbreaks ecosystem services, and farmers' perceptions werereviewed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 provides an insight into the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents. The results
show that most of the respondents were middle-aged to old males with high education levels. These
results reflect the average age of farmers in Macedonia since the number of young people who decideto work in the agriculture sector is declining. Almost all of them produce grain crops like wheat, ray,and corn, however, most of the respondents produce additional products such as vegetables, animal
fodder (alfalfa), grapes, etc. The average size of the land for the individual farmers is around 5
hectares. To avoid biased and false impressions on the average land size results, an agriculturecompany that manages a land area of 1300 ha was excluded from the calculations.
Table 1 Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents
Characteristics of respondents (Total number of respondents: n=72)
57.9 (range 29 to 80 years)
GenderFemale = 4 / Male=68
no formal education = 0 / primary school degree = 2 / high school
Level of education
degree = 26 / university degree = 9 / vocational qualifications = 16
Average size of farmland(ha)5.33 haPurpose of agricultural production commercial = 48 / own needs = 15 / commercial and own needs = 10
Average age

The results of the survey show that the majority of the farmers have positive attitudes towards
the tree windbreaks. On the other side, the respondents who expressed negative feelings mainlyⒸ ISERD

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complained that the trees compete with the crops for water, make shade, and are not well maintainedby the public forest enterprise. Results are summarized in Table 2. In opposite, Ruppert et al. (2020)
for their study area in Kyrgyzstan reported that more than 50% of the respondents had negative
attitudes toward the windbreaks. In their case, the respondent’s main concerns were the shading,possible potential conflicts with neighbors, spreading of diseases, small land area, harmful roots, etc.
The results analysis from the second questionnaire section is presented in Figure 3. shows that there
is a strong agreement and high awareness among respondents that the tree windbreaks: add to theaesthetic of the landscape; provide protection and habitat for pollination insects; provide shade andshelter for animals; reduce runoff; positively influence the local microclimate; and provide wood,
fruits, fodder, nuts, and other materials.
Table 2 Questions reflecting the farmers’ attitudes towards the tree windbreak
Number of respondents (Percentage of total %)Positive1 /Negative1
Neither positive nor
2,3
Yes/No2,3
negative1 / I do not know2

Question
1) What is the general impact of the field
protection belts on the land production
process?
2) Do you think that field protection belts
should be removed?
3) Do you think that field protection belts
should be restored and extended to otherareas?

58 (79%)3 (4%)

12 (16%)4 (5%)

69 (95%)0 (0 %)

59 (81%)9 (12%)

5 (7%)

1,

Answer applicable to number 1 question.
Answer applicable to number 2 question.
3.
Answer applicable to number 3 question.
2,

The field protection belts represent part of thecultural heritage of the region
The field protection belts provide environment for
sports and relaxation
The field protection belts add to the ascetic of thelandscapeThe field protection belts provide protection andhabitat for pollinator insects that positively…
The field protection belts provide shade and shelter
for animal, insects and plants
The field protection belts sequestrate carbon fromthe air
The field protection belts reduce soil water
evaporation
The field protection belts positively influence thelocal microclimate
The field protection belts control crop pests anddiseases
The field protection belts reduce soil erosion andrunoff
The field protection belts improve soil fertility andgeneral soil conditions of the surrounding…
The field protection belts are source for woodmaterial, fodder, fruits, nuts, medical and other…
Didn't know the answer
Neither agree nor disagree

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%100%
Strongly not agree
Not agree
Agree
Strongly agree

Fig. 3 Farmers’ awareness and perceptions of the ecosystem service provided
by tree windbreaksⒸ ISERD

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Furthermore, most farmers did not agree that tree windbreak systems represent part of theregional cultural heritage, and that they provide an environment for sports and recreation. On theother hand, for some ecosystem services farmers’ responses were not uniform. It is worth noting that
there was strong disagreement among farmers regarding the ability of windbreaks to reduce soil
water evaporation, which is their primary function. The results showed that 36% of respondents
agreed that windbreaks reduce soil water evaporation, 37% disagreed and 18% neither agreed nor
disagreed. In addition, farmers' perceptions were ununiform on the statements that tree windbreaks
improve soil fertility and soil conditions as well as control pests and diseases.
Most of the farmers did not know how to answer regarding the carbon sequestration function of
the systems, keeping in mind that tree carbon sequestration is a phenomenon that the general and oldpopulation does not completely understand and is aware of, these results are not surprising. When
farmers were asked to rank the ecosystem services by importance, 55 % stated that the most importantis the microclimate regulation service provided by tree windbreaks (Fig. 4). The second mostimportant is the reduction of soil erosion and runoff, and the third is the windbreaks to provide woodmaterial, fodder, fruits, nuts, and other products. In this case, Ruppert et al. (2020) reported similar
results. In their research area farmers' most appreciated benefits from windbreaks were the provisionof construction material, wind reduction, and firewood provision.
1-source for wood material, fodder, fruits, nuts,
medical and other products.

1st most
important2-improve soil fertility and general soil
conditions of the surrounding agricultural land.
3-reduce soil erosion and runoff.

2nd most
important4-control crop pests and diseases.
3rd most
important5-regulate the local microclimate.
6-reduce soil water evaporation.

4th most
important

7-sequestrate carbon from the air.

5th most
important

8-provide shade and shelter for animal, insects
and plants.
9-provide protection and habitat for pollinatorinsects that positively contribute pollination ofcrop plants.

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

Fig. 4 Ranking of ecosystem services provided by tree windbreaks
CONCLUSION
This research brings valuable insight into the attitudes and perceptions of the local population on tree
windbreaks which is key to the successful implementation of protection and restoration projects andprograms. The results showed that farmers, in general, have positive attitudes toward windbreaks,
however, it also showed that more than half of the respondents were not convinced that windbreaks
can reduce soil water evaporation and improve fertility and general conditions of soils. This belief
can be a potential reason for any reluctant behavior and hesitation from farmers towards therestoration and extension of tree windbreaks to new areas. Data derived from scientific studies canbe used as proof to contra arguments and shift negative perceptions. Therefore, extensive scientificstudies, that will investigate and quantify the ecosystem services provided by the tree windbreaks areⒸ ISERD

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needed, especially studies that assess the effect of tree windbreaks on evapotranspiration, soil
fertility, and crop yields. Besides the presentation of specific data on paper, it is important that
farmers can get to know a realistic picture and proper management practices on demonstration sites.
On top of that, there are many other provided benefits, that are not acknowledged entirely. Theseshould be communicated and promoted to the local population as well as the public in the country.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research has been supported by Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje as well as local
authorities of Ovche Pole Region. The discussion has been deepened among the research fellows in
the Laboratory of Land and Water Use Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan. We
would like to express special gratitude to them related to this study.
REFERENCES
Aksoy, E., Arsov, S., Mincev, I. and Fang, C. 2020. Agro-ecological atlas of the republic of North Macedonia.
FAO, Rome, Retrieved from https://www.fao.org/3/ca7519en/CA7519EN.pdf
Alemu, M.M. 2016. Ecological benefits of trees as windbreaks and shelterbelts. International Journal of
Ecosystem, 6 (1), 10-13, Retrieved from DOI 0.5923/j.ije.20160601.02.
Brandle, J.R., Takle, E. and Zhou, X. 2021. Windbreak practices. In Garrett, H.E.G., Jose, S., Gold, M.A.(Eds.).
North American Agroforestry, 3rd Edition, 89-126. Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1002/
9780891183785.ch5
Camilli, F. et al. 2018. How local stakeholders perceive agroforestry systems, An Italian perspective.
Agroforestry Systems, 92, 849-862. Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-017-0127-0
Enrica, G., Josep, P.R., Amanda, J.A., Garry, P., Albert, N., Anna, R.P. and Josep, V.S. 2023. Landscapefeatures shape people’s perception of ecosystem service supply areas. Ecosystem Services, 64, 101561.
Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2023.101561
García de Jalón, S. et al. 2018. How is agroforestry perceived in Europe, An assessment of positive and negative
aspects by stakeholders. Agroforestry Systems 92, 829-848, Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-017-0116-3
Jose, S. 2009. Agroforestry for ecosystem services and environmental benefits, An overview. Agroforest
Systems, 76, 1-10, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-009-9229-7
Khatri, N. D., Paudel, D., Bhusal, P., Ghimire, S. and Bhandari, B. 2023. Determinants of farmers’ decisions
to adopt agroforestry practices, Insights from the mid-hills of western Nepal. Agroforestry Systems, 97 (5),833-845. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-023-00830-6
Onchevski, O., Irie, T., Minchev, I. and Mihara, M. 2022. Relation between the level of degradation and thewind speed reduction efficiency of tree windbreaks systems in Ovche Pole Region, Macedonia.
International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, 13 (2), 13-18, Retrieved from DOI
https://doi.org/10.32115/ijerd.13.2_13
Rois-Díaz, M. et al. 2018. Farmers’ reasoning behind the uptake of agroforestry practices: evidence frommultiple case studies across Europe. Agroforestry Systems, 92, 811-828. Retrieved from DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-017-0139-9
Ruppert, D., Welp, M., Spies, M. and Thevs, N. 2020. Farmers’ perceptions of tree shelterbelts on agriculturalland in rural Kyrgyzstan. Sustainability, 12 (3), 1093, Retrieved from DOI https://doi.org/10.3390/
su12031093
Sarah T. Lovell, Gary Bentrup, Erik Stanek. 2021. In: Garrett, Harold E. “Gene”; Jose, Shibu; Gold, MichaelA., (Eds). North American Agroforestry, 3rd Edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: 417-435.
Chapter 14.
Thevs, N., Strenge, E., Aliev, K., Eraaliev, M., Lang, P., Baibagysov, A. and Xu, J. 2017. Tree shelterbelts as
an element to improve water resource management in Central Asia. Water, 9 (11), 842, Retrieved from
DOI https://doi.org/10.3390/w9110842
Weninger, T., Scheper, S., Lackóová, L., Kitzler, B., Gartner, K., King, N. W., Cornelis, W., Strauss, P. andMichel, K. 2021. Ecosystem services of tree windbreaks in rural landscapes, A systematic review.
Environmental Research Letters, 16 (10), 103002, Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1088/17489326/ac1d0dⒸ ISERD

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Research article
erd

Factors Influencing Accounting Practices for Biological
Assets: The Case of Selected Agritourism Farms in thePhilippines
HANNA D. MIRANDA-QUIBOT*Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: hdmiranda@up.edu.ph

YASUO OHE
Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Received 26 April 2024

Accepted 24 June 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract The IAS 41 accounting standard for agriculture aims to standardize the accounting
practices among entities engaged in agricultural production. However, there has been
limited awareness and adoption of the standard, especially in the agritourism sector. This
study examined accounting practices of selected agritourism farms in Region IV-A,
Philippines, and aimed to identify the factors that influence their accounting practices.
Interviews were conducted with eighteen farms and their financial records were reviewed.
A descriptive analysis composed of mean and median rating and odds ratio analysis were
performed. Additionally, sentiment analysis was conducted to evaluate the attitudes of the
respondents toward the factors that influence their practices. Results indicated that mostfarms did not adhere to the established accounting standards for recognizing and measuring
biological assets, instead relying on current practices. Only five farms recognized biologicalassets composed of living animals and plants, and only three farms maintained a Biological
Asset account and measured it using the fair market value approach. The study highlighted
that owner or management preferences, and the ease of calculation contributed verysignificantly to the farm’s accounting practices. Training in finance and accounting andrecommendations of external auditors increased the likelihood of farms adopting thestandard. Notably, sentiment analysis revealed a positive score for training, while
recommendations of the auditors received a moderately positive score. The study
recommends enhanced education on accounting for agriculture. A framework on how torecord and measure biological assets must be developed to improve the accounting practicesof agritourism farms and their compliance with accounting standards.
Keyword agritourism, accounting practices, biological assets, odds ratio analysis,
sentiment analysis

INTRODUCTIONManaging an asset throughout its useful life, from its acquisition to its disposal, contributes tosustained operational excellence (Maletic et al., 2020) as it allows business entities to make better
financial decisions and enhance asset performance and overall productivity. Efficient managementof assets is essential to achieve competitive advantage, especially in agriculture, as it encompasses
biological assets that include living animals and plants.
Agritourism, a form of farm diversification offering tourism activity conducted in rural areas(RA 10816 Sec. 3, 2016), has gained prominence as a strategic approach to farms' financial
sustainability while showcasing different agricultural activities that can be done within the farm.
Diverse agricultural and fishery-based activities attract visitors to experience and learn about farm
life while having outdoor recreation and relaxation (Ohe, 2020). Asset management in agritourism
farms involves the management of biological assets such as crops, livestock, and other agricultural
products. Farm owners strategically plan cultivation cycles, integrate different farming practices, andⒸ ISERD

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implement effective risk management (Tew and Barbieri, 2012) to safeguard these assets that
constitute the core of the agritourism experience.
Asset management includes recording or accounting biological assets essential for financial
reporting, decision-making, and compliance with governing bodies. However, farmers typically do
not engage in accounting practices due to their lack of expertise, the incompatibility of someaccounting principles with their specific type of business, and the complexity and cost associatedwith implementing such practices (Argilés and Slof, 2001). Proper financial accounting is not
maintained in agriculture, as farmers only record monetary transactions that involve revenues andexpenses (Doğan et al., 2013). In addition, financial literacy, land holding size, and farm income also
affect the decision of the farmers to maintain farm accounting records (Prajapati et al., 2015; Tackie
et al., 2022).
Farms should keep a comprehensive set of financial records to easily assess the operational andfinancial efficiency of their agricultural operations (Sharma, 2012). Implementing proper accounting
enhances decision-making, improves profitability, and allows farmers to identify their strengths andweaknesses to manage changes and improvements in farm management. Records should beorganized based on their respective activities and departments (Sharma, 2012). It is necessary to havedistinct accounts for products, livestock, crops, and their associated items. The production cost perunit and the cost of the finished product must be accurately represented. Moreover, both thedepreciable assets and biological assets should have proper documentation. Accurate recordkeeping
provides a clear picture of the financial status of the farm. If all assets are not accounted for in thefinancial statements, like the nonrecording of the biological assets, it may lead to misstatements suchas overstatements or understatement of farm assets and profits (Miranda and Ohe, 2024).
Accounting for biological assets is guided by the International Accounting Standard (IAS) 41,
the accounting standard for agriculture. In the Philippines, the IAS 41 was adopted as the Philippine
Accounting Standard 41 (PAS) 41, which has the same objective of prescribing the accounting
treatment, financial statement presentation, and disclosures related to agricultural activities,
including biological transformation and harvest of biological assets for sale or conversion into
agricultural produce or another biological asset. Biological assets are initially measured at fair market
value less cost to sell, except for cases where fair value cannot be measured reliably (IAS 41:12).
The harvested produce is also measured at fair market value less cost to sell at the point of harvest(IAS 41:13). In addition, subsequent measurements due to biological transformation may result tochanges in the fair market value and must be included in profit or loss (IAS 41:26-29).
The adoption of accounting standards is influenced by various factors such as awareness of theowners, educational competency, organizational structure, accounting infrastructure, mandatorycompliance, and the users and their needs for accounting information and its cost-and-benefit
relationships (Rahman et al., 2002; Hai, 2015; Miranda et al., 2017) and choosing the applicableaccounting practices can also be affected by these factors. Factors such as preferences of owners or
management and ease in calculation have been considered because farm owners prefer simplicity
and familiarity with accounting practices. They want simplified calculations that minimize thechances of errors and save time and resources. In addition, learnings from training, seminars, andworkshops they have attended, as well as practices introduced in the industry or sector they belong,
also influence what practices they will apply in their farm operations. Industry practices play a crucialrole in establishing standardized norms within the agricultural sector, serving as benchmarks for
operational and reporting standards. As the farms weigh the practices to be adopted, cost and benefit
considerations take place, like using software, which will entail additional costs for the farms.
Furthermore, external auditors' recommendations carry significant weight in shaping accounting
procedures. They contribute to the adherence to accounting standards and regulatory requirements
while offering insights into enhancing internal controls and risk management practices. External
users such as investors, lenders, regulators, and government agencies rely heavily on farms to provide
relevant and reliable financial information. This information is critical for their decision-making
processes, investment evaluations, credit assessments, and adherence to regulatory mandates,
underscoring the importance of sound accounting practices aligned with external user needs.
Regardless of the size, all entities must produce financial reports adhering to standards to allow
users to assess the organization's performance and compare the financial results (Van Biljon, andⒸ ISERD

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Scott, 2019). Furthermore, it is crucial to correctly grasp the situation of farm resources forsustainable utilization in both farm production and agritourism. Accounting for biological assets
empowers farmers to understand the status of the farm resources and helps rational planning for thesustainability of farm activities with broader perspectives. However, limited studies were conductedon how these resources should be accounted for. This study addresses the gap by evaluating andharmonizing the accounting practices of agritourism farms in the Philippines, aiming to create acomparable financial record that decision-makers can use. A system must be established forrecordkeeping that will track not only the cost, resource use, and income, but also align with the
purpose of planning and budgeting, which are very critical in attaining sustainability in farmoperations.
OBJECTIVE
The primary objective of this study is to evaluate the accounting practices implemented by selected
agritourism farms in the Philippines. Additionally, the study aims to identify the factors that play arole in shaping the accounting practices of these farms. The findings of this study will contribute to
the creation of a framework for applying accounting standards for agriculture in the agritourism
sector.
METHODOLOGY
A mixed-method approach was employed, integrating primary and secondary data to explore theaccounting practices of eighteen agritourism farms in Region IV-A, Philippines. Purposive sampling
was applied to select the farms, and the data collection involved a semi-structured questionnaireadministered between August – October 2022 and 2023. Mean and median ratings were used todetermine which factors were used extensively by the farms. Odds ratio analysis was performed tocompare the likelihood of recording biological assets between two groups. Group 1 consists of farms
that record biological assets, while Group 2 is composed of farms that do not record biological assets.
An odd ratio of greater than 1 means a positive association while an odds ratio of less than 1 meansa negative association (Kalra, 2016). Qualitative insights from the respondents were analyzed using
Sentiment Analysis. Sentiment analysis involves identifying and extracting subjective informationfrom a text by assessing its level of positivity or negativity (Kearney and Liu, 2014). Utilizing NVivo
14, a qualitative data analysis software, individual responses were assigned a sentiment score from 1 to 1. A positive score reflected a positive sentiment, while a negative score indicated a negative
sentiment.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Accounting Practices
Initially, conventional farms concentrated on agricultural production but later diversified to tourism
by incorporating tourism services such as farm tours, real farm work experience, animal feeding
activities, pick and pay, farm stay, outdoor activities, and events reception. The accounting practicesof these farms involve a simple recording of the revenues and expenses with assets and liabilities
also being documented. However, the accounting for biological assets used for agricultural
production and tourism activities is notably absent.
Biological assets comprising living animals and plants are categorized as consumable and bearer
biological assets. In the surveyed agritourism farms, consumable assets, including annual crops(vegetables, herbs) potted plants, and cut flowers, have a shorter life and can be sold once harvested.
The bearer biological assets comprise fruit-bearing trees, mahogany trees, dairy cows, and goats. The
recognition, measurement, and disclosure of these assets depending on their classification, are guided
by PAS 41 - Agriculture, PAS 2- Inventories, and PAS 16 – Property, Plant, and Equipment. TheⒸ ISERD

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biological assets undergo biological transformation through growth, degeneration, and procreation(IAS 41:7) potentially yielding a change in quantity and quality change such as giving birth to anotherbiological asset or an agricultural produce to be harvested. Figure 1 illustrates the agricultural activity
cycle of the biological assets, classification, and relevant accounting standards to be used. Based on
the survey conducted, all farms recognize biological assets in the form of agricultural produce, but
only five farms recognize and record living animals and plants. Among these, only three record it
under the account name Biological Assets.

Source: Adapted from Gughea and Iordache, 2017

Fig. 1 Agricultural activity cycle of biological assets, its classification, and applicableaccounting standards
Table 1 shows how each farm conducts its accounting practices. The majority of the farms
produce crops and livestock, 11 farms (61.11%) produce both crops and livestock, two farms(11.11%) raise livestock only such as dairy cattle and goats, two farms (11.11%) produce crops only
while one farm (5.56%) is engaged in both livestock and floriculture, one (5.56%) engaged infloriculture only, and lastly one farm (5.56%) engaged in crop, livestock, and floriculture production.
Ten (55.56%) farms are registered as corporations, while eight (44.44%) farms are registered as sole
proprietors. Only one farm uses a software-based accounting system, while the rest manually record
all farm transactions. Accounting transactions on the farm include revenue from the tourist entrance
fee, sales from agricultural produce and processed products, and farm operating expenses. Thesetransactions are recorded manually in their record or logbooks and later transferred to Microsoft
Excel. In the case of Farm K, they use the software Quickbooks. All transactions are recorded daily,
which are subsequently sent and transferred to Quickbooks every month. Farm K is a participant ina Paiwi program, which entails the leasing of livestock. Given the presence of multiple sub-farms inthis program, the auditor recommended that the use of software be adopted to ensure uniformity inthe structure of their financial reports. All farms registered as corporations prepare and submit acomplete set of financial statements for compliance with the Securities and Exchange Commission.
On the other hand, two farms registered as Sole Proprietorship also prepare a complete set of financial
statements, and they use it to avail loans and grants. In comparison, six farms only prepare Income
Statements to be submitted for tax compliance.
Only four farms demonstrated awareness of the accounting standard. Among them, Farms F, I,
and J applied PAS 41, as recommended by their auditors, while Farm E, though have heard of thestandard, chose not to implement it as of this moment since he does not fully understand it. Out of
the 18 surveyed farms, only Farms A, F, I, J, and K recognized and documented biological assets inaccordance with PAS 41 and PAS 2. For Farm A, engaged in goat farming, live goats are recorded
in inventory at the lower cost or net realizable value, while crops are valued based on the marketⒸ ISERD

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price. Farms F, I, J, and K value the assets using the market value and disclose them under the accountname “Biological Assets” except for Farm F, which records them as “Other Assets.” The remaining
13 farms do not record living animals and plants and only record the agricultural produce when it isharvested or sold using the most recent market price. Additional biological assets like calves and kids
are recorded in the inventory reports.
Table 1 Characteristics of surveyed agritourism farms and their accounting practices(n=18)
Farms

Agricultural
Production

Legal
Structure

Accounting systemAccountin
g Records
Maintained

Awarenessof PAS 41

Recognize
Biological
Assets

A

C&L

Corp

Manual

CFS

No

Yes

B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R

C&L
C&L
C&L
C&L
L
C&L
C&L
F&L
C&L
L
C&L
C&L
F
C
C&L
C, L, & F
C

Corp
Corp
Corp
Corp
Corp
Corp
Corp
Sole
Sole
Corp
Corp
Sole
Sole
Sole
Sole
Sole
Sole

ManualManualManualManualManualManualManualManualManualSoftwareManualManualManualManualManualManualManual

CFS
CFS
CFS
CFS
CFS
CFS
CFS
CFS
CFS
CFS
CFS
IS
IS
IS
IS
IS
IS

No
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No

No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No

Valuation
MethodLoCNRV,
MP
MP
MP
MP
MP
MP
MP
MP
MP
MP
MP
ACE
IV
MP
MP
MP
MP
MP

Source: Field Survey, 2022 and 2023
Notes: Agricultural Production: C = Crops, L = Livestock, F = Floriculture
Legal Structure: Corp. = Corporation, Sole = Sole Proprietorship
Accounting Reports: CFS = Complete Financial Statements; IS = Income Statement;
Valuation Method: MP = Most Recent Market Price; LoCNRV = Lower of Cost or Net Realizable
Value; ACE = Accumulated costs and expenses; IV = Independent valuation

Factors Influencing Accounting Practices
The financial accounting of agritourism farms is affected by different factors such as the training,
preferences of the owners or management, cost-benefit, ease in calculation, industry practices,
recommendation of the auditor, and the needs of the external users for decision making. Using themean and median rating analysis presented in Table 2, the owners' preference (4.83) and ease of
calculation (4.61) are considered to be the factor that very extensively affects the farm’s accounting
practices. The owners and management have the authority and responsibility for the financial
decisions and policies on farm management. Since most farms are unaware of the accounting
standard and only know about basic accounting, proper accounting of the biological assets is omitted.
Moreover, they prefer simplicity in the recording because it is more efficient and cost-saving. The
only biological asset-related transaction recorded in their books is when they harvest it and sell it to
the consumers. Industry practices (4.44), cost-benefit (4.28), training in finance and accounting(3.83), and recommendations from external auditors (3.61) extensively influenced the accounting
practices of the farms. Industry practices provide a benchmark or a common standard for accounting
policies. However, based on the survey, the agritourism industry has no established accounting
practices. Moreover, applying the standard may be costly since they might hire a new staff in chargeof the valuation. For the training, all farms attended training provided by different government
agencies, such as the Department of Tourism (DOT) that provide training on financial management,Ⓒ ISERD

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focusing on tour packaging, costing, and farm development funding. In addition, the Department ofTrade and Industry (DTI) and Department of Agriculture (DA) also give training on Entrepreneurial
Accounting and Financial Management that covers basic accounting and financial management. This
training does not include accounting for biological assets. On the other hand, farms registered ascorporations value the recommendations given by their auditors and use them to enhance theaccuracy of the farm’s financial reporting and align it with the regulatory requirements. Their
auditors are key in advising them on recording and measuring biological assets. The needs of primaryexternal users were given a rating of 3.11 or fairly extensive since the financial records they produce
are for compliance purposes only.
Table 2 Factors influencing the accounting practices of the surveyed agritourism farms(n=18)
Factors
Preference of the owners or management
Ease in calculation
Industry practices
Cost and benefit
Training in finance and accounting
Recommendations of external auditors
Needs of primary external users

Mean rating
4.83
4.61
4.44
4.28
3.83
3.61
3.11

Median rating
5.0
5.0
5.0
4.5
4.5
4.0
4.0

Odds ratio
undefined
undefined
undefined
undefined
1.28571.28570.7778

Scale (adopted from Joyno, 2003)
4.51 – 5.00 – Very Extensive, 3.51 – 4.50 – Extensive, 2.51 – 3.50 – Fairly Extensive,
1.50 and below – Very Poor in Extent, 1.51 – 2.50 – Poor in Extent
Source: Field Survey, 2023

Among the five farms that recognize biological assets, only Farm K, engaged in dairy cattle
farming, has a comprehensive recording process that covers the acquisition of biological assets, thebirth of new calves, the harvest of agricultural produce, and the disposal of assets as recommended
by their auditor. As shown in Fig. 2, the farm bookkeeper, in cooperation with their auditor, diligently
records and monitors all expenses related to each process. The fair market value approach has beenused to value the assets and the monthly changes in the fair market value are regularly documented.
These changes are disclosed in their financial statements as FV Gain or Loss on Initial Recognitionof Biological Assets and FV Gain or Loss on Remeasurement of Biological Assets. Moreover, thefarm owners strictly enforced the recommendations of the auditor in relation to the farm recording
which includes records from the breeding process, calving, milking, and medication and treatments.
The farm auditor emphasized the importance of recordkeeping, he stated that “Proper documentationof biological assets is the key to effectively account the biological assets in accordance with PAS 41.
The updated record of all biological assets as to its changes will be helpful in accounting.” On theother hand, the farm practices in relation to processing activities were influenced by industry
practices and the training they attended.
Using the odds ratio analysis, the farms were grouped into two – Group 1 are the farms recording
biological assets (Farms A, F, I, J, K). At the same time, Group 2 are the farms not recording (Farms
B, C, D, E, G, H, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R) biological assets. A ratio of 1 and above indicates a greater
likelihood that the farm will modify or be affected by its accounting practices if the factor is present.
Conversely, a ratio of below 1 suggests a lower likelihood of changing their accounting practice.
Based on the odds ratio analysis, there is a higher odd that agritourism farms will practice therecording of biological assets if there is training in finance and accounting (1.2857) provided toowners and key accounting personnel, as well as those in charge of the valuation of the biologicalassets. Recommendations of the external auditors (1.2857) contributed to the possibility that
agritourism farms will practice recording biological assets. Among the five farms that record
biological assets per accounting standard, one farm stated that they changed their accounting practiceupon consulting with their external auditor. In contracts, the needs of primary external users (0.7778)
have a lower odd that farms will practice recording biological assets if needed by primary external
users. Since most farms are family corporations, the financial statements they produce are submitted
to government agencies for compliance. Some farms use their financial statements to get grants orⒸ ISERD

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funds from government agencies requiring financial reports. On the other hand, preferences of theowners or management, ease in calculation, industry practices, and cost and benefit resulted in an
undefined odds ratio because one of the groups has no occurrences of recording biological assets.

Fig. 2 Accounting practices of Farm K
The sentiment analysis performed also supported the odds ratio analysis results. Based on thequalitative remarks from the respondents, training in finance and accounting was given a positive
rating, while the auditors' recommendations received a moderately positive rating. Conducting
training related to accounting, especially on how to value the biological assets method, is seen tohave a positive sentiment since it will be helpful to them and will reflect the actual status of theirfarm assets. Most of the training they attended only included discussions on recording sales andexpenses, but the valuation for biological assets was not even highlighted. Training in finance andaccounting is just a part of their entrepreneurship or business-related training. One respondent shared,“Actually, the accounting practices I am doing on the farm are based on what I learned from thetraining conducted by DTI; I have attended training about the cash proforma. Basically, it is justcash in and cash out, balance, description of transactions, and I think it is beneficial.” Farm R also
stated, “Training is important and needed; however, some trainers on accounting cannot explain inlayman’s terms what accounting is all about that can be easily understood by the farmers. It is very
technical. The farmers cannot appreciate why they need to do it, but I understand it because I knowit.” All of the farms agreed on the importance of recording the biological assets and compliance withthe standard; according to them, they might consider using it if there is training or available manualon how to do it.
For the recommendations of the external auditor, the majority of the farms are registered ascorporations and hire an external auditor to check their financial records. External auditors give
recommendations to improve the farm operation. Even the farms registered as sole proprietors see
the importance of auditors' suggestions, Farm I shared, “The auditor suggested fixing thebookkeeping and petty cash system. Right now, I want to have traceability of the cash flow because
I do not remember anymore how much I have given for the operation, so we need to establish aseparate bank account for the farm even though I am having an issue with the banking system in ourarea.” The auditor’s recommendations may have a positive sentiment. However, some farms still
prefer to use their method, particularly in recording and measuring their biological assets. Also, somerecommendations were not well explained to the lower management like in the case of Farm B, “We
prepare all the reports needed by the board, and it will be reviewed by the auditors; however, if theauditor gives recommendations, the board failed to discuss it to us, so we do not directly experienceit.” While most farms have diverse farm management practices, they acknowledge the importanceof the recommendations of their auditors. Communicating and integrating their recommendations
into their current practices may pose a challenge, but they still find it helpful, especially if it enhances
their management practices.
On the other hand, factors such as the preference of owners or management, ease in calculation,industry practices, cost and benefit, and needs of the external users were given a score that fell in theneutral range. Despite the absence of a positive or negative sentiment in those factors, the respondents
still believe that recognizing and measuring biological assets is significant in farm operations. They
expressed openness to adopting new practices provided that they will get support from the concerned
implementors.
Ⓒ ISERD

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CONCLUSION
The study focused on the accounting practices of agritourism farms, explicitly addressing therecognition and measurement of biological assets according to accounting standards for agriculture.
While these standards prescribe fair market-based measurements and require disclosure of biologicaltransformations, the observed practices varied among farms, with only a minority adhering to thestandards. At the same time, the majority of surveyed farms relies on practices that are simpler andmore efficient. Findings suggested that training in finance and accounting and recommendations
from external auditors significantly increase the likelihood of agritourism farms recording biologicalassets.
Harmonizing the accounting practices for agritourism is necessary for producing comparable
financial records that decision-makers could use. A recordkeeping system must be put in place tomonitor not only the costs and income but also the inventory of assets along with their respective
value. Therefore, tailored training programs, collaborative efforts with external auditors, andindustry-specific accounting standards are needed to promote standardized and informed accounting
practices within the sector. A comprehensive assessment of a farm’s current accounting practices
must be done to identify the gaps and areas for improvement. This will be the foundation for creating
tailored training modules that may cover topics such as farm recordkeeping, valuation, costallocation, revenue recognition, and inventory management. Government agencies and members of
the academe have the capacity to take the lead in carrying out these initiatives. In addition, they may
collaborate with accounting and auditing firms that have expertise in agricultural accounting. In orderto establish an industry-specific accounting standard for the agriculture sector, regular meetings,
training, and workshops must also be conducted. Furthermore, a system for monitoring these
activities must be implemented by gathering feedback from stakeholders and making updates andadjustments to enhance the standard's effectiveness. Through regular evaluations and assessments,
we can ensure the continuous improvement of the application of accounting standards across the
agriculture sector.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by the Tokyo University of Agriculture Research Institute from June 2022
to March 2023 and June 2023 to March 2024.
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Research article
erd

Assessing Locals’ Perceptions on the Environmental,
Economic, and Socio-Cultural Impacts of Agritourism
Versus Conventional Farming in Tanzania
ISSA ABRAHAMAN KACHENJE*
Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Email: issakachenje@gmail.com

YASUO OHE
Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan
Received 26 April 2024

Accepted 25 June 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Agriculture and tourism are two critical sectors with a considerable influence on
the socio-cultural, economic, and environmental aspects of Tanzanian society. These two
sectors not only offer substantial employment opportunities but also contribute significantly
to income generation and foreign exchange earnings. Nevertheless, the success of these
sectors depends upon the participation and support of local communities, whose engagement
is closely linked to their perceptions. In recent years, agritourism has emerged as a uniqueform of diversification in the agricultural sector, offering Tanzanian farmers a potential
avenue to introduce a blend of agriculture and tourism-related activities and open a newincome stream. Furthermore, since the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on conventionalfarming and agritourism was different, post-pandemic opinions in the local community arelikely to differ. Therefore, this study aimed to provide insights into the locals’ perceptions
and the factors that influence their perceptions to support a sustainable post-pandemic
recovery. The study was conducted in the Arusha and Mwanza regions of Tanzania, and a
total sample of 191 respondents was selected randomly for interviewing and filling out thequestionnaires. To analyze the data, descriptive analysis, and principal component analysis
were used. The findings indicate that locals' perceptions of conventional and agritourism
farming are, on average, positive. Despite both sectors being perceived positively, theunderlying reasons for the perception and support were different. For agritourism, thepositive perception was primarily associated with the economic benefits, including income
generation and the creation of employment opportunities. Whereas, for conventionalfarming, positive perception was associated with environmental conservation, economic
benefits, food security, and community cohesion.
Keywords locals’ perceptions, agritourism, sustainability, principal component analysis,
Tanzania

INTRODUCTION
Tanzania's socio-cultural, economic, and environmental aspects are significantly influenced by the
agriculture and tourism sectors (Sanches-Pereira, 2017). These sectors provide a significant amountof revenue and foreign exchange earnings in addition to employment creation. Agriculture is thecornerstone of Tanzania's socioeconomic growth. It contributes to employment, a sizeable portion ofGDP, and export revenues (Mayala, 2021). Tanzanian agriculture has historically been dominatedby conventional farmers who practice subsistence farming, raising animals, and the production of
staple crops. Conventional farming, although significant, has several challenges such as financial andtechnological limitations, and climatic change (Kinyondo and Magashi, 2017). In recent years, theemergence of agritourism offers a distinctive avenue for farmers to diversify their farms to introduce
an exciting blend of agriculture and tourism-related activities, creating new income streams andelevating living standards (UNDP, 2018). Tourism-oriented diversification is a feasible and efficientⒸ ISERD

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approach to accelerate socioeconomic development (Ohe and Kurihara, 2013). Agrotourism inTanzania involves integrating local agricultural communities into tourism value chains, aiming forinclusive development by linking farmers to tourism food supply chains (Anderson, 2018). The
expansion of tourism activities from initially traditional tourist destinations like safari parks, beaches,and mountains to farming communities and rural areas brought about some transformational changes.
These changes could lead to different reactions based on how they are perceived locally. The locals'
perceptions may have an impact on their support for tourism expansion. Understanding this becomes
essential for promoting sustainable growth. This study explores locals' perceptions of conventional
agriculture and agritourism, as well as the relationship between these perceptions and support for thegrowth of agritourism. Since community engagement is crucial, this research is guided by acommunity-based strategy that acknowledges locals as significant stakeholders. The outbreak of the
COVID-19 pandemic added another layer of complexity, with distinct effects on conventionalfarming and agritourism. In Tanzania, due to restrictions on people's freedom of movement andengagement, agritourism farmers experienced greater hardships than conventional farmers (Kachenje
and Ohe, 2024). The effects of COVID-19 might change how the locals view these two subsectors.
Therefore, it is essential to understand local perceptions to build a more effective recovery strategy.
Despite its significance, as far as the author knows, there has been no research into the locals'
perceptions about the conventional and agritourism sub-sectors following the COVID-19 epidemic.
Therefore, this study aims to remedy the above deficiencies by comparing the perceptions ofenvironmental, economic, and socio-cultural impacts among locals and farmers in agritourism areasand conventional farming areas.
Moreover, the study looks at how different variables affect the perceptions of the locals about
conventional farming and agritourism. These variables included social issues like land tenure andperceived exclusion within the tourism industry, as well as demographic factors like gender, age, andeducation. Other factors were economic constraints like limited funding and working in the tourism
sector. First, because of societal norms, there's a gender disparity in Tanzanian agriculture. Women
face discrimination, which lowers their productivity relative to men (Nchanji et al., 2020). Second,
educational background and farmer's age greatly influence how they respond to obstacles and how
they decide to adapt to Tanzanian agriculture (Pauline, 2023). Also, research indicates that the ageof farmers is positively correlated with their understanding of climate variability (Mamiro, 2014).
The education level of farmers in Tanzania exhibits significant variation. Bundala et al. (2020) foundthat approximately 90% of small-scale farmers have limited or no formal education, highlighting
disparities in educational backgrounds within the farming community. It is suggested that improving
secondary agricultural education positively contributes to developing agricultural human capital andfosters positive attitudes (Mwaikambo, 2013). When it comes to land tenure, Tanzanian farmers
primarily acquire their land through purchases or inheritance (Lyatuu and Urassa, 2014). The country
exhibits diverse land tenure systems (Msangi et al., 2020). Land ownership is concentrated;according to Lyatuu and Urassa (2016), 55.5% of households possess less than the average amountof land per capita, which is 0.2 hectares. Also, land tenure is often controlled by husbands and fathers,
putting women in a disadvantaged position (Agunga et al., 2018). Youth involvement in agriculture
is restricted by limited access to land and capital, which presents difficulties for aspiring farmers andsustainable rural livelihoods (Lindsjö, 2019). Land tenure in Tanzania is impacting creditworthinessand crop diversification (Hepelwa, 2021).
Limited funds for farmers in Tanzania pose a significant barrier to improving agricultural
productivity and livelihoods (Kinyondo and Magashi, 2017). It hinders productivity due toinadequate access to quality inputs, machinery, and transport, impacting overall profitability (Mdemu
et al., 2017). Few farmers with appropriate resources benefit, while the poorest are often excluded,
impacting food security and sustainability efforts (Tumusiime and Matotay, 2014). According to
Mwonge and Naho (2021), several issues, including interest rates, gender, and collateral, can impede
smallholder farmers' access to funds, which in turn hinders agricultural development. Perceived
exclusion among locals in Tanzania's tourism sector stems from various factors. Factors influencing
this perception include limited business opportunities leading to feelings of exclusion (Jani, 2023).
Moreover, the insufficient absorption of youth in the tourism sector despite its employment potential
exacerbates feelings of exclusion, with factors like limited access to capital and inadequateⒸ ISERD

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employment practices playing a role (Lesseri, 2022). Other factors include language barriers,
inadequate experience, poor education, cultural differences, and commitment issues (Magigi and
Ramadhani, 2013). Additionally, social alienation, lack of trust in local governments, information
gaps, and organizational and legal barriers to community involvement could be the reasons (Frolova
et al., 2023). Finally, the level of familiarity among locals in Tanzania's agrotourism sector
significantly impacts the attitude, development, and growth of the industry (Anderson, 2018). Locals'
familiarity with rural tourism resources, such as agricultural products and clay soil for creating
souvenirs, is crucial for fully utilizing these assets to attract tourists (Mkwizu et al., 2020).
OBJECTIVE
First, the study sought to examine locals' perceptions of the environmental, economic, andsociocultural effects of agritourism and conventional farming. Secondly, it aimed to explore thefactors affecting their perceptions. Lastly, the study sought to investigate the correlation between thelocals’ perceptions and their degree of support for agritourism.
METHODOLOGY
The study was carried out in the Arusha and Mwanza regions from September to October 2023, usinga cross-sectional survey research approach. These areas were chosen because of the significant
concentrations of traditional and agritourism farming operations in them. The study focused onhousehold heads as the statistical population. A random sample of 131 locals from agritourism areas,
along with 60 locals from conventional farming areas, was selected. To guarantee equal
representation and a fair probability of selection for every member of the population, a random
sample was applied (Noor et al., 2022). The primary data collection was conducted using
questionnaires. The questionnaire used a five-point Likert scale to rank responses and probed locals'
perceptions and levels of support. Respondents were assigned scores of 5 for strongly agree, 4 foragree, 3 for neutral, 2 for disagree, and 1 for strongly disagree. Furthermore, demographic
information was gathered through the questionnaire, including age, gender, education level,familiarity with agritourism, land tenure, perceived exclusion, and place of residence.
Descriptive analysis, correlation analysis, regression analysis, and principal component analysis
were used to analyze the data. Principal component analysis is used to reduce data complexity bygrouping variables, facilitating better interpretation and measurement of perceptions (Durham andKing, 2010). This study employed principal component analysis due to its capability to describe
multiple datasets effectively. Regression analysis was used to determine the factors influencing
variation in locals' perceptions. The explained variable's restricted range (1 to 5) and the explanatory
variables' ordinal nature supported the use of ordinal logistic regression. When there is an ordinal
explained variable (i.e., a meaningful order with uneven intervals between categories), as in the casesof Jajang et al. (2022), and Dewi and Kusumawati (2022), this regression approach works effectively.
Furthermore, correlation analysis was conducted to evaluate the relationship between the perceptionof agritourism's impact and the level of support for present and future agritourism development. The
preferred method was Spearman's correlation since the data were ordinal and non-normally
distributed. Often denoted as Spearman's ρ, Spearman's rank-difference coefficient of correlation isa statistical measure used to evaluate the relationships between two nonparametric variables(MacFarland et al., 2016).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Respondents’ Descriptions
In agritourism areas, 138 questionnaires were distributed, and 131 valid responses were collected.
The respondents were dominated by women, with 60.3%. The average age was 38.5 years. TheⒸ ISERD

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education level is medium education, with most respondents having reached the ordinary level(secondary education). In conventional farming areas, out of the 67 questionnaires distributed, there
were 61 valid responses. The majority of sexes were dominated by women (55%), With an averageage of around 38.6 years and a level of education that was medium to slightly high.
Common Factors in Locals’ Perception
In the research areas, conventional and agritourism farming are generally perceived positively. 93.3%
of respondents gave conventional farming a score higher than 3, while 87.1% of respondents gave
agritourism a score higher than 3. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was employed to identify
the variables that underlie the perceptions of the locals about conventional and agritourism. The
results are explained in the section that follows.
Locals’ perception of the impact of conventional farming: Based on Eigenvalues of more than
1.0, we selected 4 factors for the perception of the impact of conventional farming. Eigenvalues
above 1.0 indicate that collectively, the items can be represented as a unified factor. To measurefactorability, Bartlett's Test of Sphericity was conducted, with the results presented in Table 2
showcasing the significance of our variables. According to Hair et al. (2010), Bartlett’s test of
sphericity less than 0.05 is considered suitable to assume the factorability of the correlation matrix.
The overall Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) value of 0.611 was adequate. In alignment with Hair et al.'s(2010) recommendation, a KMO value of 0.6 or above is considered acceptable for analysis, and any
factor loadings below 0.5 were eliminated. The principal factoring extraction method and varimax
rotation were used to obtain factor loadings. The cumulative contribution of these four factors was
63.5%, indicating their substantial explanatory power (see Table 1). Further, Table 1 also shows theuniqueness, which represents the variance that is not shared with other variables. The larger

the 'uniqueness', the lower the relevance of the variable in the factor model. In our results,
all the variables have a low uniqueness value, suggesting that they are strongly correlated with eachother in their respective factors. The only exception is that the variable " difficulties in accessing
markets" has a higher uniqueness value, implying that it contains unique variance not explained byother variables, hence being less relevant in the model.
Table 1 The results of principle component analysis (PCA) (n=61)
1
0.853
0.847
0.714
0.523

Component
2
3

Environmental conservation efforts
Management of water resources
Negative impact on biodiversity
Management of water resources
Creation of employment opportunities
0.769
Source of income for the locals
0.745
Diversification of economic activities
0.700
Difficulties in accessing markets
Conventional farming is a primary source of food
Improvement of nutrition and self-sufficiency
Enhancement of the local culture and traditions
Influence our lifestyle and maintain our ethnic identity
Cohesion and community engagement
Summary
Component
SS Loadings% of Variance
1
2.70
20.8
2
2.31
17.7
3
1.68
12.9
4
1.56
12.0
Source: Authors’ calculation based on primary data.

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4

0.892
0.866
0.747
0.663
0.594

Uniqueness
0.279
0.219
0.476
0.463
0.374
0.315
0.221
0.747
0.192
0.279
0.355
0.455
0.375

Cumulative %
20.8
38.5
51.4
63.5

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Table 2 Bartlett’s test of sphericity
χ2

df

p

251

78

< .001

Source: Authors’ calculation based on primary data.

The analysis revealed different factors reflecting the different interplays between environmental
conservation, economic impacts, and cultural considerations. The factors are explained as follows:
Factor 1: Environmental conservation and resource management
This factor accounted for 20.8% of the variance, showing the relationship between conventionalfarming and environmental conservation efforts. Positive loadings for variables such as"environmental conservation efforts" and "management of water resources" underscore thecommunity's recognition of conventional farming's potential to foster sustainable environmental
practices. The emphasis on conservation aligns with contemporary discourse promoting responsible
agricultural practices.
Factor 2: Economic impacts and livelihood enhancement
This factor contributed 17.7% of the variance and reflects the economic dimensions of conventionalfarming. Variables like "creation of employment opportunities,” “source of income for the locals,”and “diversification of economic activities” exhibit substantial loadings, emphasizing the pivotal roleof conventional farming in the local economy. This factor highlights the importance of conventionalfarming to serve as a catalyst for economic growth in rural communities.
Factor 3: Food security and nutritional resilience
This factor accounted for 12.9% of the variance. Variables like “conventional farming is a primarysource of food” and “improvement of nutrition and self-sufficiency” reflect the community's relianceon conventional farming practices not only for sustenance but also for the enhancement of nutritional
well-being and self-sufficiency.
Factor 4: Cultural enrichment and social cohesion
This factor accounted for 12% of the variance. It includes variables such as "enhancement of thelocal culture and traditions," "influencing our lifestyle and maintaining the ethnic identity," and"cohesion and community engagement". It indicates that the locals perceive conventional farming
as a dynamic force that enhances local cultural practices, influences lifestyle choices, and plays apivotal role in maintaining and celebrating ethnic identity.
Locals’ perception of the impact of agritourism: In principle component analysis, three factors
emerged, with Eigenvalues surpassing the 1.0 threshold. The overall Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO)
was appropriate at the value of 0.858. This value, as recommended by Hair et al. (2010), exceeds thethreshold of 0.6, supporting the suitability of the data for further analysis. Bartlett's Test of Sphericity
was used to confirm the factorability of the correlation matrix, and the findings were significant (seeTable 4). According to Hair et al. (2010), factor loadings below 0.5 were eliminated for improved
accuracy. The principal factoring extraction method and varimax rotation were used to obtain thefactor patterns, where the factor pattern describes the factor loading value. The total contribution of
the four factors is 81.7% (Table 3). Variables in each factor have a strong correlation, as indicatedby the low uniqueness value (see Table 3). The only variable that has high uniqueness and is distinct
is the variable “negative impact on the natural landscape,” hence the lower relevance of the variablein the model.
Factor 1: Economic impacts and livelihood enhancement
It accounts for 34.0% of the variance and reflects various economic dimensions. Variables such as"income generation," "market for local crafts and arts," "employment creation for the locals," and "A
source of economic diversification" were included. This indicates that the locals perceive agritourism
as a catalyst for economic growth and improved livelihoods.
Factor 2: Environmental conservation and sustainability
It accounts for 27.3% of the variance, this component emphasizes the dual role of agritourism inenvironmental preservation. Factors such as "improved local scenery," "protection and preservationof local flora and fauna," and "facilitate environmentally sustainable practices". These variablesⒸ ISERD

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showcase a community appreciation for agritourism's positive impact on local ecosystems andcultural heritage.
Table 3 Principal component analysis (PCA) (n=131)
1
0.875
0.844
0.833
0.822
0.789
0.694

2

Component
3

Income generation
Market for local crafts and arts
Employment creation for the locals
A source of economic diversification
Opportunity to economically benefit from culture
Economic growth and improved livelihood
Improved local scenery
0.897
Protection and preservation of local flora and fauna
0.893
Facilitate environmentally sustainable practices
0.759
Negative impact on the natural landscapeEnhancement of local cultural heritage
Over-dependence on tourism
Interaction with tourists
Summary
Component
SS Loadings% of Variance
1
4.42
34.0
2
3.54
27.3
3
2.66
20.4

0.955
-0.9080.902

Uniqueness
0.231
0.174
0.146
0.105
0.121
0.167
0.108
0.106
0.324
0.624
0.080
0.067
0.130

Cumulative %
34.0
61.2
81.7

Source: Authors’ Calculation based on primary data.

Table 4 Bartlett's test of sphericity
χ2

df

p

1909

78

<.001

Source: Authors’ Calculation based on primary data.

Factor 3: Cultural engagement and concerns
Accounting for 20.4% of the variance, this component explains the social aspects of agritourism andits potential negative influence. Key variables include "enhancement of local cultural heritage,”"interaction with tourists" and “overdependence on tourism”. While the variable cultural heritageand interaction with tourists underscore the positive impact, this factor also reflects concerns about
potential overdependence on tourism.
The relationship between locals’ perceptions and their level of support for agritourism: Using
Spearman's rank correlation coefficient as a measure of monotonic association, a Test of
Independence was carried out to investigate the connection between locals' perceptions and theirsupport for agritourism. This approach was used since it can be applied to nonparametric variables.
The null hypothesis (H0) posited no correlation between the variables "Level of Support" and"General Perception," while the alternative hypothesis (H1) proposed the existence of a correlation.
The two variables, "the locals’ general perception of agritourism" and "level of support foragritourism," showed a strong positive monotonic association, according to Spearman's rankcorrelation coefficient (rho) of 0.744. This significant correlation, supported by a p-value of 0.0000,
led to the rejection of the null hypothesis, underscoring the statistical significance of the observed
association.
These results are consistent with previous studies showing a close relationship between locals’
perceptions of the impact and their level of support. Studies by Anuar et al. (2022), Cui et al. (2022),
and Wang et al. (2021) consistently underscore the positive relationship between locals' perceptionsof tourism impacts and their support for sustainable tourism development. Notably, the positiveⒸ ISERD

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perception of economic, social, and environmental impacts has been shown to improve locals'
attitudes towards tourism development.
In interpreting these overwhelmingly positive perceptions and support among the locals, it isimportant to keep in mind Tanzania's very early stages of agritourism development. According tostudies like Vargas-Sánchez et al. (2014), communities generally view low-to-moderate tourism
development as beneficial, but as the industry grows, locals' attitudes may change to the negative.
Regression Analysis: This section presents the output of ordered logistic regression, which examines
the relationship between explanatory variables and the explained variable (general perception) for
both conventional farming and agritourism.
Regression for perception of the impact of conventional farming
The logistic regression results show the perception of conventional farming and its association withvarious factors. The regression model is specified as following Eq. (1):Y = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3 +β4X4 + β5X5 +β6X6 + ϵ(1)

where Y is the explained variable and X1, X2, X3, X4, X5, X6 as the explanatory variables and β0,β1…, βk are the coefficients, and ϵ represents the error term.
Table 5 The results of ordered logistic regression (n=61)
General perception
GenderAge
Education
FarmerLand tenure
Limited Fund

Coefficient-3.4918-0.27420.80202.7571
6.52750.5173

Std. err.
1.63180.08570.65371.05762.15150.7831

Z
-2.14
-3.20
1.23
2.61
3.03
0.66

P>|z|
0.032*
0.001**
0.220
0.009**
0.002**
0.509

95% conf. interval-6.6900-0.2936-0.4421-0.1063-0.47932.08330.68434.82992.310610.744-1.0175
2.0522

Source: Authors’ Calculation based on primary data.
Note: The author coded the variables as follows: gender (male = 1, female = 0); land tenure (tenure = 1, no tenure =0); Involvement in farming (farmer = 1, non-farmer = 0); Education (1 = primary, 2 = secondary, 3 = high school, 4 =college education); Limited fund (1=strongly agree, 5 = strongly disagree). *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001 denotestatistical significance.

The likelihood ratio chi-square statistic was used to indicate the goodness-of-fit of the model.
A p-value of 0.0000 suggests the model is statistically significant. The pseudo-R2 value of 0.592
indicates that the model explains approximately 59.2% of the variation in the explained variable.
The negative coefficient for gender suggests a gender-based disparity in the perception of
conventional farming, with men associated with a lower probability of having a positive perception
compared to women. This could be because traditionally, in the agriculture sector in Africa, women
work mainly as food producers (Amusan et al., 2017). Hence, agriculture is very important for
feeding their families. The negative coefficient for age highlights a generational aspect of theperception of conventional farming. The younger the farmers, the greater the likelihood of having a
positive perception. Widiyanti et al. (2018) conducted research to identify the young generation’s
perception of the agricultural sector. The results showed that most youths had fairly good perceptionsin terms of income, social status, and work convenience in the agricultural sector. However, it also
pointed out that many rural parents in developing countries do not want their children to farm.
The positive coefficient for the "farmer" variable indicates that the locals involved inconventional farming are more likely to have positive perceptions. This could be because the locals
involved in farming are direct beneficiaries of conventional farming. At the same time, the strong
positive coefficient for land tenure highlights the connection between land tenure and positive
perceptions toward conventional farming. In other words, this indicates that individuals who own
their land are more likely to have positive perceptions of conventional farming. This could be because
ownership of land comes with great benefits, such as lowering the cost of production and maximizing
the profit gained. Furthermore, it has been shown that land ownership and the stability of land rights
increased the income of farmers significantly (Zhang et al., 2023). Finally, the lack of statisticalsignificance for limited funds and education suggests that, in this context, financial constraints andⒸ ISERD

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level of education may not be significant factors influencing general perceptions of conventionalfarming.
Regression for perception of the impact of agritourism farming
The logistic regression results show the perception of agritourism and its association with various
factors. The regression model is specified as follows:
Y = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3 + β4X4 + β5X5 + β6X6 + ϵ(2)where Y is the explained variable and X1, X2, X3, X4, X5, X6 as the explanatory variables and β0,β1…, βk are the coefficients, and ϵ represents the error term.
The likelihood ratio chi-square statistic was used to indicate the goodness-of-fit of the model.
A p-value of 0.0000 suggests the model is statistically significant. The pseudo-R2 value of 0.8471
indicates that the model explains approximately 84.7% of the variation in the explained variable.
Table 6 The results of ordered logistic regression (n=131)
General perception
GenderAge
Education
Level of familiarity
Working in agritourism
Perceived exclusion

Coefficient-7.420-0.2042.106
2.037
26.658-3.660Std. err.
2.51140.06600.83030.79913033.73
1.6090

Z
-2.95
-3.09
2.54
2.55
0.01
-2.27

P>|z|
0.003**
0.002**
0.011*
0.011*
0.993
0.023*

95% conf. interval-12.3422-2.498-0.3329-0.07440.4781
3.73260.47033.6028-5919.34
5972.7-6.8133-0.5063

Source: Authors’ Calculation based on primary data.
Note: The author coded the variables as follows: gender (male = 1, female = 0); working in agritourism (agritourist =1, non-agritourist = 0) education: (1 = primary, 2 ¬= secondary, 3 = high school, 4 = college education); level offamiliarity: (1=very unfamiliar, 5 = very familiar); perceived exclusion: (1= highly excluded, 5 = not at all excluded).
*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001 denote statistical significanceThe coefficient associated with gender exhibited statistical significance. The negative
coefficient suggests that holding other variables constant, men are associated with a lower probabilityof having a positive perception compared to women. In the African context, women have traditionallyplayed a crucial role as food producers, often unpaid (Amusan et al., 2017). The emergence of
tourism-oriented diversification presents a significant opportunity for women to transform this role
into a source of substantial income. Women now have the opportunity to access previously
unattainable economic prospects by offering a variety of culinary services to tourists, this could
explain their overwhelmingly positive perception. This can also be supported by Gil Arroyo et al.
(2019), who stated that agritourism is an important instrument to improve the social status of women.
The coefficient associated with age exhibited statistical significance. The negative coefficientmeans that an increase in age corresponds to a reduction in positive perception. This suggests thatyouth have a favorable view of agritourism activities compared to the older generation. Previous
studies have mentioned that age is a factor that affects farmer participation in agritourism (Bagi andReeder, 2012; Tew and Barbieri, 2012).
The coefficient of education was statistically significant. The positive coefficient signifies that
all other factors held constant, an increase in education leads to a rise in the favorable perception ofagritourism. This substantiates the pivotal role of education as a driving force shaping perceptions
surrounding agritourism among the locals in Tanzania. Lewis-Cameron. (2022) disclosed that there
is a positive association between education and the success of tourism-related activities in thedestination.
The coefficient for the level of familiarity was statistically significant. The positive coefficientsignifies that, with other variables held constant, an increase in the level of familiarity withagritourism activities corresponds to an increase in the likelihood of having a positive perception.
This indicates a substantial role for familiarity as a catalyst in shaping perceptions regarding
agritourism among the locals. Abdillah et al. (2020) found that rising awareness among the locals
improved their support for tourism. The paper stated that lack of awareness initially caused negative
perception, however, the perception changed as locals became more familiar.

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The coefficient for perceived exclusion exhibits statistical significance. The negative coefficientsignifies that an increase in perceived exclusion corresponds to a decrease in the probability of having
a positive perception. A study by Stone and Nyaupane (2020) indicates that the exclusion of locals
from tourism-related activities can lead to resentment and negative impacts on tourism areas. Finally,
the lack of statistical significance for working in the agritourism industry suggests that, in thiscontext, the variable may not be a significant factor influencing general perceptions of the impact ofagritourism.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
In conclusion, the purpose of this study was to compare the locals' perceptions of the environmental,
economic, and sociocultural effects of agritourism versus conventional farming, identify the factors
influencing these perceptions, and investigate the relationship between the level of support and theperceptions of agritourism's impact. It was shown that both agritourism and conventional farming
were generally perceived positively by the locals. Being a historically dominant practice,
conventional farming reveals unique and complex perceptions. Locals view conventional farming
not just as an economic activity but also as a dynamic force that enhances local cultural practices,
influences lifestyle choices, and is essential to celebrating and maintaining ethnic identity. They also
view conventional farming as a source of food sufficiency. As a new economic activity, the locals'
perceptions of agritourism and their level of support for agritourism-related activities were also foundto be significantly positively correlated. However, the positive attitudes observed can becontextualized within the infant stage of agritourism development in Tanzania, where locals
potentially see the sector as a promising avenue for economic, social, and environmental benefits.
Given the trends observed in more established agritourism destinations, it is crucial to recognize thepossibility of a shift in perception as agritourism grows. As Tanzania navigates the post-COVID-19
recovery phase, understanding and addressing these perceptions, along with potential challenges, ispivotal for formulating sustainable and community-based strategies for agritourism (Ohe, 2020) andconventional farming development.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to acknowledge the Tokyo University of Agriculture doctoral research grants, theNagamitsu Yamada Scholarship Society, and Kakenhi (Grant-in-Aid) No. 18H03965 and No.
20H04444 for their support of this study. We would also like to express our gratitude to all the
research participants in Tengeru-Arusha and Sengerema-Mwanza for their valuable contributions.
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Research article

Determination of Factors Affecting the Performance of
Sediment Microbial Fuel Cells by Long-Term Electricity
Generation Using Lactic Acid Bacteria–AttachedElectrodes
NARONG TOUCH*
Faculty of Regional Environment Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Tokyo, Japan
Email: nt207118@nodai.ac.jp

TADASHI HIBINO
Graduate School of Advanced Science and Engineering, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima,
Japan
Received 21 April 2024

Accepted 26 June 2024(*Corresponding Author)

Abstract Sediment microbial fuel cell (SMFC) performance can be improved using
electrodes fermented with and without aeration as cathodes and anodes, respectively.
However, this improved performance does not exceed 60 days. In this study, the cathodewater-based factors affecting SMFC performance were identified using long-term electricity
generation. Meanwhile, SMFC performance (polarization) was measured in experimental
conditions. In addition to the polarization measurement, the pH, electrical conductivity (EC)of the cathode water, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) on the cathode surface were
measured. Experiments were conducted with and without the overflow of cathode water.
Thereafter, the scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive X-ray (SEM–EDX)
analysis of the cathodes was performed. In line with existing literature, SMFC performance
began to decrease on Day 60 from the commencement of the experiments. Furthermore, thepH difference before and after Day 60 was within 0.2, indicating that the pH of the cathodewater did not directly affect SMFC performance. Moreover, EC was kept low with cathodewater overflow, significantly decreasing SMFC performance. Further, the SMFC
performance increased with an increase in ATP, indicating that the bacterial activities on theelectrode affected SMFC performance. The SEM–EDX results revealed that metal ions thatwere obtained from the dissolution of steelmaking slag attached to the cathode surface,indicating the crystallization of these metal ions during the experiments. These findings
indicate that the crystallization on the cathode driven by long-term electricity generation
inhibited bacterial activities and cathode reactions, thereby decreasing SMFC performance.
Keywords performance, pH, electrical conductivity, adenosine triphosphate, crystallization

INTRODUCTION
Microbial fuel cell technology (MFCT) is expected to offer numerous benefits for addressing social
issues, such as organic waste disposal and energy scarcity, particularly in developing countries.
However, its performance remains low and must be improved before being deployed, and increasing
electrode performance represents one strategy for improving MFCT performance.
Regarding the improvement of electrode performance, the adsorption of bacteria or metal ionson an electrode surface is a notable strategy. Wang et al. (2009) enhanced electrode performance by
activating bacteria on the electrode, thus decreasing potential losses. Meanwhile, Nishimura et al.
(2018) reported that the ferric ions obtained from the dissolution of steelmaking slag (SS) improved
sediment microbial fuel cell (SMFC) performance. Thus, SMFC performance can be improved using
SS and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as the anode of SMFC (Touch et al., 2020).
Thus, numerous studies are exploring the changes in the performances of carbon fiber electrodes
caused by the adsorption of iron ions (Fe) obtained from the dissolutions of SS and LAB on electrodeⒸ ISERD

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surfaces (Touch and Hibino, 2022). Touch et al. (2023) reported the possibility of improving SMFC
performance using electrodes fermented with and without aeration as the cathode and anode,
respectively. However, the improved performance only lasted for approximately 60 days owing tochanges in the quality of the cathode water caused by long-term electricity generation. The factors
accounting for the decreased SMFC performance after 60 days are still unknown.
Hong et al. (2009) experimentally examined the effects of controllable (e.g., electrode surface
area ratio, external load, spacing between electrodes) and uncontrollable factors (e.g., dissolved
oxygen concentration at the cathode, electrical conductivity [EC], and temperature) on electricity
generation. Furthermore, the pH of the cathode water must be considered when bacteria are attachedto the cathode, and crystallization on the cathode surface must be also examined.
OBJECTIVE
This study, which was based on long-term electricity generation, was conducted to identify theeffects of the cathode water factors that decrease SMFC performance. Next, the cell polarization(current-voltage relation) was measured to detect changes in SMFC performance when fermented
electrodes with and without aeration were used as the cathode and anode, respectively. Subsequently,
the relationship between SMFC performance with the changes in the bacterial activities on thecathode was examined. The study further investigated the effects of the cathode water quality on
SMFC performance.
METHODOLOGY
Experimental Materials and Procedures
The carbon fiber electrodes were pretreated following the method of Touch et al. (2023). Briefly, tapwater (3 L), SS (layer height = 20 mm), a commercially available lactic-fermenting beverage (10mL), and bamboo powder (3 g) were added in cylindrical bottles. For the case with aeration, an airstone was placed on the SS layer and the carbon fiber electrodes were positioned 90 mm from thebottom of the bottle. Further, carbon cloth (News Company, PL200-E) was employed as the electrodematerial; it was preheated for 1 h at 500°C to improve its performance (Nagatsu et al., 2014). The
heated carbon cloth (width and length = 100 mm) was separated into fibers to form a brush-type
electrode.
120 mmOverflow Q=1.87L/dayor Control
electrodes
Without aeration

100 mmTouch et al. 2023
3-day fermented
electrodes

Tap water

50 mm

With aeration

30 mm

1Ω

1Ω

V

V

Paddy soil
Case 2

Case 1

Temporal measurements of polarization

Fig. 1 Experimental procedures
The fermented electrodes with and without aeration, which were extracted from the bottles on
Day 3, were utilized as the cathode and anode of SMFC, respectively, to examine the long-term
performance of the cell in electricity generation (Fig. 1). Two cases were established: one withcathode water overflow (Case 1) and the other without it (Case 2). Henceforth we used Cases 2-1
and 2-2 to denote cases where the control and fermented electrodes were utilized in Case 2,Ⓒ ISERD

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respectively. Similarly, Cases 1-1 and 1-2 denote when the control and fermented electrodes were
utilized in Case 1, respectively.
By comparing Cases 2-1 and 2-2, we examined the changes in SMFC performance with thechanges in the cathode water quality and determined the effects of the fermented electrodes on SMFC
performance. By comparing Cases 1 and 2, we elucidated the effects of an overflow (loweringchanges in the cathode water quality) on SMFC performance.
Operations and Measurements
The experiments were conducted for 97 days, as schematically shown in Fig. 1. To generate theelectrical current, we loaded an external resistance of 1 Ω between the anode and cathode. The
polarizations were measured several times during the electricity-generation experiments to examine
the changes in SMFC performance. During the measurement, an external resistance of 1–9.1 kΩ wasloaded between the anode and cathode. The cell voltage was recorded after 1 min of loading eachexternal resistance and used to calculate the current by Ohm’s law: I = U/Rex, where U [V] is thevoltage, I [A] is the current, and Rex [Ω] is the external resistance. The power, P [W], was calculatedusing P = IU. Next, the current and power densities were obtained by dividing these values by thesurface area of the electrode, i.e., 0.01 m2. The maximum current density was also determined fromthe polarization.
The pH, EC of the cathode water, and the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) on the cathode surface
were measured on the day of polarization measurement. The pH and EC were measured using a
pH/EC meter (Horiba, D-74) while ATP was measured using a lumitester (Kikkoman, LumitesterSmart). After the experiments, we performed scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive X-ray(SEM–EDX) to analyze the adsorbed crystalline compounds on the cathode.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Temporal Changes in Sediment Microbial Fuel Cell Performance
Figures 2a and 2b show the comparison of the SMFC performances (power and current density) inboth Cases 1 and 2. The maximum power density (Pmax) and current density (Imax) of SMFCs withthe fermented electrodes (Cases 1-2 and 2-2) were higher than those with the control electrodes(Cases 1-1 and 2-1). Average 1.7- and 1.5-fold increases were observed in Pmax (Fig. 2a) and Imax
(Fig. 2b), respectively, when the fermented electrodes were used. However, it started decreasing fromDay 60. These findings agree with those of Touch et al. (2023). Interestingly, inducing cathode water
overflow (Case 1) produced lower Pmax and Imax than the absence of overflow (Case 2), and thereasons for this will be discussed in the next section.

Fig. 2 Temporal variations of Pmax and ImaxⒸ ISERD

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Temporal Changes in the pH and Electrical Conductivity
Figures 3a and 3b show that the pH and EC of the cathode water increased temporally. The diffusionof ions from paddy soils into the cathode water contributed to these increments. Additionally, thereduction of oxygen at the cathode contributed to the increase in pH. Hong et al. (2009) reported thatchanges in cathode water quality caused variations in SMFC performance. Likewise, in this study,
we observed a relationship between SMFC performance and EC. Compared with the EC of Case 2(without overflow), that of Case 1 (with overflow) was lower, contributing to lower power
generations in Cases 1-1 and 1-2 (Fig. 2a) than in 2-1 and 2-2. Generally, a higher EC corresponds
to a higher electron flow.
Considering the pH variation, we observed that the pH difference before and after Day 60 was
within 0.2, indicating that pH did not directly affect the significant decrease in SMFC performanceafter Day 60 (Fig. 2).

Fig. 3 Temporal changes in the cathode water pH and EC
Effects of Bacterial Activities on Sediment Microbial Fuel Cell Performance
Generally, SMFC performance depends on the cathode water quality and bacterial activities on thecathode. Figures 4a and 4b show the relationship between ATP on the cathode surface and SMFC
performance. Notably, Pmax increased with the increasing ATP within the correlation coefficient of
0.28, whereas Imax increased with the increasing ATP within the correlation coefficient of 0.45. Our
results also confirmed that SMFC performance depends on the bacterial activities on the electrodesurface, which agreed with Kang et al. (2012). This in turn confirmed that the decrease in the bacterial
activities on the cathode might contribute to the decrease in SMFC performance after Day 60.
450

45
Case 1-1
Case 1-2
Case 2-1
Case 2-2

40
35
25

350

20
15

250
200
Case 1-1
Case 1-2
Case 2-1
Case 2-2

150

R=0.2810

R=0.45

300
Imax

Pmax

30

400

100
50

5

0

0
0

10000
20000
30000
40000
ATP on the cathode (RLU)

50000(a) ATP with Pmax

0

10000
20000
30000
40000
ATP on the cathode (RLU)

50000(b) ATP with Imax

Fig. 4 Relationship between ATP on the cathode and the SMFC performanceⒸ ISERD180

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Crystallization on the Cathode Surface
During the experiments, the appearance of white substances attached to the cathode surface wasconfirmed (Fig. 5). It is possible that they might affect the bacterial activities on the cathode. In Case
1-1, the formation of the substances (crystallization) was not confirmed from the SEM image, as
most of the ions flowed out (Fig. 3b, EC was kept low as well as the tap water level) of the cathodechamber, causing a lack of ions for crystallization. Therefore, these substances were formed from thereaction of the cathode with ions present in the cathode water.

Fig. 5 SEM images of the cathodes
We also characterized the attached substances in Cases 1-2; however, they exhibited different
characteristics from those of Cases 2-1 and 2-2. These substances might have been attached to theelectrode during fermentation. As the amount of electricity that was generated (Fig. 2b, Case 2-2)
was positively correlated to the number of these crystalline substances formed, these substancesmight have been obtained from the crystallization of the metal ions during cathode reactions.

Fig. 6 Results of EDX analysis of the cathodesⒸ ISERD

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The EDX results (Fig. 6) revealed that more metal ions, that is, Al, Si, Fe, Mn, and Mg ions,were attached to the fermented cathode (Cases 1-2 and 2-2) than to the control cathode (Cases 1-1
and 2-1). These metal ions are obtained from the dissolution of the steelmaking slag. The dissolution
could attach metal ions to the carbon fiber electrode through fermentation. The crystallization ofthese metal ions on the cathode surface might restrain the bacterial activities and chemical reactions
on the cathode, thereby decreasing SMFC performance.
CONCLUSIONSIn line with existing literature, SMFC performance started decreasing on Day 60 after thecommencement of the experiments. As the difference in the pH values before and after Day 60 was
minimal, we concluded that the pH of the cathode water did not directly affect SMFC performance.
SMFC performance decreased even though the cathode water overflowed. Notably, inducing cathodewater overflow further decreased the SMFC performance. We observed a positive correlation
between ATP on the cathode surface with SMFC performance. Therefore, the changes in the bacterial
activities on the cathode surface might cause a decrease in SMFC performance during long-term
electricity generation. The SEM–EDX results indicated that the metal ions obtained during thedissolution of steelmaking slag were adsorbed on the cathode surface, indicating the crystallizationof these metal ions at the end of the experiments. Thus, during long-term electricity generation,
crystallization on the cathode inhibits bacterial activities and cathode reactions, resulting in adecrease in SMFC performance.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the partial funding from JSPS: Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research (B) (Grant Number: JP-21H01437). The authors would also like to thank the students of
the Rural Environmental Engineering Laboratory, Tokyo University of Agriculture, for their efforts
in collecting data.
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