31

Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 2007;16 (Suppl 1):31-36

Original Article

Body composition and anthropometry in Japanese andAustralian Caucasian males and Japanese females
Masaharu Kagawa BSc(Hons), PhD1, Colin W. Binns MBBS, MPH, PhD2 andAndrew P. Hills MSc PhD FASMF1
1

ATN Centre for Metabolic Fitness, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, School of Human Movement Studies, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
2
School of Public Health, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia
The total amount and location of fat deposition are important factors in the development of obesity and themetabolic syndrome. To date there have been no reported studies of ethnic and gender differences in body composition and fat distribution patterns in Japanese and Australian young adults. The aim of this study was to assess body composition of young Japanese and Australian Caucasian adults using whole-body dual energy x-ray
absorptiometry (DXA) and anthropometry to examine body fat deposition patterns. Body composition of 45
Japanese males and 42 Australian Caucasian males living in Australia (aged 18-40 years) and 139 Japanese females living in Japan (aged 18-27 years) were measured using whole-body DXA scanning and anthropometry.
Differences in relationships between BMI and waist circumference (WC), sum of skinfolds (ΣSF) and %BF obtained from DXA were assessed using multivariate analyses. Distinct gender and ethnic differences (p<0.05) inbone density and waist circumference were observed but no gender differences in BMI and bone mineral content
and no ethnic differences in sum of skinfolds and %BF. Both Japanese males and females showed a greater %BF
at given BMI, WC and ΣSF values (p<0.05). The results indicate differences in relationships between %BF andanthropometric measures in young Japanese compared to Caucasians and the importance of population-specificcut-off points for these indices. These findings also have implications for the development of chronic disease andfurther research, including studies in other Asian countries, is recommended.

Key Words: body composition, DXA, anthropometry, Japanese, Australians

Introduction
Overweight and obesity are major, and increasing, publichealth concerns in all parts of the globe. Obesity increases
the risk of chronic health consequences including hypertension, hypercholesteroaemia, hyperglycaemia, type II diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. In Australia, 19% of adultmales and 22% of adult females are considered obese andthe direct health care costs of obesity are estimated at
approximately $830 million annually.1
To relate obesity directly to health risks, assessment ofboth total body fat deposition and distribution as subcutaneous or visceral fat are important. Methods frequently
used to determine overall body fatness include Body Mass
Index (BMI; body mass (kg)/stature (m)2) and percentage
body fat (%BF). However, a number of studies have shownthat it is not appropriate to use a single BMI cut-off point
to detect obesity as different BMI-%BF relationships havebeen observed in different ethnic groups.2,3 Using anthropometry, a previous study found that the BMI value of
23kg/m2 for young Japanese adults equates with a BMI
value of 25kg/m2 for Australian Caucasians. 4 Similarly,
while waist circumference has been accepted as a useful
tool to determine abdominal fat deposition and obesityrelated health problems 5-7, there has been an inconsistency
in methodology.8 For example, a large epidemiologicalstudy of 11,247 Australian adults measured waist circumference defined as ‘the halfway point between the lower

border of the ribs and the iliac crest’ 6 whereas a Japanesestudy (n = 1,193) used to propose the Japanese classification of waist circumference to detect metabolic syndrome,measured their waist circumference ‘at the level of umbilicus’.9 Application of different measurement protocols
makes comparison between studies difficult.
To date, there have been a small number of studies thathave reported anthropometric characteristics of Japaneseand Caucasians10,11 and studies that have compared fat
distribution patterns are limited.12 The aim of the current
study was to analyse two datasets of 1) young Japanese andCaucasian males and 2) Japanese females to compare bodycomposition and subcutaneous fat distribution pattern inyoung Japanese and Australian young adults using dual
energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and anthropometry.

Corresponding Author: Dr. Masaharu Kagawa, Postdoctoral
Research Fellow, ATN Centre for Metabolic Fitness, School of
Human Movement Studies, Institute of Health and Biomedical
Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, 60 Musk
Avenue, Kelvin Grove, Qld 4059, Australia
Tel: +61-7-3864-5852; Fax: +61-7-3864-3980
Email: m.kagawa@qut.edu.auM Kagawa, CW Binns and AP Hills
In the current study ethnic and gender differences in the
BMI-%BF relationship were determined and at the sametime, appropriate anthropometric cut-off points for waist
circumference and sum of skinfolds were estimated.
Methods
The study was approved by the Human Research Ethics
Committees of Curtin University of Technology and Kagawa Nutrition University. The study adhered to the principles of medical research established by the National
Health and Medical Research Council.13 The body composition data of 45 Japanese and 42 Australian Caucasianmales aged 18-40 years obtained in Perth, Australia andthe data of 139 Japanese females aged 18-27 years obtained in Japan were used in this analysis. Participants
were healthy volunteers who were mostly students at thetime of body composition assessments. Japanese participants were those who recognised themselves as of Asianethnic background with Japanese citizenship and Australian Caucasian males were Australian citizens who perceived themselves as ‘Caucasian’ background. Each participant was provided with a written informed consent
form in which the purpose of the study and the radiation
exposure involved in the study were explained. The confidentiality of the results was guaranteed. Female participants were asked if they were pregnant prior to undergoing body composition assessment using DXA.
Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA)
A whole-body DXA scanning was conducted to obtain
body composition of the participants. The scanners usedin the study were a Hologic® QDR-2000 (version 5.73) inAustralia and a Lunar® DPX-LIQ (version 4.7c) in Japan.
Body composition obtained from this method is based ona three-compartment model differentiating bone, lean andsoft tissues and is considered as one of the more reliable
methods of estimating %BF.14-17 The DXA measurements
were completed in approximately 10 minutes and wereconducted by accredited technicians. It needs to be ac-

32

knowledged that use of different DXA machines makes
comparison of results difficult. However, assuming comparable prediction errors exist in different DXA machines,
it may be sufficient to observe a trend in relationships
between %BF and anthropometric measures.
Anthropometry
Anthropometric measurements include stature, body mass,eight skinfold measurements (triceps, subscapular, biceps,
iliac crest, supraspinale, abdominal, front thigh and medial calf), five girth measurements (relaxed arm, flexed
and tensed arm, waist, gluteal and maximum calf), andfour bone breadth measurements (biacromial, biiliocristal,biepicondylar humerus and biepicondylar femur). All
sites were measured using the protocol of the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry(ISAK).18 Participants in Australia and Japan were measured by the same Level 3 anthropometrist accredited by
ISAK and in Japan assistance was provided by a Level 1
anthropometrist. The technical error of measurements(TEM) for both anthropometrists were within the acceptable limits proposed elsewhere.19 All measurement sites
for each participant were located by the Level 3 anthropometrist prior to the measurements. From the anthropometric measurements, BMI, sum of eight skinfolds(ΣSF) and height-corrected sum of eight skinfolds (HtΣSF;sum of skinfolds*(170.18/stature)) were calculated.
All statistical analyses were conducted using the
SPSS® (version 14.0.0, 2005, Chicago) statistical package. Subcutaneous fat distribution was compared between
the study groups using HtΣSF. Using this approach it ispossible to compare anthropometric characteristics bycontrolling body size differences between the study
groups. Relationships between %BF estimated from DXA
and anthropometric measures such as BMI, waist circumference (WC) and ΣSF were determined using regression
analysis. BMI was transformed by natural logarithm(LnBMI) to normalize the data. Initially age was also included as independent variable but was excluded from theTable 1. Physical characteristics of 45 Japanese males, 42 Australian Caucasian males and 139 Japanese females
Japanese males

Japanese females(n = 45)
Mean ± SD

Australian Caucasianmales(n = 42)
Mean ± SD

Age (years)

24.3 ± 5.5

22.6 ± 5.3

20.4 ± 1.3†, ‡Stature (cm)172 ± 5.8*

180 ± 7.9

159 ± 5.0†, ‡Body mass (kg)

62.6 ± 7.1*

74.5 ± 9.6

52.5 ± 6.1†, ‡BMI (kg/m2)

21.3 ± 2.3*

23.0 ± 2.5

20.8 ± 2.2†

Percent body fat (%)

15.7 ± 6.2

15.9 ± 6.2

27.6 ± 5.9†, ‡Bone mineral density (g/cm2)

1.10 ± 0.08*

1.17 ± 0.09

1.14 ± 0.07†, ‡Bone mineral content (g)2450 ± 310*

2890 ± 392

2350 ± 267†

Waist circumference (cm)73.5 ± 5.2*

79.3 ± 6.0

66.3 ± 4.9†, ‡Sum of skinfolds (mm)73.5 ± 28.2

83.1 ± 34.5

125 ± 35.5†, ‡Height-corrected sum of skinfolds (mm)73.2 ± 28.7

78.5 ± 32.8

134 ± 38.3†, ‡*(n = 139)
Mean ± SD

Significant difference between Japanese males and Australian males at the 0.05 level. † Significant difference between Japanese females
and Australian males at the 0.05 level. ‡ Significant difference between Japanese females and Japanese males at the 0.05 level.

33

Ethnic differences in body composition

Height-corrected skinfolds (mm)

30
*

25
*

20

*

*

*

*

15

*

10

Japanese males
Australian males
Japanse females

*

5

Su
kin
pr
fo
as
ld
pin
ale
sk
Ab
inf
do
ol
d
mi
na
ls
Fr
kin
on
fo
tt
ld
hi
gh
sk
M
in
ed
fo
ial
ld
ca
lf
sk
inf
ol
d

cr
es
ts

Ilia
c

sk

inf

ol
d

ld
kin
fo

Bi
ce
ps

ap
ul
ar
s

Su
bs
c

Tr
ice
ps

sk
in
f

old

0

Skinfold sites
Figure 1. Ethnic and gender differences in subcutaneous fat distribution. Subcutaneous fat distribution pattern was illustrated using heightcorrected skinfolds. When the body size (ie, stature) of participants was corrected, no ethnic differences in subcutaneous fat distribution
pattern were observed. In comparison, females had significantly greater subcutaneous fat accumulation at all skinfold sites (p<0.05). * Significantly different with Japanese and Australian males at the 0.05 levels.

Table 2. Equations used in the analysis and predicted anthropometric cut-off points
Independent variable

LnBMI

Waist circumference

Regression equations

R2

SEE

Males#%BF = -100.435 + 2.63*(Ethnicity) + 37.186*(LnBMI)

0.45

4.40

Japanesefemales%BF = -104.279 + 43.553*(LnBMI)

0.61

3.65

Males#%BF = -38.859 + 3.771*(Ethnicity) + 0.691*(WC)

0.44

4.46

Japanesefemales%BF = -29.852 + 0.868*(WC)

0.53

4.05

Males#%BF = 2.277 + 1.393*(Ethnicity) + 0.164*(ΣSF)

0.76

2.93

Japanesefemales%BF = 8.848 + 0.151*(ΣSF)

0.84

2.38

*

Sum of skinfolds#

Ethnicity: 0 = Australian males; 1 = Japanese males. * Sum of skinfolds = Σ(triceps, subscapular, biceps, iliac crest, supraspinale, front
thigh, medial calf skinfolds) in mm

final equation.
Results
Results of body composition assessments using DXA andanthropometry are shown in Table 1. Australian Caucasian males were significantly greater in stature, body mass,
BMI as well as bone mineral density and contents thanJapanese males (p<0.05). However measured sum of skinfolds and estimated %BF did not differ between Japaneseand Australian males in the current study. In comparison
with male groups, Japanese females were smaller in physique but greater in %BF and total subcutaneous fat deposition. Figure 1 shows the relative differences in subcutaneous fat distribution between the study groups. The results showed there is no significant difference in subcuta-

neous fat distribution pattern between Japanese and Australian Caucasian males but a distinct difference was evident between genders.
Figure 2 shows relationships between %BF values estimated from DXA scans and a) BMI, b) waist circumference, and c) sum of skinfolds of the study groups. Ethnicity significantly contributed in all relationships and Japanese males had significantly higher %BF at given valuesof each anthropometric parameter compared to Australian
Caucasian males. Japanese females had greater body fat
accumulation than male counterparts at the given level ofanthropometric indices. The figures show that the slopesof each relationship were almost parallel between genders,suggesting the only difference in relationships between
genders is the magnitude of %BF deposition at given an-

M Kagawa, CW Binns and AP Hills

34%BF from DXA

50
45

Japanese males

40

Australian males

35

Japanese females

30Japanese males
Australian males
Japanese females

25
20

Males: R2 = 0.450;
SEE = 4.40
Japanese females:
R2 = 0.614;
SEE = 3.65

15
10
5
0
2.6

2.8

3

3.2

3.4

3.6

LnBMI
a) %BF-BMI relationships

50

Japanese males

45

Australian males

40

Japanese females%BF from DXA

35
30

Japanese males
Australian males

25

Japanese females

20

Males: R2 = 0.435;
SEE = 4.46
Japanese females:
R2 = 0.525;
SEE = 4.05

15
10
5
0
50

60

70
80
Waist circumference

90

100

b) % BF-Waist circumference
relationships
50

Japanese males
Australian males
Japanese females

45
40%BF from DXA

35
Japanese males
Australian males
Japanese females

30
25
20

Males: R2 = 0.757;
SEE = 2.93
Japanese females:
R2 = 0.836;
SEE = 2.38

15
10
5
0
0

50

100
150
Sum of skinfolds

200

250

c) %BF-Sum of skinfolds
relationships
Figure 2. Relationships between %BF and anthropometric indices in Japanese and Australian Caucasian males and Japanese females. The
relationships between %BF estimated from DXA and a) BMI, b) waist circumference, and c) sum of skinfolds for each study group wereplotted. Significant ethnic differences in the regression lines between Japanese and Australian males in all relationships and similarly significant gender differences were observed in Japanese groups.

35

Ethnic differences in body composition

thropometric values. Table 2 lists the equations established from the regression analyses. It was calculated that
Australians have a %BF of 19.3% at a BMI of 25kg/m2
however the BMI value for Japanese males with the same
%BF was about 23kg/m2. Using a BMI of 23kg/m2, %BF
for Japanese females was calculated to be 32.3%. Using
the calculated %BF values, cut-off points for other anthropometric parameters were estimated. The estimatedvalues for Australian males, Japanese males and Japanese
females were 84.2cm, 78.7cm, 71.6cm for waist circumferences and 103.8mm, 95.3mm and 155.3mm for ΣSF,
respectively.
Discussion
In the current study Japanese males have a smaller bodysize (ie, stature and body mass) than Australian Caucasianmales but have greater body fat deposition at the same
anthropometric status. Calculated cut-off points for BMI,
waist circumference and sum of skinfolds for Japanesemales are therefore lower than their Australian counterparts and this confirms the importance of populationspecific cut-off points when screening for obesity. The
observed ethnic differences in relationships between%BF-BMI have been suggested to be due to ethnic differences in body proportion and frame size.20 The ethnic
differences in the relationships may be attributed to an as
yet unspecified number of factors, including genetic,
hormonal or environmental variables. While the current
study was unable to identify these potential variables,
total body size (ie, stature) was suggested to be an additional structural variable that may contribute to the relationship between %BF and anthropometric indices, inaddition to body proportion and frame size. A previous
meta-analysis concluded that Japanese have greater visceral fat deposition in relation to the amount of subcutaneous fat.12 In the current study, however, no ethnic differences in subcutaneous fat deposition were observed
after adjusted for the total body size (ie, stature). Considering no ethnic differences in %BF between Japanese andAustralian males and no relative subcutaneous fat distribution pattern, there may be no ethnic ‘relative’ differences in subcutaneous and visceral fat distribution patterns in young adults. Further studies on the influence ofbody size may allow establishment of height-corrected
anthropometric indices that could be used in both Asianand Caucasian young adults.
From the established regression equations anthropometric cut-off points for each study group were calculated.
While further research is essential to derive more reliable
cut-off points, the values calculated from the equations
may assist in health assessments for obesity. To date, cutoff points for waist circumference have been proposed for
different ethnic groups and many have been assessed inrelation to blood assay and visceral fat accumulation using CT scans that contribute development of metabolic
syndrome.8 In this study waist circumference was determined in relation to %BF obtained from DXA. We foundthat the study groups have a considerable amount of body
fat at much lower waist circumference values than theexisting waist circumference cut-off values (Europid
males: ≥94cm; Japanese males: ≥85cm; Japanese females:≥90cm).

Because of the inconsistent definitions of ‘waist circumference’ used in previous studies and the small sample size of the current study, it is difficult to draw definitive conclusions and a sensible interpretation of the cutoff value differences is required. However it is also important to highlight that, particularly for Japanese cut-off
points, values were derived from a sample of mainly middle-aged individuals and hence may not always be usefulfor young populations. Also Japanese waist cut-off points
were proposed in order to diagnose individuals withmetabolic syndrome for treatment and therefore not toidentify individuals at risk of obesity and related healthrisks (ie, not for a primary prevention purpose). The current findings were comparable to the findings by Misra etal. 21, which examined appropriate waist circumference
cut-off points to improve the health status (an action level)using 2,050 Asian Indians (883 males and 1,167 females
aged above 18 years old). While further research is recommended to determine the sensitivity/specificity of existing waist circumference classifications for young adults,
it may be important to propose lower waist cut-off points
for young population in order to improve its screening
capability and also to improve health promotion strategies.
The current study also indicated cut-off points for sumof skinfolds that may reflect obesity risks in both Japanese and Australian young populations. While accuracy
and precision of skinfold measurements largely relates tothe expertise of the anthropometrist, it is cheap, noninvasive, portable and a convenient method 22,23 and readily available in many countries. This is the first study that
determined sum of skinfolds in relation to actual bodycomposition in Japanese and Australian populations andfurther validation of the calculated cut-off points may berequired. However, these values may provide useful for ascreening purpose in these populations.
The current study has a number of limitations. Becauseof the small sample size of males and no Australian female data, it is important to conduct further research using a larger sample size including Australian Caucasianfemales. Furthermore, the current study was also hampered by the difficulty in comparing results obtained fromtwo different DXA machines (ie, Hologic and Lunar).
The current study showed a significant difference in bonemineral density between Japanese males and females.
However, the gender differences obtained may simply be
due to differences in analysis algorithms of the machines
used. To avoid these complications in comparisons acrossdatasets it is necessary to confirm the current findings
using the same DXA machine in future studies.
Conclusion
The current study showed ethnic and gender differencesin relationships between %BF and anthropometric measures such as BMI, waist circumference and sum of skinfolds using Japanese and Australian Caucasians. Thesefindings underline the importance of population-specificclassifications in order to use these indices as usefulscreening tools for obesity and related health risks. The
study results also indicated a possible influence of bodysize to the observed ethnic differences in the %BF andanthropometric measure relationships. Future studies toconfirm this finding may lead to the establishment of

M Kagawa, CW Binns and AP Hills
body size-corrected indices that can be applied in bothethnic groups.
Acknowledgements
The current study was supported by staff of the Gairdner Bone
Densitometry Services, Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Perth, Australia. The research team would like to express their appreciation for the assistance of staff in body composition assessments using DXA.
The authors would also like to express their gratitude to Associate Professor Kazuhiro Uenishi and Ms Miki Mori from Kagawa
Nutrition University and Miss Chiharu Kuroiwa from Koriyama
Institute of Health Science for their assistance in recruitment anddata collection in Japan.
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