Paper

History of Game Development Options in Game Studies
ゲーム研究におけるゲーム開発の選択肢の歴史

BRANDSE Michael

ブランセ マイケル

Digital Hollywood University, Assistant Professor
デジタルハリウッド大学 助教

Game Development has historically been a complicated field, drawing from a wide variety of specializations,
including but not limited to programming, graphic design and interaction design. However, this need formany high level skills has meant that game research has been difficult, as researchers either don’t havethe skills, time or budget for game development. This has limited game research primarily to studies using
existing developed games, which is particularly problematic for research fields that depend on comparative
research. In recent years however, the situation has markedly improved through 4 key developments;
financial accessibility, an increased knowledge base, the forming of the game development middleware
industry as well as the rise of visual scripting. In this paper, we explore these key developments as well as
their history, and how these can potentially impact game research.
キーワード：Game Research Methodology, Game Development, Interaction Design

1. Introduction

the doors we defined in our own research and the valves

1.1 The Closed Nature of the Game Industry

took the role of opening those doors.

The game development industry has historically been

There are a number of books by experienced gamevery tight lipped about what kind of design processes they

developers that teach about game design methods, butuse. It’s also relatively uncommon for game developers

these too are relatively rare [6][7] , meaning we generally

t o b e a c t i v e r e a d e r s o f r e s e a r c h [1]. T h i s m e a n s t h a tcannot count on game developers to make their results andgame research and game development are very much

expertise available to a wider audience. Therefore, our best

disconnected, which is made worse by the fact thatchance of making game design methodology more known toresearch is a slow process, whereas the game industry

wider audience relies on game design researchers to createneeds to keep innovating at high speed or risk being lefta knowledge base in regards to game design methods.

behind by their competitors.

1.2 The Problematic Nature of Game Development

While this has gotten better over the years and game

Unfortunately, depending on game design researchers todevelopers are sharing more development knowledge, generally the type of knowledge they

conduct research on game design methods is problematic inshare is concrete in nature. For instance, specific graphics

its own right. The reason for this is that in order to conduct

techniques and algorithms, as well as technology used

research into design methodology, one would need to be

to optimize game rendering are relatively easy to present

well-versed in game development. This is difficult, since

since they have measurable effects. However, more "fuzzy"game development is a multi-faceted development process;knowledge, like game design methods, are still very rare andto create a game, one needs a combination of skills from

often either kept behind closed doors, or only showcased

fields such as programming, graphic design, animation,

at events with relatively high barriers of entry, such as thesound design, interaction design, and many more. This is aannual Game Developers Conference. Even then, we cannot

level of knowledge game researchers generally don’t have.

expect that developers will share the latest innovations, as

Another option would be to hire developers to make up for

was evidenced by research we ourselves have conducted.

the lacking knowledge, but since game development is not awith the public[2][3]

In previous affordance design for games we conducted

set process, even experienced developers will have trouble[4]

we presented a model for challenge encounters in games, inproperly estimating when their game will be effective, or

which we likened these encounters in games to doors and“fun.”

puzzles, with the doors needed to be opened with a key
gained through solving the puzzle, in order for the player

Even on the fourth entry in a series that Naughty Dog had

to progress. In the Game Developers Conference 2018, D.

been making for a decade, it was still impossible to plot out

Shaver and R. Yang from Naughty Dog presented something

just how long everything would take. “The problem is, youremarkably similar about level design guidance principles

couldn’t task creativity,” said Bruce Straley. “You can’t

they called gates and valves[5]©︎2021 Digital Hollywood University

task fun.”[8], where the gates resembled

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DHU JOURNAL Vol.08 2021

Furthermore, research budgets generally don’t approach

support. One example of this is a game engine called

the size of even medium sized games, with even medium

Virtools [14], which was released in 1993. The software was

sized game development project budgets potentially being

only used in a small number of regions in Europe and thus

several millions of dollars large.

had a very limited support base. The features were also

For that reason, researchers who specialize on gamevery bare, meaning that researchers would have to have in-research will often-times base their research on existing

depth knowledge of various game development processes ingames [9][10], as it’s much less time consuming and muchorder to make effective content with it, such as the manual

more economically viable to analyze existing games rather

creation of light maps. Interestingly however, Virtools did

than build the games by yourself. This has limits of course,

offer a visual scripting solution, something that other gameas researchers will be depending on existing content theyengines would only start implementing much later. The

generally cannot modify, meaning that comparative research

limited support however meant that Virtools eventually had(especially when the researcher has specific goals) is hard

to be discontinued in 2009.

to conduct.

A major change in the traditional game engine licensing
model occurred in 2004, when Unity Technologies createda game engine with the name Unity [15]. Rather than aiming

2. Changes in Game Development Options

for game developers developing high budget productions,

Fortunately, especially in the last decade there have

Unity Technologies instead opted to specifically target

been a number of developments, both financially andindependent developers with much smaller budgets [16] .

technologically, that has significantly lowered the barrier of

For the first 10 years of the software, Unity was sold as is,entry to game development. We have observed in particularwith prices ranging from $199 to $1499 [17] , prices thatfour key developments that contributed significantly to thewere a massive departure from the usual licensing pricing.

lowering of the barrier of entry.

From 2009 onwards, Unity started to offer free versionsof their software as well [17], before changing entirely to a

1. Financial accessibility.

subscription based service in 2016 [18].

2. Game development knowledge base.

Shortly after Unity announced their decision to make

3. Game development middleware.

one version of Unity free to use in 2009, Epic Games

4. Visual scripting systems.

also released a game engine that was free to use under
the name Unreal Development Kit (UDK) [19] . The Unreal

In the following chapters, we will go into more detail in

Development Kit was based on the Unreal 3 engine

what these four key developments are and how they havetechnology, and allowed users to make content for the PC

impacted game developers.

or IOS platform. While the Unreal 3 engine was technicallyalso made available for modding game content through3 Financial Accessibility

g a m e s l i k e G e a r s o f W a r f o r P C [20], t h e r e l e a s e o f a

Game development is primarily conducted using

completely free UDK was the first time that Epic Games

specialized tools called game engines. These game engines

released the engine for free by itself. While the softwareare responsible for calculating and rendering the real-timeitself was free to use for non-commercial purposes, if acontent to screen and oftentimes offer a variety of tools todeveloper decided to sell their creation, they had to pay

make otherwise tedious tasks more manageable and less

Epic Games a one-time fee of $99 and 25% royalties onany profit they made over $50,000 [21].

time consuming.

In 2014, Epic Games released the Unreal 4 engine andTraditionally, game development companies would makeinitially charged users a monthly subscription fee of $19 [22].

their own proprietary game engine which would then be used

However, the subscription didn’t only give users accessfor their game projects. Examples of these are the Frostbite

to the Unreal 4 engine, it also gave them access to theengine [11], developed by DICE and used by Electronic Arts,

engine’s source code, which was unheard of before that.

as well as the Luminous Engine [12], developed and used by

Now users could not only use a fully featured game engine

Square Enix as well as its subsidiary Luminous Productions.

for a small charge, they could modify the source code asGame engines are generally be unavailable to the general

well. While this required extensive knowledge of C++, it did

public, like the examples mentioned above, but sometimes

mean that users could customize the engine for their own

companies decide to allow licensing of their engine.

goals, research included. Finally, one year later Epic Games

Examples of this is the Quake Engine, by ID Software anddecided to remove the monthly subscription fee as well andthe Unreal Engine, developed by Epic Games.

make the Unreal 4 engine free to use [23] , a model they

However, licensing a game engine doesn’t come cheap.

have continued to use even with the release of an early

While information on the price of licensing is scarce, Gestalt
from Eurogamer stated that a license to the Quake 3 engine

access version of Unreal 5 engine [24].

[13]

Other game engine developers also followed suit, with the

could be around $500,000 per game project, excluding

CryEngine [25] becoming free to use in 2018, after having

royalties on the sales of said project. This is of course

adopted a “pay what you want” model for a number of

unfeasible for researchers, as this only concerns the gameyears. At QuakeCon 2005, John Carmack announced thatengine itself and not yet any contents created with it.

the id Tech 3 source code (formerly known as the Quake

There were cheaper options, but generally these options

3 Arena engine) would be made freely available under thed i d n ’t o f f e r v e r y r o b u s t s o l u t i o n s o r h a d v e r y l i m i t e d©︎2021 Digital Hollywood University

GNU General Public License v2.0 [26].

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DHU JOURNAL Vol.08 2021

4 Game Development Knowledge Base

5 Game Development Middleware

Initially, a large reason for why game development was

Middleware services for 3DCG and game development

hard to get into is because knowledge regarding gamehave been around for a while, and come in two forms;

development was hard to come by. This didn't only regard

the sale of premade assets that the costumer can include

research into design methodology or knowledge onin their projects or tools that help make the development

concrete technologies like particular graphical effects, likeprocess easier.

we discussed earlier, but also practical knowledge dealing

5.1 Middleware to ease development timewith how to create 3D content for real-time use or how to

Initially, game development was a very time consuming

program a game.
Since game engines were initially only available to major

process, as assets made for real time usage had to begame developers, it meant that a knowledge base that

optimized, while trying to keep an acceptable level of detail,could be accessed by all was simply not a necessity. Afteror even outright faking the presence of detail. For instance,

all, there was very little use in explaining the usage of thea game ready 3D model would require a number of textures
to render correctly. For games developed for the Playstation

Quake 3 engine, when said engine could cost $500,000 to

3 (2006) and the XBOX360 (2005), a wide variety oflicense.

textures were required to visualize a 3D model. A base color

When Unity Technologies targeted small to medium teams

texture to take care of the colors of the model, a specularwith their Unity engine, it meant that even people who

map to deal with specular data, a normal map to generate

were simply making games for a hobby could get into gamefake normal data on a 3D model to make it feel that models

development. When Unreal 4 became free to use as well,contained more details than they actually did, alpha textures

game engines experienced a surge in popularity. This meant

to make parts of the model invisible, as well as emissivethat knowledge of how to use the engines effectively also

textures to create the illusion that certain parts of the model

became more common, for both premium [27][28] as well as

glowed or otherwise emitted light. The Playstation 4 (2013)

free options (through the use of personal blogs, Youtube

and the XBOX One (2013) were capable of rendering

videos, and so on).

more advanced rendering models, and during this age PBRWith the engines gaining in popularity, the companies(Physically Based Rendering) [33] became the primary means

responsible for creating these engines also started

of rendering textures on 3D models. However, this new modelorganizing conventions specifically meant to dissertate

introduced the need for additional textures to simulate theinformation regarding their own technologies. In 2017 Unity

difference between conductive and dielectric materials, as well

Technologies created the Unity Unite convention [29]. Epicas textures to simulate the overall roughness and thus how

Games created the Unreal Fest [30], an event that allowed forlight would reflect off the surface if it hit.
Traditionally, all these assets would have to be made by

the sharing of Unreal engine techniques and technologies.
In past research we conducted into the immersive qualities

hand, requiring complicated setups to calculate all theseof interactive environments [36], we had to prepare a number

various maps using a combination of high and low definitionof stimuli in the form of game environments. To gathermodels. Some textures were required to be painted or

the impressions that players had of these environments,

modified by hand. To reduce the burden of rendering

we conducted a questionnaire. When the experiment was

multiple objects at the same time, game developers would

conducted, we were relying on Unreal 3 engine technology,

have to create various LOD (Level of Detail) models, models
that were swapped to models with lower polygon counts towhose source code was inaccessible. This meant that inincrease the performance. A wider variety of techniques fororder to write out data from the game to external text files,

real time graphics optimization existed, but all these would

we had to rely on a technique called“DLL bind”[31], whichhave to be prepared by hand as well. This meant that evenrequired knowledge of DLL creation as well as linking thefor the average experiment, the researcher would have tocreated DLLs to UnrealScript, which was Unreal 3 engine’

spend a lot of time just to prepare one single stimuli.

s programming language. Unfortunately, material on how toThis started to change around 2000, when a variety ofcreate a DLL that could write out text files was hard to find,middleware developers were born. One well-known example

and due to our limited programming ability we had to create

is a company called Havok, responsible for a physics

an alternate experiment flow where we constantly interrupted

calculation software development kit also known as Havok

subjects to fill in questionnaires through external hardware.

Physics [34] . Since its founding, Havok Physics has been

In follow up research presently being conducted, we used

used in more than 600 games. Another famous example is

the Unreal 4 engine instead. We made another attempt

Speedtree [35], developed by Interactive Data Visualization,

at writing out text files from within the game, to create ansoftware that was meant to quickly and efficiently generate

experiment with a smoother flow. Due to the popularity

various kinds of foliage, a particular type of asset thatof the engine, it was relatively easy to find a tutorial on

would normally require a lot of time to create. InstaLOD [36],[32]

and we were able to create a solution thatdeveloped by Crunchbase in 2016, would quickly generateenabled us to conduct questionnaires from within the gamel e v e l o f d e t a i l m e s h e s, s o t h a t t h e d e v e l o p e r s w o u l denvironment. This would not have been possible without the

not have to bother themselves. It was not just limited to

Unreal 4 engine being popular enough to have many people

making specific development processes easier. In 2003,

write tutorials for it.

Allegorithmic was founded and would eventually release

this subject

Substance Designer and Substance Painter, two software
suits that would make texture generation for real time usage©︎2021 Digital Hollywood University

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DHU JOURNAL Vol.08 2021

a lot easier. For instance, in Substance Designer designers

our narrative model, we needed to use game environments

would create a procedural texture using visual scripting,that increased in detail, so we could measure the effects ofwhich could then easily be rendered out as metallic textures

environments with and without the narrative elements in our(to determine conductive and dielectric conditions),

model. Due to this, the development of a variety of custom

roughness textures, normal textures and so on, whereas

environments was a necessity. However, since all assets

normally a developer would have to make these one by one.

had to be created by hand, it took us 6 months to design

Even game engines started incorporating tools into theirand develop a total of two environments (Figure 1).

engine. The Unreal 3 engine, for instance, had in-engine
tools to generate level of detail meshes or to generate UV
coordinates for light map textures, textures that were used
to create cheap lighting and shading performance wise.
The Unreal 5 engine even offers a direct link to Quixel's
models [37] , a company who specializes in the creation ofphoto-scanned 3D models and textures and was acquiredby Epic Games in 2019.
Figure 1: Environment Stimuli

5.2 Pre-made assets as middleware
Middleware software meant to speed up the development

For currently ongoing research, we decided to expand on

process is not the only major change in the field ofthat research by measuring the effect of level of detail in

middleware for game development. Another one is the salethe immersion rates of users, as well as measure how wellof premade assets, which users can immediately use in theirinteractive environments are capable of conveying narrative.

projects without having to create it themselves. One well-

Like the prior research, this research also heavily depended

known example of a service selling assets to customers

on custom made environments, as once again we needed to

is Turbosquid, a site that sells 3D models and has done

increase the level of detail for each environment to be able

so since 2000. While initially Turbosquid's offerings were

to compare the results of each environment. We developed

primarily meant for 3DCG (meaning they sold high definitiona total of 6 different core environments and subdivided

models that would have difficulty being rendered in a real

this into 3 sets with increasing level of detail, giving us atime application), currently they also have a number of so-

total of 18 stimuli. Using a number premade assets packs

called "low poly" models on sale, which can be rendered

and functionality [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] , wein real time applications without problems. Another well-managed to reduce our total development time to 2 months

known example is textures.com and gametextures.com, thefor these 6 core environments (Figure 2). The increased

former offering a wide variety of textures for various uses

number of stimuli meant that we could conduct more

and the latter primarily focusing on textures that can be

accurate experiments on the subject of immersion levels in

used within real time applications. While textures.com wasdigital interactive environments as well.

initially completely free to use, currently they use a credit
system where users can download only a set of textures perday, and offer a number of premium plans where users get
more credits to use on a monthly basis. There are a variety
of other services, like FreeSound.org, which focusses onsound effects that can be downloaded at no charge andMixamo, a supplier focusing on 3D character models andanimations.
In 2010 Unity Technology introduced the asset store, an
online marketplace where developers could sell real time
content specifically meant to speed up development time
for other developers. This was the first time that content
specifically developed for a game engine was sold througha marketplace. The asset store quickly became popular andnow boasts over 70,000 asset packs. The asset store's
success meant that Epic Games also created an online
marketplace when they released the Unreal 4 engine, simply
called the Unreal Engine Marketplace. The Unreal Engine
Marketplace currently offers over 19000 asset packs foruse with the Unreal 4 engine, across a wide variety of
categories.
In our own experience, we have found that thedevelopment of real-time assets became much more
effective when using existing asset packs. In past research [38]Figure 2: Environment Stimuli for continuation experiment

we set out to define the game world as a narrative tool,and to validate the model we developed, we measured theimmersion rates in digital game environments. To validate©︎2021 Digital Hollywood University

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DHU JOURNAL Vol.08 2021

6 Visual Scripting Systems

Schematyc into their game engine by the name of CryEngine

The development of games requires a deep knowledge ofin 2016. Unity Technologies as well, acquired the developer

programming, from the programming of game-play, to theof the Bolt visual scripting middleware, and incorporated

programming of real-time graphics to render out the gamethe tool into their engine in 2021 [58] . Other software as

to the screen. Especially for big budget game productions,well have started embracing visual scripting. The Substancethis need for programming is big enough that programming

Designer software allows for procedural texture generation

is often divided into multiple specializations. This has meantcreation using a visual scripting interface, and a variety ofup until now that unless a developer had programming

3D software suits (like 3D Studio Max and Maya) now haveskills, a developer would be unable to create digital games.

visual scripting systems for shader creation. Houdini goes

While this barrier has not entirely been resolved yet, it hasa step further, and has a visual scripting system for non-gotten more accessible through the use of a concept calledshader related functionality as well (like 3D model creation),and presents it as a selling point for their software [59].

“visual scripting.”

In our own experience, we found that the existence of visual

Visual scripting is not an entirely new concept. The

scripting systems helped us in 2 significant ways.

first experiments with Visual Scripting were alreadybeing conducted in 1960-1970, in the form of scripting

1. We were able to significantly speed up our prototyping

languages like Pygmalion [51] and GRaIL (Graphical Input. However, it wasn’t until Microsoft developed

process, by using a combination of the default templates

Visual Basic in 1991 that visual scripting started to becomepresent within the Unreal Engine, templates that takemore popular. While the current image of visual scripting

the form of a basic game. Due to this combination, we

differs quite a bit from programming using an IDE (Integrated

were able to get a game working in less than 2 hours of

Language)[52]

Development Environment) that Visual Basic helped pioneer

development time.

[53]

,

Visual Basic was responsible for making programming more
2. We were able to integrate questionnaires into the gamevisual.
However, for the longest time, any other efforts to create

environment with relative ease using the visual scripting

visual scripting was largely constrained to the field oftools present within the Unreal Engine (Figure 3). In

education. For instance, a visual programming language

our prior research [38] , we had no way of integratinge n g i n e e r e d a t M I T w i t h t h e n a m e S c r a t c h [54][55], w a squestionnaires into the game prototype, meaning that we

primarily meant to teach younger students how to think

had to interrupt participants of our research constantly bylogically.

asking them to fill in questionnaires. The visual scripting

In recent years, various developers of game engines havesystem of Unreal Engine allowed us to easily create astarted adding visual scripting features to their engines.

user interface that recorded the user input. With testing

A potential reason for this development could be the evermethods integrated directly into the game content, notincreasing scope and cost of game development. One

only did we not have to interrupt the participants anymore,calculation by Raph Koster states that from 1985 to 2005,

additional testing venues like online testing also became

the cost of games has multiplied by 22 times[56]

more viable and secure.

. With thecost of development ever increasing, it would make sensefor developers to introduce visual scripting tools so theyWith the rise of visual scripting systems and how robust they

could involve non-programmers in programming heavy

have become as development tools, it has become a lot easierdevelopment processes to stream-line production.

even for non-programmers to make functional games.

In 2007, Epic Games released the Unreal 3 engine, which
introduced visual scripting in the form of two editors. One of
the editors was called Kismet and the other was a material
editor, one of the earliest examples of a shader development
tool that made use of visual scripting. While Kismet was
not exactly user friendly, it would eventually become thebasis of a system called Blueprint in the Unreal 4 engine,a tool that would come to encompass a major part of theengine. Still, despite Kismet being a visual scripting tool, it
was primarily meant to script simple occurrences and eventsin game environments, and wasn’t meant to be used tocreate entire games with. As such, programming was still a

Figure 3: Questionnaire conducted from within the gameprototype itself. The questionnaire system was entirely developed
using “blueprint,” Unreal Engine's visual scripting system.

necessity for development.
Still, around this time, other engines that either added
visual scripting solutions or were developed around a visual
scripting tool also started to be released. The open-source

7. Conclusion

Godot game engine [57] was released in 2014, includes

Game development is a uniquely time consuming andvisual scripting and is often lauded for its ease of use.

costly activity, requiring an in-depth knowledge of a wide

Crytec incorporated a visual scripting tool by the name of©︎2021 Digital Hollywood University

variety of developments fields, including but not limited to28

DHU JOURNAL Vol.08 2021

programming, visual design and interaction design. As a

Association (2019), Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 77-105.

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Cutting-Edge Tech Demo” https://comicbook.com/gaming/

In recent years however the situation has markedly

news/square-enix-back-stage-tech-demo-luminous-engine/

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software required for game development have become more[13] Eurogamer: “The Engine Licensing Game - The ups

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