9th May 2024
8ICEGEThe 2024 Noto Peninsula Earthquake- Liquefaction and lateral flow damage Hirofumi TOYOTA
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Nagaoka University of Technology

Acknowledgement: I have used the data offered by Japan Metrological Agency, National
Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, and Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism. I have also used the information from my colleagues and the memberof reconnaissance team in Japanese Geotechnical Society.

I offer my condolences to those who were affected by the disaster.
1

Contents
Liquefaction damage in Niigata cityLiquefaction damage in Uchinada regionOther liquefaction damage
Summary2

Liquefaction damage area
Only large damage area
The 2024 Noto Peninsula Earthquakeon 1st January 2024
Epicenter

WajimaSuzu
Nanao
Uchinada region

Awara

Sado
Niigata

Kashiwazaki
Niigata pref.

Takaoka, Himi

Kaga
Epicenterdistance
160 kmItoigawa

Epicenterdistance
160 kmToyama pref.
Ishikawa pref.

Sakai
Fukui pref.

Estimated JMA seismic intensity3Liquefaction damage in Niigata city
• End region of sand dune (Nishi-ku: Terao area)• Former river channel (Nishi-ku: Zenku)

4Main liquefaction area in Niigata city

KOWA Co., Ltd.

Limited damage comparing tothe 1964 Niigata Earthquake

Terao

Old river channelZenku

5

Investigation is in progressNiigata city
15th Jan. 2024

No damage

Towhata, et al.: Air photographs of the Niigata
city after the earthquake in 1964, JGS, 1999.

Shinano River

Lateral flow during the 1964
Niigata Earthquake
6Hamada, et al.: Observation of permanent ground displacements induced by soil liquefaction, Journal of JSCE, No. 376, 1986.

Liquefaction susceptibility map in Niigata city
Good agreement was achieved between the highsusceptible area and the liquefied area.

Nishi-ku, Terao
Nishi-ku, Zenku

7Liquefaction damage area in end region of sand dune
Prof. Hosaka (Niigata Univ.)

Continuous damage through the prefectural road 16 (about 6.5 km)
AoyamaSea of Japan
Ejected sandKobariCracks
Gutter damage

Terao

Sakai
Ohno
UchinoGoogle Map

Elevation of damaged area

Prof. Hosaka (Niigata Univ.)

AoyamaElevation（ DEM5A ）Sea of Japan

Kobari

Terao

Sakai
Ohno

UchinoLiquefaction occurred around the elevation of 0 m.Examples of damage: No. 1

Damage in Sakai area
Prof. Hosaka (Niigata Univ.)

Elevation (m)Damage area

Average gradient: 4%

30th Jan.

Upper part of the slope: Open cracks

Ejected sandCracks

Elevation (m)Gutter damage

Damage area

Average gradient: 3%
盛⼟？

Embankment?

3rd Jan.

Lower part of the slope: Ejectedsand and uplift of sidewalk

Examples of damage: No. 2

Damage in Ohno area
Prof. Hosaka (Niigata Univ.)

Elevation (m)Damage area

Pref. road 16
Subsidence
陥没
Liquefaction隆起・液状化
and upheaval

Average gradient: 50%

Nishi-river
Ejected sandPref. road 16

Cracks

2nd Jan.

Gutter damage
Ejected sand
Cracks
Gutter damage

県道Deformation of theroad is slight

Pref. road 16

Large flow andsubsidence

Low ground side

Damage in Terao area

Elevation (m)3rd Jan.
Damage area
Pref. road 16

Average gradient: 0.5%Liquefaction in Chuo-ku (Old river)

Smaller damage area comparing to the 1964 Niigata Earthquake

KOWA Co., Ltd.

Niigata earthquake (June 1964)

2nd Jan.

Higashi-ohdori

1st Jan.:Sekiyata-machi

4th Jan.: Kawagishi-cho12

3rd Jan.: Sekiyata-machi

Liquefaction in Toppara and Zenku (Old river)
KOWA Co., Ltd.

3D for open cracks (17th Jan.)

Upheaval of the road (3rd Jan.)

3D for compressional deformation of theroad (17th Jan.)

1 m-displacement

Uplift of 40-50 cm
in the roadEjected sand (3rd Jan.)

13

Leaning and settlement of the house (3rd Jan.)Liquefaction in Toppara (Old river)

KOWA Co., Ltd.

Lateral flow occurred in very gentle slope (1/200)
Continuouscracks
サウンディング（予定）

4th Jan.

サウンディング（予定）

Ridge
Upheaval

サウンディング（予定）

3rd Jan.

3rd Jan.

Cross section profile

14

Liquefaction damage around Uchinada• End region of sand dune
(Kanazawa-city, Kahoku-gun, Kahoku-city, and Hakui-city)

Reliquefaction
Cracks and ejected sand were reported in Ohnebu, Nishi-araya, andTakamatsu during the 1891 Nobi Earthquake.
Information from Prof. Wakamatsu (Kanto Gakuin Univ.)

15Extending damage along the end regionof sand dune

AIST: GeomapNavi
GSI: Web maps

Hakui-city
Sand dune deposit

Himi-city

Information: Prof. Yasuda (Tokyo Denki Univ.)
Prof. Wakamatsu (Kanto Gakuin Univ.)

Partialdamage area

Takamatsu

Kahoku-city,Ohsaki
Kahoku-gun,Uchinada-town

Muro
Nishi-araya
Miyasaka
Ohnebu11.5 km

Tsurugaoka

Kanazawa-city,
Awagasaki-machi

16Extending damage along the end regionof sand dune

AIST: GeomapNavi
GSI: Web maps

Hakui-city
Sand dune deposit

Himi-city

Information: Prof. Yasuda (Tokyo Denki Univ.)
Prof. Wakamatsu (Kanto Gakuin Univ.)

Partialdamage area

Shaded relief map
OhsakiTakamatsu
Damaged area

Muro

Kahoku-city,
OhsakiKahoku-gun,Uchinada-town

Muro

Miyasaka

Nishiaraya
Miyasaka
OhnebuTsurugaoka

Kanazawa-city,
Awagasaki-machi

Nishiaraya

Ohnebu11.5 km

Tsurugaoka

Detailed viewof this area

Awagasaki-machi

17

Uchinada-town

Kahoku lagoon

Making aflatland bycutting the sanddune There was steep slope of sand dune close to the lagoon in the early 1900’s.
 The sand dune was cut to use for reclamation works (northern part of Ohnebu).
 Large damage occurred in cutting slope area between Miyasaka and Ohsaki.
18

Boring data

Fine sandShallow groundwater
Small SPT-N

19

Nishiaraya

Investigation:
6th Jan.: Prof. Yasuda and Prof. Ishikawa (Tokyo Denki Univ.)
3rd Feb.: Prof. Yasuda; Toyota and Takada (Nagaoka Univ. of Tech.)501930’sPresent

1930年代の断⾯

Elevation,
m
標⾼，m

40

現在の断⾯

30

Anthropogenic modification

20

Bump

10Ave. gradient: about 2%

00

100

200

300

Direction of lagoon

400

距離，mDistance,m

How much effects of
pre-loading onliquefaction?

Extending flat ground

3rd Feb.

 Blue (lower than 2 m): No liquefied
area (mainly soft clay in lagoon) Light blue (2 - 5.5 m): Damaged
area by lateral flow Orange (higher than 5.5 m): No
liquefied area (deeper groundwaterlevel)

20Effects of pre-loading (OCR) on stress-strain
20200

Toyoura sand (Dr=40%, '0=100 kPa)
Wet tamping, Drained triaxial compression test16

q = a - r (kPa)q = a - r (kPa)

300

OCR=6

OCR=1

100

00.0

Detailed viewof this area

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

s = 2/3 (a - r) (%)

2.5

3.0(a)

Toyoura sand (Dr=40%, '0=100 kPa)
Wet tamping, Triaxial compression test

OCR=6128

OCR=1400.000

0.002

0.004

0.006

0.008

0.010

s = 2/3 (a - r) (%)

Very small strain: Slight effects of OCR
Medium strain: OCR effects are apparent
Large strain: OCR effects fade away
Reference DOI: 10.1139/cgj-2018-0575
21

Effects of pre-loading (OCR) on liquefaction
0.5

Toyoura sand, Wet tamping (Dr=40%)
Isotropic consolidation, Bender element test

300
250

(OCR=1, e=0.798)(OCR=6, e=0.810)

200(OCR=1, e=0.816)

150
100

0100

200

300

400500600

Mean effective principal stress, p' (kPa)

Slight effects of OCR onvoid ratio and Vs

Cyclic stress ratio, d / (2'0)

Shear wave velocity, Vs (m/s)

350700Toyoura sand ('0 = 100 kPa)
Wet tamping, D.A. = 5%
Cyclic undrained triaxial test

0.4

Dr=40%, OCR=60.3

Dr=60%, OCR=10.2
0.1

Dr=40%, OCR=10.0
0.11101001000

Number of cycles to liquefaction, N
CRR shows the increase effect of 20% relative density by loading of OCR=6.
Reference DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001634
22Nishiaraya

Complicated land modification

Excavated area to extract sand for reclamation
using sand pump

Excavation pond was reclaimed by sand.
23

Nishiaraya

Damage in dune side of the road

Lateral flow to the road
Spring water: high groundwater

Investigation:
3rd Feb.: Prof. Yasuda (Tokyo Denki Univ.),
24
Toyota and Takada (Nagaoka Univ. of Tech.)MuroDamage in lagoon side of the road
Lateral flow to the lagoon

Flow direction

Investigation:
3rd Feb.: Prof. Yasuda (Tokyo Denki Univ.),
25
Toyota and Takada (Nagaoka Univ. of Tech.)Shaded relief map

Ohsaki

Damage inside the cutting dune
Expanding damage in flat ground

Muro

About 160 m
inside from theroadInvestigation: 3rd Feb.

Nishiaraya

26

Tsurugaoka

East side of the road: Farm land in 1960’s.
Serious liquefaction damage

13th Mar.

13th Mar.

1 m-contour
Ejected sandSubsidence

Lateral flow parallel to the road

UpliftDitch damage

3rd Feb.

Lateral flow to the road27

Tsurugaoka
Investigation: 13th Mar.
A

1 m-contour

The contour falls into the roadA’

Ave. gradient: about 1.3%
B’

BAB
A’

B’

Ave. gradient: about 2%

GSI: Web maps
28

Nishiaraya
As a next step, amount of lateral flow should be measured quantitatively.

1 m-contour

Park

The park was almost flat before the earthquake.

29

Nishiaraya

Nishiaraya park

Mar. 13th: Joint investigation with Prof. Nakamura (Tottori Univ.)
LidarSLAM surveying

Photo

About 1.3 m
level difference

3rd Feb.

3rd Feb.

How much flow?

Photo

30

Other reliquefaction
 Severe liquefaction occurred in Kashiwazaki-city (alongSabaishi-river) during the 2007 Off Chuetsu Earthquake

31Kashiwazaki-cityNW

Clean centerNo damageES

Yamamoto estate
No damage

Groundwaterlowing method

Sabaishigawa-parkNo damage

Matsunami
No damage

Hashiba-cho
Ejected sandDune (Arahama)
荒浜砂丘

自然堤防堆積物
Natural levee deposit
番神砂丘
Dune (Banjin)
氾濫原堆積物等
Flood-plain deposit
現河川River channel
旧河川
Old river channel

AIST: GeomapNavi
GSI: Web maps

500m

Kashiwazaki-city
Investigation: 5th Jan.

Ejected sand

Percentage finer by weight

100

Testimony: Sand wasremoved. A lot of water
sprang out from the ground.
This place was liquefied atthe 2004 Chuetsu and the2007 Off Chuetsu
Earthquakes

Kashiwazaki, Hashiba-cho
Ejected sand80

This time: No fines

604032007, No.1 s=2.71 g/cm
32007, No.5 s=2.75 g/cm
32007, No.8 s=2.70 g/cm
32024, No.1 s=2.73 g/cm
32024, No.2 s=2.70 g/cm

2000.01

0.1

110Grain size (mm)Expanding crack from 2007

Liquefaction scale was small: Only
surface was liquefied.

Other reliquefaction
 There is liquefaction report (JGS) in Suzu-city (Nonoe,Ugai, and Shoin) during the 1993 Off Noto Peninsula
Earthquake

34

Nonoe Reliquefaction

Investigation: 2nd Feb.

Google Map
35

Ugai

Investigation: 14th Mar.

Reliquefaction

Google Map

36

Tsunami also hit this areaShoin

Reliquefaction

Investigation: 14th Mar.

AIST: Coastal dune deposit

GSI: Web maps

Lateral flow to the land side
Land side

Sea side

Land side

Ave. gradient: 2% to land side
Ave. gradient: 3% to sea side

Sea side

Ejected sandSea side

Ejected sand was reported during
the 2007 Noto Peninsula Earthquake

Land side37

Leaning manhole to the sea sideLiquefaction in other sand dune deposits
In the case of loose and shallow
groundwater38

Sado city

Liquefaction places

The road wasclosed byliquefaction

11th Jan.
Mr. Taguchi (Fudo Tetra Corporation)
39Itoigawa city
Investigation area:
1st Feb.
Inclined slab

Largely damaged area

Ejected sandSettlement of the house
Google Map40

Himi city

Large area in the map was liquefied.

Investigation: 2nd Feb.

A lot of ejected sand in parking lot

Severe liquefaction damage
on residential house

Damaged river wall
through 37 m
Investigation area

Google Map

Other liquefaction areas
Alluvial plain deposit or earth filling42

Takaoka city

Investigation: 3rd Feb.
Prof. Yasuda (Tokyo Denki Univ.),
Toyota and Takada (Nagaoka Univ. of Tech.)

Leaning of houseEjected sandLiquefied area throughthe road
No liquefied area

Settlement of side ditch
43

Nanao city
Investigation: 2nd Feb.

Google Map

44

Wajima city

Investigation: 2nd Feb.
Original ground mainly consistsof clay. Therefore, ejected sandmight be generated from fillingmaterials.

Leaning and settlement
Ejected sand
Google Map

Ejected sandEjected sand45

Uplift of manhole

Wajima city

Original
ground is clay.

46

Wajima city

Silt might besoftened during
the earthquake,even notliquefied.

47

Liquefaction in lagoon
Soft clayey soils and high groundwater:when sand exists, the damage is extended
by liquefaction.

48

Hakui city (Ouchi lagoon)

28th Feb.
Prof. Shinbo (NIT-Ishikawa )Google Map49

Kahoku-gun (Kahoku lagoon)

8th Jan.
Mr. Terasaki (Natural Consultant Co., Ltd.)

Level difference in levee and road

Google Map

50

Kaga city (Shibayama lagoon)Ejected sand trace
Uneven road15th Feb.
Prof. Takahara (Kanazawa Inst. of Tech.)
Prof. Shinbo (NIT-Ishikawa)

Google Map

51

Arawa city and Sakai city

Provided from Prof. Arai(formerly, Fukui Univ.)

埋⼟

Photos: Prof. Kojima (Fukui Univ.)52

Effects of countermeasures againstliquefaction
Shinano-river, Yasuragi-tei (Niigata city)53Liquefaction trace during
Joint research with Prof. Kazama
Univ.)
the 1964 Niigata Earthquake GS(Tohoku
Sampling

Geoslicer

GS-2 (GL -5.0 to -6.3 m)
Original image
Adjusted color tone

G.L. -5.0 to -7.0 m

Age determination:
1717  1949
Clay, Silt
Sand150 mm

1.3 m

Drainage ditches

Drainage ditch
createdby liquefaction

Deeper layer than 5 m
was also liquefied
during the 1964
Niigata Earthquake.

Inclined layers

Measures against liquefaction (Yasuragi-tei)■Range of improvement
Width: 8 – 9 m
Depth: 9 – 20 m
■Methods
Non-vibratory sand compaction
pile
Displacement reduction typecement mixing
for neighboring construction(Non-vibratory sand compaction pile)

Investigation area

Shinano River■: Non-vibratory sand compaction pile■: Disp. reduction type cement mixing(Displacement reduction type cement mixing)

Riverbed: Sheet piles (depth: 10 – 13 m) with tie rod55

Summary• Wide range of liquefied areas (from Fukui to Niigata): Strong seismic motion
propagated extensively along the coastline• Liquefied area: End region of sand dune, Old river channel, Plain deposit, Earthfilling, and Lagoon
Terrain modification should be concern.
• Reliquefaction: 1891 Nobi, 1964 Niigata, 1993 Off Noto Peninsula, 2004
Chuetsu, 2007 Off Chuetsu, and 2007 Noto Peninsula Earthquakes• Lateral flow: End region of sand dune, and Gentle slopes
Liquefied ground flows sensitively to the slope direction

56