ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B

Nepal: A brief country profile on Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management

Beda Nidhi Khanal
ADRC Visiting Researcher, 2019B(From Ministry of Home Affairs, Nepal)

January 020

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ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B

Table of Contents
SN

Contents

1

Background, in the light of Disaster1.1 Nepal Specific
1.2 Geography
1.3 Administrative Division
1.4 Demography
1.5 Socio-economic formation
1.6 Climate
Disaster Profiles in Nepal
2.1 Disaster scenario
2.2 Landslide and Debris flow
2.3 Floods and Inundation
2.4 Earthquake
2.5 Fire
2.6 Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)
2.7 Drought
2.8 Others
Legal and Institutional Arrangements
3.1 The Constitution of Nepal, 2015
3.2 Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act, 2017
3.3 Local Governance Operation Act, 2017
3.4 Public Health Act, 2018
3.5 National Policy for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2018
3.6 National DRR Strategic Plan of Action (2018-2030)
3.7 Fifteenth Periodic Plan (2019-2023)
3.8 Other Laws, Policies and Guidelines
3.9 Ministry of Home Affairs, Ministry of Federal Affairs and General Administration,Line ministries and their agencies
3.10 National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority (NDRRMA)
3.11 Province Governments and Local Levels
3.12 Nepal Risk Reduction Consortium
3.13 Executive Committee for DRRM
3.14 Province Disaster Executive Committee/ District Disaster Management
Committee/ Local Disaster
Management Committee
Response Policy and Frameworks
Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction(SFDRR) Updates in Nepal
5.1 Priority Area 1: Understanding Disaster Risk
5.2 Priority Area 2: Strengthening Disaster Risk Governance at Federal, Provincial
and Local Levels
5.3 Priority Area 3: Promoting Comprehensive Risk-Informed Private and Public
Investments in Disaster Risk Reduction for Resilience
5.4 Priority Area 4: Enhancing Disaster Preparedness for Effective Response and to“Build Back
Better” in Recovery, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction
Challenges and the way forward in the area of DRRM in Nepal
6.1 Mainstreaming DRRM
6.2 Institutional strengthening and capacity building
6.3 Other challenges
6.4 Way forward
Conclusion
ADRC Counterpart
Abbreviations
Bibliography/References

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ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B

A brief Country Profile on Disaster Risk Reduction of Nepal
1. Background, in the light of Disaster
Nepal occupies an area of 147,181 square kilometers including both the high Himalayas to the northand plain lands to the south. Within this geography, Nepal is highly prone to multiple hazards, which exist
primarily because of its diverse topography and climatic conditions, geological position, rugged mountains
and steep landscape. Nepal, not only has relatively young mountains and geology, but also encompasses
around one third of the world’s total 2,400 kilometers of the Himalayas. The variation of altitude from 60
meters to 8,848 meters within less than 200 kilometers distance has led to the prevalence of natural disaster.
Nepal’s steep slopes and the still growing Himalayan range coupled with heavy monsoon rainfall
patterns lead to a wide range of geological and hydro-meteorological hazards across the country including
landslides, debris flows, floods and glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), epidemics, droughts etc.
Environmental degradation and climate change both interact with and exacerbate the occurrence and impactof natural hazard events. The frequent disasters caused by these hazards have shown an uprising trend.
Nepal is equally at risk due
toits

seismic

activity.

The

subduction of the Indian tectonic
plate into the Eurasian (Tibetan)
plate has been continually thrusting
the Himalayas upwards since its
formation millions of years ago,making it geographically unstable.
On top of geophysical and hydrometeorological conditions, socioeconomic conditions of the people, frail human development index, scattered settlements in the rural vicinity,
unplanned rapid settlements in the urban cities, environmental pollution, inadequate coping abilities ofcommunities and challenges to mainstream DRR in development and its localization are some of thepertinent issues which further elevate the risk of disaster.
With the enforcement of the Natural Calamity Relief Act in 1982, Nepal was the first country – apioneer country – with a disaster specific act in the South Asia region. In 1996, the Government of Nepal(GoN) produced the National Action Plan for Disaster Management followed by an Act as per Nepal’scommitment to the International Decade of Natural Disaster Reduction. The Action Plan remained thefoundational basis for the inclusion of the disaster management component in the Local Self Governance
Act, that was developed in 1999. Disaster risk reduction began to receive more attention since the 10th FiveYear Development Plan (2002-2007) and the subsequent periodic plans. The institutional framework fordisaster risk management was strengthened considerably since 2009 with the adoption of the National
Strategy for Disaster Risk Management (NSDRM) in alignment with Nepal’s commitment to the Hyogo
Framework for Action (HFA).

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In 2015, the Constitution of Nepal officially institutionalized Nepal as a Federal Democratic
Republic with three tiers of governments based on the principles of coexistence, collaboration andcoordination. In addition to the Federal Government, 7 provincial and 753 local level governments wereformed with several exclusive and concurrent powers and duties of governments (including mandates fordisaster risk management). Nepal’s new federal structure and system of governance has provided
opportunities to institutionalize a much more decentralized system of disaster risk management in Nepal.
The Nepal Government (Work Division) Regulation, 2017 has identified the roles and jurisdiction of all
federal ministries, where MoHA has been identified as the ‘nodal ministry’ for the coordination of disasterrisk management activities throughout the country. The transition to federalism has provided a unique
opportunity for the governments and stakeholders to build on past progress and limit the current and future
threats by prioritizing stronger disaster risk management by all sectors at all levels. Administrative andgovernance system may play a significant role in enhancing resilience against disaster risk in Nepal. It vows
to ensure the decentralized planning with the participation of local people in the local/community levelprocess that is informed by and instrumental to achieve effective disaster risk reduction, but it needs to becarefully planned, implemented and followed up on. With a strong civil society, a significant proportion ofyouth among the country’s population and strong partnerships with development partners all backed up by
a new legal framework that will greatly reinforce existing institutional arrangements.
Principally guided by the Constitution, the Government has been prioritizing the development of
more dynamic and modern policies, legal provisions and supporting guidance for effective and efficientdisaster risk management. There has been much appreciated support from all stakeholders ranging from nongovernment, private sector and humanitarian actors working in the arena of disaster risk management. Someof the key legal instruments and policies on DRR recently endorsed are:
1.Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act, 2017
2. Local Government Operational Act, 2017
3. Nepal Government (Work Division) Regulations, 2017
4. National Policy on Disaster Risk Reduction, 2018
5. Public Health Act, 2018
6. Disaster Risk Reduction National Strategic Plan of Action (2018-2030)
7. Private Housing Rebuilding Grant for the Flood and Landslide Victims 2017
8. Public Housing Program Implementation Sample Guidelines, 2018
9. Guidelines for the Relocation and Rehabilitation of High Risked
Settlements, 2018

The
Risk

Disaster

Reduction

andManagement (DRRM)
Act was enacted in 2017
replacesthe

Natural1982

Calamity(Relief) Act. Under thislaw,disastermanagement

committees

will

be

formed at the Provincial,

District and Municipal levels. The act reinforces the government’s efforts to bring disaster risk management
initiatives to a new height. It puts emphasis on risk reduction over response; the legislation creates the DRRM
Council as the highest policy making body in the country; the Council is chaired by the Prime Minster at thefederal level and by the Chief Minister at Province; the mayor or chairperson of local levels lead the local
disaster management committees; the Council has the authority to endorse the DRRM policies to its

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ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B

implementation at all levels are the prime features of the DRRM Act. It also recognizes a separate entity the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority to take charge of disaster risk management.
There are specialist committees to provide technical expertise on matters related to DRM planning, response
and recovery. All tiers of government should have disaster management funds that they manage. There is aneed to report DRRM activities on an annual basis and make it public for transparency and reflect the efforts
made in DRRM.
Nepal is now well positioned to address the challenges that an uncertain climate and its fragile
geological setting impose through Disaster Risk Reduction National Strategic Plan of Action (2018-2030)
framework where all sections of society are able to work together and build on each other’s efforts bycreating synergy. The approach paper for current 15th Periodic Plan (2019/20-2023/24) also has emphasized
the disaster risk management issues as an inherited character of sustainable development and has accorded
priority to prepare secure and resilient Nepal.
1.1 Nepal Specific
Nepal is a landlocked country, which borders India to the east, west and south and to the north with
China. Central part and north parts are hilly area with the Himalayas ranges, whereas southern part is covered
with the plain area called ‘Tarai’. The total Land area of Nepal is 147,181 square kilometers, whereas the
population of Nepal as of the census day (June 22, 2011) stands at 26,494,504 showing population growthrate of 1.35 per annum. Sex ratio (number of males per 100 females) at the national level is 94.2. Similarly,
total number of households in the country is 5,427,302 with 5,423,297 individual households and 4,005
institutional households (Barracks, Hostels, Monasteries etc). Nearly ten percent (9.94 %) of total households
live in houses with the foundation having RCC pillar, 17.57 percent households in house with foundation
made up of cement-bonded bricks, 24.9 percent in wooden pillar, 44.21 percent in mud-bonded bricks and2.33 in other type of foundations. In urban areas, 28.42 percent of the households live in houses with thefoundation having RCC pillars.
The population comprises of different ethnicities, races and language, being 81.34 percent Hindu,
9.04 Buddha, 4.39 percent Islam, 3.05 percent Kirat and 1.42 percent Christian. Nepal has all six seasons,the famous rainy season is in June to August and the winter is between December to February. The capital
city of Nepal is Kathmandu, where only the capital about 3 million peoples are living. It is situated between
the latitudes of 26’22’’to 30’27’’north and the longitudes of 8004’to 880012’’ east. Nepal spreads 145 to241 Kilometers from north to south and 885 kilometers from east to west. It is located in South Asia between
China and India covering 0.3% of Asia and 0.03% of the earth. (These all data has been derived from
National Population Census, 2011)
1.2 Geography
Nepal is characterized by rugged topography, variable climatic conditions, complex geologicalstructure with active tectonic process and continued seismic activities. The rise and the fall of the countrylies from 60 meter in plane area to 8848 meter at Mount Everest in the north within a short horizontal distanceof 145 to 241 Kilometers. The sharp vertical landscape renders the country highly vulnerable to potential
water induced disasters like landslide, slope failure, soil erosion and debris flow. Such short descending

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ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B

order of the land provided the water current very fast, creating the possibility of heavy erosion of the soil
from mountain. Nepal is divided into five physiographic regions which are almost parallel to each other,running from west to east. They are categorically recognized as high Himalayan region, high mountain,
middle mountain, Siwaliks (land in between plane and mountain) and Terai (plane area). However, in
common phrasing, Himalaya, Mountain hills and Tarai is generally used, respectively covering 15%, 68%
and 17% of the total land area.
1.3 Administrative Division
After the promulgation of new constitution, Nepal is declared a Federal Democratic Republic in
2015 dividing the country into seven provinces, 77 districts and 753 municipalities and rural municipalities.
It has removed the older development regions and zones. The new system has mostly kept all the 75 districts
same with few changes on the boundaries of some districts to create 2 more districts in the country. The
urbanization is increasing high due to migration and center centric development activities. According to the
Economic Survey 2014-015, Nepal’s urban papulation is 38.26%, which was almost 20% in 2011
1.4 Demography
The country has approximately 26.6 million populations with annual growth rate of 1.35 percent
average (Population Census 2011). Nepal is the 41st most populous, 93rd largest country by landmass and102nd largest economy of the world (UN Statistics Division 2017). It has diversity with several race, caste,
tribes, rituals, ethnicity, religion and languages. That means Nepal is multilingual, multicultural, multireligious, and multiethnic society. Nepal is diverse linguistic heritage evolved from four major languages
groups – Indo Aryan, Tibeto Barmen, Mangolian, and Indigenous language isolates. Nepal is a combinationof 102 ethnics, 92 linguistic and 6 religious people living with the social harmony and unity. The Nepalesepopulation is consisting of indo Aryan and Mongol races. Religiously, the overwhelming populations are
Hindus followed by Buddhist, Islam, Kirat, Christians and the others. In March 2008 Nepal is declared as asecular state.
1.5 Socio-economic formation
Nepal’s life expectancy at birth has reached to 69.1 at 2013 (Environment Statics of Nepal, 2013 byCBS, Nepal) with adult literacy rate (15-24 years) of 86.5 per cent (CBS, 2009) whereas the literacy rate of
5 and above age group is 65.9% only (CBS, 2011). Some other social indicators like net enrolment rate inprimary education is 93.7 per cent (DOE, 2009), population below poverty line is 25.2 percent (CBS, 2011),
human development index of Nepal is 0.579 (UNDP, 2019). Annual Economic Growth Rate of Nepal isestimated 7.0 percent in 2018(Economic Survey 2018-19, MoF) while the consumer price Inflation rate was
4.2 percent. At the same time, the per capita income is estimated to reach NRs. 1,17,455 (US $ 1034) in FY
2018/19 (Economic Survey 2018-19, MoF). Total GDP for the year 2017(at the producers' price) of Nepal
is estimated NRs.3464.31 billion with Agriculture sector around 27 per cent and non-agriculture sectors
contributing around 73 per cent the total GDP ( Economic Survey 2018-19, MoF). The data from education,
health, communication, physical infrastructure, energy and reconstruction works after the earthquake have
signposted that good foundation is being prepared for social and physical infrastructure development.
1.6 Climate

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Climatic condition varies in Nepal within a short distance primarily due to its variation in altitude
and different type of topography, along with the distances of its corners. The various in climate has createdcontrasting habitats, vegetation, flora and fauna. The average annual rainfall is about 1,600 mm (mean annual
precipitation varies from more than 4,000 mm along the southern slopes of the Annapurna Himalayan range
to less than 250 mm in the rain-shadow areas near Tibetan plateau, about 80% of which falls between Juneto September in the form of summer monsoon. The rainfall is much higher in east part of Nepal then thewest part, but the sudden and heavy rainfall can be experience in the west part.
Nepal

has

five

climatic

condition /zones from subtropical toarctic broadly corresponding to thealtitudes. The tropical and subtropicalzone lies below 1200 meters, thetemperate zone 1200 to 2400 meters, thecold zone 2400 to 3600 meters, thesubarctic zone 3600 to 4400 meters, andthe arctic zone above 4400 meters.
Nepal has four major seasons comprises
winter(December-February),

spring(March-May), summer (June-August),

Source: imnepal.com

autumn (September-November). The Terai and the Siwalik hill range poses sub-tropical climate and thenorthern mountainous regions have cold, dry continental and alpine winter climate. Summer and late spring
temperatures range from about 280 C in the hilly region to more than 400 C in the Terai. In winter, average
maximum and minimum temperatures in the Terai range from a brisk 70 C to a mild 230 C respectively. The
central valleys experience a minimum temperature often falling below the freezing point. Much colder
temperatures prevail at higher elevations.
2. Disaster Profiles in Nepal
The fragile geology and steep topography has made Nepal the 20th topmost disaster prone country
in the world. Among 200 countries, Nepal ranks 4th, 11th and 30th with regard to relative vulnerability to
climate change, earthquake and flood hazards respectively. It faces high magnitudes and intensities of amultitude of natural hazards such as flood, landslide, earthquake, fire, cold waves, hailstone, windstorm,
thunderbolt, cloudburst, drought, Glacier lake outburst flood (GLOF), avalanches and epidemics. Unstablesteep slopes and fragile geological formation of a young mountain range with heavy monsoon rainfall leads
to a wide range of geological and hydro-meteorological disasters across the country. The variation ingeological characteristics, together with torrential rain during rainy season, result in landslides, debris flows,
floods, etc.

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ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B

Apart from these, several other human-induced disasters are reported in the country, Nepal isaffected by many natural hazard. The recent data shows that the frequency of natural disasters such as floods,
landslides and fire have increased,
especially during past three decades andcould be attributed to uncontrolled
development,

environmental

degradation or human interventions.
Evidence has suggested that the humaninterventions can increase or decrease
the frequency or severity of certain
types of hazards such as landslides,

Source: NEOC, MoHA

Number of Years

floods, drought, etc. or cause hazards that were not previously experienced. With the ever increasing growthof population, safe land is in scarce and there is a greater tendency for people to occupy marginal lands
thereby increasing their susceptibility to hazards.
Historical records show that Nepal has been suffering from various types of disaster. The entire
country is prone to earthquake as well. While the hilly areas, with rough topography and very young geology,
are very prone to landslides, the lowland Terai is prone to floods. Avalanches, GLOFs and snowstorms arecommon in high hills of Nepal. The biggest recorded disasters in Nepal are the earthquakes of 1934, 1988,
2015 and the floods of 1993, 2008, 2012, 2014 and 2017 in addition to the Jajarkot diarrhea outbreak of2009. The avalanches experienced in 2012, where huge flood triggered by avalanches kill around 72 people
in one time.
After the mega earthquake of 1934, the Great Gorkha Earthquake 2015 put the country again inmany shocks. There are many phenomenon related to the geological, ecological, demographic and hydrometeorological system causing disaster in Nepal. Unplanned settlements, high-degree of environmental
degradation, climate change, fragility of landmass, wider spread poverty, steep and diverged topography,
poor construction and building practices, low level of enforcement of building codes, insufficient emergency
preparedness and awareness, lack of political willingness and various form of societal misinterpretations aremajor contributing factors to disaster vulnerability in Nepal.
2.1 Disaster scenario
Disaster scenario in Nepal Loss of lives by major types of disasters in Nepal from 1971 to 2011
Event
Accident
Avalanche
Biological
Boat capsize
Cold wave
Drought
Earthquake

Jan 2020

Data
Cards
1314
104
18
146
458
161
212

Deaths Injured

Missing

1280
234
0
284
595
0
882

202
45
0
541
0
0
0

491
99
0
154
83
0
7024

HousesDestroyed
5
32
0
0
0
0
34810

HousesAffected
Damaged
473
2509
33
1298
0
0
0
410
0
2393
0
1625
57004
39596

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ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B

Epidemic
3452
Explosion
46
Famine
28
Fire
5264
Flood
3520
Forest fire
187
Frost
1
Hail storm
725
Heat wave
46
Landslide
2908
Leak
1
Liquefaction 1
Other
97
Panic
6
Plague326
Pollution
12
Rains
243
Sedimentation 1
Snow storm
195
Storm
123
Strong wind 456
Struct.collapse 425
Thunderstorm 1175

16566
34
10
1328
3329
65
0
65
42
4476
0
0
77
89
11
0
88
0
88
52
171
414
1091

43076
91
0
1200
523
45
0
100
20
1589
0
0
64
121
0
0
44
0
44
283
480
643
2111

0
0
0
186
663
410
0
2
0
626
0
0
11
0
0
0
3
0
828
2
0
8
1

0
4
0
72367
95944
1835
2
208
0
18491
1
1
68
0
0
0
740
0
102
1022
2013
1282
328

0
1
0
1932
89934
2
0
1635
0
33960
0
2
0
0
0
0
1858
0
59
566
7443
623
465

51453519589957264114393593316392
5210963381
574020
0
16
11982
0
50
1000
66921
0
12950
2397
38815
2671
8447

(Source: DisInventar, 2012, data from 1971 to 2011)
Major Disaster Loss and Damage Scenario from 2011 to 2019, Nepal
Type of
Incidents

No ofIncidents

DeathsMissing

InjuredHousesPartialComplete
Damage Damaged

Economic Loss
(NRs*) in
MillionEarthquake

85

8969

195

22302

302806775793706461Thunderbolt

1889

913

1

2347

175

122

52

Landslide

1628

903

233

770

2452

2382

1667

Flood

1504

752

477

167

41827

11082

16643

Fire

12583

594

0

1628

2229

15378

17512

Cold Wave

116

116

0

0

0

0

0

Epidemic

75

95

0

1916

0

0

2

Heavy
RainfallHigh Altitude

884

81

1

214

384

601

326

82

77

0

13

0

0

0

Wind storm
Storm

510
67

75
63

0
7

1428
46

3742
132

2068
103

167
11

AnimalIncidents

391

58

0

240

321

19

11

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ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B

Boat Capsize

32

50

Snake Bite

60

Flash Flood

3

Avalanche
Snow Storm
Other^

48

45

0

44

0

17

0

0

0

43

32

0

0

31

11

19

40

20

23

0

1

0

5

12

0

0

0

0

53

236

125

12

213

71

12

40

13,0101,026
31,369354,139807,592^ sinkhole, hailstorm, hailstone, bridge collapse andothers742,956* 1USD=114NRs

Total
20,169Source: drrportal.gov.np

This

table

0

0

clearly

indicates the average per
year disaster incidents
and the loss of lives andproperty in a year. Here, it
is seemed that fire, interms of economic loss,
has

becomeamajordisaster in the recent year
followed by flood andlandslides.

Thunderbolt

being a high frequency
incident took most lives
in this year.
2.2 Landslide and Debris flow
The movement of earth, rock or debris down slope under the influence of gravity by certain processes is
considered as a landslide. Landslide usually occurs as secondary effects of heavy rainfall and earthquakes.
In so many cases, the landslide has occurred in Nepal even if there is small amount of rainfall, but it wascontinuous for weeks. After finishing the landslide, the higher level of sun shining has usually triggered thelandslide. A debris flow is slurry of soils, rocks andorganic matter combined with air and water. The causesof landslide in Nepal are natural as well as manmade. In
general, the middle hills are prone to landslides. The
naturalphenomena

like

heavy

rainfall,activegeotectonic movements, deforestation and disturbanceof hill slopes are also the major causes for occurring
landslides. When the water level in Nepal’s over 6,000
rivers and creeks, flowing north to south, swells up

Jan 2020

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ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B

during the monsoon(June-September) season, they wreak havoc in the downstream communities of theplains. Extreme and incessant rainfall trigger massive landslides in a comparatively weak topography of thehilly region. In average, landslides kill 100 persons every year in Nepal (MoHA, 2020). Sometimes extreme
even happens, for example even in Aug 5, 2014, the mass landslide occurred in the Sindupalchok District,claiming Sunkoshi River Blocked and taking life of 156 people, making it the deadliest to hit the Himalayan
nation in three decades. The landslide has also created a dangerous blockage of the Sunkoshi River, stoking
fears of floods downstream in neighboring India's Bihar state, where the river is known as Koshi. The
landslide also damaged part of the Arniko Highway linking Kathmandu with the Tibetan capital Lhasa,
stranding more than 500 foreign hikers and their guides. Similarly, twelve persons were feared deadafter landslides triggered by heavy rains struck three places of Satyawati Rural Municipality in Gulmi,
western Nepal, on july 24, 2019.These types of phenomenon is common in Nepal, seeking special attraction
from stakeholders.
2.3 Floods and Inundation
The topographical feature of Nepal is mainly responsible for flood. Flood is caused by heavy
precipitation, which may occur at any place except high Himalayan region during the monsoon season.
Inundation along the river banks and erosion of land along the riverbanks causes loss by damaging irrigationand communications facilities and fertile lands across or adjacent to the riverbanks. Such phenomenon has
caused loss of 79 lives and huge amount of property in mountainous areas of Nepal every year (MoHA,
2020). It also poses severe hazards to physical infrastructure like roads and bridges. Inundations havedisrupted social and economic development of many parts of terrain region in the country. The floods ofAugust 2008 in Koshi river, September 2008 in Western Nepal and July and August 1993 in the Bagmati
and other rivers were devastating floods in Nepal. Nepal has observed Monsoon flood as well as Flash flood.
Rainfall variability (unequal rainfall in time and space), topography (steep Mountain and flat Tarai),
Deforestation (decreasing vegetative cover) are the major factors contributing to the floods in Nepal.
Similarly, Inundation caused by floods and heavy rainfall is another major frequent disaster in Nepal. It takes
an average of nine lives (MoHA, 2020) with making heavy loss and damages on crops and settlements inplane areas almost every year.
In the year 2017, flood spanned the entire breadth of thecountry. A total of 35 districts were affected of which 18 of themseverely. More than 190,000 houses were destroyed or partiallydamaged, displacing tens of thousands of people and rendering many
homeless. Household assets and food grains were damaged and theaffected communities faced shortage of food, water and non-fooditems. Many suffered infections from contaminated water. In
comparison to the past floods in 2001 and 2008, which killed 1,673
people, the 2017 floods saw reduced mortality and injuries. The
number of people who died in the 18 most affected districts was 134
of which 44 were female. The districts where most of the deaths
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ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B

occurred are as follows: Rautahat, Morang, Jhapa and Sarlahi. The number of recorded injuries caused by
the floods this year was only 22. In the severely affected 18 districts, the floods affected around 1.7 million
people (866,993 males and 821,480 females).
(Source: Post flood Recovery Needs Assessment Report, National Planning Commission Nepal, 2017)
2.4 Earthquake
The Nepali people are living in a country of highest seismic hazard, have faced the consequences ofmany earthquakes including those of great earthquakes. 45 million years ago, the Indian continent collided
into Southern Tibet. The Indian continent is driven under Tibet,
pushing lightweight sediments upwards and thus the formation of
the Himalayas. Nepal lies across the boundary between India andsouthern Tibet which are still moving towards each other by 2
meters per century. This movement creates pressure within the
Earth, which builds up and can only be released throughearthquakes. This is the only way earthquakes can happen in Nepal
and it is considered as 11th most earthquake-prone country in theworld. Based on the seismic record of the number of earthquakesthat occurred since 1255, earthquakes of magnitude greater than 8
occurred on average once every 80 years. The last great earthquakeof magnitude 8.3 occurred in 1934 resulted in more than 10,000 deaths in the Kathmandu Valley. Most of
the infrastructure and major heritage sites had to be rebuilt. The seismic record of Nepal is available since1255 AD in which 7.7 reactor scale in Kathmandu valley one third of population, including king Avaya
Malla, lost their lives in this event. After that, a series of earthquake occurred in Nepal. Major are in 1260,
1408, 1681, 1767, 1810, 1823, 1833, 1834, 1866, 1934, 1980, 1988, 2011 and 2015 AD. According to theseismological center of Nepal medium and small size earthquake event occur in a different part of Nepal
frequently. According to Global Earthquake Initiatives, Kathmandu is exposed to the greatest earthquake
risk capital among 21 megacities around the world, largely due to building collapse and insufficient
preparedness and insufficiency of medical care. If an earthquake of the 1934 magnitude is reported at thispoint of time, an estimated 40,000 deaths, 90,000 injured and 6, 00,000 to 9, 00,000 homeless can be
expected.
On Saturday, 25 April 2015 at 11:56 local time, a 7.6 magnitude earthquake as recorded by Nepal’s
National Seismological Centre (NSC), struck Barpak in the historic district of Gorkha, about 76 km
northwest of Kathmandu. Nepal had not faced a natural shock of comparable magnitude for over 80 years.
The catastrophic earthquake was followed by more than 300 aftershocks greater than magnitude 4.0 (as of 7
June 2015). Four aftershocks were greater than magnitude 6.0, including one measuring 6.8 which struck 17
days after the first big one with the epicenter near Mount Everest. To date, there are over 8,790 casualties
and 22,300 injuries. It is estimated that the lives of eight million people, almost one-third of the populationof Nepal, have been impacted by these earthquakes. Thirty-one of the country’s 75 districts have been
affected, out of which 14 were declared ‘crisis-hit’ for the purpose of prioritizing rescue and relief operations;

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another 17 neighbouring districts are partially affected. The destruction was widespread covering residential
and government buildings, heritage sites, schools and health posts, rural roads, bridges, water supply systems,
agricultural land, trekking routes, hydropower plants and sports facilities. The geodetic network centres
including horizontal and vertical control points have been damaged in a manner that will affectreconstruction

Loss and damage by 2015 Gorkha Earthquake, Nepal

planning. Rural areasinthecentralandwestern regions wereparticularly devastated
and further isolated
due to road damage
and obstructions. In theworst hit areas, entire
settlements, including
populartouristdestinations

like

Langtang, were swept
away by landslides andavalanches
by thetriggeredearthquakes.

Due to the weakened,
ruptured,andSource: Post Disaster Needs Assessment 2015; National Planning Commission

destabilized slopes andsurfaces, the vulnerable areas have now become even more susceptible to flooding and landslides that canoccur during the monsoon. 2 Hundreds of historical and cultural monuments at least a century old were either
destroyed or extensively damaged. Over half a million houses were destroyed. The damage exposed theweaknesses of houses that did not have any seismic-resistant features or were not in accordance with thebuilding codes. The disaster also highlighted aspects of inequities in Nepali society spanning geography,
income and gender. Poorer rural areas have been more adversely affected than towns and cities due to theirinferior quality of houses. More women and girls died than men and boys, partly because of gendered roles
that disproportionately assign indoor chores to women. The time and day the first earthquake wasexperienced saved thousands of lives. Being a Saturday, the weekly holiday, schools across Nepal wereclosed on 25 April. The death toll of young people could have been much higher considering that nearly
7,000 schools were completely or significantly damaged. Similarly, if the earthquake had struck at night, andnot in the middle of the day, there would certainly have been greater casualties.
2.5 Fire
Fire is a recurring disaster in Nepal. During the dry season from February to May, large numbers of incident
of fire are reported, mostly in the Terai where about three quarter of houses are built with thatched roofs.

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Forest fires occur throughout Nepal and result deforestation of around 1.7 per cent of the total forest area
annually. These fires cause economic losses and environmental degradation throwing dedicates ecosystems
out of balance. It is also threatening valuable and endangered flora and fauna, degrading the soil and inducing
flood and landslide. Most of the fire incidents are caused by negligence of the people. Hunting practices,
negligence by cigarette smoker, intentional fire to accelerate growth of grasses to feed livestock, intentionalfire setting by herb and charcoal collectors and children playing with fires are some of the reasons for forest
fires. Certain type of trees especially Sal (shores Robusta) is particularly susceptible to fire. About 63 percent of the population of the country inhabit in the rural areas mainly in thatched houses closely clustered
where fire hazards are likely to be common.
2.6 Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)
Glacial lakes are like natural water reservoirs dammed by ice or moraines. Lake outburst can betriggered by several factors: ice or rock avalanches, the collapse of the moraine dam due to the melting ofice buried within, the washing out of fine material by springs flowing through the (piping) earthquakes orsudden inputs of water into the lake e.g. through heavy rains or drainage from lakes further up glacier.
ICIMODs 2001 inventory of glaciers, glacial lakes and
GLOFs counted 3252 glaciers and 2323 glaciers lakes in
Nepal 20 of which are very vulnerable to flooding (MoHA,
2009). GLOF affects high Himalayan region as well as
downstream by extremely damages of lives and properties.
Major events shown in past were Tamor Koshi (1980), Sun
Kosi (1935, 1981), Dudh Kosi (1977, 1985), Arun (1968,
1969, 1970) etc.

Early warning system is established at some lakes
to minimize the effect of GLOF in Nepal

2.7 Drought
In Nepal, most of the country is in the grip of drought-like condition from the end of March till the
monsoon arrives next in June, but the districts like Manang and Mustang in the Trans-Himalayan region are
extremely dry throughout the year and the Terai and western hills are more frequently affected than otherregions. Drought results in crop failures and famine, both during the monsoon season and rest of the year,
when winter crops are sown. About 5,000 families living in pockets in the hills and Terai are badly affectedby drought each year (MoHA, 2009). Planned land use with crop rotation, rain water harvesting, droughtmonitoring, using recycle water, developing irrigation system, water rationing are some of the strategy which
help to minimize impact of drought.
2.8 Others
Due to diarrhea about 300 people has died in June and July month of 2009 in Midwestern part of thecountry. The monsoon season is always in the threat of the epidemic of diarrhea in Nepal. Some other kindof disasters are drought, hailstone, thunderbolt, avalanche, boat capsize, structure collapse, cold wave, hotwave, swine flu, bird flu, encephalitis, meningitis is common during hot and rainy season. The lightening,hailstorm are other natural disaster. The data presented above has shown the different figure that there areabout 100 people has been killed by the lightening only. The sudden avalanche and heavy snow fall in winterJan 2020

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season sometimes cause heavy loss of human lives and properties. Road accident and Aircraft accidents arealso major source of disaster in Nepal. In Nepal, road accidents are one of the top causes of death. Aircraft
accidents are happening in hilly terrain and areas with extreme climatic condition.
3. Legal and Institutional Arrangements
3.1 The Constitution of Nepal, 2015
For the very first time, disaster management is identified in the Constitution. It underscores theownership and priority of the state in managing disasters with an emphasis on early warning, disaster
preparedness, rescue, relief and rehabilitation for preventing water induced disasters, developing sustainable
and reliable irrigation through river management and minimizing the risks from disasters. Schedule 7 of theConstitution has listed natural and human induced disaster preparedness, rescue, relief and rehabilitation
activities in the concurrent powers of Federal and Provincial governments. Similarly, Schedule 8 has listed
disaster management as sole responsibility of the local government and Schedule 9 has included it in the
concurrent powers of all tiers of governments. Disaster risk management is identified as one of the key
responsibilities of all tiers of government.
3.2 Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act, 2017
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM) Act was enacted in 2017 replaces the 1982
Natural Calamity (Relief) Act. Under this law, disaster management committees will be formed at theProvincial, District and Municipal levels. The act reinforces the government’s efforts to bring disaster risk
management initiatives to a new height. It puts emphasis on risk reduction over response; the legislation
creates the DRRM Council as the highest policy making body in the country. The council chaired by thePrime Minster at the federal level and by the Chief Minister at Province are responsible for plan policy
approval, guidance and direction, monitoring as well as evaluation to the lower levels at their capacity. The
Minister for Home Affairs heads the executive committee and it is responsible for the implementation of
approved plans and policies throughout the nation, whereas the Province Minister for Internal Affairs and
Law leads the execution at province level. The Chief District Officer leads the district level committee andthe mayor or chairperson of local levels lead the local disaster management committees. The National
Council has the authority to endorse the DRRM policies to its implementation at all levels are the prime
features of the DRRM Act. It also recognizes a separate entity - the National Disaster Risk Reduction andManagement Authority (NDRRMA) to take charge of disaster risk management. There are specialist
committees to provide technical expertise on matters related to DRM planning, response and recovery. Alltiers of government should have disaster management funds that they manage. There is a need to report
DRRM activities on an annual basis and make it public for transparency and reflect the efforts made in
DRRM.
The figure below clearly revels the proper institution arrangement for disaster management, but this still
does not reflect the all cycles of disaster management placing the role of Ministry Health, Federal Affairs
and General Administration, Ministry of Urban Development, Ministry of Energy and other relevant
ministries as well.

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The disaster management councils and committees in all levels are inclusive of all main sectors of life
including political and humanitarian actors of the society. The Act also empowers the government to declarethe state of emergency during the intensive disaster. It also furnishes some special rights to the disastermanager for managing
rescue and relief workin an effective andefficientalsomanner.

empowersItthegovernment to allocate
for dedicated fund at
central to local level asaDisasterManagement Fund fordelivering

effective

risk reduction, relief
and rescue functions
before, during and after
disaster.
3.3 Local Governance Operation Act, 2017
Guided by the Constitution, the Local Government Operation Act, 2017 has replaced the Local
Governance Act of 1999. The 2017 Act identified the functions for all aspects of disaster risk reduction
under the duty, responsibility and rights of rural and urban municipalities. It also included the activities
related to grant permission of building construction, monitoring and evaluation as per the National Building
Code and Standard including the policy, planning, program formulation, implementation, monitoring,
regulation and evaluation etc. regarding DRR to develop safer communities.
3.4 Public Health Act, 2018
Public Health Act is the pioneer Act for ensuring effective, regular, quality, and easy access to healthcare and free basic and emergency health services to all. It requires all health facilities to provide emergency
health care services mandatorily and follow referral mechanisms. It has envisioned on reducing the impact
on public health by food, pollution, hygiene and waste management, industries and urbanization, publichealth friendly public infrastructure and safety. It also ensures the emergency medical service andmanagement through ready-to-deploy health teams. It includes a mandatory provision for all tiers ofgovernments to have emergency medical response plans. It also has a provision for local levels to declare apublic health emergency in their jurisdiction and recommend the Government of Nepal to control and reduce
its impact according to the scale of public health emergency.
3.5 National Policy for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2018

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The National Policy for DRR 2018 has been prepared and endorsed tobuild a safer, adaptive and resilient nation by reducing the existing risks andprevention of new and potential risks. The policy considers the national needs aswell as international agreements and obligations, which is more focused onachieving the targets and commitments made in the Sendai Framework for
Disaster Risk Reduction, the Sustainable Development Goals, and the Paris
Convention on Climate Change. It has identified 59 activities to cover all sectors
and designated roles and responsibilities to sector ministries to carry out sectoral
activities.
3.6 National DRR Strategic Plan of Action (2018-2030)
The National DRR Strategic Plan of Action (2018-2030), inspired by the Sendai Framework for
Disaster Risk Reduction-SFDRR 2015-2030 has adopted a holistic approach to uphold sustainable
development by mainstreaming disaster risk reduction in the development process. Based on SFDRR’s
guiding principle, this action plan has identified 4 priority areas and 18 priority actions. Under each priority
action, the strategic activities are identified for 2018 to 2020 as short-term interventions,2018 to 2025 as mid-term interventions, 2018 to 2030 as long-term interventions andcontinuous actions.
This Strategic Plan of Action has set the targets for reducing disaster loss considering
the targets set by the Sustainable Development Goals 2030 in terms of substantiallyreducing the impact of disasters nationally. It aims to reduce the disaster mortality rate,
reduce the number of disaster affected people, reduce the direct economic loss in GDP
from disasters, reduce the damage to critical infrastructure and disruption of basic services enhancing
resilience, developing DRM strategies and action plans at the provincial and local levels. And substantially
increase the availability of and access to multi-hazard early warning systems and disaster risk information
and assessments. The substantial reduction of disaster risk and loss of lives, the economic, physical, social,
cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses, and communities of the country are key targets
focused on reducing the impact of disaster.
3.7 Fifteenth Periodic Plan (2019-2023)
Disaster management programs were first included in the 10th national plan (2002-2007) of thegovernment of Nepal, this emphasis has gone to ascending orders until the current periodic plan (2019/202023/24) that has emphasized the disaster management as separate topic and also has tried to mainstream
the disaster risk reduction and management with various line items topics. It has also prioritized disaster risk
management as an inherited character of sustainable development and has given priority to disaster risk
reduction accordingly. The federal government with coordination to all tiers of government through this plan
aims safe and resilient Nepal by focusing disaster risk reduction activities as well as response and relief
functions. Evidence based disaster resilient governance system, integration of disaster management in allphases and dimensions of development, investment through public, private and community partnership are

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ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B

the main objectives of this plan. The plan has also adopted the policy to carry out a special program on
capacity building for emergency search, rescue, treatment and immediate relief.
3.8 Other Laws, Policies and Guidelines
There are lot more Acts, Rules, Regulations and Guidelines, directly related to, just related to andindirectly related to the disaster management. Some of them are Act relating to Reconstruction of Earthquake
Affected Structures, 2015, Soil and watershed conversation act, 1982, Nepal building Act, 1998 and Nepal
National Building Code, 2015 and Environmental protection Act, 2019. National agriculture policy, 2004,
National shelter policy, 2012, National urban policy, 2006, policies related to water plan and some strategies
related to health and infrastructure sectors are also considered as majors in the area of disaster managementin Nepal.
Similarly, Post Disaster Recovery Framework (2016 – 2020) by National Reconstruction Authority,
Emergency Relief Standards for Disaster Affected People, 2007, Standard Operating Procedures ofEmergency Operation Center, 2010, District Disaster Preparedness and Response Planning Guidelines, 2011,
Search and Rescue Strategic Action Plan, 2014, Guidelines for the Relocation and Rehabilitation of High
Risked Settlements, 2018, Standard Operating Procedures of Ware House (National and Provincial), 2018,
Dead body Management Guidelines 2011 (amendment 2019), National Disaster Response Framework, 2013
(amendment, 2019), Standard for Emergency Communication System for Tiered Integration and Operation,
2019 are some more legal arrangements related to mitigation, preparedness, rescue, relief, reconstruction
and rehabilitation on disaster management in Nepal.
3.9 Ministry of Home Affairs, Ministry of Federal Affairs and General Administration, Line ministries
and their agencies
Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA) acts as National Focal Agency on Disaster Management and leadagency responsible for implementation of the Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management Act, 2017. The MoHA is also
responsible for rescue and relief work, data collection anddissemination, as well as collection and distribution of funds andresources. It is also the leading agency for logistics managementin case of the disaster beyond the capacity of the provincial andlocal governments. The assigned task was being implemented
through Disaster Preparedness and Response Section, National Emergency Operation Centre-NEOC, in theministry. Now, after the establishment of NDRRMA, this center comes within the new Authority under theministry. The ministry has also a separate division for Disaster and Conflict Management with Disaster Study,
Risk Reduction and Recovery Section within. The ministry is working for new organization and management
at the new context.
Ministry of Federal Affairs and General Administration (MoFAGA) is the nodal ministry for the
local governments to the federal government. It deals and coordinates all the aspects of disaster management
issues at the local level for their functions as per the local governance act 2017. It is responsible for earlyrecovery activities after huge disaster.

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ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B

Similarly,•

Ministry of Urban Development, responsible lead ministry for recovery and shelter.

•

Ministry of Energy, Water Resource and Irrigation for energy, dam, embankment, irrigation andrelated other disaster management activities including hydrology and meteorology.

•

Ministry of Defense for search and rescue, multinational military coordination and assistance.

•

Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transportation for related risk reduction, response andrecovery.

•

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology for related activities of DRRM cycle.

•

Ministry of Health and Population for emergency medical care and nutrition.

•

Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development for food security and related other activities of
the DRRM cycle.

•

Ministry of Forest and Environment for forest, timber supply and land related disaster management
activities. It also deals with climate crisis.

•

Ministry of Communication and Information Technology for emergency communication.

•

Ministry of Water Supply for water, sanitation and hygiene.

•

Ministry for Women, Children and Senior Citizens is responsible for protection activities.

•

Relief and Treatment Sub-Committee, headed by federal affairs and local development minister and
Supply, Shelter and Rehabilitation Subcommittee headed by urban development minister as two
major sub-committee directly working with the CNDRC•

Department of Hydrology and Meteorology deals with the related study, information and thedissemination of those information including early warnings to the authorities and public.

•

Department for Water Induced Disaster Prevention deals for related DRR and mitigation.

•

Department of Mines and Geology works for Earthquakes study and related for DRRM.

•

Other Ministries and Departments of the Government of Nepal are also responsible for disaster crisis
management at their capacities.

3.10 National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority (NDRRMA)
After longtime advocacy and discussion, a separate and dedicated entity to address disaster issues in
Nepal was first time legislated in DRRM Act in 2017 and it is now established as the National Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management Authority after the endorsement of National Disaster Risk Reduction andManagement Regulation, 2019. The newly borne authority is working for its further structure, scope andfunctions. The primary role of this authority is to operationalize the disaster risk and management functions,making necessary arrangements for regular coordination with stakeholders, carry out response operations,search and rescue, relief, early recovery, recovery plan and implement disaster related programs. Thisauthority is also responsible to regulate risk reduction related activities and will have an incident commander
in emergency.
3.11 Province Governments and Local Levels
As per the existing legal provisions on DRR, the provincial governments have taken charge ofmanaging disasters as a primary task. Some of the provincial governments (Province No. 1, 2, and Bagmati

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ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B

Province) have developed their own disaster management act, while others are still under consultation andprogressing towards finalization. Provincial governments in coordination with District Disaster Management
Committees (DDMC) are coordinating, facilitating and guiding the local levels in risk reduction initiatives,
and the mainstreaming the development efforts by applying mitigating and preventive measures.
As envisioned by the Constitution, the local governments assumed their responsibilities following
the election in 2017 in the federal set up. The federal and provincial governments came into effect in the
beginning of 2018. The critical concerns of local governments are to meet the expectations of people on thepriority issues, development initiatives and effective governance, where DRM could be a crucial issue forsustainable development. In a very short period (less than a year), the provincial governments and local level
initiatives on DRRM remained inspiring. The local level governments have prioritized DRRM in theirrespective jurisdictions. Three out of seven provincial governments and around 83 out of the 753 local levels
have developed local disaster management committees, 77 of which has established disaster management
funds, 45 each have formed disaster management acts and policies, and only 19 comes up with local disasterrisk reduction strategic action plan. Other remaining local levels are in the process of formulating othersupportive policies, guidelines, standards and other guidance regarding response, relief and recovery, fundmobilization, assessment and monitoring, recovery and rehabilitation, among others. They have also
responded to a number of disaster events and provided relief to the affected families and the responses fromthe elected representatives have found to be more effective than before. The provincial and local
governments have demonstrated their ownership and responsiveness to disaster risk reduction andmanagement as a core business in less than one year of its institutional set up. (Source: Nepal Disaster Report
2019, MoHA)
3.12 Nepal Risk Reduction Consortium
A Consortium was formed in May 2009 to support the Government of Nepal till 2015, to develop along term Disaster Risk Reduction Action Plan building on the National Strategy for Disaster Risk
Management (NSDRM). Members of the Consortium are Department of International Development UK(DFID), the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red
Crescent Societies (IFRC), United Nations Development Program (UNDP), UN Office for the Coordinationof Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) and the World
Bank. the Indian Government and Japan International Cooperation Agency has joined the Consortium as anobserver. In addition, the Consortium initiated a multi-stakeholder participatory process with theGovernment of Nepal and civil society organizations to identify short to medium term disaster risk reduction
priorities that are both urgent and viable within
institutional and policy arrangements in the
country. Based on the priorities set by thengovernment and discussions with multistakeholder groups, five flagship areas of
immediate action for disaster risk managementin Nepal were started. The estimated total budget of the three-year Flagship Programs was US $131.1 million.

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In developing the programme, the priorities outlined in the ‘Hyogo Framework of Action 2005-2015,
Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters’, and the Outcomes of the Global Platformfor Disaster Risk Reduction (2009), which sets out specific targets for reducing losses from disasters, weretaken into account. On 19 March 2010 the Government formally established the Nepal Risk Reduction
Consortium (NRRC) Steering Committee, chaired by the Secretary of Home Affairs. Members include the
Joint Secretaries of the Ministries of Finance, Education, Irrigation, Local Development, Physical Planning,
Health and Population, and the National Planning Commission. Directors and Representatives of the ADB,WB, UNDP, OCHA, IFRC, NRCS, and DP-Net are also members. The Joint Secretary of MoHA is Member
Secretary. The concept of Consortium is not working smoothly now days. However, a meeting and somediscussions were held at MoHA last year.
3.13 Executive Committee for DRRM
Executive Committee for Disaster Risk Reduction and Management is the apex executive bodyheaded by home minister responsible for the execution or cause to the execution of the plan, policies andprogram approved by the National Council. This committee is composed of the Ministers for the Urban
Development, Health and Federal Affairs; Secretaries for all the Ministries including Cabinet Office;Lieutenant General of Nepali Army, Chief of Police Forces, Director of the National Bank, Member
Secretary from the Social Welfare Council, Chairpersons from the Telecom Authority, Nepal Chamber ofCommerce, Nepal Red Cross Society, Federations of Nepalese Chamber of Commerce and Industries andthe Executive Chief of the NDRRMA as the member secretary for the committee.
The function, duty and right of Executive Committee are as follow:(a) Prepare and submit national policy and plan relating to disaster management to the Council,(b) Within the limit of the approved national policy and plan by the Council, integrated and sector wise
policy, plan and program relating to disaster risk reduction, disaster response and disaster recovery shall beapproved, and executed or caused to be executed,(c) Strategic plan and program relating to disaster management shall be approved and executed or caused to
be executed,(d) Ascertain roles to abide by all agencies including public, private and non-governmental organization
relating to disaster management, and also make those agencies to include disaster management related
matters in their policies, plan and program,(e) Ascertain roles and responsibilities of the ministries, departments and other agencies of the Governmentof Nepal relating to disaster management,(f) Build or caused to be built the institutional capacity of the Federal, Provincial, District and Local level
relating to disaster management,(g)Include the matters relating to disaster management in the curriculum from school to higher levels of
education,(h)Formulations of cluster wise contingency plan for disaster risk reduction and execute or caused to be
executed,(i)To reduce probable risk of natural disaster, identify areas that are at risk and conduct or caused to be

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ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B

conducted risk and vulnerability mapping of such area,(j) Prepare risk sensitive development and land use plan, and implement or caused to be implemented,(k) Carry out or caused to carried out disaster risk assessment of public infrastructures, (l) Relocate or caused
to be relocated the people and communities residing along river bank, landslide prone steep-sloping lands
and inundation prone areas or any other disaster risk prone area to safe locations,(m) Formulate special plan and program for women, children, senior citizen, dalit, marginalized group andcommunity, people with disabilities who are at disaster risk, and execute orcaused to be executed,(n) Identify the most vulnerable communities and execute or caused to be executed the risk reduction
programs,(o) Develop and operate or caused to be developed and operated the national early warning system,(p) Formulation of national disaster response framework for disaster response, and execute or caused to be
executed,(q) Make arrangement for immediate relief distribution to the disaster affected,(r) Formulate necessary working procedure and standard so as to automatically mobilized institutional
mechanisms for immediately carried out primary functions including search, rescue and relief during disaster,and execute or caused to be executed,(s) Make provision of emergency treatment to disaster victim through the arrangement of adequate
infrastructure and services in public and private hospitals or health institutions,(t) Develop necessary standard relating to the roles of mass media during disaster and execute or caused to
be executed,(u) Provide suggestions to the Government of Nepal on the matters of national policy relating to immigration,custom and quarantine to be adopted during disaster,(v) Carry out or caused to be carried out the programs for recovery of economic activities, creation of
employment opportunities, and income generation activities for livelihood,(w) Carry out or caused to be carried out the programs relating to disaster recovery in the disaster affectedareas,(x) Mobilize or caused to be mobilized international, bilateral and multilateral assistance to be received fordisaster management within the jurisdiction of prevailing laws,(y) Execute or caused to be executed other works relating to disaster management as prescribed byGovernment of Nepal or Council,(z) Execute or caused to be executed other works relating to disaster management as prescribed.
(Source: DRRM Act, 2015)
3.14 Province Disaster Executive Committee/ District Disaster Management Committee/ Local
Disaster Management Committee
A 15 membered Province Disaster Management Executive Committee (PDMEC) is present in eachseven provinces of Nepal and chaired by the Province Minister for Internal Affairs and Law. The
composition of the committee and members is as per the Province Law. Generally, it comprises related

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government agencies and security agencies (law and order, emergency response and development
institutions) along with voluntary organizations such as Red Cross. It is responsible for formulating thepolicies and plans for the respective provinces within the umbrella of National policies and laws. The
implementation is done in coordination of District Disaster Management Committee (DDMC) and Local
Disaster Management Committee (LDMC).
All 77 DDMCs are responsible for district level disaster preparedness and response planning andimplementation. They are also responsible for all the activities related to DRR Cycle including SAR and
immediate relief. The chairperson of the DDMC is the Chief District Officer (CDO), who is the highestlevel government official to take disaster-related decisions at the district level. This committee comprises ofthe Mayors from the local levels, various line agencies such as law and order, emergency response (police
and armed police), district chapter of NRCS and critical facilities such as irrigation, road, livestock, healthetc. That’s why it is also a main coordinating body amongst all level of governments for the district level.
The Local Disaster Management Committee (LDMC) is 15 membered committee is all 753 local levels of
Nepal. This committee is headed by the Mayor or Chief of the local level and its composition will be as per
local law. This committee is responsible for disaster risk reduction and management at the local level, suchas risk mapping, resettlements, disbursement of funds during and after emergencies, and rescue,
identification and transport of the injured to hospitals. This committee is guided by the DRRM Act, 1015
and local laws. As per the Local Governance Operation Act, 2015. the local level has the right to exercise
the disaster risk reduction, mitigation, response, relief and recovery activities. So, the LDMC will work for
all the local level activities for DRR cycle including curriculum development and community mobilizations
with their own plans within the national guidelines.
4. Response Policy and Frameworks
National Disaster Response Framework (NDRF), 2013 has been revised by Executive Committee
for DRR in 2019. It has incorporated the new legal arrangements after the promulgation of Constitution of
Nepal, 2015. It also insets the learnings fromdevastating Gorkha Earthquake 2015. This
framework is to response the disasterbeyond the capacities of provincial

andlocal governments in coordination
with District Disaster Management
Committee (DDMC). However, theprovisions for province and local levels are notdisplayed in this framework. There are otherguidelines for search and rescue, dead bodymanagement, resettlements and relief like activities.
The assistance and coordination after the big disasters are showninthe figure. After disaster, executive committee meeting immediately takes decision about the intensity,

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severity and the possible out brakes. At the same time, the committee compares national capacity for
response, and if the national capacity does not meet the necessity, it urges the Council or Government toappeal international humanitarian assistance.
Nepal is practicing clusters
approach for disaster response andrecovery, NDRF is the guiding provision
to humanitarian agencies as well. Levelof disaster determines the mobilize of
Humanitarian

Agency/Organization.

United Nations Resident Coordinator(UNRC)

will

coordinate

withinternational community to mobilize
response activities. Activation of Red
Cross Movement On-Site Operation and
Coordination Centre (OSOCC) will
activate as per the necessity. Establish Multi
National

Military

Coordination

NDRF: when appealed for international
humanitarian assistanceCentre(MNMCC) to coordinate with international Search and Rescue (SAR) groups. The Government of Nepal
makes the decision as per necessity when disaster struck. The mechanism after international appeal is shownin the framework. In case of incountry capacity mobilization, the framework for coordination and response
is similar excluding the OSOCC and MNMCC. In
Clusters

Lead/co-leads

Logistics

MOHA /WFP

Health

MOHP /WHO

WASH

MOUD/ Unicef

Nutrition

MOHP/Unicef

Emergency Shelter

MOUD/ IFRC/UNHBITATCamp Coordination

Disaster

Risk

Reduction

andManagent

Authority(NDRRMA)
The 11 clusters, which should always be preparedand vibrant to response disasters. The clusters are
led by related ministries and co-led by the UN
agencies and international humanitarian agencies.

& Camp Management

MOUD/IOM

Food Security

MOALD/WFP

Education

MOEST/ Unicef/Save the Children

Protection

MOWCSC/UNHCR/Unicef/UNFPAEmergency Telecommunication-MOCIT/WFP
Early Recovery

both senerai the coordiantion goes through National

MOFAGA/ UNDP

They are responsible for mobilizing their clusters
themselves and can call related agencies orauthorities in their meetings for better preparedness
and response. These clusters will be activatedand mobilized by NDRRMA with necerraycoordiantion.

5. Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction(SFDRR) Updates in Nepal
Nepal is a signatory country to SFDRR 2015-2030 followed by Hyogo Framework for Actions-HFA
2005. It has already expressed a commitment to achieve the SFDRR goals by 2030. So far, Nepal has

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submitted two SFDRR progress-monitoring reports. It has clearly prepared the priorities through its actionplans and has started their implementation phase wise.
The GoN developed and endorsed Disaster Risk Reduction National Strategic Plan of Action (2018- 2030),
as Nepal’s roadmap to implement the key provisions of
SFDRR in our context. The Strategic Plan of Action
has a long-term vision to build a safer, adaptive andresilient nation from disaster risk and ensuresustainable development.
Nepal, being a hazard prone country, has been
taking collective action to prevent new and reduce
existing disaster risks. This will be accomplishedthrough the implementation of integrated and inclusive
economic,

structural,

legal,

environmental,

technological and institutional measures. Such concerted effort will be instrumental to prevent and reduce
hazard exposure and vulnerability to disaster, increase preparedness for response and recovery, and thus
strengthen resilience of the country. The Strategic Plan of Action has set four priority areas in line with
SFDRR priorities.
5.1 Priority Area 1: Understanding Disaster Risk
To understand the level of disaster risk is essential for policy makers and other stakeholders working
with DRM. An extensive disaster risk assessment and a well-maintained information management system toforesee disaster risk and updated information of disaster loss and damages should be in place. Under the
Priority 1, MoHA has initiated activities on all four priority areas. Currently, Nepal has a regular mechanism
for collecting information and regularly updates disaster loss and damages, response and recovery initiatives.
MoHA is leading the process to map and consolidate various multi-hazard risk assessments done by a numberof agencies over the past years with the objective of establishing a uniform and comprehensive disaster
information management system (DIMS). DIMS will serve as a repository of disaster information from alllevels: local, provincial and federal. This system is expected to be live and interactive information
management system for DRM in Nepal. In order to ensure the common sharing platform, it will serve as acommon system for disaster management fostering data partnership at multiple tiers of governments andrelevant stakeholders. A strong linkage will be established among the institutions and agencies involved inforecasting, managing and accessing the risks and responses.
Some of the vulnerable settlements have been identified for relocation as per the risk exposed.
Different levels of capacity development programs are taking place ranging from security forces togovernment officials, federal to local authorities and practitioners, non-government actors to communities
are supporting to enhance the disaster risk understanding. But, it still needs to be standardized andinstitutionalized in the respective levels. Seismic stations, hydro-metrological stations, lightning detection
centers have been established for real-time hazard risk monitoring system at different parts, throughout the

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ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B

country. Kathmandu valley soil liquefaction map has been prepared. All the major glacier lakes monitoring
and regular assessment system has been developed which feeds the real time information.
5.2 Priority Area 2: Strengthening Disaster Risk Governance at Federal, Provincial and Local
Levels
The state can ensure disaster risk governance through incorporation and ownership of the disasterrisk reduction components and their governance system priorities. The mainstreaming of disaster risk
management in development initiatives, strengthening institutional capacities, preparedness for reducing
existing risk and preventing new risk along with risk-informed governance systems can reduce the impact
and pave the way towards resilient communities.
The disaster risk governance primarily entails the establishment of mechanisms, institutions andprocesses for effective DRM. Furthermore, it includes the ability of all level of Government to use thosemechanisms and institutions for disaster preparedness, response and recovery activities. In the current federal
set up, most of the provincial and local governments have given priority to disaster risk reduction andmanagement. They have developed policies, laws, plans and formed committees, institutional structures anddisaster funds, and are already engaged in disaster preparedness and response initiatives. Disastermanagement councils at national and provincial level and committees at local and community level havebeen formed to lead the disaster management at various levels. Federal government is dedicated toaccomplish all targets of Priority Area 2
within the short span of time. The
localization of the act, policies and Strategic
Plan of Action follows a participatory
approachwithengagement

of

key

stakeholders at various levels. EOCs arebeing expanded at the provincial and local
levels. In order to strengthen institutional
capacityforeffective

disasterrisk

Source: NEOC, MoHA, 2019

governance, the government has been
maintaining close partnership with the non-governmental sectors and humanitarian actors across all levels.
The DRRM act and policies ensures the inclusiveness of vulnerable groups in different phases of disaster,from participation in preparedness to prioritization of services in response and recovery. Nepal has adopted
Sustainable Development Goals by replicating it to our context through the sustainable development agendaof Nepal identifying the responsible authorities with the targets to accomplish. Nepal also has adopted andlocalized SFDRR by developing National DRR Strategic Plan of Action 2018-2030, which has identified
271 priority activities for reducing the disaster risk. The coordination level has been enhanced with the
dedicated desk in the federal ministries and departments and DRR focal persons are identified at each levelof all tiers of government. In the provinces there are separate unit under ministry of internal affairs and law.
Emergency Operation Centers (EOC) have been established to strengthen the response effort at national,
provincial, district, local levels as well as at sectoral levels too. DRM and climate adaptation program has

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ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B

been mainstreamed in the development plans to reduce the impact as well as mitigations measures applied
to reduce further risk.
5.3 Priority Area 3: Promoting Comprehensive Risk-Informed Private and Public Investments
in Disaster Risk Reduction for Resilience
The state is responsible for enabling environment for preparedness and response to disasters,
bringing all stakeholders together. All tiers of governments have maintained disaster funds at each level for
preparedness and emergency responses. However, due to lack of a comprehensive law on the fundmanagement, checking for duplication and the coordination of relief support is a challenge faced by thegovernments. Under this priority action, a number of ongoing recovery efforts to 2015 earthquake and 2017
flood demonstrate good examples of the private and public investments in disaster risk reduction forresilience. For further engagement of private sector in disaster management, consultation and discussion on
the possible areas of substantive partnership in risk reduction are being held. The organized efforts with theuse of security forces, volunteers, students, experienced and skilled human resources of government andnon-government sectors in preparedness can further contribute to an enhanced and effective response. Openspaces have been identified within Kathmandu Valley as a safe places for displaced population in postdisaster scenario assuring them with preparedness of basic facilities required in the aftermath. Disastermanagement funds have been allocated at all tiers of government typically for effective and immediate
response and relief after any major events. Support of private sector has been increasing in the response andrecovery phase, but there are still some rooms to motivate them to encouraging their support in risk reduction
programs. MoHA has taken the lead and has started discussion with the wider stakeholder to establish therisk transfer mechanism. Existing insurance system as health insurance, livestock insurance, other social
security provisions could be tied up together to transfer the risk.
5.4 Priority Area 4: Enhancing Disaster Preparedness for Effective Response and to “Build Back
Better” in Recovery, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction
The National Reconstruction Authority is leading the reconstruction efforts of the government as
per the Rehabilitation Policy and Post Disaster Recovery Framework. Primarily, it intended to support
affected communities to bounce back rapidly to normalcy, and to ensure safety and resilience to future shocks.
Reconstruction efforts focused on developing a well-planned, resilient settlement in the earthquake affecteddistricts ensuring safe structures, social cohesion, access to services, livelihood support and capacity buildingof the community and develop resilient critical infrastructure and cultural heritages.
Under the Priority 4, Nepal has initiated its 6 priority actions. NRA has provided people withreconstruction needs with multiple options of architectural design to construct their new houses that has
allowed them to ensure safer house reconstructed with quality materials in close supervision of engineers byfollowing "Build Back Better" principle. The individual house reconstruction drastically went above 42
percent from 7 percent in two years’ period, where there is remarkable progress on reconstruction of
government buildings including schools and health facilities above 50 percent, though there is very little
progress on cultural heritage and security forces infrastructure reconstruction with 30 percent progress on anaverage. SAR capacity has increased, as security forces developed their institutional capacity, logistics

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ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B

requirements and started producing skilled human resources from their own disaster schools. Local levels
are conducting a number of community-based disaster activities including comprehensive DRM activities
on mitigation and prevention of disaster risk at local levels. They cover a wide range of activities byidentifying the risks in a particular community to reduce its impact and exposure.
Similarly, Nepal has initiated preparedness in airports for disasters. Regular simulations based on
the plan are carried out in Tribhuvan International Airport by Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal (CAAN).
Domestic airports are also developing
their contingency plans. Regularsimulations have been carried out
jointly with the engagement of both
civil, security agencies and public. For
emergency

response,

emergency

items are stockpiled in strategic
locations. Humanitarian Staging Area
at TIA and forward logistic bases arebeing constructed at the provincial
level. Search and rescue items arebeing upgraded and expanded to cover
more areas with the intention to reachthe community level. Regular updatesof heavy equipment located in thestrategic locations keeps it ready for
deployment in emergencies. Capacity and resourcesof trauma centers are being enhanced regularly.
National Trauma Center in Kathmandu, trauma
centers at Bharatpur Hospital, Chitawan in EastWest Highway and Dhaulagiri Zonal Hospital,
Baglung at Mid-Hill Highway are providing trauma
care services, while others are in the process.
Cultivating a culture of safety is crucial forrisk reduction and saving lives in emergencies.
Incorporation of disaster risk management in bothformal and non-formal education system helps thecause. Curriculum development consultation is
being carried out during the period. There arenumber of ongoing activities to develop early
warning systems and forecast the anticipateddisasters, by which the government along withJan 2020

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ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B

communities and individuals can prepare themselves to avoid risk. Efforts are focused on expansion of
weather stations and achieving higher precision in monitoring and forecasting. Alert messaging has beendelivered more frequently among the target audience through various media. DoHS have established amechanism to prevent possible epidemics and outbreaks of diseases through the use of Early Warning andReporting System and Integrated Disease Surveillance System. During the period, there has been remarkableprogress in establishing and strengthening coherence from global to national, and national to sub-national(province and local) level. Gradual implementation of the priority-based disaster risk reduction activities
including: risk identification and assessment, strengthening disaster governance at three tiers of government,
mobilization of public and private investments in risk reduction and emergency management, and significant
progress on reconstruction of damages caused by 2015 Earthquake.
6. Challenges and the way forward in the area of DRRM in Nepal
6.1 Mainstreaming DRRM•

The new legal instruments of Nepal acknowledge the incorporation of DRR into development plans.
However, what are reflected and underscored in the plans and activities of all three tiers ofgovernments are not substantiated in their annual programs and budgets.

•

One of the reasons for this is lack of tools to assess contribution of an investment in development
sectors towards disaster resiliency of a community and/or nation.

•

The other challenge is the understanding our risk of different geographies, different
communities, different hazards and different economic activities while scientific risk
assessments are very limited. At this point, lack of common understanding between andwithin the new governance system stands as another challenge.

6.2 Institutional strengthening and capacity building•

The emergency response and relief approach is so entrenched in the current system that it will taketime to mobilize the system to more comprehensive disaster risk management approach.

•The new policy and act are gearing up the efforts towards changing the existing mindset.

•

National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority is newly established as a separate androbust mechanism to assess disaster resiliency and contribution toward disaster resiliency of thecommunities and the nation. Its scope, functions, organization and management are yet to be
confirmed.

•

The new policy and act has authorized the government to arrange and mobilize sufficient budget
with straight mechanism to spend on mitigation, preparedness and recovery.

•

The new legal and policy frameworks are expected to empower the government to undertake
preparedness of better emergency response in effective way.

•

Although emergency response has been the main thrust of the disaster risk management in theprevious years, it was basically ‘wait and see’ approach with spontaneous reactions to provide rescue
and relief.

•

SOPs and standards have not been fully developed, institutional mechanisms are in need of

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ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B

strengthening.
•

There is need to develop network of EOC across the country from central to local level with proper
linkages at the basis of needs and expectations.

•

Some of the provincial and local governments are making laws and establishing some institutionalarrangements but overlapping, lack of uniformity and common understanding are becoming the newchallenges ahead.

6.3 Other challenges•

Information, technology and knowledge gap on the practical aspects of the DRRM•

Lack of adequate coherence in different national and international instruments•

Prevalence of new forms disaster, urbanization, unprecedented disaster.

•

Aligning DRRM landscape with political transformation•

Uncertainty of risk due to climate change.

•

Trans-boundary nature of hazards and need of bilateral, international efforts.

•

Ensuring inclusiveness for disaster risk reduction and management for capacity enhancement as well
as justice and equity.

•

Proper utilization of financial and other resources and the capacity available internally and externallywith transparency.

6.4 Way forward
Substantive progress has been achieved towards establishment of the NDRRMA. Establishment ofauthority has become significant milestone towards disaster governance in Nepal. Finalization of the scope,organizational and functions of this authority is the priority of the days. Progress on localization of policies,
institutions, and resources at sub-national level is highly commendable. It is equally important to ensure that
there is coherence among the policies and their subsequent implementation. A close and proactive
engagement of all tiers of governments and related stakeholders needs to be further strengthened to this end.
As per the legal provision, disaster management funds have been established in three tiers of governments.
However, a specific act on management of the funds would foster clarity and effectiveness while utilizing
the fund.
Similarly, other priorities to be followed along with the aforementioned way forward can be mentioned asfollows:•

Better understanding of disaster risk through scientific research and comprehensive risk assessment.

•

Formulation of additional necessary DRR policy measures, strategies, guidelines by 2020. (Landuse plan, Early warning System etc.)•

Institutional arrangements and set up of institutional structures (such as NDRRMA, EOCs) with theefficiency of stockpiled warehouses and equipment.

•

Implement actions of Strategic Action Plan - complete short-term, and initiate and complete longterm as appropriate. (Building code).

•

Bilateral and international cooperation regarding our priorities. (International support fortechnological transfer, knowledge management).

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ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B•

Empowering province and local governments for effective leadership role in disaster risk
management.

•

Ensure meaningful participation of women, children, and persons with disability, minority andvulnerable groups in the overall DRR program decisions and implementation for better resiliency.
Children can enhance of "Culture of Safety".

•

Develop international fund for DRR in developing countries.

•

Provide and share more data and evidence on the benefits of investing in preparedness to ensure
effective and integrated implementation of DIMS.

•

The disaster resilient livelihood options need to be promoted to strengthen community resilience.

•

Ensure appropriate technologies and innovations are in place to have the bigger improvement on
overall DRRM of the country.

•

Develop multi hazard SAR capacity at all levels, from local to global.

•

There is an increasing trend of disaster related displacements in Nepal which may be further
accelerated by the impact of climate change. Appropriate policy legislation and implementation on
disaster displacement would reduce the associated risks.

•Development and implementation of measurable monitoring tools, tied with financial rewards andrestrictions, is necessary to achieve goals of the strategies.

7. Conclusion
Nepal disaster risk management initiatives have become remarkable with the constitutional
provision and enactment of DRRM Act, 2015. The legal and policy provisions outlined in the report marked
the paradigm shift in disaster management in Nepal. The shift focuses on strengthening legal frameworks,
policy and planning, organizational aspects, institutional capacities and partnerships for DRM, over the years.
Nepal has been steered by the principles of disaster risk reduction and allocated tasks to the three-tiers ofgovernment with sole and concurrent responsibility for disaster management according to current legislation.
The provisions have provided the tiers with roles and responsibilities for disaster risk management.
The Disaster Risk Reduction National Strategic Plan of Action 2018-2030, framed within theobjectives of the act and SFDRR, took forward the strategic priorities and actions that guide disaster risk
reduction initiatives in Nepal. Nepal should focus its initiatives on effective implementation of National
DRR Strategic Plan of Action (2018-2030) to meet the international obligations as well as making Nepal
resilient to any disaster.
The reported incidences of disasters show water induced disaster claiming the majority of loss anddamages in Nepal. Other seasonal disasters including fire incurred significantly higher economic losses andfire incidents are much more concentrated in urban areas.
Localization of policies, resources, capacities and institutions were key priorities during the period. There
has been substantial progress in establishing disaster risk management funds, and remarkable progress
towards meeting the agenda of localization of strategies at sub-national and local level.

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As per the challenges faced during the implementation of the objectives set by the disaster risk reduction
policies and priorities, there has been important lessons learnt that guide strategies and actions for futureendeavors.
8. ADRC Counterpart
Disaster Management Division, Ministry of Home Affairs, Kathmandu, Nepal
Joint Secretary, Ms. Indu Ghimire, ighimire027@gmail.com
Office email- disastermgmt@moha.gov.np
Tel: ++977 1 4211241, ++977 14211219
Cell number-+9779851140005
Abbreviations
ADB

Asian Development BankADRC

Asian Disaster Reduction Centre

APF

Armed Police Force

CAAN

Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal

CBS

Central Bureau of Statistics

CCCM

Camp Coordination and Camp Management

CDO

Chief District Officer

DEOC

District Emergency Operation Centre

DDMC

District Disaster Management Committee

DHM

Department of Hydrology and Meteorology

DIMS

Disaster Information Management System

DRM

Disaster Risk Management

DRR

Disaster Risk Reduction

DOE

Department of Education

EOC

Emergency Operation Center

DoHS

Department of Health Services

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

GIS

Geographic Information System

GLOF

Glacial Lake Outburst Floods

HFA

Hyogo Framework for Action

ICIMODInternational Centre for Integrated Mountain Development

IFRC

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

IOM

International Organization for Migration

INSARAGInternational Search and Rescue Advisory GroupJan 2020

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ADRC Visiting Researcher Program 2019B

LEOC

Local Emergency Operation Centre

OSOCC

On-Site Operation Coordination Center

MNMCC

Multi National Military Coordination Center

MoF

Ministry of Finance

MoFAGA

Ministry of Federal Affairs and General Administration

MoHA

Ministry of Home Affairs

NA

Nepali Army

NACRIMAC

Nepali Army Crisis Management Center

NDRRMA

National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority

NEOC

National Emergency Operation Center

NP

Nepal Police

NPC

National Planning Commission

NRA

National Reconstruction Authority

NRCS

Nepal Red Cross Society

NRs

Nepali Rupees (Currency)

NSC

National Seismological Centre

NSDRM

National Strategy for Disaster Risk Management

OCHA

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

PEOC

Province Emergency Operation Centre

SAR

Search and Rescue

SC

Save the Children

SFDRR Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
SMS

Short Message Service

SOP

Standard Operating Procedure

Sub-OSOCC

Sub-On-Site Operation Coordination Center

Sub-MNMCC Sub-Multi National Military Coordination Center
TIA

Trivubhan International Airport, Kathmandu

UNICEF

United Nations Children's Fund

UNDP

United Nations Development Programme

UNDAC

United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination TeamUN Habitat

United Nations Habitat

UNHCR

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

UNFPA

United Nations Population Fund

USAR

Urban Search and Rescue

WASH

Water, Sanitation and Hygiene

WB

World BankWFPWorld Food Programme

WHO

World Health Organization

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Bibliography/References
CBS, 2011: Census Report 2011, Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu
GON, 2017: Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act, 2017, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu.
GON, 2017: Local Government Operation Act, 2017, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu.
Koirala, Pradip, 2014: Country Profile on Nepal Disaster Management Institution and System
in Nepal, Presented in Visiting Researcher Program, ADRC, Kobe, Japan.

MOF, 2019: Economic Survey 2018/19, Ministry of Finance, Kathmandu.
MoHA, 2019: Nepal Disaster Report, 2019, Ministry of Home Affairs, Kathmandu.
MoHA, 2009: Nepal Disaster Report, 2009, Ministry of Home Affairs, Kathmandu.
MoHA, 2018: National Disaster Risk Reduction Policy, 2018, Ministry of Home Affairs, Kathmandu.
MoHA, 2018: National Disaster Risk Reduction Strategic Action Plan, 2018-2030, Ministry of Home
Affairs, Kathmandu.
MOHA, 2019: National Position Paper on Disaster Risk Reduction and Management in Nepal
presented in Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2019 in Geneva by Ministry ofHome Affairs, Kathmandu.
NPC, 2019: Fifteenth Plan Approach Paper, National Planning Commission, Kathmandu.
UNDP, 2019: Nepal Human Development Report 2019, UNDP Kathmandu.
Data and Information from National Emergency Operation Centre (NEOC) via drrportal.gov.np
Websites: www.lawcommission.gov.np, www.moe.gov.np, www.imnepal.com, www.google.com

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