Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC)

Kobe, JapanCOMPARATIVE STUDY ON EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMI EARLY WARNINGSYSTEM IN MALAYSIA AND JAPANA Research Study Report
For the Visiting Researcher - Asian Disaster Reduction Center
FY2018 (TERM A)

By: Mazni AZISMalaysian Meteorological Department (MMD)
Ministry of Energy, Science, Technology, Environment and Climate Change(MESTECC)

November 2018

DISCLAIMER
This report was compiled by an Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC) Visiting Researcher(VR) from ADRC member countries. The views expressed in the report do not necessarily reflect
the views of the ADRC. The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on the maps
in the report also do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the ADRC.

TABLE OF CONTENTSTABLE OF CONTENTS

i

LIST OF APPENDIXii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

iii

ACROYNMiv

INTRODUCTION

1

Seismicity and tectonic setting around Malaysia

1

Tsunami Risk in Malaysia

2

Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004

2

Seismicity and tectonic setting around Japan

3

Overview Malaysian National Tsunami Early Warning System (MNTEWS)

6

Levels of Earthquake/ Tsunami Emergency in Malaysia

7

Warning Criteria of Tsunami in Malaysia

7

Cancellation / Termination of Tsunami Warning

8

Telecommunication Systems with Global Telecommunication System (GTS), PacificTsunami Warning Center (PTWC), Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) and Tsunami
Service Provider (TSP) Australia, India and Indonesia

8

The Role Of Japan Meteorology Agency In Earthquake And Tsunami Early Warning

10

Tsunami Warnings/Advisories, Tsunami Information in Japan

11

OBJECTIVE

12

METHODOLOGY12DISCUSSION

14

Observation Network for Earthquake/ Tsunami Monitoring in Japan and Malaysia

14

Time of Issuance Earthquake and Tsunami Warning Information in Japan and Malaysia

14

Categories of Tsunami Warning in Japan and Malaysia

16

Dissemination of Earthquake and Tsunami Warning Information in Japan and Malaysia

17

CONCLUSION

19

REFERENCES

20i

LIST OF APPENDIX
1. Seismological Station in Peninsular Malaysia

21

2. Seismological Station in Sabah & Sarawak

22

3. Tide Gauge Station Network Operated by Malaysian Meteorological Department

23

4. Coastal Camera Network Operated by Malaysian Meteorological Department24

5. Location of Siren Tsunami in Malaysia

25

6. Seismometer Network in Japan26

7. Seismic Intensity Meter Network in Japan27

8. Tsunami Monitoring Network in Japan28

9. Strain meter Network for Issuing Nankai Trough Earthquake Information in Japan

29

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTFirst, I would like to take this opportunity to record my thanks to Mr. Masanori HAMADA
Chairman of ADRC, Mr. Koji SUZUKI Executive Director of ADRC and my respectable
coordinator and mentor, Ms. Yumi SHIOMI, Mr. Makoto IKEDA, and Ms. Akiko NAKAMURA
for their comments, wise advice and guidance during this programme. I’m also deeply grateful tothe government of Japan for funding this programme and Malaysian Meteorological Department
for giving opportunity to join this programme.
I wish to express my special gratitude to other Visiting Researcher (Ms. Shaufa Aminathfrom Maldives and Mridusmita BORAH from India) and all staff of ADRC for their supports andencouragement throughout this programme. Besides, my thanks and gratitude also goes to myhusband, sons, parent, siblings and friends for helping and supports me in completing this researchstudy.
Lastly, I would like extend my gratitude to all the persons who are involved either direct
or indirect to complete this research study. Without their commitment and dedication, this study
would not have materialized.

iii

ACROYNM

AIST

National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology

AOR

Area of Responsible

ERI

Earthquake Research Institute, The University of Tokyo

GTS

Global Telecommunication System

GSI

Geospatial Information Authority of Japan

JAMSTEC

Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology

JCG

Japan Coast Guard

JMAJapan Meteorological Agency

MLIT

Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism

MMD

Malaysian Meteorology Department

MNTEWC

Malaysian National Tsunami Early Warning Center

MNTEWS

Malaysian National Tsunami Early Warning System

NIED

National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience

PHB

Ports and Harbors Bureau

TSP

Tsunami Service Provider

PTWC

Pacific Tsunami Warning Centeriv

INTRODUCTION

Seismicity and tectonic setting around Malaysia
Malaysia is close to the two most seismically active plate boundaries between the Indian-Australianand Eurasian plates in the west and between the Eurasian and Philippine Sea plates in the east
(Figure 1). Generally, Malaysia is not seismically active unlike the neighboring countries such as
Indonesia and the Philippines. However, Malaysia also has experienced local earthquakes andtremors originated from active seismic areas along subduction zones in Sumatra, Sulawesi and thePhilippines.
In considering the frequency and magnitudes of earthquakes in Malaysia, as no significant
tectonic earthquakes originated in the Malay Peninsula have been known before the 2007 Bukit
Tinggi earthquakes, it is believed that, in the Malay Peninsula, these earthquakes are isolated andinfrequent. Sarawak has experienced earthquakes of mainly local origin. Since 1874 up to now, a
total of 21 earthquakes with magnitude ranging from 3.5 to 5.3 were recorded, with the Maximum
Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale of VI (ASM, 2009). Sabah received the impact of the earthquake
shaking on the scale between V to VIII. Eastern Sabah especially in the districts of Sandakan,
Tawau, Kunak and Semporna has the highest impact of tremors because the area is close to themedium and strong magnitude earthquake centered on the Southern Philippines and North
Sulawesi. A strongest earthquake in Malaysia with magnitude 6.0 struck the Ranau District of Sabah
at 7.15 am on 5 June 2015. It was centred around 10 km beneath Mount Kinabalu near the rural
town of Kundasang, Sabah. Rockfalls on Mount Kinabalu due to shaking resulted in the death of
18 climbers.

Figure 1: Plate tectonics around Malaysia (MMD)
1

Tsunami Risk in Malaysia
The tsunami risk areas in Malaysia are divided into two zones as shown in Figure 2. The states ofPerlis, Kedah, Penang, Perak and Sabah are in high-risk zones, while other states are in low-riskzones.

Figure 2: Tsunami Risk Zone in Malaysia (MMD & ASM, 2009)

Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004
The earthquake that occurred in the coast of North-West Sumatra with a magnitude of 9.2 on the
Richter scale has caused a tsunami across the Indian Ocean. Banda Aceh in Indonesia suffered theworst impacts with deaths exceeding 200 thousand people and the destruction of property. In
Malaysia, the impact of the tsunami, particularly in Kedah and Penang as shown in Figure 3,
involves nearly 8,292 victims, 68 deaths, 6 missing and estimated destruction of property reaching
up to RM 100 million.

2

Figure 3: Impact of 26 December 2004 Tsunami in Kedah and Penang

Seismicity and tectonic setting around Japan
Japan is located at the intersection of multiple oceanic plates and a continental plate, and istherefore well acquainted with the massive inter-plate earthquakes produced by plate subduction(such as the Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923, Great East Japan Earthquake 2011) as well as theinland crustal earthquakes caused by plate movements (such as the Great-Hanshin Awaji
Earthquake of 1995). More than 20% of the world's largest earthquakes (magnitude 6.0 or greater)in the past decade have occurred in or around Japan. Figure 4 and 5 show map of tectonic in Japanand earthquakes causing more than 100 fatalities in Japan respectively.

3

Figure 4: Map of Tectonic in Japan
Source: https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/tectonic/images/japan_tsum.pdf

4Figure 5: Earthquakes causing more than 100 fatalities (from 1900 to 2016, as of 14
February 2018)
Source: https://www.jma.go.jp/jma/kishou/books/jishintsunami/en/jishintsunami_en.pdf

5Overview Malaysian National Tsunami Early Warning System (MNTEWS)The Malaysian National Tsunami Early Warning Center (MNTEWC) is being established by endof 2005 just after the December 2004 Tsunami and located at the Malaysian Meteorological
Department (MMD) in Petaling Jaya, Selangor. Presently, the MNTEWC is responsible for issuingearthquake information and tsunami advisory and warning.
The Malaysian National Tsunami Early Warning System (MNTEWS) comprises of threecomponents, a Monitoring and Data Collection Component, a Processing and Analysis
Component and a Dissemination Component. The Monitoring and Data Collection Component
is made up of 17 tide gauges, 77 seismic stations and 18 coastal cameras. The Processing andAnalysis Component consists of a modeling database and an integration system while theDissemination Component consists of SMS, fax, hotline, media, webcast and 53 sirens.
The Malaysian National Tsunami Early Warning Center (MNTEWC) operates 24 hours, 7days a week to ensure detection and dissemination of earthquake and tsunami information andwarnings to the authority and public. Daily checks and scheduled maintenance of MNTEWS are
carried out to ensure the system is always operational.
The areas of Responsible (AOR) under MNTEWC is within 30°N to 15°S latitude and85°E to 140°E longitude as shown in Figure 6. Earthquakes are classified into three maincategories as shown in Table 1.
----- 200km from Malaysian coastline

Area of Responsible

Figure 6: Area of Responsible (AOR)

6

Table 1: Earthquake Categories
Magnitude (Richter Scale)
6.0 or more
5.0 - 5.9
Less than 5.0

Category
StrongModerate
Weak

The MNTEWC will release earthquake information according to the following three
conditions:a) Within 200 km of Malaysia Coastline - Earthquakes with magnitudes 3.0 on the Richter
Scale and aboveb) Within the AOR area - Earthquakes with magnitudes 5.0 on the Richter Scale and abovec) Outside of AOR - Earthquakes with magnitudes 6.0 on the Richter Scale and above
Levels of Earthquake/ Tsunami Warning in Malaysia
The earthquake/tsunami emergency will be managed based on the criteria and categories defined
as follows:a. Local earthquakes of magnitude 5.5 or more on the Richter scale on land. There is possibilityof damage locally.
b. Earthquakes of magnitude 6.5 and above on the Richter scale occurring in the sea andgenerating a tsunami that have the possibility to hit the Malaysian coastline.

Warning Criteria of Tsunami in Malaysia
In the event of tsunami threat to the Malaysian coastlines, the types of Alert to be issued:
Criteria Alert
Location

South China Sea, Sulu
Sea, Celebes Sea,
Indian Ocean(Andaman & Nicobar),
Straits of Makassar,
Java Sea, Flores Sea,
Banda Sea
Other Areas from the
above

Focal
Depth
(km)

<
100km

Magnitude(M)

Tsunami Height(meter)
at Malaysian
coastlines

Type of Alert issued

M ≥ 7.5≥ 0.5 mTsunami Warning

7.5 > M ≥ 6.5≤ 0.5 mTsunami Advisory≥ 0.5 mTsunami Warning≤ 0.5 mTsunami Advisory

M > 7.9

7

Cancellation / Termination of Tsunami Warning
Will be issued when the tsunami does not affect Malaysian coastlines or the tsunami is no longer
a threat to the coasts of the country.
Type of Alert

Criteria

Message

Alert issued toIssued in the case where
Termination/
Cancellation

forecast tsunami is not
generated or observed wave
heights have diminished to“no longer
tsunami threat”

NADMA, relevant
disaster management
agencies and Media

non-destructive levels

Telecommunication Systems with Global Telecommunication System (GTS), PacificTsunami Warning Center (PTWC), Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) and Tsunami
Service Provider (TSP) Australia, India and Indonesia
MNTEWC also available get information through GTS from PTWC in Honolulu Hawaii, JMA in
Tokyo and TSP in Indonesia, India and Australia. This relationship provides a directcommunication facility to receive tsunami information and warnings occur in the Pacific Ocean,
the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean. Supporting information from this international contact
helps MNTEWC in the verification of earthquakes and tsunami warnings.

8

Occurrence ofEarthquake

Within 8 minutes
Tsunami Warning/ Advisory
Earthquake Information
Tsunami Information (estimatedTsunami arrival Time andheightWithin 30 minutes
Crawlers, Press statement

Update tsunami
advisory/warning from time totime if there is any latest
information regarding the event

When tsunami threat is overPrepare chronology ofearthquake and tsunami event

Tsunami Termination /Cancelation

Figure 7: Flow of issuance of information about tsunami and earthquake in Malaysia

9

The Role of Japan Meteorology Agency in Earthquake and Tsunami Early Warning
JMA has installed seismometers at about 180 sites nationwide (approximately every 60 km). It also
constantly monitors seismic activity by collecting observation data from online data sources,
including high-sensitivity seismometers used by research institutions. The JMA issues seismic
intensity information for a total of approximately 3,900 locations nationwide. JMA has installedabout 600 seismic intensity meters nationwide (approximately every 20 km) to measure theintensity of ground motion, as well as data from seismic intensity meters installed by local
governments at about 2,800 sites, and data from strong-motion seismographs installed by the
National Research Institute for Earth Science and Natural Disaster Prevention (NIED) about 470
of its approximately 1,000 strong-motion seismic observation (K-NET) facilities. In addition, togain a more thorough understanding of earthquakes and crustal activities and to provide basic
observations for survey research, earthquake observations are conducted using high-sensitivity
seismometers and broadband seismometers through partnerships with relevant research
institutions such as the NIED, in accordance with the guidelines of the national government's
Headquarters for Earthquake Research Promotion. The Geographical Survey Institute (GSI) has
set up about 1,200 GPS stations all over Japan to form the GPS Earth Observation Network(GEONET), which it uses to monitor and analyze crustal movements based on regular fieldmeasurement data. These observation data are shared with relevant organizations.
As soon as an earthquake occurs in or around Japan, the JMA analyzes the data fromvarious seismometers and seismic intensity meters. Within about two minutes, it issues a "seismic
intensity information" report for earthquakes of intensity 3 or greater, and within five minutes
issues an "earthquake information" report indicating the hypocenter and magnitude of theearthquake, and the seismic intensity in the municipalities where strong shaking was observed.

Figure 8: Flow of issuance of information about tsunami and earthquake in Japan (JMA)10

Tsunami Warnings/Advisories, Tsunami Information in JapanJMA issues Major Tsunami Warnings, Tsunami Warnings and/or Tsunami Advisories forindividual regions based on estimated tsunami heights within around three minutes of the quake.
It subsequently provides information on estimated wave arrival times and heights for relevant
forecast regions and data on high-tide times and estimated arrival times for selected points.
Immediately after an earthquake, JMA estimates its location, magnitude and the related tsunami
risk. However, it takes time to determine the exact scale of earthquakes with a magnitude of 8 ormore. In such cases, JMA issues an initial warning based on the predefined maximum magnitude
to avoid underestimation. When such values are used, estimated maximum tsunami heights are
expressed in qualitative terms such as "Huge" and "High" rather than as quantitative expressions.
Once the exact magnitude is determined, JMA updates the warning with quantitatively estimatedmaximum tsunami heights, which are included in subsequent tsunami information.
Categories

Major
TsunamiWarning*

TsunamiWarning

Criteria

Estimatedmaximumtsunamiheightsin
Tsunami Information
Quantitative Qualitative
expression
expression
TsunamiOver 10m
Hugeheight is(10m –)
expected
10m
tobe(5m – 10m)
greaterthan
35m
meters(3m – 5m)
Tsunamiheight is
expected
to be up to
3 meters.

3m(1m – 3m)

Expected damage and action to betaken

A tsunami of this scale is expected tocause serious damage. Woodenbuildings will be completely destroyed
and/or washed away, and people will
be caught in tsunami currents.
Evacuate immediately to a safer placesuch as high ground or an evacuationbuilding.

High

A tsunami of this scale is expected tocause damage in low-lying areas.
Wooden buildings will be flooded andpeople will be caught in tsunami
currents. Evacuate immediately to asafer place such as high ground or an
evacuation building.
TsunamiTsunami1m
N/A
A tsunami of this scale is expected to
Advisoryheight is (0.2m – 1m)
result in people being caught in strong
expected
currents in the sea. Fish farming
to be up to
facilities will be washed away and small
1 meter.
vessels will capsize. Get out of thewater and leave coastal regions
immediately.
* Major Tsunami Warnings are issued in the classification of Emergency Warnings
Source: https://www.jma.go.jp/jma/kishou/books/jishintsunami/en/jishintsunami_en.pdf

11

OBJECTIVE

Objective of this study are:i.

To study the Earthquake and Tsunami Early Warning System in Japan Meteorology Agency(JMA)

ii. To compare Standard Operation Procedure (SOP) used by JMA and MMD in disseminationof earthquake and tsunami warning information.
iii. To improve MMD Standard Operation Procedure (SOP) in dissemination of earthquake andtsunami warning information.

METHODOLOGY

The research study is based on qualitative research methods. Information about earthquake andtsunami early warning system gather from field visits, discussions and lectures to analyze thepractices and policies. I also have interviews for collecting data on individuals’ personal histories,
perspectives, and experiences such as meet with JMA officer. The discussions and lecture withvarious government officials and disaster management experts was conducted during thisprogramme and give information about this research study. Information also gather from JMA
and MMD official website.

Figure 9: Visiting Researcher visited Japan Meteorological Agency in Tokyo
12

Figure 10: Visiting Researcher visited the Japan Meteorological Agency Kobe Office

Figure 11: Device for reading Seismic Intensity Meter
13

DISCUSSION

Observation Network for Earthquake/ Tsunami Monitoring in Japan and Malaysia
Table 1.0 shows comparison between Observation Network for Earthquake/ Tsunami
Monitoring in Japan and Malaysia. This is appropriate because Japan more prone to earthquake
and tsunami compare to Malaysia. Population in Japan almost four times compared to Malaysia
where is the total population in Malaysia is about 32.0 million (https://www.dosm.gov.my) and
the
total
population
in
Japan
is
about
126.4
million(https://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/jinsui/tsuki/index.html). Malaysian National Tsunami
Early Warning Center (MNTEWC) also set up three (3) buoys when established by end of 2005
in Andaman Sea (Rondo Island), South China Sea (Layang-layang Island) and Sulu Sea (Sipadan
Island). These buoys had to be disposed of with the approval of Cabinet due to several factors,
particularly the cost of maintenance and effectiveness and durability for long-term operations. This
study finds that the importance of Seismic Intensity Meter for early information when an
earthquake occurs and perhaps the government could consider for establishing at earthquake highrisk area.
Table 1.0: Observation Network for Earthquake/ Tsunami Monitoring in Japan and
Malaysia (Source: JMA and MMD)NETWORKJAPAN

MALAYSIA

Seismometer

Approx. 1700 stations

77 stations

Seismic Intensity Meters

Approx. 4374 stations

Not Available

Tide Gauge

Approx. 188 stations

16 stations

GPS Buoys and Ocean Approx. 240 stations
Bottom Tsunami Meters

Not Available

Strain Meters

Not Available

27 stations

Time of Issuance Earthquake and Tsunami Warning Information in Japan and Malaysia
Malaysia should improve Time of Issuance Earthquake and Tsunami Warning Information asshown in Table 2.0 there are about three (3) to five (5) minute late compare to Japan. Figure 12
and 13 show example of Shake Map issued by MMD and example of Seismic Intensity Map issued
by JMA.
Japan also has Earthquake Early Warning (EEW) system which is capable of issuingearthquake warning/forecast within several to over ten seconds. Warnings are disseminated widely
through various media such as TV and cellular phones to help people protect themselves fromstrong shaking. Forecasts are issued with lower criteria and used for countermeasures against
shaking, such as automatic equipment control in which trains are slowed down and factory lines
are controlled before shaking starts.
14

Table 2.0: Time of Issuance Earthquake and Tsunami Warning Information in Japan and
Malaysia (Source: JMA and MMD)INFORMATIONJAPAN

MALAYSIA

Seismic Intensity / Shake 1.5 to 2 minutes
Map

Within 8 minutes
earthquake detected

afterEarthquake

Within 5 minutes

Within 8 minutes
earthquake detected

after

Tsunami Warning

2 to 3 minutes

Within 8 minutes
earthquake detected

afterEarthquake Early Warning

Several to over ten seconds

Not Available

Figure 12: Example of Shake Map issued by MMD
15

Earthquake Information (Earthquake and Seismic Intensity Information)
Issued at 06:54 JST 09 Nov 2018

Occurred at (JST)

Latitude(degree)Longitude(degree)

Depth

Magnitude

Region Name

06:51 JST 09 Nov 2018

Figure 13: Example of Seismic Intensity Map issued by JMA

Categories of Tsunami Warning in Japan and Malaysia
Japan have decided four (4) categories of Tsunami Warning and Malaysia only three (3) categories
as shown in Figure 14. The differences are Japan have “Major Tsunami Warning”. This category
was introduced on 30 August 2013 (JMA) after lesson learned from the major tsunami caused by
the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake. When “Major Tsunami Warning” was issued, immediate
action should be taken to protect life. In Malaysia, MNTEWC never have experiences issues
Tsunami Warning.

16

JAPANMALAYSIA• Major Tsunami Warning• Tsunami Warning• Tsunami Advisory• Tsunami Cancellation• Tsunami Warning• Tsunami Advisory• Tsunami Cancellation/
Termination

Figure 14: Categories of Tsunami Warning in Japan and Malaysia

Dissemination of Earthquake and Tsunami Warning Information in Japan and Malaysia
In Japan, the earthquake and tsunami warning information issued by the JMA will be automaticallytransmitted to the public via prefectures, municipalities, relevant organizations and media as shownin Figure 15. Municipalities also take responsible for issues evacuation advisory or warning. A little
bit contrast to Malaysia, earthquake and tsunami warning information issued by the MMD topublic not through municipalities as shown in Figure 16. Figure 17 show siren tsunami operated
by MMD for tsunami warning dissemination.

Figure 15: Dissemination of Disaster Mitigation Information in Japan17

Malaysia Control Centre

Malaysian Meteorological
Department (MMD)

National DisasterCommand Centre
Civil Defence
Mobile Phone Text
Messaging

PublicTV/ Radio

WebsiteSocial Media (Facebook,
Twitter & Instagram)
Siren Tsunami

Figure 16: Dissemination of Earthquake and Tsunami Warning Information in Malaysia

Figure 17: Siren Tsunami Operated by MMD for Tsunami Warning Dissemination
18

CONCLUSION

Japan is country prone to earthquake and tsunami threats, therefore Japan has established Early
Warning System by using the latest technology and proven can reducing the risk of disaster. In
Malaysia, the tsunami warning system installed nationwide is sufficient to give early warning on
tsunami. MMD need to improved time for issuance earthquake information.
Because tsunami not that common disaster in Malaysia, tsunami early warning system can be
combined with other type hazards to give information to many people such as the tsunami sirenis also used to inform for high tide, lightning, heavy rain, flood and so forth.
Cooperation of local or state authorities is important in enhancing understanding of the early
warning system. They should be organizing public awareness activities on disasters more often incollaboration with MMD and other agencies, NGO and etc.
The effort to manage disaster risks is not meant to deal with the catastrophic situation alone but it
involves efforts to increase the resilience of the community to deal with it. In this context, the cooperation of all parties is crucial to minimize the risk. An effective early warning system capable
reduce death and destruction of property. Therefore, education on disaster management is one of
the important aspects that must be applied to all Malaysians.

19

REFERENCES

Academy of Sciences Malaysia (ASM), 2009, Seismic and Tsunami Hazards and Risks Study in
Malaysia, Malaysia.
Cabinet Office Japan, 2018, White Paper Disaster Management in Japan 2018
Cabinet Office Japan, 2017, White Paper Disaster Management in Japan 2017
Peraturan Tetap operasi (PTO) Pemantauan dan pengeluaran Maklumat Gempa Bumi danamaran Tsunami, Jabatan Meteorologi Malaysia updated on 13 Mac 2018https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/tectonic/images/japan_tsum.pdf
https://www.jma.go.jp/jma/kishou/books/jishintsunami/en/jishintsunami_en.pdf
https://www.dosm.gov.my
https://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/jinsui/tsuki/index.html
http://www.met.gov.my/
http://mygempa.met.gov.my
http://www.soumu.go.jp/main_content/000295102.pdf
https://www.data.jma.go.jp/svd/eqev/data/monitor/index.html

20

APPENDIX

Source: Malaysian Meteorological Department (MMD)21

Source: Malaysian Meteorological Department (MMD)22

Source: Malaysian Meteorological Department (MMD)23

Source: Malaysian Meteorological Department (MMD)24

(53 Location: Malay Peninsula - 33, Labuan - 1, Sabah - 16 & Sarawak - 3)

Location of Siren Tsunami in Malaysia
Source: Malaysian Meteorological Department (MMD)25

Source: https://www.jma.go.jp/jma/kishou/books/jishintsunami/en/jishintsunami_en.pdf

26

Source: https://www.jma.go.jp/jma/kishou/books/jishintsunami/en/jishintsunami_en.pdf

27

Source: https://www.jma.go.jp/jma/kishou/books/jishintsunami/en/jishintsunami_en.pdf

28

Source: https://www.jma.go.jp/jma/kishou/books/jishintsunami/en/jishintsunami_en.pdf

29