Chapter

2

Transportation andland use
Akinori Morimoto
Professor, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University

2.1

The relationship between land use and transportation

Understanding the relationship between land use and transportation is extremely important for designing a prosperous and safe transportation society.1)
Land use and transportation are
Land-use planning
Transportation planning
Changes in traffic demandinterdependent, similar to a chicken-andUrban activities
Transportation activities(residential and industrial)(commuting, shopping)egg relation. Effective utilization of land
stimulates urban activities, and roads andChanges inChanges intransportation services
land useother transportation facilities are mainUrban facilities
Transportation facilities
tained so as to allow for new transporta(urban(road, rail)
development)
Changes in mobility
tion-related activity. Creating new roads
or expanding existing ones increases the
Figure 1. Relation between land use and traffic planning
attractiveness of the land they passthrough, promoting new urban facilities. When cities are growing slowly, it is easy for land utilizationand traffic planning to match pace. In times of rapid economic growth, however, demand for land use
accelerates and development of transportation facilities may be unable to keep up. Many cities experiencing a high degree of economic growth will therefore experience heavy congestion and other transportation problems.
How can the best balance be maintained between land use and transportation? Japan experienced aperiod of rapid motorization, a time during which it was impossible to keep up with demands for road
expansion and other transportation facility development, and therefore implemented policies to regulatetransportation demand itself. Such policies are called transportation demand management (TDM).
Examples of TDM include changing peak demand times and shifting demand to other modes of transportation, thereby enabling existing roads to be utilized to the fullest extent possible.
An even more fundamental approach is promoting optimal land use. For example, when transportation facilities are poor, the floor area ratio can be kept low and then the ratio can be increased according to the progress of transportation infrastructure development. Efforts can thus be made to achieve aChapter 2: Transportation and land use｜23

balance. Long-term sustainability should also be considered by altering the urban structure itself. For
example, transportation demands that are concentrated in downtown areas can be dispersed to city subcenters and core cities, thereby relieving congestion and promoting development of a more balanced city
overall. Such efforts in Tokyo and other large cities have been implemented as the construction of multipolar, distributed urban structures. The Third National Capital Region Development Plan (1976), forexample, recommends a more wide-area, multipolar distribution to correct Japan’s over-concentration
on Tokyo, and the follow-up Fourth Development Plan (1986) suggests prioritizing development ofbusiness core cities and secondary core cities with the goal of creating a more multi-zonal, multi-nuclear
urban structure.
There are differences in the emphasis placed on transportation problems such as congestion, noise,
and air pollution, depending on the region and era. Having entered the 21st century, the traffic problems
currently facing Japan, such as adapting to becoming a super-aged society and addressing global environmental issues, reflect increasingly long-term, wide-area considerations. However, even for such newproblems, considering land use and transportation planning over time can lead to finding solutions to avariety of transportation problems so as to meet the needs of the future.
What kind of urban structure should be aimed for, and by what method should such an urban
structure be developed? What kind of transportation facilities will be emphasized at that time? Howshould the remaining localized congestion be addressed? In this section, how developed countries are
addressing such issues is examined in order to learn about four keywords necessary in urban development for the next generation.

2.2

Compact cities

2.2.1 Why are compact cities needed?
The question of how to plan and aggregate urban areas that have expanded with the progress of motorization so that they can be converted to sustainable cities is a significant problem that faces mature societies. In Japan, which has entered an era of population decline, intelligent reduction in the scale of now
unneeded urban areas (“smart shrinking”) has become an urgent task. In the Second Report of the Panelon Infrastructure Development (2007), the following problems may arise when the structure of diffuse
cities is left unaddressed:• Difficulty in maintaining public transportation: It is difficult to ensure demand for public transportation in low-density cities.
• Problems with transportation in a super-aged society: There will be an increased number oftransportation-disadvantaged individuals who cannot operate automobiles.
• Increased environmental load: Excessive reliance on automobiles increases environmental load.
• Further decline of central urban areas: Promotion of suburban development causes a relative
decline in the attractiveness of urban areas within cities.

24｜Theory• Pressures on municipal finances: Increased maintenance costs of expanded urban areas.
Even in developing countries experiencing economic growth, inducing urban structures that areappropriate to periods of population increase is important for avoiding problems seen in developed
countries.
2.2.2 What is a compact city?
A compact city is one in which functions
required for daily life are aggregated in
the city center, and one with a maintainable city structure that retains an appropriate population density while remaining resident-friendly and environmentally

Green space

Green space

Attractive inner cities

Public transportation

Public transportation

friendly. In periods of population growth
Urban sprawl
there is a tendency for urban areas toGreen space expansion
encroach on green spaces, while in periFigure 2. Smart shrink
ods of population decline there is a tendency for green space to expand into urban areas. It is hoped that this will lead to an appropriate scale
reduction of the city itself. In particular, it is important that aggregation along public transportationlines strikes a proper balance between the use of automobiles and public transportation.
2.2.3 Proposal for network-type compact cities
Compact cities first attracted attention when they were proposed in the 1987 Brundtland Report as anurban model for sustainable development. Such cities aim at an environment that promotes public transportation and walking, and avoids over-reliance on privately owned automobiles. However, it isextremely difficult for cities to aggregate once they have expanded, and although local governments may
establish urban planning master plans as goals, achieving
such goals requires a longtime. Escape from low-density, automobile-oriented
urban structures cannot be
achieved without further
urban planning that features
public transportation as itscore. Here, we propose the“network-type compact city,”2)
based on transit-oriented
development (TOD), which is

Garden city theory (1898):
United Kingdom

Neighborhoods Theory(1924): USA
New Town policy of theUnited Kingdom (1950s–)“Shining city”
J. Jacobs(1961)

Edge City / New Town Development

Sustainable Community

1987 U.N. Brundtland Commission Reporton Sustainable Development
Calthorpe’s TOD(1980s)1973 Dantzig
compact city
(circular cities)

Compact City

Network-type compact city

Figure 3. A genealogy of network-type compact cities

Chapter 2: Transportation and land use｜25

described below.
A network-type compact city is one in which thevarious attractive features of the city are aggregated(compacted) in multiple areas that are connected (net-

Urban hubExpressway
Local traffic routeworked) by various modes of transportation, with afocus on highly convenient public transportation. Fig-

Urban hub

Hub

ure 4 shows the structure of such a city. In this context, the word “compact” does not necessarily mean
concentration at a single point but rather efficient
aggregation over multiple hubs. One feature of network-type compact cities is that they have disaster

Hub
Regional railway

Figure 4. A network-type compact city

resilience. Ensuring redundancy through the interconnection of multiple hubs of aggregation means that even if one part of the city is affected by a disaster,resilience of the city overall is increased because other areas can flexibly participate in recovery efforts.

2.3

Transit-oriented development (TOD)

2.3.1 The pros and cons of automobile-dependent city development
In times of rapidly increasing urban population, cities suffer from shortages of residential areas, whichleads to the development of many large-scale suburbs. Railway lines are often developed in large suburban cities, and further increase with the expansion of public transportation networks. Very different
from the development of regional cities, the development of suburbs is often done regardless of the convenience of public transportation, greatly increasing reliance on automobiles. Furthermore, commercial
development often occurs on the assumption of high automobile utilization, resulting in continued
development in areas along suburban bypass routes, spurring the decline of central urban areas.
The automobile is indeed a comfortable and convenient mode of transportation, but over-reliance
on automobiles detracts from other modes of transportation, and leads to the building of a society thatis unfriendly toward transportation-disadvantaged
residents who do not own an automobile. Learningfrom this, developed countries are turning their attention toward urban planning that focuses on public
transportation.
2.3.2 What is TOD?
TOD means urban development that is centered on
public transportation and avoids over-reliance on
automobiles. Its fundamental concepts were proposedin the 1980s by Calthorpe, but precursors to thisFigure 5. Conceptual diagram of TOD(P. Calthorpe)3)

26｜Theory

concept can be seen in Japan in the development ofareas around train stations, promoted by private railway companies since before World War II. Such development aimed at city planning in which commercial,industrial, and residential functions were situated in
an area within 600 m from train stations, allowing awalking-based lifestyle.4)
TOD is performed with an emphasis on threeimportant elements, called the three D’s: 5)
Figure 6. San Francisco (Fruitvale Transit Village)

Density: Maintenance of public transportation
requires ensuring a certain degree of population density. That degree will vary somewhat depending on regional characteristics, but in general planning should ensure that population density does
not go below 40 persons per hectare.
Diversity: It is important that commercial, medical, welfare, and other public functions be aggregated around train stations, so that basic life activities can be performed within walking distance.
Design: Good spatial design is vital to inducing land use. Attractive spaces have an effect on how
people choose where to live.
2.3.3 Urban area aggregation through implementation of TOD
Cities are connected with other cities
by rapid rail systems and other forms
Expressway
Road usageof high-speed public transportation,and the downtown areas of those cities are connected to their suburbs bylight rail transit (LRT) and bus rapid

Personal vehicle
BicycleNext-generation vehicles

els of public transportation service in

Fixed service area
Highways

TOD
Existing bus
LRT

Residential roads

transit (BRT) systems, thus providing
public transportation that is bothpunctual and fast. TOD is mainly
implemented along such public transportation routes.6) Providing high lev-

Railways

BRT

Public transport use
LRT, BRT, DRT

Expressway
High-speed trains

Variable service area

Figure 7. Urban space design implementing TOD

such areas over a long period of time and in a punctual manner promotes urban aggregation. In contrast, in suburban areas experiencing population decline, variable public transportation systems such as
demand response transit (DRT) are implemented.
Transportation-disadvantaged residents such as the elderly are encouraged to live in TOD areas,
while large families who most greatly benefit from the utility of automobiles are encouraged to raise
their children in the green-rich areas of the suburbs. Selection of residential areas according to lifestylethus allows for urban planning that best accommodates all generations.

Chapter 2: Transportation and land use｜27

2.4

Next-generation public transportation systems

2.4.1 Reconstruction of the hierarchical nature of urban transport
In many regional areas, trends toward excessive
reliance on automobiles have led to cities inwhich the only means of transport in and outof the city is by automobile. This has led to sig-

Hierarchical nature of urban transportation
High-speed movement

SubwaysWithin-city movement
Highways LRT, BRT
Main bus routes

nificant destruction of the traditional hierarchical nature of urban transport, such as
through-traffic encroaching into residential
areas and bus companies being forced to closeroutes. Development of a society that is environmentally friendly and compatible with asuper-aged society requires the urgent recon-

Inter-city movement

Expressways High-speed trains
Railways

Low-speed movement

Community buses
Residential roads Demand buses
Taxis

Automobiles

Inter-district
movement

Publictransportation

Figure 8. Hierarchical nature of urban transportation

struction of a transportation system that does not rely on automobiles alone.
Desirable next-generation transportation systems must strike a balance between automobiles andpublic transportation, through a hierarchical differentiation of transportation functions. Considering
automobile traffic, this hierarchy forms a pyramid with highways that maximize traffic functionality at
the top and highly accessible nearby residential roads at the bottom. Similarly, with regards to public
transportation the pyramid has rapid rail transit that allows high-speed movement between cities at the
top and community-level bus services that allow movement between districts at the bottom. As one
works toward the bottom of the pyramid, transportation speed decreases while flexibility of service
increases.
2.4.2 Functionality of next-generation public transportation systems
Revitalizing public transportation systems in cities in decline will require improving comfort and convenience. To that end, the following functions are required:
Punctuality: The system should not be affected by traffic congestion, such as through the use of
traffic lanes dedicated to public transportation.
Comfort: Transportation should be elderly-friendly, for example, by having little vibration andbeing barrier-free.
Environmentally friendly: The system should consume little energy, and minimize noise and pollutant emissions.
Attractiveness: Vehicles and pick-up locations should contribute to city planning by being suited
to the landscape.
The most important thing is that the system draws riders away from their automobiles and provides sufficient added value to alter land use along routes.

28｜Theory

2.4.3 LRT and BRT
Examples of public transportation systems that contain the above-mentioned functionality are nextgeneration LRT and BRT systems.
In contrast to heavy rail systems that provide transportation between cities, LRT systems provide
transportation within a city. In Japan, these often take the form of next-generation tram systems. They
are characterized by having improved functionality over older tram systems, being better integrated withother modes of transportation, and contributing to urban development by functioning as a comprehensive transportation system. The first LRT system was developed in Edmonton, Canada, in 1978. Since
then, LRT systems have been introduced in 111 cities (as of 2008) throughout the world.7)
BRT systems provide large-scale, rapid transport of passengers by bus. Unlike traditional bus
routes, these systems use dedicated traffic lanes to allow frequent and punctual service, which can insome situations improve transportation capacity through the use of articulated vehicles and allow forsmoother boarding at dedicated stops. Such systems are already in place in locations such as Ottawa(Canada), Curitiba (Brazil), and Bogota (Columbia).
A common feature between both systems is that they are introduced not as isolated methods oftransportation, but as one facet of a sustainable mobility system suited to next-generation cities. Such
attractive public transportation systems are expected to be effective at promoting better and more aggregated land use.

Figure 9. LRT in Houston

2.5

Figure 10. BRT in Curitiba

Large-scale development and transportation assessment

2.5.1 Traffic problems caused by large-scale development
In recent years, intensive land use and progress of the automobile society has brought about large-scale
development not only in cities but also in their suburbs. Traffic generated by new development isextremely heavy and has an effect over a wide area. The regions surrounding newly developed areas frequently already have a considerable amount of traffic demand, resulting in road congestion in someareas, so new developments have a high risk of further intensifying congestion, accidents, pollution, andother transportation-related problems. So what methods are there for easing chronic traffic congestion,

Chapter 2: Transportation and land use｜29

while still maintaining a balance between land use and transportation? This section describes one basic
method, traffic assessment for large-scale development.
2.5.2 What is a trafﬁc assessment?
Traffic impact assessments, or simply traffic assessments, are a method and system for assessing in
advance the effects of development plans on transportation in order to implement traffic policy from theperspective of harmonizing land use and transportation.
In a broad sense, traffic assessment is a macro-level approach for controlling land use patterns, density, and urban traffic master plans. In a more narrow sense, it can be applied as a micro-, district-levelapproach, which in Japan has been implemented for development exceeding a certain scale by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport’s “Large-scale Development District-related Traffic Planning
Manual,” by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry’s “Large-Scale Retail Stores Location Law,”
and by public safety commissions or traffic administrators’ “prior traffic measures”. Generally speaking,“transportation assessment” refers to the narrower definition.8)
2.5.3 Proper provision of parking lots for areas of large-scale development
When performing large-scale development, it is necessary to provide adequate parking that is commensurate with the traffic demand. For example, the Large-Scale Retail Stores Location Law requires that aperson who establishes large retail stores secure an adequate number of parking spaces.
The number of necessary parking spaces is determined by using an equation that takes the numberof customers, peak ratio, car ownership ratio, parking lot usage time, and other factors as parameters. It
is important to verify at the development assessment stage that an appropriate number of parking spaces
will be available.
X =A×S×B×C×E
D

A: Number of daily customers by store floor space (persons/1000 m2)
S: Store floor space (1000 m2) B: Peak ratio (%)
C: Car ownership ratio (%)
D: Average number of car passengers (persons)
E: Average parking time coefficient

2.5.4 Trafﬁc simulations for large-scale development
It is extremely important in traffic assessment to grasp traffic conditions quantitatively and in detail.
Innovations in information technology since the1990s have resulted in dramatic improvements tocomputer processing capabilities, allowing
detailed, second-scale reproduction of traffic
conditions and visual representations as animations, including signal controls, traffic lane construction, and other aspects. As result, many traffic simulators have been developed andpractically implemented both in Japan (tiss-NET,

Figure 11. Traffic simulation screen

30｜Theory

AVENUE, TRAFFICSS, VISITOK, etc.)
and overseas (NETSIM, Pramics,
WATSim, etc.).
Developing traffic simulations
requires substantial time and effort, so
application conditions need to be pub-

Table 1. Conditions of the traffic simulations in Tochigi Prefecture
Peak arriving vehicles
200–600 vehicles (100vehicles per direction)
600 or more vehicles

Relation between lot shape and traffic
No risk of congestion
Risk of congestion
Not needed

NeededNeededlicly documented. Consideration of traffic simulations from early stages allows those wishing to open
stores to apply them to site selection. Table 1 shows the implementation conditions for a traffic simulation performed in Tochigi prefecture.
From these results, merchants, road managers, and traffic control personnel can consider the effectsof congestion reduction policies before the establishment of large-scale stores. Note that there are many
significant effects of large-scale development, and in situations where mitigation measures are difficult
through transportation facility development, reconsideration of site selection for large-scale development may become necessary.9)

References
1) Sugiyama, Masahiro, Sotaro Kunihisa, Mitsuyuki Asano, and Hirohito Kuse, eds. 2003. Asu no toshi kotsu seisaku [TheFuture of Urban Transport Policy]. Seibundo Publishing. (in Japanese)2) Morimoto, A. 2012. “A preliminary proposal for urban and transportation planning in response to the Great East Japan
Earthquake.” IATSS Research Vol. 36, No. 1: 20–23.
3) Calthorpe, Peter. 1993. The Next American Metropolis: Ecology, Community, and the American Dream. Princeton Architectural Press.
4) Transit Cooperative Research Program. 2004. TCRP Report 102, Transit-Oriented Development in the United States: Experiences, Challenges, and Prospects. Transportation Research Board.
5) Developing Around Transit: Strategies and Solutions That Work. ULI (the Urban Land Institute). 2004.
6) Hayashi, Yoshitsugu, Kenji Doi, Hirokazu Kato, and International Association of Traffic and Safety Sciences, eds. 2009. Toshi
no kuoritei sutokku: Tochi riyo, ryokuchi, kotsu no togo senryaku [Quality Stock of Cities: Integrated strategy of land use,green space and transportation]. Kajima Institute Publishing. (in Japanese)
7) “Special Supplement: Challenges and Visions for Implementing Light Rail Transit in Japan.” IATSS Review Vol. 34, No. 2.
2009. (in Japanese)
8) Kotsu asesumento ni kansuru chosa hokoku sho [Investigation Research Report on Transportation Assessment]. International
Association of Traffic and Safety Sciences. March 2001. (in Japanese)
9) Seki, Tatsuya, and Akinori Morimoto. 2010. “Daikibokaihatsu ni okeru kotsu asesumento no seiri to kongo no tenbo” [AReview of Traffic Impact Assessment in Japan]. Journal of JSCE(D) Vol. 66, No. 2: 255–268. (in Japanese)
Recommended Reading
1) Randall, Thomas, ed. 2003. Sustainable Urban Design: An Environmental Approach. Spon Press.
2) Jenks, Mike, Elizabeth Burton, and Katie Williams, eds. 1996. The Compact City: A Sustainable Urban Form? Taylor &Francis.
3) Site Impact Traffic Assessment: Problems and Solutions, Proceedings of the Conference, Chicago. The American Society of Civil
Engineering. 1992.
4) Transportation Impact Analyses for Site Development. Institute of Transportation Engineers. 2006.
Practical application projects for reference
A land utilization framework and transportation system for declining population: 132–135
Urban development from parking lots considering inner-city parking density: 140–143