©UN WomenACTION BRIEF

GUIDANCE FOR ACTION: ADDRESSINGTHE EMERGING IMPACTS OF THE
COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON MIGRANTWOMEN IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC FOR
A GENDER-RESPONSIVE RECOVERYBACKGROUNDThe COVID-19 pandemic will disproportionately affect women migrant workers across Asia and the Pacific,1
in particular those with irregular migration status. In normal circumstances, women migrant workers
already face various risks, including restrictive migration policies, insecure forms of labour, language barriers,
overcrowded living conditions, racism, xenophobia, lack of legal recognition, and undervaluation of theircontribution to social and economic development.2,3 Women migrant workers are also exposed to multiple
intersections of discrimination based on race, ethnicity, nationality, age, migration status or other sex- or
gender-associated characteristics. The surge in COVID-19 cases is causing sudden travel restrictions and otherpolicy changes that exacerbate these risks. This note mainly focuses on the emerging impacts of the COVID-19
pandemic on women migrant workers and recommendations to support governments, donors, civil society
organizations, employers and the private sector in addressing those impacts.
In the Asia-Pacific region, the number of migrant women increased by 48 percent from 23 million in 2000 to 43
million in 2017.4 Given the feminization of migration within Asia, in particular for domestic and care work in theinformal sector, women migrant workers are already more likely to work in insecure labour, under precarious
conditions.5 Globally, women make up 70 percent of front-line workers in the health and social sector, including
as nurses, midwives, cleaners and laundry workers, many of whom are migrant workers. The International
Labour Organization (ILO) predicts that, due to COVID-19, unemployment could rise globally by almost 25
million, with these estimates tremendously affecting women and migrants.6 It has been estimated that the1

outbreak could cost China’s migrant workers alone a combined USD 115 billion in lost wages.7 The loss of wages
caused by COVID-19 has substantial implications not only for women’s economic security but also for the wider
community, both in countries of origin and countries of destination. Women migrant workers have become
crucial agents in global survival circuits.5 Remittances are key for the survival of households and communities in
the region, with seven of the world’s top 10 remittance-receiving countries in the Asia-Pacific region according
to World Bank.8 Countries in the region rely on migrant domestic workers – more than 80 percent of whom are
women – to fill the care gap.9 At the same time, the economy of many countries of destination in the region
also relies on their migrant labourers. Research shows in 2018, migrant domestic workers contributed USD
12.6 billion to Hong Kong’s economy (3.6 percent of GDP), USD 8.2 billion in Singapore (2.4 percent of GDP),and USD 900 million in Malaysia (0.3 percent of GDP).6 This is in jeopardy as a result of the disruption causedby the COVID-19 outbreak.
With COVID-19 only just starting to emerge in the Pacific, less data is currently available on the impacts it ishaving on Pacific Island women migrant workers. However, countries such as New Zealand and Australia, which
employ Pacific Island women in fields such as domestic and care work and seasonal agricultural work, are starting
to close their borders to non-citizens.10 The ILO reports that in 2018 remittances amounted to USD 689 million
in Fiji, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu andVanuatu. Established issues for women migrant workers in the Pacific include lack of decent work and social
protection, high levels of gender-based violence, limited knowledge of their rights, weak employment contracts,
lack of avenues for addressing grievances and abuse such as trade unions, abusive working or living conditions,and low salaries, to name a few.11 Given that humanitarian crises often worsen these existing inequalities,
COVID-19 could further destabilize the already delicate system within which women migrant workers function.
In order to promote inclusive economic recovery, there is a need to integrate women migrant workers as rights
holders who are essential to the region’s sustainable development. Importantly, the whole society must cometogether for more assertive and collective efforts to ensure migrant-inclusive and gender-responsive measuresin preventing further spread of the virus. No one should be left behind - no matter who or where they are.

No migrants

No women

50.2% of 11.6 million migrant workers

in South-East Asia and the Pacific regions are
women. 12 COVID-19 will make them one of
the most vulnerable impacted groups as they
are discriminated against both as women andas migrants.

USD 300

Women are sending more thanbillionhome a year, which is half of global remittances.13
Due to COVID-19, many women migrant workers
are losing their jobs which will have ripple effects
for their families in their countries of origin.

As a result of COVID-19, globally unemployment could

25

rise by almost
million. This will make womenand migrant workers particularly vulnerable.142©UN Women/Piyavit Thongsa-Ard

KEY EMERGING ISSUESFREEDOM OF MOVEMENT• Travel bans, or restrictions such as requiringa health certificate, are impacting women
migrant workers who may need to return to theircountries of origin.15• Women migrant workers who are unable toreturn to work due to travel restrictions may
lose their livelihood.16 Given their limited accessto social protections, this will place a hugeeconomic burden on them. Some may decideagainst returning home for fear of not being able
to come back to work after the crisis.
• Women migrant workers, especially thoseworking in domestic and care work, are being
prohibited from attending any form of gathering
during their rest time, such as going to church,
because their employers are afraid that they
may bring the virus back to them.11, 17 In relation
to this, the imposed restrictions on mobility
may reduce women migrant workers’ access toessential support services and may increase their
exposure to violence.
• Local and national emergency measures may
impinge on the rights of migrants, especiallywomen. For example, a lockdown in Bangkok,
Thailand led to mass migration of migrant

workers to other provinces and back acrossborders to Cambodia, Lao PDR and Myanmar. 18, 19This is potentially fuelling transmission anddriving the outbreak into areas with lesspreparedness and capacity to respond. This
increasingly puts both women migrant workers
and women who live in these areas at risk of
exposure, with the possibility of limited accessto treatment and services.
• The impacts of lockdowns could violate
the human rights for the affected migrant
populations, especially women and girls as theylack protection and basic needs e.g. shelter,
health, and food.20, 21
T ERMINATION, EXPIRY AND RENEWAL OF
CONTRACTS• Several reports are indicating that women migrant
workers in some sectors are losing their jobs inlarge numbers following increasing closures ofbusinesses and restricted mobility.3, 22, 23• Contracts are being terminated and demandis dropping due to employer fears, closing or
relocation. This leaves many women migrant
workers in limbo regarding their visa, employment,
and housing, and unable to seek due compensation
as services are stretched or unavailable as aconsequence of the outbreak.12, 24
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SOCIAL PROTECTION AND INSURANCE• Migrant women often do not have access togender-responsive social protection mechanisms
such as maternity protection, sexual andreproductive health care and other benefits. This isparticularly the case for those working in informal
employment, especially domestic service and thecare sector. In the situation of COVID-19, women
migrant workers could face more difficulties inaccessing social protection due to tightened
travel and movement restriction, as well as stigma
around the perceived risk of contagion.
• Women migrant workers already face barriersin accessing adequate health care services,
including for routine health services such as
sexual and reproductive health. With regards to
COVID-19, they may face high costs of testing
and treatment, and may have difficulty reaching
diagnostic and service locations.25• Existing legal services and emergency shelters for
women migrant workers experiencing violence
are operating with limited capacity or have closed
down or repurposed due to COVID-19 related
measures and impacts.
• There is a lack of preventive or mitigating
measures including migrant health insurance.26
Compounding the vulnerability this brings isa lack of emergency and back up measures
to protect the rights of migrant workers inemergency situations, such as those who areforced to leave the household or do not haveprivate accommodation, or those who are put
at increased risk of debt by the health crisis.27• Women migrant workers with irregular migration
status may be hesitant to comply with COVID-19
screening, testing and treatment procedures due
to several factors. One may be fear of having
their documentation checked and risking fines,
detention or deportation.28 Another is the fear of
losing their livelihood, or the stigma of a positive
test for COVID-19. [Link: Policy Brief on Access toSocial Protection for All Migrant Women]
WORKING AND LIVING CONDITIONS• Women migrant workers in domestic work, carework, construction, agriculture, factory workand hospitality are unable to telecommute.
The nature of their work may also put them atincreased risk of exposure to COVID-19.16, 29• Proposed COVID-19 prevention and mitigation
strategies, such as isolation, social distancing andregular handwashing, may not be feasible for thoseliving in informal settlements, refugee camps, andlabour accommodation compounds which areoften overcrowded, with poor ventilation andlimited access to gender-responsive water, hygiene
and sanitation facilities. This should include,for example, women-friendly bathrooms with
provisions for menstrual hygiene management,
located in safe and well-lit areas, and well-sitedwater collection points. Given that women
migrant workers often live in poor conditions andoften bear additional domestic responsibilities
related to water and sanitation activities suchas walking for a long distance to collect water
for their families for drinking, bathing, cooking,and other household needs, the nature of theirliving conditions may put them at increased riskof exposure.20,30
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY• Women migrant workers with irregular status
or in informal employment are often less able
to avail themselves of their rights during the
pandemic. It can be hard for them to request
leave, access personal protective equipment(PPE), work from home, or make other flexible
arrangements.13,14,31• Women migrant workers who work in sectorsthat require them to have physical contact withother people may have limited access toprecautionary measures including hand-washingfacilities, hand sanitizers, and PPE.13
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN• During emergencies, rates of gender-based
violence including domestic violence increase. Thisis well documented from previous emergencies
and pandemics. Following travel and movement
restrictions and/or sudden loss of employment,
migrant women may be forced to spend moretime with a potential perpetrator and may not
be able to leave abusive relationships.32• Levels of gender-based violence spike whenhouseholds are placed under the increased strainsthat come from security, health and money worries,
and cramped and confined living conditions.
This is frequently observed among displaced
populations in crowded refugee camps, as wellas in internally displaced persons settlements andlabour accommodation camps. Reported casesof domestic violence has tripled recently in somecountries practising social distancing.33
4• There is an increased risk of abuse and exploitationof women migrant workers, particularly whenfemale migrant domestic workers are made towork on their day off following government
orders to stay inside. In addition to that, they may
also face higher risk of violence at the hands oftheir employer as a result of increased isolation
and reduced mobility, and additional barriers inaccessing support services.

• There is an increased risk of sexual exploitationand violence by state officials and armed guards
abusing their power over women who are
returning or have irregular migration status.34• During emergencies such as the COVID-19
outbreak, migrant women affected by violence
could face more difficulties in accessing essential
services, including critical and life-saving health,psychosocial care, police and justice or social
services, due to barriers such as language,availability, or concerns for their migration status.

KEY RECOMMENDATIONSFOR GOVERNMENTS

	Governments in countries of destination and countries of origin should
provide all migrant populations including women, men, girls and boys
irrespective of their migration status the full protection of their humanrights during the COVID-19 crisis and beyond, without prejudice anddiscrimination and in compliance with international law.
	Governments in countries of destination should support disaggregateddata collection (disaggregated by age, sex, disability and other factors)
and gender analysis to understand the gendered impacts of the outbreakamongst migrants.
	Governments in countries of destination should ensure that all migrant
workers, women, men, and persons of diverse gender identities areincluded in national and local crisis response plans to the full protectionof the labour law, with access to the same treatments as nationals acrossall sectors of work, in line with international standards.
	Governments in countries of origin and recruitment agencies should work
together to ensure accountability regarding employment conditions ofworkers during the COVID-19 pandemic through the use of joint andseveral liability in employment contracts signed before departure.
	Concerning gender-based violence that could rise during the pandemic,
governments should work together with civil society organizations toensure service directories are updated and effective referral pathwaysfor essential services (including healthcare, policing and justice services,
psychosocial support, reporting and complaints mechanisms, and othernecessary support) are available and accessible to migrant women andgirls, regardless of their migration status.

5	Governments in countries of destination and countries of origin shouldmake arrangements for the dignified and safe repatriation of all
migrant detainees in immigration detention centres, in compliancewith international laws with technical support and monitoring by
the International Organization for Migration (IOM) to reduce the riskof transmission.
	Governments in countries of destination should not deport, detain orarrest migrants with irregular status coming forward for screening,
testing and treatment measures in order to control the spread of the
COVID-19.
	In response to increasing impacts of the outbreak in areas with inadequate
resources for normal prevention and mitigation strategies, such as in
informal settlements, governments and civil society organizations shouldcollaborate to implement gender-responsive interventions including
provision of essential emergency needs such as food, medical treatment,
and water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) including sanitary products
for migrant populations, especially women and girls.

FOR DEVELOPMENTPARTNERSFOR CIVIL SOCIETY
ORGANISATIONS	Provide resources to development and humanitarian organizations
working towards protecting human rights of migrant populations todevelop rights-based and gender-responsive prevention, response,
and recovery programmes to address specific circumstances of migrant
populations, especially women and girls during and after the outbreak.
This may also include providing procedures in case of repurposing or
adapting existing projects to the changing situation where necessary
to ensure that organizations can make plans and execute appropriate
interventions responding to the emerging needs of migrant populations,especially women and girls.

	Collaborate with stakeholders including governments, development
agencies, recruitment agencies, and employers in all sectors to empower
women migrant workers during this pandemic by (1) ensuring thatthey are fully aware of precautionary and preventive measures against
COVID-19 and have access to timely and accurate information on local andnational response and potential impacts in a language they understandand (2) increasing their capacity to understand, negotiate, and report on
employment conditions and access to social protection, as relevant, inline with the protections guaranteed in national laws and international
mechanisms.
	Continue to monitor, advocate and offer collaboration with relevant
stakeholders in sharing knowledge, information, and tools for theprotection of human rights of migrant populations, which can be violated
during this time of ever-increasing controls on migration.

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FOR EMPLOYERS AND
THE PRIVATE SECTOR	Employers, individuals and agencies in all sectors in countries of destination
hiring migrant workers should ensure that they fulfil responsibilities ofdecent work and extend additional necessary support that is inclusiveand gender-responsive for their migrant workers and their families. This
may include providing flexible working arrangements, paid leave, housing
in case migrant workers have to self-quarantine, and supplying food, daily
essentials, and health care during the pandemic.
	Private sector companies in all sectors employing migrant labour within
their value chains need to provide gender-responsive prevention,
response, and recovery of COVID-19 measures. This includes recognizing
homes as new workplaces which requires special measures including
grievance mechanisms to address increased risks of domestic violence,
special flexible working arrangements, promoting shared-care giving
responsibilities and including special measures for all women, including
women migrant workers, across their supply chains.35 See specific
Guidance Note for Private Sector companies [Link: Guidance for Action:
Gender-Sensitive Private Sector Response to COVID-19 for Accelerated andInclusive Economic Recovery]	In response to the increasing impacts of the outbreak that may result in
sudden employment interruption, provide immediate economic relief toall workers, including migrant women and men, for income replacement
measures such as cash transfers, micro loans, and deferring existing
loan payments.

©UN Women/Pornvit Visitoran

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Contact:
Nansiri Iamsuk
Programme Specialist,
Migration Unit

UN Women Regional Officefor Asia and the PacificTel: +66 0812744332
Email: nansiri.iamsuk@unwomen.org

Learn more about the Women’s
Empowerment Principles (WEPs):

www.weps.org

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