ISSN 2436-584X

The JACET International Convention Proceedings:
The JACET 60th Commemorative International
Convention (Online, 2021)

English Language Education to Endure Changing Times:
Facing the Reality of Society 5.0

The JACET International Convention Proceedings:
The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention
English Language Education to Endure Changing Times:
Facing the Reality of Society 5.0
August 27th to 29th, 2021
Supported by The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology;
The Institute for International Business Communication;
Kindai University; Nagoya University of Foreign Studies

Publication Date: August 12th, 2021
Published by The Japan Association of College English Teachers (JACET)
E-mail: jacet@zb3.so-net.ne.jp
http://www.jacet.org/
Apart from the purposes of private study, research, criticism or review,no part may be reproduced by any means without written permission from the publisher.
Copyright © 2021 The Japan Association of College English Teachers (JACET)ISSN 2436-584X

Foreword

It is a great pleasure to present The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The
JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021). The
Proceedings include 135 papers from the screened and selected presentations.
The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention is held from August 27th to
29th, 2021, with the theme of “English Language Education to Endure Changing Times:
Facing the Reality of Society 5.0”. I believe that the Proceedings should offer
researchers and teachers exciting and productive avenues for further professional
development not only in Japan but also in Asia and the rest of the world.
On behalf of the Organizing Committee, I would like to express my appreciation to themany distinguished scholars who submitted their papers for the Proceedings. I am also
grateful to the editorial committee members, Norifumi Ueda, Madoka Kawano,
Yoshitaka Kato, Hiroshi Yamada, Hiroyuki Yamanishi, Timothy Phelan, Kyoko
Hosogoshi and Yuka Hidaka, who dedicated their efforts and energy toward the smooth
progression of the editorial works despite various constraints due to the ongoingpandemic.
Masaki Oda
President of JACET•

The manuscripts for the Proceedings were not peer-reviewed. Important corrections, however, wererequested of the authors by the Editorial Board before publication here.

•

Manuscripts (1) submitted within the deadline and (2) according to the official guidelines are publishedfirst. These are followed by manuscripts only containing an abstract.
Serial Number

J60CFP0046

AuthorFujimura-Wilson, Kayo A Textbook Analysis of Instruction on Hedging Use(invited)
J60CFP0054

Title

Page
1

in Academic Writing
Ueda, Hiroko(invited)

Analysis of National English Test Items in Japan for

5

Higher-Order Thinking Skills Using the Revised
Bloom’s Taxonomy

J60CFP0143

Matsuoka, Yaoko(invited)

Analyzing Japanese EFL Learners’ Stabilized

7

Pragmalinguistic Errors in the Use of Modals forSocial Interaction at the Online Forum Discussion

J60CFP0038

山本玲子(invited)
J60CFP0009

発音記号教材のオンライン授業における効果―

9

大学生の反応分析―
Igarashi, Yuko

Exploring Characteristics of EFL Textbooks in

11

International English
J60CFP0019

Hori, Yaeko

A Phenomenological Approach to Critical

13

Posthumanist Applied Linguistics Project ThroughTranslanguaging Perspectives
J60CFP0020

Zheng, Jianfeng

A Study of English Major Students’ Critical Thinking 15
Competence via the Reconstruction of Perspectives in
the Rewriting Activity

J60CFP0022

Yoshihara, Reiko

Curricular Impacts on Student Motivation: Listening

17

to Japanese University Students
J60CFP0023

Kanaoka, Masao

Seeking ‘Matured’ L2 Learning Style Mediated by

19

Spirituality, Character Forming, Public Philosophy:
Toward Authentic Self-Growth and ‘Well-Being’
English
J60CFP0024

Saito, Takaharu

Exploring Multiple Identities and Agency: A

21

Narrative Case Study of a Japanese Secondary
English Teacher
J60CFP0026

Kinch, Alexis Adina

Agile & Scrum Methodology: Professors as Scrum

23

Masters in EFL University Classrooms in Japan
J60CFP0029

Hashizaki, Ryotaro

Does Vocalization Enhance Verb-Noun Collocation
Learning?

25

J60CFP0031

Nakayama, Shusaku

Japanese EFL Learners’ Modal Auxiliary Verb Use

27

in Argumentative Essays: A Corpus-based Study
J60CFP0034

Uyama, Miki

Strengths and Weaknesses of NESTs and NNESTs:

29

Perceptions of Teachers in Japan
J60CFP0035

Feng, Qiuhua

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)

31

Application: Reading and Writing Pedagogical Tasks
and Scaffolding Strategies
J60CFP0037

Suemori, Saki

Teacher Motivation in Japanese Secondary Schools:

33

A Longitudinal Qualitative Study
J60CFP0040

Sakamoto, Yumiko

Why Does Japanese English Education Choose to35

Fail: The Fundamental Cause and the Secondary
CausesJ60CFP0041

Hammond, Mark

Developing a Corpus of YouTube How-to Videos:37

Investigating Spoken Procedural Monologues by
Native-Level Speakers of English
J60CFP0042
J60CFP0043

McDonald, Peter;

Utilizing Multimodality in Language Classrooms: A

39

Greenblatt, Philip

Teacher/Student Evaluation of a Multimodal Project

Matikainen, Tiina

Academic Writing Support for International Students: 41
Challenges and Triumphs

J60CFP0047

Yamazaki, Ken’ichi

The Effects of a Long-Term Speaking Training for

43

Japanese College Students in English Club: An
Introductory Examination of Extracurricular
Activities
J60CFP0048

Hatakeyama, Yukako

Peer-Review: Student Perceptions and Attitudes

45

Found from a Focus Group Interview
J60CFP0049

Miyasako, Nobuyoshi

How are University Students Engaged in Online

47

Courses for English Language Teacher Education?
J60CFP0050

Goto, Takaaki

Sharing Problems Effectively in Extensive Reading

49

J60CFP0051

Obari, Hiroyuki

Flipped EFL Learning and COIL During the51

COVID-19
J60CFP0052

J60CFP0053

Sakurai, Shizuka;

The Tohoku Method: A New Academic English

Spring, Ryan;

Curriculum at Tohoku University and its Preliminary

Takebayashi, Shuichi

Evaluation

Takahashi, Kazuko

Utilizing Stories in Elementary School English
Teaching: Reconsidering Questions in Authorized
English Textbooks

53

55

J60CFP0055

Chu, Curtis; Torii,

Communicating Across Cultures Online: Introducing

Yusukeand Comparing the Implementation of Three Virtual

57

Study Abroad Programs
J60CFP0059

Miyazato, Kyoko

An Online/Face-to-Face Hybrid Approach to

59

Intercultural Interactions in a Japanese Education
Major University Context
J60CFP0063

Leis, AdrianFirst-Year Junior High School Students’ Attitudes

61

Towards Studying English: A Self-Worth Perspective
J60CFP0064

Fujii, Satomi

Willingness to Communicate and Experiences of63

Successful and Unsuccessful Communication in
English: The Case of Japanese EFL Learners
J60CFP0066

Gayed, John Maurice

Human-Mediated AI Writing Assistance: A Case

65

Study With Japanese English Language Learners.
J60CFP0068

Olson, NateThe Potential of CLIL for Team Teaching: A Case

67

Study of a Japanese High School
J60CFP0071

McCrohan, Gerardine

Investigating Student Reticence in Self-Access

69

Center Usage
J60CFP0073

Isobe, Yasuyo

Do Voice Typing Tools Influence Learners’

71

Confidence in Their Own Production?
J60CFP0075

Matsuno, Sumie

Peer and Teacher Assessments Under the Zoom

73

Conference System
J60CFP0076

Maekawa, Yoko

Practice of Project Based English Courses for

75

University Students Through Zoom and Students’
Reactions
J60CFP0077

Kojima, Satsuki

CLIL Class in the University General Education

77

Classroom
J60CFP0078

Nall, Matthew

A Contemporary Analysis of Post-Reading

79

Comprehension Questions and Tasks in Popular
EFL/ESL Textbooks
J60CFP0079

Kosaki, Junko

Student Online Peer Review in a Japanese EFL

81

Setting: Writing Activities That Incorporate
Interprofessional Education Into Language Learning
J60CFP0082

Tojo, Kazuko;

Lecturing in English: A Comparative Study of

Kunioshi, Nilson

Lectures in Science and Engineering at American andJapanese Universities

83J60CFP0084

LIN, Ivy, Chu-Hui

Are Real-time Presentations More Effective Than

85

Asynchronous Video-Recorded Presentations for
Oral Output Training: An Action Research to Explore
Flipped Learning and Teaching
J60CFP0085

Sugimura, Ai;

Combining In-Class and Out-of-Class Practices in a

Takeoka, Saori; Des

Hybrid Class: A Descriptive Study of the

Marais, Eric

Presentation Support System for Developing English

87

Presentation Skills
J60CFP0086

Shimazu, Shigeko

Is Earlier Better for English Education?

89

J60CFP0087

Jones, Craig

Comparing the Orthographic and Phonological91

Vocabulary Knowledge of Japanese EFL University
Students
J60CFP0091

Cowie, Neil; Sakui,

Making Online Videos More Engaging for Students

93

Fujimura, Keiji; Ikuta,

How do Intercollegiate Zoom Conferences Impact

95

Yuko

Student Learning?

Knight, Kevin

Adapting the Teaching of Leadership

Keiko
J60CFP0096
J60CFP0100

97

Communication for Specific Purposes Online
J60CFP0102
J60CFP0103
J60CFP0105
J60CFP0106

Li, Xiaohong; Ng, Soo

Blended Learning Environment in College English atBoona Public University in China

Zhang, Yushan; Ng,

Cultural Identity and Its Influence on EFL Students'

Soo Boon

Language Proficiency at a Public University in China

Hu, Jianan; Ng, Soo

EFL Students’ Blended Learning Experiences

Boon

Through the Use of Dingtalk LMS

Koizumi, Yusa

Use of L1 in L2 Collaborative Writing: Does It Make

99
101
103
105

Any Difference to the Product or the Process?
J60CFP0107

Hosokawa, Hirofumi

Reflective Practice and Classroom Discourse

107

Development: A Pre-Service Teacher Training Studyin Japan
J60CFP0108

Konishi, Masae

Adaptation to a New Communication Mode for an

109

Online International Exchange Through Video
Chatting
J60CFP0112
J60CFP0118

Matsumura, Yuko;

Factors Predicting EFL Learners’ Perceived Success

Nakagawa, Hiroyoof Web-Based Distance Learning

Kato, Ayami;

The Impact of COVID-19 on Student Emotions andLandsberry, Lauren;

Resilience

Clark, Gretchen

111
113

J60CFP0120

Nicholas, Allan; Blake,

Identifying and Addressing Pragmatic Failure in a

John; Mozgovoy,

Learner Corpus of Request-Based Emails

115

Maxim
J60CFP0121

Fukuda, Tetsuya

Quadrant Representation of L2 Motivation and

117

School Belonging Over the First Year of University
Students
J60CFP0122

Schmidt, Maria

Foreign Language Education Reform Through Action 119

Gabriela; Birch,

Research: Putting CEFR Educational Principles into

Gregory; Bower, Jack

Practice

J60CFP0125

Walker, Michael

Online Theatre: A Learning Tool for EAP

121

J60CFP0129

Kobayashi, Chiho

Effects of Short-Term Study Abroad on Long-Term

123

Motivation
J60CFP0130

Ueda, Hiroko

Question Types in PISA 2018 and in MEXT

125

Approved English Textbooks: Japanese Education
Reform Resources
J60CFP0135

Ishikawa, Tomokazu

Reconceptualising Intercultural and Transcultural

127

Communicative Competence
J60CFP0136

Kawashima, Tomoyuki

Listening to Global Englishes: Some Pedagogical

129

Suggestions
J60CFP0137

Kawano, Madoka;

Effects of Moving From In-Person to Online: STEM

Elwood, James A.;

Majors and Poster Presentations

131

Shibasaki, Reijirou
J60CFP0139

Takahashi, Hiroshi

Towards an Expanded Research Paradigm for L2

133

Grammatical Metaphor: A Case of Japanese EFL
Learners’ Deployment of Nominalizations as
Incongruous Semiosis
J60CFP0142

Oda-Sheehan, Sanae

Autoethnography as a Reflective Tool to Explore

135

Integrative Approaches
J60CFP0148

Allen-Tamai, Mitsue

Developing an Effective English Literacy Program

137

for Public Elementary Schools Children
J60CFP0156

Toda, Hiroyuki

The Impact of Synchronous Online Foreign

139

Language Teaching on Student Satisfaction andMotivation
J60CFP0159

Collins, Peter J.;

Developmental Processes of Comprehension Depth

Suzuki, Hiroko;and Learner English as Revealed Through GroundedFujieda, Miho

Reading Activities

141

J60CFP0163

Clarke, Stephen;

A Critical Review of WordEngine: Analysing Its

Morrish, Jaime

Efficacy for Studying Vocabulary and Transferring

143

L2 Words to Long Term Memory
J60CFP0164

Park, Sujung

Exploring the Role of a Model on Korean Learners’

145

English Article Revisions and General Attention
Areas: Using a Picture-Based Narrative Writing Task
J60CFP0169

Bloedel, Maria

From Traditional Teaching to Self Learning: A New

147

Japanese School System
J60CFP0170

Shimada, Shonosuke

Corrective Feedback Acquisition: Important Keys to

149

Make the Training Beneficial
J60CFP0171

Naranjo-Escobar,

Accountability in Program Evaluation: A Theoretical

Francisco

Survey to Explore Practical Implications to151

Innovation and Curriculum Articulation
J60CFP0173

Koseki, Kimiko

Young Japanese University Graduates Desire

153

Pragmatic Instruction in University English Courses
J60CFP0174
J60CFP0178

binti Azman Firdaus,

The Role of Language to Achieve the Sustainable

Aliyyah Nuha Faiqah

Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) in Malaysia and Japan

Mochizuki, Keiko;Longitudinal Research on Fluency of L2 English

Tikhonenko, Maxim;

Conversations by High School Learners

155
157

Tanaka, Chizu;
Hoshizawa, Mie;
Zhang, Zheng
J60CFP0180

Hattori, Takuya

Tonicity in Japanese Learners of English: With a

159

Special Focus on the Characteristics of SentenceStress and Rhythm Patterns
J60CFP0184

J60CFP0185

Nishio, Yuri; Joto,

The Effectiveness of Multiple Supports of the

Akiyo; Rogers, James;

ICT-Self Learning System to Improve English

Tatsumi, Toru

Pronunciation of Intonation

Huang, Dawang; Lü,

A Tale of Two Chinese-Born ESP Teachers:

Li; Kuang, Qun

Constructing Professional Identity at an EMI

161

163

Sino-Foreign University
J60CFP0186

Shi, Jie

Collaborating With Disciplinary Specialists in

165

Developing Pedagogical Tools for Japanese Graduate
Students of Engineering
J60CFP0188

Imai, MariThe Development and Validation of the Audience
Awareness Scale167

J60JHS0008

Berman, Shari Joy;

Creating a New Hawaii-Japan Connection: The

Tada, Megumi

Implementation and Development of Overseas

169

Project-Based Learning Programs, PBLs
J60JHS0010
J60JHS0014
J60JHS0018

Tada, Megumi;

An Oral Storytelling Workshop: Glocalizing

171

Solomon, Joshua Lee

Language Education

Williams, Elisabeth

Challenging Dominant Notions of Bilingualism in the 173(Libby) Ann

Classroom: Beyond “Japanese and English”

Kourkouli, Katerina;

Critical Factors for the Design and Organization of

Karavas, Evdokia

the Teaching Presence and Forum Structure in Online

175

Learning Communities for EFL Teachers
J60CFP0013

川越栄子

グローバルな医学者・医師育成のための英語プレ 177
ゼンテーション講座

J60CFP0018
J60CFP0025

幸重美津子; 蔦田和

大学英語授業における機械翻訳の活用―実践的

美

英語使用者としての自律学習者育成に向けて―中谷安男

持続可能な開発目標（SDGs）の課題を活用する

179
181

説得力のある英文ライティングを目指した授業
J60CFP0030

立田夏子

大学教養教育英語科目における英語ポートフォ

182

リオの導入―自己調整学習の観点から
J60CFP0032

川添明子

中学生の英作文創出につながる動詞指導―カタ184

カナ動詞がもつ意味の応用可能性の調査を通して―J60CFP0039

藤田賢

日本人大学生における一貫性・結束性判断と英文 186
読解の関係

J60CFP0044

上田眞理砂

診断的リスニング指導法―リスニング指導に自188信が持てる方法
J60CFP0057

後中陽子

オンライン授業をとおしての英語教育における190

文学教材導入の実践報告―イギリス文学の散文の場合―
J60CFP0058

藤岡千伊奈

Kitchen 2020―≪私の言葉≫はコロナ禍を生きる192

学生の心に届くのか―
J60CFP0062

林千賀

オンライン授業での自律した学習者の育成―英194

語学習の目標設定の支援―
J60CFP0065

ラムスデン多夏子

オンライン共有スプレッドシートを用いた自律196性を促す授業外語彙学習
J60CFP0067

柿元悦子「グローバル人材育成」を再考する―Global
Leadership Program の実践

198

J60CFP0069

近藤睦美; 東自由里

大学英語教科書のポストリーディング活動の類

200

型化とクリティカル・シンキング
J60CFP0070

202

松田早恵; 天野貴史;

コロナ禍におけるオンラインアプリを用いた速鈴木大介

読・多読活動の実践報告

J60CFP0080

八島等

英字新聞に対する CEFR-J の有効度に関する研究 204

J60CFP0088

曾根洋明

非文法的に倒置された埋め込み疑問文の直前に206置いた節の長さが文全体の自然さへ与える影響
J60CFP0089

原めぐみ

英語教育における「ダイバーシティ教育」の定義 208に関する検討―Society5.0 時代に向けて

J60CFP0090

スプリングライアン;

he/she エラーと母語干渉と地域性の訛り

210

田淵龍二
J60CFP0092

森谷祥子「英語嫌いを増やさない英語教育」に関する言語 212
イデオロギーの考察―夜間定時制高校英語教師の視点から―

J60CFP0093

香林綾子

ハイブリッド学習の有用性―自己調整学習者の214育成に向けて―J60CFP0094

高橋直彦

英語音声指導・音声学習の際の留意点―＜複眼的 216
視点＞の重要性

J60CFP0095

塩見佳代子

メディア英語クラスにおける東京オリンピック

218

関連製品の広告コピー制作
J60CFP0098

澁井とし子

オンラインでもできる「小学校外国語」指導案作 220
成と模擬授業―学生の気づきからわかったこと―

J60CFP0099

大味潤

対人異文化コミュニケーションのＥＳＬ教授法

222―日本人大学生対象のオンライン授業での実践
報告
J60CFP0101

山本綾

日本人英語学習者のコードスイッチング―英語

224

母語話者を交えた小集団会話の質的分析―
J60CFP0113

稲葉みどり

大学生が小学校外国語教育に必要と考える知226

識・能力とその決定要因
J60CFP0115

小林香保里

開発教育を取り入れた英語授業―2 つの授業形

228

態（対面と web）の実践を通して―
J60CFP0116

金澤佑

ケースメソッドの EFL リーディング授業への応 230
用―予備的試行―

J60CFP0119

島﨑圭介; 柏木賀津

21 世紀型スキルの育成を目指した教科等横断的

子

な授業実践と効果分析―中学校におけるカリキュラムマネジメントから―231

J60CFP0123

中西千春; 川井一枝

音楽大学における英語プレゼンテーション力の233

育成と学生の意識―タキソノミー・テーブルを基にした質問紙を使って―J60CFP0124
J60CFP0131

235

森田光宏; 榎田一路;

オンデマンド型オンライン試験の実践報告―テ

天野修一; 阪上辰也

スト履歴の分析から分かること―

三木訓子; 岡田悠佑

大阪大学におけるオンライン型「プロジェクト発 237
信型英語」授業の試み―同期および非同期型英語
授業でのアクティブ・ラーニング―

J60CFP0132

永井正司

理工系における授業の英語化を改善するための239

方策
J60CFP0138
J60CFP0140

寺西雅子; 大年順子;

TOEIC L&R オンライン試験と GTEC テストの相 241

荻野勝; 剱持淑

関関係について山田優; ラングリッ

英語教育現場における機械翻訳の活用に関するツ久佳; 小田登志子;

実態調査と分析結果

243

守田智裕; 入江敏子
J60CFP0141

安西弥生; 福田彩

遠隔教育のオンライン国際協働型学習(COIL)の245

実践―英語教育の観点から―
J60CFP0144

加藤和美

グループ活動における交流国ごとの方略的能力

247の比較分析と今後の授業形態の展望J60CFP0145
J60CFP0146
J60CFP0149
J60CFP0153

山口高領; 米田佐紀

J-POSTL エレメンタリーの開発―小学校教職課

249

子

程履修学生のための Can-do 記述文―

竹田里香; 渡辺彰子;

日本人大学生の英語使用および英語学習に対す

大和田和治

る意識の変化―日台の遠隔共同授業を通して―

志村美加; 中竹真依

一般教養英語リーディングクラスにおけるオン

子; 小杉弥生

ライン授業―学生の実状に即した改善案―

河内山晶子

省察のシェアを通しての学習自律の変容は シェ 255

251
253

アグループの特徴によりどう違うのか―協働グ
ループの特徴による Zoom 授業での自律変容の分析―
J60CFP0155

土屋佳雅里

大学英語教育における児童英語指導法の一考察

257―Classroom English 指導にフォーカスして―J60CFP0162

西川惠; 縄田義直

航空機操縦士訓練生に必要な英語力調査と没入

258

型 VR 教材の検証
J60CFP0166

三浦寛子

遠隔授業におけるリスニング、スピーキング練習 260の試み―5G 世代のための授業に対する意識改革―

J60CFP0167

大野真機; 須田拓基

学習英文法における従属節の that の取り扱いに
ついて

262

J60CFP0177

阪上潤

口の動きに焦点を当てた英語リンキング指導の264

効果
J60CFP0179

大場浩正

PBL に基づく英語科指導法の実践

266

J60CFP0189

渡辺紀子; 三崎敦子

芸術分野における英語ニーズとジャンルの言語

268

特徴―日本の芸術家たちの事例より―Abstracts
Serial Number
J60CFP0072

AuthorKim, Miso(invited)

Title
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Monoi, Naoko

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297

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

A Textbook Analysis of Instruction on Hedging Use in Academic Writing
Kayo Fujimura-Wilson**Yamaguchi University
fujiwils@yamaguchi-u.ac.jp
Abstract
Hedging is widely used by authors in academic writing to protect themselves against criticism by readersand other researchers; it constitutes a form of face-saving in terms of linguistic politeness. In academic
writing, writers need to consider stating their claims in a slightly softer way than they normally would in
their own language. The use of hedging in research articles differs across languages and academic
disciplines. In general, native English writers tend to use hedges more frequently than non-native English
writers. Moreover, hedging seems to be treated differently in English and Japanese research articles, asJapanese researchers are generally taught to present their claims more explicitly. Therefore, this study
examined textbooks on academic writing used in Japanese universities to determine the extent to which
Japanese learners of English learn regarding the use of hedging in academic writing. Corpora wereextracted from seven academic writing textbooks used by Japanese university students. With this, several
sample paragraphs and essays as well as the instructions on language style, including the use of hedges,
and textbook exercises were analysed. Results showed that some academic writing textbooks introduced
the use of hedging; however, the textbooks mainly explained the function of softening to reduce the toneof the writer’s claim. Moreover, although hedges were adequately used in the sample paragraphs andessays, some textbooks did not explain the use of hedging. Thus, the textbooks tended to lack explicit
information on the use of hedging. These results suggest that teachers may need to bridge the gap between
the knowledge provided in textbooks and English academic writing by introducing the functions ofhedging to Japanese students in order to raise awareness about hedging, and help them use it appropriately
in their academic writing.
Keywords: Hedge, metadiscourse, politeness, academic writing, English research article
1.

Introduction
Textbooks on academic writing for English-language
learners introduce important elements of writing that include
planning related to writing, structures of essays, writing
strategies, introducing appropriate language, and writing
citations and references. L2 learners of English follow a stepby-step process from writing paragraphs to essays and, finally,
research papers. They need to learn the specific use oflanguage in academic writing, as it may differ from that of
their own language. However, language use in pragmatics,
including metadiscourse, such as hedging and boosters, is not
generally mentioned in the textbooks.
In writing research papers, writers present the results
according to their research questions towards the academic
community; hence, they need to negotiate with readers andresearchers in written texts. For example, native English
writers tend to use hedges in their suggestions and claims.
Hedging is categorised as a part of metadiscourse that
represents a writer’s attempt to guide a receiver’s perceptionof a text as signals of the writer’s attitude towards the content
and the audience of the text in understanding the language inuse (Hyland, 2005). It generally indicates unwillingness tomake an explicit and complete commitment to the truth of
propositions (Hyland, 1998, p. 3).
Due to the important roles of hedging, those used inacademic writing have been widely analysed not only inEnglish, but also in different languages and several crosscultural studies conducted in languages including Bulgarian,(Vassileva, 2001), Chinese (Hu & Cao, 2011), Japanese(Fujimura-Wilson, 2019, 2020), Persian (Samaie et al., 2014),
Spanish (Lee & Casal, 2014), and Turkish (Yagɪz & Demir,2014). These studies often suggest that hedging differs
culturally and is used as a rhetorical strategy in research

articles to negotiate with readers and colleagues within an
academic community. Nonnative English writers tend to use
fewer hedges, which suggests that L2 learners of English may
not understand hedging in English in the same way as native
English writers do.
Therefore, this study focuses on investigating to what
extent English-language learners can learn English hedges inacademic writing classes by analysing the textbooks used at
Japanese universities in terms of introducing hedging. Thismight help suggest ideas to bridge the gap between textbooks
and published academic papers with regard to the use ofhedging.
2.

Definition of Hedges
In pragmatics, appropriate language use relates to
illocutionary force of speech act while concerning bothwriter’s knowledge and a writer-reader relationship (Hyland,
1998, p. 39). Hyland (1998) defines types of hedges, which
are accuracy-oriented hedges, including attribute hedges andreliability hedges, and writer-oriented hedges and readeroriented hedges. Writer-oriented hedges are used to state
speculative possibilities intended by writers, and readeroriented hedges are used to express the involvement ofreaders in their statements (Hyland, 1996).
3.

Textbook Analysis in the Use of Hedging
A few studies regarding textbook analysis on the use ofhedging in English academic writing have been conducted.
Hyland (1994) examined 14 textbooks for L2 learners frompost-beginners to advanced level that were used in English foracademic purposes, focusing on lexical forms used forhedging. The results revealed that approximately 70% of the
textbooks covered modal auxiliary verbs, and approximately
1The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

57% covered lexical verbs, while from 20% to 30% of the
textbooks covered adjectives and adverbs (Hyland, 1994). For
example, some lexical verbs, such as seem, suggest, andindicate, were suggested to express the writer’s ideas withneutrality, connection, opinion, or uncertainty rather than withwriter’s face and attitude to the material (Hyland, 1994, p.
249). Myer (1992) also stated that hedges used in textbooks
generally indicate uncertainty, and textbooks do not mention
their use in polite statements. With this, hedging is said to bea strategy used by writers to protect themselves and avoid
categorically expressing commitment (Hyland, 1995, p. 34).

discussing hedging; however, the function of protecting
writers was not often clearly mentioned. For example,
Textbook 1 (Academic Writing Skills Student’s Book 2 byChin et al., 2012) introduced the use of hedging to avoid
overgeneralisation in a statement, which makes a writer’sargument weak and less convincing to readers, and Textbook
7 (Writing Research Papers From Essay to Research Paper
by Zemach et al., 2020) explained that hedges can help makea writer’s argument more tentative, less strict, and lessforceful, which helps readers to accept and believe thestatement more easily. Professors of native English are often
aware of the use of hedging as a politeness strategy, whichhelps not only the authors save face, but also the reader within
the discourse community (Okamura, 1997). Hedging helps
develop a relationship between writers and readers, as lessdirect expressions help accommodate readers’ need for
freedom of action and freedom from imposition, which canbe understood as negative politeness in the linguistic
Politeness Theory put forth by Brown and Levinson (1987).
The ways in which the textbooks introduced a varietyof hedges also differed; nevertheless, lexical hedges tend tobe listed. Textbook 1 introduced a variety of lexical hedges
including verbs (i.e. seem and tend), modal verbs (i.e. can andmight), adjectives (i.e. many and some), adverbs (i.e. usuallyand possibly), and nouns (i.e. assumption and probability) inthe section of ‘Improving your work’; Textbook 2 (Academic
Writing Strategies: Focus on Global Issues for Sustainable
Development Goals by Nakatani, 2020) has a page called‘Focus on Accuracy: Hedges’, explaining the meanings ofmodal verbs, including can, could, may, and might, in the useof hedging; and Textbook 7 introduced adverbs (i.e. a little
and generally), modal verbs (i.e. could and may), modifiers(i.e. a number of and many), qualifying phrases (i.e. it seems
that and there is a tendency to think that), and qualifying
conditionals using if-clauses in the section of ‘Hedging’ in thechapter of ‘Academic Language’.
The amount of exercises for practicing the use ofhedging also varied. Textbook 1 had only one simple exercise
to distinguish hedging expressions in the essay of the
textbook. Textbook 2 had one chapter called ‘Hedges andBoosters’. In the exercise, learners can practice recognisinghedges through sample paragraphs and need to define thefunction of each hedge. Learners also need to use them inwriting their opinions in a paragraph of solutions. As sample
phrases, reader-oriented hedges such as ‘I think’ and ‘In my
opinion’ were introduced. There were four model paragraphswith the exercise of writing opinions in a paragraph using
hedges and boosters. Textbook 7 focused more on sentencesusing hedges, and lexical hedges were introduced with thehelp of exercises on adding hedges in sentences. Learners alsoneed to define whether the assertion of the writer is too strong,which was followed by rewriting the sentences to gain
practice.

4.

MethodIn this study, seven textbooks were investigated that areused in academic writing classes in Japan, particularly inupper-intermediate and advanced level focusing on writing
essays and research papers. Publishers of these textbooks
included both Japanese and English/American publishers.
In the analysis, at first, discussion of hedging was
examined in each textbook to determine the extent to which
the authors paid attention to hedging in academic writing
strategies. Second, hedges in some sample paragraphs andessays were analysed, focusing on lexical hedges, because
according to Hyland (1998), the categories of frequent hedges
in the journal articles were 85% of lexical hedges and 15% ofstrategic hedges and admission to a lack of knowledge. For
the qualitative analysis in this study, the MAXQDA software
was used for coding and counting the number of hedges. All
hedges were examined in their context.
5. Results and Discussion
5.1 Instruction on the Use of Hedging in the Textbooks
The results revealed that three textbooks introduced
hedging (See Table 1); however, their explanation andexercises varied. The remaining four textbooks did not
mention the use of hedging. Although they introduced the useof quantifiers and conditional clauses with regard to language
use in academic writing, they did not mention that these could
sometimes play the role of hedges.
Table 1Introducing Hedging and its Functions in the Textbooks
Textbook number
Hedges Softening Protection
Textbook 1✓✓
×
Textbook 2✓✓✓
Textbook 3
×××
Textbook 4
×××
Textbook 5
×××
Textbook 6×××
Textbook 7✓✓
×In the academic writing textbook for Japanese EFL(English as Foreign Language) learners, two functions ofhedges were introduced: an ‘approximator’, which helps
reduce the clarity of a fact, and a ‘shield’, which weakens thestrength of assurance to protect writers (Nakatani, 2016, p.
74). The softening function was generally expounded when

5.2 Hedging Use in Sample Paragraphs and Essays
In the analysis of the sample paragraphs and essays, a
total of 744 hedges were used, and approximately 30 hedges
appeared per 1,000 words. Therefore, hedges were adequately

2The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

used in the sample paragraphs and essays in the textbooks.
The samples consisted of both hard (i.e. health andengineering) and soft disciplines (i.e. history, education andeconomics); however, the texts related to soft disciplines
generally appeared more often than those for hard disciplines.
Research articles in soft disciplines tend to use more hedges
than those in hard disciplines (Hyland, 1998).
The results showed that modal auxiliary verbs (i.e. can,may, could, might, and would) were used most frequently.
Adjectives (i.e. likely and possible) were the second mostfrequent, followed by verbs (i.e. indicate, seem, and suggest),
and we and I expressions (See Figure 1). Approximators andquantifiers in modifiers (i.e. some, many, and several), which
can be defined as attribute hedges in accuracy-oriented
hedges, were often used (approximately 30%). One of the
textbooks in this study stated that personal pronouns should
be avoided as they sound subjective and informal; however,they are sometimes used in research articles as they help makean evaluation sound personal (Koutsantoni, 2006).

of the use of hedging might be the first step for L2 learners ofEnglish to use hedges appropriately in their writing.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number
JP19K00761.
References
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in
language usage (Vol.4). Cambridge University Press.
Fujimura-Wilson, K. (2019). A comparative study of hedges used in
English academic research articles between native English andJapanese writers. JACET Chugoku-Shikoku Chapter Research
Bulletin, 16, 19-36.
Fujimura-Wilson, K. (2020). Hedging use by native English andJapanese writers in hard and soft disciplines of academic articles.
JACET Chugoku-Shikoku Chapter Research Bulletin, 17, 1-18.
Hu, G., & Cao, F. (2011). Hedging and boosting in abstracts ofapplied linguistics articles: A comparative study of English- andChinese-medium journals. Journal of Pragmatics, 43, 2795-2809.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2011.04.007
Hyland, K. (1994). Hedging in academic writing and EAP textbooks.
EnglishforSpecific
Purposes,13(3),
239-256.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0889-4906(94)90004-3
Hyland, K. (1995). The author in the text: Hedging scientific writing.
Hong Kong Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching, 18, 3342.
Hyland, K. (1996). Talking to the academy: Forms of hedging inscience research articles. Written Communication, 13(2), 251-281.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0741088396013002004
Hyland, K. (1998). Boosting, hedging and the negotiation ofacademic knowledge. Text & Talk, 18(3), 349-382.
https://doi.org/10.1515/text.1.1998.18.3.349
Hyland, K. (2005). Metadiscourse. Continuum.
Koutsantoni, D. (2006). Rhetorical strategies in engineering research
articles and research theses: Advanced academic literacy andrelations of power. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 5,19-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2005.11.002
Lee, J. J., & Casal, J. E. (2014). Metadiscourse in results anddiscussion chapters: A cross-linguistic analysis of English andSpanish thesis writers in engineering. System, 46, 39-54.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2014.07.009
Myer, G. (1992). Textbooks and the sociology of scientificknowledge. English for Specific Purposes, 11, 3-17.
Nakatani, Y. (2016). Daigakusei no tame no academic eibun writing– Kenteishiken taisaku kara eibun ronbunshippitsu made[Academic writing strategies for university students]. Taishukan
Publishing.
Okamura, A. (1997). Politeness in scientific research articles
revisited: The use of ethnography and corpus. British Studies inApplied Linguistics, 12, 84-99.
Samaie, M., Khosravian, F., & Boghayeri, M. (2014). The frequency
and types of hedges in research article introductions by Persianand English native authors. Procedia - Social and Behavioral
Sciences, 98, 1678-1685.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.593
Vassileva, I. (2001). Commitment and detachment in English andBulgarian academic writing. English for Specific Purposes, 20,
83-102. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0889-4906(99)00029-0
Yagɪz, O., & Demir, C. (2014). Hedging strategies in academic
discourse: A comparative analysis of Turkish writers and native
writers of English. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,158, 260-268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.085

Figure 1
Frequency of Hedges Used in the Sample Paragraphs and Essays(number per 1000 words)

0

5

verbs
nouns
adverbs

10

15

modal verbs
adjectives
we and I expressions

6.

Conclusion
This study analysed academic writing textbooks usedin Japanese universities to examine the extent to which theuse of hedging is introduced in the academic writingclassroom. The results revealed that some textbooks
introduced the importance of the use of hedging in academic
writing by discussing its role and providing exercises;
however, these explanations and exercises varied among
textbooks. Moreover, the role of hedging in protecting authors
was not always stated, and only one textbook used readeroriented hedges with sample phrases, which help build a
relationship between authors and readers in the discourse
community. The remaining four textbooks did not mention
hedging.
These results suggest that academic writing textbooks
mainly focus on introducing writing strategies, along withlanguage use that can build learners’ writing skills and help in
the process of writing. Regarding the use of hedging, there
seems to be a gap between the knowledge provided in
textbooks and English academic writing. In the classroom, thepragmatics point of view might be difficult to address andacknowledge, particularly in the limited space of the
textbooks. Thus, teachers could explain how hedging can
influence the impression of writing and introduce its use inpublished research papers. Importantly, increasing awareness3

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Appendix A: Textbooks Used for the Analysis in the Study
Chin, P., Reid, S., Wray, S., & Yamazaki, Y. (2012). Academic
writing skills, student’s book 2. Cambridge University Press.
Kluge, D. E., & Taylor, M. A. (2007). Basic steps to writing research
papers. Cengage Learning.
Liss, R., & Davis, J. (2012). Effective academic writing (2nd ed.).
Oxford University Press.
Miyama, A., Yukishige, M., Onabe, T., Murao, J., & Moore, A.
(2019). 3-point academic writing, organization, content, language.
Kinseido.
Nakatani, Y. (2020). Academic writing strategies: Focus on global
issues for sustainable development goals. Kinseido.
Oshima, A., & Hougue, A. (2017). Longman academic writing series
4: Paragraphs to essays (5th ed.). Pearson Education.
Zemach, D., Broudy, D., & Valvona, C. (2020). Writing research
papers: From essay to research paper. Macmillan Education
Limited.

4

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Analysis of National English Test Items in Japan for High-Order
Thinking Skills Using the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy
Hiroko Ueda
University College London Institute of Education
hiroko.ueda.18@ucl.ac.uk
Abstract
Education worldwide in the 21st century needs to incorporate higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) andhighlight these skills in all or most subjects to enable people to live in a world affected by massivechanges. This paper aims to identify the extent to which the listening and reading test items on the 2021
national English examinations in Japan assess HOTS, compared with those of the 2018, 2019, and 2020
examinations and those of the IELTS and TOEFL. The paper also aims to identify which level ofdifficulty for questions in the cognitive domain could be added to improve national English test items
that assess learners’ HOTS more successfully. To do this, the items in the 2018, 2019, 2020, and 2021
English listening and reading tests were analyzed and compared in terms of the cognitive process andknowledge dimensions using the revised two-dimensional Bloom’s taxonomy. In addition, the results
were employed to compare the 2021 national English tests with the IELTS and TOEFL. The results
demonstrate that the 2021 national English test items asked a wider variety of questions than previous
test items, but they did not assess HOTS sufficiently. This paper indicates that most 2021 national
English test items were still far more directed at lower-order thinking skills (LOTS). In addition, thispaper suggests that they should abandon highly biased questions in level of thinking difficulty and adopt
various levels of difficulty in the cognitive domain to assess LOTS and HOTS. Concerning the
cognitive process dimension, this paper suggests future English national test items in Japan should
include various levels of difficulty such as Remember, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, and Create in the
cognitive process dimension of the revised Bloom’ taxonomy. Concerning the knowledge dimension,
they should include more academic knowledge such as conceptual, procedural, and meta-cognitive
knowledge.
Keywords: English national examination, Higher-order thinking skills, Lower-order thinking skills,
Revised Bloom’s taxonomy
The revised Bloom’s taxonomy (Anderson and
Krathwohl, 2001) was chosen in this paper to assess HOTS,
partly because the original Bloom’s taxonomy (1956), with
its single cognitive process dimension, does not mention
knowledge as a premise of lower- and higher-order thinking.
The revised Bloom’s taxonomy values knowledge
acquisition as a premise of lower- and higher-order thinking
by separating the knowledge and cognitive process
dimensions (Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001). In addition,
types of questions can be categorized in more detail than in
the original version using the two-dimensional revised
Bloom’s taxonomy. This taxonomy comprises six major
categories with 19 sub-categories in the cognitive process
dimension and four major categories with 11 sub-categories
in the knowledge dimension. Furthermore, Bagheri, Bagheri,
and Yamini (2020) used the revised Bloom’s taxonomy intheir earlier literature on analysis of test items from the
IELTS and TOEFL. To maintain consistency with Bagheri,
Bagheri, and Yamini’s prior literature, the revised Bloom’s
taxonomy was used in the same way when the results of the2021 national English tests were employed to compare the2021 national English tests with the IELTS and TOEFL.

1.

Introduction
Education worldwide in the 21st century needs toincorporate HOTS and highlight these skills in all or mostsubjects to enable people to live in a world affected bymassive changes (Zohar and Agmon, 2018). In 2010,
Singapore’s Ministry of Education and, in 2012, the U. S.
Department of Education incorporated training to enhance
HOTS in classes (Hwang, Lai, Liang, Chu, and Tsai, 2018).
The Indonesian curriculum has valued and implemented
HOTS in every subject with student-centered learning since2013, and Indonesian teachers are required to use HOTS inlessons (Djami and Kuswandono, 2020; Yunita, Syahrial,and Hati, 2020). Thailand and Taiwan also implemented
mobile learning to enhance learners’ HOTS (Hwang, Lai,
Liang, Chu, and Tsai, 2018).
In Japan, the years 2020, 2021, and 2022 are the years
for change in education. The Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science, and Technology in Japan (MEXT) has taken
a significant step by realizing that change is needed not onlyin the curriculum guidelines, but also in the national
university entrance examinations. 2020 saw the enforcementof revised curriculum guidelines for elementary school, and2021 and 2022 will see the enforcement of curriculum
guidelines for junior and senior high school, respectively. In
addition, significantly, MEXT announced a scheme tochange the nationwide exams, especially English tests, basedon the revised curricula, focusing on HOTS (MEXT, 2017).
In January 2021, consequently, a new national university
examination, the Common Test for University Admissions,
was administered.

2.

Research questions
This paper aims to identify the extent to which thelistening and reading test items on the 2021 national English
examinations successfully assess HOTS compared withthose of the 2018, 2019, and 2020 examinations and those of
the IELTS and TOEFL. The paper also aims to identify
which level of difficulty for questions in the cognitive5

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

domain could be added to improve national test items thatassess learners’ HOTS more successfully. To do this, theitems in the 2018, 2019, 2020, and 2021 English listening
and reading tests were analyzed and compared in terms ofthe cognitive process and knowledge dimensions using therevised Bloom’s taxonomy. In addition, the results were
employed to compare the 2021 national English tests with
the IELTS and TOEFL. The aims of this paper wereachieved with the following research questions:
1. How do the reading questions on the 2021
national English examination differ from those of
the 2018, 2019, and 2020 examinations in termsof the cognitive process and knowledge
dimensions?
2. How do the listening questions on the 2021
national English examination differ from those of
the 2018, 2019, and 2020 examinations in termsof the cognitive process and knowledge
dimensions?
3. How do the reading questions on the 2021
national English examination differ from those of
the IELTS and TOEFL in terms of the cognitive
process and knowledge dimensions?
4. How do the listening questions on the 2021
national English examination differ from those of
the IELTS and TOEFL in terms of the cognitive
process and knowledge dimensions?

4.

Results
In terms of the reading items, the 2018, 2019, and2020 reading examinations had no questions to access
HOTS, whereas 10.5 % of the 2021 test items accessed
HOTS. All of the 2021 Japanese national reading questions
and the IELTS and TOEFL reading questions assessed
LOTS more than they did HOTS. The IELTS reading tests
did not include any questions to access HOTS, but some of
the 2021 Japanese national reading questions (10.5%; fourof the 38 questions) and TOEFL reading questions (29.3%;
146 of the 499 questions) did access HOTS.
In terms of the listening items, none of the 2018, 2019,and 2020 or 2021 listening examination items accessed
HOTS. All of the 2021 Japanese national, IELTS, and
TOEFL listening questions assessed LOTS more often thanthey did HOTS. The 2021 Japanese national listening test
did not include any questions to access HOTS, but the
IELTS listening questions (3.3%; 16 of the 480 questions)and TOEFL listening questions (25.7%; 105 of the 408
questions) did access HOTS.
References
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Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Longman.
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Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy. Cogent Education, 7 (1), 1-23.
Bloom, B. & Association of College University Examiners. (1956).
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The classification of
educational goals- Handbook 1, Cognitive Domain. New York:David MacKay.
Djami, C. B. N. & Kuswandono, P. (2020). Teachers’ Strategies to
Implement Higher- Order Thinking Skills in English Instruction.
Metathesis: Journal of English Language, Literature, andTeaching, 4(1), 25-40.
Hwang, G., Lai, C., Liang, J., Chu, H., & Tsai, C. (2018). A
Long-term Experiment to Investigate the Relationships between
High School Students’ Perceptions of Mobile Learning andPeer Interaction and Higher-order Thinking Tendencies.
Educational Technology Research and Development, 66(1),75-93.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology inJapan (MEXT). (2017). Daigaku nyugaku kyotu tesuto jissi
hosin [The enforcement policy for the Common Test for
University Admissions]. Retrieved January 1st, 2021 fromhttps://www.mext.go.jp/component/a_menu/education/micro_d
etail/__icsFiles/afieldfile /2017/10/24/1397731_001.pdf
Yunita, W., Syahrial, & Hati, G. M. (2020). English Teachers’
Knowledge on Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS). English
Review, 9(1), 205-216.
Zohar, A. & Agmon, V. A. (2018). Raising Test Scores vs.
Teaching Higher Order Thinking (HOT): Senior Science
Teachers’ Views on How Several Concurrent Policies AffectClassroom Practices. Research in Science & Technological
Education, 36(2), 243- 60.

3.

Analysis coding scheme
A coding scheme using the revised two-dimensional
Bloom’s taxonomy, which was employed by Bagheri,
Bagheri, and Yamini (2020), was utilized to codify the test
questions on the 2018, 2019, 2020, and 2021 examinationquestions, which were classified and analyzed to identify the
cognitive domains of the test items and compare the test
items in terms of cognitive difficulty. The same coding
scheme was chosen for this research partly because two of
the research questions 3 and 4 were achieved by comparing
the results between the results of the 2021 Japanese national
English examination items and the results that Bagheri,
Bagheri, and Yamini (2020) reached in the analysis of
IELTS and TOEFL test items.
The coding scheme used the two-dimensional
Bloom’s taxonomy with the cognitive process andknowledge dimensions. The cognitive process dimension isdivided into six categories from the lowest to the highest
level of thinking difficulty: Remember, Understand, Apply,
Analyze, Evaluate, and Create. The knowledge dimension isdivided into four categories from the most concrete to themost abstract, factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge,
procedural knowledge, and meta-cognitive knowledge.
To disclose the details of the features of question
items and identify cognitive difficulty more precisely,
definitions, example questions, alternative words, example
assessment formats and tasks in the sub-categories of thecognitive process and the knowledge dimensions were also
employed in coding the test items. The results of the codingof the sub-categories were also compiled in excel data

6

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Analyzing Japanese EFL Learners’ Stabilized Pragmalinguistic Errors
in the Use of Modals for Social Interaction at theOnline Forum Discussion
Yaoko Matsuoka
International Christian University
matsuokay8@gmail.com
Abstract
English modal auxiliary verbs are used for logical probability, such as inferencing and predicting, andsocial interaction, such as requesting, permitting, and giving advice or suggestion. However, this dyadic
function of modals is not sufficiently acquired by Japanese learners through English as a foreign language(EFL) instruction. This research explores Japanese EFL learners’ use of modals to express social functions,bearing the possibility of pragmatic stabilization in mind. In second language acquisition, stabilizationrefers to the temporal state where learners stop developing their L2 competence. Stabilization is amechanism assumed to be latent in a learner’s interlanguage and perceived as a precursor of fossilization,a permanent loss of progress in some target language aspect. EFL learners’ habitual errors, not only insyntactic and lexical constituents but also in pragmatic ones, may stabilize and lead to fossilization. The
research was conducted on 41 first-year students at a university in Tokyo, aiming to identify incipientstabilized errors of the modal use and seek their putative causal factors. Data were extracted from theparticipants’ written messages in two online forum discussions at the end of the spring and autumn
semesters. The comparison of students’ use of modals observed in their written texts in these two
discussion forums suggests that they used only a few kinds of English modals and utilized quite limited
functions. On the other, despite no explicit pragmatic intervention was conducted during half a year, mostof them seemed to have firmly acquired the pragmatic norms appropriate for the class forum context.
Keywords: modal auxiliary verbs, pragmalinguistic errors, stabilization, fossilization, forum discussion
Introduction
Comparing to native speakers, non-native
speakers are likely to lack in pragmatic knowledge and tend
to have difficulty in using the target language (TL)
appropriately. Since pragmatic errors may cause
misunderstanding in communication, they may lead to more
serious failure than grammatical errors. English modal
auxiliary verbs play a significant role in pragmatic
expressions and are used for logical probability, such asinferencing and predicting, and social interaction, such as
requesting, permitting, and giving advice or suggestion.
However, this dyadic function of modals is not sufficiently
acquired by Japanese learners through English as a foreign
language (EFL) instruction. This study explores Japanese
EFL learners’ use of modals to express social functions,focusing on their pragmalinguistic errors in written texts andbearing the possibility of pragmatic stabilization in mind.
Stabilization refers to the temporal state where learners stop
developing their L2 competence (Long, 2003). EFL learners
are likely to provoke pragmatic errors frequently andrepeatedly, which may become stabilized in the L2 learning
processes. The following research questions are posed: (1)What modal verbs are used in written texts in a pragmaticallyappropriate manner in two online forums? (2) Will their errors
in modal usage improve or stabilize over the course of six
months without specific instructions?

some TL aspects. EFL learners’ habitual errors, not only insyntactic and lexical constituents but also in pragmatic
language, may stabilize and lead to fossilization (Selinker,1972). On the other, Fauziati (2011) contends that since‘learners’ are still continuing learning, they have possibilityof improvement and seem to be in the state of temporalstabilization, which is distinct from the state of permanent
fossilization. According to Thomas (1983), pragmalinguistic
errors in writing relate to L2 grammatical aspects and are
more likely to overcome than sociopragmatic errors observedin natural interaction.
Causes of stabilization closely relate to several putative
factors of fossilization: language transfer, transfer-of-training,L2 learning strategies, L2 communication strategies, andovergeneralization of TL linguistic material (Selinker, 1972).
Yusuf (2018) identified language transfer as the main courseof pragmalinguistic errors committed by university students,
while Muir (2011) also found that students’ errors in theirwritings were caused by their L1 pragmatic-conventions.

1.

2.2 The Selective Fossilization Hypothesis
To analyze the causes of pragmalinguistic error
stabilization, Han’s (2009) Selective Fossilization Hypothesis(SFH) seems to be the most applicable. SFH provides an
explanation and prediction about intra-learner selectivity(why fossilization occurs selectively within a learner) andinter-learner variability (why fossilization is variable acrosslearners) by the concept of markedness/ unmarkedness ofcorresponding L1 and robustness/ non-robustness of L2 input(Han, 2009, 2013). In SFH, both concepts are determined byfrequency of corresponding L1 and variability (i.e.,
consistency) of L2 input; for instance, when L1 influence isfrequent but variable, it is quite unmarked. As seen in Figure

2. Literature Review
2.1 Pragmatic Stabilization and Fossilization
Stabilization, the term originally introduced by
Selinker and Lakshamanan (1992), is a mechanism assumed
to be latent in a learner’s interlanguage and are perceived as aprecursor of fossilization, a permanent loss of progress in
7

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

1, there are four different zones between the horizontal axisof markedness and vertical axis of robustness. ZoneⅡis theacquisition zone where L1 is marked and L2 input is robust,
while Zone Ⅳ is the fossilization zone, where L1 isunmarked and L2 input is non-robust.

Sentence a is an example of social function, expressing thewriters’ polite advice for the presenter appropriately, while thesentence b is an example of the unsuccessful use of could,
pointing out the presenter’s fault. Sentence c contains nomodal with social meaning and shows quite a direct way ofadvice one should avoid, since making advice or suggestion
may often be a face-threatening acts (Brown and Levinson,
1987). Modals can mitigate the negative impression of directsuggestion and avoid communication breakdown. However,students used few kinds of modals when expressing negative
points and the numbers mostly unchanged in both forums.
This suggests that their use of modal verbs may becomestabilized, although some aspects may improve.
Besides, despite no explicit pragmatic intervention
during half a year, all students maintained the basic pragmatic
norm for the context: telling the presenter’s positive points
prior to suggesting negative points to mitigate the criticism.
They seemed to have acquired the pragmatic norms firmly,
probably because peer commenting on presentations,according to SFH theory, is not a common experience in their
L1, and the English expressions they learned were robust.

Figure 1
The selective fossilization hypothesis (Han, 2009)

3. Methods
The research was conducted on 41 first-year students at
a university in Tokyo to identify incipient stabilized errors of
the English modal use and seek their putative causal factors.
Participants’ English proficiency levels were intermediate toupper-intermediate, and their L2 learning motivation was
relatively high, though somewhat varied. Data were collectedfrom the two online discussion forums in LMS at the end of
the spring and autumn semesters. In both forums, students
were asked to post short comments including both positive
and negative impressions of their classmates’ oralpresentations conducted on the same day. Students were
provided with a brief explanation on how to suggest negative
points in polite ways, including the use of modals, before
starting the first forum in spring. They received no specifictreatment from the teacher between the two discussion forums.
The number of modal verbs in their posts was calculated, andthe use and meanings of the modals were identified.

Table 1
Total Number of Modals Used by Students in the Forum Posts
ModalsSpringAutumnSpringwould
AutumnSpringcanAutumnSpringshouldAutumnSpringmight
Autumn(targeted posts=83)
could

4. Results and Discussion
The study examined totally eighty-three student posts
targeted in the two discussion forums. As seen in Table 1, fivekinds of modals were used in the spring discussion forum,
while four were found in the autumn forum. As for the total
number of modals, could was used twenty-six times, would,
can, and might were used three times, and should was used
twice in the spring forum discussion. In the autumn forum,
could was used twenty times, would and should were used
three times, and might was used only once. No student used
may and ought to. There was an apparent difference in thenumber of kinds of modals, and could was used the most by
students in both forums. Could with logical probability wasused ten times in the spring forum, while it was five times inautumn. Also, could was used for the social function, giving
advice, sixteen times in spring and fifteen times in autumn.
Here are the excerpts from the students’ use of could
for giving advice and logical probability:a. It could be better if you spoke more slowly. (advice)b. You could use no hand gestures. (stating the failure)c. I say one thing: use more gestures. (imperative)

Total
Number
26
20
3
3
3
1
2
3
3
0

Logicalmeaning
10
5
2
2
1
1
0
0
0
0

Socialfunction
16
15
1
1
2
0
2
3
3
0

References
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: Some Universals in
Language Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fauziati, E. (2011). Interlanguage and error fossilization: A study ofIndonesian students learning English as a foreign language.
Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 23-39.
Han, Z-H. (2009). Interlanguage and fossilization: Towards ananalytic model. In V. Cook & L. Wei (Eds.), Contemporary
applied linguistics I: Language Teaching and Learning.
London: Continuum, 137–162.
Han, Z-H. (2013). Forty years later: Updating the fossilization
hypothesis. Language Teaching, 46(2), 133-171.
Long, M. H. (2003). Stabilization and fossilization in interlanguage
development. In C. J. Doughty and M. H. Long (Eds.), The
handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 487-535).
Oxford: Blackwell.
Thomas, J. (1983). Cross-cultural pragmatic failure. Applied
Linguistics,
4(2),91-112.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/applin/4.2.91.

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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

発音記号教材のオンライン授業における効果―大学生の反応分析―
山本玲子**京都外国語大学
re_yamam@kufs.ac.jp
要旨
本研究は、発表者を含む研究チームが開発した発音記号教材の効果検証の最終段階となる実践を報告するものである。小中英語教員や大学生を対象とした検証授業を経て改良を加えた本教
材は、本実践授業の直前に完成に至った。音声学の履修経験のない大学生を対象に予定していた実践授業は、コロナ禍のおり完全オンライン授業となったため、その効果をも検証することとなった。半期を通し 10 分程度のモジュールで毎時間繰り返し指導を行った。学生のコメン
トを全 14 回の授業のうち初期・中盤・終盤・最終日に分け、記述をコーディング分析した結果、発音の向上や知識習得だけでなく、情意面・学びに向かう力・思考判断における向上が認められた。加えて今後の学び方への意識改革への言及もあったことから、発音記号は学生が自律学習者となるために有効であるとの結論が得られた。
キーワード：発音記号、自律学習者、教材開発
はじめに
日本の英語学習者が抱える課題は、英語特有の発音の習得（発音における Intelligibility の欠如）にあるとの考察に立ち、効果的な発音指導のための研究チームを立ち上げた。先行研究では、中高英語授業におけるカタ
カナ使用、英語教員自身の不正確な発音、教員養成課程
で音声学が必修ではないという課題が要因として報告されている。これらの課題を解決し学習者、教員双方の発音を向上させるためには、カタカナに代わるものとして発音記号を使用すべきであると考察した。
中学校教員を対象とした調査では「発音記号の難易度を考えるとカタカナ使用が妥当である」と考える教員が相当数確認された。しかし小学校英語でアルファ
ベット 26 文字に限定したフォニックス指導が開始した
ことで、事態は変わりつつある。/b/、/k/などアルファベットと文字・音が同一の発音記号が多数存在する。あら
ゆる年齢層の学習者を対象に、「アルファベットの文字と異なる記号」「フォニックスと発音が異なる記号」のみに焦点化し、検定教科書で採用されている簡易な発音記号を指導するための教材を、Microsoft PowerPoint ソ
フトウエアを使用し試作版として作成した。

な学生が、発音記号を見て英語母語話者に通じる明瞭な発音で音声化できるようになったことが実証された。
発音記号学習に対する大学生のコメントシートをコー
ディング分析し得られたカテゴリーのうち、「情意面」「知識面」において変容があったことが認められた。

1.

2.2 教員を対象としたパイロットスタディ
中学校英語二種免許取得講習の受講生である小学校教員を対象に、試作版を使用して 2 週にわたり発音記
号を指導した。受講前から発音記号を知っていた教員
を除く 30 名について事前事後の発音テストを分析し、有意差が確認された。受講者からは、受講後も本教材を高く評価する声が寄せられ、完成後は自己学習のために利用したいという要望もあった。小中高の教員養成課程において本教材を活用する意義が裏付けられた。
本実践のみならず、複数の小中高の教員研修会において試作版への改善点や要望が多数寄せられたため、それらを反映させるべく、英語母語話者も研究協力者に加えた上で教材開発を継続した。音声学の専門的見地からは「IPA と中学高校の検定教科書が採用している
発音記号には差異がある」との意見も寄せられたが、汎用性を優先し、簡易版を使用する方針を維持した。

2. 研究の経緯
2.1 大学生を対象としたパイロットスタディ
大阪の私立大学において、英語自由選択科目を履修した 18 名（2 回生 7 名、3 回生 11 名）を対象に、半期
毎時間 10 分程度のモジュールで試作版を使用した発音記号指導を行った。TOEIC は最高得点の学生でも 400点前後と英語が苦手な学生が多く，発音記号の学習経験は皆無であった。絵と発音記号が記載されたカード
10 枚を使用した発音テストの結果、事前より事後の得点が有意に向上した（t= .000）。録音した音声の採点に当たった英語母語話者の信頼性は、複数の採点者による パ イ ロ ッ ト テ ス ト で 検 証 さ れ て い る （ Cronbach
α= .521）。Intelligibility が評価基準であり、英語の苦手

2.3 中学校における実践
音声学の知識も発音指導経験もない教員でも、本教材を使用すれば発音記号指導が可能であるかを検証した。
関西の公立中学校に勤務する採用 2 年目の教員が、研究チームのメンバーから発音記号の指導を受けた上で、本教材を使用しモジュール形式で中学 1 年生全学
年の指導に当たった。1 年間の指導の事前事後に実施した発音テスト（山本・里井、2017）の結果、Intelligibility
において隣校の中学 1 年生と同様の向上が確認された。
英語力にも自信がないと語る経験の浅い若手教員が、高い英語力を有する経験豊富な隣校の教員（発音記号は一切使用していない）と遜色ない発音指導を実現で9The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

きたことは、発音記号を使用することの効果と、誰にでも使える本教材の汎用性を裏付けるものとなった。

が該当するケースは、のべ数で示している）たところ、
表 2 のような結果が得られた。

2.4 大学オンライン授業における調査
兵庫の私立大学において、教職課程の 2 回生 92 名を対象に調査を実施した。
zoom によるオンライン授業で、最終授業に１度だけ 60 分間の発音記号指導を行った。
事前事後に記述式のアンケート調査を実施し、共起ネットワーク処理を施したところ、
「読み方」
「読める」
「正
しい」
「教える」というワードが抽出された。発音に自信のない学生は 65％であったが、「発音記号が読めるよ
うになりたい」との回答は事前・事後で有意に増加（p= .000; r= .46）し、本教材を通し教職課程の学生の意
識が変容したことが示唆された。

表 2 時系列ごとの切片
切片数
カテゴリー
3
初期
思考・判断 1, 学びに向かう力 1, 知識
面1
4
中盤
情意面 1, 学びに向かう力 1, 知識面 1,
思考・判断 1
5
終盤
知識面 1, 情意面 1, 思考・判断 1, 自己調整学習 1, 学びに向かう力 1
11
最終日
自己調整学習 4, 情意面 3, 知識面 3,
思考・判断 1

考察
個々の学生の差はあれ小テストの得点は向上したた
め、知識面への言及が増加することは予想ができた。しかし、情意面・学びに向かう力・思考判断における切片
が時間の経過と共に増加していることは、受け身の学
習にとどまらずメタ認知が働いていることを示唆している。自己調整学習のカテゴリーでは、今後の学び方への意識改革への言及もあったことから、発音記号は学
生が自律学習者となるために有効であると結論づけられる。同時にオンライン授業にも応用可である教材の利点が示唆された。オンライン授業は自律学習者に有利だと言われるが、最初からそうではなかった学生をも向上させられたことは、大きな成果である。
4.

3. 大学生の反応検証のための実践
3.1 参加者
京都の私立大学で外国語強化科目（TOEIC550 点以上）を履修した 38 名（2 回生 18 名、3 回生 11 名、4 回生 9名）の英語専攻学生が本実践の参加者である。これまでと異なり英語力の高い参加者となるが、音声学を履修
し発音記号を習った経験のある学生は皆無であった。
3.2 実践の流れ
半期 14 回の授業はすべて Microsoft Teams をプラットフォームとするオンライン授業となったため、完成
した発音記号教材スライドを共有しながら毎回 10 分程度のモジュールで指導した。また小テストを毎時間の最初に実施した。発音記号のみで示された 3 つの単語（既習）を見て「発音を自分で推測してスペリングを打ち込む」形式である。毎時間の最後には、自由記述をコ
メントシートに記入するよう指示した。

謝辞
本稿執筆に当たり貴重な助言を賜った龍谷大学里井久輝教授、神戸親和女子大学眞崎克彦教授に感謝する。中高大の教員が授業で活用し、あるいは大学生、小中高の現職教員など
英語学習者の自己学習に資することが教材開発の目的であるため、科研費成果報告 Web サイトでダウンロード可となっている（https://teaching.main.jp/index.html）。教材開発、Web サイト開設に当たっては JSPS 科研費（基盤研究（C）18K00860）、
京都外国語大学出版助成金（2020）の助成を受けた。

3.3．結果
全授業のコメントを中西他（2015）の手法でコーディ
ング分析した結果、5 つのカテゴリーが得られた。表 1
は、各カテゴリーとその例を示したものである。

参考文献
大高博美・杉浦香織（2006）「英語音声教育におけるシュワー（/ə/）の重要性」『英語教育』55(11), 67-69, 大修館書店.
中西のりこ・坂上潤・山本祐太（2015）「発音記号学習に対する大学生の意識の変化」『LET 関西春季研究大会プログラム』
眞﨑克彦・山本玲子（2020）「小学校教員養成課程の大学生を対象とした発音教材の調査」『小学校英語教育学会岐阜大会
発表予稿集オンライン』
眞﨑克彦・山本玲子（2019）「小学校教員を対象とした発音教
材作成についての問題点の検証」『小学校英語教育学会北海
道大会発表予稿集』14.
Yamamoto, R. (2017) Effects of EFL Instruction Utilizing
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) on Intelligibility ofJapanese Students. The IAFOR Hawaii 2017 Official Conference
Proceeding.
山本玲子（2018）「小学校教員を対象とした発音指導の効果―
フォニックスから発音記号へ―」『小学校英語教育学会長崎
大会発表予稿集』16.
山本玲子・里井久輝（2017）「日本語と英語のプロソディの違いに気づかせる小学生への語アクセント指導の試み：相手に伝わる発音への効果」『関西英語教育学会紀要』40, 11-19.
山本玲子・里井久輝・眞﨑克彦（2020）「音声学を履修していない教員の発音指導力向上に発音記号はどのように貢献できるか」『LET 関西支部研究収録』18, 1-18.

表 1 コメントシートから切り出されたカテゴリーとその例
思考・判断「発音は良しあしでなく聞き取ってもらえるかどうかだ。考え方が変わった」

学びに向かう力「難しかったけど練習しようと思う」

知識面「曖昧母音は多くの単語についていることがわかった」

情意面「/ju:s/に見事に引っかかりジュースだと思ってしまった！」「めっちゃ発音が上手に聞こえます！やってよかったです！」

自己調整学習「習った発音記号たちを思い出しながら、今一度自分なりにつむぎなおして印刷して持っておこうと思う」

次に、「初期（4 週）」「中盤（4 週）」「終盤（4 週）」「最終日」という時系列に、各カテゴリーに該当する切片（記述）を書き出し（1 つの記述に複数のカテゴリー
10The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Exploring characteristics of EFL textbooks in International English
Yuko Igarashi
Ritsumeikan University
yukoi@fc.ritsumei.ac.jp
Abstract
Numerous EFL textbooks published by major international publishers are available in the global market.
Generally, these textbooks are categorized into two types: American English and British English.
Recently, however, EFL textbooks in International English appeared. The production of these textbooks
is understood as the response from the publishers to the current increasing calls from English language
teachers and researchers who assert that EFL learners need to be ready for communication with a variety
of English speakers. This assertion was made due to the facts that 1) people from diverse linguistic/cultural
backgrounds speak English, 2) various types of English are used in international communication (McKay,2018), and 3) L2 English speakers outnumber L1 English speakers today (Crystal, 2003). In the interestof examining characteristics of International English EFL textbooks, I conducted a study in 2020 byfocusing on spoken varieties of English contained on their audio CDs. In particular, I studied the English
varieties used and who the interlocutors were in conversations in seven selected International English
textbooks for university students. This study revealed that 1) there is a tendency for the textbooks to use
English from native English-speaking countries more than those from non-native English-speaking
countries, and 2) the textbooks use more conversations between native and non-native speakers thanbetween native and native speakers. In this paper, I will introduce more detailed findings of this study,
and make suggestions which I believe will improve the EFL textbooks and better assist the students'
communication with diverse English users.
Keywords: EFL textbooks, Japanese university students, International English, spoken varieties
1.

Introduction
Recently, several EFL textbooks in International
English appeared in the global market. They are produced
partly because of the increasing calls from English language
teachers and researchers such as Canagarajah (2007) andKubota (2018), who assert that 1) English learners’
acquisition target should not be restricted to the varieties
spoken in native English-speaking countries, and 2) the
learners need to develop their ability to deal with the diversityof English and its users. In international settings, people, in
general, interact with English speakers from native Englishspeaking countries as well as non-native English-speaking
ones (McKay, 2018). Thus, if EFL learners aim to use English
in international settings, it is important for them to beprepared for successful intercultural communication withEnglishspeakers
from various
linguistic/cultural
backgrounds. To help them develop the necessary linguistic
abilities, EFL textbooks need to present appropriate English
varieties.
To illustrate characteristics of the English variety use
in International English EFL textbooks, I studied the spoken
varieties on their audio CDs in 2020; in particular, I examinedwhich English varieties were presented and who theinterlocutors were in conversation. Given the study data, thispaper will discuss necessary aspects in EFL textbooks todevelop Japanese university students’ linguistic abilities for
successful communication in international settings.

circle variety meaning English spoken as a ‘native’ language,
the outer circle variety referring to the one spoken as a second
language, and the expanding circle variety learnt as a‘foreign’ language with no official status” (Galloway, 2013,
p.787). In this study, the following research questions wereraised: 1) Which circle’s variety is used in each textbook’s
CD? and 2) How often does a conversation between nonnative English speakers occur? The following shows the study
results.
2.1 Question 1
I examined which circle’s variety is used by listening to a
CD that includes three types of recording: 1) instruction, 2)
conversation, and 3) description/view presented by a speaker.
The occurrence percentage of English varieties used in thethree types of recording by each circle is described below.
Table 1The occurrence percentage of English varieties by circle
Textbook Circle% Textbook
Circle
inner
52.2
inner
Passport
Person to
1 (2ndouter
0PersonouterStarter (3rd expandedition)
expand47.8
edition)
ing
ing
inner
58.3
inner
Passport
Person to
2 (2ndouter
0Person 1
outeredition)(3rd
expandexpand41.7
edition)
ing
ing
inner
42.2
inner
Person to
outer
12.5
Person 2
outer
Identity(3rd
expandexpand45.3
edition)
ing
ing
inner
55.4
J-Talkouter
5.2
expand- 39.4

2.

The Study and Its Results
I examined seven International English EFL textbooks by
Oxford University Press, as shown in Table 1; they are
student books containing audio CDs from levels beginner topre-intermediate. The obtained data from the textbooks is
illustrated by Kachru’s (1985) three concentric circles; heclassifies English varieties into the three circles: “The inner
11

%
54.9
7.8
37.3
62.5
3.6
33.9
81.4
0
18.6

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

textbooks; the use of English varieties and conversation types
in the textbooks does not reflect the current English users on
a global scale. Crystal (2003) demonstrates that L2 English
speakers outnumber L1 English speakers today, andSeidlhofer (2003) asserts that L2 English speakers “will be
the main agents in the ways English is used, maintained andchanged” (p.7). To help Japanese university students develop
linguistic abilities for intercultural communication where
they have more chances to interact with L2 English speakers,
it is necessary to change the percentage in the use of English
varieties and conversation types in the textbooks.
The second characteristics of the examined textbooks
is that they treat the inner circle varieties as the learners’
acquisition target; the textbooks do not pay equal attention tothe outer/expanding circle varieties and the inner circle ones.
Galloway and Rose (2017) contend that rather than setting asingle variety as their target, plurilingualism should be an
EFL learners’ goal, and this assertion should be adopted as
the underlying concept of the textbooks; they need to be
designed to raise the learners’ recognition that English is
spoken by people in each of Kachru’s three circles; English is
spoken by not only NS but also the significant majority of
NNS.
To help Japanese university students achieve this goal,
EFL textbooks need to have the appropriate amount ofEnglish varieties and conversation types; the textbooks
should introduce 1) more outer/expanding circle varieties,
and 2) more NNS-NNS conversation. When using textbooks
which pay equal attention to the outer/expanding circle
varieties as they do the inner circle ones, the students will beable to develop the linguistic abilities necessary for successfulcommunication with English speakers from various
linguistic/cultural backgrounds.

ing
Note. English varieties in the outer/expanding circles in this context
mean that speakers use Standard English but retain thearticulation/prosody of the speaker’s mother tongue.

As shown in Table 1, the inner circle varieties are used themost in all textbooks except Identity, and the outer circle
varieties appear least. This result shows a tendency to use
inner circle varieties in all textbooks except Identity,
suggesting that the inner circle varieties are the preferredones.
2.2 Question 2
Next, I examined which conversation type appears
most in a CD of each textbook. The conversation iscategorized into three types: 1) NS (native English speakers)NNS (non-native English speakers), 2) NS-NS, and 3) NNSNNS. Table 2 shows the study results.
Table 2The occurrence percentage of conversation types
Textbook
Passport
1
Passport
2

Identity

J-TalkConversation
NS-NNSNS-NS
NNSNNS
NS-NNSNS-NS
NNSNNS
NS-NNSNS-NS
NNSNNS
NS-NNSNS-NS
NNSNNS%

Textbook

73.0
17.0
10.0

Person to
PersonStarter

65.4
17.3
17.3

Person to
Person 1

10000

Person to
Person 2

86.4
13.6
0

Conversation
NS-NNSNS-NS
NNSNNS
NS-NNSNS-NS
NNSNNS
NS-NNSNS-NS
NNSNNS

%
83.3
12.5
4.2
54.2
37.5
8.3
37.0
63.0
0

References
Canagarajah, S. (2007). Lingua franca English, multilingual
communities, and language acquisition. The Modern Language
Journal, 91(Focus Issue), 923-939.
Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language (2nd ed.).
Cambridge University Press.
Galloway, N. (2013). Global Englishes and English language
teaching (ELT) – Bridging the gap between theory and practicein a Japanese context. System, 41, 786-803
Galloway, N., & Rose, H. (2017). Incorporating Global Englishes
into the ELT classroom. ELT Journal, 72(1), 3-14.
Kachru, B. (1985). Standards, codification, and sociolinguistic
realm: The English language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk &H. Widdowson (Eds.), English in the world (pp. 11-30).
Cambridge University Press.
Kubota, R. (2018). Eigo kyoiku genso [Illusion of English
education]. Chikuma Shobo.
McKay, S.L. (2018). English as an international language: What it
is and what it means for pedagogy. RELC Journal, 49(1), 9-23.
Seidlhofer, B. (2003). A concept of international English andrelated issues: From ‘real English’ to ‘realistic English’?
Strasbourg: Council of Europe, Language Policy Division.

As illustrated above, the conversation between NS-NNS
occurs most, and that between NNS-NNS appears least. This
clearly demonstrates that the examined textbooks use NS as
the main interlocutors of conversation. By using thesetextbooks, the learners are likely to perceive that they willinteract mainly with NS in intercultural communication andthat English is predominantly spoken by NS.
3.

Discussion/Conclusion
From the examination of the seven textbooks, a few
characteristics were found. First, the textbooks introduce thethree conversation types as well as several English varieties
from different circles, suggesting that publishers and textbook
writers are aware of EFL learners’ need to develop linguistic
skills for interacting with various English speakers. However,
the outer/expanding circle varieties are used less than the
inner circle ones, and conversations between NNS-NNS arepresented less than both NS-NS and NS-NNS in the

12The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

A Phenomenological Approach to Critical Posthumanist Applied
Linguistics Project through Translanguaging Perspectives
Yaeko Hori**Keio University (Shonan Fujisawa Campus)
jelly88fish@gmail.com
Abstract
If applied linguistics is to remain abreast with “real-world problems in which language is a central issue”(Brumfit, 1995, p. 27), critical posthumanist applied linguistics project (PALP) is something we shouldtake seriously. PALP addresses the need to rethink what language is in newly emerging asymmetries ofpower, i.e., language is distributed across human beings’ cognition/body, other beings/ecology,
places/space, objects, etc. Indeed, translanguaging is seen as having potential in exploring such a project.
Thus, as a response to the need, I launched a longitudinal PALP as experience research in 2019 while
applying translanguaging lens. The current article exhibits an interim report on the research targeting three
young people in the pre-, mid- and post- first emergency plan in Japan during the coronavirus pandemic
situation in 2020; in the strictest self-quarantine period, the participants lived with AI robots, Alexa andaibo. Since how the participants would make sense of their relationships to the others (both humans andnonhumans) cannot be presupposed, an inductive qualitative approach called Interpretative
Phenomenological Analysis is adapted as a methodology. The major method is interviewing, and the data
are contextualized by other data (through methods such as observation, diaries, group talk and online
correspondences). The results revealed the participants’ various relationships to invisible and visible, realand imagined others in respectively perceived tensions. Regarding relationships to the AI robots, although
the participants were in a way restricted by language mode (English or Japanese) in talking to the robots,
all perceived the interactions ‘communication’ because reciprocal orchestrated responses from the robots‘speak’ to each participant with or without linguistic resources. Further, how each thought of ‘good’relationships regarding human beings was projected on how relationships to the AI robots were expressed.
Keywords: posthumanist applied linguistic project, translanguaging, a phenomenological approach
have been outpacing the empirical research, yet, in theseresearch innovative methodology (e.g., Moment Analysis)
and methods have been employed. For instance, Tai and Li(2020) combined ethnographic observation/naturally
occurring data analyzed by multimodal conversation analysis
and metalanguaging data such as interview; Busch (2012) a
multimodal biographical (nonverbal) approach and interview.
In these research, in fact, emerging features associating withphenomenology are recognized (e.g., methodology called
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), a
phenomenologist, namely, Merleau-Ponty),1 nonetheless, theassociations are rather indirect. In investigating human beings’
experience encompassing unpredictable relationships (to bothhumans and nonhumans), I decided to pursue inductive nature
in developing a phenomenological approach. I find IPA
suitable for the PALP, as it defines experience as “a person’s
relatedness to a given phenomenon”; and emphasizes theimportance of keeping “phenomenology alive” throughout
the research project (Smith, Flowers and Larkin 2009, p. 33).
The main research questions, therefore, is exploratory: How
do research participants make sense of their experience ofliving with AI robots (Alexa and aibo) under the coronavirus
situation in Japan? There are three theory-driven sub
questions: 1. How do they perceive (come to perceive) theirown relationships with the other? 2. What do they perceive as‘resources’ amid the perceived relationships? 3. How does
each interpret tensions (if any) amidst the relationships?

1.

Introduction
Posthumanism is an umbrella term; while some attach
the prefix “post” to “Humanism” (the western philosophy)
while some to “Human” (implying enhanced/embedded
human beings by (IT) technologies)(e.g., Barad, 2017). But,
all generally critique the centrality and/or exceptionalism of
human beings in the universe. In applied linguistics,
Pennycook (2018) calls for the need to conduct criticalposthumanist applied linguistics project (PALP) whichinvestigates how human beings understand language in
relation to the other, including both humans and nonhumans(2018, p. 459). In exploring such project, he finds somepotential in the current holistic conceptualization of language,
such as translanguaging (García & Li, 2014).
Translanguaging emerged roughly a decade ago and the
motivation was to re-conceptualize language by going beyond
the divide between interiority/cognitive process andexteriority/social practice within the field and also between
disciplines. Thus, from translanguaging lens, people
communicate (offline and online) by transcending theboundaries between named languages and also between
languages and other cognitive and semiotic systems (e.g.,
gestures, objects/artifacts, etc.). Li (2018) reaffirms themultiplicity of relationships that language affords for humanbeings, “language is multilingual, multimodal, multisemiotic,
multisensory resources for human being to use for thinking
and communicative thought” (p. 18). Therefore, in 2019, I
decided to apply translanguaging in responding to the needaddressed by Pennycook, so longitudinal PALP began.
2.

3.

Research Participants and Context
Three young people in their 20s (a male Chinese, amale Japanese and a female Japanese) participated in the
PALP on volunteer-basis. I began building rapport (off-line)

A Phenomenological Approach to PALPThe conceptualization of translanguaging seems to
13

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

with each participant since the fall of 2019. While challenged
by the self-quarantine period in 2020 (4/7–5/24), theexperiential week (AI week) was conducted in mid-May.
From the posthumanist perspectives, how we co-live withrobots is an important issue in juxtaposition with how we colive with nature. Thus, I chose two robots (as additional
participants) with different backgrounds: Alexa made by
Amazon is a virtual assistant equipped with linguistic
resources and lights whereas aibo by Sony is a dog robot(aibo literally means buddy in Japanese) equipped with multimodal devices (facial-, body- movements, sounds/music, etc.).

6.

Discussion and Conclusion
The phenomenological approach showed somepotential as one of the possible ways to conduct PALP. Firstly,
the research results put forward various relationships beyondprescription, involving visible and invisible, real andimagined resources in the perceived tensions both positive
and negative. Secondly, the translanguaging lens contributed
to further analyses in elucidating distributed features acrosslanguage, the participants, and AI robots. For instance,
although the participants were in a way restricted by thenamed languages (by language mode, either English or
Japanese) in talking to the AI robots, all perceived theinteractions communication because the reciprocal
orchestrated responses from the AI robots ‘speak’ to eachparticipant’s senses/emotions/mind/body, with or without
linguistic resources. Moreover, I was intrigued that theparticipants projected what they thought were ‘good’ or ‘bad’
relationships regarding human beings on their relationships
with the AI robots; indeed, this probably is a formative
answer to the main research question. In interpreting therelationships, there were lots of expressions like “a sense of
empathy” (共感) and “attachments” (愛着). These, in fact,
were voiced when the participants felt their balance between
controlling and controlled shaken/collapsed, or, encounteredsurprises/contradictions. This in fact rekindles an ontologicalquestion. How do we explain our empathies and attachments?
Is it human saga to deliberately destroy the balance ofcontrolling-controlled on the earth in the universe? As the
PALP continues, the question remains to be answered.

4.

Data Collection Methods
The main method was on-line interview, asking aboutlife in general, including AI week. The interview data weretranscribed (including verbal and nonverbal features) andthematically analyzed (rereading till subthemes and thensuperordinate themes to emerge). The analyses were further
examinedbytranslanguaging
perspectives,thencontextualized by various other data collected as part of coexperiencing between the researcher and the participants. The
methods employed were on-line diaries during AI week(including emoticons, photos, and video-recordings), an offline group talk (8/28) when the restrictions were released, andon-line correspondences before and after AI week.
5.

Data Analysis
As for the sub questions 1 and 2, the thematic analyses
showed similarities among participants. All mentioned, to adifferent degree, relationships with people (in the past,present and future) including family members and different
kinds of friends, both offline and online. As for perceived‘resources’, in addition to the ones already discussed intranslanguaging research such as named languages (English
and Japanese) and objects (mobile phone, computer etc.),
there were invisible ones (Wi-Fi, hygiene, distancing/space)and essential ones (food, mask, etc.). Regarding the sub
question 3, perceived aspects of tensions were political,
ideological, cultural/social and ecological/corona virus (bothpositive and negative aspects). However, when it comes tohow each interprets the tensions in the perceived relationships,
the stories differed greatly. The difference indeed derived
from the fact that each already had formed his/her own innerresources based upon prior physical/emotional experiences.
Thus, when they were put in the new situations―under the
self-quarantine and subsequent restrictions-loosened
periods―each intra-acted with the inner resources while
maintaining, revising and re/creating routines in daily life.
Such analysis was only possible as my iterative interpretation
process was based on the contextualized data, which
compelled me to go further than the superordinate themes andreached what I call trans-ordinate themes; "Am I reallylonely?" (for the Chinese participant), "Go with the flow
while reading between waves" (the Japanese male participant),and “De-centering myself; live for others” (the female
participant). These themes surfaced as if divulging a glimpseof how each struggles to find his/her own criteria for what isa good and happy life.

Notes
1 Phenomenology generally deals with the structures of humanconsciousness as experienced physically and emotionally from thefirst-person point of view; and representative phenomenologists are
Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty, Hans-Georg
Gadamer, etc. (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Yurui Communication Lab at Keio University(Shonan Fujisawa Campus) which funded the current project.
References
Barad, K. (2003). Posthumanist performativity: toward anunderstanding of how matter comes to matter. Signs, 28(3), 801831.
Busch, B. (2012). The linguistic repertoire revisited. Applied
Linguistics, 33(5), 503–505.
García, O., & Wei, L. (2014). Translanguaging: Language,
Bilingualism and Education. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Li, W. (2018). Translanguaging as a Practical Theory of Language.
Applied Linguistics, 39(1), 9–30.
Pennycook, A. (2018). Posthumanist Applied Linguistics. Applied
Linguistics, 39(4), 445–461.
Smith, J. A., Flowers, P., & Larkin, M. (2009). Interpretative
Phenomenological Analysis: Theory, Method and Research.
London, England: Sage.
Tai, K. W. H. & Li, W. (2020). Bringing the outside in: connecting
students’ out-of-school knowledge and experience throughTranslanguaging in Hong Kong English medium instruction
mathematics classes, System, 95, 1-32.

14

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

A Study of English Major Students’ Critical Thinking Competence
via the Reconstruction of Perspectives in the Rewriting Activity
ZHENG Jianfeng
School of Foreign Languages, Shanxi Normal University, Linfen, Shanxi 041000, China
364811689@qq.com
Abstract
Rewriting activity is based on the reading text and it requires the author to change the original point ofview to reconstruct the text. In this process, sudents should first of all comprehend the original text,
clarify the information related to the new perspective, select and evaluate the relevance, logic of theinformation. This paper selected 25 pieces of students’ rewriting compositions to study how students
make use of the original text in terms of the quantity of quotation and modes of quotation. What’s more,think-aloud is adopted to know the students’ use of critical thinking skills. The results show that in therewriting activity, students have employed summary or paraphrase rather than direct quotation and evenin some compositions, the original text does not appear and students have completely reconstructed thestory in their own words. They have assigned themselves the role of the new perspective and considered
their relationship with the original narrator. The think-aloud data indicate that students have adopted
such critical thinking skills as selective attention, planning, brainstorming, self-monitoring and peer
correction to select information and evaluate the information. As the activity was conducted in groups,
students have got the opportunity to negotiate meaning and learned to reach consensus when differences
arise. They have also exercised their creativity and imagination in the process of rewriting activity.
Therefore, this activity has offered students an excellent opportunity to develop their competence of
critical thinking and creative thinking. What’s more, through relating the story from different
perspectives, they learned to deal with daily life issues from more than one angle and thus improved
their capability of empathy and sensitivity of other’s emotions and feelings, which is beneficial to theirinterpersonal exchange in future.
Keywords: critical thinking, reconstruction of perspectives, rewriting
Introduction
In the narrative writing, the story is usually told either
from the first-person point of view or the third-person pointof view. The narrator, who is usually the major character ofthe story who will directly or indirectly be involved in the
major plots, through which the theme of the story will be
revealed. In most cases, the point of view governs theprocession of the events and influences the readers’interpretation of the story. The change of the viewpoint, i.e.
the narration of the story from the perspective of a different
character, leads to the different development of the plots anddifferent resolution of the event. This paper takes thenarrative writing entitled “A Class Act” as an example tostudy students’ exercise of critical reading and creative
writing. It aims to answer the following questions throughanalyzing students’ compositions and think-aloud data:
1. How do the students make use of the source texts in therewriting activity?
2. What critical thinking skills are employed by the students
in the rewriting activity?
3. What are the effects of rewriting activity on students’
whole-person development?
The analytical framework adopted from Keck’sclassification of paraphrase into near copy, minimal revision,moderate revision and substantial revision (2006, p. 262) asparaphrase is considered part of the “triadic model” ofparaphrase, summary and quotation. The linguistic criteriaof the classification are shown in the following table:
1.

words long and the rewritten compositions range from 156
to 478 words long. The total number of words is 5870 andthe average length of the collected compositions is 234.8
words.
2.1 The quantity and mode of quotation
In terms of quantity of citation, only one composition
quoted more than 200 words from the original story,
accounting for 55% of the total, which can be considerednear copy. The compositions adopting substantial revision
occupy 16%. There are 13 compositions making moderaterevision, accounting for 44%. The rest of compositions makeminimal revision. In terms of the perspectives, the narrationfrom Miss McVee’s point of view occupies the highest
percentage, 26%, followed by that of the deputy
headmistress 18.4% while that from the perspective of theparents and peers is the lowest, 5.8% and 6% (see Table 2).
This is easy to understand because the deputy
headmistress and Miss McVee, the English literature teacher,are the two important characters who are directly involved in
the story while the parents and peers are either not present orjust observers (see Table 3).
Table 1
Statistics of Paraphrase in the Collected Corpus
Types of paraphrase
Numbers ofPercentage
compositions
Near copy
14Minimal revision
728
Moderate revision
13
52
substantial revision
4
16
total
25
100

Results analysis
This study has collected 25 compositions composedby students in groups of six and the original text is about 947
2.

15

Words
quoted
225
419
356
104
1104

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Table 2
Perspectives of Narration and Ratio of Quotation
Perspectives
No. ofLength of
No. ofof narration
composi compositions
words
tions
quotedDeputy8
1956/8364
headmistressMiss McVee
122525/12656
parents
3
1026/3
60
peers
2
363/2
24

2.3 Whole-person development
Besides the exercise of creativity and imagination, therewriting activity can help enhance students’ development of
empathy and promote their sensitivity over worldly affairs.
Through relating the story from different perspectives, theylearned to deal with daily life issues from more than one
angle and become tolerant and open-minded. They may
realize the evil and selfish nature of human being and try
their best to overcome such negative attributes, which is
conducive to the cultivation of their value systems.

Percenta
ge
18.4%
26%
5.8%
6%

Table 3
Perspectives of Narration and Characters Presence
Perspectives/ Plots
Daily assembly
Literature class
Deputy headmistresspresent
absentMiss McVee (English absent
present
literature teacher)parents
absentabsentpeers
Present (participant) Present (observer)

Discussion
The rewriting activity is text-responsible writing task
which requires students to firstly comprehend the source
texts carefully and analyze the new perspective to determine
the relevance of the source texts to the new perspective. The
rewriting task coincides with the language acquisition mode
proposed by Wang Chuming (2017), which integrates
reading with writing and emphasized the context, languageuse, interaction, meaning-diving, synergy and creation. It isalso in line with Anderson and Krathwohl’s (20001) theoryof cognitive skills. It is based on the input of positive
evidence (Jiang & Yi, 2013) and organically integrates suchenabling steps of consideration of context, interaction withsource texts and creative imitation. It starts withcomprehension and ends in creation. In the comprehension
stage, students have to read the source texts in depth andappreciate the language use in terms of the characters’
mentality, description of the characters’ speech and action as
well as the setting, and the revelation of the theme, which
may provide the rewriting activity with the prefabricatedlanguage chunks. Besides, students may be able tounderstand the author’s attitude towards and purpose ofwriting through the diction so as to effectively absorb thesource texts and make good use of them in the rewriting
activity to promote the occurrence of language synergy. In
the repeated reading process, students may undergo thecharacters’ experience, completing the emotional synergy.
3.

Except for one composition which mostly copies fromthe original material by replacing some words withoutchanging structure of the sentences, the others mainly adopt
the paraphrasing and summarizing techniques in therewriting activity. One composition which adopted theperspective of mother will be studied in detail to show
students’ critical reading and creative writing. The whole
composition included about 500 words and six paragraphs.
As is known from Table 2, the author’s parents “had no hintof the torment” the author faced as “I knew it was very
important not to let my well-meaning mother know about
this ritual humiliation”. In other words, the mother wasabsent from the school-related events. However, students
have created the composition by interpreting the importantwords used to describe the mother and her behaviors.
Source text: For her part, our mum was thrifty andmeticulously clean, and her five children were always sent toschool well fed, very clean, and attired spotlessly, despite thehard conditions. …although my clothes were ironed to aknife-edge, and shoes polished to a gleam,…
Rewritten text: I wake naturally before the sun has fully
risen, and over the years it has become a habit to get up early.
Set up breakfast and dishes for the husband and children,and put yesterday’s ironed clothes by everyone’s bed. As weate breakfast, I stared at the doorway where the children’s
shoes were, each painted white, and looked around the room,
wondering what else could be pawned, put into a new pair ofshoes, or perhaps put together a school uniform that thechildren didn’t have.

Conclusion
Through the above analysis, we may see theadvantages of the rewriting activity in terms of criticalthinking skills, collaborative learning and whole-person
development. The practice of such language learning task
incorporates critical thinking skills and creativity into
regular English language knowledge and skill acquisition
and is conducive to the development of lifelong learning.
4.

2.2 Use of critical thinking skills
Through analyzing students’ think-aloud data, it isfound that students have employed such critical thinking
skills as selective attention, interpretation, analysis,
inference in tackling the original text. They have usedbrainstorming, planning, outlining in writing process. Afterthey finished the first draft, they self-monitored andpeer-revised the writing and translating is adopted in orderto clarify the information and check their interpretation. As
the activity was conducted in groups, students have got theopportunity to negotiate meaning and learned to reachconsensus when differences arise. They have also exercised
their creativity and imagination in the process of rewriting
activity. Therefore, this activity has offered students an
excellent opportunity to develop their competence of criticalthinking and creative thinking.

References
Anderson, L. W. & Krathwohl, D. R. (eds.). (2001). A taxonomy
for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s
taxonomy of educational objectives. Longman.
He Z.. 2012. Integrated English Course [M]. Shanghai Foreign
Education Press.
Jiang, L. & Yi, H. (2013). Positive evidence, negative feedback andsecond language acquisition: An empirical study of theacquisition of third-person singular verbs. English Teachers,
12, 50–55.
Keck, Casey. 2006. The use of paraphrase in summary writing: A
comparison of L1 and L2 Writers[J]. Journal of Second
Language Writing, 15, 261–278
Wang, C. M. (2017). From “learning through writing” to “learning
through continuation.” Foreign Language Teaching andResearch, 5.

16The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Curricular Impacts on Student Motivation:
Listening to Japanese University Students
Reiko Yoshihara
Nihon University, College of Commerce
yoshihara.reiko@nihon-u.ac.jp
Abstract
This study explored how a university EFL curriculum in Japan influenced language learner motivation. This
study was guided by two aims: (1) understanding students’ perceptions of university EFL curriculum, and (2)transforming the university EFL curriculum to promote language learner motivation and engagement. I employed
an ethnographic approach and positioned myself as an insider. From the perspective of an insider who
understands certain cultural practices and routines in the research site, I interviewed 22 students in the Japanese
university where I taught. Interviews were conducted from August 2018 through July 2019, and follow-up
communications via the Line app continued until May 2020. The students’ narrative data were examined from aperson-in-context relational view of motivation. Drawing on thematic analysis, findings showed the gaps
between students’ demands and the university EFL curriculum. Although the university EFL curriculum offeredR
a TOEIC○preparation course, many students were displeased with the test-oriented course. They wanted toacquire sociocultural knowledge and to enrich their own perspectives and minds through learning English inuniversity EFL classrooms. They were also discontent with courses taught by traditional modes of instruction.
Findings revealed that courses taught by modes of instruction influenced language learner motivation,
engagement, and participation. It is hoped that this study will contribute to the studies of language learnermotivation and curriculum development, and the improvement of language curriculum design including contents
and instructions by listening to learners’ voices.
Keywords: learner motivation, curriculum development, Japanese university EFL contests,
ethnographic approach
1.

Introduction
As a university EFL curriculum has been flexible andlargely rested on an individual university (Takeda, 2009),
tenured English faculty in Japanese universities plays a key
part in EFL curriculum development. In this sense, for tenured
English faculty in Japanese universities who are responsible
for the curriculum transformation, curriculum development
and learner motivation are inseparable. It is agreed that acurriculum has an impact on learner motivation (Banegas,
2019). To enhance language learner motivation and transform
university EFL curricula, the need to listen to learners is clear(Banegas, 2019). However, there is few studies of bottom-up
curriculum development that learners’ voices could be
involved. As a response to this lacuna, I as a curriculum
developer of an EFL program at a Japanese university felt theneed to better understand students’ perceptions of university
EFL curriculum and to transform the university EFL
curriculum to promote learner motivation and engagement.
By listening to learners, the bottom-up curriculum would be
developed.
In this study, an ethnographic approach is employed.
Ethnographic data are examined from “a person-in-context
relational view” of motivation (Ushioda, 2009). As a personin-context relational view of motivation stressed the synergy
and dynamics between language learners and the contexts thatdrive them to do something, an ethnographic approach isappropriate for this study.

communications continued until May 2020. These interviews
were semi-structured, held in the students’ first language,
Japanese, and typically lasted between 30 minutes and one
hour. Exchanges via the Line app were used for follow-up
questions and extended questions.
2.2 Participants
For this study, 22 students of the university participated.
Because this study focused on the overall university EFL
curriculum, I recruited students who had completed the four
required English courses. The participants were composed offive 4th-year students, twelve 3rd-year students, and five 2ndyear students. Their English proficiency ranged from 250 to
870 on the TOEIC○R.
2.3 The Context
The students were drawn from the department ofbusiness at a large private university located in Tokyo, Japan.
All students at the university took two 90-minute compulsory
EFL courses in their first and two in second years. The firstyear students were required to take English 1, a course
focused on English grammar and writing skills, and English
2, one focused on English speaking and listening skills. The
second-year students had to take English 3 to focus on English
reading skills and English 4 for improving their test score on
R.
TOEIC○
2.4 Data Analysis
I followed Riessman’s (2008) thematic analysis:familiarization with data, identifying common thematicelements, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes,
and producing the final report. Aligning with my researchquestions and following iterative readings of the data set, I

2. Data Collection and Analysis
2.1 Data Collection
Datacollections
includedinterviews
andcommunications via the Line app. Interviews were conductedfrom August 2018 through July 2019 and Line app
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examined the data set, I combined, delineated, and refined
categories until axial categories emerged.

demotivation, disengagement, and non-participation (Norton,
2014). The discontent of English 3 and English 4 madestudents feel bored with classes and less engaged with classes
and class activities. As a result, the risk of non-participation
would increase. Students’ non-participation is a serious issue
to consider when we develop a curriculum.
The finding also showed that the students liked courses
focused on development of communicative language skills,
courses that students develop sociocultural knowledge,
courses involving group work activities, and courses
instructed in English, which seemed to increase language
learner motivation and engagement.
The findings will give useful guidance to develop auniversity EFL curriculum by listening to students’ voices.
Curriculum developers of university EFL programs must
analyze and understand students’ needs and interests,
individual differences, and English proficiency in the local
contexts.

3. Findings
3.1 Preference of Courses Focused on Communicative
Language Skills
Students expressed discontent with English 3 (Reading)
instructed by the grammar translation method while students
were satisfied with the grammar translation method eventhough they felt that it was boring. The discontent led to
students’ demotivation and disengagement from learning
English. Instead of English 3, students wanted to learn
English communication skills as a goal. However, what theyconcretely meant by English communication skills varied;
daily conversation, exchanging ideas and opinions, andpresentation skills.
3.2 Preference of Courses that Broaden Students’
Perspectives
The considerable high rate of students who failed English
4 (TOEIC○R Preparation) showed that students seemed not toenjoy the course and were not motivated to study for the
TOEIC○R tests. Students’ narratives evidenced this. Nineteen
students out of 22 commented that they did not like English 4
and were bored with it. Studying English for tests made themfeel uninterested and unremunerated. Instead of the testoriented course, students wanted to learn about different
cultures and values and to broaden their perspectives throughEnglish courses. They wanted to learn English for theirinterest, education, and personal growth.

5.

Afterword
Lately, the curriculum examined in this study wastransformed in the university where I taught. The concern of
key faculty including myself was how to transform English 3
and English 4 because the students expressed discontent anddisengaged with English 3 and English 4, and consequently
failed the courses. In addition to the inclusion of students’voices, we have argued the knowledge and skills we would
like our students to acquire, learner motivation, engagement
and participation, and university expectations in thediscussion of curriculum transformation. It was concluded
that we would like to educate them as global businesspersons
with critical thinking and cultural minds. Therefore, ourcourses should focus on contents with the language practice(CLIL). The course focused on English reading wastransformed to “Current Business Topics” and “Cultural andGlobal Topics.” Future research could examine how students
perceive the new EFL curriculum of the university, more
specifically whether the new EFL university curriculum
increase learner motivation, engagement, and participation.

3.3 Preference of Courses Instructed in English
In relation to the development of English communication
skills, most of the students wanted their instructors to use
English in the university EFL classroom. They regarded
positively those Japanese instructors who used English in theclassroom as L2 role models and were motivated to learn
English in English. Three reasons emerged from the students’narratives: (1) Students paid more attention to lessons taught
in English than in Japanese, (2) Students can haveopportunities to use the target language increased when
instructors use English, and (3) Instructors’ L2 talk triggered
the development of the ideal L2 self among students.

References
Banegas, D. L. (2019). Language curriculum transformation andmotivation through action research. The Curriculum Journal, 30,
422-440. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585176.2019.1646145
Norton, B. P. (2014). Non-participation, imagined communities andthe language classroom. In M. P. Breen (Ed.), Learnercontributions to language learning: New directions in research(pp. 159-171). New York, NY: Routledge.
Riessman, C. K. (2008). Narrative methods for the human sciences.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Takeda, K. Foreign language education at universities in Japan.
Language and Culture, 22, 132-150.
Ushioda, E. (2009). A person-in-context relational view of emergent
motivation, self and identity. In Z. Dornyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.),
Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 215-228).
Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.

3.4 Preference of Courses Involving Group Work Activities
Most of the students liked and enjoyed courses involving
group work activities, which led to their motivation to learn
English. Only three students out of the 22 interviewed did not
like group work. The students who liked group work reported
that group work developed a sense of collaboration, promoted
learner responsibility, and offered a receptive atmosphere.
However, several students were skeptical if group work
activities would improve their English proficiency eventhough they liked group work activities.
4.

Discussion
The finding showed that the gaps between the students’
expectations and university EFL curriculum caused learner

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Seeking ‘Matured’ L2 Learning Style Mediated by Spirituality, Character
Forming, Public Philosophy: Toward Authentic Self-Growth and‘Well-Being’ English
KANAOKA Masao
Kagoshima University
k7217169@kadai.jp
Abstract
This study explored the effects of an ELT methodology aimed at forging student-eyed well-being L2
learning style, while mindful of language learners’ authentic self-growth that should be envisioned byvirtue of spirituality and public philosophy. Employing a semester-long EFL course and noting Dr. Ema
Ushioda’s accounts of CDST (L2 motivational dynamics), the research objective was to explore andverify (1) the impacts of a forged ELT methodology and following conceivable transformation of L2
learning style (strategy and practice) with focus on the maturity of self and identity in both public andprivate domains, (2) the organic interrelationship of ‘maturity’ and ‘well-being’ in L2 learning style,
together with the ontology of the English language in this milieu through the learners’ eyes, (3) therecognition of self-image as an L2 learner based on conceivable self-development, (4) the appearance of
successful self-development, which must be evidenced by tangible enhancement of relevant L2 use
capabilities and task engagement anchored in public philosophy and spirituality. First-year students ofmedicine and health sciences at a national university (N=62) participated in the study, considering theirintended life-orienting and successful character formation. Methodologically, Ushioda’s (2009, 2015)
L2 motivation, Arthur’s (2010) character education, and theories and notions of spirituality and public
philosophy were adopted. The results from various questionnaires (quantitative and open-ended) andfollowing statistical and textual analyses evidenced beneficial impacts in terms of (1)-(5). In researchfindings, substantial L2 strategic transformation was observed in t-tests in (1); regression analyses
suggested solid linkage of ‘maturity’ and ‘well-being’ in L2 practice and strategy in (2); well-assured
statements of ‘who I really am’ as an L2 learner and the raison d’être of the English language wereelicited in (3); full-fledged self-growth was evidenced in relevant L2 use capabilities, together withsolid interest in public philosophy-concerned, self-enlightenment-aimed L2 task engagement in (4).
Keywords: matured L2 learning style, well-being, self-growth, CDST, public philosophy
1.

Rationale and RQs
In L2 motivation research in Japan, a plethora ofapproaches including focusing on anxiety, self-determination,
and willing-to-communicate associated with externalreference groups (e.g., native speakers of English) wereconducted by employing college students. In the meantime,
the following approach (research scope) has been rarely
adopted: focusing on potently important mutual commitment
and engagement of a person and a language with focus on
authentic human development. In this vein, the present
research aimed to stress relevantly important dynamic L2
practices, all of which should be promoted by co-related andco-adaptable L2 learning strategies, L2 use capabilities, andL2 use task engagement. Hence, a unique research scope isto underscore outside L2 domain as well, such as character
formation and its relevant crucial aspects: spirituality andpublic philosophy.
Anchored in this research orientation, four researchquestions were prepared. RQ1: <Impacts of ELT andTransformation of L2 learning style (strategy and practice)>
Pedagogically, is it feasible to develop a ‘matured’ L2learning style, which is mediated by successful self-orienting,inner spiritual growth, and character formation with an eye
to public philosophy? RQ2: <Organic relation of ‘maturity’and ‘well-being’ in L2 learning, together with the ontologyof the English language> Will such a ‘matured’ L2 practice
become a potently powerful agent of inducing ‘well-being’
laden L2 practice in the eye of language learners? Also, howwould the English language be described by them in termsof its ontology (i.e., the raison d’être)? RQ3:<‘Maturity’ of
the self and identity as L2 learner (as a person)> In
association with the matured L2 learning style for the questof ‘well-being’ English, in terms of self-growth as a person,
how would the L2 learners describe themselves? RQ4:
<Well-balanced self-growth derived from public philosophy
and spirituality> In pursuit of successfully matured
self-development with relevant L2 use and task engagement,
will the learners be able to develop their personallyconvincing (i.e., self-assured) L2 use capabilities, as well as
their interest and volition for the tasks pertaining to public
philosophy and spirituality for successful character
formation?
2.

Results and Discussion*Partial and Brief

The following tables indicate the yielded results for
RQs 1-4. (Note. Not all covered due to limited page
range; details to be explained in the Conference on-line
presentation).
Notable points for discussion are: [RQ1] L2LS
(1)-(6) have been improved from negative to positive
levels (vs. Week 1 pre-stage; figures now shown here)
and higher results/emphases appeared on ELT. L2LS
(7)-(8) have been weakened conversely (and ELT as well).
[RQ2] Higher levels of correlations were yielded in (1)– (6) of L2LS. [RQ3] Collected responses (self-perceived
image as an L2 learner) were largely concentrated on
Type 3, and more than 80 percent responses were

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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

dominated by Types 3 and 4. [RQ4] Evidently positive
responses (i.e., self-perceived L2 use capabilities) were
elucidated in all aspects of L2 use capabilities indescribing ‘Who I really am as a whole person (a humanbeing).’in order for my authentic self-growth
as a person, also for identifying
good human society
5 (8.1%)
Table 4 (RQ4) Self-Evaluated L2 Use Capabilities to Describe theWhole Self (Explicit Aspects and Inner Spiritual Aspects in RealLife Contexts) (Week 16) (N = 62)

Table 1 (RQ1) Impacts of ELT and Developed L2 Learning Style :Post Results (Week 16) (N = 62)
Examined Aspects(1) ML2LS ELT
L2 LS(2) WBL2A ELT
L2 LS(3) SORL
ELT
L2 LS(4) CSM
ELT
L2 LS(5) SA
ELT
L2 LS(6) L2M
ELT
L2 LS(7) BL2P
ELT
L2 LS(8) IL2L
ELT
L2 LS

M
5.38
4.20
4.96
4.32
5.29
4.37
5.53
4.48
5.51
4.44
5.39
4.26
2.67
3.25
2.45
3.14

SD
0.70
0.87
0.80
0.79
0.70
0.86
0.66
0.85
0.65
0.90
0.67
0.93
0.76
0.91
0.96
0.89

t
8.25

p
.00

4.47

.00

6.53

.00

7.62

.00

7.56

.00

7.71

.00

-3.83

.00

-4.08

.00

Examined Aspects
M(1) General Info.
5.35(age, gender, high school days)(2) Affiliation and Major
5.32(univ. name, grade, faculty, dept.)(3) Future Life and Career Goal
5.01
(after college graduation)(4) Reasons for College Enrollment
4.88(including elaborating the selected major)(5) Idealistic self-image as a person
4.72(character formation)(6) Definition of what self-growth/maturity 4.48
really means(7) Explanation of
4.70
personal beliefs and values

(2)

0.98

(4)
.503**(5).430**(6).480**–.516**.523**.420**.557**–.736**.635**.706**

References–.799**.722**–.776**(6)
Note. p <. 01**

Arthur, J. (2010). Of good character: Exploration of virtues
and values in 3–25 year-olds. Exeter, U.K.: Imprint
Academic.
Levine, G. S. (2020). A human ecological language
pedagogy. Modern Language Journal, 104 (Supplement),
9-14.
Ushioda, E. (2009). A person-in-context relational view of
emergent motivation, self and identity. In Z. Dörnyei & E.
Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2
self (pp. 215–228). Bristol, U.K.: Multilingual Matters.
Ushioda, E. (2015). Context and complex dynamic systems
theory. In Z. Dörnyei, P. MacIntyre, & A. Henry (Eds.),
Motivating dynamics in language learning (pp. 47–54).
Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.

–

Table 3 (RQ3) Self-Image as an L2 Learner (Week 16) (N = 62)

4

0.97

(3)
.444**

(5)

3

0.94

(2)
.647**

(4)

2

0.87

In the future study, while continuing further theoretical
study, another research attempt is pegged onto developing a
CDST-mediated effective pedagogical model (e.g., L2teaching methodology). In this regard, Levin (2020)
addressed a new concept: A Human Ecological Pedagogy.
Reiterating the core values of CDST, he presented a clue tooperationalizing CDST in L2 pedagogical terms.
In further research practice, an imperative is how tocreate a CDST-laden pedagogical model, followed by its
examinations focusing on its tangible impacts in the college
L2 classroom.

(3)

Type
1

0.83

Implication

Table 2 (RQ2) Correlations of Post Results of L2LS (1)-(6)
(1)
–

0.71

Note. α = .954. Pre results (Week 1) not shown here.
Admittedly, except (1), other parts were responded
negatively, in particular much lower negative responses (M= 2.0) went to (5) – (7) (Week 1).

Note. α = .838 (ELT), α = .880 (L2LS). ML2LS = Matured
L2 Learning Style. WBL2A = Well-Being L2 Approach.
SORL = Self-Orienting in Real Life. CSM = Character andSelf-Maturity. SA = Spirituality and Aphorism. L2M = L2
Motivation. BL2P = Behaviorism L2 Practice. IL2L =Instrumentalism L2 Learning. Bonferroni adjustment wasapplied for eight tests at p < .008.

(1)

SD
0.72

FeatureResponse
Recognizing and learning ENG
as just a school subject
0 (0%)
Recognizing and learning ENG
as a foreign language
11 (17.7%)
Learning and using ENG
to better know myself and to develop
my inner spiritual part46 (74.2%)
Learning and using ENG

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Exploring Multiple Identities and Agency: A Narrative Case Study of aJapanese Secondary English Teacher
Takaharu Saito
Ryutsu Keizai University
tasaito@rku.ac.jp
Abstract
This study explored how Shigeru (pseudonym), a Japanese secondary school English teacher, constructed
and negotiated his identity in relation to his agency across time and space. It adopted a phenomenologicalcase study approach in order to understand the teacher’s lived experiences. Data were generated throughin-depth phenomenological interviews, focusing on the teacher’s life history and contemporary
experience, as well as reflections on their significance. Positioning analysis was employed in order tounderstand how his identity positions supported or limited his ability to act in his narratives. Guided bypost-structural theories of identity and social cognitive theories of agency, the study reveals how and why
the shift occurred in terms of his career, from majoring in economics as a college student to becoming an
English teacher actively engaging in the execution of CLIL lessons at a private secondary school. The
results show that he utilized his multiple identities in order to broaden his students’ future possibilities.
They further indicate that his identity construction interacted with his agency, which was both individualand collective: individual in his love for learning and teaching English, student-first philosophy, andenergetic action in (as he put it) “running at full speed” to achieve a goal; and collective in his interaction
with the available support networks, such as those of his colleagues and teaching specialists from outside
study groups. In addition, they demonstrate that his identity construction and agency were multifacetedand context-dependent, in complex ways, displaying the interrelated social context of the micro (CLIL
practices), meso (school environment), and macro (language policy and ideology) levels.
Keywords: language teacher identity, language teacher agency, content and language integrated
learning
Introduction
The past two decades have witnessed the notableappearance of language teacher identity (LTI) in the literatureon language teacher education, as evidenced by two top-tierjournals devoting special issues to the topic (TESOL
Quarterly, 2016; Modern Language Journal, 2017).
Varghese, Morgan, Johnston, and Johnson (2005) point out
that the need for language teacher identity (LTI) research
emerged from recognition of teacher identity as “a crucialcomponent in determining how language teaching is playedout,” and as “a critical component in the sociocultural andsociopolitical landscape of the language classroom” (p. 22).
In addition, Kayi-Aydar (2019) claims that LTI
research has highlighted the decision-making process oflanguage teachers, including the agentic activity involved intheir identity construction; and suggests a further focus, on
issues related to language teacher agency (LTA). In order toinvestigate the relationship between LTI and LTA in theJapanese context, the present study, through narrative inquiry,
focused on how Shigeru (pseudonym), a Japanese secondary
school English teacher, constructed and negotiated his
identity in relation to his agency across time and space.

highlights the self’s multidimensional nature within theframework of contextual, cultural, and sociopoliticalissues. This theoretical stance is useful for understanding
LTI construction in the context of the present study.

Poststructuralist Theories and Teacher Identity
Recent LTI research appears to be heavily
influenced by poststructural approaches. Norton (2017)
stresses that “while identity is conceptualized as multiple,changing, and a site of struggle, the very multiplicity ofidentity can be productively harnessed in the interests ofmore productive language teaching” (p. 81). In a similarmanner, Barkhuizen’s (2016) theorization rejects any
singular categorization or essentialist self, and instead

4.

1.

Language Teacher Agency
Consolidating three theoretical foundations (theecological approach, social cognitive theory, and positioning
theory), Kayi-Aydar (2019) defines language teacher agency
as “a language teacher’s intentional authority to make choices
and act accordingly in his or her local context” (p. 15). She
claims that LTA is both individual and collective, as well as
context dependent and influenced by the environment, as
language teachers’ context and discourse may promote or
prevent their agentic actions. The complex contextuality of
LTI and LTA can be understood through the transdisciplinary
framework developed by the Douglas Fir Group (DFG; 2016).
This framework recognizes language learning and teaching as
a complex and multifaceted entity distinguished by threehighly interrelated dimensions of social context: a micro levelof social activity, a meso level of sociocultural institutions andcommunities, and a macro level of ideological structures.
3.

2.

Methods

4.1 Participant and Setting
Shigeru (pseudonym), a Japanese English teacher, wasselected as the participant in this case-based investigation
because his educational background, outstanding practicalEnglish abilities and teaching skills, and active engagement
in executing CLIL (content and language integrated learning)open classes stood out as “unique” and “intrinsically
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interesting,” as characterized by Merriam (1998).

collective in his interaction with the available support
networks, such as those of his colleagues and teachingspecialists from outside study groups. These findings support
Bandura’s (2000) social cognitive theory of human agency,
which conceives of one’s identity as both individual andcollective.
Shigeru has multiple identities, such as head of the
English department, English teacher focusing on CLIL
practice, homeroom teacher, basketball coach, an active
member of the CLIL association, etc.; and he hopes to utilize
each to broaden his students’ future possibilities. His
professional life is a site of struggle, reflecting his agentic
action of (as he put it) “pushing extra hard” to achieve hisgoals. His teaching practice changes over time, through his
individual and collective agentic actions. His identity andagency are multifaceted and context-dependent. In sum, thestudy’s findings support the theoretical stances of Norton(2013) and Barkhuizen (2016).
The results of the present study suggest that language
teachers and educators should be provided with opportunities
to explore language teaching from the broad perspectives ofthe overall teaching environment, because language teachers
can optimize their practice when their semiotic resources atthe level of classroom interaction (micro) are valued by theschool (meso) and society (macro).

4.2 Data Collection and Analysis
After phenomenological interviews based on Seidman(2013), the interview data was coded, with instances ofidentity construction, negotiation, and agentic action related
to identity being extracted and identified, in order to create
analytical categories. In addition, positioning analysis, whichattempts to answer the major guiding question, “whopositions whom and what happens as a result of such
positioning” (Kayi-Aydar, 2019, p. 18), was utilized tounderstand how Shigeru’s identity position supported orlimited his ability to act in his narratives. Several case-based
themes were then articulated; and particularly salient
elements of the interviews were translated into English, aspart of the study report.
Results
Three themes, relevant to the study’s theoreticalframework, emerged from the logical analysis: (1) obtaining
an English teacher’s certificate while majoring in economics
at college, (2) teaching English at a private girls’ junior andsenior high school, and (3) implementing CLIL as head of the
English department. The first was illustrated by Shigeru
positioning himself as an economics major who was taking
credits to gain a teaching certificate in English. The second
was illustrated by his positioning himself as an English
teacher at a private girls’ school based on Christian principles,
as a rewarding job, with the hope of teaching lesson content
in English. And the third was illustrated by his positioning
himself as an English teacher with discretionary power (ashead of the English department), who could make decisions
related to the execution of a CLIL approach in his English
lessons, in order to achieve his aim of teaching content inEnglish.
5.

Acknowledgements
My sincere thanks go to the research participant, Shigeru, for his
willingness to participate in this study.
References
Bandura, A. (2000). Exercise of human agency through collective
efficacy. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(3), p.
75-78.
Barkhuizen, G. (2016). A short story approach to analyzing teacher(imagined) identity over time. TESOL Quarterly, 50(3), 655683. doi:10.1002/tesq.311
Douglas Fir Group. (2016). A transdisciplinary framework for SLA
in a multilingual world. Modern Language Journal, 100(Supplement 2016), 19-47. doi:10.1111/modl.12301
Kayi-Aydar, H. (2019). Language teacher agency: Major theoreticalconsiderations, conceptualizations and methodologicalchoices. In Kayi-Aydar, H., Gao, X., Miller, E. R., Varghese,M., & Vitanova, G. (Eds.), Theorizing and analyzing language
teacher agency (pp. 10-21). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study
applications in education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Norton, B. (2013). Identity and language learning: Extending theconversation (2nd ed.). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Norton, B. (2017). Learner investment and language teacher identity.
In G. Barkhuizen (Ed.), Reflections on language teacher
identity research (p. 80-86). New York: Routledge.
Seidman, I. (2013). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide forresearchers in education and the social sciences (4th ed). New
York: Teachers College Press.
Varghese, M., Morgan, B., Johnston, B., & Johnson, K. (2005).
Theorizing language teacher identity: Three perspectives andbeyond. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, 4(1),21-44. doi:10.1207/s1532770jlie0401_2

Discussion and Conclusion
Through positioning, Shigeru’s identity construction
and agency were multifaceted and context-dependent, incomplex ways, for understanding which the DFG framework(2016) is useful. Positioned as the English department head,
one of his multiple professional identities, his agentic action
utilized CLIL in his teaching practice (the classroom at the
micro level) at a private girls’ junior and senior high school
based on Christian principles (the school environment at themeso level), facing a period of globalization, declining
birthrate, aging society, and other relevant social dimensions(large-scale, society-wide ideological structures at the macrolevel). The micro, meso, and macro levels are all highlyinterrelated, with each giving shape to and shaped by the otherlevels, as illustrated by Shigeru’s CLIL practice (micro level)in the Bible class (macro level of religion), in collaboration
with the chaplain at his school (meso level).
Shigeru’s teaching experience reveals that his identity
construction interacted with his agency, which was bothindividual and collective: individual in his love for learningand teaching English, student-first philosophy, and energetic
action in “running at full speed” to achieve a goal; and6.

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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Agile & Scrum Methodology: Professors as Scrum Masters in EFL
University Classrooms in Japan
Alexis. A. Kinch
University of Hyogo, Kobe Campus School of Commerce
xxhqd182@hq.u-hyogo.ac.jp
Abstract
The decision-making process is an essential part of the learning output of any group-oriented project. In
the English classroom of Japanese universities, one of the most important decisions to be made is choosing
the correct direction and framework needed to guide all student assignments in a progressive, productive
manner. Over the last few decades, agile methodology has proven effective in the software industry toensure smooth collaboration and team management. With this in mind, this study sought to evaluate how
agile methodology can be incorporated in directing listening skills in a Japanese university class. On
closer analysis, Scrum Principles held some answers and offered an effective language learning
environment. The scrum ideology and application to EFL classroom is very simple: create an efficient
way to reach the goal with the help of all team members. Results have shown that professors, as scrum
masters, must first of all, embrace the pivot. Scrum masters are agile and in the university classrooms,
this is something instructors should emulate. It is important that feedback sprints be short, based on
regular turn arounds and group-inspired changes, a progressive delivery timeline and other small details
that are pivotal to classroom learner success. Instructors, operating as scrum masters, should start theirlesson curriculum planning simply before elevating to the most ideal approach. Every time a sprint
meeting is finished, there is a need to verify if the team is performing well or not before making
adjustments to the subsequent lesson plan structures. Through this, instructors as scrum masters, can steer
the student teams in the right direction, and once this group performance analysis has been conducted,
instructors should be able to tell if that class can reach its collective syllabus objective.

d
e
l
e
c
n
a
C

Keywords: project management, scrum principles, scrum master, sprints, iterative progress1.

the worksheet prepared in both English and Japanese. The
temperature of the room was readjusted to a cooler level. The
students, via the sprint leader, agreed unanimously that visual
aid cues would be beneficial in understanding total context of
the issue being presented when developing their listening
skills. With this clear point of contact, the students were able
to create and demonstrate clear group work autonomy. As aresult of these iterative progress changes, the same student bycomparison, was able to decipher twelve content phrases
during the same listening task.

Introduction
Seventy students, 32 males and 38 females, enrolled in
the Undergraduate English Studies programme of the Schoolof Management, Economics, Business and Global Businessparticipated in the study and listened to a TED Talk video
presentation by Dianne Cohen (2010) entitled “Tough Truths
About Plastic Pollution”. This study explored English
language listening as a product skill to be continuously
revisited, redesigned and redeveloped.
Student 1 – Sprint 1

The first-year students sat with their chairs facing theback of the class. They were given a worksheet two minutes
prior to the start of the TedTalk. The room was lit with warm
temperature. The students were instructed to briefly scan theworksheet, listen to the video being played and circle thewords or phrases they hear based on the audio only. There
were 30 listed content words and phrases extracted from thetalk. The worksheet was written in English only. The
objective was to expand their listening skills on a global issue.
This student heard six content phrases from audio-only during
the listening task.
Student 1 – Sprint 2

One week later, students assigned a sprint leader withineach project team and held a 10-minute iterative progress
sprint meeting to gather feedback about Sprint 1. The sprint
leader then relayed these changes, such as room temperatureadjustments, speed of speech, bilingual worksheets andfurniture rearrangement to the EFL scrum master. Thechanges were implemented for Sprint 2.
During Sprint 2, students sat facing the video monitor
at the front of the room and listened to the TedTalk once with
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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

body to think outside the box resulting in the lack of effective
use of time or effort, thus decreasing classroom learner value.
When implementing scrum principles, Japanese university
instructors are not only thinking about technical capabilitiesof the classroom, but also about the ways in which groupthink
can harness a better learning experience.
2.2 Regular Sprints and team check-ins
In today’s hyper-expanding world of pedagogy,
whether it be face-to-face meetings, online format or hybrid
teaching sessions, instructors would be well-advised to focus
on regular sprints and check-ins with their students. This
contributes to the effectiveness of building trust andestablishing good classroom dynamic. Such check-ins areproductive and lead students to develop healthy lasting
critiquing on different issues which otherwise may result in a
problematic course design.

d
e
l
e
c
n
a
C

2.3 Clear contact points
In the EFL classroom, the flow of contact according toscrum principles allows for clearly defined direction flowfrom both sides at all times. University instructors should
become fluent in the group speak of each class under their
responsibility. Instructors unknowingly assume the role ofproject lead/scrum master and with clear flow of instruction
between the two points, this should be detail-oriented, reliable,
responsible and target-focused. Conversely, student groups
should also be assigned their own dedicated student
representative or sprint leader. This student is responsible forbeing familiar with all aspects of the project. He or she must
be able to communicate information clearly to the scrum
master between sprints. Additionally, the students can also
give the sprint leader the authorization to make changes orapprove work on their behalf.
3.

Conclusion
To successfully outsource agile/scrum principles, there
must be quick adaptability from all involved. Japan’s
universities’ EFL classrooms can quickly adapt to an everchanging teaching landscape with the use of scrum
methodology. The fixed duration of weekly sprints promotes
swift turn around delivery, with a predictably progressiveschedule. Most importantly, scrum is flexible in terms ofchanging conditions towards solid design, focusing on lesson
and groupwork excellence, and assisting instructors in better
understanding what should be the priority in delivering
English as a skilled product. Scrum development can be
successfully achieved in Japanese universities, but it will needa more enlightened approach from both the upper echelon
administrative policy makers and faculty teams. To this end,
one or both parties may be required to make specific changes
to their otherwise conventional processes. By forging mutual
understanding, open communication, and constant in classcollaboration, instructors, operating as scrum masters, canhave a greater chance at succeeding and developing a lasting
pedagogical learner experience.

Student 2 – Sprint 1 & Sprint 2

Student 2 showed sprint progression and listening
improvement from eight phrases (Sprint 1) to seventeen
phrases (Sprint 2). Such an improvement between sprints wasseen in 57 out of 70 students on this listening activity.
2.

Applicable Benefits to EFL university classrooms
Instructors, as scrum masters, in the EFL classroom canenjoy many positives with the applicability of agile and scrum
methodologies if they remain aware of the following.
2.1 Remain open-minded
Professors may view students as set requirements. They
are traditionally expected to implement objectives
orchestrated by governing administration exactly as laid out
in the core curriculum. This is a failure by the administrative

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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Does Vocalization Enhance Verb-Noun Collocation Learning?
Ryotaro Hashizaki**Nagoya University
kennkyuu.h137123@gmail.com
Abstract
We often employ vocalization as a mnemonic technique, such as when memorizing a list of items for
shopping. In the case of foreign or second language (L2) classrooms, learners often vocalize newly
learned words so as to keep them in their memory. Indeed, previous studies have demonstrated that
vocalization is effective on memory and L2 learning, where this effect is called the production effect (PE).
However, PE in L2 learning has only been tested on learning of word meanings, and the number of
empirical studies is still small, making it difficult to generalize the effect to other language items. Thus,
the present study tested the effect of vocalization on memorizing formulaic sequences (FS), a sequenceof words such as collocations. To achieve this, the participants in the present study learned 90 verb-noun
collocations and were tested on their form and meaning recognition, both immediately and one week after
the learning session. The result showed that the effect of vocalization enhances the learning of forms andmeanings for verb-noun collocations, and this effect is persistent over a one-week delay. Therefore, it wasdemonstrated that vocalizing enhances not only word meaning learning, but also the learning of forms
and meanings of verb-noun collocations, implying that PE can be applied to larger language items suchas formulaic sequences.
Keywords: Formulaic Sequence, Collocation, Vocalization, Production Effect, Distinctiveness1.

Introduction
Vocalization is effective on recognition andrecollection, and it is called the ‘production effect’. MacLeod
et al. (2010) defines the production effect as “the fact that
producing a word aloud during study, relative to simply
reading a word silently, improves explicit memory” (p. 671).
This effect works on word meanings, word forms, or evenlonger items such as pairs of words and sentences. It has also
been found that this effect works on word learning in second
languages (Icht & Mama, 2019). However, it is still not
known whether the production effect is effective on second
language formulaic sequences such as idioms, which consistof multiple words (Wray and Perkins, 2000). In addition, it
has also been shown that the effect of vocalization lasts overa certain period. Nevertheless, it is not known whether this isalso the case in second language formulaic sequences. Thus,
the present study explores the research questions below.

The experiment was conducted online using Zoom, avideo conferencing service. The programs for studying andtesting, a consent form, receipts, and text files that explained
the procedure of the experiment were sent to participants by
e-mail before the experiment. After signing the consent form,
participants opened the program for the study and test
sessions. 135 target verb-noun collocations were divided
randomly into three conditions (production, listening,
control). In the practice and study session, a verb-noun
collocation and its Japanese translation were presented on ascreen. In addition, following Icht and Mama (2019), an iconof an ear or a mouth appeared randomly above the collocation,
indicating one of the two conditions (production andlistening). When participants saw a mouth, they listened to a
verb-noun collocation once and read it aloud once.
Conversely, participants listened to a verb-noun collocation
twice when they saw an ear. The total number of collocationsin the study session was 90, and the remaining 45 items
appeared only in the test session. In the test session,
participants took the form recognition test and the meaning
recognition test. The form recognition was taken first because
the correct form of collocations appeared in the meaning
recognition test, which would affect the result of the form
meaning test. Upon finishing the test session, participants
took the vocabulary test. Finally, they filled out their personal
information in a questionnaire. After a one-week wait, they
took the delayed post-tests consisting of the same form andmeaning recognition tests.

1) Does the production effect work on second language
formulaic sequence (verb-noun collocation) forms andmeanings?
2) If the production effect is present in second language
formulaic sequence learning (verb-noun collocation), does it
endure for the period of 2 weeks?
2. Method
2.1 Participants
32 undergraduate and graduate students fromuniversities in the Tokai area (19 females, age [M = 19.78, SD= 1.83]) participated in the experiment. All participants were
native Japanese speakers majoring in various fields. They had
7.82 (SD = 2.82) years of English learning experience on
average. The participants’ vocabulary sizes were measured
using Yes_No Test (Meara & Miralpeix, 2017). The result
showed that the participants’ vocabulary size was 4793.48 on
average (SD = 1136.66).

3.

Results
The Generalized Liner Mixed Effect Model (GLMM)
was employed in order to investigate the effect of vocalization
on verb-noun collocation learning. The result showed that, inall the test types, learned items (listening and vocalization)
were remembered significantly better than control items(Figure 1) (ps < .001). The following analyses wereconducted with the items in the listening and vocalization
conditions since the main focus of the present study was to

2.2 Procedure
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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

compare the effectiveness of these two conditions on verbnoun collocation learning. Two models were made in total,
one for the form recognition tests and the other for themeaning recognition tests.

remember them (Hunt & Worthen, 2006). MacLeod et al.
(2010) explained that encoding thedistinctiveness of
vocalization leads to better memorization than that oflistening. That is, vocalization entailed a larger number of
unique encoding processes than just listening. This is because
any uniqueness of encoding processing leads to higher
distinctiveness (Icht & Mama, 2019). Icht and Mama (2019)stated that while the listening condition had only two (visualand auditory) encoding modalities, the vocalization condition
had three (visual, auditory, and motor), which is the same forthe present study. The better memory for the vocalized verbnoun collocations can be explained by this phenomenon. The
second explanation is the strong memory trace account(MacLeod & Bodner, 2017). This account states that
vocalizing leaves stronger memory traces whether there arebackground items or not. The reasoning for this account is that
vocalizing allows learners to pay more attention to target
items. In this study, it is also possible that the participants paid
stronger attention to the target verb-noun collocations in the
vocalization condition compared to ones in the listening
condition. Considering that attention is one of the key factors
for second language acquisition (Scmidt, 1990), the strong
memory trace account sounds plausible as well. The last
explanation is the dual-process account (Fawcett & Ozubko,
2016). This is the combination of the two explanations above.
That is, vocalization made the items distinctive and allowed
the participants to focus more on items. However, these three
explanations need more validation in future studies.

Figure 1
The Scores of All the Tests

The final model for the form recognition tests ended
up consisting of the learning conditions as the main effect(estimate = 0.155, z = 2.399, p = .016), and ID and items as
random effects. This means that vocalized items wererecognized better than the listening only items, and thisadvantage can be observed irrespective of test types(immediate and delayed), implying the endurance of theeffectiveness.The effect of vocalization on the learning of
collocation meanings was also analyzed using GLMM. The
result demonstrated that the main effects of both the learning
conditions (estimate = 0.166, z = 2.565, p = .010) and the test
types (estimate = 0.498, z = 7.840 p < .001) were statisticallysignificant. That is to say, vocalization led to a better
recognition of collocation meanings, irrespective of test types(immediate vs. delayed), and the score of the immediate
meaning recognition test was higher than that of the delayed
meaning recognition test.

References
Fawcett, J. M. (2013). The production effect benefits performance inbetween-subject designs: A meta-analysis. Acta Psychologica,
142(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.10.001
Fawcett, J. M., & Ozubko, J. D. (2016). Familiarity, but notrecollection, supports the between-subject production effect inrecognition memory. Canadian Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 70(2), 99–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/cep0000089
Hunt, R. R., & Worthen, J. B. (2006). Distinctiveness and memory.
OxfordUniversity
Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195169669.001.0001
Icht, M., & Mama, Y. (2019). The effect of vocal production on
vocabulary learning in a second language. Language Teaching
Research.
Publishedonline.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168819883894
MacLeod, C. M., Gopie, N., Hourihan, K. L., Neary, K. R., &Ozubko, J. D. (2010). The production effect: Delineation of aphenomenon. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning
MemoryandCognition,
36,
671–685.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018785
Meara, P., & Miralpeix, I. (2016). Tools for researching vocabulary.
Multilingual Matters.
Rayner, K. (2009). Eye movements and attention in reading, scene
perception, and visual search. Quarterly Journal of Experimental
Psychology,
62(8),
1457–1506.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17470210902816461
Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language
acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 11, 129–158.
Wray, A., & Perkins, M. (2000). The functions of formulaic language.
Language and Communication, 20, 1–28.

4.

Discussion
The result revealed that vocalization is more effective
than merely listening for formulaic sequence (verb-noun
collocation) learning. In addition, this effect was observed
irrespective of the four test types: immediate meaning
recognition, immediate form recognition, delayed meaning
recognition, and delayed form recognition. Thus, therobustness of vocalization was also confirmed. This implies
that the advantage of vocalization is purely ascribed tomemory phenomena; and traits of target items such as
inclusion of multi-words in target items do not affect theeffectiveness of vocalization.
Theoretically speaking, there are three possible
explanations for the result of the present study: a
distinctiveness account (Hunt & Worthen, 2006; MacLeod etal., 2010), a memory strength account (Fawcett, 2013), and a
dualprocess account (Fawcett & Ozubko, 2016). According
to the distinctiveness account, the more the items stand out inthe background of other items, the better people can26

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Japanese EFL Learners’ Modal Auxiliary Verb Use in Argumentative
Essays: A Corpus-based Study
Shusaku Nakayama
Meiji Gakuin University
Shusaku-nakayama@outlook.jp
Abstract
This research examines Japanese non-native speakers’ (JNNS) use of nine central modal auxiliary verbs(“can,” “may,” “will,” “shall,” “must,” and their corresponding preterit forms) in comparison with that ofnative speakers by using the International Corpus Network of Asian Learners of English. Results suggestthat JNNSs’ overuse of “should” and “must” represents their high sensitivity to the style of writing
required in this corpus, that is to say, argumentative; their overuse of “can” seems to be partly induced by
the easiness of acquisition of this modal; their underuse of “could” and “would” may be because the pasttense forms of the modals are difficult for learners to acquire. Additionally, error analysis is carried out toidentify common errors in the use of the modal verbs among JNNSs. Three types of error are found to berelatively common: (a) the use of inflected forms of verbs after the modals, (b) the employment ofincorrect tenses of modal verb phrases, and (c) the non-use of main verbs after the modal verbs.
Keywords: argumentative essays, corpus-based analysis, Japanese EFL learners, the ICNALE corpus,
modal auxiliary verbs
Introduction
English modal auxiliary verbs have been considered tobe among the most frequent (O’Keeffe et al., 2007; Leech etal., 2009) as well as the most problematic grammaticalstructures for language learners (Celce-Murcia & LarsenFreeman, 2013; Römer, 2004). By comparing the use of nine
central modal auxiliary verbs (“can,” “may,” “will,” “shall,”“must,” and their corresponding preterit forms) between
Japanese non-native speakers (JNNS) and native-speakers(NS), this research sought to identify JNNSs’ non-nativenessin the modal use so that language teachers or designers ofteaching materials can make use of research findings andteach this grammatical structure effectively. The following
three research questions were posed:
1. Which modals do JNNSs overuse or underuse in writing
relative to NSs?
2. Which meanings do JNNSs prefer or avoid conveying foreach of the modals relative to NSs?
3. What errors in the use of the modal verbs are common
among JNNSs?

A2 JNNSs and NSTs, the frequency of use of each of themodals as well as results of a log-likelihood test, which was
performed by using Rayson’s (n.d.) log-likelihood and effectsize calculator, are shown in Table 1. The modal verbs are
put in descending order of frequency within A2 JNNSs’
essays; numbers in parenthesis represent frequency rankings
within NSTs’ essays.

1.

Table 1.
Frequency of Use and Results of a Log-likelihood Test
Modal

Corpus Under Analysis
A written essay corpus (Ishikawa, 2013) which is partof the International Corpus Network of Asian Learner English(ICNALE) was adopted for this study. This corpus consists ofargumentative 200-300 words essays written by Asianlearners of English as well as NSs. Among several types of
NS language available in this corpus, language produced bynative-speaking teachers (NST) was adopted for comparison
with JNNS language. The ICNALE corpus stratifies learners’
levels of English proficiency by CEFR-linked proficiency
bands (B2+, B1-2, B1-1, A2). Because most JNNSs’ levels ofEnglish proficiency fall under A1 and A2 levels on the CEFR
(Negishi et al., 2013), only A2 JNNSs’ modal use was
examined.
2.

3.

Frequency of use
RFStatistical test
NF

A2

NST

A2

NST

LL

%DIFF

Can

567

100(3)

8450

24.49*

65.97%

Should507

101(2)

75

51

13.56*

46.94%

Will

280

98(4)

41

49

-2.25

-16.37%

May

149

55(5)

22

28

-2.08

-20.70%

Must

139

16(7)

20

8

15.95*

154.30%

Would

52

113(1)

857-156.74*-86.53%

Could

46

24(6)

7

12

-4.91*-43.90%

Might

31

9(8)

5

5

0.00

0.82%

Shall

0

1(9)

0

1

-2.97

-100.00%

Total

1771

517

261

260

0

0.27%

Note. RF = raw frequency; NF = normalized frequency per 10,000
words.
*p < .05

The most notable finding can be seen in the use of“would” since there was no other modal whose frequency
ranking differed as largely as “would” between the twogroups. A log-likelihood test identified at a statisticallysignificant level that “can,” “should,” and “must” were
overused whereas “would” and “could” were underused.
3.2 Modal Meaning Analysis
Modal meaning analysis was carried out to see whether
or not A2 JNNSs preferred or avoided conveying particularmodal meanings relative to NSTs. Table 2 summarizes thenumber of A2 JNNSs and NSTs who conveyed the modal
meaning and results of a Fisher’s exactly test, which was
performed by using Mizumoto’s (n.d.) langtest.jp.

Results

3.1 Frequency Analysis
To compare preferences for the modal verbs between
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Table 2.

Furthermore, this was used to express the meaning of ability
most. Although this modal has been considered to berelatively easy for learners to acquire (Eman & Tom, 2016),
what this research found suggests that it could be true only of
its ability sense.
There were two modals which A2 JNNSs underused ata statistically significant level: “would” and “could.” Onepossible explanation for this is that learners become able touse the past tense forms of modals after the acquisition of theirpresent tense forms as Eman and Tom (2016) argued.
More than 80% of the error type (a) was observed in A2
JNNSs’ misuse of “can” to mark past time and that of “could”
when “was/were able to” or “can/could” followed by thepresent perfect aspect should have been used instead. The
error type (b) might represent first language transfer into
second language acquisition. The error type (c) may be
because A2 JNNSs overgeneralized the subject and verb
agreement rule or the tense and aspect rule to main verbs.
If one of the goals in language teaching is to bringlearners’ language use close to native-like language use as
Granger (2002) says, information on differences in language
use from NSs or errors common among learners would be
useful and indispensable for the revision of syllabi or thedevelopment of teaching materials.

Results of Meaning Analysis and a Fisher’s Exactly Test
Modal meaning

Used (did not use) the modal meaning
A2

p

Cramer’s V

NST

95% CI for Cramer’s V
LL

UL

0.17

Can
permission

33(121)

8(36)

.833

0.03

-0.11

possibility

33(121)17(27)

.029*

0.17

0.03

0.3

ability130(24)23(21)

<.05*

0.32

0.19

0.44

Permission0(154)

1(43)

.222

0.13

-0.0060.27

possibility4(150)

2(42)

.616

0.05

-0.09

0.19

ability16(138)12(32)

.012*

0.20

0.06

0.33

Could

May
permission2(152)

1(43)

.531

0.03

-0.11

0.17

possibility

71(83)

25(19)

.234

0.09

-0.05

0.23

permission0(154)

0(44)

1

n/a

n/a

n/a

possibility20(134)

8(36)

.461

0.06

-0.08

0.2

Might

Will
volition9(145)

7(37)

.053

0.15

0.01

0.29

prediction

105(49)33(11)

.459

0.24

0.13

0.34

Would
volition12(142)11(33)

.006*

0.22

0.09

0.35

prediction

20(134)29(15)

<.05*

0.51

0.40

0.61

volition0(154)

1(43)

.222

0.13

-0.0060.27

prediction

0(154)

0(44)

1

n/a

n/a

n/a

necessity

147(7)

38(6)

.04*

0.15

0.01

0.29

certainty

7(147)

10(34)

<.05*

0.27

0.14

0.39

obligation

57(97)

8(36)

.019*

0.17

0.03

0.3

certainty

12(142)

1(43)

.3

0.09

-0.04

0.23

Shall

ShouldReferences
Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (2013). The grammar
book: An ESL/EFL teacher’s course (2nd ed.). Heinle &Heinle.
Eman, E., & Tom, S. (2016). A cross-sectional investigation of thedevelopment of modality in English language learners’
writing: A corpus-driven study. Applied Linguistics, 20(0),51-72. https://doi.org/10.5070/L4200016202
Granger, S. (2002). A bird’s-eye view of learner corpus research. In
S. Granger, J. Hung, & A. Petch-Tyson (Eds.), Computer
learner corpora, second language acquisition and foreign
language teaching (pp. 3-33). Benjamins.
https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.6.04gra
Ishikawa, S. (2013). The ICNALE and sophisticated contrastive
interlanguage analysis of Asian learners of English. In S.
Ishikawa (Ed.), Learner corpus studies in Asia and theworld, 1 (pp. 91-118). Kobe University. http://www.lib.kobeu.ac.jp/handle_kernel/81006678
Leech, G., Hundt, M., Hair, C., & Smith, N. (2009). Change incontemporary English. Cambridge University Press.
Mizumoto, A. (n.d.). Langtest.jp [Computer software].
http://langtest.jp/
Negishi, M., Takada, T., & Tono, Y. (2013). A progress report on
the development of the CEFR-J. In E. D. Galaczi & C. J.
Weir (Eds.). Exploring language frameworks: Proceedings of
the ALTE Krakow Conference (pp. 135-163). Cambridge
University Press.
O’Keeffe, McCarthy, M., & Carter, R. (2007). From corpus toclassroom: Language use and language teaching. Cambridge
University Press. https://doi.org/10.1075/ijcl.13.4.09rep
Rayson, S. (n.d.). Log-likelihood and effect size calculator[Computer software]. Lancaster University.
http://ucrel.lancs.ac.uk/llwizard.html.
Römer, U. (2004). A corpus-driven approach to modal auxiliaries
and their didactics. In J. Sinclair (Ed.), How to use corpora
in language teaching (pp. 185-199). John Benjamins.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/scl.12.14rom

Must

Note. CI = confidence interval; LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit.
*p < .05

Table 2 shows at a statistically significant level that whencompared to NSTs, A2 JNNSs tended to use “can” to express
ability, “should” to express necessity, and “must” to express
obligation while they were less likely to use “can” to express
possibility, “could” to express ability, “would” to express
volition and prediction, and “should” to express certainty.
3.3 Error Analysis
Error analysis focused only on grammatical errors or
mistakes yet ignored semantical ones. Three types of error
were found to be relatively common: (a) the use of inflected
forms of verbs after the modals, (b) the employment ofincorrect tenses of modal verb phrases, and (c) the non-use ofmain verbs after the modal verbs.
Discussion and Conclusion“Should” and “must” were overused with the meaningsof necessity and obligation respectively. This may be because
the writing style required in the corpus is argumentative. That
is, A2 JNNSs might have relied heavily on the two modals to
insist on their own opinions or convince readers.
The frequency analysis identified A2 JNNSs’ overuseof “can,” which was produced with the most frequency.
4.

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Strengths and Weaknesses of NESTs and NNESTs:
Perceptions of Teachers in Japan
Miki Uyama
Nihon University
uyama.miki@nihon-u.ac.jp
Abstract
The replication of a mixed-methods study of Ma (2012) investigated the strengths and weaknesses ofnative English speaking teachers (NESTs) and non-native English speaking teachers (NNESTs) throughthe perceptions of teachers of both groups in Japan. The purpose of the study was to investigate theunderlying issues to optimize each English teacher’s unique value and skills regardless of theirbackground. Data were collected from a questionnaire response of 32 NESTs and NNESTs in Japan andthree semi-structured interviews. Findings were more or less aligned with the original study of Ma(2012), showing that NESTs had strong linguistic competence such as the “natural” use of language and“perfect” pronunciation but had pedagogical weaknesses, while NNESTs were perceived to have strong
pedagogical competence such as grammar knowledge and understanding of students’ needs but
linguistic weaknesses were mentioned. The study also revealed that teachers of both groups recognized
the linguistic weaknesses of NNESTs as a significant disadvantage, especially highlighting their “poor”
and “not perfect” pronunciation and “lack of confidence”. The study discussed the Nativeness Principle,
Intelligibility Principle, English as an International Language (EIL), Two Positions (Holliday), and also
the perceptions of the participants in the study. Some possible suggestions were made to deal with thegap between the ideal and reality.
Keywords: native english speaking teachers, non-native english speaking teachers, teacher belief,
world englishes, EIF
1.

Introduction and background
Almost 80% of the English teachers are non-native
English speaking teachers (NNESTs) (Canagarajah, 2005).
However, the advantages of NNEST do not seem to be
sufficiently appreciated in the field of TESOL. They havebeen often treated as second-class citizens (Rajagopalan,2005) because of their “linguistic disadvantages” when they
are compared to native English speaking teachers (NEST)s.
Specifically, when it comes to accents, NNTESTs are oftenlabeled as “non-authentic” because they deviate from the“standard” English, which comes from the Inner Circle
countries (Kachru,1989) such as the United States, United
Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. However,English itself is changing (Holliday, 2005) and no longer
belongs to only Inner Circle countries. It is almost acommon sense that pronunciation is not easy to change
because there is an L1 influence after a certain age. The
terms such as World Englishes, English as an International
Language (EIL), and English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) havebeen frequently mentioned as the globalization of English
progressed (LLurda, 2004). There have been many studies
investigating the strengths and weaknesses of NNESTs.
However, no research investigated the perceptions of NESTs
and NNESTs towards both groups. It could be interesting
and meaningful not only for ELT in the Japanese education
system but also could contribute to other countries where
NESTs and NNESTs are working together. Thus, thepurpose of this paper is to investigate issues in ELT in Japanthrough the eyes of native English-speaking teachers(NESTs) and non-native English speaking teachers(NNESTS) with a hope that both groups of teachers’ uniquevalue and skills will be optimized.
2.

1. How do NESTs in Japan perceive their strengths andweaknesses as an English teacher?
2. How do NESTs in Japan perceive the strengths andweaknesses of their non-native counterparts?
There were two research questions regarding
NNESTs:1. How do NNESTs perceive their strengths andweakness as an English teacher?
2. How do NNESTs perceive the strengths andweaknesses of their native counterparts?
3.

Methods
The research procedure replicated a mixed-methods
study of Ma (2012) who examined the strengths andweaknesses of NESTs and NNESTs from the perspective of
NNESTs in Hong Kong. A mixed -methods study provides
triangulation by integrating the results from different
methods. The advantage of the design is that the quantitative
survey can be used to select individuals for follow-up
qualitative interviews that emerged from the first strand of
the quantitative survey (Ivankova & Greer, 2015). A typicaldesign follows the process of collecting survey data,
analyzing data, and following up with qualitative interviews(Creswell, 2014).
4.

Participants
In the first strand of the study, the target population was
32 English teachers in Japan in their 20s to 50s. Most ofthem were recruited through the author’s network in a
TESOL master’s program whereby most of the students
were English teachers. More than 50% of them had a
Master’s degree in Education and 70% of them were female
teachers and 40% of them work in universities in Japan.

Research questions
There were two research questions regarding NESTs:
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5.

Results

discuss difficulties and strategies of learning English withstudents by using L1 when necessary. NNESTs should
always remember that they are more realistic L2-speakermodels than NESTs.

The results in the study were much or less alignedwith the previous studies (Ma, 2012; Sung, 2014).
Perceived strengths of NESTs were linguistic advantages
such as the use of language and “perfect” pronunciation.
The perceived weaknesses were a lack of knowledge ofgrammar and the L2 learning process. NNESTs wereperceived to have strong pedagogical competence such as
grammar knowledge and understanding of students’ needs
but had linguistic weaknesses. However, the participants inthe present study seemed to focus linguistic abilities morethan those in the study of Ma (2012). Teachers of bothgroups recognized the linguistic weaknesses of NNESTs as asignificant disadvantage, especially spotting their “poor” and“not perfect” pronunciation and “lack of confidence”.
6.

Acknowledgements

The study protocol was approved by the Internal Review
Board of Temple University in 2019.
I would like to sincerely thank every participant in this study.
References

Canagarajah, A. S. (Ed.). (2005). Reclaiming he local inlanguage policy and practice. New York: Routlege.
Creswell, J. (2014). Research design: Qualitative,
quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Holliday, A. (2005). The struggle to teach English as aninternational language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ivankoba, N. V., & Greer, J. L. (2015). Mixed methods
research and analysis. In B. Paltridge & A. Phakiti (Eds.),
Research methods in applied linguistics: A practicalresource (pp. 63-81). New York, NY: Bloomsbury
Publishing.
Kachru, B. (1989). Teaching world Englishes. Cross
Currents: An International Journal of Language Teaching
and Cross-Cultural Communication,16(1), 15-21.
Levis, J. M. (2005). Changing contexts and shifting
paradigms in pronunciation teaching. Tesol Quarterly,
39(3), 369-377.
Llurda, E. (2004). Non‐native‐speaker teachers and English
as an International Language. International journal of
applied linguistics, 14(3), 314-323.
Ma, L. P. F. (2012). Strengths and weaknesses of NESTS
and NNESTs: Perceptions NNESTs in Hong Kong.
Linguistics and Education, 23(1), 1-15.
doi:10.1016/j.linged.2011.09.005
Rajagopalan, K. (2005). Non-native speaker teachers ofEnglish and their anxieties: Ingredients for an experimentin action research. In Llurda (Ed.), Non-native language
teachers: Perceptions, challenges and contribution to theprofession (pp.283-303). New York: Springer Science +Business Media, Inc.
Sung, C. C. M. (2014). An exploratory study of Hong Kong
students’ perceptions of native and non-native
English-speaking teachers in ELT. Asian Englishes, 16(1),32-46. doi:10.1080/13488678.2014.880252

Discussion

Concerning English pronunciation, many participants
seemed to believe in the nativeness principle, rather than theintelligibility principle (Levis, 2005). The nativenessprinciple was a dominant paradigm in teachingpronunciation before the 1960s holding that it was desirable
to attain a native-like pronunciation in a foreign language.
Gradually, the nativeness principle started to be perceived as
an unrealistic burden for adult language learners because of
the effects of age, and the intelligibility principle isconsidered more realistic these days (Levis, 2005). All theteachers should be trained and educated on the intelligibility
principle. If teachers keep focusing on the nativenessprincipal, students might also lose confidence in speaking
English. Idealization of native speakers still seems dominant
and the majority of NNESTs are not aware of the fact thatthey are speaking EIL (Llurda, 2004).
Holliday (2005) discussed “Two positions” in TESOL
practice. Position 1 was traditional ‘native-speakerism” andPosition 2 was with a more mutually inclusive identity
where we do not segregate “us” from “them”. Within
Position 1 (Native speakerisim), the NESTs are the “norm”
and seen as “the dominant force with an almost moral
mission to improve the world” (Holliday, 2005, page 13),
whereas within Position 2, “English is international, its
ownership is shifted to whoever wishes to use it” (Holliday,
2005, page 13). There was one participant in this present
study, who seemed to agree with Position 2, but it does notseem to be usual yet.

7.

Conclusion
More English teachers might need to gain knowledge
about World Englishes. To cope with the reality, NNESTs
could learn to be more resilient. NNESTs need to be ready tobe criticized for their “imperfect” English and to speak up
when they are treated unfairly. It is difficult to change“their” perceptions and actions, but it may be easier to workon “mine”. The other thing is that NNESTs can reevaluate
their advantage and benefits of being able to connect withstudents and others with much more ease than those who do
not share the common background. Specifically, they can

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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) Application: Reading
and Writing Pedagogical Tasks and Scaffolding Strategies
Qiuhua (Alice) Feng**City University of Hong Kong
qiuhufeng2-c@my.cityu.edu.hk
Abstract
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), a dual-focus teaching approach, allows students toacquire language competences while integrating academic subject content. Previous studies havedemonstrated that the CLIL classes emphasize more on vocabulary but less focus on reading and writing
in secondary schools. An in-depth review of 12 studies illuminates that implementing reading and writing
pedagogic scaffolding strategies to enhance students’ academic literacy is a pressing need in CLIL
secondary classrooms, particularly in Europe and Asia. The search method was used by selecting
keywords or changing the synonyms. To increase reliability and validity, some database, including ERIC,JSTOR, Wiley, ProQuest E-book Central, Taylor & Francis Group, ResearchGate, SAGE Journals, wereselected to mainly scrutinize five well-known journal publications such as Language Teaching Research,
Educational Research and Evaluation, E-journal of Teacher Education and Applied Language Studies,International CLIL Research Journal, and Language, Culture and Curriculum. The main observation
divided into three categories, reading and writing scaffolding techniques, creative writing teaching, andreading learning strategies to thoroughly guide students to access academic literacy in the response to
subject matter. The conclusion reveals that facilitating well-designed reading and writing classes in CLIL
settings along with a wide range of pedagogical tasks and scaffolding strategies can trigger students’motivation and retrieve their effective reading and writing learning.
Keywords: Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), Reading and Writing,Introduction
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is adual-focus teaching approach originating from European
countries. Over the last fifteen years, CLIL teaching is mainly
implemented in secondary schools in which are intended todevelop students’ L2 language competence along with
content learning in a wide array of academic subjects, such as
Mathematics, Chemistry, Geography, Biology, History,
Physics, Music, and drama. As CLIL rapidly grew to enhance
students’ academic second language while integrating subject
matter in Europe, this prestigious content and language
integrated teaching approach has been incrementally known
in the Asian context.
Although CLIL significantly allows students to achieve
their academic language along with the subject matter in both
European and Asian secondary schools, an existing gap
illustrates that CLIL-based classes emphasize more on
vocabulary teaching but less focus on reading and writing as
language development (Baecher et al., 2014; Koopman et al.,2014). To ameliorate the current situation, an in-depth review
is provided to further explore what pedagogical strategies
should be implemented in enhancing students’ academic
literacy. Two research questions were as follows: 1) What
type of learning tasks can teachers execute in improving
students’ academic reading and writing in secondary CLIL
classrooms? 2) How do the pedagogical strategies retrieve
students’ effective learning from empirical studies?

mainly scrutinize five well-known journal publications inrelation to linguistics and educational fields such as Language
Teaching Research, Educational Research and Evaluation, Ejournal of Teacher Education and Applied Language Studies,International CLIL Research Journal, and Language, Culture
and Curriculum. Search terms were refined to effective
reading or/and writing in CLIL, reading, or writing
pedagogical tasks and scaffolding strategies in CLIL, andreading or writing motivation in CLIL. The results of
keywording merely yielded 20 studies in measuring theeffectiveness of reading or/and writing pedagogical tasks.

1.

3. Summary of findings and discussion
3.1 Reading and Writing Scaffolding Techniques
Genre-based pedagogy has underscored the importanceof language awareness and linguistic features from instructing
different genres through the stages of deconstruction, joint
construction, and independent construction (Morton, 2010). A
study (Lo & Jeong, 2018) conducted in Hong Kong measured
the effectiveness of genre pedagogy writing before and after
CLIL in two eighth-grade history classes. The instructor used
her content-oriented pedagogy (non-CLIL) in teaching thehistorical topic “Ancient Greco Roman Civilization,” andstudents were asked to finish a 100-word short written
assignment as a pre-test. Then, CLIL intervention waspresented by the same teacher, using the genre-based writing
pedagogy with the target topic of ‘Renaissance.’ A post-test
was introduced after the intervention to analyze students’performances. After the CLIL teaching was applied, the total
score of students’ post-tests significantly increased comparedto the score of pre-tests. The study successfully broachedgenre-based pedagogy to CLIL, thereby enhancing English
learners’ writing skills. Learning English is already difficultfor L2 learners in English subject; therefore, obtaining bothacademic content and language competences is even harder

MethodRegarding the studies in CLIL secondary education, aflow searching procedure was implemented: keywording,skimming the text, examining the full text, and organizing thefindings. To increase reliability, the database including ERIC,JSTOR, Wiley, ProQuest E-book Central, Taylor & Francis
Group, ResearchGate, SAGE Journals, were selected to2.

31The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

particularly in humanity subjects. Nevertheless, genre-based
pedagogy allows teachers to guide students to retrieve
academic concepts, to construct an essay, and to ask questions
at the beginning stage. After providing students language andcontent support, students can construct a piece of writing
independently.

opportunities through cultivating a wide variety of
pedagogical tasks and scaffolding strategies. Using genrepedagogy writing and R2L associated with implementing
compare/contrast essays can provide students a series ofmodeling support in interpreting a text and construct different
types of written genres. On the other hand, teaching reading
and writing for L2 learners is inevitably hard considering agreat number of language complexity and linguistic features.
Triggering students’ reading and writing motivation, such as
instrumental language learning, poetry-based writing,cooperative learning strategy, is also highly recommended to
implement.

3.2 Creative Writing Teaching
To motivate students to be good writers, teachers should
consider scaffolding strategies, such as facilitating a range ofcreative writing activities. For instance, ninth graders went toan English-speaking country for a field trip and were asked tocomplete a semi-creative text-a report, including sending a
letter to Grandma and constructing a short reflection about
what they learn during the trip (Moller, 2017). Another typeof task that highly retrieve students’ writing motivation ispoetry-based creative writing (Burton, 2010). The theme ofthe poem can be varied, depending on what learning goals andobjectives teachers achieve. Even free-style poem writing candevelop students’ writing skills to a great extent. Students
may initially resist writing a poem because they feared theidea of writing poetry. With teachers’ scaffolding supports,
students were proud that they were able to complete a finishedpoem and develop confidence in writing. Teachers may also
implement poem writing to help students to make meaning
and construct knowledge acquisition to the academic text.
When instructing Greek history and culture in a CLIL
classroom, teachers promote effective learning byencouraging students to create pictures limerick poems (Griva,2014). To better support students to tackle the history content,
the teacher provided collage from the site and led them toreinforce historical and cultural awareness. Exploring a rangeof writing scaffolding technique from practical teachingirrevocably increases students’ interest in learning English,
thereby attaining pleasurable learning, literacy text
interpretation, and social skills development.

References
Ahern, A., Whittaker, R. & Sanchez, I. B. (2018). Reading
and Writing to learn: A. Principled Approach to Practice in
CLIL/Bilingual Classes. E-Journal of Teacher Education andApplied Language Studies, 23-40.
https://doi.org/10.2478/eteals-2018-0011
Baecher, L., Farnsworth, T., Ediger, A. (2014). The
challenges of planning language objectives in content- based
ESL instruction. Lang Teach Res 18(1), 118-136.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168813505381
Burton, P. (2010). Creativity in Hong Kong Schools. World
Englishes 29 (4), 493-507.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971X.2010.01677.x
Griva, E. (2014). Learning in the Traces of Greek Culture: A CLIL
Project for Raising Cultural Awareness and Developing L2
Skills. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and
Educational Research 8 (1), pp. 76-92.
http://doi.org/10.1257/aer.104.2.459
Lin, D., Wong, K.K., & McBride-Chang, C. (2011). Reading
motivation and reading. comprehension in Chinese andEnglish among bilingual students. Read Writ 25,
717-737.
http://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-011-9297-8
Lo, Y. Y. & Jeong, H. (2018). Impact of genre-based
pedagogy on students’ academic literacy. developmentin Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). Journalof Linguistics and Education 47, 36-46.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2018.08.001
Moller, V. (2017). Language Acquisition in CLIL and Non-CLIL
Settings: Learner Corpus and Experimental Evidence on
Passive Constructions. John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Morton, T. (2010). Using a Genre-based Approach to Integrating
Content and Language in CLIL. In C. Dalton-Puffer, T. Nikula.,& U. Smit (Eds.), Language Use and Language Learning in
CLIL Classrooms (pp. 81–104). John Benjamins Publishing
Company.
Navés, T. (2009). Effective Content and Language
Integrated Learning (CLIL) Programmes. In Y. R. de Zarobe,& R. Cataln (Eds.). Content and language integrated learning:
Evidence from research in Europe (pp. 22-40). Bristol:Multilingual Matters.
https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847691675-005
Whittaker, R. & Acevedo, C. (2016). Working on
Literacy in CLIL/Bilingual Contexts: Reading to Learn andTeacher Development. Journal of Education Studies 31, 37-55.

3.3 Reading Learning Strategies
Intrinsic reading motivation can develop students’curiosity in learning about a particular interest, enjoying thereading materials, and challenging the complex texts in thereading process. These three components can help learners tobe skillful readers (Lin, Wong, & McBride-Chang, 2011).
Two principal effective learning strategies are often executedin classroom settings. Promoting a cooperative-learning
strategy in a classroom can enhance students’ reading
motivation by either creating a peer reading competition ordesigning a cooperative reading task. During this learning
process, students will explicitly interpret literacy text andcontent comprehension from interacting with peers.
Instrumental language learning, also known as situatedlearning, helps students to obtain practical practices whenlearning a language (Lin, Wong, & McBride-Chang, 2011).
Conclusions
Realizing an effective CLIL classroom associated withreading and writing competencies can be a hurdle; hence, theteacher needs to ensure students have ample learning
4.

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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Teacher Motivation in Japanese Secondary Schools:
A Longitudinal Qualitative Study
Saki Suemori
Ochanomizu University
suemori.saki@ocha.ac.jp
Abstract
Although motivation is one of the most extensively researched areas in SLA, the vast majority of studies focus onlearner motivation. Recently, there is increasing interest in the study of teacher motivation. There appears to be two
reasons for this expanding research focus: First, it is believed that teacher motivation and learner motivation areinterconnected (Dőrnyei & Ushioda, 2011). In other words, when teachers have high levels of motivation, theirlearners are also likely to be motivated. Second, teacher motivation is important for teachers themselves, especiallyfor their professional development (Kim et al, 2014). The number of teacher motivation study is increasing, but theprevious studies have conducted only with teachers' perspectives seen in interviews and questionnaires. In other words,
studies have not looked at how teachers teach in the classroom. Therefore, this study was conducted in Japanese
secondary schools to understand what kind of motivation teachers have and how their motivation is reflected in theirclassroom teaching. Participants were two male Japanese teachers of English (JTEs), and their secondary school
students. Four in-depth individual interviews were conducted in Japanese over a year period. During that period,
teachers were also asked to record their impressive events and feelings in a teaching journal. Additionally, classroom
observations were conducted six times at each school. The findings illustrate that each teacher had unique motivation
to teach based on what he would like to focus on. For example, one teacher emphasized improving students' English
proficiency. His motivation fluctuated sometimes because of some factors such as busyness and colleagues, but hemainly taught with this motivation. This motivation was reflected in his teaching in the classroom, and somecharacteristics were found especially for pronunciation and grammar teaching. The study indicated that teacher
motivation and teaching in the classroom seemed to be related.
Keywords: motivation, teacher motivation
1.

Introduction
Motivation has been investigated widely in SLA, but
the study focusing on teacher motivation is still limited.
Teacher motivation is believed to be important as it can
influence learner motivation (e.g., Dőrnyei & Ushioda, 2011).
This study was conducted with two JTEs to understand theirmotivation and to see how their motivation is connected with
their classroom teaching.

demotivate teachers (e.g., Kiziltepe, 2008). The studies havebeen also conducted with small number of teachers to see thechanges of teacher motivation and the reasons to becometeachers, for instance (e.g., Kumazawa, 2013). These studies,
however, fully depended on teachers' perspectives mainly
conducting a questionnaire and interview study. In otherwords, studies have not looked at how teachers actually teachin the classroom, for instance. This study, therefore,
attempted to see how teacher motivation is reflected in theclassroom teaching.

2.

Literature Review
It is not straightforward to understand what teacher
motivation means as teachers involve with various kinds ofactivities. Teachers in secondary schools, for instance, teachsubjects and take care of students in their homeroom class andclub activities. One example demonstrating teacher
motivation is when a teacher attends a conference on
language teaching over a weekend despite being very busy.
The teacher may do this because of a desire to learn more in
general or to improve their teaching methods. This desire canbe one example of teacher motivation. Teacher motivation iswhat gets teachers' behavior started, and what directs,
energizes, sustains, and eventually terminates action (Graham& Weiner, 2012).
Although the number of studies on teacher motivation
is limited compared to that of learner motivation, the studies
have been conducted in various contexts. One of the mostinvestigated topics is that motivators and demotivators forteachers. The studies investigated what motivate and3.

MethodThis is a part of a larger study conducted with sevenparticipants. This study focuses on a part of the study.
3.1 ParticipantsParticipants were two male JTEs in secondary
schools, and their background information is summarizedin Table 1.

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Table 1

Some students: Subjective.
Haruto: Oh, it's subjective? Objective? Possessive? Who
thinks this is subjective [most students raised hands]?
Objective? Possessive? Right. It's subjective. I won't
explain why this is subjective anymore. Is there anyone
who needs an explanation? [Haruto looked around at
students' faces, and no one seemed to need more
explanation] All right.

Participants
Name

Age

GenderTeaching
experience

DegreeType of
SchoolHaruto20s

Male

3 yearsBA

public highschool

Jun

30s

Male

none

BA

privatejunior andsenior highschool for
girls

Jun:

This is the second or the third lesson [to study
participles], and probably some of you have notunderstood. Let's study carefully. First, participles,
there are two different types. What is the first one,
Kimura san?
Kimura: Present.
Jun:
Right. The other one is, Abe san.
Abe:
Past.
Jun:
Right. How about the form? What comes after theverb in the present participle, Maeda san?
Maeda: ing
Jun:
The meaning is?
Maeda: Shiteiru.

3.2 Data Collection
The data was collected in one academic year with thefollowing three methods. First, four in-depth individualinterviews were conducted in Japanese over a year periodwith Haruto and Jun. During that period, teachers were also
asked to record their impressive events and feelings in ateaching journal. Additionally, classroom observations wereconducted six times at each school.
3.3 Analysis
Data was first organized using a qualitative data
analysis software, NVivo. I first looked at all the interview
data carefully, categorized the codes, and showed what
promoted teacher behavior. Then I looked at interview data to
see what kinds of goals and motivation and what kinds ofattitudes these teachers had toward them. After that, I lookedat the classroom observation data and explored how the
motivation found in the interviews were reflected in theseteachers' teaching.

5.

Discussion
Participants in this study had clear ideas what theywanted to focus on, and this was reflected on their classroom
teaching. Jun, for instance, focused on the textbook to help
students to understand grammar because he believed
grammar is very important for them to achieve their goals. It
means that these participants understand what they could do
to achieve their goals (e.g., Dornyei & Ushioda, 2011).
6.

Conclusion
This study focused on how teacher motivation isreflected on classroom teaching. The study was conductedwith two JTEs in secondary schools, and they both had clear
ideas what they wanted to focus on. This was reflected on
their classroom teaching, and they taught so that they would
be able to achieve their goals. The study was conducted witha small number of participants, and it is necessary to conduct
a study with teachers in other conntexts.

4. Findings
4.1 Teacher Motivation
Both Haruto and Jun had a clear idea of what kinds ofteachers they would like to be. Haruto was, for instance,interested in becoming a teacher who can improve students'
English proficiency. On the other hand, Jun focused on
helping students to achieve the goals they are supposed to do.
4.2 Classroom Observation
What the teachers wanted to focus on was reflected intheir classroom teaching. Haruto, for instance, focused ongrammar and pronunciation as he believed these were
important to improve students' English proficiency. Jun wasteaching by asking questions to check students' understanding.
The quotes from the observation are available as follow:

ReferencesDőrnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (2011). Teaching and researching
motivation (2nd ed.). Longman.
Graham, S., & Weiner, B. (2012). Motivation: Past, present, future.
In K. Harris, S. Graham, & T. Urdan (Eds), APA educational
psychology handbook (Volume 1, pp. 367-397). American
Psychological Association.
Kim, T. Y., Kim, Y. K., & Zhang, Q. M. (2014). Differences indemotivation between Chinese and Korean English teachers: A
mixed methods study. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher,22, 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-013-0105-x
Kızıltepe, Z. (2008). Motivation and demotivation of university
teachers. Teachers and Teaching, 14(5-6), 515-530.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13540600802571361
Kumazawa, M. (2013). Gaps too large: Four novice EFL teachers’
self-concept and motivation. Teaching and Teacher Education,
33, 45-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2013.02.005

Haruto: [Reading aloud the sentence in the text] In mostcountries, there were more students who answered"yes" than "no." Let me check to make sure.
[Concerning who in the sentence] Which one is it?
[Students had already studied relative clauses several
times, and they were familiar with them. Therefore,
students understood he was asking the type of relative
clause with this question.]

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Why Does Japanese English Education Choose to Fail:
The Fundamental Cause and the Secondary Causes
Yumiko Sakamoto
Patton Elementary School, Austin Independent School District
yumikosakamoto2@gmail.com
Abstract
Despite tremendous efforts made by all the agents involved, Japanese English education has been failing to achieve
its goals of preparing students for the coming future where they are expected to have proper control of the English
language and to think and act autonomously. Numerous causes of the failure (e.g., university entrance exams, incorrectteaching methodologies, lack of teacher training) have already been addressed; however, the efforts have not paid offyet. The author, who is currently teaching English in the U.S., but taught for 18 years in Japan, claims that there are
two levels of cause of failure of Japanese English education: fundamental and secondary. To achieve the goals statedabove, the author argues that the fundamental cause needs to be addressed earlier than the secondary causes. The
fundamental cause of failure is teachers’ strong sense of obligation to meet students' immediate needs to pass theentrance exams, which are intended to measure students' reading skills in very limited ways. Driven by thefundamental cause, a great number of teachers end up contributing to the secondary causes of failure by using incorrect
language teaching methodologies even though they are aware of their ineffectiveness. Three incorrect methodologies(“reading instruction focusing on only two out of five components of reading instruction,” “too high-level textbooks,”and “too little English input”) are discussed with research findings that explain their ineffectiveness.
.
Keywords: teachers’ devotion, incorrect methodologies, entrance exams, Lexile measure, insufficientlanguage input
language teaching as stated in the latest version for highschools (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology, 2018).
Teachers and schools, however, are on another missionthat diverges from the government’s demand stated above:
to prepare students for the entrance exams, the majority ofwhich only measure student’s reading skills. Teachers,
therefore, end up teaching English in the most efficient way
they can think of, which is NOT a communicative way. To
be more precise, teachers and schools are functioning as
preparatory schools even though they are not required to doso because teachers feel a strong responsibility to meet thestudents’ short-term needs, which is to pass the entrance
exams. I believe the following depicts the shared inner
struggle experienced among many English teachers in Japan,“We English teachers need to teach in a way that is not ideal
or even goes against our teaching principles because
preparing our students for the entrance exams is the mostimportant or expected mission.”

1.

Introduction
The years of 2020-2021 have been years of
unpredictability and disorder and the world will not go backto what it was. Our English education is in this global change.
To awaken all the agents involved in our English
education, I have decided to use the term “failure” because
we need to face the fact that we have not achieved what weare working for, which is to prepare our students for the
coming future where they are expected to have decent controlof the Engish language and to think and act autonomously andcritically. Unexpectedly, the pandemic has hastened thearrival of the future much faster than anybody had expected.
We cannot afford to fail our students any longer.
I am not currently teaching English as you can see in
my job title; however, I taught English for 18 years at
Japanese junior and senior high schools before the current
position. While teaching in Japan, I tried to identify thefundamental cause of the failures among the various
suspected ones such as university entrance exams and lack ofteacher training. Being an outsider for a while and being
equipped with knowledge and skills to teach English as a new
special education teacher in the U.S. made me see what I did
not see before: the root of all of the failures as well as its
effects on our language teaching methodologies. The main
focus of this paper is to discuss the fundamental cause andthree incorrect methodologies that many English teachers
have been using.

3.

Three Incorrect Methodologies
Because of the strong sense of mission to meet thestudent’s short-term needs, many English teachers feelpressured to teach English for Specific Purpose (ESP), in
this case, to pass the entrance exams. Because of the natureof the exams and teachers’ strong sense of mission, thefollowing incorrect methodologies have been used. I will
explain why they are considered incorrect based on the
research findings that have been guiding principles forEnglish language teaching in the U.S., which has a much
longer history of English education with much morediversified students.

2. Fundamental Cause: Teachers’ Strong Sense of
Obligation for Students' Short-Term Needs
In Japan, there are no requirements that force schools orteachers to prepare their students for university or highschool entrance exams; rather, schools are required toorganize their curriculum to ensure the standards determinedin the government-issued guideline, The Courses of Study,
which advocates communicative approaches to English

3.1 Incorrect Methodology 1 “Reading Instruction Focusing
on Only Two out of Five Components of Reading
Instruction”
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One of the typical criticisms of our English education isits disproportionate emphasis on reading skill, compared tothe other three skills: writing, speaking, and listening. I
agree with this criticism; however, we are also failing toteach the “prioritized” skill (i.e., reading) because the ways
we teach it go against the well-known recommendation
proposed by the National Reading Panel, which wasestablished by the Department of Education. The report(2000) issued by the panel states that there are fivecomponents (phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency,
vocabulary, and comprehension) in reading instruction, andthe best approach is the one that incorporates the fivecomponents well. By paying little or no attention to the first
three components (phonemic awareness, phonics, andfluency), our English education consequently fails to teachthe language. Unfortunately, there is another painful truth toface; we are teaching the other two components (vocabulary
and comprehension) poorly because of the levels andamount of English input we are giving to our students.

inappropriate level of text. Extended exposure to thelanguage is crucial to language learning especially in the
EFL situation, where less language input is expected than in
an ESL situation. Uchihara et.al. (2019) reported that thenecessary exposures range from 6, 10, 12, to more than 20
times. Although it is impossible to pinpoint the necessary
number of exposures to a word, it is evident that students
need meaningful and extended exposure to the language toacquire it, and getting too little and too difficult language
exposure does not allow language acquisition to happen in
students.
4. Conclusion
There were two purposes of this paper: to claim that
there are two levels of cause of the failures of our English
education (fundamental and secondary) and that thefundamental cause needs to be dealt with first, and to prove
the secondary causes of language teaching to be incorrect
according to the well-known research findings in the field of
language teaching.
Among all the agents in English language teaching,teachers have the most influential and decisive effect.
Currently, teachers’ devotion to meet their students’ shortterm needs negatively impacts the language instruction:
however, because of their strong devotion, teachers canbring out real changes by doing the following: meeting
students’ short and long-term needs, not just their short-term
needs; being an educator who can grow our students throughlanguage teaching, not a preparatory school teacher toprepare our students for exams; and recognizing theinfluence they have on their students’ future. Teachers’
effort is crucial. Without it, all the other changes in entrance
exams, textbooks, teacher training, and society’s expectation
toward teachers/school, will be in vain.

3.2 Incorrect Methodology 2 “Too High levels of Textbook”
Negishi (2015) discovered huge gaps between highschool textbooks and high schoolers in Japan. To investigate
the gaps, he used Lexile measures, which determine bothstudent’s reading ability and text difficulty of readingmaterials with numbers followed by “L” (e.g., 1000L) on thesame developmental scale. It is recommended to choose abook in the range of 100L below to 50L above of a student’s
Lexile measure; for example, for a student with a Lexile
measure of 400L, books in the range of 300L-450L is theright choice. Negishi investigated the Lexile measures ofeach grade textbook and its students, and he measured thegaps to be around 400L, which indicated that the highschoolers understood only 30% of the text in the textbooks.
Using too high a level of textbooks is proven to be
wrong by Osborn et al. (2003), who introduced the three
types of text that are widely known and utilized among
reading teachers in the U.S.: independent level (students
know more than 95% of the words in the passage),
instructional level (students know 90% of the words), andfrustration level (students know less than 89% of words).
Osborn et al. (2003) state that instructional level text is“challenging but manageable text” and frustration level text
is “problematic text for the reader” (p.23) but can be used if
taught with extensive support such as one-on-one
instruction. Given a text that only 30% of it is known andtaught in 1 to 40 teacher and student ratio, how can Japanese
students learn the language? How can teachers makelearning happen in this situation? According to the data
presented here, it is concluded that Japanese students andteachers have been asked to do something impossible orextremely difficult.

References
文部科学省. (2018). 高等学校学習指導要領（平成 30 年告示）
[The courses of study for high school].
https://www.mext.go.jp/component/a_menu/education/micro_detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2019/03/28/1407073_09_1_1.pdf
National Reading Panel. (2000) Report of the National Reading
Panel--Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based
Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and
Its Implications for Reading Instruction. National Institute ofChild Health and Human Development.
Osborn, J., Lehr, F., & Hiebert, E.H. (2003). A focus on fluency.
Pacific Resources for Education and Learning.
http://www.textproject.org/assets/library/resources/Osborn-LehrHiebert-2003-A-Focus-on-Fluency-booklet.pdf
Uchihara, T., Webb, S. and Yanagisawa, A. (2019). The effects ofrepetition on incidental vocabulary learning: A meta-analysis ofcorrelational studies. Language Learning 69, 559599. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12343
Negishi, M. (2015) Lexile Measure による中高大の英語教科書のテキスト難易度の研究[Lexile measures of textbooks usedin secondary and tertiary education in Japan], Arcle Review 9, 616.
https://www.arcle.jp/research/books/data/html/data/pdf/vol9_31.pdf

3.3 Incorrect Methodology 3 “Too Little English Input”
Not only is the English input too difficult, but it is too
little. The majority of class time is spent analyzing anddecoding a text because it is too high a level for students;
consequently, students are getting very little amount of36

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Developing a Corpus of YouTube How-to Videos: Investigating Spoken
Procedural Monologues by Native-Level Speakers of English
Mark Hammond
Kanazawa University
hammond@staff.kanazawa-u.ac.jp
Abstract
This study is centered on a project to investigate procedural monologues (PM). The term PM, as used
here, represents texts produced when a single speaker gives how-to instructions while demonstrating atask involving hands-on manipulation of physical objects. Taking a register analysis perspective, the study
aims to identify salient communicative functions of PM produced by native-level speakers of English.
Towards this goal, the paper primarily describes the development of a specialized corpus of YouTube howto videos (e.g., how to use tools, machinery, culinary equipment, and other hands-on activities).
Additionally, an example is provided of how Biber and Egbert’s 2018 multi-dimensional analysis ofwritten how-to texts found on the searchable World Wide Web serves as a point of departure forpreliminary analysis. The project’s future goals include collecting original PM data produced by Japanese
university undergraduates studying English as a foreign language to be used for comparative analysis.
Keywords: procedural monologue, specialized corpora
1.

Introduction
In a variety of contexts in our professional and daily
lives, we are often called on to give procedural monologues(PM). We might be asked, for example, for simple directions
on how to use a copy machine at our workplace or for more
complex instructions, such as how to use a pottery wheel tocreate a bowl. Despite the value of effective instruction giving,
there is a lack of research of such language use. Moreover,there have been no studies on how PM are produced in handson demonstrative contexts by learners of English as a foreign
language (EFL). This paper describes an ongoing project tofill this gap so that EFL instructors in various contexts may
incorporate findings in approaches to teaching learners to
produce PMs similar to those of native speakers of English.

significant features in Biber and Egbert’s 2018 study may
guide preliminary analysis of the Hand-PIC texts.
3.

Corpus description and method of analysis
The HandPic (55,369 tokens in total) is compiled fromtranscribed text of 100 how-to videos publically available on
YouTube. Videos, generally between 3 and 5 minutes, wereselected if they had a clearly defined step-by-step task that
focused on a single specific learning objective. An additional
criteria was that videos featured a single speaker engaged ina simultaneous demonstration of the task in real time. Videos
were excluded if they used voice over narration, excessive
text titles, or heavy reliance on post-production editing. In
order to represent a wide range of contexts, the 100 videos
cover 12 thematic categories as listed in figure 1.

2.

Background and purpose
My interest in procedural discourse stems from being theprinciple investigator in two Kaken-hi funded projects
centered on how students at Japanese universities of the artsand craft professionals use EFL in technical demonstrations(see Hammond, 2019; Hammond, 2020). Experience fromthese projects contributed to a view that Japanese learners of
EFL may lack awareness of fundamental communicative
functions that are frequently found in PM. Taking a wider
perspective, I started to explore this register in other hands-on
contexts, as found in how-to videos available on Youtube.
Through analysis of these videos, I aim to establish a baseline
for future comparisons of texts produced in EFL by Japanese
undergraduates.
Towards this goal, an extensive multi-dimensional
analysis study by Biber and Egbert (2018) presented an
excellent point of departure. Although focused on written text(that cannot be confirmed as native-level), their work with thevarieties of written registers in the Corpus of Online Registersof English (CORE) yielded a detailed description of a subregister of How-to/Instructional texts. In order to compare
their findings to spoken texts produced by native speakers, I
compiled a small specialized corpus of a wide variety of PM,
tentatively named the Hands-on Procedural Instruction
Corpus (Hand-PIC). The purpose of this paper is to describe
the development of the corpus and provide an example of how

Figure 1
Thematic categories and examples of HandPIC texts
Category (number of texts)

ExamplesHand/Power Tools (15)Sport Technique (10)Food Preparation (10)Start a chain saw
Throw a football
Cut pineapple

Computer Software (10)Copy/paste on an iPad

Computer Hardware (5)Remove a hard drive

Scientific Equipment (5)Prepare a petri dishEmergencies (5)Use a fire extinguisher

Repairing Items (5)Mend an extension cord

Assembling Items (5)Assemble a saxophone

Hair/Skin Care (5)Trim a beard

Nursing Practice (5)Tape an ankle

Miscellaneous (20)Load a film camera

How to…

Each selected video features a single native-levelspeaker of American English, as determined solely by myintuition. There were 77 male and 23 female speakers, whichreflects the somewhat male-dominated genre. Some videos
included text that was unrelated to the instructional task, forexample, descriptions of the subject’s YouTube channel andpromotional appeals to subscribe or click on the like-button.
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to interchange first and second person pronouns, as in: We
want to take a slap shot only when you have the time and room
to bring your stick all the way back.
A case can also be made that the more frequent use of
the first person plural (we) in the HandPIC can be attributed
to the association with the function of signaling a soon tofollow action. In the HandPic we’re going/gonna is much
more frequent per 10,000 tokens (27.11) than in the CORE
how-to texts (0.45) where it rarely occurs. This construction
is often collocated with adverbs such as just, now, first, next,
and then, which also support this signaling function, as
illustrated in the following utterances from the HandPIC: Now
we’re gonna tie the bow part; All right guys, so first we aregonna remove these screws; And then we’re just going to pullup on the actual corkscrew.
An additional function associated with we/our was
identified by the collocation of the verb have (12.82 per
10,000 tokens). Such utterances often introduce the listener toobjects used in the process, as in the following: We have thestrap and then we have this plastic piece; And you can see
right here that we have a small hole; Ok, we’ve got our threewires.

Such text was not included.
The corpra-management platform Sketch Engine was
employed to extract data concerning word frequency in the
HandPIC, while data of CORE texts were derived fromembedded tools of the corpus’ online platform (see Davis,2016).
4.

Results
Due to the scope of this proceeding paper1, results arelimited to a single lexico-grammatical characteristic of PM:
personal pronouns. Biber and Egbert (2018) report that the
CORE’s How-to/Instructional sub-register has a high positivescore on the dimension concerned with irrealis discourse
associated with communicative functions that involve
conditions, possibilities, obligations, and eventualities. Suchfunctions often rely on second person pronouns, as the reader
is directly referred to as you and some nouns modified withthe possessive your. Second-person pronouns have thehighest dimensional score in the CORE how-to texts(D>0.80). In contrast, first-person personal pronouns in thesetexts have a slightly negative dimensional score (D<−0.30) as
co-occurrence with other variables is notably rare.
Turning to the HandPIC, personal pronouns are slightly
more frequent overall, with second-person pronouns also
being the most frequently occurring. Since both spoken andwritten instructional texts serve irrealis functions, this is
somewhat predictable. However, when comparing pronoun
frequency in both corpra as shown in Figure 2, you and we areslightly more frequent in the HandPIC texts.

5. Conclusion
While still an ongoing study, comparison of the
HandPIC to the how-to texts of the CORE may prove useful
to identify salient communicative functions that native
speakers employ to organize procedural discourse. As
illustrated with the example of personal pronouns, using thevariables noted as significant in Biber and Egbert’s (2018)
study can be instrumental as a reference point for further
analysis of the HandPIC, and in turn be used for futurecomparative analysis of EFL learner language.

Figure 2
Frequency of personal pronouns (per 10,000 tokens) in HandPIC
and How-to/Instructional sub-register of the CORE.

Note
1 The accompanying conference presentation and full paper will
include a wider scope of results.
Acknowledgements
Funding for the project associated with this paper was made possible
by a Kaken-hi grant (19K00758) from the Japanese Society for the
Promotion of Science.
References
Biber, D., & Egbert, J. (2018). Register Variation Online. Cambridge
University Press.
Davies, M. (2016) Corpus of Online Registers of English (CORE).
Available online at https://www.english-corpora.org/core/.
Hammond, M. (2018). Using Discourse Analysis to Develop L2
Learning Materials for Hands-on Creative-Tourism Workshops.
OnCUE Journal 11 (2), 123-130. https://doi.org/10.37546/
JALTPCP2019-28
Hammond, M. (2020). ESP for ceramic artists: Exploring thedemonstrative artist talk genre. In P. Clements, A. Krause, & R.
Gentry (Eds.), Teacher efficacy, learner agency. Tokyo: JALT.
https://doi.org/10.37546/JALTPCP2019-28

To account for these difference, I explored the use of
first and second person pronouns by looking for patterns offunctional use at the concordance level. Frequent collocation
was also considered before making qualitative interpretationsof communicative functions of utterances in the HandPIC.
Results showed that speakers in the how-to videos often
switch personal perspectives when engaged in demonstrationof procedures. That is to say that an utterance such as Next,
you rotate this about 90 degrees could also be expressed as
Next, I rotate this 90 degrees, or even Next, we rotate thisabout 90 degrees. It is even possible with the same utterance

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Utilizing Multimodality in Language Classrooms: A Teacher/student
Evaluation of a Multimodal ProjectPeter McDonald * and Philip Greenblatt ***J.F. Oberlin University
pmcdonal@obirin.ac.jp** J.F. Oberlin University
philip_greenblatt@yahoo.co.uk
The authors contributed equally to this work.
Abstract
Multimodal research suggests that for language curriculums to meet their communicative language goals
in our increasingly digitally driven society, multimodal activities must be integrated into existingclassroom practices. However, a challenge that must be addressed is how language teachers can integrate
multimodal activities into language curriculums that were originally designed without a multimodal focus.
This is an important area of research because many teachers are working in institutionally constrainedteaching contexts in which the teaching of multimodality is not part of the language curriculum. Therefore,teachers face the challenge of creating opportunities for learners to engage in multimodal activities whileat the same time ensuring that students meet the curriculum goals prescribed by the institution. This paper
describes how two teachers attempted to address this challenge by introducing a multimodal video project
into a Japanese university language classroom. The class was following a communicative curriculum
prescribed by the university, which had not previously focused on using multimodal approaches. The
paper determines how successful the introduction of the multimodal project was through teacher selfevaluation of the project and student-based questionnaires. The results show that the multimodal project
created many opportunities for students to engage in multimodal communicative activities with a highdegree of autonomy and motivation. Furthermore, the project generated a wide range of learning
opportunities for improvement in English language proficiency and multimodal literacies. However, theproject created challenges that must be addressed: First, how should language teachers approach theteaching of non-linguistic resources (image, gesture, audio, spatial) that constitute a multimodal text in acurriculum designed primarily for teaching the linguistic mode? Second, how can teachers evaluate, grade
and give feedback on students’ performance when they engage in collaborative, multimodal projects?
Keywords: multimodality, projects, curriculum, evaluation, video
Introduction
In order to equip students with necessary skills forcommunicating in the twenty first century, teaching
multimodal literacy is seen as an essential component ofmodern educational curriculums (Toohey et al., 2015).
Teaching multimodal literacy can be defined as the wideningof the teaching focus to include the non-linguistic modes(visual, audio, gestural and spatial) of communication
alongside the linguistic mode. This paper explored to what
extent it is possible to successfully incorporate multimodalteaching into a language curriculum that was originallydesigned without a multimodal focus. To achieve this goal,
students were asked to produce multimodal texts,
specifically public service announcement (PSA) videos insmall groups. We evaluated the success of the project basedon the following: To what extent was the project beneficialfrom both an English language teaching perspective and amultimodal literacy perspective?

much of multimodal analysis (Jewitt, 2014)), controversial
because in classrooms, linguistic, audio, visual, gesture andspatial modes are automatically combined to communicate
meaning; therefore, the language classroom is a series ofmultimodal events. However, the term “mono-modal
curriculum” is relevant because it refers to the fact that the
curriculum being discussed in this paper does not teach orassess the multimodal skills necessary for students tocommunicate in today’s digital society.
Research has shown that utilizing multimodal projectwork enables students to adopt a wide variety of roles(scriptwriter, director, editor) and engages them in a wide
variety of skills (researching, writing and presenting,problem solving) that foster language acquisition. Early(2015) discussed how, by using multimodal projects,
students were given the opportunity to express their own
identity and literacy. Hafner and Miller (2019) demonstrated
how using multimodal projects could create learner agency
through group work.
However, introducing multimodality into language
curriculum creates challenges for teachers (Van Leeuwen,2015). In this paper, the particular challenges we wanted toresearch were: Could making videos in the classroom help
students to learn multimodal literacy skills? Would spendingclassroom time on teaching the non-linguistic modes hinder
student’s ability to focus on the linguistic skills required by
the curriculum? Would students be able to cope with theunfamiliar nature of creating multimodal texts in a language

1.

Background to the Study
Although teaching multimodality literacy has become
well established in education research, how to put
multimodality into the EFL classroom is under-researched(Hafner & Miller, 2019). This paper will address theseissues by describing the introduction of multimodal project
into a traditional “mono-model” communicative curriculum.
To describe any curriculum as “mono-modal” is, in terms of
semiotics (the original semiotic literature that underpins
2.

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produced at different stages.
Moreover, the researchers found that the unfamiliar
nature of the project had a positive effect. In order for students
to perform each stage of the project the teacher had to discuss
requirements and outcomes with them so that they could
clearly understand the activities’ aims. Ultimately, this gavethem greater opportunities to use their L2 and not only letthem take greater responsibility for their own learning thanthey would have in a more conventional speaking task, butalso express their identities and literacies (Early et al., 2015).
However, the multimodal project created grading
challenges. The language curriculum’s grading system isbased on the linguistic mode, yet as they were given freedom
to creatively use any of the different modes to communicate
their messages, in the final videos some students did not have
any linguistic content to grade. This challenge could be met
by evaluating student’s non-linguistic contributions to thefinal project. However, the widening of the proscribedcurriculum goals needs to be discussed at an institutional level.
In conclusion, this paper demonstrated that it ispossible to successfully introduce a multimodal project into a
mono-modal language curriculum. Students foundmultimodal projects stimulating and relevant, and teachers
found they could facilitate both multimodal learning andcreate classroom situations where communicative language
learning could take place. However, in order for
multimodality to become part of the mainstream in language
curriculums more research needs to be done into the areas
such as critiquing and giving feedback on multimodal
activities, addressing learner attitudes and perceptions togroup work, and creating an effective balance between
classroom time spent on the linguistic mode and classroom
time spent on nonlinguistic modes. Moreover, if
multimodality is to become a part of overall curriculum
design at an institutional level the focus of the English
language curriculum must be widened to include both the
linguistic and the non-linguistic contributions learners make.

classroom?
3. Methodology
3.1 Project overview
The research took place at J.F. Oberlin University,
Tokyo, Japan. There were 24 participants, 5 males and 19
females, who were first-year students in an intermediate level
required English class. The project lasted 6 weeks and was
conducted alongside textbook work as a communicative
assessment forming 20% of the student’s final grade. Students
formed groups of 3 and were asked to produce original PSA
videos with the purpose of changing student’s attitudes
towards a current health or social issue.
The project was split into 15 stages through which eachgroup worked autonomously. Students started by deciding
roles for each group member and researching a topic,
progressed with planning, storyboarding and scripting, andculminated in rehearsals and location scouting before
producing a final video. At all stages groups were seated
together so that they could make collaborative decisions andchoices within their respective groups thereby having full
responsibility for planning and making the videos. In this way
students could be given agency to support and help each otherto realize a collective end product. The teacher could thenassume the role of a facilitator.
3.2 Data Collection
Ellis’s (2018) task-based micro-evaluation approach wasused to evaluate how effective the project was from students’perspective and a ‘reflective approach’ (Chacon, 2018, p.2)
was used to evaluate how effective the project was from boththe teacher’s perspective and wider curriculum perspective. A
student questionnaire was used to collect data on what
multimodal skills students felt they had learned by doing the
project, what language skills they had learned, and how
difficult they had found making the videos. The teacher’sreflective observations were based on in-class notes,
assessment notes and discussions between the authors, theclassroom teacher and the curriculum designer. Space does
not provide a detailed description of the research instruments.

References
Chacon, C.T. (2018). Reflective Teaching. In J.I. Lointas (Ed.), The
TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching (pp.1-5).
Wiley
Early, M., Kendrick, M., & Potts, D. (2015). Multimodality: Outfrom the margins of English language teaching. TESOL
Quarterly, 49(3), 457–460. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.246
Ellis, R. (2018). Reflections on task-based language teaching.
Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Hafner, C. A., & Miller, L. (2019). English in the disciplines: A
multidimensional model for ESP course design. Routledge.
Jewitt, C. (2014). Different approaches to multimodality. In C. Jewitt(Ed.), The Routledge handbook of multimodal analysis (pp. 28–
29). Routledge.
Toohey, K., Dagenais, D., Fodor, A., Hof, L., Nuñez, O., Singh, A.,& Schulze, L. (2015). “That sounds so cooool”: Entanglementsof children, digital tools, and literacy practices. TESOL Quarterly,
49(3), 461–485. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.236
Van Leeuwen, K. (2015). Multimodality in education: Some
directions and some questions. TESOL Quarterly, 49(3), 582–
589. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.242

Findings
In terms of fulfilling its multimodal literacy goals, theproject was successful. Each group created a unique projectby using different multimodal editing techniques to add music,
sound effects, and on-screen texts, and so on. Students
worked independently and had enough multimodal literacy
skills to be able to complete their videos without explicit
technical direction from the teacher.
In terms of fulfilling linguistic skills, the video projectprovided numerous learning opportunities where teachers andstudents could focus on students’ language skills. This is
supported by the students’ data from the classroom
questionnaire. The design of the project successfully
maintained a balance between providing opportunities forstudents to create their own authentic language without
teacher input and providing opportunities for the teacher togive structured feedback on the language the students
4.

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Academic Writing Support for International Students:
Challenges and Triumphs
Matikainen Tiina
Tamagawa University
matikainen@tsm.tamagawa.ac.jp
Abstract
As international students and English-medium Instruction (EMI) programs increase in Japan, universities need toadapt their programs. However, changes to meet the needs of these students are not always easily achieved. One
often overlooked area is academic writing. Even when faculty are able to teach their content in English, they may
not be able to support students with academic writing necessary to complete their research in English, and suchsupport may not be available for students as part of the curriculum. This presentation discusses a study examining
the challenges of providing academic writing support for English-speaking students at one large private university inTokyo. The participants of the study were English-speaking students enrolled in an Academic Writing course where
they are meant to complete a fully developed research paper in preparation for writing their theses in English. The
students’ prior academic writing experience varied greatly, with some having no experience in it. The study
attempted to examine what aspects of academic writing are these students most confident and most insecure about,and what aspects of such writing courses do the students feel are most useful for them in preparing them for further
academic writing. The data comes from a multiple choice and open answer questionnaire. The study found thatstudents struggle the most with crucial aspects of research writing including using and finding appropriate sources
and avoiding plagiarism, and macro-level writing skills such as coherence and appropriate academic vocabulary. On
the other hand, they are most confident about their micro-level writing skills, such as grammar and spelling. Finally,
the students expressed how the course was pivotal in helping them with fundamental and crucial aspects of academic
writing, such as using academic voice and vocabulary, and learning how to cite and use sources appropriately.
Keywords: academic writing, English Medium Instruction, EMI
1.

Introduction
Prior to COVID-19 challenges to international students
in Japan, the number of international students studying indegree programs in Japan, especially students from other
Asian countries, had been rapidly increasing. According toJapan Student Services Association (JASSO), the number ofinternational undergraduate and graduate students in Japanwas 146,041 as of May 1st, 2019 (JASSO, 2021). This has
more than doubled since 2000.

students are usually expected to complete research and write
about their research in English.
4.

Current Study

4.1. Research Context
The current study took place at a prestigious private
university in Tokyo-area that has an EMI-degree-program forinternational students. As of May 2019, the program had 225
students enrolled in it. This study specifically examines one
course within the program, a course titled Academic Writingin English that is an optional course for the students. During
the 15-week course, students complete a 12–15-page research
paper on a topic of their choice. All the students enrolled in
the course have completed their primary education in English
and therefore, qualified to apply to the university program asinternational students. However, the students’ experience
with academic writing varies greatly; some have had noexperience writing academically in English.

2.

Importance of Academic Writing
At the university level, in English, students are expected
to write for multiple purposes. Academic writing is
cognitively demanding requiring critical literacy skills.
Students are expected to learn to write while writing to learn(Marinetti, 1985). Despite being such a crucial skill, learners
are often left to their own devices with little or no writing
support (Ángel & García, 2017). Bhatia (2004) has pointed
out that students with high English proficiency are often
mistakenly assumed to also be able to produce high-quality
writing. However, this is not necessarily the case. As he
explains, having textual competence which refers to linguistic
accuracy, is not often accompanied by generic competence of
academic skills (Bhatia, 2004).

4.2. Research Questions
The goal of this study was to explore whether theacademic writing instruction received by international
students in this EMI program is adequate. Specifically, thestudy attempts to answer the following research questions:

3.

English Medium Instruction (EMI)In recent years, as the number of international students
has increased, the number of English Medium Instruction(EMI) programs has increased as well. According to Bradford
and Brown (2017), EMI refers to courses conducted entirely
in English with the purpose not being language education. It
is predicted that even more students will choose to study in
Asian countries in the near future for economic and politicalreasons (Choudaha, 2018). As part of these programs,

RQ1. What aspects of academic writing are the students mostconfident about?
RQ2. What aspects of academic writing are the students mostinsecure about?
RQ3. What aspects of the academic writing course do thestudents feel are most useful for them for their continuing
university studies?

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4.3. Research Method
An online student survey with multiple-choice and openended questions was conducted at the end of two 15-weekcourses. The multiple-choice Likert-scale questions asked thestudents to rate their confidence in different aspects of writing,such as writing a thesis statement and being able to find anduse sources, at the beginning and at the end of the semester
while the open-ended questions asked them to elaborate on
features of the course and writing process that were mostuseful for them. A total of 25 students responded to thequestionnaire.
5.

feel very confident or confident about their academic writing
abilities.
Figure 1

Results

5.1. Academic Writing Strengths
At the beginning of the term, the students felt mostconfident about the following features of academic writing by
answering that they felt either very confident or confident
about each of the following features: creating an outline(N=12), spelling/punctuation (N=12), finding sources (N=10),
using sources (N=10), and coherence (N=9). However, at theend of the term the responses to the same question were:Finding sources (N=16), APA format (N=14), avoiding
plagiarism (N=13), spelling/punctuation (N=12), and using
sources (N=12).

Students’ confidence in their academic writing skills at the beginningand at the end of the course

6.

Conclusion

It is clear from this study that academic writing courses are
extremely useful and necessary for university students. Thesestudents gained crucial academic writing skills from the course thatare necessary for them to be able to complete their research andthesis in English. Therefore, when universities in Japan develop EMI
programs, more emphasis should be placed on providing academic
writing support for the students. Research writing courses like theone discussed in this study should be offered to students asfoundational and required courses, not only as elective courses.

5.2. Academic Writing Weaknesses
Conversely, at the beginning of the term, the students felt
the most insecure about the following features of academic
writing by answering that they felt either not very confident
or confident about each of the following features: APA format(N=15), thesis statement (N=12), avoiding plagiarism (N=11),
vocabulary (N=8), and coherence (N=6). On the other hand,at the end of the term the responses to the same question were:grammar (N=2), APA format (N=2), avoiding plagiarism(N=2), thesis statement (N=1), coherence (N=1), andspelling/punctuation (N=1).

ReferencesÁngel, N.L., & García, J.M. (2017). Improving English Language
Learners’ Academic Writing: A Multi-Strategy Approach to a
Multi-Dimensional Challenge. Gist: Education and Learning
Research Journal, 14, 49-67.
https://doi.org/10.26817/16925777.367
Bhatia. V. K. (2004). Worlds of Written Discourse: A Genre-Based
View. London: Continuum International.

5.3. Most Useful Aspects of Course
In the open-ended question about the most usefulaspects of the course, many students commented on the factthat academic writing was completely new to them, and thecourse helped them realize that academic research writing isdifferent from informal writing or even essay writing. Many
comments were about learning how to find and use sources intheir papers, being able to use APA style by the end of thecourse, gaining audience awareness, and learning to avoid
plagiarism. In addition, many students commented on the factthat they became to understand how important topic selection
and formulating a strong thesis statement are.

Brown, H. & Bradford, A. (2018) Introduction: English-medium
instruction in Japanese higher education. In A. Bradford & H.
Brown (Eds.), English-medium Instruction in Japanese Higher
Education: Policy, Challenges and Outcomes (pp. xvii-xxiii.)
Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters,
Choudaha, R. (2018). A Third Wave of International Student
Mobility: Global Competitiveness and American Higher
Education Research & Occasional Paper Series, The Center
for Studies in Higher Education, UC Berkeley, CSHE.8.18,
https://ssrn.com/abstract=3169282
JASSO. (2021). Trends in number of international students byinstitutional type. JASSO.
https://www.studyinjapan.go.jp/en/_mt/2021/03/date2020
z_suii2_e.pdf

5.4. Confidence Pre- and Post-Course
Figure 1 shows the students’ confidence about theiracademic writing skills at the beginning (blue) and at the endof the course (green). As the figure shows, at the beginning of
the course, very few students answered that they felt very
confident or confident in their academic writing skills.
However, at the end of the semester, most students stated they

Marinetti, M. (1985). Learning to write while writing to learn: A
critical-multidisciplinary composition program. Green Bay:
University of Wisconsin.

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The effects of a long-term speaking training for Japanese college students
in English Club: an introductory examination of extracurricular activities
Ken’ichi Yamazaki**Akita Prefectural University
yamazaki@akita-pu.ac.jp
Abstract
This study examines the development of Japanese college students’ speaking performance after long-term
training. In 2020, English Club was established at Akita Prefectural University to enhance students’
speaking skills. This extracurricular club had 14 members who performed mainly pair work to practice
speaking English for seven months. Before attending the activities in May and after finishing all of theactivities in January, the members were asked to complete three speaking tasks to measure their speaking
skills. For each task, they spoke for two minutes, and their speeches were tape recorded. Their speeches
were carefully analyzed based on their fluency, accuracy, and complexity. The findings showed that thestandard deviation of the total words among the three topics became lower in the second examination.
This study is unique in two ways: first, it elucidates the extent of the development of Japanese students’
speaking performance after long-term speaking practice; and second, the researcher gave the speaking
instructions.
Keywords: English speaking, speaking evaluation, extracurricular activity
1. Introduction
Significant research has examined Japanese English as
a foreign language (EFL) learners’ speaking skills. Even
though it is highly necessary to give English-speaking
instructions to Japanese EFL learners in Japan, little researchhas examined the development of Japanese EFL learners’
English-speaking skills. Moreover, only a few extracurricular
activities where students can practice speaking English havebeen conducted in Japan so far. For the purpose of improving
this situation, Akita Prefectural University (APU) in Japanestablished an English Club in 2020, where students andteachers could meet twice a week to practice speaking English.
The present study examined the effectiveness of long-term
English-speaking extracurricular activities for Japanese EFL
learners.

enable the measurement of the development of their speaking
skills.
Regarding the most suitable training methods, many
researchers have agreed that pair work is the most effective
for practice in classes (Adams, 2007). To evaluate students’
speaking skills, many researchers have investigated the total
number of spoken words, pauses, errors, and otherquantitative and qualitative aspects of English speech(Mehnert, 1998). In the past, only a few studies haveinvestigated the effectiveness of English-speaking lessons or
the development of EFL learners’ speaking skills, especiallyJapanese EFL learners’ skills. However, some researchers
have recently started to focus on English communication
lessons, the growth of Japanese EFL learners’ speaking skills,
and the effects of long-term lessons (McDonough, 2004).
Following these research trends, the present study examines
the effects of long-term English instruction on Japanese EFL
learners’ English-speaking ability.

2. English-speaking instruction
English Club currently has 14 members who practicefor 90 minutes each time. The pair work activities require thestudents to talk about given topics without any preparation.
The researcher acted as the teacher and showed the students
many useful expressions for English conversation. Including
the researcher, all members of English Club are Japanese;
however, they are not permitted to use the Japanese language
during practice.

4. Research design
The research participants were divided into two groups:
Group A and Group B. The 10 students performed speaking
tasks in September 2020 and January 2021. Each student
tackled one set of three tasks each time and performed thesame tasks in September and January. In each task, thestudents were required to speak for two minutes about thegiven topic, and their speeches were tape-recorded. The firsttask was self-introduction, second, give an account of highschool days, and third, to speak anything about the word
“English.” No preparation was permitted. In total, 10 students
finished three two-minute speaking tasks twice, providing 60
speeches for careful analysis.
This study posed the following research question:
RQ 1. Do pair work activities in extracurricular activities at
a Japanese university enhance Japanese EFL learners’
speaking skills?

3. Literature
In the field of second language acquisition, significant
research has been conducted to evaluate the methods used to
improve EFL learners’ speaking skills and the validity ofvarious testing methods. Considerable time has passed since
the importance of English conversation lessons has been
widely recognized in the field of second language acquisition.
While the findings of most previous studies are highly
valuable, insight into the effective ways to enhance thespeaking skills of Japanese EFL learners is still needed.
Therefore, it is important to investigate the effectiveness ofapplied English lessons by giving English conversation
lessons to Japanese students for a certain amount of time to

5. Participants
Ten students aged 18-20 years old participated in the
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present study. They were all members of English Club andwere all in the same academic department—Faculty of
Systems Science and Technology, where the students mainly
learned engineering. The research participants were divided
into two groups: one group of students (Group A, n = 7)
started practicing in May 2020, while the other group of
students (Group B, n = 3) started practicing later, in October
2020. Among the participants, only two had spent time in aforeign country, and none of them had received Englishconversation lessons before joining English Club. The firstyear students took two mandatory English classes, and thesecond-year students took one mandatory class in the 2020
school year. All classes dealt with basic English and TOEIC
test practice.

Table 4
Interrelation among items in January 2021

6. Results
Table 1 shows the mean number of words spoken in one
task by the students. In both groups, the mean numbers
increased in January.

Figure 1
Mean number of total words

words
densitysentence
errorsverb
adj adv

densitysentence

errorsverb

adj adv-0.775**0.703**-0.418*0.346*-0.1180.437*

0.743**-0.473*0.449*-0.0440.609**-0.347*0.448*
0.242
0.707****p<.01“be”
verb
0.559**-0.2300.880**
0.144
0.590**
0.494**p<.5

Figure 1 shows the mean numbers of each task
performed by the students in September 2020 and January
2021. In each task, the numbers of words increased, and thestudents produced the lowest number of words for topic 3 inboth tests.

160
140

number of words

120

Table 1
Mean number of words for one task
September 2020

January 2021

(n = 10)109.07127.82

Group A (n = 7)

117.90130.76

Group B (n = 3)

88.44

126.44

All

100
80
60
40
20
0

topic 1

Table 2Standard deviation of the total number of words
All(n = 10)January

14.10

11.60

Table 3 shows the interrelations among the six items in
September 2020. It seems that the numbers of total words,
verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and “be” verbs have a strong
relationship.
Table 3
Interrelation among items in September 2020
words
densitysentence
errorsverb
adj adv

densitysentence

errorsverb

adj adv-0.668**0.890**-0.495*0.471*-0.2050.385*

0.714**
0.492*
0.742**
0.129

0.848**-0.734**0.639**
0.383
0.621****p<.01

topic 3

7. Discussion and conclusion
Group B students showed a higher growth rate inJanuary 2021, while Group A students, who had trained
longer, could speak more words in January 2021. The
standard deviation of the total number of words among thethree topics decreased, indicating that the students gained
skills in speaking about various matters, not only about
themselves, without any preparation. In January 2021, therelationship between the number of words and the number ofgeneral verbs remained strong. It is highly probable that thestudents relied on general verbs to express their thoughts
rather than adverbs, adjectives, or “be” verbs. In both tests,
the students found the topic “anything about the word
“English”” difficult to talk about.
Overall, this study found that extracurricular pair work
speaking activities are somewhat effective in enhancing
Japanese learners’ English-speaking skills.

Table 2 shows the standard deviation of the mean
number of words spoken by the students among the threetasks. It is clear that the standard deviation decreased in
January.

Septembertopic 2
Sep
Jan

References
Adams, R. (2007). Do Second Language Learners Benefit fromInteracting with Each Other? In A. Mackey (Ed.),
Conversational Interaction in Second Language Acquisition(pp. 29-51). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McDonough, K. (2004). Learner-learner interaction during pair andsmall group activities in a Thai EFL context. System, 32 (2),207-224.
Mehnert, U. (1998). The effects of different lengths of time forplanning on second language performance. Studies in Second
Language Acquisition, 20 (1), 83-108.

“be”
verb
0.735**-0.634**0.724**-0.0090.761**
0.654***p<.5

Table 4 shows the interrelations among six items inJanuary 2021. The relationship among the words, adjectives,
adverbs, and “be” verbs decreased, while the relationshipbetween the words and verbs remained strong.

44The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Peer Review: Student Perceptions and Attitudes
Found from a Focus Group Interview
Yukako Hatakeyama
Ochanomizu University
hatakeyama.yukako@ocha.ac.jp
Abstract
This presentation aims to report how female university students of intermediate English proficiency
perceive peer-review activities in English writing courses. In the writing courses taught online in theacademic year 2020, the students self-corrected the grammatical errors of their drafts using automatedwriting evaluation software first and then conducted peer review in class online. After lessons in theacademic year 2020 finished, participants of a focus group interview on peer review were recruited byemail, and four students volunteered to participate. The semi-structured interview was conducted online
for 90 minutes in Japanese. The participants said obtaining feedback helped them improve their drafts.
Some also found that reading the partners’ drafts was stimulating and enabled them to see how the peers
worked on the assignments. As for drawbacks, some participants felt the quality of feedback varied
depending on the reviewers: many reviewers giving constructive feedback with some giving only
compliments. Psychological difficulty in providing critical feedback varied by participants: threeparticipants did not find much difficulty, while one showed anxiety. In providing critical comments,
they used such strategies as commenting on the positive aspects before pointing out improvement areas,
giving concrete suggestions, and communicating the feedback only as one reader’s personal opinion.
Keywords: peer review, peer feedback, second language writing, focus group interview
Introduction
In the academic year 2020, due to COVID-19, English
classes, including writing classes, were taught online at a
women’s university in Tokyo. Peer review was no exception.
In the presenter’s class, the students of intermediate
proficiency in English conducted peer review after they
self-corrected grammatical errors of their drafts using
automated writing evaluation software. Peer review, whichused to be done face to face, was done online by exchanging
their drafts online and giving feedback orally. This
presentation reports how they found peer view and how theygave feedback.

2.2 Concerns of Peer Review
Concerns about peer review have been discussed aswell. The first is the learners’ reluctance to be engaged inpeer review, stemming from their lack of enoughgrammatical knowledge or their fear of giving inappropriate
comments (Srichanyachon, 2011) and their doubt on thepeers’ ability to provide feedback (Tsui & Ng, 2000).
However, Tsui and Ng (2000) also report that, regardless ofthe degree of uptake of peers’ comments, L2 witers regard
peer comments as having certain roles to play. Similarly, L2
students at a bilingual university in Japan perceive peer
review favorably, feel that getting feedback from anotherperspective is stimulating, and find it interesting to learn byreading peers’ papers (Hatakeyama, 2010).
The second concern is the effectiveness of peer review,especially in the Asian context, given its cultural
backgrounds and educational practices. Carson and Nelson’s
study (1996) reports that Chinese participants in the US
were reluctant to initiate especially critical comments tomaintain group harmony. However, recent studies show
successful peer review with critical and constructive
feedback in China (Yu & Hu, 2017) and in Taiwan after
conducting training (Min, 2005, 2006).

1.

2. Literature Review
2.1 Benefits of Peer Review
The benefits of peer review have been widely
acknowledged to date: raising the writers’ awareness of thereaders (Mendonça & Johnson, 1994; Rollinson, 2005; Tsui
& Ng, 2000), enabling them to obtain additional anddifferent feedback from that given by the instructor (Ferris,
2018; Rollinson, 2005), providing them opportunities formeaningful interaction with peers and collaborative learning(Mendonça & Johnson, 1994; Tsui & Ng, 2000), andencouraging and motivating them by getting supportive andless authoritative feedback from peers (Rollinson, 2005), toname a few.
It has also been found that peer review benefits thereaders as well. The gains in the writing ability of theproviders of feedback were more significant than those of
the receivers (Lundstrom & Baker, 2009). L2 writers’
awareness of their strengths and weaknesses in writing has
been raised (Tsui & Ng, 2000). Moreover, reviewing peers’
texts helps them become critical readers and revisers of theirown papers (Berg, 1999; Rollinson, 2005; Sommers, 2013;
Yu & Fu, 2017), leading eventually to the improved qualityof the texts.

2.3 Research Questions
The literature has many supportive and encouraging
findings on the effectiveness of and learners’ perceptions ofpeer review, with some reservations. This study explores
how female L2 learners in a women’s university in Japan
perceive peer review done online and how they conduct peer
review in pursuit to obtain its maximum outcomes. The
research questions are outlined below:
1) What do L2 learners think are the benefits of peer
review?
2) What do they think are its drawbacks?
3) How do they feel about giving critical feedback?
4) What strategies do they use in giving critical feedback?
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3. Methods
3.1 Participants
The participants of this study were recruited by email
out of the students who completed 15-week writing classes(paragraph-writing or essay-writing classes) in the second
half of the academic year 2020. Two first-year students andtwo second-year students volunteered to participate.

benefits and drawbacks of peer review, which are in linewith the findings in the previous studies. The feelings about
giving critical feedback varied among the participants: some
did not find it hard, while the others felt nervous to a certain
extent. It was also found that they use various strategies forgiving critical feedback.
The findings, which unveiled the participants’
individual differences, provide insights for practical peer
review training as well as for seeking improvement in peer
review.

Interview
The semi-structured interview, facilitated by thepresenter and course instructor, was conducted online in
February 2021 for 90 minutes in Japanese, the native
language of the participants. The interview questions had
been shared with the participants beforehand. With theirconsent, the interview was voice-recorded and transcribed,
using pseudonyms, by the presenter. University-designatedhonoraria were paid to the participants after the interview.
The entire procedure had been approved by the presenter’s
university’s research ethics committee.
3.2

Acknowledgements
The presenter would like to thank the four participants in theinterview who shared invaluable thoughts and insights on peer
review.
This study was supported by JSPS KAKENHI (Grant Number
20K00772).
References
Berg, E. C. (1999). The effects of trained peer review response on
ESL students’ revision types and writing quality. Journal of
Second Language Writing, 8, 215-241.
Carson, J. G. & Nelson, G.L. (1996). Chinese students’ perceptionsof ELS peer response group interaction. Journal of Second
Language Writing, 5, 1-19.
Ferris, D. R. (2018c). Writing instruction and assessment. In J.M.
Newton, D.R. Ferris, C.C. Goh, W. Grabe, F.L. Stoller, & L.
Vandergrift (Eds.). Teaching English to second language
learners in academic contests: Reading, writing, listening, andspeaking. (pp.106-122). Routledge.
Hatakeyama, Y. (2010). Changes made in a Theme Writing class:
The importance of students’ perceptions. ICU Language
Research Bulletin, 25, Retrieved July 21, 2020, fromhttp://lrb.info.icu.ac.jp/home/volume-25-2010
Lundstrom, K. & Baker, W. (2009). To give is better than toreceive: The benefits of peer review to the reviewer’s own
writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 18(1), 30-43.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2008.06.002
Mendonça, C. O. & Johnson, K. E. (1994). Peer review
negotiations: Revision activities in ESL writing instruction.
TESOL Quarterly, 28(4), 745-769.
Min, H. T. (2005). Training students to become successful peer
reviewers. System, 33(2), 293-308.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2004.11.003
Min, H. T. (2006). The effects of trained peer review on EFL
students’ revision types and writing quality. Journal of Second
Language writing, 15(2), 118-141.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2006.01.003
Rollinson, P. (2005). Using peer feedback in the ELS writing class.
ELT Journal, 59, 23-30.
Sommers, N. (2013). Responding to student writers. Bedford/St.
Martin’s.
Srichanyachon, N. (2011). A comparative study of three revision
methods in EFL writing. Journal of College Teaching &Learning, 8(9), 1-8.
Tsui, A. B. M. & Ng, M. (2000). Do secondary L2 writers benefit
from peer comments? Journal of Second Language Writing,9(2), 147-170.
Yu, S. & Hu, G. (2017). Understanding university students’ peer
feedback practices in EFL writing: Insights from a case study.
AssessingWriting,33,
25-35.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2017.03.004

4. Results
4.1 Benefits of Peer Review
From the participants’ comments, obtaining feedbackon their drafts helped them revise/restructure their drafts.
The input seems to help them become aware of a reader’spoint of view as well. Some also feel that reading thepartner’s high-quality drafts was stimulating and enabled
them to see how the peers worked on the assignments. One
participant mentioned that she felt joy and self-esteem,
thanks to the compliments from her partners.
4.2 Drawbacks of Peer Review
It was pointed out that not all the reviewers gave
critical comments and that they find it hard to improve theirdraftswithout
thereviewer’s
perspective.
As
countermeasures, obtaining feedback from more than one
person and from a more experienced reviewer was
suggested.
4.3 Feelings About Giving Critical Feedback
Two participants did not find it hard to give criticalfeedback. One felt a bit nervous, and the other participant
felt reluctant in the beginning due to the fear of being
regarded as someone not nice who looks down on others.
She also pointed out the difficulty in communicating online,
especially in breaking silence. One participant recalled one
occasion in which she could not find any areas for
improvement.
4.4 Strategies for Giving Critical Feedback
In giving critical feedback, the participantscommented on good points first and then offered suggestions.
They also provided concrete suggestions instead of merely
pointing out areas for improvement. Another strategy was togive feedback just as one reader’s personal opinion.
5.

Conclusion
The participants were found to be aware of the46

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

How are University Students Engaged in
Online Courses for English Language Teacher Education?
MIYASAKO Nobuyoshi
University of Teacher Education Fukuoka
nobmiy@fukuoka-edu.ac.jp
Abstract
This study, in the framework of the self-system model of motivational development, exploratorily
examined relationships between students’ psychological needs, engagement and achievement in three
online courses for English language teacher education (ELTE) at a university in western Japan. Courses
A, B and C pertained respectively to basic ELTE, primary-level ELTE and primary-level microteachingof English, the first two of which were English-medium on-demand courses and the third was a Japanesemedium real-time course. Their psychological needs and engagement, including newly devised agentic
engagement, were surveyed using a 34-item 6-point-Licart-scale questionnaire conducted at the end of
the courses, and their achievement was measured as the course scores. The results were: (a) the students’
engagement was the highest in the microteaching course; (b) their achievement had mainly weakrelationships with psychological needs and engagement, except for emotional one; and (c) their
psychological needs and engagement, except for emotional one, had moderate relationships between them.
Keywords: engagement, university students, online, English language teacher education
psychological needs of autonomy, competence andrelatedness, in the self-system model of motivational
development (SSMMD; Skinner, Furrer, Marchand &Kindermann, 2008; Skinner, Kindermann, Connell, &Wellborn, 2009).
Knowingly, we should develop learners’ extrinsic
regulations toward intrinsic motivation because intrinsic
rather than extrinsic motivation helps promote learning (LaGuardia & Ryan, 2002). Also consented in SelfDetermination Theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2000) is that thismotivational development usually takes place when those
psychological needs are met. Although SDT does not clearly
reveal what role engagement plays in the learners’
motivational system, SSMMD shows how learner motivation
is developed in teaching, including relationships between
those psychological needs and learner classroom engagement(Figure 1).

Introduction
Teachers concern student engagement in the classroom
because they know, from their experience, that it has effects
not only on their academic performance but also on their
psychological well-being, which has been supported byresearch (for example, Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004;
Shernoff, Ruzek, Sannella, Schorr, Sanchez-Wall, & Bressler,2017). Does this apply to university online courses conductedunder the COVID-19 pandemic? This presentation examinesand discusses university students’ engagement in three
remote courses.
1.

Literature Review
Engagement means how students are involved and how
they feel during a learning task (Reeve, Jang, Carrell & Barch,
2004). It is a meta-construct consisting of behavioral,
emotional and cognitive engagement, which is affected by
2.

Figure 1
The self-system model of motivational development

Notes: This figure is adapted from “Engagement and disaffection in the classroom: Part of a larger motivational dynamic?,” by E. Skinner,
C. Furrer, G. Marchand and T. Kindermann, 2008, Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, pp. 765-781. Copyright 2008 by the America
Psychological Association; Context includes parents, peers, school and neighborhood community as well as teachers.
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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

This figure focuses on how teachers affect learnerengagement. In the context, structure concerns information,
guidance and feedback given by teachers (Dupont, Galand,Nils, & Hospel, 2014). Naturally, good teaching affects
students’ perceptions of competence, helping improve theirlearning, as shown in self-efficacy research (for example,
Bandura, 1986), through enhanced engagement in learning
activities. Similarly, teachers’ autonomy-support andinvolvement affect students’ autonomy and relatedness
respectively. When these needs are met, learners tend to beengaged in learning activities behaviorally, cognitively andemotionally to learn better.
In addition to these aspects of engagement, argentic
engagement (Reeve & Tseng, 2011), concerning active andconstructive roles learners play in learning, is suggested.

been caused by the remote manner of the courses.
At the presentation, details of the results are shown anddiscussed with pedagogical implications.
Conclusion
Students’ psychological needs, engagement andachievement in remote courses for ELT were shown, and theirrelationships were examined. Based on these data andfindings, future remote courses for ELT should be revised tomeet students’ needs so that they may enhance students’
engagement to learn better.
6.

Acknowledgements
This presentation makes a part of a project supported by Grant-inAid for Scientific Research (C) 21K00709.
References
Bandura, A. (1986). Fearful expectations and avoidant actions as
coeffects of perceived self-inefficacy. doi: org/10.1037/0003066X.41.12.1389
Dupont, S., Galand, B., Nils, F., & Hospel, V. (2014). Social
context, self-perceptions and student engagement: A SEM
investigation of the self-system model of motivational
development (SSMMD). doi: org/10.14204/ejrep.32.13081
Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School
Engagement: Potential of the Concept, State of the Evidence.
Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 59-109. doi:org/10.3102/00346543074001059
La Guardia, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Couchman, C. E., & Deci, E. L.
(2000). Basic psychological needs scales. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 79, 367-384. Retrieved fromhttps://scholar.google.co.jp/scholar?hl=ja&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=B
asic+Psychological+Needs+Scales+Deci+%26+Ryan&btnG=
La Guardia, J., & Ryan, R. M. (2002) Academic motivation ofadolescents. In F. Pajares, & T. C. Urdan (Eds.) Academic
motivation of adolescents (pp. 193-220). Greenwich, UK:
Information Age Publishing.
Reeve, J., Jang, H., Carrell, D., Jeon, S., & Barch, J. (2004).
Enhancing students' engagement by increasing teachers'
autonomy support. Motivation and emotion, 28(2), 147-169. doi:

Study
This study, in the framework of SSMMD, exploratorily
examined students’ psychological needs, engagement andachievement and their relationships in remote courses forEnglish language teacher education (ELTE). Researchquestions were addressed as: (1) how are students’
psychological needs, engagement and achievement in three
remote courses for ELTE?; and (2) what relationships do these
psychological needs, engagement and achievement have?
3.

MethodThe participants were students (n = 135) in three remotecourses for ELTE in the 2020 fall semester at a university inwestern Japan. Courses A (n = 47), B (n = 56) and C (n = 32)
pertained respectively to basic ELTE, primary-level ELTE
and primary-level microteaching of English, the first two of
which were English-medium on-demand courses and the third
was a Japanese-medium real-time course.
Their psychological needs and engagement, including
newly devised agentic engagement, were surveyed using a
34-item 6-point-Licart-scale questionnaire conducted at theend of the courses, based on Basic Psychological Needs
Scales (La Guardia, Ryan, Couchman & Deci, 2000) and
Reeve and Tseng’s (2011) questionnaire items on engagement.
Their achievement was measured as the course scores.
4.

org/10.1023/B:MOEM.0000032312.95499
Reeve, J., & Tseng, C. M. (2011). Agency as a fourth aspect ofstudents’ engagement during learning activities.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36(4), 257-267.
doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2011.05.002
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. (2000) Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations:Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary
Educational Psychology, 25, 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
Shernoff, D. J., Ruzek, E. A., Sannella, A. J., Schorr, R. Y.,
Sanchez-Wall, L., & Bressler, D. M. (2017). Student engagement
as a general factor of classroom experience: Associations withstudent practices and educational outcomes in a university
gateway course. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1-22.
doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00994
Skinner, E., Furrer, C., Marchand, G., & Kindermann, T. (2008).
Engagement and disaffection in the classroom: Part of a larger
motivational dynamic? Journal of Educational Psychology, 100,765-781. doi:10.1037/a0012840
Skinner, E. A., Kindermann, T. A., Connell, J. P., & Wellborn, J. G.
(2009). Engagement and disaffection as organizational constructs
in the dynamics of motivational development. In K. R. Wentzel,& A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 223245). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.

Results and Discussion
One result was that the students’ engagement was thehighest in the microteaching course. This was in line with our
expectation because it was a real-time course in which thestudents performed teaching demonstrations and discussed
them in Japanese.
Another was that the students’ achievement was justweakly related to their psychological needs and engagement,
except for non-related emotional engagement. This may havebeen due to the evaluation of their achievement, whereassignments given in each session and the final assignment
were used.
Moreover, their psychological needs and engagement,
except for emotional one, had moderate relationships between
them. Although these relationships were congruous to the past
research, the exclusion of emotional engagement may have
5.

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Sharing Problems Effectively in Extensive Reading
Takaaki Goto
Kyushu University of Nursing and Social Welfare
t-goto@kyushu-ns.ac.jp
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to clarify what problems are shared at an extensive reading workshop forEnglish as Foreign Language (EFL) students. In 2017, an extensive reading class was partly
implemented for 31 nursing students, who borrowed graded readers from university libraries. They readthose books for around 20 minutes during each class and were encouraged to do so outside scheduledclass time as well. The researcher used a reading recording sheet, checked it once, and finally required
students to submit their reading record sheets. The workshop was conducted in the fourth of 15 classes.
After the students were divided into small groups of about four, they discussed what problems they had
in extensive reading, and each group summarized on paper what was shared between the groupmembers. In the next class, these summaries were distributed to each student. The researcher theninteracted with students as a whole class. The most frequent issue raised was that one of the libraries did
not have enough easier books for them to read. Some students also could not read books without adictionary. Others wondered how long they should have continued to read easier books, or when theyshould have changed reading levels. Although the researcher had responded to such problems by either
commenting on a reading recording sheet or talking to them individually, the workshop was more useful
because they could discuss and share their problems with the whole class. It was also revealed that suchan initiative can strengthen reading communities. In conclusion, the researcher proposes such aworkshop at the initial stage of the class, so that students’ problems are generally addressed.
Keywords: extensive reading, learners, problems, workshop
1.   Introduction
Extensive reading, which has been on the increase
across Japan, is generally defined as follows; “It is anapproach to the teaching and learning of second language
reading in which learners read large quantities of books andother materials that are well within their linguisticcompetence” (Day & Bamford, 1998).
This is a widely accepted definition of extensive
reading. Referring to previous research (Day & Bamford,
1998; Susser & Robb, 1990; Hafiz & Tudor, 1989), however,Goto (2016) defined extensive reading anew as an approachto the teaching and learning of language reading in whichlearners read large quantities of books and other materials
selected on the basis of their interest and pleasure. This
research adopted the latter definition.
The learning effects of extensive reading have beenfrequently reported in research articles. It can enhance
students’ interest in English (Rob & Susser, 1989), reading
speed (Bell, 2001), and positive attitudes toward reading in
English (Day & Bamford, 2000). It also improves the four
language skills of reading, listening, speaking, and writing(Takase, 2010; Day, 2015).
When students undertake extensive reading in class,they can experience common problems to an extent.
Therefore, this research suggests a workshop as one of themethods to solve students’ problems. It is a form of group
work in which they discuss and share their problems, andfinally share all of them as a whole class with a help of ateacher. To enhance the learning effects of extensive reading,this method can be useful especially in large classes where it
is not easy to have access to each student.
Thus, this research examines what problems are sharedin extensive reading in a workshop setting to gain
educational insights through analysis.

2.   Research Method
In 2017, extensive reading was conducted for 31
nursing students at a university. They brought English books
including graded readers from university libraries and readthem in a classroom.
The university has two libraries, both of which have
graded readers including Macmillan Readers, Penguin
Readers (Pearson English Readers), Ladder Series, Oxford
Bookworms and Cambridge English Readers (Goto, 2019).
One on O campus (Figure 1) houses about 900; theother on K campus (Figure 2) houses about 600 books forextensive reading (Goto, 2019).

Figure 1. University library on O campus

The students were given reading time for the first 20
minutes or so of every 90-minute class and were encouraged
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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

to read outside scheduled class time as well.
In many cases of extensive reading, students follow
three principles as described by Sakai (2002) which arecalled “Tadoku Sangensoku” in Japanese: 1. Do not use
dictionaries. 2. Skip the words and expressions you do notknow while reading, and 3. Change the book when it is notinteresting.

workshops can also strengthen a reading community in theclassrooms.
4.  

Conclusion
In an extensive reading class, it can be effective forstudents to have workshops where their problems are
discussed, shared, and solved at the initial stage. These
problems are often common to students. It can also be
efficient for the teachers to address a whole class rather thanto respond to each individual student.
If several problems are not solved at a workshop,
individual conferences or inquiries will be necessary toenhance the learning effects of extensive reading.
References
Bell, T. (2001). Extensive reading: Speed and composition. The
Reading Matrix, 1(1), 1-13.
Day, R. R., & Bamford, J. (1998). Extensive reading in the second
language classroom. Cambridge University Press.
Day, R. R., & Bamford, J. (2000). Reaching reluctant readers.
EnglishTeaching
Forum,
38(3),
12-17.
http://eca.state.gov/forum/vols/vol38/no3/ p12.htm
Day, R. (2015). Extensive reading: The background. In Day, R.,
Bassett, J., Bowler, B., Parminter, S., Bullard, N., Furr, M.,
Prentice, N., Mahmood, M., Stewart, D, & Robb, T (Eds.),
Extensive reading (pp. 10-21). Oxford University Press.
Goto, T. (2016). How EFL learners change affective dimensions
after extensive reading of English newspaper articles. Social
and Cultural Sciences, 14, 109-122.
Goto, T. (2019). Kosen daigaku toshokan kara [From technicalcollege and university libraries]. In Nishizawa, H., Yonezawa,
K, & Awano, M (Eds.), Toshokan tadoku no susumekata[Intotoduction to tadoku at libraries] (pp. 138-140). JLA.
Hafiz, F. M., & Tudor, I. (1989). Extensive reading and thedevelopment of language skills. ELT Journal, 43(1), 4-13.
Robb, T., & Susser, B. (1989). Extensive reading vs skills building
in an EFL context. Reading in a Foreign Language, 5(2),239-251.
Sakai, K. (2002). Kaidoku hyakumango paperback e no michi[Pleasurable reading to one million words: The way topaperback books]. Chikuma Shobo.
Susser, B., & Robb, T. (1990). EFL extensive reading instruction:
Research and procedure. JALT Journal, 12(2), 161-185.
Takase, A. (2010). Eigo tadoku tachiyo manual [A manual ofextensive reading and extensive listening in English]. Taishukan
Shoten.

Figure 2. University library on K campus

As such the principles were explained to the students,
and then they were asked to follow them.
Reading record sheets were used to visualize how
many books or words they had read. These sheets were alsocollected, checked in the middle of 15 classes, and thenreturned to the students with the teacher’s comments.
Students also gave presentations on their favorite books.
A workshop was implemented in the fourth and fifthof all classes. First, the students were divided into a small
group of four, discussing what problems they had faced inextensive reading, and then summarizing their opinions on
paper. In the following week, the summary of all the groups
was handed out to each student before the teacher answered
their questions.
3.  

Results and Discussion
Some learning problems surfaced at the workshop.
The most frequent response was that the library did not haveenough easier books to read (5 cases). The university has
two campuses, each of which has graded readers. However,the class was physically conducted on one of the campuses(Figure 2), and they found it difficult to access to the otherlibrary (Figure 1).
Other responses included whether they could only
read easy books, or they did not know the timing of when tochange their reading level (2 cases). Some groups reported
that they needed a dictionary (2 cases). Other groups
reported that they hoped to keep the class as it was (2 cases).
Although the three principles were explained to thestudents beforehand, some of them did not fully understandwhat they meant. Although feedback sheets or individual
inquiries are generally used in extensive reading classes,
such a workshop can be effective for students to discuss andshare their problems and know how to manage them.
The teachers, on the other hand, will know what
problems a whole class faces in extensive reading. Such

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Flipped EFL Learning and COIL during the COVID-19
Hiroyuki Obari
Aoyama Gakuin University
obari119@gmail.com
Abstract
The first case study of flipped learning was conducted throughout the two semesters, while students
actively engaged in presentations and discussions about the contents assigned in advance. Students
downloaded several lectures about scientific realism, worldviews, and Oxford Martin School fromFacebook and prepared PowerPoint slides and MP4 movies with more presentations and discussions using
ZOOM breakout sessions. Students delivered several presentations as a group of four students withbreakout rooms or sometimes in front of all students. The second case study focuses on a COIL between
19 AGU seminar students and 19 NUS (National University of Singapore) students of Japanese class. We
divided the 38 students into five groups in which we conducted some joint research with Zoom breakout
rooms for seven weeks and held an online join presentation seminar on November 10th, 2020. The firstpart of the group presentation was the summary of the joint research with PowerPoint slides, mainly NUS
students presented, on the other hand, the second part of group presentation was given only by Japanese
students in English. This way, NUS students could study advanced Japanese, and AGU Japanese students
could improve their English presentation skills. Both groups could take advantage of language andcultural exchange through this joint seminar and made some positive feedback from their reflections of 8
weeks seminar. In both case studies, all students had their presentations evaluated by their peers using thePeerEval software on a smartphone, with six items about presentation skills.
Keywords: COVID-19, Flipped Learning, Cultural Exchange, COIL
1.

Introduction(1) All students (n=19) had their English lessons using realtime virtual learning with ZOOM and Facebook. The learningmaterials were uploaded on Facebook in advance.
(2) Students engaged in real-time learning with ZOOM,
listening to the mini lectures from the author and participatedin breakout sessions with more active discussions about thecontents.
(3) Students prepared PowerPoint slides about their assigned
work and delivered several presentations in front of thestudents, although at times they joined breakout sessions in agroup of 4 students and gave their presentations with peer
assessment using PeerEval software on smartphones.
(4) Flipped learning was conducted all through two semesters,
actively engaged in presentations and discussions about thecontents assigned in advance.
(5) Students took the online ATR CALL Brix test several
times.
(6) Students learned presentation skills by downloading thevideo contents of Successful Presentation by Oxford
University Press. Each unit consisted of 8 units containing 3minute video contents.
(7) Professor Weakley from the US was invited as a guest
lecturer several times and engaged in the virtual teaching
worldviews, global leadership, and cross-cultural IQ. He also
actively took part in the breakout sessions and interacted withmany students. Sometimes his students joined the virtual
classroom from the U.S.A. and enjoyed discussing the crosscultural differences between Japanese values and Christianoriented values.
(8) Several lectures from Oxford University professors about
scientific realism and worldviews were given, and thestudents prepared PowerPoint slides with more presentations
and discussions using ZOOM breakout sessions.

Trilling and Fadel (2009) emphasized the importanceof 21st-century skills early in 2000, 3Rs and 7Cs wereparticularly important, but now 8Cs should be added‘coexistence with AI.’ 8Cs should be emphasized in ourpedagogy whatever subject we teach for 21st-century
education. Kurzweil (2005) predicts that AI is now advancing
exponentially and will approach the singularity in 2045. In thearticle “The Future Employment,” it is mentioned thatapproximately 48 percent of the present type of job will be
replaced by AI-related jobs (Frey & Osborne, 2013). Harari(2018), in his book, comments that “humankind is likely to be
divided into two main camps-those in favor of giving AI
significantly authority, and those opposed to it.” Harari also
predicted that people would be divided into two camps, one
who is in charge of AI and the other who will be used by AI
Therefore, the 8Cs will play an essential role in the pedagogy
of English education. Based on this concept, this article waswritten to promote global education during the COVID-19.
2.

Methodology

2.1 First Case Study during the COVID-19 with ZOOMThe first case study (n=19) was implemented onlinefrom May 2020 to January 2021 using Zoom, Facebook, Line,
Messenger. The online lessons were conducted with 19 AGU
students, using the following pedagogy: FL (Flipped
learning), DBL (Challenge-based learning), TBL (Task-basedlearning), PBL (Problem-solving learning). The pedagogicaltraining focused on helping students find solutions to themany issues now being faced by humanity in the 21st century.
Throughout the online program, training in higher-order
thinking skills was emphasized. The learning procedures are
as follows:

2.2 Second Case Study during the COVID-19 -Virtual Online
Joint Seminar-

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The second case study was conducted from October
2020 to November 2020 for about eight weeks with aparticular emphasis on exchange programs with the National
University of Singapore (NUS). My 19 AGU seminar
students and 19 NUS students of Japanese class started thejoin seminar early in October and finished up on November
10 , every Tuesday night from 7:30 pm to 9:00 pm, we had an
online virtual seminar with a Zoom and a final presentation
on November 10 , 2020. Due to the COVID-19, we decided
to go ahead to have an online virtual exchange between my
19 AGU seminar students and 19 NUS students of Japaneseclass under the guidance of Professor Izumi Walker, the vicedirector of Foreign Language Center at NUS. We divided the
38 students into five groups where we conducted some joint
research with Zoom for seven weeks and hold a joinpresentation seminar on November 10 , 2020 (Figure 1). The
first part of the group presentation was a summary of the joint
research with PowerPoint slides, mainly NUS students
presented, on the other hand, the second part of grouppresentation was given only by Japanese students in English.

language and cultural exchange through this join seminar andmade some positive comments from their reflections of 8
weeks seminar.
Even during the COVID-19, we could still have avirtual joint seminar. It would make a lot easier to have a sortof exchange programs with the ZOOM than in person. In the
future, advanced virtual exchange technologies could makemore contribution as if we were meeting each other in person
due to the development of mixed reality or augmented reality
using the google glasses or whatever.

th

th

4.

Conclusion

In case study 1, under the influence of the COVID-19,
the seminar students may not have liked the ZOOM lesson,
but most of the students felt it was effective and they could
still improve their presentation skills. At times, it might beeasier for us to invite visiting scholars during virtual lessons
just as in Case Study 1, as the students were greatly influenced
by the foreign lecturer in improving their English proficiency
and becoming more open-minded.
In case study 2, under the COVID-19, we could still
have a virtual joint seminar between AGU and NUS
stimulating each side. It would make a lot easier to have sucha virtual exchange with the ZOOM than in person. The
students had been virtually engaged in learning English
through worldviews. This is an ongoing research projectusing virtual online teaching 100% of the time. The results ofthe two case studies suggest that integrating blended learning
along with 21st-century skills, with ZOOM virtual classroom
teaching, is an effective way to improve the English
proficiency of native Japanese undergraduates.
If we use the ZOOM more efficiently, there would be
not much difference in teaching EFL whether they like tointeract online or in person. Other than the classroom
interaction with or without ZOOM, we could conduct apractical lesson with the integration of ICT and COIL.

thFigure 1: Online Virtual Join Seminar

This seminar presentation was held on November 10, 2020.

3. Results
3.1 Results of Case Study 1
Virtual online ZOOM lessons were conducted for twosemesters. Most of my seminar students enjoyed the ZOOM
lesson, and about 80% of students felt the lesson effective in
learning English. The questionnaire indicated that students
generally such as face-to-face lessons (48%), Hybrid lesson(35%), and ZOOM lessons (9%). However, visiting
professor’s ZOOM lecture helped students change theirworldviews and improve English proficiency. In thepresentation, the assessment software was used, and students
felt it useful to check their presentation performance, and 96%
agreed that even virtual presentation was effective in learning
English. From my seminar classroom observation, there
seemed to be no difference in improving the presentation
skills in English before the COVID-19 and during the
COVID-19. The improvement of TOEIC pretest and post-test
was not accurately checked this time.

Acknowledgement
This work was supported by Soken Grant (2018~2021), JSPS
KAKENHI, Grant in Aid for Scientific Research (C), 2019–2022.
Grant Number: 19K00798, Soken Project 2018~2021. With thisgrant, I attended the Applied Research International Conference(ARICEPD) 2020 Cambridge and got the best paper award.
References
A. M. Turing (1950) Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Mind
49: 433–460.
Carl Benedikt Frey & Michael A. Osborne (2013). The Future of
Employment: How susceptible are jobs to computerization?
Ray Kurzweil. (2005). The Singularity is near: When Humans
Transcend Biology. Abridged Japanese edition arranged with Ray
Kurzweil c/o Loretta Barrett Books Inc., New York
Trilling, B., & Fadel, C. (2009). 21st Century Skills: Learning forLife in Our Times. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.
Yuval Noah Harari (2018). 21 Lessons for the 21st Century, London:
Jonathan Cape.

3.2 Results of Case Study 2
NUS students could study advanced Japanese, andAGU Japanese students could improve their English
presentation skills. Both groups could take advantage of52

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The Tohoku method: A new academic English curriculum at Tohoku
University and its preliminary evaluation
Shizuka Sakurai*, Ryan Spring*, and Shuichi Takebayashi**Tohoku University
shizuka.sakurai.c4@tohoku.ac.jp
spring.ryan.edward.c4@tohoku.ac.jp
shuichi.takebayashi.e3@tohoku.ac.jp
Abstract
This report explains how a new English curriculum was implemented at Tohoku University in 2020, anddemonstrates the appropriateness of it. The purpose of the curriculum is to develop students’ skills in
English for General Academic Purposes (EGAP) that they need as international researchers. Threeobjectives, each consisting of two core skills, were designated for the four first-year English courses. To
teach the 24 core skills, an original textbook, Pathways to Academic English, was created and distributed
to the students along with the Official Guide to the TOEFL ITP® Assessment Series. Furthermore, online
core-skill practice materials were made available to all teachers as a compliment to the textbooks.
Assessments of the core skills were provided to teachers in the form of common tests, although their use
was left to individual discretion. Due to COVID-19, only half of the student body took the TOEFL ITP®
test in August, but all students were able to take it in December. Although the data of the tests wereincomplete, we were able to observe some informative trends in order to evaluate the new curriculum
preliminarily. The students (N=1108) who took the TOEFL test in both August and December improved
their scores greatly: from M=500.5 (SD = 39.8) to M=519.0 (SD = 36.4); p <.001. Additionally, the meanof the December TOEFL score was higher than the scores of previous years. Finally, positive correlation
was found between the various skills measured in core skills common tests and TOEFL ITP® scores,
indicating they were likely appropriate for our students.
Keywords: curriculum development, EGAP, assessment, skills development
Introduction
In order to improve the teaching of English for General
Academic Purposes (EGAP) and provide students with theEnglish skills they require as international researchers at
Tohoku University, an English Curriculum Reform
Committee was formed in 2019. It decided upon 24 core skills
that would be taught to students in their four first-year English
courses: English A1, A2, B1 and B2. The new curriculum waslaunched in 2020 despite set-backs due to the COVID-19
pandemic. The purpose of this presentation is to explain thecore skills and offer insights from TOEFL ITP® test and coreskills common tests.
1.

(word parts; synonym vocabulary), acquire the ability toquickly recognize the text’s main idea and key information(skimming and scanning; summarizing and paraphrasing),
and attain the ability to quickly identify the text’sorganization and logic (determining connotative anddenotative meaning; making inferences). English A2:
understand the mechanics of the introduction-bodyconclusion essay format (essay structure; paragraph writing),
acquire the ability to read various academic texts(collocations; data reporting), acquire the ability to read andwrite academic texts (reading academic articles;
understanding academic abstracts). English B1: acquire theability to take notes about main points while listening (notetaking while listening; orally summarizing from notes),
acquire a series of skills and strategies to become a successful
listener (phrasal verbs; idiomatic expressions), acquire theability of verbal expression in academic settings (giving
opinions and conjecturing; interrogatives). English B2:develop the ability to listen for pragmatic language usage(pragmatic competence; tone of voice), acquire practicalspeaking skills (hedging; speech acts), acquire the ability
discuss and present academic topics (pronunciation andintonation; oral reporting). For details on why these skills
were selected and how they were defined, see Spring &Okada (2021).

Creating the core skills
The English Curriculum Reform Committee surveyed
various departments dealing with upper level students,
reviewed important topics in EGAP (e.g. Norris, Davis, &Timpe-Laughlin; 2017), and partnered with Educational
Testing Service, the makers of the TOEFL ITP® test to
determine the English skills that students would likely needat Tohoku University. These were formed into threeobjectives for each first-year English course, with eachobjective having two “core skills.” A textbook, Pathways to
Academic English (Takebayashi, 2020), was created to guideteachers and students, clarifying what was meant by each coreskill and what important information students were expected
to learn about each. Teachers were allowed to impart the coreskills and objectives to students in any manner they saw fit,and downloadable online materials were also provided as acompanion to the textbook, as well as end-of-course tests forthe core skills.
The objectives and core skills for each course are as
follows. English A1: Improve reading and vocabulary skills
2.

Evaluating the core skills
The appropriateness of the curriculum was evaluated inthree basic ways. First, overall TOEFL ITP® test scores weremonitored because it is widely regarded as a reliable way tomeasure students’ academic English language proficiency(ETS, 2020). Therefore, if the curriculum was at all successful
in improving students’ EGAP, this should be reflected in (1)3.

53The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

higher scores as compared to previous years, and (2) to somedegree from the beginning of the academic year to the end.
Unfortunately, while the test is generally administered at the
beginning and end of the academic year, due to COVID-19,
Tohoku University only administered the test to half of thestudent body in August (N=1108) and to all students in
December (N=2376). As shown in Figure 1, scores in Augustof 2020 were already as high as score generally were by theend of the academic year, and the results of the test at the endof December 2020 were by far the highest they have ever beenat Tohoku University. Furthermore, there was a significant
increase in the TOEFL ITP® test scores of the 1108 students
who took the test both in August and December: from
M=500.5 (SD = 39.8) to M=519.0 (SD = 36.4); p <.001

500
490

490

492

2016

2017

500

498

499

2018

2019 2020(A) 2020(D)

480
470
2015

Finally, simple correlation analyses (Pearson) were conducted
on TOEFL ITP® scores and the end-of-semester core skills
test scores to determine how appropriate these skills were. In
theory, if a particular objective or core skill is important forour students, there should be a positive correlation between
the scores for each skill and the TOEFL test in general, as wellas the particular TOEFL section it was designed to help. As
shown in Table 1, higher scores on each objective weresignificantly correlated with higher TOEFL ITP® scores
overall and for the section they were specifically designed tohelp with.
Table 1

Overall TOEFL Score

Reading (A1/A2) orListening (B1/B2) Score

A1 Obj1

r2=.253, p=.009

r2=.221, p=.023

A1 Obj2

r2=.323, p=.001

r2=.296, p=.002

A1 Obj3

r2=.23, p=.018

r2=.254, p=.009

A2 Obj1

r2=.300, p=.012

r2=.323, p=.007

A2 Obj2

r2=.389, p<.001

r2=.321, p=.001

A2 Obj3

r2=.510, p<.001

r2=.548, p<.001

B1 Obj1

r2=.227, p=.004

r2=.279, p<.001

r2=.318, p<.001

r2=.394, p<.001

B2 Obj1

r2=.413, p<.000

r2=.424, p<.001

B2 Obj2

r2=.371, p<.001

r2=.356, p<.001

B2 Obj3

r2=.456, p<.001

r2=.419, p<.001

References
Norris, J. M., Davis, J. M., & Timpe-Laughlin, V. (2017). Second
language educational experiences for adult learners. Vol 1.
Routledge.
Spring, R., & Okada, T. (2021). Report on teaching English A1 andB1 core skills in 2020: Implications from student survey, coreskills tests, and TOEFL data. Bulletin of the Institute for
Excellence in Higher Education, 7, 315-324.
Takebayashi, S. (Ed.). (2000). Pathways to academic English.
Tohoku University Institute for Excellence in Higher Education.

Correlation between TOEFL ITP Test Scores and Core Skill
Assessment
Core
Skill

B1 Obj3

Conclusions
Overall, it seems that the new curriculum was successfulin pushing students’ EGAP abilities further than had
previously been achieved at Tohoku University. This wasevidenced in part by record-setting scores at our institution,and partly by the fact that many students improved their
TOEFL ITP® test scores over the course of the semester.
Furthermore, all of the core skills, as measured by common
end-of-semester tests seemed to correlate to higher TOEFL
ITP® test scores, indicating that they are likely at least
somewhat appropriate for our students.
However, it should be noted that there are a number oflimitations to this study and the curriculum still requires
improvement. First, this study fails to take into consideration
a number of other factors that might have influenced scores.
For example, though TOEFL ITP® test scores improved, it isunclear to what extent this might be due to the COVID-19
pandemic and online classes. We were also unable to accountfor personal differences, such as motivation to study, teacher
and exact materials used, although some of these issues wereaddressed for first semester classes in Spring & Okada (2021).
Furthermore, it should be noted that some skills showed
higher correlation than others, and this should be taken into
consideration in the future. Currently, a new edition of
Pathways to Academic English has been created for our 2021
curriculum, which includes specific core skills for secondyear English classes, and reduces the number of core skills
mandated for each first-year English course, as teacherscommented that they felt there was too much to cover in asingle semester. We will continue to monitor the curriculum,
its impact on EGAP, our ability to assess core skills, and how
well each core skill correlates with better EGAP performance.

510.9
493

r2=.463, p<.001

4.

Tohoku University TOEFL ITP Test Scores over Time510

r2=.35, p<.001

Note: “Obj” stands for objective

Figure 1520

B1 Obj2

54

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Utilizing Stories in Elementary School English Teaching:
Reconsidering Questions in Authorized English Textbooks
TAKAHASHI Kazuko**Meisei University
kazuko.takahashi@meisei-u.ac.jp
Abstract
This study identifies suitable approaches for presenting stories for children in courses developed to train
elementary school teachers. A new curriculum for elementary schools was implemented in 2020, while arevised National Core Curriculum for Elementary School Teacher Courses began in 2019. In the lattercourses, university students are required to learn the skills necessary to teach English in elementary
schools. The study focuses on children’s stories that possess several advantages for language teaching. It
identified 14 authorized textbooks for elementary English teaching and analyzed stories from theperspective of QAR (Question and Answer Relationships). Questions accompanying these stories were
found to be inadequate for use in English classrooms. Students undertaking elementary school teachingcourses should thus learn to construct questions that elicit literary comprehension and personal ideas
through stories.
Keywords: elementary school, university students, teacher training courses, stories, English textbooks
1. Introduction
1.1 BackgroundIn 2020, a new curriculum for Japanese elementary
schools was implemented, and “Foreign Languages” ingrades 5 and 6 began to foster pupils’ basic communication
skills. Moreover, the National Core Curriculum for
Elementary School Teacher Courses began in 2019. In thelatter, university students are required to learn the skills
necessary to teach English in elementary schools, including:basic pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar; the language
learning process in children; and fundamentals ofintercultural communication and children’s literature.
“Foreign Languages” in grades 5 and 6 started to use
authorized English textbooks in 2020. According to MEXT
(Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology), “textbooks must be used at elementary schools”(MEXT, n.d.). Therefore, university students undertaking
elementary school teaching courses must be able to teachEnglish using textbooks.

gains occur with children who have access to discussion
following a story” (p. 79).
Therefore, this study investigates how many stories
are used in elementary school English textbooks andexamines the content and questions of each story. It will thenoffer guidance on how best to handle the story in elementary
school teacher training courses.
2. Method
The present study examined 14 authorized “Foreign
Languages” textbooks for grades 5 and 6 and consideredboth children’s and teacher’s textbooks. Stories wereextracted from these textbooks, and the questions that
accompanied the stories were analyzed in terms of Question
and Answer Relationships (QAR; see Figure 1).
Figure 1
QAR Perspectives on Questions

1.2 Stories and Language TeachingThis study focuses on children’s literature, especiallystories for children. Stories bring various benefits to thelanguage classroom, providing a clear context and enabling
holistic approaches to language teaching and learning (Allen,
2011; Cameron, 2001; Pinter, 2017). Language in stories isrich in vocabulary, language patterns, and metaphors (Ellis& Brewster, 2014; Ghosn, 2013), and stories themselves
help in understanding foreign cultures (Allen, 2011; Keisen
English Education Society, 2014; Tabuchi, 2017).
Stories enable teachers to set not only “questions
which have only one ‘right’ answer,” but also those which
encourage the learner to “‘construct’ his/her own meaningfrom the text” (Vale & Feunteun, 1995, pp. 84–85).
Moreover, Ahlquist and Lugossy (2019) note that “Stories
create a familiar atmosphere in which learners can relate toeach other and therefore feel at ease speaking English andexpressing their ideas” (p. 187). In Trelease’s (2013) view,“A story can be just plain enjoyable,” and “[the] highest

In the Book

In My
Head

Right
There

On My
Own

Think &
SearchAuthor& Me

Note. Adapted from QAR now: Question answer relationships (p.
22), by T. E. Raphael, K. Highfield, and K. H. Au, 2006,
Scholastic. Copyright 2006 by Raphael, Highfield, and Au.

According to Raphael et al. (2006), QAR is “acomprehension strategy that provides a way to think and talkabout sources of information for answering questions” (p.
11). The answers to questions in the“In the Book” category
are shown explicitly in the text/texts.“Right There” (RT)questions can be answered “by simply going to one place ina text and finding all necessary information,” but a“Think &Search” (TS) question requires “looking across a text or
55

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

4. Conclusion
The present study explored possible approaches forpresenting stories for children in elementary school teachers’
courses. Questions accompanying stories in authorized
textbooks were mainly of the “In the Book” type, and were
not adequate to exploit the benefits of stories in the English
classroom. Thus, students undergoing elementary school
teaching courses should learn to formulate their own
questions, so as to better facilitate English learning throughstories for children. Student teachers should learn toconstruct questions that elicit not only literarycomprehension but also personal ideas through stories.

texts to answer the question” (p. 22). Answers for“In My
Head” are implicitly shown in the text/texts. To answer“OnMy Own” (OM) questions, readers “need to use their own
ideas and experience,” while to handle“Author & Me” (AM)questions, “readers need to think about how the text andwhat they already know fit together” (p. 23).
3. Results and Discussion
Tables 1 and 2 show the results of the analysis of stories
in textbooks for grades 5 and 6.
Table 1

Acknowledgments
This study was partially supported by Grants-in-Aid for Scientific
Research (C) (No. 20K00846).

Stories in“Foreign Languages” Textbooks for Grade 5
Text

Title

QuestionNH

A Bundle of Sticks

RTSS

Junishi no Monogatari[The Story of the Zodiac]

RT

JT

Shaggy’s Story

RT

CJ

The North Wind and the Sun
Twelve Months
The Happy Prince

RT
RT
RT

OW

A Good Idea!

RT

HW

The Gingerbread Man

RT, AM

BS

Who’s Behind Me?

RT

References
Ahlquist, S., & Lugossy, R. (2019). Stories and storyline. Candlin& Mynard.
Allen, T. (2011). Sutori to katsudo o chushin ni shita shogakko eigo
[Story-based curriculum in elementary school English teaching].
Shogakukan-Shueisha.
Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching languages to young learners.
Cambridge University Press.
Ellis, G., & Brewster, J. (2014). Tell it again!: The storytelling
handbook for primary English language teachers (3rd ed.).
British Council.
Ghosn, I. (2013). Storybridge to second language literacy: The
theory, research, and practice of teaching English withchildren’s literature. Information Age Publishing.
Keisen English Education Society (Ed). (2014). Yomi kikase ehon
& katsudo aidea [Storytelling picture books & activity ideas].
Meiji Tosho.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology.
(n.d.). Japan’s School Textbook. Retrieved April 29, 2021, fromhttps://www.mext.go.jp/en/policy/education/elsec/title02/detail
02/sdetail02/1383718.html
Pinter, A. (2017). Teaching young language learners (2nd ed.).
Oxford University Press.
Raphael, T. E, Highfield, K., & Au, K. H. (2006). QAR now:
Question answer relationships. Scholastic.
Tabuchi, M. (2017). Ehon o erabu shiten [Viewpoint of choosing
picture books]. In H. Sakai, Y. Takizawa, & Y. Watari (Eds.),
Shogakko de eigo o oshieru tame no minimamu essensharuzu[Minimum essentials for teaching English in elementary
school]. (pp. 166–173). Sansei-do.
Trelease, J. (2013). The read-aloud handbook (7th ed.). Penguin
Books.
Vale, D., & Feunteun, A. (1995). Teaching children English: A
training course for teachers of English to children.
Cambridge University Press.

Table 2
Stories in “Foreign Languages” Textbooks for Grade 6
Text

Title

QuestionNH

Butterfly Friends

AM

SS

Tanabata no Monogatari[The Story of Vega]
Okina Kabu [The Very Big Turnip]

RT

JT

Shaggy’s Story

RT

CJ

Gulliver’s Travels
The Blue Bird
Mary Had a Little Lamb

RT
RT
RT

OW

A Great Idea!
The Letter

RT
RT, OMHW

The Rolling Rice Ball
Kurikindi

RT
RT, AMBSThe Very Big Turnip

RT

RT, AM

Note. NH=New Horizon Elementary English Course; JS=Junior
Sunshine; JT=Junior Total English; CJ=Crown Jr.; OW=One World
Smiles; HW=Here We Go!; BS=Blue Sky Elementary

Most questions for grade 5 are of the RT question type.
Although many questions for grade 6 are also of the RT type,some are the “In My Head” type.
Indeed, “In the Book” questions might be helpful for
confirming whether pupils have understood the literalmeaning of stories. However, if children have noopportunity to answer “In My Head” types of questions, theywould be unable either to express or to exchange their ideas
with their friends.

56

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Communicating Across Cultures Online: Introducing and Comparing
the Implementation of Three Virtual Study Abroad Programs
Curtis Chu* and Yusuke Torii***Setsunan University
curtis.chu@setsunan.ac.jp**Setsunan University
torii@ilc.setsunan.ac.jp
Abstract
This study introduces and compares three short-term virtual study abroad programs implemented between
October 2020 and April 2021 at a private university in Japan. The programs were designed to substitutevarious physical international exchange programs that existed before the Covid-19 pandemic, and theyshare a common set of goals: promoting students’ awareness on current local issues, global issues, andthe identity of global citizenship. While ELT is a substantial part of all these three programs, students
were encouraged to consider English language as a mean to an end. The three programs represented abroad range of approaches in online international exchanges, and were supplemented by three joint
training sessions. First, The Taiwan Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Sustainable Tourism
program was a five-week collaborative online international learning program. Japanese and Taiwanese
undergraduate students learned from each other through asynchronous video interactions. Second, theDiversity Voyage in Philippines program was a more intensive six-day, virtual field study program thatfeatures live interactions with local volunteer staff on the Philippines side. Students were grouped withthe volunteer staff members and were guided to work on SDGs issues together. Finally, the Philippine
English Language Program was the most ELT focused program featuring live one-on-one intensive
English conversation lessons, but participants were encouraged to raise SDGs questions with their tutors.
Participants in the three programs took pre- and post-surveys to investigate their interculturalcommunicative competency (ICC) and gather feed backs towards the programs. Through both statisticaland qualitative analysis of survey results, we will present whether any changes occurred with participants’
ICC and present the advantages and limitations of the three virtual study abroad programs. We believethat findings will be valuable reference for those in the field of ELT as well as virtual study abroad andintercultural communications.
Keywords: intercultural competency, virtual study abroad, COIL, SDGs, ELT
programs, among which two were COIL programs, and were
implemented between October 2020 and April 2021 at a
private university in Japan. The programs share a common setof goals: promoting students’ awareness on current local
issues, global issues, and the identity of global citizenship.
While ELT is a substantial part of all these three programs,
students were encouraged to consider English language as amean to an end. The three programs represented a broad range
of approaches in online international exchanges, and were
supplemented by three joint training sessions.
First, The Taiwan Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs) and Sustainable Tourism program was a five-week
COIL program. Japanese and Taiwanese undergraduate
students learned from each other through asynchronous videointeractions on Flipgrid.com. Students researched andpresented about SDGs issues in their respective countries,
proposed solutions, and evaluated the solutions raised by theirinternational partners. Sustainable tourism was another themein the program, where students introduced their hometown
and presented problems caused by tourism.
Second, the Diversity Voyage in Philippines COIL
program was a more intensive six-day, virtual field study
program that features live interactions with local volunteer
staff on the Philippines side. Students were grouped with theFilipino volunteer staff members at WAKUWORK, Cebu
City, and were guided to work with them to plan and provide
lessons on Japanese language and culture for the local school
children. The program was designed and coordinated by GiFT

1.

Introduction
The emergence of COVID-19 hindered our mobility,
and study abroad programs world-wide had to be terminated.
However, learning should not be stopped, and studying
abroad virtually could be a replacement before the pandemic
settles. Since it is widely acknowledged that “the notion of
global citizenship has become part of the internationalization
discourse in higher education around the world” (Deardorff& Jones, 2012: 295), universities have begun tointernationalize their curricula by including descriptors suchas intercultural competence and global citizenship as graduate
attributes (Leask, 2015). Study abroad is one of the mostcommon method for internationalization, and the experiences
should provide students opportunities to engage in activities
that stimulates learning and thus developing their interculturalcompetence (McBride, 2020).
Keeping in mind of internationalization, interculturalcompetence and global citizenship, collaborative online
international learning (COIL) programs, in some ways
overlapping with the definition of study abroad, could be amean to cultivate students’ competence. COIL programs aredesigned to cultivate “cross-cultural student competence
through development of multicultural learning environmentsthat link university or college classes in different countries.”(The SUNY Center for Collaborative Online International
Learning, 2017).
Given the context mentioned above, this study
introduces and compares three short-term virtual study abroad
57

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)(Global Incubation x Fostering Talents, 2021), a company
specialized in global citizenship educaiton, and students wereguided by the GiFT instructors.
Finally, the Philippine English Language Program was
the most ELT focused program featuring live one-on-one
intensive English conversation lessons, but participants wereencouraged to raise SDGs questions with their tutors. The
lessons were provided by BAI Hotel Campus Language
Center (2020), and self-study materials on Philippines andSDGs issues were provided by the university staff in Japan.
As for the three joint training sessions, two of whichwere pre-program sessions. They consisted of 3 hours of
introductory workshop focusing on self-reflection and teambuilding guided by the GiFT facilitator, and 3 hours of Active
Book Dialogue® session, where each student in a group readdifferent sections of the textbook on SDGs and teach eachother. The post-program session was 3 hours where students
shared their experiences and wrote a brief reflection paper.

Total

Methodology
An online survey using the Intercultural Competency
Scale (Chao, 2014), which was translated into Japanese, andopen-ended questions was the main tool for data collection.
The IC Scale consists of 30 items among five dimensions, andeach question ranges from 0 (lowest) to 5 (highest) on the
degree of agreement to the statement. A pre-test wasadministered before the start of the pre-program joint sessions,and the post-test was administered when students completed
their virtual study abroad program. The reliability(Cronbach’s alpha) of the IC Scale was at acceptable levels,
ranging from .63 to .93.

p

1

Pre

21.58

6.79

-3.48

23

.002

Post

25.50

6.30

Pre

25.88

4.96

-1.83

23

.080

Post

27.88

2.97

Pre

8.17

2.68

-3.04

23

.006

Post

9.71

2.85

Pre

18.04

5.00

-3.31

23

.003

Post

20.71

5.08

Pre

16.33

2.60

-2.21

23

.037

Post

17.88

3.19

2

3

4

5

15.55

.001

BAI Hotel Campus Language Center, (2020). Certification course
for universities. Retrieved on June 10, 2021, from https://clconline.jp/certification-course/
Chao, T. C. (2014). The development and application of anintercultural competence scale for university EFL learners.
English Teaching and Learning, 38(4), 79-124.
Deardorff, D., & E. Jones, (2012). Intercultural competence: An
emerging focus in international higher education. In D.
Deardorff, H. de Wit, J. Heyl & T. Adams (eds.), The SAGE
handbook of international higher education (pp. 283-303).
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Global Incubation x Fostering Talents. (2021). GiFT Global
citizenship education. Retrieved on June 10, 2021, fromhttps://j-gift.org/about/global-citizenship-education/
Leask, B. (2015). Internationalizing the curriculum. Abingdon:
Routledge.
McBride, K. (2020). Experiential learning and education abroad:Examining the experiences of students in the semester abroad
and intercultural leadership program. In Diverse PedagogicalApproaches to Experiential Learning (pp. 241–257). Palgrave
Macmillan, Cham.
The SUNY Center for Collaborative Online International Learning.
(2017). About COIL. Retrieved on June 10, 2021, fromhttp://coil.suny.edu/page/about-coil-0

Paired Sample t-test of pre- and post-test IC Scale scores (n=24)
df

101.6723

References

Table 1

t

Post

-3.66

Conclusion
Students improved in their IC scores, and none of themseemed to dislike the programs. Perhaps it is safe to assume
that the programs were worthy of their time. Yet, the small
sample size could not provide sufficient information formaking rigorous inferences. Regardless, the positive findingsin this case study shed light on the outcomes of implementing
COIL programs. Promoting student intercultural competence
and global citizenship could be done online as an alternative.

Data Analysis
By means of paired sample t-test, it was found that thepre- and post-test scores were statistically significantly
different. Students IC scores were higher in the post-test
among all dimensions, but dimension 2 was not found to besignificant, as shown in Table 1 below.

SD

16.52

4.

3.

Mean

90.00

ANOVA results showed that there was no significant
difference between the post test scores among the threedifferent programs. However, the mean scores of IC
improvement could be ranked from highest to lowest as
follows: Philippines English program (m=14.80) > GiFT
program (m=12.60) > Taiwan program (m=10.21).
Regarding the advantages of the programs, students
mainly wrote that they learned about the world outside ofJapan, SDGs problems, and communication skills. Qualities
of global citizenship were also mentioned, such as theimportance of communicating one’s thoughts, being curious
about what is happening in the world, trying hard tocommunicate despite language barriers, and thinking of whatshould one do to be a global citizen.
As for the limitations of the programs, students wereasked what they did not like about the programs. While most
students responded “nothing in particular”, some of themwanted real-time synchronous communication with partners
abroad, and some disliked the program to be held online.
Internet connection issues were also mentioned.

2.

Dimension

Pre

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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

An Online/Face-to-Face Hybrid Approach to Intercultural Interactions
in a Japanese Education Major University Context
Kyoko Miyazato
Hakuoh University
miyazato@fc.hakuoh.ac.jp
Abstract
This project was conducted as part of a small-sized seminar course from 2019 to 2021 to investigate an effective
approach to promoting on-campus intercultural experiences between local and international students in a Japanese
education major university as part of pre-service teacher training and developing Japanese students’ interculturalcompetencies through self-reflection over actual and online contacts. The hypothesis is that virtual communication
may compensate for the disadvantages of in-person intercultural contacts. The study reveals that online interactions
using Zoom at the outset of friendship formation successfully solved scheduling problems and reduced shyness towardforeigners among the Japanese student participants without prior intercultural experiences. After a series of online
interactions followed by real direct contact, the Japanese students acquired self-confidence and motivation to actively
participate in the project, which enhanced their awareness of other cultures and modified their attitudes toward theinternational students. Moreover, they attained personal growth, including problem-solving, project planning, andcooperative attitudes, which ultimately led to the recognition of language minorities in Japan and self-directedvolunteer activities helping foreign students’ adaptation in a local elementary school.
Keywords: intercultural exchange, pre-service teacher training
Introduction
Due to the sharp increase in foreign students inJapanese school settings, MEXT (2011) emphasized theimportance of hiring teachers who could smoothly adapt topresent-day culturally and linguistically diverse classrooms
and urged each prefectural board of education to recruit
teachers with overseas experiences and intercultural literacy.
However, Izumimoto and Iwasaka (2016) point out thatJapanese education major university students are domestic
mainly due to teacher training program curriculum restraints,
which have resulted in their disinterest in studying abroad. To
gain a teaching certificate from a Japanese university,
students usually need to acquire 45 additional credits fromeducation-related courses on top of regular graduation
requirements for a bachelor’s degree. They also have toparticipate in off-campus duties such as a one-month teacher
practicum and one-week training in special education schools
and nursing homes. Moreover, the teacher training curriculum
based on the present teaching certificate system is a purely
domestic arena in which international students cannot involve
themselves (Iwata, 2014). Additionally, physical mobility
seen in studying abroad in contrast to virtual mobility is
exclusively taken advantage of by wealthier students(O’Dowd, 2016) or economic elites.
In response, this study investigates a possible approach
to on-campus intercultural interaction using online and faceto-face exchanges to promoting intercultural experiences aspart of pre-service teacher training in an education major
university in Japan.
1.

of attitudes and skills have been less developed. Yet merelytransmitting knowledge is insufficient and providing
opportunities for self-reflection and self-analysis throughactual contact and communication in collaborative learningand group projects is highly recommended (Yabuta, 2015).
In view of this background, this study aims to offer
intercultural opportunities through experiential learning(Lewis & Williams, 1994) in a Japanese university, where thelevel of voluntary contact between local and international
students is reportedly rare due to the separate curricula
designed for international students as short non-degreesojourners with a view to the cost-efficiency on the part ofuniversities (Takagi, 2009).
To foster connection between the two, the project was
conducted in a small-sized seminar course from 2019 to 2021,
using both online and face-to-face interactions. Given thatonline intercultural interaction, a strong potential for thedevelopment of ICC (O’Dowd, 2016), is reported to solve
physical distances and scheduling problems (Yogi, 2009), thehypothesis was that virtual communication may compensate
for the disadvantages of in-person intercultural contacts.
3.

The study
The research questions for this study were:
1. Did the pedagogical activities implemented as part of thisstudy improve Japanese students’ ICC? Did they lead to
self-directive intercultural interactions?
2. Did online interactions affect the Japanese students’
involvement in intercultural exchanges?
Participant observation of in and outside classroom
events, interviews with the Japanese and international
students, and the Japanese students’ written reflections on
actual and online contacts were scrutinized. Based on the ideathat acquiring ICC involves reflecting one’s own cultural
norms and values and shaping one’s own identities, keeping
reflection journals was mandatory for the Japanese students,
thus requiring them to write about any findings, outcomes,
challenges, self-evaluation, and recommendations for future
projects.

2.

Literature review
To cope with individuals from different cultural
backgrounds, we need to demonstrate interculturalcompetence (ICC) by recognizing and understanding cultural
diversity through actual intercultural experiences such as
studying abroad or frequent contact with foreigners. As
regards ICC education in Japan, Kawanabe (2006) explainsthat knowledge, one of the three core elements constituting
ICC (Deardorff, 2006), has been instructed but that the factors
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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

4.

Results
The study reveals that online interactions using Zoom
at the outset of friendship formation not only solved thestudents’ scheduling problems but also reduced shy attitudes
toward foreigners among the Japanese students, who, lacking
prior intercultural experiences, had avoided attending face-toface events outside the classroom. These students reported
uneasiness or puzzlement about interacting face-to-faceverbally and non-verbally with international students due tofear of cultural differences and lack of shared interests.
However, in online interactions, the students reported limited
tension because most non-verbal messages were physically
blocked on the Zoom screen and could concentrate on voice
and facial expression and avoid distracting or threatening
non-verbal messages.
Moreover, in online interactions, the Japanese students
could prepare online events suitable for Zoom in advance so
as to pursue the interaction smoothly. These semi-plannedinteractions as opposed to simultaneous prompted real-time
interactions resulting in the Japanese students’ reluctance tocommunicate with foreigners even in their mother tongue aswell as the target language gave the Japanese students bothconfidence and motivation to actively participate in the
project. They also found it easier to place time limits in Zoom
events, which saved them from the trouble of finding a way
and a time to say good-bye to culturally different individuals.
Following a series of online interactions, which madethe students accustomed to intercultural interaction followedby real direct contacts made in Fall 2020, the Japanese
students longed for face-to-face interactions with theinternational students with confidence in dealing withlanguage and cultural barriers.
Moreover, the Japanese students acquired awareness ofother cultures and modified their attitudes toward theinternational students. They also attained personal growth,
including problem-solving, project planning, and cooperative
attitudes by pursuing the project, which ultimately led to therecognition for language minorities in Japan and self-directedvolunteer activities to help foreign students’ adaptation in a
local elementary school. By working with younger foreigners,
they discovered the importance of spending and enjoying time
together without paying undue attention to differences inlanguage or culture and realizing the common ground every
person shares with others.

with non-Japanese, the shy students especially conquered
passiveness through contact with younger students of foreign
origin, which led to self-confidence in dealing withinternational students of their own age. Doing something
together through active physical involvement, which
compensated for language and psychological distance, also
turned out to be a key solution for starting a friendship andbalancing power relations between local and international
students in a Japanese-dominant university setting.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the participants in this study and Dr. Paul
Bruthiaux for stylistic improvements to this paper.
References
Deardorff, D. K. (2006). Identification and assessment ofintercultural competence as a student outcome ofinternationalization. Journal of Studies in International
Education, 10, 241-266.
Iwata, Y. (2014). Kyouin yousei kyouiku no guro-baruka nikansuru
cyousano gaiyou. [A summary of research on globalization inteacher education]. Tokyo Gakugei Daigaku jyuten kenkyuuhi(2013 nenndo) global na shiyawo ikuseisuru kyouin yousei
program to sono uneitouno arikatani kansuru kaihatsukenkyu
houkokusho. Tokyo Gakugei University Teacher Training andCurriculum Development Center, 3-5.
Izumimoto, C. & Iwasaka, Y. (2016). Kyouin yousei daigaku niokeru
gurobarukani rendoshita kokunaigakusei to ryugakusei nokyousyu niyoru gengo bunka kyouiku [Collaborative language/
culture education between international and home students
engaging in globalization]. Jisedai Kyouin Yousei Center
Kennkyuu Kiyou, 2, 47-57.
Kawanabe, K. (2006). Ibunkarikai kyouiku niokeru jissenteki
approach no kanousei [Possibility of practical approach inintercultural understanding education]. Bulletin of Center for
Educational Research and Development, 15, 53-60.
Lewis, L. H. & Williams, C. J. (1994). Experiential learning: Past
and present. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education,
62, 5-16.
MEXT. (2011). Kyouin saiyou touno kaizen nitsuite [Improvements
to teacher recruitment]. Retrieved December 31, 2019 from: http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/senkou/ 1329308.htm.
O’Dowd, R. (2016). Learning from the past and looking to the futureof online intercultural exchange. In R. O’Dowd & T. Lewis(Eds.), Online intercultural exchange: Policy, pedagogy,
practice (pp. 273-293) New York, NY: Routledge.
Takagi, H. (2009). Internationalisation of undergraduate curricula:
The gap between ideas and practice in Japan. London Review of
Education, 7, 1, 31-39.
Yabuta, Y. (2015) Global jinzai to global mind ikusei ni kansuru
ichikousatsu [A study on fostering “globally competent humanresources” and global mind]. Bulletin of Seisen Jogakuin College,
34, 53-62.
Yogi, M. (2009). ICT enkaku kouryu wo tooshita kokusai rikai [ICTteleconference and global mind]. Ryuukyu Daigaku Kyouiku
Gakubu Kiyou, 74, 69-87.

5.

Concluding remarks
The COVID-19 crisis, which prevented these students
from having in-person contact in Spring 2020, resulted intrying online interactions as a substitute and turned out to be
an alternative approach to intercultural interactions. The
hybrid system using Zoom interactions at the beginning offriendship formation followed by in-person contact
compensated for the disadvantages of face-to-faceintercultural exchanges caused mainly by the language andpragmatic barriers many Japanese university students without
prior intercultural experience face.
Regarding psychological barriers dividing Japanese
students and foreigners in general caused by lack of contact

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First-Year Junior High School Students’ Attitudes Towards Studying
English: A Self-Worth Perspective
Adrian Leis**Miyagi University of Education
adrian@staff.miyakyo-u.ac.jp
Abstract
In this study, I investigated the attitudes of 159 first-year Japanese junior high school students towards
studying English from the perspective of the Self-Worth Theory. Students were required to write three
essays about how they would react under hypothetical circumstances in which their feelings ofself-worth might be threatened. The contents of the students’ essays were analyzed and matched withquadrants of Covington’s (1992) Quadripolar Model of Achievement Motivation, with the results
suggesting that the students in this study would best be described as Self-Protectors.
Keywords: L2 learning motivation; Self-Worth Theory; Japanese Students; Achievement Motivation
1.

Introduction
The lack of risk-taking, such as freely communicatingor volunteering to answer questions in class, among
Japanese language students has been discussed from various
perspectives of motivation. Despite the extensive literature
related to motivation, and lack thereof, seen in English
classrooms in Japan, very few studies have considered thereasons for the lack of enthusiasm from the perspective of
the Self-Worth Theory. In this study, I aim to fill this gap byinvestigating reasons why Japanese students of English react
the way they do when faced with challenging situations.

onset of negative affect and expectancies, decrements inpersistence and performance, and avoidance of subsequent
challenge” (Elliot, 2005, p. 53). Through repeatedexperiences of failure or misunderstandings, students may
feel there is no use in trying because they will fail anyway.
Another criticism of the Weiner’s (1972) interpretationof the Need Achievement Model was its bipolar scale: One
would be described as either highly success-oriented or
highly failure-avoiding. However, “individuals can be
simultaneously attracted to and repelled by the same task”(Covington, 1998, p. 40), and a bipolar model does notconsider those who might be both highly success-oriented
and high failure avoiding nor individuals who display low
success orientation and low failure avoidance. Thus, it may
be more fitting to consider individuals’ motivation in aquadripolar model to maintain the original concepts of
Atkinson’s Need Achievement Model. Covington’s (1992)
Quadripolar Model of Achievement Motivation (QMAM).
provides descriptions of four categories in which students
fall into, unifying their fear of failure and orientation toward
success: Optimists, Over-strivers, Self-protectors, andFailure Acceptors. Figure 1 illustrates the QMAM withdescriptions of each mechanism.

2.

Self-Worth Theory
The Self-Worth Theory proposes that “individuals
strive to give their lives meaning by seeking the approval ofothers” (Covington, 2009, p. 142); one’s performance andsuccess in a task reflect one’s ability and, in turn, affects
one’s feeling of worth (Beery, 1975). The Self-Worth Theory
grew from a response to Weiner’s (1972) developments of
the Need Achievement Theory (Atkinson, 1957), which
moved away from the emotions of pride in success andshame in failure to defining achievement as being based oninternal factors, particularly effort.
The focus on the amount of effort expended byindividuals as a prime factor in one’s success received
criticism from various circles, particularly proponents of the
Self-Worth Theory and the principles behind it. They argued
that “if a student tries hard and fails anyway, thenattributions typically go to low ability, which consequently––according to the Self-Worth Theory––implies unworthiness”(Covington, 2009, p. 143).
According to the Self-Worth Theory, as humans strive
for self-acceptance, they tend to use two powerful strategies
to deflect the true nature of their ability and protect their
feelings of self-worth when faced with the possibility of
failure: defense pessimism and self-handicapping. Defense
pessimism strategies allow the individual to prepare forpossible negative settings; individuals still sense that they
are in control of any conceivable adverse outcomes (Norem,2008). Self-handicapping strategies also look to divert
failure away from the individual’s ability through excuses,
such as avoiding the task (Martin et al., 2003).
A third mechanism of the Self-Worth Theory is theindividual’s response to a sense of helplessness, which isdisplayed by “attributing failure to insufficient ability, theFigure 1
Covington’s Quadripolar Model of Achievement Motivation
High fear of failureLowsuccessorientation

Self-Protectors

Overstrivers- Highself-handicapping- High defensive
pessimism- Low helplessness- Low
self-handicapping- High defensive
pessimism- Low helplessness

Failure Acceptors

Optimists- Low
self-handicapping- Low defensive
pessimism- High helplessness- Low
self-handicapping- Low defensive
pessimism- Low helplessness

Highsuccessorientation

Low fear of failure

3.

The Study
In this study I aimed to answer the following researchquestion: Which quartile of the QMAM do Japanese
first-year junior high school students fall into in theirEnglish studies?

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A total of 159 Japanese first-grade junior high school
students (average age = 12.70) participated in this study. The
students’ self-perceived proficiency was slightly above
intermediate (m = 5.68; SD = 2.22).
Referring to the methodology used in Covington andOmelich’s (1979) study as a guide, I had the participants
write short essays about how they would react in situations
in which their feelings of self-worth might be threatened.
The first essay topic looked at students’ defensive
pessimism and the importance of class averages incomparison to effort and individual progress:
Your friend studied three hours every day inpreparation for the end-of-term test but got a scorelower than the class average. What advice would
you give your friend?
Through the second essay topic, I aimed to gain anunderstanding of students’ degrees of helplessness bylooking at their attitudes when they did not completely
understand an explanation given in class:
You did not understand the teacher’s explanation ofa grammar structure at the beginning of class.
Would you raise your hand to ask the teacher toexplain more or not raise your hand?
The final essay focused on self-handicapping andwhether or not students would take a leadership role in an
English conversation. Unlike Essay 1 and 2, the topic
focused on a situation outside the classroom:
You are walking near the train station with yourfriend who has just returned from spending one year
in the United States to study English. While yourfriend is in the bathroom, you are suddenly asked by
two non-Japanese speakers for directions. When you
are about to give the directions, your friend returns
from the bathroom. Would you ask your friend to
give the directions or do it yourself?
After the essays were completed, the data wereentered into NVivo for coding and qualitative analysis.

seem like students have given up or are unmotivated––traitsof high helplessness––keywords appearing in the reasons
given by students suggested that the reluctance to ask
questions was based on cultural reasons and not wanting to
disrupt the flow of the lesson: embarrassment, (30 times)
causing troubles (37 times), uncomfortableness (10 times),and considering group over individual (38 times),. Students
remarked that had not given up, but would be able toconfirm the places they had not understood with friends,
teachers, or cram school lecturers. Thus, it can be concluded
that the students’ level of helplessness is low.
4.3 Essay 3
In Essay 3, the majority of students (61.01%)
responded that they would leave the task up to their friends.
The reasons for this included fear of making mistakes (23times), causing problems for the visitors (21 times), anxiety
about not being able to speak well (25 times). In Essay 3, thestudents appeared to look for ways to avoid the task, by
claiming to have low English ability and avoiding
embarrassment. Based on the students’ responses, I observed
the students as using high self-handicapping strategies.
5.

Conclusion
The aim of this study asked which quartile of the
QMAM Japanese adolescents tend to fall into when it comesto their English studies. Through the three essays used inthis study, I sought to reach a clear description of Japanese
EFL students at the junior high school level. The students’
responses suggested 1) high defensive pessimism; 2) low
helplessness, and 3) high self-handicapping. In this situation,
the adolescents may be described as Self-protectors.
Further studies investigating classroom techniques
will be beneficial to move students from the Self-protector
quartile to being Optimists in their English studies.
References
Atkinson, J. W. (1957). Motivational determinants of risk-taking
behavior.
Psychological
Review,
64,
359–372.
https://doi.org/10.1037/14156-004
Beery, R. G. (1975). Fear of failure in the student experience.
Personnel
andGuidance
Journal,54,
190–203.
https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2164-4918.1975.tb04220.x
Covington, M. V. (1992). The will to learn: A guide for motivating
young people. Cambridge University Press.
Covington, M. V. (1998). Making the grade: A self-worth
perspective on motivation and school reform. Cambridge
University Press.
Covington, M. V. (2009). Handbook of motivation at school.
Routledge.
Covington, M. V., & Omelich, C. L. (1979). Effort: The
double-edged sword in school achievement. Journal of
Educational
Psychology,
71(2),
169–182.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.71.2.169
Elliot, A. J. (2005). A conceptual history of achievement goal
construct. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.) Handbook ofcompetence and motivation, (pp. 52–72). The Guilford Press.
Martin, A. J., March, H. W., & Debus, R. L. (2003).
Self-handicapping and defensive pessimism: A model ofself-protection from a longitudinal perspective. Contemporary
Education
Psychology,
28,
1–36.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s0361-476x(02)00008-5
Norem, J. K. (2008). Defensive pessimism as a positive self-critical
tool. In E. Chang (Ed.) Self-criticism and self enhancement:
Theory and research and clinical implications (pp. 89–104).
American Psychological Association.
Weiner, B. (1972). Theories of motivation: From mechanism tocognition. Markham.

4. Results and Discussion
4.1 Essay 1
The first pattern observed in the students’ responses
was related to the efficiency of their friend’s study habits
and strategies used over the three hours of daily study. Thisfocus on study strategies were seen in the key words shikata(how to do something: 22 times), houhou (method: 49 times),
and kouritsu (efficiency: 13 times).
A second pattern observed focused on avoiding
comparisons with other students. On a total of 25 occasions,students recommended that their friends do not need to beconcerned about the heikin (average). Also, there were four
instances of hikaku (compare), in which students suggested
their friends need not compare their scores with others.
Feelings that students are still in control of possible
negative outcomes observed through patterns of focusing on
study strategies and avoiding comparisons with otherssuggests high defensive pessimism.
4.2 Essay 2
In Essay 2, I investigated how students would react ina situation in which they did not understand an explanation
given by the teacher in class and whether they would raise
their hands to ask for further explanation. Overall, there wasa clear tendency for students not to raise their hands to ask
for clarification (84.28%).
Although this hesitation to ask for clarification may
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Willingness to Communicate and Experiences ofSuccessful and Unsuccessful Communication in English:
The Case of Japanese EFL Learners
Satomi Fujii**Hokkaido University
satomi.f@imc.hokudai.ac.jp
Abstract
Enhancing learners’ willingness to communicate (WTC) is crucial in communicative EFL classes.
According to Gregersen and MacIntyre (2014), it is effective to focus on past communication experiences
to encourage learner WTC. However, few studies have investigated the relationship between learner WTC
and previous communication experiences. Thus, this study sought to clarify: 1) the relationship between
WTC levels and past communication experiences, and 2) the characteristics of successful andunsuccessful communication experiences of learners. Participants were 109 students at a university in
Hokkaido. By using the WTC Scale (Peng & Woodrow, 2010), participants were divided into high-WTC
and low-WTC groups. Open-ended responses of previous successful and unsuccessful communication
experiences were compared between these two learner groups. Data were analyzed through quantitative
text analysis using KH Coder (Higuchi, 2014). A total of 239 sentences were extracted from learner
responses, which consists of 3171 words in all. Coded data were described in cluster analysis, cooccurrence network, and frequency list of words. As a result of cluster analysis, seven clusters emerged.
Some of the clusters were related to experiences of communication with foreigners outside the English
classroom, and others were related to experiences of communication inside the English classroom. The
co-occurrence network was compared in two ways, successful communication and unsuccessfulcommunication, and high-WTC and low-WTC. Clear differences in the co-occurrence of terms wereobserved in each group. As for the frequency list of words, words such as “English”, “teacher” and“question” were frequently used in high-WTC group (e.g., I could ask questions in English correctly), butwords such as “well”, “vocabulary” and “partner” were frequently used in low-WTC group (e.g., I
couldn’t communicate well with my partner). Learner responses differed in high-WTC and low-WTC
groups, and a clear tendency in term frequency distribution was found as a result.
Keywords: willingness to communicate (WTC), past communication experiences, learner perceptions,text analysis, EFL classroom
Introduction
As English classes in Japan become more and morecommunicative in recent years, advancing learners’
willingness to communicate (WTC) in English could becomea major goal for English teachers. According to Denies,
Yashima, and Janssen (2015), the key aims of second
language instructions should be not only to improve second
language competences but also to stimulate their willingness
to communicate in the target language. WTC, known as oneof the individual factors in second language acquisition (SLA)
studies, is defined as “readiness to enter into discourse at aparticular time with a specific person or persons, using a L2”(MacIntyre, Clément, Dörnyei, & Noels, 1998, p.547). This
concept of WTC first emerged in the situation of first
language (L1) communication (McCroskey & Baer, 1985) but
later applied to second language (L2) communication
situations by MacIntyre et al. (1998). Due to increasingemphasis on authentic communication in the L2 learning
environments, WTC has been proposed as one of the key
concepts in L2 learning and instruction (Kang, 2005). WTC
seems to be a factor in learning a second language and theability to communicate in that language (Baghaei &Dourakhshan, 2012).
In addition to learners’ WTC, investigating learners’communication experiences in English is a second focus of
this study. As Gkonou (2017) mentions in her study, past
language learning experiences, such as past teachers’

judgmental attitudes towards students or failure in formal
exams in the past, are likely to endanger learners’ current selfbeliefs. Moreover, Tóth (2017) claims that oral
communication in the target language is the most anxietyprovoking of foreign language activities, which can be
influenced by learners’ experiences of using the target
language. These previous studies focus on the negative
aspects of past communication experiences of learners.
However, it is considered that there are also positive aspectsof learner experiences which could impact their attitudes
toward the target language. Especially, studies examining theconnections of learner’s communication experiences and their
willingness to engage in L2 communications remains underresearched. Therefore, this study seeks to explore therelationships between successful and unsuccessfulcommunication experiences and learners’ willingness tocommunicate (WTC) in English in the Japanese context.

1.

MethodParticipants were 109 undergraduate students at auniversity in Hokkaido, Japan. Using the WTC scale (Peng &Woodrow, 2010), the participants were divided into highWTC group and low-WTC groups. The WTC scale (Peng &Woodrow, 2010) consists of 10 questions, all of which to beanswered in six-point Likert scale. The cut-off point of thetwo groups of students was considered from the median score
which was 33.5 (i.e., maximum score of 57, minimum score
2.

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of 10 in the current survey). Accordingly, students weredivided into 58 high-WTC and 51 low-WTC students fromthe total of 109 participants.
After classifying students into two contrast groups,
open-ended questionnaires asking their previous successful
and unsuccessful communication experiences were comparedin details. The whole data of open-ended questionnaires wasanalyzed through quantitative text analysis using KH Coder(Higuchi, 2014). Cluster analysis, co-occurrence network,and frequency list of words were revealed from the results ofcoding procedures.

conversation, and communication are frequently used in bothgroups. Successful communication includes terms of ALT,
able to talk, part-time job and so on, but unsuccessfulcommunication includes words of nervousness, vocabulary,say and well. From these results, word tendency in learners’
past communication experiences could be observed.

3. Results
3.1 Cluster Analysis: Past Communication Experiences
Hierarchical cluster analysis of words shows the
combination of words that have similar appearance patterns.
As can be seen in the following dendrogram (Figure 1), sevenmain clusters were generated. For example, Cluster 1
comprises of words such as: ask, way, foreigners, answer
questions. These words represent learners’ experiences ofshowing the way to foreigners, as in “I could show the way in
English to an Australian tourist at the station.” or “When I was
asked which way to go by a foreigner, I could answer inEnglish.” These comments represent learners’ successfulcommunication experiences in the past.
Figure 2: Results of co-occurrence network
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number
JP21K13049.
References
Baghaei, P., & Dourakhshan, A. (2012). The relationship between
willingness to communicate and success in learning English as aforeign language. MJAL 4(2) Summer 2012, 53-67.
Denies, K., Yashima, T., & Janssen, R. (2015). Classroom versus
societal willingness to communicate: Investigating French as asecond language in Flanders. The Modern Language Journal, 99(4) 718- 739.
Gkonou, C. (2017). Towards an ecological understanding of
language anxiety. In C. Gkonou, M. Daubney, & J-M. Dewaele(Eds.), New insights into language anxiety: Theory, researchand educational implications (pp. 135-155). Bristol, UK:
Multilingual Matters.
Gregersen, T., & MacIntyre, P.D. (2014). Capitalizing language
learners’ individuality: From premise to practice. Bristol, UK.:
Multilingual Matters.
Higuchi, K. (2014). Shakai chousa no tameno keiryou tekusuto
bunseki. [Quantitative test anlaysis for social researchers: A
contribution to content analysis]. Nakanishiya Syuppan.
Kang, S. J. (2005). Dynamic emergence of situational willingness
to communicate in second language. System, 33, 277-292.
McCroskey, J. C., & Baer, J. E. (1985, November). Willingness tocommunicate: The construct and its measurement. Paper
presented at the annual convention of the SpeechCommunication Association, Denver, CO.
MacIntyre, P. D., Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., & Noels, K. A. (1998).
Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a L2: A
situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation. Modern
Language Journal, 82, 545–562.
Peng, J-E., & Woodrow, L. (2010). Willingness to communicate inEnglish: A model in the Chinese EFL classroom context.
Language Learning, 60 (4), 834-876.
Tóth, Z. (2017). Exploring the relationship between anxiety andadvanced Hungarian EFL learners’ communication experiencesin the target language: A study of high- vs low-anxious learners.
In C. Gkonou, M. Daubney, & J-M. Dewaele (Eds.), Newinsights into language anxiety: Theory, research and educational
implications (pp. 156-174). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.

Figure 1: Results of hierarchical cluster analysis of words

3.2 Co-occurrence Network: Successful and Unsuccessful
Communication Experiences of Students
From the co-occurrence network, overall results of theword associations can be identified. As in Figure 2, student
comments of Successful Communication and Unsuccessful
Communication have some words in common and otherwords in contrast. The words such as English, teacher,64

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Human-mediated AI writing assistance: A case study with JapaneseEnglish Language Learners.
John Maurice Gayed**Tokyo Institute of Technology
gayed.j.aa@m.titech.ac.jp

Abstract
Increasing use of English as a Lingua Franca worldwide has brought much attention to tools that can
assist English language learners (ELLs) in their journey to fluency. Much research has shown that
ELLs who struggle with English sentence production rarely have sufficient cognitive resources
available to work on higher level writing tasks such as organization and revision. The researchersdeveloped the AI-based web application “AI-KAKU” to assist ELLs in reducing the cognitive
barriers they face when producing written text in English. While there has been much research anddiscussion on Automated Writing Evaluation (AWE) technologies or older technologies such as spell checkand grammar check, few studies have attempted to use AI-based tools as learning instruments outsideassessments. In order to evaluate the potential impact of AI-KAKU on student writing, this study recruited
adult ELLs in a counter-balanced experiment. Preliminary results indicate that this is a potentially useful
tool for English language learners who need more structured assistance than what traditional word
processors can provide.
Keywords: CALL, AI in education, L2 writing, cognitive load, artificial intelligence
1.

Introduction
According to the British Council, it is estimated there aresome 1.5 billion ELLs in the world. A common struggle forsecond language (L2) learners is the tip-of-the-tongue (TOT)
state, a temporary mental state in language production where
there is difficulty in retrieving an intended word. ELLs who
are tasked with producing text in English often compose theirideas in their first language (L1) and then struggle mentallyto translate those ideas into English while attempting tocomplete the writing task (Wolfersberger, 2003). Regardlessof the approach, writing in a second language involves
considerable low level cognitive stress such as dealing with
TOT. This cognitive stress might hinder learners fromfocusing on higher level writing tasks such as organization
and revision (Kellogg, 2008).
When faced with a seemingly insurmountable task, ELLs
might turn to less scrupulous techniques to complete theirwork, such as wholesale machine translation of their writingin L1 into the target language. To assist ELLs in the writing
process, the researchers have developed an online writing
application called AI-KAKU. The application has two distinct
features. First, an AI-based word suggestion engine gives
users word recommendations based on the user’s input. Thisis commonly seen in text predication applications on smart
devices. The second feature is a reverse translation function.
As users write in English, a simultaneous translation in theuser’s L1 is displayed under their writing. This encourages
the user to think in the L2 first while still giving validation
while they are writing.
AI advancements have led to more sophisticatedintelligent writing assistants that offer synchronous feedback
to the writer (such as Grammarly and Microsoft Editor) than
traditional word processors. However, there has been little
development into word processors that are aimed for ELLs’
usage and little research is done into their potential impact on
the student’s writing proficiency.

A directly observable measure of student writing ability
is fluency, or the total words written. Another commonly usedmeasure is Lexical Diversity (LD) or the range of different
words used in a text. Texts with a lower range tend to use thesame words repeatedly. LD is commonly used in second
language research and LD indices have been found to besuggestive of writing quality, vocabulary knowledge andspeaker competence (McCarthy & Jarvis, 2010).
This research aims to address the following researchquestions:
1. How has AI-KAKU impacted the LD and fluency ofstudent writing?
2. What was the users’ impression of the utility of AIKAKU?
2.

Methodology
This case study enrolled ten Japanese adult students thatare at the EIKEN 2, pre-2 level, equivalent to CEFR B1/A2,
TOEFL iBT score of 45/32. Students were divided into twogroups and a counter-balanced research design was used to
conduct the experiment. The control condition using standard
word processing software (Google Docs) while timed (thirty
minute) and goal limited (three-hundred word) writing
assignment is compared to a second writing condition ofusing AI-KAKU with the same parameters. The writing
prompts were chosen from sample independent writing tasks
from the TOEFL iBT exam of English, a commonly used testof English for students wishing to enter tertiary education in
the United States. A mixed method approach where theresearchers used automated text analysis to detect differences
between the two writing conditions followed by quantitativeand qualitative analysis of post-activity survey data wasconducted.
The researchers conducted text analysis of theparticipants’ writing with the Text Inspector, a web-based text
analysis tool (Text Inspector, 2020) to analyze the65The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

participant’s writing samples. Text Inspector gives two
measures of LD: vocd-D, a probability-based LD measure,and the Measure of Textual Lexical Diversity (MTLD).
Following each writing condition, a ten-question, six-point
Likert survey was given to the participants to gain someperspective on the users’ perceived difficulty in completing
the writing task and the participants’ attitudes and perceptionof using AI-KAKU. The answers were on a scale of 1
(Strongly disagree) to 6 (Strongly agree).

not significant. The researchers thus cannot claim that using
AI-KAKU in this case study reduced the participants’ mental
effort in producing answers in English.
Table 3
Selected Likert survey results. N=10.
Condition

3.

Results
As seen in Table 1, descriptive statistics show that the
average lexical diversity was greater under the AI-KAKU
writing condition. However, independent t-tests show that thedifference was not statistically significant for neither the
vocd-D analysis, t = 0.31, p = 0.75 nor MTLD, t = 0.19, p =0.85. While these results were not in line with the researchers’
expectations, a number of confounding factors (e.g., lack oftraining on AI-KAKU, small sample size) could haveinfluenced the negative outcome.
Lexical Diversity measures. N=10.
vocd-D

MTLD

M

SD

M

SD

AI-KAKU

63.428

17.2

57.9

13.7

Control

61.13

15.53

56.6

15.2

Writing Fluency. N=10.
M

SD

AI-KAKU

1449

144.9

44

Control

1387

138.7

52.5

SD

M

SD

AI-KAKU

5.1

0.9

5.1

1.1

Control

5.6

0.7

5.6

1.4

Conclusion
This pilot study attempted to measure the impact on
ELLs’ writing when using a newly developed writing
assistant called AI-KAKU. While statistical difference
between AI-KAKU and the control condition was notestablished, descriptive statistics point to the potential
usefulness of the tool. The researchers feel encouraged by the
results of this pilot study and plan to conduct a larger scale
study with more participants and more measurement /assessment instruments applied. The hope is to gain richer,more nuanced data from participants about the potential of
AI-KAKU’s impact on student writing.

Table 2

Total Words

M

4.

When fluency is observed, we can see in Table 2 thatparticipants writing under the AI-KAKU condition were able
to output a greater number of words than the control condition.
In addition, the results show lower variance under the AIKAKU condition, indicating AI-KAKU is potentially helping
lower-level participants more, equalizing their performance
to higher-level writers in the study.

Condition

Q2

Reaction from the participants about using AI-KAKU
was largely positive with 60% indicating the word
suggestions given to them were useful. When asked how
many word suggestions they used during the experiment, theaverage response was between 3-4 words. The researchersconsidered this to be low usage of the word suggestion engine.
To gain more insight into potential reasons for this behavior,a participant was selected for a follow-up interview. The
participant indicated AI-KAKU was very fun to use but theywanted more time with AI-KAKU to become more used tousing it.

Table 1

Condition

Q1

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of
Science (JSPS) via the Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research(Kakenhi) Grant Number JP20H01719.
References
Abrams, L., & Davis, D. (2016). The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon:
Who, what, and why. Cognition, Language and Aging, 13-54.
https://doi.org/10.1075/z.200.
Kellogg, Ronald. (2008). Training writing skills: A cognitive
development perspective. Journal of Writing Research.
https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2008.01.01.1.
McCarthy, P.M., Jarvis, S. (2010). MTLD, vocd-D, and HD-D: A
validation study of sophisticated approaches to lexical diversity
assessment. Behavior Research Methods 42, 381–392.
https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.42.2.381.
Text Inspector (2020). Online text analysis tool at textinspector.com[Accessed 4/20/2021].
Wolfersberger, M. (2003). L1 to L2 Writing Process and Strategy
Transfer: A Look at Lower Proficiency Writers. TESL-EJ.
http://writing.berkeley.edu/TESL-EJ/

Fluency is defined as total words written.

Out of the ten questions in the Likert survey, this study
will highlight two of the most pertinent: “Q1: It took a lot ofeffort to complete the writing task” and “Q2: It was difficult
to express my ideas in English.” Both questions attempt tomeasure the participants’ mental load while writing undereach condition. The descriptive results in Table 3 show lessmental effort to complete the writing and more ease in theability of the participant to express themselves in English
when using AI-KAKU. However, in testing for significancein the survey results, a Mann-Whitney U test resulted in a Uvalue of 33.5 for Q1 and 37.5 for Q2. The critical value of U
at p < .05 is 23. Therefore, the results for both Q1 and Q2 are

66

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

The Potential of CLIL for Team Teaching:
A Case Study of a Japanese High School
Nate Olson
Sophia University
nate@ttclil.com
Abstract
English language team teaching in Japanese schools has been the subject of considerable debate and criticism,much of it centered around the roles played by Assistant Language Teachers (ALTs) and Japanese teachers ofEnglish (JTEs) inside and outside the classroom. Without careful planning, they have tended to fall into thearbitrary roles of "human tape recorders" and "translators," respectively, resulting in a passive inertia notconducive to complementary relationships. As Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) has been
gaining popularity in Japan, this case study explored how CLIL may be used to revitalize the team-teachingsituation. The research question focused on the teachers’ perceptions of their roles and the opportunities andconstraints found therein over the course of their collaboration. Data were collected over eight lessons teamtaught to a class of 35 third-year senior high school students. Reflective journals and email exchanges between
teachers were used to qualitatively capture the collaborative process. The findings revealed that, although CLIL
entailed a heavier workload, the mutual support and combined collaborative efforts of team teachers helped
implement CLIL practices and redefine traditional team-teaching roles. These findings suggest new potentials
for both team teaching and CLIL in Japan.
Keywords: CLIL, team teaching, teacher collaboration, JTE, ALT
1.

Introduction
Team teaching between Japanese teachers of English(JTEs) and Assistant Language Teachers (ALTs) has long
been a part of English education in Japan. More recently,
Japan has seen growing interest in Content and Language
Integrated Learning (CLIL). Some scholars and educators
within Japan are now promoting CLIL as a means to reformconventional approaches to language teaching at all levels of
the Japanese EFL context (Kavanagh, 2018). However, there
have been relatively few reports on CLIL implementation
outside of Japanese universities. This paper investigates teamteaching as a vehicle to implement CLIL lessons at a Japanese
senior high school.

2.2 CLIL in Japan
CLIL is an umbrella term used to describe the learning ofa nonlanguage subject in which both language and subject
have a joint role. What distinguishes it from other approaches
is its dual focus on both content and language and the way it
spreads across a learning continuum (Kavanagh, 2018). At the
one end, “hard” CLIL follows its original European model
where academic subjects such as geography or science aretaught in the target language by non-native content teachersand give very little or no language support. At the other end,
“soft” CLIL is taught by native or non-native language
teachers with more focus on language learning (Ikeda, 2013).
In the EFL environment of Japan, hard CLIL where subject
lessons are taught by Japanese content teachers may beunrealistic for primary and secondary school levels due toinsufficient English abilities, “at least until sufficient
linguistic training, appropriate teaching materials andlanguage assistants are available to compensate for limited
teacher language skills” (Ikeda, 2013, p. 33). As CLIL
continues to expand beyond its European roots and into Japan,
soft CLIL where trained language teachers teach content inEnglish is more realistic as it can be implemented relatively
easily (Ikeda, 2013).

2. Literature review
2.1 Obstacles in team teaching
Despite its wide-spread adoption, team teaching in Japanis not without problems. The approach has been criticized byresearchers and team teachers alike for its insufficient teacher
training. Reed (2016) posits that, although collaboration inteam teaching should be a top priority for ALTs and JTEs,
there is little time for them to discuss lesson plans andevaluate lessons due to JTEs’ work duties outside of teamtaught lessons. These responsibilities include the solo
teaching of other lessons, managing club activities, talking toparents, and attending administrative meetings. Furthermore,
despite the Course of Study’s policy line that ALTs are“supposed to work along with schoolteachers for teamteaching” (cited in Reed 2016, p. 84), how ALTs are to be
integrated into classrooms and their responsibilities havenever been satisfactorily described. This has led to confusionand conflict over teacher roles. In some cases, JTE may use
ALTs as so-called“human tape recorders”(e.g., Yoshida etal., 2017). In other cases, JTEs may take a more passive role,
acting as “interpreters” while ALTs become “entertainers” or“game-machines” in the classroom (e.g., Miyazato, 2009).

3.

Research questions
Examining the collaboration between a JTE and ALT toplan and deliver soft CLIL lessons at a senior high school, theresearch questions were: 1) What are the teachers’ roles in thecollaboration? and 2) What opportunities and constraints exist
in attempting to fulfill these roles?
4.

Methodology
An ethnographic case study approach was used
wherein the researcher also fulfilled the role of the ALT.
At the time of the study, the JTE was a 56-year-old maleand an experienced CLIL teacher. The ALT was a 31-year-67

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

old male from the United States and had previously nevertaught using CLIL methodologies. Both teachers had
several years of experience team teaching. Data wascollected over eight lessons team-taught to a class of 35
third-year senior high school students, 23 female and 12
male, around A2 level of English proficiency on the CEFR
scale. Several instruments were used to capture thecollaborative process, including recordings of in-person
meetings and classroom activities, written memos, email
exchanges, and reflective journals from both teachers.

the classroom. There were occasions where the JTE took
the lead for task instructions and occasionally content
teaching. Flexibility and compromises were necessary
throughout the collaboration. The JTE was unaccustomed
to his role as “follower” to the ALT’s lead, which also
implied the necessity of flexibility and compromises intheir teaching collaboration. These and other role
constraints and implications are summarized in Table 2.

5.

Role constraints and implications

Table 2Findings and discussion
It was decided during an initial planning meeting that
the ALT would be assigned as the planner and leader of thelessons. In line with Reed (2016), the JTE stated he wasunable to dedicate much time to preparing lessons due toother responsibilities. Instead, the JTE agreed to give
feedback on the lesson plans and materials and help tofacilitate the lessons by making sure students were
engaged and following instructions. In a follow-up
interview, the JTE admitted that the ALT fulfilled avaluable role in terms of “authenticity”—the ALT was able
to find content and provide the “natural” language thatsurrounds the content topic much more easily than the JTE
could have on his own. Assuming the lead role in content
instruction also allowed for the ALT to challenge the“ALT as human tape recorder” stereotype (Yoshida et al.,2017). In this role configuration, the JTE was also better
able to scaffold for students’ language and content needs
because he was culturally and linguistically closer tostudents than the ALT. Furthermore, the JTE’s judgment
and insight were indispensable in giving feedback onlesson plans and materials. Although the JTE was a“content novice,” having no prior knowledge of the ALT’s
chosen content for the lessons, as the classroom manager,
he was also able to side with students as a co-learner. Thismay have helped students relax and served as a model forcooperative learning. These role opportunities and theirimplications are summarized in Table 1.

Implication

ALT

PlannerMore time than JTE; Better sourcefor “authenticity”

ALT

Leader

Challenge to ALT title

JTE

Feedback provider

Better at scaffolding language andcontent needs

JTE

Classroom
manager

Co-learnerwith(cooperative learning)

Implication

ALT“Assistant”

Necessity of being flexible

ALT

Use of Ss’ L1“Forced output” opportunities for
Ss; Building rapport

ALT

CLIL novice

Opportunity
development

JTE“Follower”

Necessity of being flexible

JTE

Content novice

Opportunity
learning

JTE

Workload

Necessity of outsourcing lesson
planning to ALT

for

for

professional

professional

Conclusion
If teachers are willing to be flexible and put in thenecessary time and effort, collaboration can not only help
implement CLIL, but also lead to a redefinition andrefinement of traditional team-teaching roles. Under the teamtaught CLIL scheme, ALTs may have the opportunity to
become more fully-fledged teachers and assist in the planningand leading of content-led lessons. JTEs may also downplay
their lack of time for collaboration due to other school
responsibilities and play to their strengths as classroom
managers and feedback providers in scaffolding for students’content and language needs.
References
Ikeda, M. (2013). Does CLIL work for Japanese secondary school
students? Potential for the ‘weak’ version of CLIL. International
CLIL Research Journal, 2(1), 31–43.
Kavanagh, B. (2018). An introduction to theory and application of
CLIL in Japan. Tohoku University Bulletin, 4, 227–285.
Miyazato, K. (2009). Power-sharing between NS and NNS teachers:
Linguistically powerful AETs vs. culturally powerful JTEs.
JALT Journal, 31(1), 35–62.
Reed, N. (2016). Pedagogical teacher training for ALTs in Japanesepublic schools. In P. Clements, A. Krause, & H. Brown (Eds.)
Focus on the learner (pp. 111–136), Tokyo: JALT.
Yoshida, K., Izumi, S., Kano, A., Shimizu, T., et al. (2017).
Shougakkou, chuugakko, koutougakko ni okeru ALT no jittai ni
kan suru daikibou ankeeto chousa kenkyuu saishuu hokokusho[Final report of large-scale survey of the ALT situation inelementary, junior, and senior high schools.] Association ofSophian Teachers of English. Retrieved from https://www.buneido.co.jp/aste/alt_final_report.pdf

Role opportunities and implications
Role Opportunity

Role Constraint

6.

Table 1

Role

Role

students

The ALT was still technically an “assistant” by title
and needed to learn to be flexible in his role as “leader” in68The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Investigating Student Reticence in Self-access Center Usage
Gerardine McCrohan
Kagawa University
mccrohan.gerardine@kagawa-u.ac.jp
Abstract
Supporting learner autonomy in second language acquisition has been the foundation for thepromotion and implementation of self-access language learning (SALL), and self-access centers(SAC) as a resource for achieving this kind of learning. Many universities in Japan and elsewhere haveinvested a great amount of time and money establishing SACs with the belief that their bright, cheerfuldesign, along with a host of language learning activities, will attract students to utilize them.
Unfortunately, this has not always proven to be correct. While some undergraduate students makegood use of an SAC, there are many who have proven very reticent. In an attempt to discover how
SAC attendees differ from non-attendees, this present study adopted a mixed-methods approach toinvestigate students’ willingness to communicate (WTC), their perceptions of an SAC, and their
willingness or reluctance to use the resources offered by the SAC. Preliminary results have shown that
there is little statistical difference in WTC between the two groups of students. Results from interviews
have also shown that both SAC attendees and non-attendees agreed that autonomous learning is very
important at university level, and that they should spend time learning and practicing English bythemselves outside class. However, non-SAC attendees viewed English mainly as a tool for travel orfinding employment, while in addition to recognizing the value of English for travel and work, SAC
attendees saw English as a means of self-development and self-exploration. This suggests that SAC
attendees are more intrinsically motivated than non-attendees, and this could have implications for thekinds of programs offered by SACs.
Keywords: SAC, WTC, motivation, autonomy
1.

Introduction
Many second language (L2) teachers and researchers
agree that for learners to develop the oral skills required forsuccessful communication they must be encouraged to
produce comprehensible output and have meaningfulinteraction within the classroom (Swain,1985). Motivation,
which has a complex relationship with L2 acquisition, isanother key factor in the successful study of language
acquisition (e.g., Hashimoto, 2002; Goharimehr, 2017).
Outside of the classroom L2 learners are exposed to realcommunication, often at i +1 for the learner. In this situation,
learners must be willing to initiate or participate incommunication, and to overcome communication obstacles.
However, some people are more willing to communicate(WTC) than others in this challenging situation. There isextensive research on WTC in different contexts and indifferent countries within the classroom (e.g., MacIntyre,
1994; Yashima, 2002; Dornyei, 2009; Matsuoka, 2009; Cao,2011) but little research has been carried out on the role of
WTC and self-access center (SAC) use. This study aims toinvestigate this gap by looking at the WTC and language
learning orientation of students who regularly attended the
SAC compared with students who did not.

attending the SAC for TOEIC S&W preparation classes.
Group 2 (non-SAC) consisted of 76 1st year Faculty of
Education students enrolled in a General Education English
class.
3.

Research questions and methodology
This study used a mixed methods approach where
quantitative and qualitative methods were used together
during the data collection and analysis phases. The researchquestions were as follows.
1. Do participants in a SAC initially have higher WTC
compared with students taking regular English classes but
who do not attend a SAC?
2. Is there a difference in the language learningorientation between the SAC and non-SAC groups.
Data from the questionnaires was tabulated and analyzed
using SPSS (version 25). To gain a general perspective on the
WTC and language learning orientation of the students,
student responses were tallied to find the percentages for each
Likert-scale response option. For the qualitative aspect of thestudy, interviews have been conducted with 25 students. Theinterview recordings were transcribed, the transcript wasclarified by eliminating repetitions and digressions, and thestatements of the participants were summarized.

2.

Background and participants
The SAC at this university was established in April
2014; a variety of language courses and special events and areheld there each semester. However, we have found that mostundergraduate students do not avail themselves of the
facilities offered by the SAC, and despite many incentives
offered to them, this has remained unchanged.
This study involved two groups of students enrolled inclasses in the second semesters of the 2017, 2018 and 2019academic years. Group 1 (SAC group) consisted of 75
intermediate level learners from all grades and all faculties

4.

Results and discussion
Results gathered from the questionnaires show there waslittle difference in the WTC between the two groups. Bothgroups reported a high WTC. Almost 70% of the SAC groupstudents exhibited a high WTC, as did 65% of the non-SAC
group. In contrast there was a marked difference in theirorientation towards language learning. The SAC group weremore intrinsically motivated and saw language learning as ameans of self-improvement. The non-SAC group were more
motivated by extrinsic factors such as university or future job
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communicate in English. Kohn: Lambert Academic Publishing.
Mynard, J. (2016). Self-access in Japan: Introduction. Studies in
Self-Access Learning, 7(4), 331-340.
Yashima, T. (2002). Willingness to Communicate in a Second
Language: the Japanese EFL Context. Modern Language
Journal 86(1):54 – 66.

requirements. Common findings from the interviews werethat nearly all students (92% SAC group, 90% non-SAC
group) showed an interest in making international friends,
travel, and future jobs. The interviews also highlighted manyof the barriers to SAC attendance by the non-SAC group,
including lack of time, and scheduling conflicts.
Embarrassment about speaking or making mistakes in aforeign language was also a common theme. These have been
mentioned in similar studies (Bar, 2010; Birdsell, 2015;
Mynard,, 2016). While the SAC group also mentioned theseissues, these students focused more on how they overcame
these barriers and found that their overall confidence in their
L2 abilities increased. This suggests that many of the SAC
group students were more willing to take risks, while the nonSAC group were more risk adverse.
There are several problems with this study, including thegeneralizability is limited as this study was conducted within
a single institution, and all the non-SAC students were 1st year
students from a single faculty. Widening this study to include
other institutions, faculties and grades would solve these
problems.

Appendix A: Willingness to communicate Questionnaire_____1. Talk with a service station attendant.
_____2. Talk with a physician.
_____3. Present a talk to a group of strangers.
_____4. Talk with an acquaintance while standing in line.
_____5. Talk with a salesperson in a store.
_____6. Talk in a large meeting of friends.
_____7. Talk with a police officer.
_____8. Talk in a small group of strangers.
_____9. Talk with a friend while standing in line.
_____10. Talk with a waiter/waitress in a restaurant.
_____11. Talk in a large meeting of acquaintances.
_____12. Talk with a stranger while standing in line_____13. Talk with a secretary.
_____14. Present a talk to a group of friends.
_____15. Talk in a small group of acquaintances.
_____16. Talk with a garbage collector.
_____17. Talk in a large meeting of strangers.
_____18. Talk with a spouse (or girl/boyfriend).
_____19. Talk in a small group of friends.
_____20. Present a talk to a group of acquaintances.
(https://www.midss.org/sites/default/files/willingness_to_communi
cate.pdf)

5.

Conclusion
Contrary to what was expected, students who attend and
SAC do not necessarily have a higher WTC than non-SAC
attendees, but SAC attendees appear to have higher intrinsic
motivation and a great willingness to engage in risk taking
behavior with regards their attitudes to language learning.
SAC attendees also appear to have a great tolerance for
ambiguity than non-attendees.
In the future it would be interesting to examine in moredetail personality factors that influence SAC attendance using
the BEVI (The Beliefs, Events, and Values Inventory). This
may allow us to determine what factors attract and deter
certain types of students, and it may be possible to modify our
curriculum accordingly to meet the needs of different types ofstudents.

Appendix B: Language Learning Orientation Scale (adaptedand simplified)Studying English is important to me because:___1. It will be useful in getting a job.
___2. I would like to travel to an English-speaking country.
___3. I would like to meet some native English-speaking people.
___4. It will help me understand foreign people better.
___5. I will need English for my career in the future.
___6. I would like to be friend with English-speaking people.
___7. It will help me to be successful in business.
___8. It will help me get a better paying job.
___9. It will make me a more knowledgeable person.
___10. It will help if I travel to non-English speaking countries.
___11. It will help me make friend with foreign non-English
speaking people.
___12. It will help me acquire new ideas and broaden my outlook.
___13. It will help me learn about myself.
___14. It will help me get good grades in my current English class.
___15. It will help me get into better (graduate) schools.
___16. It will give me a better education.
___17. It is required by the university.

References
Barrs, K. (2010). What factors encourage high levels of student
participation in a self-access centre? Studies in Self-Access Learning
Journal, 1(1), 10-16.
Birdsell, B. (2015). Self-access learning centres and the importanceof being curious. Studies in Self-Access Learning Journal, 6(3), 271285.
Cao, Y. (2011). Investigating situational willingness tocommunicate within second language classrooms from an ecologicalperspective. System, 39, 468–479.
Dörnyei, Z. (2009). “The L2 Motivational Self System.” In
Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self, edited by Z. Dörnyei
and E. Ushioda, 9–42. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Goharimehr, N. (2017). Identity, Motivation and English Learning
in a Japanese Context. World Journal of English Language, 7, (4)Hashimoto, Y. (2002). Motivation and willingness to communicate
as predictors of reported L2 use: the Japanese ESL context. Second
Language Studies, 20(2), 29–70.
MacIntyre, P. D. (1994). Variables underlying willingness tocommunicate: A causal analysis. Communication Research Reports,
11, 135-142.
Matsuoka, R. (2009). Japanese college students’ Willingness to70

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Do voice typing tools influence learners’ confidence in their own
production?
Yasuyo Isobe
Akita Prefectural University,
y_isobe@akita-pu.ac.jp
Abstract
This research investigated the impacts of voice typing tools on learners’ self-confidence regarding
their pronunciation. A total of six Japanese EFL learners participated in three 90-minute English
speaking sessions. All participants first received pronunciation instruction on /f/, /v/, /p/, and /b/sounds, and then orally practiced the sounds that appeared in isolated words and sentences using
different methods. One group (three participants) practiced pronunciation with peers (the peerpracticing group), and this group received oral feedback, including corrective feedback (CF), bypeers and the author. The other group (three participants) practiced pronunciation using a voice
typing tool in Google Docs (the voice-typing practicing group) during the sessions, and, unlike thepeer-practicing group, this group received written feedback, including CF. If the screen showed theexact words and sentences that the voice-typing group had intended to produce, this indicated thatthe utterances were well-produced. However, if the screen showed something different from what
the voice-typing group had intended to produce, this indicated that their utterances were not produced
accurately. At the end of each session, all participants performed communication tasks to generalize
the impacts of pronunciation practice on authentic speech. The effects of instruction on theparticipants’ confidence were assessed by questionnaires before the first and after the third session.
Although the results showed no significant changes in self-confidence regarding pronunciation, theparticipants’ comments revealed positive attitudes toward the voice typing tools for pronunciation
learning and eagerness to speak English. Moreover, the comments showed that while their
willingness to speak English was high, their confidence in speaking English was low, suggesting thatin addition to providing instruction for language skills, it is necessary to build the confidence oflearners who have high willingness to speak English.
Keywords: pronunciation, voice typing tools, confidence
1.

Introduction
The existing literature (e.g., Golonka, Bowles, Frank,
Richardson, and Freynik, 2014) shows that computer-assisted
language learning is a beneficial language teaching method.
For example, Caresy (2004) and Tsai (2019) revealed theadvantages of technologies (e.g., speech recognition tools) on
pronunciation teaching and learning, although additional
knowledge and training may be required. However, there isroom for further investigation on questions such as thefeasibility of the practical use of such technologies in theclassroom, and the impacts of these technologies on
psychological changes (e.g., self-confidence).
Such psychological factors play a crucial role inlanguage learning, because language acquisition cannot be
accomplished only by improving linguistic skills. Needless tosay, output is crucial for language acquisition, and in order totrigger ample output, it is crucial to increase the level of selfconfidence and willingness to communicate, and decrease
anxiety about speaking the target language (MacIntyre &Legatto, 2011). Hence, it is necessary to understand theefficacy of instruction on psychological factors in addition to
on language abilities, and this necessity has motivated thepresent research.

pronunciation of /f/, /v/, /p/, and /b/ sounds. A total of six
Japanese EFL learners who were first-year university students
participated in the study.
Although all of them received the same pronunciation
instruction of the target sounds together, they practiced thesesounds differently. One group (three participants) practiced
the target sounds with peers (the peer-practicing group) andreceived immediate oral corrective feedback (CF) by peers
and the instructor1 in a face-to-face context. The other group(three participants) practiced the target sounds with the voicetyping tools in Google Docs (the voice-typing practicing
group), and unlike the peer-practicing group, this group
received immediate written CF. That is, if the screen showed
the exact words and sentences that the voice-typing group had
intended to produce, this indicated that their utterances were
well-produced, meaning that their utterances would likely beperceived correctly by listeners in real communication.
However, if the screen showed something different from what
the voice-typing group had intended to produce, this showedthat their utterances were not produced accurately, suggestingthat they could not be understood correctly by listeners in realcommunication.
After the pronunciation practice, both groups
performed the same communication tasks (e.g., giving
invitations and refusals) which allowed them to apply theeffects of the pronunciation instruction and practice oncommunication. That is, the practiced sounds and words were2.

The Present ResearchThis research aimed to examine the impacts of voice
typing tools on learners’ self-confidence regarding their
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included in the communication tasks, and these words andsounds had to be produced in order to complete the tasks. The
total length of the intervention was 270 minutes (a 90-minutesession x 3 times).
The efficacy of the pronunciation instruction andpractice on the level of self-confidence was assessed byquestionnaires2 that included 5-likert-scale questions
regarding the students’ self-confidence about pronunciationand open-ended questions asking about reasons for the selfconfidence before the first and after the third session.

hinder learners from producing output, and the limited
amount of output does not help learners acquire the target
language.
This study had several limitations, including thelimited number of the participants and the length of theinterventions. In particular, it may take longer than the
duration of the present research to change affective factors
such as self-confidence. Thus, for future research, it will benecessary to recruit more participants for longer durations forthe intervention sessions. Also, although the participants inthe present research were already highly motived to learn
English, not all learners are motivated to learn the target
language in real classroom situations. Hence, future research
may require more participants who have various levels of
motivation in order to further understand the impact of
instruction on self-confidence. Lastly, the means of delivering
CF differed in the groups; one received oral CF, and the otherreceived written CF. Therefore, the same types of CF should
be given in the future research.

3.

Results and Implications
Non-parametric tests3 were employed for the data
analysis. The results showed no significance, indicating thatthe students’ self-confidence regarding pronunciation showedno significant changes over time and between the twodifferent types of pronunciation instruction. Although nosignificant differences were revealed, some interesting
comments were noted in the questionnaires.
All participants wrote positive comments about
pronunciation instruction and practice in general, suggesting
the importance of pronunciation teaching and learning inlanguage education. In other words, learners considered
pronunciation instruction to be crucial. Moreover, whereas
different methods of pronunciation practice were given
depending on the group, both groups showed positive
attitudes towards the practice. For instance, the peerpracticing group noted the benefits of immediate oral CF by
the instructor (the author of this research), suggesting that
immediate oral CF on pronunciation was found to be effective
and did not interrupt the participants’ output at all. As for thepractice with the voice-typing tools, the voice-typing
practicing group showed their interest in employing suchtools for pronunciation learning; they mentioned thatpracticing pronunciation with such tools was an eye-opening
activity and that such tools could be practically used forlearning. As shown in the comments, learners saw thepronunciation instruction positively and enjoyed using voicetyping tools as a part of their practice.
In addition to their comments regarding the benefits ofpronunciation teaching, all participates indicated a high levelof willingness to speak English in the questionnaires.
However, the level of self-confidence about pronunciation
was low, and the level stayed the same before and after all
interventions were given. Such results reveal the necessity ofboosting the level of students’ confidence about
pronunciation in language education.

Notes
1
The instructor for the interventions is the author of this paper.
2
In the questionnaires, questions were asked relating not only to selfconfidence about pronunciation, but also to other affective factors
such as willingness to speak English and anxiety about speaking
English. However, this paper and analysis focuses mainly on selfconfidence about pronunciation.
3
Wilcoxon signed-ranked tests were employed for within-groupdifferences, and Mann-Whitney tests were employed for betweengroups differences.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by JSPS KAKENHI (Grant Number JP
20K22192) and by the President’s project-based research grants by
Akita Prefectural University.
References
Carey, M. (2004). CALL visual feedback for pronunciation ofvowels: Kay sona-match. CALICO Journal, 21(3).571-601.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/24149798
Golonka, E. M., Bowles, A. R., Frank, V. M., Richardson, D. L., &Freynik, S. (2014). Technologies for foreign language learning:
A review of technology types and their effectiveness. Computer
Assisted Language Learning, 27(1), 70-105.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2012.700315
MacIntyre, P. D., & Legatto, J. J. (2011). A dynamic systemapproach to willingness to communicate: Developing an
idiodynamic method to capture rapidly changing affect. Applied
Linguistics, 32(2), 149-171. https:// doi:10.1093/applin/amq037
Tsai, P.(2019).Beyond self-directed computer-assisted
pronunciation learning: A qualitative investigation of acollaborative approach. Computer Assisted Language Learning,
32(7), 713-744.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2019.1614069

4.

Conclusion
This research aimed to explore the impacts of voicetyping tools on self-confidence regarding pronunciation.
Unfortunately, the level of self-confidence regarding
pronunciation did not change significantly. However, the data
showed positive attitudes towards such tools forpronunciation teaching and learning in general. In addition,
the data revealed that it is necessary to boost learners’ selfconfidence, because such low levels of self-confidence may

72

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Peer and Teacher Assessments under the Zoom Conference System
Sumie Matsuno
Aichi Sangyo University College
smatsuno@asu.ac.jp
Abstract
Twenty-two University students and one teacher participated in this study under the Zoom conference system. The
students conducted a peer assessment, and the teacher conducted a teacher assessment of students’ presentations.
These assessments were compared, using the Multifaceted Rasch analysis computer program. The following six
research questions were investigated. First, to what degree was each rater’s logit scale, infit mean square, and outfit
mean square similar and different? Second, to what degree did presenters’ abilities, raters’ severities, and itemdifficulties visually differ? Third, to what degree were the rating scale statistics similar and different between thepeers and the teacher? Fourth, to what degree were unexpected responses detected? Fifth, to what degree werebiases between raters and items detected? Sixth, what were the students’ reactions toward conducting peer
assessments under the Zoom conference system? The results of the first question indicated that the teacher
assessment was peculiar although her severity did not show much difference from the peers’. Second, in bothassessments, Looking at the camera was the most difficult, while Content was the easiest. Third, the rating scalestatistics showed the teacher assigned the score of 1 four times, while most of the peer raters used the scores, 4, 5,
and 6. As the results for questions 4 and 5, unexpected responses and bias analysis showed that the teacher was
peculiar compared with the peer raters.
Keywords: FACETS analysis, peer assessment, teacher assessment, university, Zoom
Introduction
Although peer assessment has received much attention instudies on English as a second language (ESL) and English as
a foreign language (EFL) for many years (Almahasneh &Abdul-Hamid, 2019; Bowman-Perrott, Mahadevan, andEtchells, 2016; Cheng & Warren, 2005; Colby, 2011; Shin,
2013; Jingjing & Fengying, 2015; Iraji, Enayat, & Momeni,2016), how peer assessment works under the videoconference system, Zoom, has not been researched yet.
Therefore, in this study, students are made to conduct peer
assessment during peer presentations via Zoom, and it wascompared with teacher assessment.

(2003) mention the values between 0.5 and 2.0 are acceptable
for a low-stakes activity. Hence, adopting the range from 0.5
to 2.0, it can be concluded that all raters were in the acceptable
range. However, it is noteworthy that the teacher had thehighest infit and outfit mean square values, indicating that she
was peculiar among these raters.

1.

Table 1The Rater Measurement Report
Rater
Severity
Error
R1
-.70
.16
R2
.26
.14
R3
.63
.1
R4
.58
.14
R5
-.29
.15
R6
.01
.19
R7
2.37
.12
R8
-1.25
.17
R9
.47
.14
R10
-.13
.15
R11
1.57
.14
R12
.37
.15
R13
.03
.14
R14
1.09
.14
R15
.56
.22
R16
.50
.14
R17
-.55
.15
R18
-1.55
.18
R19
-1.16
.17
R20
-1.29
.17
R21
-.64
.16
R22
-1.28
.17
Teacher.40.13Procedure
In one of Japanese universities, a required English class
was conducted using the Zoom conference system, and as a
mid-term test, twenty-two students gave a presentation.
They were both presenters (P1-P22) and raters (R1-R22).
The presentation was approximately 3 minutes long and wasin English. During those presentations, the students assessed
their peers’ presentations based on five items: Looking at thecamera, Visuals & Gestures, Fluency & Pronunciation,
Organization, and Content. Each item was scored on a 6point Likert scale (1-6). Their peer assessment was analyzed
using the FACETS computer program, version 3.80.4(Linacre, 2018) to compare with teacher assessment. In
addition, the students wrote their reactions toward
conducting peer assessment.
2.

Results
Each rater measurement report is shown in Table 1.
Rater infit mean-square is an estimate of how much a rater isconsistent with their rating scales across presenters and acrossitems. Rater outfit-mean square is sensitive to the infrequent
highly unexpected, disturbing rating. Myfold and Wolfe
3.

Infit
.89
1.03
.88
1.73
.85
.83
.78
.60
.78
.94
.64
.69
1.17
1.12
1.16
.60
1.15
1.35
1.08
.90
1.19
.65
1.86

Outfit
.99
1.03
.87
1.70
.86
.87
.79
.58
.77
.93
.64
.75
1.17
1.12
1.12
.61
1.27
1.17
.98
.85
1.24
.77
1.77

The FACETS map was presented in Figure 1. The
teacher’s severity (.40) was around the middle: hence, she
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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

was neither severe nor lenient on her ratings in this group.
On the other hand, this map also showed that all thepresenters got quite high scores because those located higher
were more proficient presenters. Moreover, Looking at thecamera was the most difficult, while Content was theeasiest. This was the case in both teacher and peer
assessments.

Table 2 indicated unexpected responses. Three out ofeight responses were the teacher’s, all of which were
Looking at the camera. Finally, 23 bias interactions between
the raters and the items were detected, and as seen in Table
3, three of them were the teacher’s biases: Looking at thecamera, Content, and Organization. Overall, both
unexpected responses and bias analysis showed that several
items had different expectations between the peers and theteacher.

Figure 1

Table 3
The Teacher Rater’s Bias Report
Rater
Item Observed Expected
T
Looking
74
87.77
TContent
112
105.34
T
Organization 109
101.35The FACETS Map+ ----- - ------- - ---------------------------- --------------------------------- - ----- +| Measr | raters | presenters| items| Scale || ----- + ------- + ---------------------------- --------------------------------- + ----- |
|
4+
+
+
+
-6 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| --|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
3+
+ P1
+
+
|
|
|
| P21 P7
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| P11 P17 P9
|
|
|
|
|
| P4
|
|
|
|
| *
| P19
|
|
5|
|
|
| P3
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2+
+ P6
+
+
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| P12 P14 P16 P5|||
Teacher|| *| P10 P15 P18
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| --|
|
|
| P13 P8
|
|
|
|
|
| P2
|
|
|
|
| *
|
|
|
|
|
1+
+
+
+
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Looking at the camera
|
|
|
| **
|
|
|
4|
|
| *** |
| Visuals & Gestures
|
|
|
| **
|
|
|
|
|
| *
|
| Fluency & Pronunciation |
|
|
|
| P22
|
|
|
*
0 * **
*
*
*
*
|
| *
|
|
|
|
|
| *
|
|
| --|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| *
|
| Organization
|
|
|
| *
|
|
|
|
|
| *
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Content
|
|
|
-1 +
+
+
+
3|
|
| *
|
|
|
|
|
| *** |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| *
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| --|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
-2 +
+
+
+
-1 |
| ------- + ------- + ---------------------------- +-------------------------------- + ------ || Measr | * = 1 | presenters| items| Scale |+ ------- - ------- - ---------------------------- --------------------------------- - ------ +Error tp
.28 -3.59 .000
.35 2.10 .048
.33 2.33 .030

The findings in this study have some pedagogicalimplications. First, from the students’ comments, conducting
peer-assessment under the Zoom conference system waseffective since it made them listen to their peers’presentations eagerly. Second, before students conduct peer
assessments, they must know what the teacher clearly
expects. Finally, more effective rating scales should be
utilized because Japanese students probably do not want toassign lower scores to their peers.
References
Almahasneh, A.M.S., & Abdul- Hamid, S. (2019). The Effect ofUsing Peer Assessment Training on Writing Performance
among Arab EFL High School Students in Malaysia. Arab
World English Journal, 10 (1)105-115. Retrieved fromhttps://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol10no1.10.
Bowman-Perrott, L., Mahadevan, L., & Etchells, M. (2016).
Assessing the academic, social, and language production
outcomes of English language learners engaged in peer
tutoring: A systematic review. Education and Treatment ofChildren, 39(3), 359-388.
Cheng, W., & Warren, M. (2005). Peer assessment of language
proficiency. Language Testing, 22(1), 93-121.
Colby, D.C. (2011). Using “Assessment for Learning” practices
with pre-university level ESL students: A mixed methods
study of teacher and student performance and beliefs.
ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
Iraji, H.R., Enayat, M.J., & Momeni, M. (2016). The effects of selfand peer-assessment on Iranian EFL learners’
argumentative writing performance. Theory and Practice inLanguage Studies, 6(4), 716-722.
Jingjing, X., & Fengying, M. (2015). A study into students’ views
on guided peer feedback in group work. Chinese Journal ofApplied Linguistics, 38(2), 188-203.
Linacre, J.M. (2018). FACETS: computer program for many
faceted Rasch measurement (version 3.80.4). Chicago, IL:
Mesa Press.
Myford, C. & Wolfe, E.W. (2003). Detecting and measuring rater
effects using many-facet rasch measurement: Part I.
Journal of Applied Measurement, 4(4), 386-422.
Shin, R. (2013). Effect of using Facebook to assist English forbusiness communication course instruction. The Turkish
Online Journal of Educational Technology, 12(1), 52-59.

Regarding what degree the rating scale statistics weresimilar or different between the peers and the teacher, theteacher used the score 1 four times, but none of the peers
used the score 1, and both the teacher and the peers used thescore 5 the most. Furthermore, 24% of the peer responses
were the score 6.
Table 2Unexpected Responses
Rater Presenter
Item
Score
T
P12
Looking at the camera
1
T
P14
Looking at the camera
1
T
P13
Looking at the camera
1
R17
P7
Content
4
R21
P4
Content
4
R7
P4
Fluency & Pronunciation
6
R17
P4
Content
4
R18
P16
Looking at the camera
3

Bias
-1.10
.73
.78

Expected
4.0
4.0
3.8
5.7
5.7
3.6
5.6
5.1

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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Practice of Project-Based English Courses for University Students
through Zoom and Students’ Reactions
Yoko Maekawa
Okayama University of Sciencey_maekawa@dls.ous.ac.jp
Abstract
During the COVID-19 pandemic, university education worldwide was forced to shift towards online
teaching. Teaching online caused limitations on interactive and communicative English courses, which
resulted in fewer chances for students to actively participate in the class activities or to speak out. To
encourage students’ participation, active learning, and interaction with their classmates, the author
planned and carried out project-based English courses through Zoom for university students majoring inscience and engineering. This practice was conducted during the fall semester of the academic year 2020
in two of the author’s Integrated English IV classes that were required for second-year students. Before
conducting the project, the author let students choose whether they would do the project individually, inpairs, or in groups of three. In each class, the author made time for students to research and discuss theirselected theme in breakout rooms, then, students submitted the discussion results on a portal site. At theend of the first quarter, students gave presentations about their research results, while they made reports
at the end of the second quarter. The author also tried to satisfy SDT’s three psychological needs ofstudents, which are autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Although few students answered the pre-post
questionnaire surveys, the results suggested that the class satisfied students’ psychological needs andmaintained their motivation to learn English. In the open-ended questions, students commented on theeffectiveness of the project to acquire useful knowledge of both English and the project theme, and the
new learning and communication style with the teacher in the breakout rooms. Since some students
commented that they wished for more lecture-style communicative classes, the author may need to
improve the style of instruction. However, this practice may suggest a possible new approach to teaching
English to university students.
Keywords: Project, Zoom, SDT, Presentation
2.1 Background Information
In this university, students are appointed to different
levels – S (the highest), A, and B (the lowest) – according to
the scores from the Visualizing English Language
Competency Test (VELC test). In 2020, the author’s secondyear classes were the S-level and A-level. The S-level
students were from the departments of Life Science andApplied Physics, while the A-level students were from
Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology and Mechanical
Systems Engineering. This university is using the quarter
system, so the class was divided to Integrated English IVA
and Integrated English IVB.

1.

Introduction
During the COVID-19 pandemic, university educationworldwide was forced to shift towards online teaching whilemost of teaching staff had little relevant pedagogicalknowledge or technological experience (Bao, 2020; Rapanta,
Botturi, Goodyear, Guàrdia, & Koole, 2020), which caused
the limitations on interactive and communicative instructions.
Researchers found the importance of interaction in online
platform to encourage students’ learning and participation(Bao, 2020; Chen et al., 2020; Moore, Dickson-Deane, &Galyen, 2011). When this author first started using Zoom as
the online class platform, I mainly used the chat function forcommunication from the students with consideration forstudents’ emotional well-being. In the class, I wanted toprevent students from feeling anxious to participate in theclass while keeping the interactive atmosphere. The former
study revealed that students reacted positively toward thisstyle (Maekawa, 2021). However, there was little peerinteraction, and students’ learning atmosphere seemed rather
isolated. Therefore, to encourage peer interaction andcooperative learning even in an online learning situation, theauthor conducted a project-based English class through Zoom.
This presentation will introduce the class design and students’reactions.

2.2 Course design
Before COVID-19 situation occurred, the author has
utilized English presentation and CLIL-based instruction to
improve English learning motivation of non-English major
students. The author has planned to include projects in theacademic year 2020 so that students could have opportunities
to discuss and cooperate with their classmates, visualize how
they would use English in their future career, and learn how
to utilize their English knowledge to communicate theirunderstandings and opinions. When designing the course, theauthor also tried to include aspects that would satisfy students’basic emotional needs of autonomy, competence, andrelatedness, which were introduced by Deci and Ryan (2002).
Students made presentations during Fall 1 quarter,
while they wrote research papers during Fall 2. At the
beginning of each quarter, the author let students choose
whether they would like to work individually, in pairs, or ingroups of three. I also made students vote for the research

2.

Class Design and PracticeThis project-based course was conducted during the fallsemester of the academic year 2020 in the two classes ofauthor’s Integrated English IV, which is required for secondyear students.

75

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

classmate’s face. There were also students who felt the project
was too difficult.

theme of each quarter. For the Fall 1 quarter presentation, boththe S and A level students chose COVID-19. For the Fall 2
quarter writing, the S level students chose environmental
issues while the A level students chose the ideal futuremachine.
Every week, the class started with instructions andlectures about researching, making presentations, and writing
academic papers as well as tips for making good English
sentences. Then, students moved to breakout rooms anddiscussed their research with their team mates. The weekly
assignments were given so that students could complete thepresentation or paper step by step with weekly feedbacks. At
the last class of the Fall 1, students gave presentations of theirresearch results for about two to three minutes with slides.

3.4 Discussion
The survey results do not show a clearly positive effectof the project-base English class through Zoom. There arecertain students who are very shy and do not enjoy projects orgroup works. It is also possible that students had moreassignments because of the online setting, which made themfeel it was difficult to complete the project. There might also
be disadvantages due to technical problems such as weak wifi. Thus, teachers need to consider factors that may interferewith students’ participating in the class and should plan thecourse thoroughly. However, the results also showed somepositive effect such as improved perception of the threepsychological needs and students enjoying the discussion.
Hence, the project-based English class may provide students
with some benefits even through Zoom.

3. Study
3.1 Purpose
The purpose of the study was to examine whether the
project-based Zoom class could maintain students’ motivation
to learn English and satisfy their three psychological needs oflearning English. I also wanted to find out how students felt
about the whole experience.

4.

Conclusion
This practice and study showed the possibility of
conducting project-based English courses even in online
settings. The results may suggest what teachers should
consider when planning online courses. COVID-19 keeps
affecting the university education. It is also possible online
instruction will remains in some part after COVID-19. I
would like to keep researching the benefits and disadvantagesof those classes.

3.2 Survey
To examine the motivational effect of the class andstudents’ reactions, questionnaire surveys were conducted
three times (April, August, and February) in the academic
year 2020. The survey was conducted through Google Forms.
The author gave the URL for the questionnaire and asked thestudents to participate. In this presentation, the author
introduces only the August and February results.
Both August and February questionnaires consisted ofthree parts: motivational regulations (20-items, 5-point scale)derived from Hiromori (2006), Perceived fulfillment of threepsychological needs (9-item, 5-point scale; Hiromori, 2006),
and open-ended questions.
The quantitative data were analyzed using IBM SPSS
statistics 25, while MAXQDA2020 was used to analyze
qualitative data.

References
Bao, W. (2020). COVID-19 and online teaching in higher education:
A case study of Peking University. Human Behavior andEmerging
Technologies,2(2),113-115.
doi:10.1002/hbe2.191
Chen, T., Peng, L., Yin, X., Rong, J., JianjunYang, & Cong, G.
(2020). Analysis of User Satisfaction with Online
Education Platforms in China during the COVID-19
Pandemic. Healthcare, 8(3), 200.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of selfdetermination research. Rochester: The University ofRochester Press.
Hiromori, T. (2006). Gaikokugo Gakushusha no Dokizuke wo
Takameru Riron to Jissen [Foreign language learners'
motivation: research and practice]. Tokyo: Taga Shuppan.
Maekawa, Y. (2021). Creating an Interactive Zoom English Class for
University Students During COVID-19 and Students’
Reactions. LET Kansai chapter collected papers, 19, 4158.
Moore, J. L., Dickson-Deane, C., & Galyen, K. (2011). e-Learning,
online learning, and distance learning environments: Arethey the same? The Internet and Higher Education, 14(2),129-135.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2010.10.001
Rapanta, C., Botturi, L., Goodyear, P., Guàrdia, L., & Koole, M.
(2020). Online University Teaching During and After the
Covid-19 Crisis: Refocusing Teacher Presence andLearning Activity. Postdigital Science and Education,
2(3), 923-945. doi:10.1007/s42438-020-00155-y

3.3 Results
There were only a few participants to survey mainly
due to the online setting.
The results of the quantitative survey showed eachmotivational regulation declined from August to February
although the satisfaction of all three psychological needs
increased.
In the open-end questionnaire, students commented
that they gained authentic and useful English knowledge thatthey can use in their future, that they learned how to write
English papers. There were also comments that they did not
feel any inconvenience on Zoom because they could ask forhelp anytime from their breakout room to the instructor andthat they could enjoy discussion with their classmates. On theother hand, there were also some negative comments. Somestudents felt the working time in breakout rooms was too longor too short. Other students felt uncomfortable discussing in
the breakout room because they could not see their76

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

CLIL Class in the University General Education Classroom
Satsuki Kojima
Miyagi University
kojimasa@myu.ac.jp
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to explore the potential of the CLIL class in the non-English major English
classroom at the university level. The CLIL approach was implemented 13 times out of 16 total classes
at a university in Northern Japan. 48 students who were majoring in education participated in this study.
As a textbook, “CLIL Human Biology (Sasajima et al 2018)” was used. In the textbook, listening,shadowing, discussions, reading, and presentations were implemented as activities. Students made agroup presentation every two weeks, for a total of 4 times. Before the semester and after the semester,
student questionnaires with closed and open-ended questions were implemented to see 1) how their
cognitive behavior changed, 2) how their attitude toward English class changed, and 3) how theirintercultural awareness changed when compared to other EFL classes. Besides these, a pre-test andpost-test using TOEIC reading and listening parts were implemented to see which skills would improveover the course of one semester. As a result, according to the questionnaires, in terms of the score ofenjoyment of the lesson, the satisfaction gained from the lesson, independent-minded stance, andpositive attitude toward the lesson were considerably higher in classes where the CLIL approach was
implemented. As for the TOEIC test, there was no statistically significant difference between pre- andpost-tests both for listening and reading. In this study, I would like to introduce empirical data for CLIL
class.
Keywords: CLIL, general education classroom, university classroom, student questionnaires
1.

Introduction
The core of Content and Language Integrated Learning(CLIL) pedagogy is the integration of content and languagewith cognition and intercultural awareness. In a CLIL class,students are not only learning content of the subjects andlanguage (such as grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, andEnglish four skills), but they are also learning criticalthinking (more higher-order thinking skills and lower-order
thinking skills), cultural awareness (personal development
and global citizenship), and communication skills (language
using, skill using). This is called CLIL’s 4C’s (content,
communication, cognition, and culture) and they should beorganically and intentionally integrated into CLIL class toachieve high-quality education (Ikeda, 2015). Because ofthis, it is commonly thought that it would be difficult toapply CLIL methodology to a lower-level class or a general
education class in Japan, and the students who are learning
English by means of CLIL are thought to be highly
motivated or good at English in the first place (Ikeda, 2012)
and it is not applicable in Japan. As for the potential ofprimary CLIL class in Japan, Yamano (2013b) suggests thata CLIL program will improve primary EFL education in
Japan. In this study, the potential of the CLIL class in the
non-English major English classroom at a university is
explored.

were university sophomores.

2.

2.2 Data Collection and Analysis
In this experiment, data were collected by two methods:
student questionnaires with closed and open-ended questions
before the semester and after the semester, and a part of the
TOEIC (Listening and Reading section) test was included.
The student questionnaire before the semester was intended
to obtain students’ perceptions of other EFL (non-CLIL)
classes that they took in the university so far. I called thisclass a non-CLIL class. The questionnaire after the semester
was intended to obtain student’s reflections of the CLIL
class that I implemented in this study. The questionnaires
were based on a 4-point Likert-scale (yes, yes to someextent, no some extent, and no). The questions were
designed to find out the perceived difficulty of the class,understanding of the class (content and grammar), level ofsatisfaction of the class, attitude toward the class,intercultural awareness, and the level of participants’
independent-minded stance. These questions were modified
versions of the question items presented by Yamano (2013a).
In addition, the TOEIC reading test was implemented in oneof the classes and the TOEIC listening class was
implemented in the other class to see which skill would
improve in one semester. The open-ended questions were
aimed to get students' individual impressions of the CLIL
class and non-CLIL class.

Methodology

2.1 Participants
52 students who were majoring in Education at auniversity in Northern Japan during the academic year
2019-2020 participated in this experiment. They weredivided into two groups in numerical order. Four out offifty-two students were excluded from the study since they
didn’t take either pre-test or post-test. As a result, 48
students participated in this study in the end. All participants

2.3 Research Design
12 out of 15 classes were implemented as CLIL
classes in this study. Three classes were used as anorientation, and pre- and post-test. As a textbook, “CLIL
Human Biology (Sasajima et al, 2018)” was used. The
textbook was designed to integrate content and language
including CLIL’s 4Cs. As an activity, knowledge checking
quizzes, listening, shadowing, discussions, reading, and77

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presentations were implemented. Students made a grouppresentation every two weeks, for a total of 4 times. Afterone lesson, students choose one topic that they are interested
in. The group was formed with the members who had thesame interest. They made a 5-10 minute presentation every
two weeks, for a total of 4 times.
In the classroom, all the lessons were taught in English,
and students were required to speak in English during groupor pair work. However, when they decided on the topic of
the presentation, they were allowed to use their native
language.
3.

they joined the classes positively to some extent. This may
be because the students’ major was education and they wereplanning to become teachers in the future, so they tended totry hard in classes and showed genuine interest.
Regarding the TOEIC listening test, there was no
significant increase in pre-test (M = 54.4, SD = 9.4)
compared to the post-test (M = 55.2, SD = 8.4), t(44) = -0.5,
p > 0.05. Similarly, as for the TOEIC reading test, there wasalso no statistical significance between pre-test (M = 35.48,
SD = 6.3) and post-test (M = 35.56, SD = 8.1), t(44) =-0.06, p > 0.05. There are some studies that concluded that
CLIL contributed to the development of students’ writing
and speaking competencies (Dulton-Puffer, 2011). The
results of this study, however, imply that it is difficult for
CLIL to improve students’ reading and listening skills in one
semester, especially for general education classes in auniversity.

Results and Discussion

A chi-square test of independence was performed to
examine the relation between the CLIL class andnon-CLIL class. As is shown in Table 1, the score of theenjoyment of the class was considerably higher in the CLIL
class than in the non-CLIL class. The score difference
between “yes” and “yes, to some extent” was statisticallysignificant (X2 (1, N = 44) = 12.116, p < .01.). Moreover, amajority of students answered that the class was challenging
in CLIL class than in non-CLIL class. The score difference
between CLIL class and non-CLIL class was also
statistically significant (X2 (1, N = 44) =6.4815, p< .01).

4.

Conclusion
In this study, I introduced an empirical study of CLIL ina university’s general English education class. The results
indicated that the students had overall positive impressions
and attitudes toward participating in CLIL class compared toother EFL classes. They also thought the class waschallenging but they were able to join the class actively withan independent-minded stance. However, as for the listening
and reading competencies, the CLIL course didn’t seem topromote either of them in a significant way. Since the study
was implemented during only one semester, the longitudinal
study of Japanese university students’ development oflistening and reading skills will be needed. Future studies
should take this into consideration.

Table 1

References
Dalton-Puffer, C. (2011). Content-and-language integrated
learning: From practice to principles?, Annual review of applied
linguistics, 31, 182-204.
Ikeda, M (2012). CLIL no genri to shidouhou [CLIL’s principle andpractice]. In Izumi, S., Ikeda, M., & Watanabe, Y (Eds.), CLIL
(Content and Language Integrated Learning) New challenge in
foreign language education at Sophia University, Volume 2:
Practice and Applications (pp. 1-15). Sophia University Press.
Ikeda, M. (2015). CLIL no kihongenri [CLIL’s basic principle]. In
Watanabe, Y., Ikeda, M., & Izumi, S (Eds.), CLIL (Content andLanguage Integrated Learning) New challenge in foreign
language education at Sophia University, Volume 1: Principles
and Methodologies (pp. 1-29). Sophia University Press.
Sasajima, S., Godfrey, C., Kojima, S., Wilson, M., & Dijon, S.
(2018). CLIL Human Biology, Sansyusya.
Yamano, Y. (2013a). Shogakko gaikokugo katsudo niokeru naiyo
gengo togogata gakushu (CLIL) no jiseen to kanosei [CLILpractice and possibility in foreign language activity in primaryschool], Eiken Bulletin, 25,94-126.
Yamano, Y. (2013b). CLIL in a Japanese primary school: exploring
the potential of CLIL in a Japanese EFL context, 2 (1), 19-30.

Furthermore, the score of the independent-mindedstance and positive and active attitude toward the classactivity was also remarkably higher in CLIL class than in the
non-CLIL class. Those score differences were statisticallysignificant respectively (X2 (1, N = 44) =5.161, p< .01) and(X2 (1, N = 44) =4.840, p< .01). As for the level of difficultyof the lesson (content and grammar), the cooperative
learning, interest in other countries, and interculturalawareness, there was no statistical significance between
CLIL class and non-CLIL class. These results indicate
students’ overall favorable impressions or attitudes toward
the CLIL class. The students enjoyed CLIL class more thanother EFL classes, and they thought CLIL class was morechallenging, but they joined the class actively with a more
independent-minded stance than other EFL classes.
It is noteworthy that in this study students felt other
EFL classes at the university were also fun, challenging, or

78

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A Contemporary Analysis of Post-Reading Comprehension Questions
and Tasks in Popular EFL/ESL Textbooks
Matthew Nall
Miyagi University
nall@myu.ac.jp
Abstract
Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy has been widely utilized for analyzing and evaluating the cognitive loadof various educational activities. Despite the model’s popularity, it has been revised by others inorder to provide more dynamic and comprehensive models. It was not until recently that the
taxonomy had been revised with EFL contexts in mind. Freeman’s (2014) taxonomy specificallytargets L2 contexts and addresses a more comprehensive range of reading comprehension question
types compared to previous models. The present study utilizes Freeman’s (2014) taxonomy toanalyze the post-reading comprehension questions in the Keynote series. Results raise educators’
awareness of the reading comprehension tasks in each textbook as well as aid in textbook selection.
Keywords: textbook evaluation, reading comprehension, second language reading, task analysis•

1.

Introduction
Bloom’s (1956) Taxonomy has been prominent ineducational research and practice. It has been used in order tocategorize, analyze, and evaluate the cognitive load of various
classroom activities and objectives. This framework has
undergone revisions and amendments in order to provide
researchers and educators with more dynamic andcomprehensive frameworks. However, it is only recently thatthe taxonomy has been adapted to EFL scenarios.
The present study utilized Freeman’s (2014)
taxonomy to investigate the post-reading comprehension
tasks in the Keynote series (Cengage Learning). Freeman’s(2014) taxonomy addresses a broader and more dynamic
range of task types than previous models. Freeman (2014)
determined that there was a need for a revised taxonomy
because there was no existing reading comprehension task
taxonomy that covered the entire range of EFL reading
comprehension tasks. While research studies that examine thecognitive load of various English as a foreign language (EFL)
materials, there are few studies that are grounded inFreeman’s (2014) taxonomy. The present study aims to fillpart of this gap in understanding.
In order to gauge the cognitive level of educational
goals, Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy consists of six levels:• Knowledge• Comprehension• Application• Analysis• Synthesis• Evaluation
These levels are grouped into the lower-level (Knowledge,
Comprehension, Application) and higher-level skills(Analysis, Synthesis, Evaluation).
In order to frame a new taxonomy that addresses thefull spectrum of EFL reading comprehension tasks, Freeman(2014) grouped language question types into three categories,
with question-type sub-categories as listed below:• Content Questionso Textually Explicito Textually Implicito Inferential Comprehension•

Language Questions
o Reorganizationo Lexical
o FormAffect Questionso Personal Responseo Evaluation

The new taxonomy raises awareness about different reading
comprehension task types as well as provides “food forthought regarding what constitutes a suitable reading text”(Freeman, 2014, p. 105). Given the strengths of the newtaxonomy and the dearth of studies that analyze EFL
textbooks according to Freeman’s (2014) taxonomy, thepresent study considers and investigates the Keynote series.
2.

Methodology
The Keynote series is popular in many EFL
programs. It is based on TedTalks and is organized into 4levels. Each level comprises of 12 units. These levels arearranged from the lowest—level 1 (CEFR A1-A2)—to thehighest—level 4 (CEFR B2). All textbook units are organized
formulaically, with reading comprehension being targeted inpart C of each unit. The reading comprehension questions
take on a variety of forms, but they give students theopportunity to focus on understanding main ideas and details,
building vocabulary, and thinking critically about what they
have read.
The data analysis in this study utilizes Freeman’s(2014) taxonomy to evaluate the post-reading comprehension
tasks in each of the Keynote levels. The analysis presented
here is based on a systematic document analysis (Bowen,2009) and simple descriptive statistics (Creswell, 2008). The
current researcher plans to present more robust statisticalanalysis of the data in a full-length research article at a later
date.
Starting with Keynote 1, the researcher read thereading passages of part C in each unit then used Freeman’s(2014) taxonomy to categorize all reading-comprehension
questions. This was carried out for all four levels. As
categorizing specific questions can sometimes be difficult,79The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

detailed notes were kept throughout the data collection
process. Once the data collection was completed, theresearcher reviewed the notes and then re-checked allcomprehension questions in order to make sure that questions
weren’t misclassified. The researcher then entered the data
into Microsoft Excel in order to conduct a simple descriptive
analysis of the data. More robust statistical analyses are
required, but will be produced in a full-length research article
at a later date.

Figure 3

Keynote 3

Content

Language

EVAL

PER

FOR

LEX

EVAL

PER

FOR

LEX

REO

Language

AffectThis makes sense as the vocabulary difficulty increases inprogression in lock-step with advances in proficiency throughthe various textbook levels. It is also interesting to note thatnone of the textbooks included questions that focused onform, and that textually explicit and implicit questions play asmaller role at the higher levels of proficiency.

EVAL

PER

FOR

LEX

REO

INF

Content

INF

EXP

IMP

100
80
60
40
20
0

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
IMP

AffectKeynote 4

Keynote 1

EXP

Language

Figure 4

Figure 1

Content

REO

INF

Results and Discussion
Results of the descriptive analysis can be seen in
Figures 1 to 4 below. Data in each chart are organized inaccordance with Freeman’s (2014) taxonomy. There are three
categories of language question types (content, language,affect). Each post-reading question was assigned to a subcategory (EXP=textually explicit, IMP=textually implicit,
INF=inferential
comprehension,
REO=reorganization,
LEX=lexical,
FOR=form,
PER=personal
response,
EVAL=evaluation).

EXP

3.

IMP

80
60
40
20
0

AffectResults show that there is some consistency across the fourlevels concerning the various question types. However, it isnecessary to conduct statistical analyses of these in order to
identify any statistically significant differences among the
textbooks. For now, lexical questions seem to be a consistentfocus throughout the series.

4.

Conclusion
In conclusion, Freeman’s (2014) taxonomy can beseen as a new tool for researchers and educators that can beutilized to analyze and evaluate EFL reading materials andpost-reading comprehension questions. Future studies shouldtake a comparative stance, and analyze different textbooks
produced by different publishers in order to help educators
choose the most appropriate textbook for their specificteaching scenarios.

Figure 2

Keynote 2
80
60
40
20
0

Content

Language

Freeman, D. (2014). Reading comprehension questions: The
distribution of different types in global EFL textbooks. In N.
Harwood (Ed.). English language textbooks: Content, consumption,
production. (pp. 73-110). Palgrave Macmillan.

EVAL

PER

FOR

LEX

REO

INF

IMP

EXP

References
Bloom, B. S. (Ed.) (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives,
Handbook 1: Cognitive domain. Longman.

Affect80

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Student Online Peer Review in a Japanese EFL Setting: Writing
Activities that Incorporate Interprofessional Education into Language
Learning
Junko Kosaki**Kawasaki University of Medical Welfare
j-kosaki@mw.kawasaki-m.ac.jp
Abstract
This study investigated the possibility of incorporating Interprofessional Education (IPE) into language
learning in a Japanese English Foreign Language (EFL) setting. The study focused on
pre-intermediate-level university students majoring in health and medical welfare, and it aimed topromote student autonomy in learning English for Medical Purposes (EMP) and enhance their interests
in different medical or health professions. The study was carried out in conjunction with an English
course offered to first-year university students. A total of 234 students from five different classes
participated in the study, and each class consisted of students from several medical departments, such as
nursing, clinical psychology, physical therapy, and radiology. The students were required to write aself-introduction, including among other things their academic major and future profession. While
preparing their draft, they were encouraged to share it with other students from the same department for
further consultation and development online by using the comment function in Word. They shared their
final drafts with students from other departments and posted their feedback to each other on Microsoft
Teams. After the activities, the participants completed a questionnaire. The results of the questionnaire
showed that about 75% of the students regarded the activity as either a good opportunity to interact withstudents from other departments, or as a good opportunity to learn about other medical or healthcare
professionals. In addition, about 65% of the students answered that they learned more about thedifferences among the medical professions. Some other comments suggested that this activity helped
them to express their opinions without getting too nervous because it was conducted online. Thesefindings may suggest that this type of online collaborative learning experience might increase students’interests in different medical professionals and may possibly contribute to Interprofessional Work (IPW)in the future.
Keywords: Interprofessional Education (IPE), English for Medical Purposes (EMP), student autonomy,
collaborative learning
Introduction
To meet the diversified needs in health care and social
welfare, the importance of interprofessional work (IPW) in
the medical and social welfare field has been increasingly
emphasized, which has led to the growing need toincorporate Interprofessional Education (IPE) as an essential
part of professional education (Saitama Prefectural
University, 2009). Some universities have been trying todevelop a four-year systematic IPE program in which
students from different disciplines begin learning basic
communication skills and have group discussions onparticular clinical cases (Kiuchi et al., 2014). In such trend,
this study is intended to provide an introductory education
for IPE through interactive activities in English class.
Regarding the interactive activities, speech activities
were originally planned. However, due to the impact of the
COVID-19 pandemic, the activities were reorganized as
online peer-review activities. Concerning the benefits ofpeer review, Tsui and Ng (2000) argued that it could
encourage collaborative learning and enhance a sense ofaudience awareness. Warschauer (2002) suggested thatonline communication could offer a non-threatening
environment for less-proficient learners, which would
promote more equal participation from students.
As per the overview, this study aimed to promotestudent autonomy in learning English for Medical Purposes(EMP) and enhance their interests in different medical or
health professions through online peer-review activities.

2. Methods
2.1 Participants
The study was conducted in conjunction with an
English course offered to first-year university students at the
Kawasaki University of Medical Welfare, Japan. A total of
245 students from five different classes of the compulsory
subject “Basic English I.” participated. Each class consistedof students from several medical departments such as
nursing, clinical psychology, physical therapy, and radiology.
However, due to the constraints of curriculum organization,
not all departments or faculties were put together in one
class. In addition, students were assigned to designatedclasses based on the results of the placement test, which was
performed at the beginning of the spring semester. Judging
from the results, their English proficiency was estimated to
be at a pre-intermediate level, which is equivalent to third to
pre-second grade on the EIKEN practical English
proficiency scale, and A1.2 to A2 on the CEFR scale.

1.

2.2 Procedures
The activity was provided as part of regular classactivities in the spring semester between mid-July and earlyAugust 2020, and 3 out of 15 lessons were spent on “Basic
English I.” Regarding the other lessons, the students learned
basic medical terminology and expressions from the course
textbook.
All three lessons in this study were provided via video
on demand. In the first lesson, the students were required to81

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

write a short self-introduction essay, which contains thefollowing two elements: (1) a self-introduction including
their hobby, family, and hometown, and (2) their academic
major and future profession. A draft sample in a PDF
document was provided for the students as scaffolding
during the draft activity.
By the second lesson, all the students’ drafts were
submitted and stored in the instructor’s network drive, andthen shared among the students through the web links thatthe instructor created. Between the second and the third
lessons, the students were encouraged to give somecomments or feedback to other students from the samedepartment using the comment function in Word. The
students completed this task asynchronously.
In the 3rd lesson, each student’s final essay was shared
online within the groups of about seven, including thestudents from different departments. After the writing
activity, the participants completed an online questionnaire
consisting of 12 questions to provide feedback. It was ananonymous questionnaire and included an open-ended
comment section at the bottom. The aim was to investigate
the students’ perceptions of IPE, and their attitudes toward
language learning.

is only based on the students’ self-assessment; however, it
could show the possibility of the students’ enhanced interest
in IPE and EMP.
Figure 2
Possible Learning Outcomes from the Writing Activities

In the open-ended section of the questionnaire, somestudents expressed their disappointment at not being able toshare their feedback with one another in person. On theother hand, other students commented that they were able toexpress their opinions without much hesitation via online
because they relatively felt less nervous than in face-to-faceinteractions. Moreover, a few students indicated that they
could easily go over the advice and comments from otherstudents again, as the advice and comments remained online.

Results & Discussion
Of the 245 participants, 234 valid responses wereobtained. Due to space limitations, only part of thequestionnaire results is shown below. Regarding the students’
overall impressions of the writing activities, about 75%
either regarded the activities as “good opportunity to interact
with students from other departments” or “good opportunity
to learn about other medical or healthcare professionals,”
although about one out of four found the activities either“nervous” or “painful” as shown in Figure 1.
3.

Conclusion
The aforementioned findings may suggest that thistype of online collaborative learning experience may
increase students’ interests in different medical professionals
and increase their interests in learning English related totheir own discipline. In addition, the online learning
environment could help some students to reduce theirpressure in interacting with other students and encouragethem to learn more from each other.
4.

Figure 1
Students’ Overall Impression on the Writing Activities

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI, Grant Number
20K00853.
References
Kiuchi, Y., Kurata N, Takagi, Y., Takamiya, Y., Mayahara, M.,
Kataoka, R., Geshi, E., Suzuki, H., Tanaka, K. & Kurata, N.
(2014). Systematic and stepwise interprofessional education in
Showa University. The Journal of the Japanese Society for
Medical Education, 45(3), 163-171.
Saitama Prefectural University (Ed.). (2009). IPW wo manabu[Learn interprofessional work]. Tokyo: Chuohoki Publishing.
Tui, A.B.M., & Ng, M. (2000). Do secondary L2 writers benefit
from peer comments? Journal of Second Language Writing,9(2), 147-170.
Warschauer, M. (2002). Networking into academic discourse.
Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 1(1). 45-58.

Next, regarding the students’ possible learning
outcomes from the speech activity, 154 students (66%)
answered “differences between other professions and myown,” “English expressions to explain my future profession”(150; 64%), “significance of learning with students fromdifferent departments” (97; 42%), and “significance ofworking with others” (56; 24%), as shown in Figure 2. This

82

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Lecturing in English: A Comparative Study of Lectures in Science andEngineering at American and Japanese Universities
Kazuko Tojo* and Nilson Kunioshi***Osaka University of Economics and Law
k-tojo@keiho-u.ac.jp**Waseda University
nilson@waseda.jp
Abstract
The internationalization of higher education in Japan is being accelerated with a national policy aiming to attract
international students. Universities playing a crucial role in this endeavor are facing many challenges, including theuse of English as a medium of instruction (EMI). Our study focused on science and engineering lectures because
approximately two-thirds of the currently offered English-only diploma programs are in these fields. We built OnCAL(Online Corpus of Academic Lectures: http://www.oncal.sci.waseda.ac.jp/), a corpus of English and Japanese
university lectures of science and engineering, to help disciplinary instructors grasp the linguistic features of university
lectures to better reach a generation of students with diverse language backgrounds. From our corpora, we foundevidence of the teacher-centered features of the Japanese lectures which contrasted with the student-centered approachof the American lectures, suggesting that language and culture may influence the manner in which science is taught.
Delivering a lecture in English is not a matter of simply transferring it from one language to another, but requires anawareness of deeply embedded socio-cultural factors. This led us to further examine the lectures as a scientificknowledge-building process by using tools from Legitimation Code Theory (LCT). The LCT concept of semantic
waves can reveal how the abstractness of concepts (semantic gravity) and the density of meanings (semantic density)
can influence knowledge-building. Our analyses suggested that abstract concepts were presented by giving contexts
with specific terms or symbols in the American lectures, while abstract concepts were unpacked by rewording themwith common words in the Japanese lectures. To examine the validity of the analysis, the vocabulary profiles of thelectures were also analyzed.
Keywords: EMI, Legitimation Code Theory (LCT), lecturing styles, science education
Introduction
Using English as a medium of instruction (EMI) has
become more common practice at Japanese universities
especially in science and engineering fields. Lecturing in
English is becoming mandatory where increasing numbers ofinternational students with diverse language backgrounds areenrolled in science courses. EMI is also viewed as a national
policy to raise the global academic competency of Japanese
students. This poses difficulties for disciplinary instructors
whose first language is not English. To offer some help, webuilt OnCAL (Online Corpus of Academic Lectures:
http://www.oncal.sci.waseda.ac.jp/), a corpus of English andJapanese university lectures of science and engineering tohelp the instructors grasp the linguistic features of university
lectures. The Corpus comprises 430 English lectures and 116
Japanese lectures and is tagged with 11 pedagogical functions
including scientific chronology, cause and effect, conditions,analogy and thought experiment. With OnCAL, an instructor
can find expressions to initiate thought experiments, forexample, “… so, let’s suppose that…” “Suppose we wanted
to…” or “So let’s imagine that we ….”
The OnCAL Corpus also enabled us to find various
differences between the English and Japanese lectures. Our
previous analyses revealed that the English lectures werecharacterized with frequent uses of personal pronouns
inclusive-we and you, which played a significant role ingenerating audience-oriented lectures with questions being
frequently asked during the lecture. On the other hand, theJapanese lectures had few audience-initiated questions andwere less interactive (Kunioshi et al., 2019). These findings
reveal the student-centered approach of the American lectures
which contrasted with the teacher-centered features of the1.

Japanese lectures, suggesting that language and culture may
influence how scientific knowledge is taught.
To further examine the socio-cultural influences onscience and engineering lectures, we decided to examine at
the lectures as a knowledge-building process. In this study,
we analyzed the lectures using tools from Legitimation Code
Theory (LCT).
Theoretical framework and the method
Legitimation Code Theory (LCT) (Maton, 2011; 2014)is an explanatory framework to reveal how knowledge is built,
which is applicable to analysis of academic discourse andscience education (Blackie, 2014). LCT conceptualizes
different dimensions of the knowledge-building process andproposes two codes of semantic gravity (SG) and semantic
density (SD), which are defined in terms of continuums of
relative strength or weakness. Semantic gravity shows thedegree of abstractness of concepts, or the extent of contextdependence of meaning. Semantic density, on the other hand,indicates the degree to which meaning is condensed withinterms. The combination of these two factors allows the
allocation of discourse into the quadrants shown in Figure 1.
During the course of knowledge-building, the discourse isbeing expressed within the four quadrants, and the transitions
among them form “semantic waves” (Maton, 2011).
In the present study, we first selected one Japanese
lecture on atoms and one English lecture on a comparable
topic from the Corpus. Based on the transcripts of the lectures
over a time line, we sorted each sentence into one of the four
quadrants of SG-/SD+, SG+/SD+, SG-/SD-, and SG+/SD-.
There were 359 sentences in the English lecture transcription
and 344 sentences in the Japanese one.
2.

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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Figure 2 LCT analysis of the English lecture
Fig. 1 The relationship between semantic gravity and semantic
density (Maton, 2011)

In order to test the validity of the sorting, we thenexamined vocabulary profiles for the English lecture using
VocabProfiler (https://www.lextutor.ca/vp/comp/). For theexamination, NGSL (New General Service List) and NAWL
(New Academic Word List) were employed. NGSL is a listof 2801 most frequently used words and NAWL is a list of
868 academic words. Updated in 2013, there is no overlap ofwords between NGSL and NAWL. The profile of the English
lecture is shown in Table 1.

Figure 3 LCT analysis of the Japanese lecture

to common words in an effort to make abstract concepts more
understandable. However, the degree of abstraction remained
the same. With these results, vertical waves from SG-/SD+ to
SG+/SD+ were frequent in the English lecture and horizontal
waves from SG-/SD+ to SG-/SD- were frequent in theJapanese lecture.

Table 1: Vocabulary profile for each quadrant (%)
NGSL1

NGSL2

NGSL3

SG-/SD+(Upper-right)

81.0

4.3

2.8

Cumul. NAWL Off List
88.1

6.5

5.4

SG+/SD+(Lower-right)

77.8

5.6

3.1

86.5

7.5

6.0

SG-/SD-(Upper-left)

80.0

7.1

2.0

89.1

7.2

3.7

SG+/SD-(Lower-left)

84.7

4.1

3.7

92.5

3.9

3.7

Conclusion
The present study attempted to analyze the science andengineering lectures in English and Japanese by using LCT toreveal socio-cultural influences in science education. LCT
proved to be a versatile and justifiable tool for our purposeand enabled us to see how knowledge-building processes
differed between English and Japanese lectures.
4.

VocabProfiler: https://www.lextutor.ca/vp/comp/
BNC-COCA Core-4, NAWL OR+

According to the VocabProfiler, our classification of
the SG-/SD+ dimension was characterized with Off List
words, where most of the topic-specific technical terms fall.
The SG+/SD+ dimension was characterized with NAWL and
Off List words showing domination of technical terms. In
sharp contrast, nearly 90 % of the terms used in the SG-/SDand SG+/SD- dimensions were occupied with NGSL 1,
NGSL 2 and NGSL 3 words with SG-/SD- showing thesimilarity with SG+/SD+ in terms of the NAWL ratio. The
overall results were relevant with each quadrant’s descriptionin Figure 1 and suggested the validity of our sorting.

Acknowledgements
This research is supported by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research
Number 19H01741. The authors are thankful to Judy Noguchi, a
co-researcher, for her contribution to the present study.
References
Blackie, M.A.L. (2014). Creating semantic waves: using
Legitimation Code Theory as a tool to aid the teaching ofchemistry. Chemistry Education Research and Practice 15,462-469.
Kunioshi, N., Noguchi, J. & Tojo, K. (2019). Evidence of culturaldifferences between American and Japanese mainstream
science and engineering contexts from analysis of classroom
discourse. European Journal of Engineering Education 44 (4),535-544.
Maton, K. (2011). Theories and things: the semantics of
disciplinarity In F. Christie and K. Maton (Eds.), Disciplinarity,
functional linguistic and sociological perspectives (pp. 62-84)
London: Continuum.
Maton, K. (2013). Making semantic waves: A key to cumulativeknowledge-building, Linguistics and Education 24, 8-22.

Results and discussion
The results shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3 indicate
salient differences between the English lecture and theJapanese lecture. In the English lecture, a notable portion of
the utterances were in the SG+/SD+ dimension, whichsuggested that abstract concepts were being presented bygiving contexts using diagrams, formulations, and/or
simulations. The terms used remained technical and specific.
On the other hand, in the Japanese lecture, the dimension of
SG-/SD- was relatively frequently used, suggesting the terms
for the explanations shifted from technical and specific terms
3.

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Are Real-time Presentations More Effective Than AsynchronousVideo-recorded Presentations for Oral Output Training: An Action
Research to Explore Flipped Learning and Teaching
Ivy, Chuhui Lin
Sapporo Gakuin University
ivy1212@sgu.ac.jp
Abstract
This study examines the effect of flipped learning (FL) instructions and activities provided through alearner management system (LMS). By adopting action research model, the researcher compared thepedagogical procedures and outcomes of two groups of English learners’ (N=50) online oralpresentation performance. The participants first watched video instructions on English oral presentationand completed the comprehension quizzes online. They were then asked to deliver two presentations inEnglish: a face-to-face (F2F) synchronous presentation in front of the teacher and other learners on
Zoom, and an asynchronous video-recorded presentation where the learners uploaded their video andreceived peer feedback through an online forum. The results of the comprehension quizzes on the FL
instruction were compared to the oral performances to examine the direct correlation between the FL
instructions and the learners’ oral performances. The participants were also asked to complete aquestionnaire to reflect and compare their experiences in preparing and delivering these two types ofpresentations. The results shows that the participants spent more time practice the speech for the
asynchronous video-recorded presentations. Some reasons for learners who prefer this type ofpresentation delivery include that learners can replay the video when they did not understand, and somelearners preferred it because they viewed receiving negative feedback directly from the teacher as a
stressful experience. For learners who preferred F2F synchronous presentation, they favored in-person
interaction and valued receiving feedback directly from the teacher.
Keywords: flipped learning, face-to-face synchronous, asynchronous video-recorded, oralpresentation
1.

Introduction
Since the outbreak of the pandemic, language classes
have been forced to shift to online. This means that theeducators need to adjust their pedagogies to accommodate
this new educational setting. This move is particularly
challenging when designing activities involving oralpresentations. In a traditional in-class presentation, theinteractions between the learners, teachers, and the content
of the materials are taken for granted. However, in an online
setting, these elements of interactions had to be integrated
into the assigned tasks to ensure the cultivation ofcommunicative skills (Russell and Murphy-Judy, 2019).
Hence, the instructional design of the online tasks need to becarefully setup to ensure the interactions and learning
outcome. The aim of current study is to understand thefactors that determine the learning outcomes of different
types of online tasks through examining the learners’
perspectives and the pedagogical designs for FL. I willaddress the following questions in the presentation. (1) Is
there a direct correlation between the FL instruction and theresults of the oral presentation? (2) What are the learners’
perspectives on the F2F synchronous and video-recorded
asynchronous presentation?
2. Literature Review
For flipped learning (FL), learners are expected to study
the materials outside of the classroom and engage ininteractive tasks and communicative practices in class. It has
proven to be an effective pedagogical method that enhances
oral performances (Lin & Hwang, 2018), promotes
higher-thinking orders (Alsowat, 2016), and increases

students’ engagement in tasks (Abe, Elwood, Hood, 2019) inlanguage classroom. Nevertheless, it is criticized that thelearning outcome of the studies above was the results ofsecond language acquisition pedagogical theory, the directcontribution of flipped classroom approach to students’achievements remains unclear due to the lack of empiricalevidence and concrete lesson design specifically in the EFL
classroom (Webb and Doman, 2016). This leads to the needto investigate the pedagogical implication of FC and how it
has impacted the learning outcome.
3. Procedure
3.1 Participants
The participants were two non-major English language
classes with goal to improve oral communication. The
learners were highly motivated students who were assigned
as top level in the English program.
3.2 Data Collection and Analysis
Both classes were given a five-week flipped instruction
on English presentation skills with videos and quizzes on an
LMS. The learners were asked to deliver two presentations,
one F2F synchronous presentation, and one asynchronousvideo-recorded oral presentation which was uploaded on aforum on the LMS. The presentations were evaluated with aset of rubrics on language use, communication skills, content
and organization. The results of the quizzes and theevaluation of the presentations were compared using statistic
software, SPSS. The participants were asked to complete aquestionnaire regarding their experience in preparing anddelivering the two different types of presentations.

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Figure 2. The number of time learners practice their speech before
the presentation.

4.

Results and Discussion
To answer research question 1, the Pearson Correlation
coefficient value (r=0.053) indicated no correlation between
the learners’ oral performance and the quizzes on thepresentation skills. This might be due to the timing between
the assigned quizzes and the presentation schedules. The
assigned quizzes were given much earlier in the course,
while one of the presentations took place at the end of thecourse, and weekly presentation that took place from week
five to the end the course. Moreover, some learners had
missed the weekly assignments which may also affect the
average scores of the quizzes.
To answer research question 2, the survey results
showed 50% of the participants preferred videorecorded
asynchronous presentations. These who favored this type ofpresentations commented on the benefit of asynchronouspresentations allowed them to rewind and watch the video
multiple times to gain a better understanding of the content.
One participant also pointed out that the indirect feedback
through forum ease the stress for presentation. 30% of theparticipants preferred the F2F delivery. Some reasons forthis include the desire of direct feedback from the teacher
and the difficulties and confusion they faced when they
underwent the video recording and uploading procedures. As
seen in Figure 1, participants spent significantly more hours
to prepare for video-recorded presentation.

How many times did you practice your speech?
201000 time 1-2 times 3-4 times 5-7 times 7-9 times 10 times
or morevideo recording

face-to-face real time5.

Conclusion
The lack of correlation between the instruction andlearning outcome suggests that the FL instruction need to bereevaluated and improved. The implication of thequestionnaire demonstrated the preferred learning styles ofthe participants seems to be asynchronous types of oralpresentation. However, from a pedagogical aspect, we needto ensure that the social, interactions, and cognitive aspectsof the educational experience are all inclusive in designing
this type of FL task.
References
Abe, Y., Elwood, J.A., Hood, M. (2019). Self-regulated learning,e-learning, and the flipped classroom: A comparative study,
Language Education & Technology, 56, 133-156
Alsowat, H. (2016). An EFL flipped classroom teaching model:
effects on English language higher-order thinking skills, student
engagement and satisfaction. Journal of Education, 7(9), 20–40.

Figure 1. The time spent on preparing for the presentations
Hours Spent on Presentation Preparation

ISSN 2222-288X

Lin, C.-J., Hwang, G.-J. (2018). A Learning Analytics Approach toInvestigating Factors Affecting EFL Students’ Oral
Performance in a Flipped Classroom. Educational Technology& Society, 21 (2), 205–219.
Russell, V., Murphy-Judy, K. (2021). Teaching Language Online.
Routledge.
Webb, M., Doman, E. (2016). Does the flipped classroom lead toincreased gains on learning outcomes in ESL/EFL contexts? The
CATESOL Journal, 28(1), 39-67
Appendix: Questionnaires on Comparing Face-to-Face
Real-time and Asynchronous Video-recorded Presentation
Part 1. Select the items to show your experience in preparing andgiving face-to-face synchronous and video recorded asynchronouspresentations
1. How long did you spend preparing for your presentations?
2. How many times did you practice your speech?
3. Which aspect of the English skills/presentation skills did you
pay attention to when you were giving the presentation?
Part 2 Choose the number to agree or disagree with the statements.
1 – strongly disagree; 5 – strongly agree
1. I prefer to give my presentation in real-time.
2. I prefer to video record my presentation.
3. The video presentation is more difficult than the face-to-facepresentation, because of the ICT involved.
4. The face-to-face presentation motivated me to perform better
because I need to speak in front of my teacher and classmates.
5. I enjoyed listening to my friends’ presentations in real-timerather than watching their videos.
6. I prefer to receive feedback from my teachers in real-time.
7. I learned what to improve through reading my friends' peer
review.

5 hours and more
3-4 hours
1-2 hours
under 1 hour
0
5
10
15
video recording
face-to-face real-time

20

The questionnaire also asked learners to self-report the
number of times they rehearsed the speech and effort invested
in the two different types of presentation. Overall, theparticipants demonstrated more effort made in making
video-recorded presentation. Figure 2 demonstrated that morethan half of the participants practiced their speech five andmore times for their video-recorded presentation. In
comparison, most of them only practice four or less times forthe synchronous presentations. Moreover, the survey asked
the participants to identify the aspects of English andpresentation skills that they emphasized in delivering thepresentations, the responses showed that the participants paid
more attention to their pronunciation and grammar when they
were delivering the video-recorded presentation. On thereceiving end of the presentation, 50% of the responses showsno preference in watching synchronous or asynchronouspresentations.

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Combining In-class and Out-of-class Practices in a Hybrid Class:
A Descriptive Study of the Presentation Support System
for Developing English Presentation Skills
Ai Sugimura,* Saori Takeoka** and Eric Des Marais****Okayama Prefectural University
a_sugimura@c.oka-pu.ac.jp**College of Nagoya Women’s University
saori@nagoya-wu.ac.jp***Okayama Prefectural University
ericd@fhw.oka-pu.ac.jp
Abstract
To thrive in this quickly globalizing digital era, the importance of expressing oneself in English is
becoming more and more necessary. Well-polished presentation skills are more important than ever before.
To meet this need, we designed and built the Presentation Support System and adapted it to graduate
learning in 2019. The purpose of this study is to describe the learning system, hypothesize how we think
it enhances the presentation skills of graduate students, and to highlight areas for future research.
Keywords: presentation, web support system, evaluation, peer learning
2.2 Online Evaluation
Online Evaluation is done concurrently while the classwatches the presentation. It is designed to be done quickly:
evaluators have only two choices per item. The guideline forthe assessment is based on Stevens & Levi’s rubric evaluation
method (2013).

1.

Introduction
Expressing oneself in English is an indispensable reality
in a globalized digital era. To address this, we designed andbuilt the Presentation Support System, then adapted it tograduate learning in 2019. This study will explain the learning
system and report on some tentative results obtained from2020 class.

Figure 1

2.

Description of the Presentation Support System
The system was first conceived in 2017. It is composedof two subsystems: In-class Learning and Outside of Class
Learning. These two subsystems are designed to create an
integrated learning system that supports hybrid learning bothin and out of the classroom. This presentation focuses on the
In-class Learning mode.
2.1 Outline of In-class Learning mode
The In-class Learning mode is mainly used in class.
There are three activities: Presentation (Practice),
Presentation (Final), and Q & A.
Presentation (Practice) is used to rehearse thepresentation. It helps the presenter to get used to thetechnology and to self-reflect on their own performance.
Once the student is ready, they then move on to Presentation(Final Version).
In Presentation (Final Version), students give a
presentation as if it were at an actual conference or seminar.
They give a talk along with a PowerPoint presentation. Their
presentation is recorded so that the speaker can review theirperformance later along with feedback.
In the Q & A activity, the class and instructors interact
with the presenter, offering feedback or asking questions, as
would happen in a professional seminar or academic
conference.
Feedback is an important component of the In-class
Learning mode, and it is integrated throughout thepresentation system. The Presentation (Final Version),
utilizes three types of evaluations: 1) Online Evaluation; 2)
Post-Presentation Evaluation; and 3) Comment.

Audience members click on the corresponding evaluation
item in the Evaluation Item Table while the presentation
occurs. The blue buttons (○) mean the performance issatisfactory, while the red buttons (×) indicate that
improvement is needed.
Figure 2 shows what the results of an Online Evaluation
might look like. As the video is played, the results ofevaluation are shown simultaneously. This allows thepresenter to see the feedback in relation to the timing of thepresentation, thereby helping them to pinpoint issues theymight need to work on.

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five the most positive. The evaluation items were Clarity(Item 1), Understandability (Item 2), Posture (Item 3), Slides(Item 4), and the Whole Impression (Item 5).

Figure 2

Table 1
Item 1

Item 2Item 3Item 4Item 5

peer

4.22

4.21

3.93

4.24

4.21

teacher

3.59

3.69

3.44

3.81

3.66

speaker

3.41

3.25

3.06

3.25

3.13

The peer mean score as well as the instructor score washigher than the speaker self-rating. The peer mean score wasalso higher than the instructor’s across all items. The
speaker’s self-rating was the lowest across all items.

2.3 Post-Presentation Evaluation
The Post-Presentation Evaluation is done after thepresentation. It allows the instructor and other students toprovide a more thorough evaluation of the entire presentation.
The Post-Presentation is a rubric with an adjustableevaluation range (default set to 5). Evaluators can thus
provide more nuanced feedback than the Online Evaluation.

3.3 Discussion
Speakers evaluate their own presentation much harsher
compared to peers and the instructor. This might be because
the speaker understood his defects in his presentation better
than the others. Teacher’s evaluation was between these two.
It is also possible that peers rated the presenter positively toshow support and encouragement.
The causes of the difference should be investigated in
the future research and should also be addressed in classdiscussions to help students gain a deeper understanding ofwhat is important for giving presentations.

2.4 Comment
Rubric-based evaluations are quick and are useful for
aggregating feedback into a quantitative format. However,presenters lose the opportunity for individualized feedback,and it can easily become a thoughtless activity for the students
who are doing the evaluation. So, in addition to the abovementioned evaluations there is an open comment evaluation
mode as well. By writing their own comments, evaluators
individualize both positive feedback and areas for
improvement.

3.4 Limitations
While some formative data was presented in this study,
it is important to be cautious with any conclusions. Becauseof the small sample size (resulting from COVID-19 and it
being a new system), it is not possible to statistically conclude
that there is a difference between the scores. Future researchneeds to increase the sample size in order to make meaningfulcomparisons between groups.

3.

Results from Experiment
In this section, results from the Presentation Support
System are reported.

3.1 Outline of Experiment
The system was used in a graduate course at a Japanese
university in the second semester of 2020. There were seveninformation technology graduate Japanese students withvarying degrees of skill in English communication.
At first, students were provided with six scripts of
prepared presentations. Students then created their own slides
based on these scripts. Later classes focused on preparing andpresenting their own research work as graduate students.

4.

Conclusion
We introduced the Presentation Support System andsome of the results from the first real-world use of the system.
Because of COVID-19, the chance to use the system in faceto-face lesson in 2020 was limited, and it affected the lessonstyle, too. Future research will involve investigation of thecausal relationships between the various kinds of evaluation,
the in-class and out-of-class variables, and the learning
outcomes of the students.

3.2 Results from Experiment
These are the results from the post-presentation
evaluation showing the average of the post-presentation
evaluations throughout the term. Presentations were
evaluated by the other students (n=6), by the instructor, andby the presenter.
Table 1 shows the mean scores by peers, the instructor,
and the presenter. The scores are derived from a 5-point
Likert-type scale with one being the most negative score andReferences
Barker, C., & Sparrow, C. (2016). Technology and presentation skills
teaching: activity theory as a tool for the design and evaluationof strategies for the use of video as a learning tool in presentation
skills teaching. European Journal of Law and Technology, 7(3),1-25.
Stevens, Dannelle D. & Levi, Antonia J. (2013). Introduction to
Rubrics: An Assessment Tool to Save Grading Time, Convey
Effective Feedback, and Promote Student Learning. Stylus
Publishing.

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Is earlier better for English education?
Shigeko Shimazu
Komazawa University
sshikoma@yahoo.co.jp
Abstract
Early English education is the biggest education reform in history of the world. In Japan, English study
in elementary school and university entrance examination are two biggest educational reforms in recent
years. Concomitantly, the governments in nonnative English countries have taken initiative to adapt
English education in elementary school. The ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, science andTechnology (hereafter MEXT) invited native English-speaking teachers (hereafter NETs) and adapted
English education in elementary school. However, governments and researchers consider that theinvestment in English does not bring good returns. In addition, it is often said that many elementary school
teachers lack speaking and writing skills, knowledge of pronunciation, as well as vocabulary andpedagogical knowledge. Squarely, elementary school teachers work hard to teach English on top of
regular subjects without adequate training nor pay increase. This study draws attentions to the following
educational issues: Firstly, there is no consensus if early English education is better to develop English
skills：Secondly, there is no clear goal to study English stated except digital globalization and economic
globalization: Thirdly, 63 percent of non-native English teachers (hereafter NNETs) who lack listening
skills consider that the arrival of NETs is a threat: Fourthly, more than half of high school students do not
enjoy English study which is often attributed to low English proficiency of English teachers in elementary
school. This study is attempted to discuss early English education in elementary school and the values itcooperates. This study approaches to defining advantages and disadvantages of early English education,
which is followed by illustrating an example from its recent practice. The discussion ends with a future
direction that teacher education programs would be a priority to improve English education which is a
globally common concern. This would be surely a benefit for young learners.
Keywords: early English education, teacher training, goal of English education
Introduction
Since 1980, non-native English-speaking countries haveundertaken curriculum reform to introduce English education
at ever younger age. The question of early English study is
one of the biggest curriculum reforms worldwide which
attract attention from the general public.

environment such as input outside school. The goal of thisstudy is to investigate perceptions of how starting age affects
English skills in EFL contexts. If we understand process ofchildren’ L2 learning, the governments’ efforts would be paid
off. This study does not aim to validate nor reject the theoryof early English education. But this research focus on a sociocultural perspective and discuss pedagogical aspects
including the advantages and disadvantages of early English
education. Since Meiji era, MEXST pay little attention toleaners’ needs but responds to pressures from business sectors.

1.

Discussion
Today, the world pullulation is 7.5 billion, and only about
5 % of the world population are English native speakers thatis 360 million people. However, 50 % of world population use
English as a lingua franca, air and sea speak. Younger learn
could have fewer barrier to study English. For these reasons,the government of nonnative English-speaking countries havetaken initiative to start English education in primary school(Mourao & Lourenco, 2015; Copland, Garton & Burns, 2014).
In Asia, Thailand began English education in primary school
in 1996, Korea, 1997, and China in 2001 consecutively（ Higuchi, Izumi, & Kinugasa, 2013; Kavli, 2015:81;
Yamamoto, 2020）. In Japan, a new curriculum came into
effect to teach English in elementary and junior high school
as a compulsory subject in 2002. The issue of starting age ofEnglish study is perennial in educational and politicalperspective as well in that of the general public. 73% of young
parents supports to foster English skills in pre-primary school
without any goal in mind (Ootsu,2006;92). However, there
are disagreements in views about when language is bestacquired. As to critical period of Foreign language study,
there is no theoretical consensus (Mourao & Lourenco, 2015).
In other words, critical ages vary from linguistic aspects suchas aural & oral skills, pronunciation, syntax (e.g., prefix) andsemantic knowledge. It is also affected by learners’
2.

3. Conclusion
The author posits that the MEXT should consider learners’
goal rather than worrying about starting age. Finally, the study
suggests that teachers’ education is a priority in English
education because teachers are critical to succeed education.。
謝辞
I acknowledge the support by the anonymous referees with gratitude.
参考文献
（著書）
石井・熊井（2020）『成長するアジアにおける教育と文化交流』、溪
水社
大津由紀雄(２００６). 『日本の英語教育に必要なこと、小学校英語と英語教育政策, 』慶応義塾大学出版会
樋口忠彦・加賀田哲也・泉恵美子・衣笠智子（2013). 『小学校校英語教育法入門』研究社.
Bolton, K. & Kachru, B. B. (2006). World Englishes: Critical
Concepts in Linguistics, Routledge, Taylor & Francis group.
Mourao, S. & Lourenco, M. (2015). Early years second language
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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

education, international perspective on theory and practice,
Routledge.
(論文）
Copland, F., Garton, S., & Burns, A. (2014). Challenges in teaching
English to young leaners: global perspectives and local
realities, TESOL QUARTERLY 48 (4) December, TESOLinternational Association. (pp. 739-762).
（ブックチャプター）カヴァリ（2015).「ヨーロッパにおける言語教育政策と早期言語教育」in 西山教行・大木充（2015）『世界と日本の小学校
における英語教育、早期外国語教育は必要か』,（pp.34-35)明石書店.
山本 里（2020). 第４章「東アジア」で言語教育の果し得る、まだ果たしていない貢献」、in 石井由理・熊井将太（2020）,『成長するアジアにおける教育と文化交流』,(pp.52-66).
溪水社.

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Comparing the Orthographic and Phonological Vocabulary Knowledge ofJapanese EFL University Students
Craig Jones
Aichi Prefectural University
jones@for.aichi-pu.ac.jp
Abstract
The goal of this study was to compare the orthographic and listening vocabulary size of 136 university students incentral Japan. Reading and Listening are both receptive skills; this study investigated whether the receptive
knowledge of the participants was well balanced. All 136 participants were non-English majors. The study used the
X-Lex Vocabulary Test (Meara & Milton, 2003) to elicit the orthographic data: X-Lex is a yes/no test focusing on themost frequent 5000 words in English. A listening version featuring the same items was developed by the researcher
for the purpose of this study. A paired samples t-test revealed the average listening vocabulary size to be 483 words
lower than the orthographic size. This suggest that the vocabulary knowledge of the participants is imbalanced. The
X-Lex (Meara & Milton, 2003) also includes 20 pseudo-words to counter guesswork. When answering the listening
version of the test 325 pseudo-words were falsely selected correct. During the reading version only 107 pseudo-words
were marked correct. This further highlights the imbalance. The presentation will discuss possible reasons for thisimbalance, and outline some ideas on how to improve the situation moving forward.
Keywords: vocabulary, X-lex, Pseudo-words
1. Introduction
Vocabulary is arguably the most important aspect oflearning a foreign language, ‘Without grammar very little
can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can beconveyed’ (Wilkins, 1972, p. 111). That being said, acompetent learner must have access to thousands of words.
Understanding the vocabulary size of a class is extremely
beneficial for educators when it comes to developing
appropriate material. Distributing inappropriate material toa learner or class can have a negative washback effect.
Vocabulary that is too difficult can be demoralising,whereas vocabulary that is too easy can demotivate
students. Unlike some aspects of language learning,
vocabulary is something that students can quantify. It iseasy for students to chart their progress through a course of
study by checking how many new words have been
introduced and retained. This can be very satisfying forlanguage learners, which greatly contributes to motivation.
Vocabulary size is also connected to other aspects oflanguage proficiency including examination scores and
CEFR (Milton, 2009, p. 191). A number of studies havefound that vocabulary size correlates with reading ability(Hu & Nation, 1992; Aizawa & Iso, 2013; Laufer, 1992).
Studies have also found correlations between vocabulary
size and TOEIC scores (Kanzaki, 2010; Mizumoto &Shimamoto, 2008; Taguchi, 2005). It is clear that there is an
important link between vocabulary size and language
proficiency. However, it is also important to note that alearner’s vocabulary knowledge may be strong in one area
but weak in another. Learners need balanced vocabularyknowledge in order to successfully communicate.
Nation (2001) classifies word knowledge in three
categories: form, meaning and use. The Japanese education
system puts more emphasis on reading that listening orcommunication. Producing an all encompassing vocabulary
test that records all relevant knowledge is difficult. Nation(2007) states that multiple tests would need to be conductedto provide an accurate measure of a learner’s vocabularyknowledge. This presentation will discuss a study
comparing the orthographic and listening vocabularyknowledge of students at a university in central Japan.
2. Research instrument
The vocabulary test used in this study was the X-Lex(Meara & Milton, 2003). The X-lex was selected because it
has proven to be a reliable test of the most frequent 5000
words in English. The test is both teacher and student
friendly as it is easy to create, distribute and complete. It isa yes/no checklist test, which allows a researcher or teacher
to test a large number of words in a short time. The
orthographic version of the test used in this study was takenfrom Milton (2009). The listening version created for thisstudy used exactly the same words. The words wererecorded by a British English speaker, and played to theparticipants. Both versions of the test presented theparticipants with 120 words. The participants read or
listened to the items and were simply asked whether theyknew the meaning of the words or not. They were instructedto check yes if they knew the meaning, and no if they did
not. For the listening version of the test each word was
repeated twice.
The X-Lex test randomly selects 20 words from each of
the first five 1000 word frequency bands, taking the item
count to 100. Then 20 pseudo-words are included: thewords are designed to look and sound like English words.
Some example pseudo words are frequid, horobin andcantileen (Milton, 2009, p. 254). Given the nature of a yes/no test pseudo words are included to counter guess work.
Participants are awarded 50 points for every word checked
yes, which gives a raw score out of 5000. They are deducted
250 points for every pseudo-word checked yes. The initialplan was for the participants to sit paper versions of the test.
However, due to the Covid-19 pandemic all classes at theuniversity were conducted online. Therefore, an online
version of both tests was developed so that participants
could safely submit from home.

91The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

class. Although, in recent times this is changing due to thewidespread availability of smartphones and internet access.
The responses given to the pseudo-words was also
informative. The number of pseudo-words falsely answered
correct was different in both versions of the test. Thisfurther demonstrates an imbalance to the vocabularyknowledge. During the listening version of the test theparticipants answered yes to a total of 325 pseudo-words.
However, a significantly lower number of 107 pseudowords were answered yes in the orthographic version. Thissuggests that it was easier for the participants to recognise
pseudo-words when they were visually presented. They
were far less confident when listening to the words, further
demonstrating that the reading competence of theparticipants is higher than their listening skill. The
presentation will also discuss some of the pseudo-words thatproved difficult for the participants. Surprisingly, bothversions of the test provided different challenges when it
came to pseudo-word recognition. The presentation will end
by discussing some possible reasons for the vocabulary
imbalance, and suggest some methods to improve thesituation moving forward.

3. Participants
A total of 136 students from a public university in central
Japan took part in the study. The participants were all firstand second grade non-English majors. The participants took
the listening version of the X-Lex test in January, 2021. Two
weeks later the same participants took the orthographic
version of the test. The results were then analysed andcompared using a paired samples t-test.
4. Results and discussion
The descriptive statistics of both the listening and reading
version of the X-Lex test are presented in Table 1. The firstand second grade results are displayed separately. This wasdone because the participants are at different stages of theirEnglish study. The first grade participants’ average
vocabulary size on the orthographic test was 3936; theiraverage listening size was 3411. This result shows that the
average listening size is 525 words lower. The second grade
participants’ average vocabulary size on the orthographic
test was 3918, their average listening size was 3477. Thisshows that the average listening size was 441 words lower.
The data clearly demonstrates that the receptive vocabularyknowledge of the participants is imbalanced.The listening
ability of both groups is significantly lower than theirreading ability.

References
Aizawa, K. & Iso, T. (2008). Identifying the minimum
Vocabulary size for academic reading. Annual Review ofEnglish Language Education in Japan 19, pp. 121-130.
Hu, M. & Nation, I. S. P. (2000). Unknown vocabulary density
and reading comprehension. Reading in a Foreign Language
13 (1), pp. 403-430.
Kanzaki, M. (2015). Comparing TOEIC and vocabulary testscores. In G. Brookes & M. Stoke (eds), JALT Conference
Proceedings. Tokyo: JALT 64.
Laufer, B. (1992). How much lexis is necessary for reading
Comprehension. In P.J.L. Arnaud & H. Bejoint (eds),
Vocabulary and Applied Linguistics, pp. 126-132. London,
England: Macmillan.
Meara, P. & Milton, J. (2003). X-Lex, The Swansea Levels Test.
Newbury: Express.
Milton, J. (2009). Measuring Second Language Vocabulary
Acquisition. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Mizumoto, A. & Shimamoto, T. (2008). A comparison of aural
and written vocabulary size of Japanese EFL university
learners. Language Education & Technology 45, pp. 35-52.
Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning Vocabulary in Another
Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Taguchi, K. 2015. An exploratory study of correlations among
vocabulary size, vocabulary learning strategy, TOEIC scoresand self-efficacy. Economic Review of Toyo University 41(1), pp. 55-67.
Wilkins, D. A. (1972). Linguistics in Language Teaching.
London: Arnold.

Table 1: Descriptive statistics for the grade one reading andlistening vocabulary size
Test Group

n

Mean

SD

Reading(grade one)

68

3936.03

427.2

Listening(grade one)

68

3411.03

588.5

Reading(grade two)

68

3918.38

468.7

Listening(grade two)

68

3477.21452.2

It is clear that identifying words in written form waseasier for the participants. This is perhaps no surprise as theJapanese school system places far more emphasis on
reading than listening. Reading is also easier and moreconvenient for self study. It is far more convenient for
students to study from books when they are outside of the92The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Making Online Videos More Engaging for Students
Neil Cowie* and Keiko Sakui***Okayama University
ncowie2012@gmail.com**Kobe Shoin Women’s University
ksakui@shoin.ac.jp
Abstract
Educational videos are an indispensable part of language courses, but with the recent advancement of digitaltechnology language teachers are increasingly becoming not only consumers but also creators of such videos.
In this presentation, two teacher-researchers examine and discuss educational videos from an instructional
design perspective, especially focusing on how to make these videos more engaging to students. Firstly,
various principles of instructional design that help make videos more engaging are shown, such as slide
design, duration of videos, and a presenter’s personalized presence. In order to verify the principles and tips
gleaned from an instructional design perspective, research results from a study of student perceptions ofvideos will be discussed. The authors shared clips from popular YouTube language teachers with university
student participants in order to find out what features of the videos were most appealing. Data was gatheredfrom an online survey with 69 English language learners from several countries including Japan, China andHungary, and follow-up interviews with seven of these students were carried out. Results show a number ofprinciples to follow in making videos engaging, especially concerning voice speed, clarity and friendliness. In
addition to these features, teachers need to show an authenticity and passion about their subject. Although thedata and analysis are focused on online videos the findings and discussion are of relevance to other forms of
online instruction and multimedia use in the classroom.
Keywords: videos, online learning, student engagement, EFL
1.

Introduction
Educational videos are an indispensable part oflanguage courses, but with the recent advancement of digitaltechnology language teachers are increasingly becoming not
only consumers but also creators of such videos (Cowie &Sakui, 2021). It is important for teachers to make videos inways that will help their students to easily process
information and engage their interest. There is much researchon how to do this, including Mayer’s (2009, 2017) wellknown principles of multi-media production such as‘coherence’ (remove extraneous information) and ‘temporalcontiguity’ (present information through different channels of
information, such as audio and visual, at the same time). A
second well-known set of principles for online learning is the‘Community of Inquiry’ framework (Garrison, Anderson &Archer, 1999; Garrison, 2011). This is based on threeoverlapping aspects of ‘presence’ (social, cognitive andteaching). What this means in terms of creating videos is thatteachers need to embed in their videos various means to create
different kinds of presence and hence increase engagementwith learners. Guo, Jim and Rubin’s (2014) researchconcluded that such engagement could be increased bypresenters talking in a personalized and enthusiastic manner.

in which university language learning students were surveyed
and interviewed about various features of YouTube videos
that are used for language learning. The study was carried out
to answer the following research question:
How do students respond to informal educational videos andwhat features of such videos do students find engaging?
2.

The study
Six language learning video clips from popular
YouTube teachers were selected to compare different teachingstyles. In order to minimize variation in the clips all six wereabout English pronunciation and the presenters’ L1 wasEnglish. There were three men and three women. All were
popular in terms of the number of views; for example, one
clip had over six million views at the time of the survey.
Language students at two universities in Japan were recruitedfor the study in a form of convenience sampling (Jager,
Putnick & Bornstein, 2017). There were 69 replies to theonline survey and seven follow-up interviews. Most
participants were from Japan (N=60) but nine were from othercountries including Hungary and South Korea. There were 35
females and 34 males, most of whom were in the 19-21-year
undergraduate age bracket, and they were from intermediate
to advanced level (TOEIC levels 600 to 900).

The above research has tended to be drawn from formal
institutional teaching situations. However, as a result ofresearching technology use in language teaching (Cowie &Sakui, 2019) we have become aware of the power andinfluence of more informal learning platforms, such as
YouTube, which attract and engage millions of learners(Lebedev & Sharma, 2019). In the past, YouTube has been
considered as a means of entertainment and not of “learning”.
However, the increasing number of people that are acquiring
various skills and knowledge through YouTube means that
there may be something that we can learn from the presenterteachers of such videos. This presentation focuses on a study

Each participant watched the first two minutes of all of the six
video clips and then completed an online survey. The authors
were trying to elicit from the participants a kind of instinctive
reaction to the videos as to which were more engaging andwhich were they most likely to keep watching. There werenine questions on a five-point Likert scale. The questions
were based on previous findings in the literature about video
engagement. They included questions, for example, about thepresenter’s voice speed and clarity; teaching style; emotional
tone; and the relevance or otherwise of the background behind
93The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

the presenter. In order to find out about learner motivation,
the participants were also asked whether they would like tocontinue studying pronunciation through these YouTube
videos.

In summary, we have seen, especially because of the move toemergency remote teaching in 2020 (Crawford, ButlerHenderson, Rudolph & Glowatz, 2020), an increasing
number of videos being made by teachers for all kinds ofonline learning purposes. In order to increase the potential ofthese videos for learning it is important to make these videos
as engaging as possible. Past research on multimedia learning
focused on a number of technical principles that can be used
to achieve such engagement. This presentation describes anumber of other methods that teachers can use to increase
engagement. The most important, but probably most difficult,is for teachers to go beyond the technical aspects of video
creation and to embed their videos with a sense of genuine
authenticity and passion.

At the end of the online survey was an invitation to a followup interview. In the seven follow-up interviews, participants
were asked to elaborate on the answers that they had given to
the survey as well as answer further questions about online
learning in general.
3.

Results
The survey results revealed a clear ranking in the
popularity of video presenters. The two most importantreasons for videos being classed as popular were that they
were clear and the presenter spoke at an appropriate speed.
Other important factors were that the presenters were notboring, straight to the point, humorous and attractive. The
main reasons why videos were not popular were basically the
opposite for why videos were liked. The two most common
reasons were that the presenter was too slow and boring.

References
Cowie, N., & Sakui, K. (2019). Enhancing student retention rates
on open non-formal online language learning courses. Pacific
Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning, 1(1), 15-24.
https://doi.org/10.24135/pjtel.v1i1.17
Cowie, N., & Sakui, K. (2021). Teacher and student-created videos
in English language teaching. ELT Journal, 75 (1), 97-102.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccaa054
Crawford, J., Butler-Henderson, K., Rudolph, J., & Glowatz, M.
(2020). COVID-19: Twenty countries’ higher education intraperiod digital pedagogy responses. Journal of Applied Teachingand Learning, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.37074/jalt.2020.3.1.7
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (1999). Critical inquiry
in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher
education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2-3), 87-105.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s1096-7516(00)00016-6
Garrison, D. R. (2011). E-learning in the 21st century: A
framework for research and practice. (2nd ed.). New York, NY:
Routledge. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203166093
Guo, P. J., Kim, J., & Rubin, R. (2014). How video production
affects student engagement: An empirical study of MOOC
videos. In Proceedings of the first ACM conference on
Learning at Scale Conference (pp. 41-50).
https://doi.org/10.1145/2556325.2566239
Jager, J., Putnick, D. L., & Bornstein, M. H. (2017). More than justconvenient: The scientific merits of homogeneous conveniencesamples. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child
Development, 82(2), 13-30.
https://doi.org/10.1111/mono.12296
Lebedev, P., & Sharma, M. D. (2019). Riddles on YouTube:
Investigating the potential to engage viewers in reflective
thinking. Research in Learning Technology, 27.
https://doi.org/10.25304/rlt.v27.2280
Mayer, R. E. (2009). Multimedia learning (2nd ed.). New York,
NY: Cambridge University Press.
Mayer, R. E. (2017). Using multimedia for e-learning. Journal ofComputer Assisted Learning, 33, 403-423.
https//doi.org/10.1111/jcal/12197

Conversely, what was intriguing was that many of the student
participants still expressed that they wanted to continue
watching even the less popular presenters. In order to find out
why we rely on answers given in the follow-up interviews.
These interview results revealed that the most importantfactor in the desire to continue watching was that the YouTube
teacher showed an authenticity and a passion in the way thatthey delivered their lessons. The student participants seemed
to respond favorably to the engaging emotional tone of theYouTubers.
4.

Implications
This study demonstrates that there are quite a range ofdifferences as to what kinds of videos will most engage
language learners; and that there is no clear ‘template’ that we
can advocate to video creators for how they should make their
videos. But we would like to propose two specificrecommendations to teachers to increase the chances of their
videos being seen as engaging. Firstly, try to speak at an
appropriate speed for your audience, and be as clear andfriendly as possible. Secondly, try to be as genuine as you canand communicate a level of passion by talking to the camera
in a way that shows you care, that you are not talking in amonotone, and that you can show sincere enthusiasm about
your subject.
5.

Conclusion
There are a number of limitations to this small-scale
research. The most important point is that there need to be
more participants to make our findings more robust andbelievable. In the future, one possible idea is to contrast
videos made by a wider variety of presenters and to include
other teaching settings such as in university lectures. It would
also be extremely useful to include other subjects rather thanjust be confined to language learning.

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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

How Do Intercollegiate Zoom Conferences Impact Student Learning?
Keiji Fujimura* and Yuko Ikuta***Kobe Gakuin University
kfujimura@ge.kobegakuin.ac.jp**Bunkyo University
ikuta@bunkyo.ac.jp
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to provide a preliminary report on intercollegiate student conferencing
activities conducted by Zoom and the results of a post-conference survey. Studies have shown thatstudents involved in active learning gain more knowledge and communication skills than those in teachercentered classes or traditional lecture settings, and one effective method of promoting this is for students
to learn from interacting with their peers. However, the recent global pandemic has made it impossible
for teachers to offer in-person active learning because students have not been able to physically meet.
Video conferencing through Zoom has enormous potential to impact second-language acquisition; it
provides a valuable method for instructional evaluation, offers students the opportunity to interact in small
groups, and expands their autonomous learning beyond traditional classroom instruction. Such advantage
enables teachers to create a peer-learning environment that differs from class-based settings and allows
students from various backgrounds to learn together, including those who live in remote areas. The
objectives of the conferences were to (1) provide students with the chance to formally interact with theirpeers in an intercollegiate setting despite the physical distance; (2) allow them to actively lead sessions
in English; and (3) help them evaluate their own speaking skills using a variety of online tools. While
remote learning via Zoom opens a range of learning opportunities, the impact of this new educational
form must be closely investigated. To begin this analysis, the students’ conferencing activities weremonitored, and participants subsequently completed an online questionnaire to evaluate their learning. In
this presentation, the conferencing procedure will be detailed, and the results of the post-conference
survey will be discussed.
Keywords: Autonomous learning, Intercollegiate conference, Zoom, Project-based learning, Discussion(KGU). The group’s English CEFR proficiency ranged from
A2 to B2, and only one student had lived abroad. The
participants’ experience of using English for formal
communication was limited.

1.

Introduction
The average Japanese university student struggles withlimited English communication skills and lacks experience of
speaking it with others. In addition, many are unaware of theimportance English will have on their future lives and careers.
English needs to be more recognized as de facto common
global language as Jenkins (2009) argued that English should
be a lingua franca. To make progress, educators must develop
reliable and sustainable learners’ communities in which a“willingness to communicate” (MacIntyre et al., 1998) can be
encouraged. We therefore implemented a project-basedlearning activity by video conference to build an autonomous
leaner’s community during autumn 2020.

Table 12020 Bunkyo-Kobe Gakuin Intercollegiate Student Conference
Date

Duration(minutes)Content

10/6

90

Introductions
Table Topic (impromptu speech) Session

10/7-12/14

2.

Teaching Context
The 2020 Bunkyo and Kobe Gakuin University Student
Conference was purposely launched soon after the Japan
University English Model United Nations which was rather
suited to those with advanced English skills. It was felt thatstudents who were not quite as proficient needed further
opportunities to spontaneously communicate in English
without feeling overwhelmed or inferior. Participants wereinvited to lead the conferencing in English as moderators,presenters, and discussants on a range of agenda points.
The project lasted for nearly three months during theautumn semester of 2020 and included one ice-breaking
session (10/6), a period of research (10/7-12/4), and two
online discussion events (12/15 and 12/22). The group
comprised 17 first-year and eight third-year students from theFaculty of International Studies at Bunkyo University (BU)
and eight sophomores from the Faculty of Law and theFaculty of Global Communication at Kobe Gakuin University

Research on current international issues

12/15

120

Conference hosted by KGU students

12/22

120

Conference hosted by BU students

A total of three video conferences were held with thefirst session being an introductory ice-breaking session. On
October 6, all BU and KGU students gathered online tointroduce themselves and participate in an impromptu speechsession which was hosted by four faculty members, one ofwhom is a native English speaker. After that initial conference,the students conducted research into current international
issues with the KGU students working in support of theirdelegates to the Okayama Model United Nations. The thirdyear BU students developed research based on their academic
interests in preparation for their graduation theses while thefirst years were tasked with writing a speech concerning theirassigned countries’ respective pandemic situations. All
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activities shared the common objective of enhancing English
communication skills through global literacy with a focus on
the issues of international peace and mutual understanding,and each student prepared an essay based on their researchwhich was later uploaded using Google Docs.
The second conferencing session was hosted by the
KGU students on December 15. The BU students read the
KGU essays and sent any questions in advance. On theconference day, the students were divided into several groups
in different breakout rooms where a KGU student became thehost and presented their research using PowerPoint. After thepresentation, the host and participants in each room discussed
the issues presented. The third session was hosted by the BU
students on December 22 following the same format aspreviously; the KGU students commented on the BU essays
in advance and each piece was presented to and discussed inbreakout groups. For the second and third conferencing
sessions, technical assistance was provided by faculty who
also observed the activities and conducted a post-conference
survey using Google Forms.

session. For the reason, approximately one third of thestudents (29.6%) said that what they learned in the second
session improved their speaking in the subsequent conference.
We also asked whether the students felt any change or
progress regarding their use of the English language acrossthe three sessions, and around 85% reported feeling somechange. The major reasons cited were that their attitude
towards speaking English became more proactive (22.2%);
they were able to speak more smoothly (14.8%); they wereable to improvise what they wanted to say (12.5%); they wereable to speak without worrying about mistakes (12.5%); andthey had learned useful expressions from other participants(11.1%).
From these results, this intercollegiate Zoom
conference can be seen to have made a positive impact on thestudents’ learning. Further research is needed to confirm if
this is a trend that can be observed in other cohorts.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Professor Chizu Arashima at Kobe Gakuin
University for her active participation throughout this project and forher advice that greatly improved the conferencing program and thismanuscript.

3.

Results
We analyzed the results of the questionnaire (n=27),
and many students reported that they performed well in thediscussions on December 15 and 22 (70.4%). The rate was thehighest of all activities conducted in the conferences. The
reasons for choosing the answer were that students
understood others and responded to them; students spoke
English well as they prepared beforehand; and students spoke
English while thinking deeply. Another well-performed
activity was leading the discussion (44.4%) with many
students reporting that they had prepared or practiced
beforehand.
On the contrary, students did not perform well in
reading the essays (37.0%), the impromptu speech (33.3%),
the self-introductions (29.6%), leading discussion (25.9%),
and participating in discussion according to topic (22.2%).
Only one student mentioned a reason for performing poorly
in reading the essays which was that there were many longsentences. Five students (18.5%) mentioned that they did not
perform well in the Table Topic Session because the speechneeded to be improvised.
The students were also asked specifically about
speaking performance during each conferencing session. For
the ice-breaking session, 51.8% of participants rated theirspeaking as fine, good, or very good while 48.1% said they
could not speak at all or very well. The reasons given for good
performance were that other participants spoke andunderstood English well; simple language conveyed what
they wanted to say; and they were excited and had fun. The
reasons given for being unable to speak well were
nervousness, an inability to express themselves very well, alack of confidence, and that they could not use English
phrases or words very well.
For the second and the third conferencing sessions, anumber of differences in the students’ responses wereobserved with the majority of participants reporting that they
were able to speak better in the third than in the second

References
Fujimura, K. (forthcoming). A Qualitative Needs Analysis ofUniversity Students Participating in a MUN simulation. In D.
Tatsuki, & L. Zenuk-Nishide (Eds.). Model United Nations
simulations and English lingua franca: New perspectives on
best practices. Cambridge Scholars.
Ikuta, Y., Takahashi, R., & Kitamura, Y. (forthcoming). Promotingintercultural sensitivity and awareness of English as a lingua
franca through the practice of Model United Nations. In D.
Tatsuki, & L. Zenuk-Nishide (Eds.). Model United Nations
simulations and English lingua franca: New perspectives on bestpractices. Cambridge Scholars.
Jenkins, J. (2009). English as a lingua franca: Interpretations andattitudes, World Englishes, 28(2), 200-207.
Lopez-Jimenez, M. D., et. al. (Eds) (2021). Intercultural competence
past, present and future: Respecting the past, problems in thepresent and forging the future. Springer.
MacIntyre, P.D., Clement, R., Dornyei, Z., & Noels, K. (1998).
Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a L2: A
situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation. Modern
Language Journal, 82(4), 545-562.

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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Adapting the Teaching of Leadership Communication forSpecific Purposes Online
Kevin Knight
Kanda University of International Studies
knight@kanda.kuis.ac.jp

Abstract
Knight (2013) defines leadership as communicating to create and to achieve visions. Leadership waslater conceptualized as making real a vision in collaboration with others (Knight, 2015; Knight, &Candlin, 2015). These conceptualizations of leadership facilitate the teaching of the English language as
a communication tool for creating and achieving specific goals (i.e., ESP). At Kanda University ofInternational Studies (KUIS) in Chiba, Japan, these leadership conceptualizations were used in four
different courses for undergraduates: 1) a business case study course, 2) a business communication
course, 3) a leadership communication course, and 4) a leadership seminar. In connection with thebusiness case study course, Knight (2019) explores how business case discussions were conducted with
his undergraduate students in Japan in classes held on campus in university classrooms. The COVID-19
pandemic led to the necessity to have business case discussions online using synchronous andasynchronous approaches, and Knight (2021) investigates how his teaching of business case discussionschanged using a checklist of items from Harvard Business School (HBS). In the second course (thebusiness communication course), the leadership conceptualizations were applied to an analysis ofKickstarter crowdfunding campaigns; i.e., the analysis investigated how the vision was created for the
project being promoted. This analysis could be facilitated by having students see the videos online andinteract in the breakout rooms on Zoom. In the third course (a leadership communication course), thestudents applied the leadership conceptualizations as a tool to analyze online the TED Talks of leadersand leadership experts. In the fourth course (a leadership seminar), the conceptualizations were used for
project leadership, and the students worked in teams to create and achieve their visions for their projects
online. The presenter explains how these leadership conceptualizations were adapted and used in hisclasses to teach leadership and leadership communication online.
Keywords: leadership, communication, ESP, online, KUIS

2.

Business cases
Ellet (2007) describes three common situations in
Harvard Business School (HBS) case studies: 1) problem, 2)
decision, and 3) evaluation. A business case is a collection ofdifferent types and sources of quantitative and qualitative
data. MBA students often place themselves in the role of theprotagonist in the case as they ask themselves: “What isgoing on here? Am I being asked to identify the causes andeffects of a problem, make a decision, or evaluate a situation(e.g., past performance, etc.)?” The business cases that I use
with my students at KUIS are not HBS cases, but they may
be framed as problems, decisions, or evaluations. In addition,
I have chosen to create original versions of business cases by
providing students with links to articles, videos, andwebsites available online. For example, my students may be
asked to evaluate the success of different types of social
business models including: 1. the Grameen Bank andDanone collaboration in Bangladesh, and 2. Nokero Solarand intellectual property rights. My teaching approach may
include using the materials that I have found online together
with the relevant cases in textbooks such as Daniels,
Radebaugh, and Sullivan (2019), which I have required in
my classes. In addition, I ask my students to take on the roleof the leader and collaborate with others in small teams tocreate and propose their visions for a business that addresses
a social issue. These proposals are made in competitive
presentations delivered onsite and/or online.

1.

Introduction
Bennis and Nanus discuss the relevance of “vision” toleadership (Carnegie, Levine, & Crom, 1995, p. 20):
“A leader…must first have developed a mental
image of a possible and desirable future state of
the organization. This image, which we call avision, may be as vague as a dream or as precise
as a goal or a mission statement.”
The critical point…“is that a vision articulates aview of a realistic, credible, attractive future forthe organization, a condition that is better in some
important ways than what now exists.”
Knight (2013) conceptualizes leadership as “acommunication process consisting of two parts: 1.
communicating to create a vision, and 2. communicating toachieve a vision.” Two years later, Knight would
conceptualize leadership as “making real a vision incollaboration with others” (Knight, 2015; Knight andCandlin, 2015, p. 36). These conceptualizations ofleadership would become the basis for Knight’s teaching offour different courses at Kanda University of International
Studies in Chiba, Japan: 1) a business case study course, 2) abusiness communication course, 3) a leadershipcommunication course, and 4) a leadership seminar.

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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

addition, the students learn to tell leadership stories about
themselves, and for this reason, the seminar has been
described as being good for job interviews. At the same time,
it provides a strong foundation for students who want towrite a graduation thesis.

3.

Business communication
In my business communication courses, my focus is
on teaching my undergraduate students how to create andpropose their visions. Two of the projects in my classes are a
crowdfunding project and a business plan proposal. In thefirst project, the students are required to analyze thecampaigns on Kickstarter, which is a popular crowdfundingsite (https://www.kickstarter.com/). The students then workin small teams to create their own Kickstarter campaigns. A
Kickstarter campaign consists of a webpage and a video, andmy students make videos, but instead of a webpage, they
make PowerPoint presentations that include the content of a
webpage; specifically, that amount of money needed tolaunch the project, the details of the project including theteam and milestones, and the rewards that backers canreceive for their pledges. In addition to the crowdfunding
campaign, the students each create their own business plan
proposals that they deliver individually in a longer versionof the 60 second, 7-step elevator pitch on the Bplans website(https://www.bplans.com/). One of the challenges thatstudents face in these activities is the requirement togenerate project ideas and business plans that they
themselves can actually achieve, because they need topersuade others that their project plans and business plans
will be successful.

6.

Conclusions
The four classes that I have been teaching online wereoriginally taught onsite. In all of my classes, my students
have been required to collaborate in small teams and to
make presentations. One key to success during the
COVID-19 pandemic has been to empower my students to
conduct these activities online by means of videocommunication (e.g., Zoom) and threaded discussions (e.g.,
Google Classroom, Blackboard). In addition, I have needed
to be creative in making the activities meaningful and fun
for all involved (Richards, 2013).
References
Carnegie, D., Levine, S. R., & Crom, M. A. (1995). The leader inyou: How to win friends, influence people and succeed in achanging world. New York, NY: Pocket Books.
Daniels, J.D., Radebaugh, L.H., & Sullivan, D.P. (2019).
International business: Environments and operations (16th ed.).
Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education.
Ellet, W. (2007). The case study handbook: How to read, discuss,and write persuasively about cases. Boston, MA: Harvard
Business School Press.
Fairhurst, G. (2011). The power of framing: Creating the languageof leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Knight, K. (2013b, December 3). Looking at communication
throughaleadership
lens.
TESOL
Blog.
http://blog.tesol.org/looking-at-communication-through-a-leadership-lens/
Knight, K. (2015). Analysing the discourses of leadership as abasis for developing leadership communication skills in asecond or foreign language. (Identifier: mq:42732) [Doctoral
dissertation,
Macquarie
University].
http://hdl.handle.net/1959.14/1055529
Knight, K. (2019). Conducting business case discussions with
undergraduates in Japan. The Journal of Kanda University ofInternational Studies, 31, 313-333.
Knight, K. (2021). Conducting business case discussions online.
The Journal of Kanda University of International Studies, 33,
1-24.
Knight, K., & Candlin, C.N. (2015). Leadership discourse as basis
and means for developing L2 students into future leaders. In P.
Shrestha (Ed.), Current developments in English for academic
and specific purposes: Local innovations and global
perspectives (pp. 27-50). Reading, UK: Garnet Education.
Meyer, E. (2017). How cultures across the world approachleadership: Based on an HBR article by Erin Meyer. [Video
based on Meyer, E. (2017, July-August). Being the boss inBrussels, Belgium, and Beijing. Harvard Business Review.]
https://hbr.org/2017/07/being-the-boss-in-brussels-boston-and-b
eijingRichards, Jack C. (2013, June 5). Creativity in language teaching.
[Plenary address given at the Summer Institute for English
Teacher of Creativity and Discovery in Teaching University
Writing, City University of Hong Kong,]
Talmy, S. (2011). The interview as collaborative achievement:Interaction, identity, and ideology in a speech event. Applied
Linguistics, 32(1), 25-42.

4.

Leadership communication
In my leadership communication courses, my students
learn to see how and why people talk about leadership in
specific ways. In addition, they learn the language ofleadership itself, and Fairhurst (2011) is an importantresource for understanding framing as the language ofleadership. TED Talks are often used in the course to expose
the students to different conceptualizations of leadership.
The students learn to view critically ideas about leadershipas they address issues of power; i.e., how certain
conceptualizations of leadership empower or restrain
different groups in society. They also learn about how
culture influences how we view and practice leadership,especially in regard to deference and decision making(Meyer, 2017). The conceptualizations of leadership in
Knight (2013), Knight (2015), and Knight and Candlin(2015) are used to show how the many conceptualizations ofleadership in the course may be seen in terms of creating andachieving visions.
5.

Leadership seminar
In the leadership seminars, the students learn about
leadership through research and practice. They learn tointerview leaders and collect data-sets, which include thebeliefs of leaders (about leadership) and narrative accountsof leadership performances. In addition, the students work inteams to create and achieve their visions for their socially
responsible projects onsite and online. The students learn tosee leadership in the terms of Knight (2013), Knight (2015),
and Knight and Candlin (2015), but they also experience
firsthand how conceptualizations of leadership may becreated in the research interview itself (Talmy, 2011). In

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Blended Learning Environment in College English at a Public
University in China
Li Xiaohong* and Ng Soo Boon, PhD***Hebei University of Science and Technology, China
lixiaohong0523@163.com**SEGi University, Malaysia
ngsooboon@segi.edu.my
Abstract
With ubiquitous information and communication technology (ICT), the context of higher education ischanging dramatically worldwide. Society 5.0 aims for a super smart human-centered society to satisfy
diverse individual needs, including high-quality education. The biggest problem facing higher education
today is how “digital immigrant” instructors keep up with the changing times and teach a population of“digital natives” who increasingly demand for smart technologies and flexible learning experiences. The
COVID-19 pandemic has advanced online learning to a whole new level, also arousing serious concernson the quality of online learning environment. Blended learning combines the best of traditional face-toface (F2F) instruction with online access to knowledge, becoming a promising alternative for deep andmeaningful learning experience. In the EFL context, significant number of studies focus on theeffectiveness and key elements in blended learning environment (BLE). However, how to best integrate
F2F and online components is the new imperative. Blended learning was implemented in College English
at Hebei University of Science and Technology (HEBUST), China, using asynchronous (Unipus) andsynchronous (DingTalk) platforms. This mix-method study aims to investigate learners’ perceptions of
BLE in College English at HEBUST, respective roles of F2F and Online components, and theirsuggestions for improvement. Preliminary findings indicated that although participants had positive
perceptions of BLE, F2F and online components were perceived to have different roles to play in theirEnglish language learning.
Keywords: Blended learning environment; College English teaching and learning
Introduction
The context of higher education is changing dramaticallyworldwide (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008). With the ongoingdigital transformation, the concept of Society 5.0, aims for ahuman-centered society where technologies are utilized tosatisfy diverse individual needs, including high-quality
education (Fukuyama, 2018). The biggest problem facing
higher education today is how “digital immigrant” instructors
keep up with the changing times and teach a population of“digital natives” who increasingly demand for smart
technologies and flexible learning experiences (Prensky,2001). The COVID-19 pandemic has advanced online
learning to a whole new level, arousing serious concerns on
the quality of online learning environment. Blended learningis the convergence of traditional face-to-face (F2F) leaning
environment and online learning environment (Graham,
2006; Bonk & Graham, 2012). It has become a promisingalternative from traditional learning, leading to deep andmeaningful learning experience. In the EFL context,
significant number of studies explored the effectiveness andkey elements in the design of blended learning environment(BLE). However, how to best integrate F2F and online
components for quality EFL teaching and learning is the newimperative (Huang, 2016), which accords with the concept ofSociety 5.0.

platforms. This mix-method study aims to investigate learners’
perceptions of BLE in College English, explore respectiveroles of F2F and Online components in BLE, and probe into
learners’ suggestions for improvement.
A total of 439 second-year non-English major
undergraduates participated in the study. They came fromdifferent disciplines, among whom 20 participants were
purposively selected for in-depth semi-structured interviews.
The instrument employed in this study was developed
from “e-learning experience questionnaire” (Ginns & Ellis,2007). It consisted of 25 five-point Likert scale items under 6dimensions, including Quality of F2F Teaching, Quality of
Online Teaching, Online Interaction, Online Resources,
Online Workload and Online Learning Platforms.

1.

3.

Results and Findings
Quantitative data analysis was performed using SPSS
software package (version 22), and results and findings were
presented in this section.
3.1 Leaners’ Perceptions of BLE
According to Table 1, the mean score for leaners’ overall
perception (M=4.04, SD=.562) indicated positive learnerperceptions of BLE in College English. The mean score forperceptions of Quality of F2F Teaching was up to 4.45,
SD=.562, signifying a strong learner satisfaction with thequality of F2F teaching in BLE. The mean scores for learners’
perceptions of Online Learning Platforms, Online Interaction,
Quality of Online Teaching, and Online Resource varied
slightly from 4.04 to 4.10 in a positive manner. Interestingly,
the mean score for Online Workload (M=3.27, SD=.851) was
relatively lower compared to other five dimensions.

Methodology
The study was conducted at Hebei University of Scienceand Technology (HEBUST), a multi-discipline public
university in Hebei, China. Blended learning was
implemented in College English at HEBUST, using
asynchronous (Unipus) and synchronous (DingTalk)
2.

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Table 1

engage the students’ (12.6%), ‘more interaction with thelecturer or students’ (11.3%). Other suggestions such as ‘lessonline workload’, ‘more listening and speaking practice’,‘improve internet quality’, etc., can be referred to Table 3.

Leaners’ Perception of Blended Learning Environment (n=439)
Dimensions
Quality of F2F Teaching
Online Learning Platforms
Online Interaction
Quality of Online Teaching
Online Resources
Online Workload
Overall

N of Items Mean Std. Deviation
4
4.45
.562
3
4.10
.643
5
4.09
.636
5
4.07
.662
5
4.04
.674
3
3.27
.851
25
4.04
.482

Table 3
Learners’ Suggestions for Improvement of BLE
Learners’ Suggestions
Better integration of F2F and
Online components
More interesting content
More interaction
Less online workload
More listening & speaking
More F2F hours
Improve internet quality
Less online requirements
Improve F2F learning environment
Smaller class size

3.2 Learners’ Preference of the Learning Mode
The questionnaire surveyed students’ preference of thelearning mode among F2F learning, online learning andblended learning. What stood out in the results was that up to
85 percent of the respondents preferred the combination of
F2F with online learning. By contrast, just a small number ofthe respondents (10.3%) selected only F2F learning mode andonly 2.5 percent of the respondents favored only online
learning mode. Interestingly, results from semi-structureinterviews with 20 students showed that 15 participantspreferred F2F learning as they felt more focused in F2F
situations than online learning. 4 students favored online
learning and 1 stated there was no differences between thetwo parts.

4.

Table 2

Improve listening
Improve speaking
Improve reading
Improve writing
Improve vocabulary
Improve interest
World knowledge
Learning methods

74

32.0

29
26
22
16
12
8
7
6
5

12.6
11.3
9.5
6.9
5.2
3.5
3.0
2.6
2.2

Discussion and Conclusion

References

Respective Roles of F2F and Online Components (n=439)
F2F Learning
Percent (%)
81.7
80.4
51.1
42.9
55.9
63.9
60.0
71.7

Percent (%)

Based on both quantitative and qualitative results,
several conclusions can be drawn. 1) Despite the fact thatmost students preferred blended learning mode, they felt more
focused in F2F situations and valued interaction with both thelecturer and their peers. 2) The students generally had positive
perceptions about BLE in College English, and quality of F2F
teaching in particular. However, they expected less online
workload, more F2F interactions, more interesting content,
and more listening and speaking practice to engage them. 3)
F2F and online components were perceived to have different
roles to play in their English language learning. Thus,
innovative integration of F2F and online components to create
a better leaner-centered community of inquiry is the key toensure quality blended learning environment in College
English teaching and learning and keep up with changing
times in Society 5.0.

3.3 Respective Roles of F2F and Online Components
As shown in Table 2，F2F component was perceived
more effective to improve learners’ speaking, interest to learn,
learning method, world knowledge, and thinking ability,
while online learning was thought more helpful in reading andvocabulary learning. Both F2F and online learning werestated highly effective to improve their listening ability.
However, less than half of respondents considered F2F andonline components were helpful in their English writing
ability.

Roles in EFL Learning

Frequency

Bonk, C. J., & Graham, C. R. (2012). The handbook of blended
learning: Global perspectives, local designs. John Wiley & Sons.
Fukuyama, M. (2018). Society 5.0: Aiming for a new humancentered society. Japan Spotlight, 27, 47-50.
Garrison, D. R., & Vaughan, N. D. (2008). Blended learning inhigher education: Framework, principles, and guidelines. John
Wiley & Sons.
Ginns, P., & Ellis, R. (2007). Quality in blended learning: Exploring
the relationships between on-line and face-to-face teaching andlearning. The Internet and Higher Education, 10(1), 53-64.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2006.10.003
Graham, C. R. (2006). Blended learning systems. In The handbookof blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 321). John Wiley & Sons.
Huang, Q. (2016). Learners' Perceptions of Blended Learning andthe Roles and Interaction of f2f and Online Learning. Ortesol
Journal, 33, 14-33.
Prensky, M. (2001), "Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants Part 2: Do
They Really Think Differently?", On the Horizon, Vol. 9 No. 6,
pp. 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1108/10748120110424843

Online Learning
Percent (%)
81.5
50.2
61.2
41.8
63.0
47.0
45.9
50.7

3.4 Learners’ Suggestions for Improvement of BLE
Table 3 displays results of the top ten suggestions for
improvement of BLE generated from open-ended questionand semi-structure interviews. The most highly mentioned
suggestions are ‘better integration of F2F and online
components’ (32%), followed by ‘more interesting content to100

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Cultural Identity and Its Relationship with EFL Students’ Language
Proficiency at A Public University in China
Zhang Yushan* and Ng Soo Boon, PhD *** Hebei University of Science and Technology, China
donna_zhang@126.com** SEGi Univesity, Malaysia
ngsooboon@segi.edu.my
Abstract
In the field of foreign language learning, cultural identity has been taken as non-linguistic learning
outcomes that are affected by the language learning process. However, in the actual learning process, the“cause” and “effect” have mutual influence on each other. In China, many studies have been conducted
to explore cultural identity through EFL, for example, Gao (2004) proposed the use of Lambert’s social
psychological theory to study the cultural identity types and its’ influence on EFL learners’ language
proficiency. This study explores students’ cultural identity and their English language proficiency in auniversity in Hebei, China. Questionnaire was administered to measure students’ cultural identity types.
This is then co-related to the EFL course score. In-depth interviews were then conducted to explore how
cultural identity influence students’ EFL acquisition. Questions asked including if EFL has positively or
negatively influenced their own Chinese cultural identity and how this identity has in turn influenced theirlearning of English. The result shows that among the three cultural identity types, productive bilingual
identity ranked the first, and it has a meaningful relationship with EFL learner’s language Proficiency.
Keywords: cultural identity, EFL learner, language proficiency, correlation
Introduction
Globalization enhances intercultural communication
which is crucial in forming a people-centric society in linewith the concept of Society 5.0. Being the future constructorof this borderless globalized world, university students play
an important role. English language being the lingua-franca
used by many segments of the global society is taught to many
university students. They are either native speakers of English
or non-native speaker. English language proficiency of nonnative speaker students has been advocated as a mean toenhance globalization. English as a Foreign Language (EFL)
learners’ language learning is influenced by many factors,
including their cultural identity. Kim (2007) believes that
cultural identity is a psychological cognitive process of
individuals, sometimes even groups or society. It is not only
ubiquitous, but also indispensable in the field of interculturalcommunication and social science. Research on EFL learner’scultural identity in China varies in perspectives (Chen, 2004;
Chen, 2008; Ren, 2008). This study explores the types ofcultural identity and the relationship between cultural identity
types and students’ English language proficiency in auniversity in Hebei, China. The research questions are as
follows: 1) What are the types of EFL learners’ cultural
identity towards Chinese and English cultures? 2) Is there any
statistically significant relationship between EFL learners’
different cultural identity type with their English language
proficiency?
1.

identity has in turn influenced their learning of English.
2.1 Objectives
The university chosen in this study is one of the key
multidiscipline universities located in the capital of theprovince, 480 Year two university students from different
majors were selected through stratified sampling method toanswer the questionnaire and 20 of them were invited for indepth interview based on their gender, major, hometown
types and language proficiency.
2.2 Instruments and Process
The questionnaire employed in this study is a five-point
Likert scale designed by Gao Yihong (2004), which mainly
measure the respondents’ cultural identity types, theCronbach’s alpha is 0.791. Data analysis was conducted
through Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
software (Version 22). The variable names, meanings andCronbach’s coefficient alpha are listed in detail in Table 1.
Table 1
Description of Cultural Identity Types and Cronbach’s α (N=480)

Methodology
This study chose a public university in Hebei Province,
China, and mixed-method research protocol was adopted.
Questionnaire was administered to measure students’ cultural
identity types. This is then co-related to the EFL course score.
In-depth interviews were then conducted to explore how
cultural identity influence students’ EFL acquisition.
Questions asked including if EFL has positively or negatively
influenced their own Chinese cultural identity and how this2.

101

Cultural
Identity
Types

Meaning of the Variable

Cronbach’s αSubtractive
Bilingual
Identity

The degree to which Chinese
language/culture are replaced by
English language/ culture. (Q 5,
6,9,11,14)0.803

Additive
Bilingual
Identity

The degree of using two
languages/cultures at the sametime. (Q 1, 7,8,13)

0.658

Productive
Bilingual
Identity

The degree of mutual promotion ofChineseandEnglishlanguages/cultures. (Q 2, 3,4,10,12)

0.812

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

statistically meaningful relationship between EFL learners’
Productive Bilingual Identity with their English language
proficiency, but no statistically meaningful relationship exists
between the other two types of cultural identity and English
language proficiency. H01 is rejected and H02 and H03 areaccepted. Therefore, it can be concluded that Productive
Cultural Identity is associated with EFL learner’s English
language proficiency in the target university.
In-depth interview indicates that, the interviewees who
hold Productive Bilingual Identity enjoy the promotion ofculture and languages from both English and Chinese
languages, however, interviewees with the other two cultural
identity types felt the negative impact of their Chinese culture
toward English language learning.

Semi-structured interviews were conducted after
quantitative data analysis, 20 students who answered thequestionnaire were asked questioned about if EFL has
positively or negatively influenced their own Chinese cultural
identity and how this identity has in turn influenced theirlearning of English.
3.

Findings

3.1 Cultural Identity Types
A descriptive analysis of the respondents’ three cultural
identity types is presented in Table 2, among which
productive bilingual identity (M=3.31) ranks the first, andfollowed by additive bilingual identity (M=2.72), andsubtractive bilingual identity (M=1.91) is in the lowest
position. Though the Mean value of productive bilingual
identity is not greatly higher than the mid-value 3, the ranking
still shows that productive bilingual identity is the main
cultural identity type for the EFL learners who are involvedin this study. According to Gao (2004), productive bilingual
identity is an ideal attitude toward the two cultures for EFL
learners, under which learner’s understanding of native
culture and target language culture can promote each otherpositively.
Qualitative data also shows that though theinterviewees did not compare the two cultures consciously
during their English language learning, more than half ofthem can treat two languages as an integrated whole, and try
to reinforce their language and culture learning positively.

Table 3
Correlation Coefficient between Cultural Identity Types and English
Language Proficiency (N=480)

Std.
Deviation(SD)

Productive Bilingual Identity

3.31

0.74

Additive Bilingual Identity

2.72

0.66

Subtractive Bilingual Identity

1.91

0.62

Sig.

Productive Bilingual Identity

.103

.025

Additive Bilingual Identity

-.021

.640

Subtractive Bilingual Identity

-.033

.472

Discussion and Conclusion
Data analysis shows that, comparing with the other two
types of cultural identity, Productive Bilingual Identity
integrates the respondents’ native and target language, which
can assist the respondents’ English language learning. For
university English language teachers, trying to cultivate
students’ Productive Bilingual Identity in the teachingprocess might be a good way of improving EFL learners’
language performance. This also is beneficial for intercultural
understanding crucial for a people-centric society as
promoted in Society 5.0.

Descriptive Analysis of Cultural Identity Types (N=480)
Mean
(M)

Correlation
Coefficient

4.

Table 2

Cultural Identity Types

Variables

References
Chen, J. (2004). A Study on The Status Quo Of Cultural Identity ofChinese Foreign Students: A Case Study of Shanghai Foreign
Studies University. Unpublished dissertation in Fudan University.
Chen, X. (2008). Foreign Language Education and National Identity
in the Context of Globalization. Higher Education Press.
Gao, Y., Cheng, Y., Zhao, Y. & Zhou, Y. (2004). The Relationshipbetween English Learning Motivation and Self-identity
Change—A Quantitative Investigation on Chinese College
Undergraduates. In Gao, Y. et al (Eds.) The Social Psychology
of English Learning by Chinese College Students—Motivationand Learners’ Self-identities (pp.60-64).
Kim, Y. Y. (2007). Ideology, Identity, and Intercultural
Communications: An Analysis of Differing Academic
Conceptions of Cultural Identity. Journal of Intercultural
Communication
Research,
36(3),
237-253.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17475750701737181
Ren, Y. (2008). A Survey and Analysis of Cultural Identity ofChinese College English Learners. Foreign Language andLiterature Studies, (01),46-52. https://doi:10.19716/j.16724720.2008.01.008.

3.2 Relationship between Cultural Identity Types andEnglish Language Proficiency
To investigate the second research question, three null
hypotheses are formulated:
H01: There is no statistically significant relationship between
EFL learners’ Productive Bilingual Identity with theirEnglish language proficiency.
H02: There is no statistically significant relationship between
EFL learners’ Additive Bilingual Identity with their English
language proficiency.
H03: There is no statistically significant relationship between
EFL learners’ Subtractive Bilingual Identity with theirEnglish language proficiency.
Parametric Pearson’s correlation coefficient test was
employed to test the hypothesis. Table 3 shows the results.
The Sig value of productive Bilingual Identity is smaller than0.05, while the other two types are larger. Hence, there is a

102

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EFL Students’ Blended Learning Experiences through the Use of
Dingtalk LMS
Hu Jianan* and Ng Soo Boon, PhD***Hebei Vocational University of Industry and Technology
fiona-litchi2008@hotmail.com**SEGi University
ngsooboon@segi.edu.my
Abstract
This study primarily intends to probe student’s blended learning experience with the assistance ofDingtalk Learning Management System (LMS). A questionnaire was adopted to ascertain the level of
EFL students’ blended learning experiences (BLE). Semi-structured focus group interviews wereconducted to further explore the students’ perceptions toward blended learning (BL) and factors
influencing their attitudes of BL. The participants for this study were selected from non-English major
undergraduate students. Results indicated EFL students’ positive learning experiences in BL in general,and students from big city and town had better BLE than students from countryside. Factors influencing
on their perception are learner dimension, instructor dimension, course dimension, technology dimension,
LMS design dimension and environment dimension.
Keywords: EFL students, Blended Learning Experience, LMS
Introduction
Rapid development in Information Community
Technology (ICT) facilitates personalization of learning andfacilitate inclusivity in learning. ICT enables efficient online
learning, one of the areas that benefited from it is the English
as Foreign Language (EFL) teaching in university as EFL isoffered to students of diverse needs and ability. In China, BL
in EFL is encouraged. BL optimizes the advantages of bothonline and face-to-face learning, builds a bridge between
learners and the technological innovation, and effectively
promotes sustainable development of Society 5.0. LMS isnecessary in assisting students through online learning.
DingTalk LMS, widely used in Chinese universities, is an
essential auxiliary tool for EFL students participating in BL
in this study. To increase learning quality, constructivism
theory is applied in preparation and execution of BL. In theconstructivism-based BL classroom, the amount ofknowledge students acquired is dependent on their ability toconstruct meaning of knowledge from their own experiencethrough both online and face-to-face with the help of theteacher and other students, rather than reproducing theteacher’s thought. Instructors are supposed to focus on theprocess of creating real and complex situation for students
with the combination of online and offline learning
environment, promoting collaborative inquiry, and increasingsocial interactions. Although there are many studies on
students’ perceptions of BL in other disciplines, students’learning experience and their attitudes in using the LMS when
taking a BL English course and factors that influence theirexperiences and perceptions are still generally lacking.

students were selected for qualitative study. Consent has beenacquired from the participants and research data waspromised to be confidential.

1.

2.

2.2 Data Collection Instrument
The quantitative research instrument is questionnaire,
which originated from End-of-semester Questionnaires (EoS)
by Bleffert-Schmidt (2011). It has 19 items in total with a 5point Likert response format. Demographics of participants
was also collected. The qualitative research instrument
involves 2 focus group interviews. The Group moderator
asked open-ended questions regarding student perceptions on
BLE.
2.3 Statistical Analysis
To assess the reliability, Cronbach alpha was tested to be 0.93,
which is regarded to be good (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994).
To examine construct validity, confirmatory factor analysis,
was employed. Based on the criteria of Hair and hiscolleagues (2018), factor loadings for all items and AVE value
exceeded the recommended threshold of 0.5 respectively, andcomposite reliability is above the recommended threshold of
0.7. In that case, the measurement model manifests
satisfactory construct validity. SPSS (version 22) was applied
to analyze the quantitative data. Independent-sample t-test
was used to confirm the significant differences of BLE among
student’s gender. One-way ANOVA was utilized to verify
significant differences of BLE among students’ residential
location and test scores. Thematic analysis was applied toascertain the perception of participants on BL.

Methods3.

2.1 Study Design and Procedure
This research employed the explanatory sequential
mixed method design, the setting of which, the blended
English course in the university UHT, China, is delivered with
face-to-face classroom instruction via lecture and tutorial,using DingTalk LMS to support the online part of the course.
530 students were selected for quantitative study, whereas 12

Results

3.1 Demographic BackgroundThe data on EFL students’ gender, residential location,
and BL English course score last semester were depicted by
the descriptive statistic method and the results are shown in
Table 1.

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Table 1

1.46, p = .01) at the p<.05 level. Post-hoc analyses (LSD)
illustrates that both students from big city and town had better
BLE than students from countryside respectively; e) there wasno significant difference between these five test score groups,
i.e., below 60, 60-69, 70-79, 80-89 and 90-100 (F (4, 525)
= .92, p = .45) at the p<.05 level.

Demographic Information of Samples (n=530)
Factors

Frequency

Percent (%)

Male

254

47.9

Female276

52.1

Big city

35

6.6

Town

154

29.1

Countryside

341

64.3

Below 60

48

9.1

60-69

94

17.7

70-79

134

25.3

80-89

179

33.8

90-10075

14.2

GenderResidence

BL English
Test Scores

3.1 Factors Influencing Their Attitudes of Blended Learning
In general, all 12 students expressed their positive
feelings about BL no matter their genders and test scores,
which is in consistent with the quantitative findings. The
participating EFL students pointed out several factors that areconsidered to have an impact on their perceptions of BL.
These factors are organized under six themes: learnerdimension, instructor dimension, course dimension,technology dimension, LMS design dimension andenvironment dimension. It is interesting to note that students
from different residential location have slightly different
views on each of these dimensions.

3.2 EFL students’ Blended Learning Experience Based on
Gender, Residential Location, and Test Scores
All the results regarding whether there was any
significant difference in EFL students’ BLE among gender,
residential location, and test scores are presented as follows.

Discussion and Conclusions
This study examines EFL students’ BLE and factors that
influence their experience. It was found that EFL students
have positive learning experience in their blended English
course. Students stated that either online learning or face-toface learning can have its unique benefits to support their BL
as long as both focuses on students’ needs. Although theperspectives of analysis differ, this finding is consistent withprevious studies, that is, in the academic context, EFL
students manifest a positive feedback to the implementationof BL in English learning (Aborisade, 2013; Gilbert, 2013).
The core of constructivism-based BL is in thetransformation from teacher-centered to learner-centered, andthe transformation of teaching method from emphasizing
content to emphasizing problem solving and process (Barth& Burandt, 2013). BL based on constructivism theory andsituational learning principles is facilitated through the use of
ICT, as personalization is made possible throughdigitalization of learning. This indeed fulfils the aspiration of
IR5.0 where human needs are priority.
4.

Table 2Difference in EFL Students’ BLE Based on Demographic Factors(n=530)
FactorGenderResidence

Test
Score

BLE

M

SD

t/F

Sig.

Male

3.62

.66

-.85

.40

Female

3.67.59

Big City

3.87

.58

4.71

.01*

Town

3.72

.61

Countryside

3.59

.62

Below 60

3.49

.60

.92

.45

60-69

3.66

.64

70-79

3.68

.59

80-89

3.65

.64

90-1003.64.61(Overall)

3.65

.62

References
Aborisade, P. (2013). Blended learning in English for academic
purposes courses: A Nigerian case study. Blended learning in
English language teaching: course design and implementation(pp. 35-42). British Council.
Barth, M., & Burandt, S. (2013). Adding the “e-” to Learning for
Sustainable Development: Challenges and Innovation.
Sustainability, 5(6), 2609–2622. https://doi:10.3390/su5062609
Bleffert-Schmidt, A. (2011). The blended learning experience ofcommunity college students. [Doctoral dissertation, Nova
Southeastern University]. Retrieved from NSUWorks, Graduate
School of Computer and Information Sciences. (94)http://nsuworks.nova.edu/gscis_etd/94.
Gilbert, J. (2013). A collaborative online reading and research
project. Blended learning in English language teaching: Course
design and implementation (pp. 27-34). British Council.
Hair, J., Black, W., Babin, B.J., & Anderson, R. (2018). Multivariate
Data Analysis (8th ed.). Annabel Ainscow.

* p < .05

High scores on the scale indicate better BLE. In thissection, findings are a) the percentage of students who havebetter BLE was higher than that who have worse BLE; b)overall, the level of EFL students’ BLE was at the uppermiddle scale as indicated by the mean value (M = 3.65, SD= .62); c) there is no significant effect of gender on EFL

students’ BLE ( t (528) = -.85, p = .40) at the p<.05 level;d) there was a significant difference among three residential
locations, i.e., big city, town and countryside (F (2, 527) =104

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Use of L1 in L2 Collaborative Writing: Does It Make Any Difference to the
Product or the Process?
Yusa Koizumi
Meiji Gakuin University
ykoizumi@gen.meijigakuin.ac.jp
Abstract
A growing amount of research has shown that students’ first language (L1) performs various functions
that facilitate collaborative writing in second language (L2), and these findings lead to an assumption that
adequate amounts of L1 use help students produce good L2 texts. This study aims to test this assumption
and explores differences in the process of collaborative writing between students who use L1 frequently
and students who do not. University EFL students in Japan (N = 48) wrote a narrative text in pairs. Theirinteractions were audio-recorded and transcribed, and turns containing any utterance in L1 (Japanese)were identified. Their compositions were assessed for content, organization, complexity, accuracy, andfluency. These scores were correlated with the proportion of L1 turns to total turns, but no significant
relationships were found. However, qualitative examinations of pair interactions revealed that pairs thatused L1 infrequently and pairs that used L1 frequently were distinct in how they produced the texts. Theinteractions of the former consisted predominantly of reading/re-reading episodes and short language
episodes, which indicate that they concentrated on writing their story down. The latter's interactions
featured long content and language episodes that involved extensive use of L1. This indicates that thesepairs often sidetracked while writing to discuss complex issues of content or language in L1.
Keywords: collaborative writing, EFL, L1 use
1.

Introduction
Collaborative writing, or “the co-authoring of a text by
two or more writers” (Storch, 2013, p. 2), is a usefulpedagogical option for the second language (L2) teachers whoseek to incorporate focus-on-form opportunities intomeaning-focused communication tasks. However, in EFL
contexts, teachers often hear students switch to their first
language (L1) while writing together, and dealing with thissituation tactfully may pose them a challenge. An increasing
body of research has revealed that students’ L1 performs avariety of functions that facilitate L2 collaborative writing.
For example, it helps students clarify the task, generate ideas,
resolve linguistic problems, and manage their collaboration(Alegría de la Colina & García Mayo, 2009; Azkarai & García
Mayo, 2015; Storch & Aldosari, 2010; Swain & Lapkin,2000).
Based on these findings, it is assumed that adequate
amounts of L1 use in collaborative writing help students
produce high-quality L2 texts. However, not much research
has tested this assumption. A rare example is Swain andLapkin’s (2000) study, which found a negative correlation
between the amount of L1 use during collaborative writing
and the rating of the text produced. The result suggested thatstudents who co-wrote less successful compositions needed
to employ more L1 to complete the task. Some studies on
individual writing investigated the same topic, focusing on L1
use at the pre-writing stage. They typically engaged students
in a brainstorming or note-making activity in L1 or L2 andcompared the texts they subsequently composed bythemselves. These studies have produced mixed results: Somefound an advantage of L1 users in some areas of text quality(Lally, 2000), while others found no significant differences(Akyel, 1994). One individual writing study investigated theimpact of L1 use at the composing stage. Woodall (2002)
explored how students’ language switching from L2 to L1
while creating L2 texts relates to the quality of the texts. The
study found a significant relationship between the duration of

L1 use and text quality, but the direction of the relationshipwas affected by students’ L1. The relationship was positive
for students whose L1 was cognate with the L2 and negative
for students whose L1 was not cognate with the L2.
Thus, very few collaborative writing studies examined
the impact of L1 use on text quality. Some individual writing
studies investigated this topic, but they derived L1 data frompre-writing activities or think-aloud protocols. Because ofthis, they likely focused on a narrower range of L1 functions
than the collaborative writing studies did. To address this gap
in the literature, the present study set out to find whether there
is any relationship between the amount of L1 use during
collaborative writing and the quality of the text produced. It
also explored any qualitative differences in the writing
process between students who use L1 frequently and students
who do not use L1 frequently.
2.

MethodFirst-year university students in Japan (N = 48)participated in the study. When the data were collected, thestudents were enrolled in a required English communication
course for high-intermediate learners. In the 7th week of thesemester, they engaged in a collaborative writing task in pairs
as part of their regular lesson. They first spent 10 minutes
working on an oral task, in which they figured out a story froma set of pictures. After this, they spent 15 minutes writing
down the story they had worked out. Their interactions during
the collaborative writing were audio-recorded and transcribed.
Turns containing any utterance in L1 (Japanese) wereidentified in the transcripts, and the proportion of L1 turns tototal turns was calculated for each pair. The compositions
were assessed for content, organization, lexical and syntactic
complexity, accuracy, and fluency, and to investigate the firstresearch question, these scores were correlated with theproportion of L1 turns. The transcriptions were segmented
into episodes, which were then classified into six types(content, organization, language, task management,
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reading/re-reading, and off task) based on the coding systems
in previous studies (McDonough et al., 2016; Storch, 2005).
The 24 pairs were divided into two groups (High L1 and Low
L1) according to the proportion of L1 turns, and theirinteractions were compared in terms of what types of episodes
occurred at which stages of the 15-minute work.

light, the results imply that different levels of task
engagement lead to different amounts of L1 use. Less
engaged students may care more about completing the task
than creating a good story, and this may lessen the need to
discuss or negotiate in L1. More engaged students mayprioritize making their story more elaborate, and this may
increase the need for L1.

3.

Results
The analysis for the first research question did not findany significant relationships between the proportion of L1turns and any of the text quality measurements. Concerning
the second research question, the examination of transcripts
revealed that High L1 pairs and Low L1 pairs were distinct inthe way they worked on the task. Low L1 pairs’ work processtended to be linear: Once they started writing, they kept
moving forward until they reached the end of the story. Theirinteractions consisted predominantly of reading/re-reading
episodes and short language episodes. In these episodes, they
reproduced a part of the story they had worked out in the oral
phase and addressed any linguistic problems that surfaced.
They used L1 only sparingly, and most of the L1 utterancesconsisted of words and phrases embedded in L2 utterances. In
contrast, High L1 pairs often sidetracked during reading/rereading episodes to refine their story or address linguistic
problems. The content and language episodes tended to lastlong and involve extensive use of L1.

References
Akyel, A. (1994). First language use in EFL writing: planning inTurkish vs. planning in English. International Journal of Applied
Linguistics, 4(2), 169-184. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14734192.1994.tb00062.x
Alegría de la Colina, A., & García Mayo, M. d. P. (2009). Oralinteraction in task-based EFL learning: The use of the L1 as acognitive tool. International Review of Applied Linguistics inLanguage
Teaching,
47(3-4),325-345.
https://doi.org/10.1515/iral.2009.014
Azkarai, A., & García Mayo, M. d. P. (2015). Task-modality and L1
use in EFL oral interaction. Language Teaching Research, 19(5),550-571. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168814541717
Lally, C. G. (2000). First language influences in second language
composition: The effect of pre-writing. Foreign Language
Annals, 33(4), 428-432. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.19449720.2000.tb00623.x
McDonough, K., Crawford, W. J., & De Vleeschauwer, J. (2016).
Thai EFL learners' interaction during collaborative writing tasks
and its relatioship to text quality. In M. Sato & S. Ballinger (Eds.),
Peer interaction and second language learning (pp. 185-208).
John Benjamins.
Storch, N. (2005). Collaborative writing: Product, process, andstudents' reflections. Journal of Second Language Writing, 14,
153-173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2005.05.002
Storch, N. (2013). Collaborative writing in L2 classrooms.
Multilingual Matters.
Storch, N., & Aldosari, A. (2010). Learners' use of first language(Arabic) in pair work in an EFL class. Language Teaching
Research,
14,355-375.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168810375362
Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (2000). Task-based second language
learning: The uses of the first language. Language Teaching
Research,4(3),251-274.
https://doi.org/10.1177/136216880000400304
Woodall, B. R. (2002). Language-switching: Using the first language
while writing in a second language. Journal of Second Language
Writing,11(1),
7-28.
https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1060-3743(01)000510

4.

Discussion
The findings for the first research question indicate thatthe amount of L1 use during collaborative writing has little
impact on the quality of L2 text. The compositions written byHigh L1 pairs, who employed L1 more frequently to discuss
content and language, were not necessarily rated more highly
than those written by Low L1 pairs. These results are notsurprising given the mixed results obtained in previous
studies on collaborative writing (Swain & Lapkin, 2000) andindividual writing (Akyel, 1994; Lally, 2000; Woodall, 2002).
As these studies suggest, the relationship between the twovariables may interact with other variables, including
proficiency and task type. Further investigation that involves
students of different proficiency levels and different types oftasks is needed to disentangle the complex relationships.
The findings for the second research question show thatstudents who employ L1 frequently and students who employ
L1 infrequently work on the same task differently. Low L1
pairs tended to concentrate on reproducing the story they had
already worked out, dealing with minor errors in form on theway. High L1 pairs often suspended the process of writing todiscuss story content or negotiate L2 form. These findings not
merely verify the previous studies that identified major
functions of L1 (Alegría de la Colina & García Mayo, 2009;
Azkarai & García Mayo, 2015; Storch & Aldosari, 2010;
Swain & Lapkin, 2000) but also suggest that students’ attitude
toward L1 use may change the way they proceed withcollaborative writing. Students who feel more hesitant to use
L1 may avoid discussing complex issues and focus on fillingout their worksheets, while students who feel less hesitant
may tackle cognitive challenges using L1. Seen in another106

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Reflective Practice and Classroom Discourse Development
A Pre-service Teacher Training Study in Japan
Hirofumi Hosokawa
Fukuoka Jo Gakuin University
hosokawal@fukujo.ac.jp
Abstract
Communicative language teaching plays a significant role to enhance students’ foreign language abilities,
especially in EFL countries such as Japan. Studies so far conducted on input, interaction and output haveshown that interaction, especially classroom interaction in case of EFL classrooms, would be crucial forthe acquisition of a target language. In other words, the role of teachers, who mainly control classroom
discourse, becomes vital in language learning. Walsh (2006, 2011, 2013) has shed light on the role ofclassroom interactional competence (CIC), which should and could be developed cooperatively withteachers and students through reflective practice (RP). It is a challenge, however, to find teachers who
have good CIC and RP skills. To solve this problem, the current research investigates the training of preservice English teachers in Japan through repeated practice lessons and RP to develop their CIC and RP
skills. In particular, it investigates activity-based grammar lessons practiced by seventeen university
students and how the quality of their teaching improved during a period of two semesters. Each lesson
consisted of 20-min short practice lessons followed by reflective discussions in the classroom. All thelessons were videotaped and reviewed by the student teachers, who were requested to submit reflection
reports individually. A questionnaire given at the end of the second semester revealed that students’attitudes towards communicative language teaching and their skills to manage grammar activities
improved through RP. The results show that RP sessions between teachers and students would havepositive effects on the development of students’ CIC and their ability to design activities. The study also
shows some residual problems that the students could not overcome in a two-semester course, which
would call for further investigation and open discussions.
Keywords: classroom interactional competence, reflective practice, grammar activities, pre-service
teacher training
1.

Issues on classroom interaction
To enhance learners’ communicative abilities, teachers
are expected and encouraged to maximise the use of English
in the classroom. Numerous studies have shown that learners’
exposure to and use of English play a crucial role in L2
acquisition, whether it was by adopting either a strong or
weak version of communicative language teaching (CLT).
Indeed, a great number of studies conducted by Krashen(1985), Long (1985), Swain (1985) and others have shownthat three aspects of language learning, i.e. input, interaction
and output, would be imperative to enhance target language
acquisition.
Research conducted from a pedagogical perspective
has also shown that the effectiveness of task- and activitybased language teaching / learning is conducive for language
acquisition, and a variety of studies on task-based teachingwere compiled in Van den Branden, et al. (2009).
For the last twenty years, light has also been shed on
the role of teachers, who actually design and control
classroom interaction. Especially, in an EFL context, whereuse of English is limited mainly to the classroom, teachers’
control of classroom interaction is crucial to promote learners’
acquisition. This led Walsh to explore teachers’ and learners’
Classroom Interactional Competence (CIC) as a tool for

mediating and assisting learning (2006, 2011, 2013). Mannand Walsh (2017) advanced this line of study and maintained
the effectiveness of reflective practice (RP) for teacher
development. In countries and regions, where natural second
language acquisition cannot be expected, training teachers’
CIC through RP becomes mandatory.
The current study follows the line of research on CIC
and RP developed by Walsh (2006) and Mann and Walsh(2017). It examines task- and activity-based grammar lessons
conducted by pre-service English teachers in Japan andexplores their CIC and RP development, in the hope that thefindings in this research could contribute to improving thequality of pre-service teacher training programmes.
2.

Lesson studies
Seventeen university students participated in the study.
All of them were third-year students, reading English andtaking a teacher training programme at a private women’s
university in Japan. The participants underwent formal
English education for eight years in Japan before enrolling in
the teaching methodology modules. Although some of themhad joined a semester-long study abroad programme in theirsecond year, they had by and large similar English abilities.
Each participant conducted a total of five 20-min.

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practice lessons in two semesters over a period of fifteen
weeks. These five practice lessons consisted of one
introduction, two reading and two grammar lessons.
Grammar lessons, the main focus of this study, wereconducted in groups of three in the first semester andindividually in the second semester. For each lesson, detailed
teaching plans were written by the students in charge of thepractice lessons. All the grammar lessons were taught
communicatively in English except when the target grammar
was explained in Japanese. Each lesson was videotaped andreviewed after class by the students who conducted thelessons. In addition, the instructor carefully observed thepractice lessons and examined their teaching plans, whichwere returned to the students with his comments.
At the end of the second semester, a questionnaire wasgiven to the students, where they were asked to describe thechanges of their attitudes towards CLT, CIC and grammar
activities in the two semesters.

further investigation is necessary. Another limitation was
found in the designing of activities. The participants were able
to learn how to design communicative grammar activities.
However, the situations created by the participants did not
improve to the point where the target grammar can be usednaturally. Some kind of oddness or unnaturalness was stillapparent, which made the instructor realise how challenging
it would be for pre-service teachers to create natural contexts
in which students can acquire grammar through activities.
This issue needs further research.
Having said that, the current study has shown that CIC
and RP sessions would be useful training tools for pre-service
English teachers at university. These findings should beshared with university as well as secondary school teachers
for further investigation on and improvement of teachertraining programmes.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by KAKENHI (Grant-in-Aid for
Scientific Research: (C)) Grant number 18K00859. I would also liketo thank all the students who participated in this research.

3.

Findings and limitations
It became evident from the study that some notable
improvements were made in their lessons and that changes intheir attitudes towards the lessons and their awareness of CIC
deepened through RP. Let’s take some examples. In the firstsemester the students shared a misleading preconception thatdoing grammar activities was equivalent to filling the blanks
on worksheets. Therefore, it took them several weeks tounderstand what effective activities were like. Next, theyrealised that careful preparations would be needed to design
activities such as (1) establishing situations where the target
grammatical structures could be used naturally, (2) writing
natural and authentic model dialogues to be used in theactivities, and (3) giving clear and simple instructions about
the activities so that the students could understand what they
were expected to do. Furthermore, they recognised their needto acquire accurate knowledge about the grammatical items
to teach. In other words, they learnt through practice lessons
that without teachers’ accurate understanding of the target
grammar, students might acquire inaccurate knowledge
through the activities they assign.
As we have seen, practice lessons functioned as aheuristic learning tool for the students, but what scaffolded
them was RP sessions conducted in the classroom and thereflective reports written individually after class. As themodules proceeded, the participants’ classroom interaction
with students, or their CIC, also improved. These results
support Mann and Walsh’s assertion that RP is essential forthe development of CIC.
There were limitations, however, for CIC training andthe development of grammar lessons for two semester
sessions. One limitation was the participants’ English abilities.
CIC requires teachers’ advanced English competence andtheir ability to control and manage the classroom. These are
separate abilities; one who has advanced English abilities
does not always have excellent classroom management skills.
To solve this problem, pre-service teachers need to improvetheir command of English in tandem with lesson studies
sessions. As for the ability to control classroom interaction,

References
Gass, S., & Madden, C. (Eds.) (1985). Input in second language
acquisition. Newbury House.
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford.
Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications.
Longman.
Long, M. H. (1985). Input and second language acquisition theory.
In S. Gass., & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language
acquisition (pp.377-393). Newbury House.
Mann, S. & Walsh, S. (2017). Reflective practice in English
language teaching: Research-based principles and practices.
Routledge.
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: some roles ofcomprehensible input and comprehensible output in its
development. In S. Gass., & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second
language acquisition (pp.235-253). Newbury House.
Van den Branden, K., Bygate, M., & Norris, J. M. (Eds.). (2009).
Task-based language teaching: A reader. John Benjamins.
Walsh, S. (2006). Investigating classroom discourse. Routledge.
Walsh, S. (2011). Exploring classroom discourse: Language inaction. Routledge.
Walsh, S. (2013). Classroom discourse and teacher development.
Edinburgh.

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Adaptation to a New Communication Mode for an Online International
Exchange through Video Chatting
Masae Konishi**Tsuda University
masae@tsuda.ac.jp
Abstract
The purpose of this research is to explore the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on an online
international exchange through video chatting. The participants were 57 Japanese university students
taking teacher training courses to become secondary school English teachers. They had a video chat online
international exchange with 44 partners who were Australian university students enrolled in Japanese
language classes. As a whole group, the participants in 2020 showed statistically significant positive
differences in evaluating the video chat exchange from the group who experienced the same kind of
exchange in the previous year. The main factor of their more positive reactions in 2020 was supposed tobe the participants’ familiarity with video chatting. They were more familiar with video chatting thanthose in 2019 because they attended all the classes online using a videoconferencing tool, Zoom, due tothe COVID-19 pandemic. Two cases are to be described in detail. The in-depth qualitative analyses of
the two specific cases show that the adaptation to a new communication mode as online video chatting isa key to benefiting from online international exchange through video chatting and give insight into
promoting such activities in secondary school English education.
Keywords: online international exchange, video chatting, communication mode, pre-service teachers
Introduction
I have included international exchange projects throughonline video chats for an undergraduate university course
since 2013. The course focuses on ICT utilization in English
language teaching and is part of the university’s teacher
training program. Between 2013 and 2020, 454 Japanese
students participated in the projects, with 195 students inAustralia as exchange partners.
I previously uncovered the effects of online international
video chat exchanges in a language exchange situation on
Japanese university students as EFL learners in Konishi(2017). However, those positive effects were not directly
applicable to them as pre-service teachers. The statisticalanalysis of the questionnaire data showed a significant
difference between the enjoyment the participants felt withthe video chat exchanges and the willingness to adopt aninternational exchange in their future English teaching(Konishi, 2021). Konishi (submitted for publication) found asignificant difference between two cases with different
technical environments using different video chat tools,
SkypeTM and “appear.in.”In the 2020 academic year, due to the COVID-19
pandemic, my course used Zoom to have synchronous video
chat meetings for giving classes online. Under such a situation,
students showed some changes. This research aims to analyze
how familiarity with videoconferencing influences theattitudes toward a video chat online international exchange
activity by comparing the two cases of video chat exchanges
in 2019 and 2020.
1.

Japanese pre-service teachers?
3. Methods
3.1 Participants
A total of 57 students at a university in Tokyo, Japan,
who were preparing to become secondary school English
teachers participated in an online international exchange
project through video chats together with 44 university
students who were taking a Japanese language course in
Melbourne, Australia. They were the participants in the
projects administered in the two academic years (2019 and2020). One group consisting of 30 students who participatedin 2019 used Whereby, and the other consisting of 27 students
in 2020 used Zoom.
3.2 Procedures
The project spanned three class periods: the preparation
session, video chat session, and reflection session. Each classperiod lasted 90 minutes.
One week before the exchange, Japanese participants,
as a class, had a preparation session. Both groups decided ongroupings, contacted the partners, and discussed what to talkabout in the video chat with group members. Only the 2019group learned how to use the video chat tool, Whereby.
On the exchange day, the Japanese participants had avideo chat during the class period from the CALL classroom
in 2019 and from home in 2020, while the Australian partners
joined from various places convenient for them. They talked
for approximately 70 minutes. It was the only opportunity forthem to experience an online international exchange througha video chat during the course.
One week after the exchange, the participants in Japan
had group discussions in small groups to reflect on theirinteractions. Each group first reported who their partner was
and how they felt about their exchange. Then they discussed
if they would like to include the same kind of international
exchange project in their future English teaching. Finally, thewhole class shared the group discussion results. The

Research Question
By collecting both quantitative and qualitative data fromthe participants in a convergent mixed methods research
design (Creswell, 2018), this research investigates thefollowing research question:
What is the influence of the experience of taking online
lessons through Zoom videoconferencing on the attitudes
toward an online international video chat exchange by
2.

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significance level: F (1, 55) = 4.580, p<0.05, ηp2 = .077. The
Zoom group as a whole has more positive attitudes toward thethree questions than the Whereby group.
As for other items with descriptive responses, theparticipants in 2020 confessed little anxiety with technicalenvironments to join a video chat exchange activity. They
were more accustomed to using a video chat tool than thosein 2019. The participants in 2019 had little experience having
a video chat before joining the online international video chatexchange in the course.

reflection session lasted approximately 70 minutes.
4. Results
4.1 Results of the Questionnaire
Among the ten questions in the questionnaire, three were
multiple-choice questions, and the others asked theparticipants to describe their opinions. Table 1 displays thedescriptive statistics of the reactions to the three 4-point
Liker-scale items (i.e., Did you enjoy the exchange?; Do you
want to keep up the friendship with the partner?; Do you want
to incorporate this activity into your future English teaching?).
The mean plots in Figure 1 show that the Zoom group’s
responses to the two questions, Enjoyment and Friendship,
were higher than those by the Whereby group. The responses
to the question on Teaching were almost the same between thetwo groups.

4.2 In-depth Qualitative Analysis of the Two Participants
Two specific cases are to be described in detail. Tomoko(pseudonym) was the only participant who strongly disagreed
with communicating through a video chat for attending any
class online. She explained her opinion against using online
videoconferencing tools in education eagerly in the wholeclass sharing period of the reflection session. Emi(pseudonym), who had vision problems, joined the exchange
actively by turning on her video camera, even though she
could not use the visual information. She evaluated the video
chat exchange as a significant intercultural communication
opportunity for secondary school students as well as for her
own English learning experience.

Table 1
Descriptive Statistics of the Three 4-point Likert-scale Items
WherebyZoom(N = 30)(N = 27)

Item

M

SD

M

SD

Enjoyment

3.57

0.50

3.89

0.32

Friendship

3.20

0.41

3.41

0.50

Teaching

3.23

0.50

3.26

0.53

Discussion
The results of the quantitative data analysis show thesame tendencies as in Konishi (2021). There is a gap between
the attitudes toward the online international video chatexperiences between the viewpoint of EFL learners and thatof pre-service teachers. The significant difference in theattitudes between the two groups seems to stem from not justthe techno-anxiety caused by the tool difference (Konishi,
submitted for publication) but also the familiarity with the
new communication mode as video chatting. The descriptive
reactions to the other questionnaire items support that theincreased familiarity with video chatting through online
classes due to the COVID-19 pandemic was the critical factor
to the significant difference. The in-depth qualitative analysisof the two specific cases further shows that the adaptation toa new communication mode as online video chatting is a key
to benefiting from online international exchange throughvideo chatting and gives insight into promoting such activities
in secondary school English education.
5.

Figure 1
Mean Plots of the Three 4-point Likert-scale Items
4
3.8
3.6
3.4
3.2
3
Enjoyment

Friendship
Whereby

Teaching
Zoom

The two-way mixed-methods ANOVA shows that there isno significant interaction effect between the video chatconditions and the questionnaire item factors: F (2, 54) =1.813, n.s., ηp2 = .063. The questionnaire item factors have asignificant main effect at the 0.1% significance level: F (2,54) = 29.492, p<0.001, ηp2 = .522. The post hoc multiple
comparisons show significant differences between
Enjoyment and Friendship items (p<0.001, Mdiff = 0.424,
95% CI [0.261, 0.588]) and between Enjoyment and Teachingitems (p<0.001, Mdiff = 0.481, 95% CI [0.289, 0.674]) at the
0.1% significance level. However, between Friendship andTeaching items, no significant difference is identified (n.s.
Mdiff = -0.057, 95% CI [-0.151, 0.266]). The video chatconditions have a significant main effect at the 5%

References
Creswell, L. W. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative,
and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.
Konishi, M. (2017). Effects of international online video talk in alanguage exchange situation on Japanese EFL college students
taking a teacher training program. Language Education &Technology, 54, 113–133.
Konishi, M. (2021). The gap between enjoyment as EFL learners andanxiety as pre-service teachers with eTandem online
international video chat exchanges. JACET Journal, 65, 89–106.
Konishi, M. (submitted for publication). Influences of technicalsimplicity on pre-service teachers’ willingness toward an
eTandem online international video chat exchange experiences:
A comparison between two cases with different video chat tools.

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Factors Predicting EFL Learners’ Perceived Success of
Web-Based Distance Learning
Yuko Matsumura* and Hiroyo Nakagawa***Kindai University
yuko-ma@kcc.zaq.ne.jp**Osaka Jogakuin College
hgaeru@yahoo.co.jp
Abstract
The relationship between self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies and academic achievement has been a welldocumented research agenda in educational psychology and second language acquisition. As the COVID-19 pandemic
forced transition to largescale web-based distance instruction, it is of crucial research interest to investigate howsocially-isolated EFL university learners, deprived of access to in-person classroom interaction, have coped with the
new challenges of self-managing and self-regulating their learning by utilizing the school-provided LMS (Learning
Management System) platform. In this regard, the purpose of the present study is to identify factors contributing to
the learners’ perceived success of web-based learning. To this end, a six-point Likert-scale questionnaire wasadministered to 144 basic to intermediate level (mostly CEFR A1-B1) coed university learners with hard and soft
science majors, inquiring about the degree to which they used SRL-related metacognitive strategies in their completionof coursework assignments. First, the responses were submitted to data-reduction factor analysis, with the six SRLrelated factors extracted and labeled as “planning and scheduling, learning environment structuring, self-reliance incoursework completion, time management, consciousness of the coursework deadline, and self-encouragement.” Then,these factors were used in a multiple regression formula as predictor variables to examine which factors significantly
contributed to the learners’ perception of successful web-based learning. The results identified planning andscheduling as the most significant predictor of their perceived learning success, followed by environment structuring,self-reliance, time management, and deadline-consciousness. These metacognitive factors pertaining to selforganizing and self-management of their learning were closely aligned with the distinctive attributes of self-regulated
learners described in the bulk of the SRL studies. Therefore, the degree to which learners employed and adapted
metacognitive SRL strategies was confirmed to greatly influence their perception of web-based learning achievement.
The research findings could offer profound insights into the development of learning strategies with importantpedagogical implications.
Keywords: self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies
perceived learning successweb-based distance instruction
metacognitive strategies
Introduction
The 2020 COVID-19 pandemic necessitated thetransition of the learning environment from traditionalclassroom learning to web-based remote e-learning.
University learners unexpectedly found themselves facedwith the unprecedented challenges of self-learning as they
wrestled with the web-based Learning Management System(LMS) platform. Although most of them missed face-to-faceclassroom interactions with their peers and instructors, thosethat utilized web-based learning resources efficiently selfmanaged their learning and directed their learning strategies
toward successful academic achievements.

quickly, motivate themselves, and orient themselves toward
perceived learning success (Zimmerman, 2013). Therefore, itwould be worthwhile investigating SRL-related strategies
influencing learners’ perceived success of web-based distanceinstruction. SRL strategies refer to both metacognitive andcognitive strategies; the former being of more educational
value, exemplified by the path-analysis research in which all
three subcomponents of metacognitive strategies, such asplanning, monitoring, and regulating (Zimmerman &Martinez-Pons, 1986), were confirmed to enhance learning
performance in online learning (Anthonysamy, 2021).

1.

2.2

Perceived Success of Web-based Distance Instruction
Web-based distance instruction is defined as “a field of
education that focuses on the pedagogy, technology, andinstructional system designs that aim to deliver education tolearners who are not physically "on site" in a traditionalclassroom or campus (Tavukcu et al., 2011, p.3999).”
Under web-based instruction, learners are surmised tobe more motivated and autonomous achievers. They should
self-manage their own learning to plan and schedulecoursework assignments and develop a resilience to frustrated
educational contexts. In this respect, they are expected to
become more self-regulated learners, employing SRL
strategies efficiently and proactively than traditionalclassroom learners. According to Baber (2020), learner
satisfaction in online learning has significant effects on its
outcome. Since satisfaction can be derived from their

２．Literature review
2.1 Self-regulated Learning (SRL)
Self-regulated learning is defined as “an active,
constructive process whereby learners set goals for theirlearning and then attempt to monitor, regulate, and control
their cognition, motivation, and behavior, guided andconstrained by their goals and the contextual features in theenvironment (Wolter et al., 2003, p.2).”
The bulk of studies have reported a relatively strong
relationship between self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies
and achievement of academic goals (Butler & Winne, 1995;
Ramdass & Zimmerman, 2011; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2011;
Zimmerman, 2015). In addition, if learners engage in SRL
proactively, they are hypothesized to master their learning
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perception of learning success, it makes sense to probe thefactors influencing the perceived success of web-based
instruction for EFL university learners. Thus, the following
research questions are formulated:learning achievement, which will facilitate favorable attitude
toward learning and active engagement. Therefore,
practitioners should encourage learners to reflect upon theirlearning and empower them to exercise self-regulation byintroducing ‘My study log’ or a Gantt chart, which will help
visualize how they progress towards their goals.

2.3 Research Questions
RQ1.What factors contribute to self-regulated learners’
metacognitive strategies?
RQ2. Which factors significantly predict perceived success of
self-regulated learners?

5.

Conclusion
The SRL metacognitive strategies, greatly conducive tolearners’ perception of academic success, are worthy ofcultivation in web-based distance learning. A future research
direction could be to investigate how to empower learners toacquire and deploy SRL strategies in the post-Covid-19 era,in which online education can be blended with traditional
face-to-face classroom learning.

MethodThe authors designed a six-point Likert-scale SRLrelated metacognitive strategy questionnaire, with many of
the items drawn upon the relevant research literature with theparticipants in online educational settings. The 25-item
questionnaire was administered online to 144 basic tointermediate level (mostly CEFR A1-B1) coed university
participants with hard and soft science majors. The
participants included both 1st-year and 2nd-year learners,
with the former not having experienced face-to-faceuniversity education after matriculation. The purpose was toinquire about the degree to which they employed SRL-related
metacognitive strategies in their completion of courseworktasks and assignments.
2.

References
Anthonysamy, L. (2021). The use of metacognitive strategies forundisrupted online learning: Preparing university learners in theage of pandemic. Educ Inf Technol
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10518-y
Baber, H. (2020). Determinants of learners’ perceived learning
outcome and satisfaction in online learning during the pandemicof COVID19. Journal of Education and eLearning Research, 7(3),285-292. DOI:10.20448/journal.509.2020.73.285.292
Butler, D. L., & Winne, P. H. (1995). Feedback and self-regulated
learning: A theoretical synthesis. Review of Educational Research,
65(3), 245-281.
Ramdass, D., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2011). Developing selfregulation skills: The important role of homework. Journal ofAdvanced Academics, 22(2), 194–218.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X1102200202
Tavukcu, T., Arapa, I., & Özcan, D. (2011). General overview on
distance education concept. Procedia – Social and Behavioral
Sciences, 15, 3999-4004.
Wolter, C., Pintrich, P.R., & Karabenick, S.A. (2003). Assessing
academic self-regulated learning. Paper prepared for the
Conference on Indicators of Positive Development: Definitions,
measures, and prospective validity. Sponsored by ChildTrends,
National Institutes of Health.
Zimmerman, B. J. (2013). From cognitive modeling to selfregulation: A social cognitive career path. Educational
Psychologist, 48(3), 135147, DOI: 10.1080/00461520.2013.794676
Zimmerman, B. J. (2015). Self-regulated learning: Theories,
measures, and outcomes. In J. D. Wright (Ed.), International
encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (pp. 541-546).
Oxford: Elsevier.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.26060-1
Zimmerman, B. J., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1986). Development of astructured interview for assessing student use of self-regulated
learning strategies. American Educational Research Journal,
23(4), 614-628. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312023004614
Zimmerman, B. J., & Schunk, D. H. (2011). Self-regulated learningand performance: An introduction and an overview. In B. J.
Zimmerman & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Educational psychology
handbook series. Handbook of self-regulation of learning andperformance (pp. 1–12). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

3.

Results
The questionnaire responses were submitted to factor
analysis, with the principal axis factoring extraction method.
After the Varimax rotation, the six-extracted SRL-related
factors together cumulatively account for 47.65% of the total
variance. Factor components with a loading of .35 or overwere used as a cutoff point for appreciable interpretation. The
factors are labeled as planning and scheduling, learning
environment structuring, self-reliance in courseworkcompletion, time management, consciousness of thecoursework deadline, and self-encouragement.
In response to RQ2, the loading values of these six
factors were converted into factor scores, which were enteredin a multiple regression formula as predictor variables to
examine which factors significantly contributed to thelearners’ perception of successful web-based learning. The
results identified planning and scheduling as the mostsignificant predictor of their perceived learning success,followed by environment structuring, self-reliance, time
management, and deadline-consciousness in descendingorder of importance.
Discussion
Some of the extracted SRL factors, including planning,
environment structuring, and time management are closelyaligned with the factors cited in the existing research literature.
Closely related to the oft-cited goal setting in the relevant
studies are planning and scheduling, time management, anddeadline consciousness, which can be put into practice, withthe goal in mind. The degree to which the learners employed
and adapted most of the above-described metacognitive SRL
strategies contributed to their perception of web-based
4.

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The Impact of COVID-19 on Student Emotions and Resilience
Lauren Landsberry*, Gretchen Clark** and Ayami Kato****Ohka Gakuen University
laurenlandsberry@gmail.com**Kyoto Notre Dame University
clark@notredame.ac.jp***Ohka Gakuen University
a-kato@ohkagakuen-u.ac.jp
Emotions drive us; our studies, careers and relationships. They influence our decisions, who we are, how we think
about things and how we live. The COVID-19 pandemic has increased stress, disruption and confusion foreveryone, including our students. In 2020, many plans for study abroad were cancelled or postponed indefinitely,
English classes and other subjects were moved online and job-hunting for many became almost impossible. This
presentation explores the emotional responses Japanese university students have toward the disruption caused by
COVID-19. A questionnaire using closed and open-ended questions was administered using Google Forms. The
participants were students in central Japan who were in varying stages of their degrees at a private university, andjunior college. The questionnaire aimed to investigate how the students felt about different aspects of their current
student life and how their emotions influenced their plans for their future. By understanding how our students feel
about their current and future lives, we can be more empathetic and attuned to their needs. We can also provide
emotional support, help them build self-esteem and promote autonomy both inside and outside the classroom. Also,
we can help them deal with stressors that they may be facing, help them to build resilience and give them the best
opportunity to reach their full potential.
Keywords: COVID-19, emotions, resilience, support
1. Introduction
Without question, the spread of COVID-19 across theglobe has altered our way of life considerably. These dayssocial distancing, use of masks, and handwashing arecommonplace in Japan. For many people, daily activities suchas going to work or school, social activities, and even eatingout have been completely abandoned or interrupted due tofear of contracting COVID-19 or to comply withgovernmental social isolation mandates. Furthermore, theimpact of COVID-19 on our young people, the nature of theircurrent studies and outlook on their future is great. This study
seeks to find out specific details of how academic life wasaltered during the 2020 academic year for students at auniversity and junior college in central Japan. The study also
explores how the students feel about several areas of theiracademic lives, the support they feel they have or can ask forand their feelings about individual ability to overcome
adversity caused by COVID-19. Understanding the emotional
status of our students is essential if we, as teachers, hope toencourage and help them build resilience in regard to theiracademic pursuits during these trying times.
The phenomenon of resilience building in spite of adverse
circumstances has been explored extensively with children
living in economically disadvantaged areas. Masten et al.
(1990) found that strong support systems and individual
personality factors contributed to emotional strength in timesof crisis. Furthermore, framing a threat in a positive way isalso a skill of a resilient child (Claro et al, 2016). Looking
within and being able to granularly identify specific emotions
within the most reported ‘umbrella’ emotions such as:
happiness, sadness, or anger is also a strength of the mostemotionally agile (David, 2016). Finally, the magnitude andperceived length of exposure to a threat also determines one’s
ability to overcome it. Bonanno (2005) found that people who
experienced a brief traumatic event such as the death of a

loved one, showed a surprising capacity to grow and thrive.
2. The Study
The greater purpose of the study was to explore student
emotions and resilience in response to adversities caused by
the COVID-19 pandemic.
2.1 The Research Questions
A number of questions were administered to the students
in order to collect data for four research questions.
RQ1. What hardships did the students experience during the2020 academic year as a result of the spread of COVID-19?
RQ2. What specific emotion do students attach to different
aspects of their current and future lives?
RQ3. What support do the students have or feel they can ask
for?
RQ4. Do the students feel they can solve any problems theyencounter on their own?
3. Methods
3.1 Data Collection and Analysis
In April 2021 an anonymous Japanese language
questionnaire titled “The Impact of COVID-19 on Student
Emotions and Resilience” was administered using Google
Forms. Participation was completely voluntary.
3.2 The Questionnaire
The questionnaire consisted of four sections:● Section 1 - COVID-19 and your student life
● Section 2 - Feelings regarding current lifestyle● Section 3 - Emotions regarding future events● Section 4 - Overcoming the adverse effects of
COVID-19
The majority of the questions were required Likert-type
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questions with optional open-ended questions.

suitable career (54.2%) and ability to find a job (45.0%).

3.3 Participants
A total of 295 responses were received. The participants
were students in the second to fourth years of their degree, amix of majors and attended a women’s private university andjunior college in central Japan.

4.4 Overcoming the Adverse Effects of COVID-19
When asked how supported they felt by the people in theirlives, the top three responses showed they felt either extremely
supported and very supported by their families (88%), friends(87.49%), teachers (60.9%). Support from seniors/juniors
was minimal (26.3%). As social support affects students’happiness (Horiuchi et al., 2015), the importance of these
support networks is immeasurable.
The students also felt they could ask for support either
always and/or often from their families (90.1%), friends(86.3%), and teachers (64.3%). Data show that the least
support received or thought to be attainable is from thehierarchical relationship of seniors/juniors (17.5%). Other
responses showed that 46.1% of students felt supported bytheir part-time job coworkers/boss (46.1%) and 66.6% felt
they could ask them for support.
To further explore the students’ level of agency during thetime of COVID-19, they were asked if they felt they can solve
problems themselves. The majority of students indicated theyfelt confident to overcome problems concerning their families(95.9%), friends (94.5%), teachers (85.3%), academic studies
in general (84.9%) technical issues connected to studies(71.3%) and seniors/juniors (58.6%).

4. Results and Discussion
4.1 COVID-19 and Your Student Life
When participants were asked how has COVID-19 affectedyour student life?, the top three responses were some face-toface classes were moved online for a time (86.4%), theuniversity festival was moved online (80.7%), and the use ofschool facilities were limited for a time (69.5%).
4.2 Feelings Regarding Current LifestyleRather than a numerical Likert scale, respondents chosefrom several emotions: sad, afraid/fear, worried, confused,
happy, excited, confident, satisfied and no strong positive or
negative feeling. As participants were able to choose morethan one emotion, totals for this section do not equal 100%.
The most common emotion concerning COVID-19 was
fear. Two hundred twenty-nine participants (77.6%) said thatthey were afraid of contracting it themselves, 187 (63.3%)
were afraid that a friend would contract it and 219 (74.2%)
were afraid that a family member would contract it.
In regard to their academic life, the emotion worry was themost prevalent across all items: classes (59.6%), my grades(53.8%), completing assignments on time (46.1%),
completing assignments well (54.9%), obtaining credits tograduate (47.7%), using a computer for assignments (36.9%),
and using the university LMS (38.6%).
When asked about relationships, the respondents reported
no strong or positive feeling and satisfied with relationships
with family (34.9%/51.5%), friends (27.1%/44.7%), andteachers (49.1%/33.5%). The top two feelings about
relationships with seniors/juniors was also no strong positiveor negative feeling (58.9%) followed by worry (16.9%).
Concerning feelings about extra-curricular life,
participants said they felt worried (38.3%) and satisfied(29.1%) about their part-time work. The majority of responses
for emotions to university club/circle was fear (60.6%). Thiscan be seen in one respondent’s comment, “I feel anxious, aseven if I want to participate in volunteer activities or my parttime job there is a chance I will contract COVID-19.”
The most common emotion toward internship, teacher
training, and other degree requirements was worry (62.7%).
As one student said, “I feel only impatient and anxious about
my future as I can’t go to practical training.” This isunderstandable, as many study abroad programs, internships
and practical training have been cancelled or postponed dueto the pandemic.

5. Conclusion
Students reported several negative emotions including
fear, worry and anxiousness toward different aspects of theirlife during the COVID-19 pandemic. Students’ main support
networks are family, friends and teachers. They also reported
an ability to problem-solve on their own. However, without aclear end to the health crisis of COVID-19, one must develop
and maintain a resilient mindset in order to handle it in an
emotionally healthy way. Instructors can aid in this process
by inquiring about and being mindful of student struggles, inaddition to offering support, especially within the academic
context during this time of COVID-19.
References
Bonanno, G.A. (2005). Resilience in the face of potential trauma.
Current Directions in Psychological Science. 14(3), 135138. doi: 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00347.x
Claro, S., Paunesku, D., & Dweck, C. S. (2016). Growth mindset
tempers the effects of poverty on academic achievement.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,113(31), 8664–8668. doi:10.1073/pnas.1608207113
David, S. (2016). Emotional agility: Get unstuck, embrace change,
and thrive in work and life. Penguin.
Horiuchi, S., Tsuda, A., Toyoshima, N., Tong, Liu., Iwano, S., Doi,
S. & Sakano, Y. (2015). Relationship of cognitive
appraisal and coping with subjective happiness inJapanese college students. Hellenic Journal of Psychology
12, 1-13. Retrieved from https://pseve.org/wpcontent/uploads/2018/03/Volume12_issue1_Horiuchi.pdf
Masten, A., Best, K. and Garmezy, N. (1990). Resilience anddevelopment: Contributions from the study of children
who overcome adversity. Development andPsychopathology, 2. 425-444. doi:
10.1017/S095457940005812

4.3 Emotions Regarding Future Events
When asked about their emotions regarding future events,
the top three areas the students felt anxious about were ability
to prepare for job hunting (56.9%), ability to choose a

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Identifying and Addressing Pragmatic Failure in a Learner Corpus ofRequest-Based Emails
Allan Nicholas, John Blake and Maxim Mozgovoy
University of Aizu
{anich, jblake, mozgovoy}@u-aizu.ac.jp
Abstract
Email remains the pre-eminent form of written communication in academic and professional contexts.
However, few learners receive support for the pragmatic aspect of communication- the need to adapt
language according to varying social contexts. A first step is to systematically identify pragmatics-related
problems that occur in learner emails. A corpus-based approach is one possible way of achieving this; todate, however, few corpora identify learner pragmatic failure, due to the inherent degree of subjectivity in
identifying pragmatic failure in texts, making automatic corpus annotation challenging. This paper
reports on an ongoing project regarding Japanese learners’ English L2 request email writing with the
purpose of identifying instances of pragmatic failure, frequency of failure types, and perceived severity.
Approximately 1,300 email texts were elicited from undergraduate participants (n=426) at a public
university in Japan. Participants carried out four email tasks in class, with each task scenario varying in
the values of power (P), distance (D) and rank of imposition (R). A coding scheme was manually applied
to the text data by expert English-speaking annotators, adapted from the Cross-Cultural Study of Speech
Act Realization Patterns project for use with email texts. Preliminary results show high-frequency
pragmatic failure categories to include failure to follow generic conventions regarding formatting andexpected rhetorical moves, such as opening and pre-closing statements. Pragmatic failure related todirectness, such as the inappropriate usage of imperatives in the head act, was also frequent. A ranked listof failure categories was created based on frequency and perceived severity by the annotators. This list
can help teachers of email writing focus on helping learners avoid these errors and develop theirpragmatic competence.
Keywords: pragmatics, email writing, corpus
1.

Introduction
In this study, we report on the creation of a specialized
learner corpus of English L2 email texts, manually annotatedfor instances of perceived pragmatic failure. We provide an
overview of the corpus development process, andpreliminary findings from analysis of a sample of the corpus
data, with possible classroom implications.

In this current ongoing project, we describe a corpus-based
approach to identifying perceived instances of pragmatic
failure in Japanese EFL learners’ emails. While corpora
have been used to identify formal features of language, few
have focused on pragmatics or pragmatic failure in learners.
This is in part due to the difficulty in automaticallyannotating a corpus for pragmatic features, due to theirsubjective nature. Manual annotation is, therefore, necessary,
though may be time-consuming and resource-intensive.

2.

Background
Email remains a primary mode of digitalcommunication in both academia and professional contexts(Chen, 2015; Cho, 2010; Economidou-Kogetsidis, 2011).
Emailing in English has also been identified as a key task
students should be able to carry out at the institution inwhich the current study takes place (Kaneko et al., 2018). It
can be a challenging form of communication for many
Japanese EFL learners. Social context can influence
language choices, with varying norms regarding levels of
directness and formality. Further, described as a “hybrid
medium” of communication (Baron, 2010), with elements ofboth spoken and written communication, emailing requires
knowledge of mode-specific norms and expectations.
Learners, then, may need assistance when constructing
English L2 email texts. However, there is little support
available for the pragmatic– the interplay between context
and language choices– element of email communication.
Failure to adhere to pragmatic norms may have negativesocial consequences (Economidou-Kogetisidis, 2015; Savic,2018).
In order to address this issue and provide support for
the learner, it is first necessary to identify the specificaspects of email writing that learners find most challenging.

3.

Method

3.1 Context
Data was collected at a Japanese computer science
university. Approximately 40% of faculty are non-native
Japanese speakers, with English as a lingua franca. Being
able to write pragmatically appropriate English L2 emails tofaculty, therefore, is important for students. Participants
were undergraduate Japanese students enrolled at theinstitution, aged 18-22 years.
3.2 Data collection
Data collection focused on request-based emails
specifically. As an inherently face-threatening act (FTA;
Brown & Levinson, 1987), requesting can be particularly
challenging for learners. Data was elicited via a set of tasks
administered via Google Forms in the classroom. In creatingtasks, initially an exemplar generation questionnaire wasadministered to a sample of the student population, asking
respondents for examples of times they have needed to makea request in their academic or daily lives. Results wereranked by frequency, with the most frequent scenarios used
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as task templates. Tasks were assigned – or + values forPower (P), Distance (D), and Rank of imposition (R; Brown& Levinson, 1987; see Table 1) by the researchers, and weremoderated by expert English users to ensure validity andagreement on assigned P, D and R values. Four final tasks
were selected, each with differing P, D and R values to vary
the challenge. Tasks were administered to 426 participants,
with approximately 1,300 usable texts elicited.

can show a ranking in terms of importance for educators in
the language classroom.
Identified pragmatic failure of high importance can begrouped into two main types- i) those relating to openings
and closings, and ii) those relating to the realization of therequest itself. Openings, for example, may include a greetingand the recipient’s name and title. Closings refer to the final
portion of an email, which can include a closing salutation
and/or the sender’s name. In Table 1, then, we can see that a
number of high-importance instances of pragmatic failure
relate to openings and closings- “no recipient name” relates
to the opening, for example, while “no closing
salutation/name” refers to the closing. These types ofpragmatic failure may be amenable to classroom instruction(Chen, 2015; Economidou-Kogetsidis, 2015). However, anumber of highly ranked instances of pragmatic failure
relate to content moves regarding requesting- these include
the use of an imperative and the use of a “want” statement torealize a request. Research to date shows these aspects of L2
English email writing to be less responsive to instruction(Chen, 2015; Economidou-Kogetsidis, 2015).

3.3 Data analysis
As part of the ongoing study, an initial 10% of the
corpus text data was analyzed, using a coding scheme basedon the Cross-Cultural Study of Speech Act Realization
Patterns (Blum-Kulka et al., 1984) framework for speech act
analysis, adapted request-based emails. The coding scheme
was applied manually by two expert English users, andinter-rater agreement checked. Identified instances ofperceived pragmatic failure were then analyzed in terms offrequency and perceived severity by the researchers. Results
are shown in Table 1, ranked overall for highest combined
scores of severity and frequency.
Table 1
Perceived severity of identified instances of pragmatic failure andtheir frequency in participants’ request-based emails
Error type
S F
Total
No recipient name55
10
No closing salutation /name
4
5
9
No pre-closing
358
Imperative used53
8
No or insufficient external modifiers
358
No title
5
2
7
Head act- ‘want’ statement
52
7
No greeting4
3
7
No self-introduction when needed42
6
No self-introduction & no name in closing
4
2
6

Acknowledgements
This research is supported by a JSPS KAKENHI (Grants-in-aid for
Scientific Research), Grant Number 19K00826.
References
Baron, N. (2010). Discourse Structures in Instant Messaging: The
Case of Utterance Breaks. Language@internet, 7, article 4.
Blum-Kulka, S., House, J., & Kasper, G. (1989). Cross-cultural
pragmatics: Requests and apologies. Ablex Publishing
Corporation.
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: Some Universals
in Language Use. Cambridge University Press.
Chen, Y. (2015). Developing Chinese EFL learners’ email literacy
through requests to faculty. Journal of Pragmatics, 75, 131–149.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2014.05.009
Cho, T. (2010). Linguistic Features of Electronic Mail in the
Workplace: A Comparison with memoranda.
Language@internet, 7, article 3.
Economidou-Kogetsidis, M. (2011). “Please answer me as soon as
possible”: Pragmatic failure in non-native speakers’ e-mailrequests to faculty. Journal of Pragmatics, 43(13), 3193–3215.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2011.06.006
Economidou-Kogetsidis, M. (2015). Teaching email politeness inthe EFL/ESL classroom. ELT Journal, 69(4), 415–424.
https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccv031
Economidou-Kogetsidis, M. (2016). Variation in evaluations of the(im)politeness of emails from L2 learners and perceptions of
the personality of their senders. Journal of Pragmatics, 106, 1–
19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2016.10.001
Kaneko, E., Park, M., Wilson, I., Roy, D., Heo, Y., Yasuta, T., …
Nicholas, A. (2018). English curriculum innovation forcomputer science majors in the Japanese EFL context: Fromneeds to tasks. In Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International
Professional Communication Conference (pp. 84–89).
Savic, M. (2018). Lecturer perceptions of im/politeness andin/appropriateness in student e-mail requests: A Norwegian
perspective. Journal of Pragmatics, 124, 52–72.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2017.12.005

Body runs on from greeting2
4
6
Head act- ‘would like’ statement
41
5
Head act- ‘need’ statement
41
5
Head act- ‘would/ could /can’325
Greeting- ‘hello’
235
No or insufficient internal modifiers
1
4
5
Greeting- ‘nice to meet…’
3
1
4
Inappropriate closing
3
1
4
Inappropriate pre-closing
3
1
4
Head act- performative
2
2
4
Opening- inappropriate name, office2
1
3
Greeting- ‘dear my friend’
112Greeting- given name112
Note: Severity (S) is assigned a score of 1-5, with 5 being most
severe. Frequency (F) is assigned a score of 1-5, with 5 being mostfrequently identified in the analyzed portion of the corpus data.

4.

Discussion and Conclusion
Preliminary analysis of the corpus text data provides
an insight into the types of perceived pragmatic failure
identified in the participants’ emails. By assigning scores forseverity and frequency, and then combining those scores, we

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Quadrant Representation of L2 Motivation and School Belonging Overthe First Year of University Students
Tetsuya Fukuda
International Christian University
tfukuda@icu.ac.jp
Abstract
In this study, the tendencies and the trajectories of first-year university students’ L2 motivation (MOT)and school belonging (SB) were investigated. Four types of perceptual pattern of L2 motivation andschool belonging were conceptualized: high MOT and high SB; low MOT and low SB; high MOT and
low SB; and low MOT and high SB. The survey data were collected from 540 students in four universities(Universities A, B, C, and D) three times during one academic year (Time 1, Time 2, and Time 3) andanalyzed using the quadrant. The students generally lost motivation to study English and affiliation toschool over the year, consistent with previous studies. However, the four universities showed different
patterns of changes. In addition to the survey, interviews with 11 students from three universities wereconducted to examine the factors at the individual level. As a result of the analysis of the interview data,
it was found that despite the general tendencies of their universities, individual differences were
noticeable.
Keywords: L2 motivation, school belonging, first-year university students, qualitative analysis
Introduction
In this study, the changes of first-year university students
in their perception of learning English (L2 motivation) andaffiliation to their university (school belonging) were
investigated at the school level and at the individual level.
Each university showed a different pattern of changes, andindividual students showed different patterns in each
university.
The two main factors in this study are L2 motivation andschool belonging. L2 motivation is defined as the degree towhich second language learners enjoy and are actively
engaged in the learning endeavor, including both the amountof time and effort the learners are investing as well as thelearners’ vision of being involved in the community of thetarget language. School belonging is defined as the extent towhich students feel accepted and supported by their teachers,
staff, and other students, and how they generally feel about
the school as a whole.

negative perceptions both about school and language learning,
Type 3 refers to those who had positive perceptions of schooland negative perceptions of language learning, and Type 4
refers to those who had negative perceptions of school andpositive perceptions of language learning. Figure 1 shows therepresentation of the four types described above. Considering
the close relationships between L2 motivation and school
belonging, it was expected that many participants would be
categorized into Type 1 and Type 2, but some of them would
go to Type 3 and Type 4, too.

1.

Figure 1
Representation of four types of perception of school belonging andL2 motivation.

Methods
The research was conducted at four universities in easternJapan, referred to as University A, University B, University C,
and University D. The data were collected through surveys
and interviews three times in the academic year of 2018: June
and July of 2018, October and November of 2018, andJanuary and February of 2019. 540 first-year students fromthe four universities participated in the surveys and 11 of themfrom three universities except for University D participated in
the interviews.
The two surveys consisting of 57 four-point Likert scalequestion items were prepared. The school belonging survey
consisted of 23 items and the L2 motivation survey consistedof 34 items. Interview questions were also prepared based on
the survey items (See Fukuda, 2020, for the list of items andquestions).
The participants in this study were categorized into fourtypes, depending on their evaluative content in terms ofschool belonging and L2 motivation. Type 1 refers to theparticipants who made positive comments both about schooland language learning, Type 2 refers to those who had
2.

Results
The responses to the Likert-scale items in the surveys
were collected from 540 participants and the means of thefour universities were calculated for three times (See Fukuda,
2020, for details). Figure 2 shows the representation ofgeneral school belonging and L2 motivation levels of each of
the four universities at three times. When I divided these meanscores into positive and negative groups, I found that in mostcases, positive school belonging was associated with positive
L2 motivation and negative school belonging was associated3.

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with negative L2 motivation. Each university showed aunique pattern of changes. The participants at University A
generally felt higher levels of school belonging and L2
motivation at Time 1 and Time 2, but both went down at Time
3. The participants at University C generally felt higher levelsof school belonging and L2 motivation at Time 1, but bothwent down at Time 2 and Time 3. The two exceptions were
University B at Time 3 and University D at Time 3. The
participants at University B felt relatively lower levels of L2
motivation throughout the year, but their school belonging
level went up at Time 3. The participants at University D felt
high levels of L2 motivation throughout the year, but theirschool belonging level went down at Time 3.

Figure 3
Placement of the interview participants at three times in four typesof perception of school belonging and L2 motivation.

Figure 2
Placement of the universities at three times in four types ofperception of school belonging and L2 motivation based onquestionnaires.

Conclusion
The questionnaire results revealed that the four
universities in this study showed different patterns in thegeneral tendencies of the students’ L2 motivation and school
belonging. Each school seems to have their own
characteristics. Almost all the language teachers, especiallythose who have taught English at different universities, havenoticed that there are distinct school cultures and we often
take them into consideration when we teach. The quadrant
placement of the interviewees in this study also revealed that
individual differences are large within schools. At a school
where students are generally highly affiliated to school andmotivated to study English, we inevitably have those who feelless affiliation and motivation, and vice versa. As a language
teacher, we should keep in mind not only that our school has
a general tendency in the students’ feelings of affiliation andmotivation, but that a variety of students who may not fit thedescription of the averages are studying side by side in ourclasses.
4.

The 11 interviewees’ general school belonging and L2
motivation have been indicated by putting them into one of
the four types of the quadrant categorization and theirpositions are indicated in Figure 3. The participants’ names
are all pseudonyms and the letters after the names are theuniversities that they were attending. In the interviews, it was
found that students can have diverse perceptions of schooland language learning, and their individual trajectories can bedifferent from the general tendency of their university. For
example, as was seen in Figure 2, the participants in
University B generally felt low L2 motivation and school
belonging at Time 1 and Time 2, but their school belonging
level went up at Time 3, although their L2 motivation levelremained low. The two interview participants in University B,
however, showed a different pattern. Riku and Haruto showed
a positive attitude toward learning English and their school,
and their attitudes remained positive throughout the year.

Notes
This paper presents part of the large study I conducted for the degree
I obtained at Temple University Japan Campus in 2020. For thedetails of the study design and data analysis, see Fukuda (2020).
Fukuda, T. (2020). School belonging and L2 motivation of first-year
students at four Japanese universities (Publication No.
28027020) [Doctoral dissertation, Temple University]. ProQuest
Dissertations and Theses Global.

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Foreign Language Education Reform Through Action Research:
Putting CEFR Educational Principles into PracticeMaria Gabriela Schmidt*, Gregory C. Birch** and Jack V. Bower****Nihon University
schmidt@chs.nihon-u.ac.jp**Seisen Jogakuin College
gbirch@seisen-jc.ac.jp***Tezukayama University
jack.victor.bower@gmail.com
Abstract
This research presentation reports on a project concerning the CEFR and Action Research (AR) that isfunded by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) (Note 1). The project, undertaken by
the JALT CEFR & Language Portfolio Special Interest Group, aims to facilitate numerous small-scaleaction research projects related to foreign language teaching in Japan. Practitioners who were invited toparticipate in the project are reflecting on and finding ways to improve their teaching practice using the
CEFR as a reference and conceptual tool, and are being provided with support and guidance to ensurethat their research is conducted systematically in relation to the AR literature and reflective of CEFR
principles. The project proposes a CEFR-focused Action Research Model (CARM) based on a criticalreview of AR literature. This short paper gives a brief introduction to the CEFR, followed by anoverview of AR models from the literature. Finally, a novel CEFR-focused AR is introduced.
Keywords: CEFR, action research, practitioner-researcher
1.

Introduction
The Common European Framework of Reference for
languages (CEFR) (COE, 2001; 2020) is increasingly being
used as a conceptual and reference tool to guide educational
reform and practice in Japan. The educational principles
promoted in the CEFR serve as the theoretical foundation
for discussions on educational reform, and the CEFR
reference levels and illustrative descriptors serve as themetalanguage for discussing “the complexity of language
proficiency … and to reflect on learning objectives andoutcomes that should be coherent and transparent” (COE,
2020, p. 11). For teachers, the most appropriate use of the
CEFR needs to be examined through classroom-based
research that is conducted systematically, rigorously, andinformed by the action research (AR) literature. This paper
proposes a CEFR-focused Action Research Model (CARM)
to support practitioner-researchers.

3.

The CEFR-focused AR Model (CARM)
Our CEFR-focused AR model is designed specificallyfor action research that intends improvements in practicefollowing the CEFR philosophy and core concepts (such as
the action-oriented approach, learner/teacher autonomy, andthe coherent alignment of curriculum, teaching, learning andassessment), and utilizing the global scales, self-assessment
grid, and illustrative scaled descriptors.
CARM consists of the following three stages:
Stage 1: Plan – Preparing for and developing a
research plan
Stage 2: Action – Trying out new ideas / Making anintervention
Stage 3: Critical review – Analyzing research results
and examining the entire AR cycle
The CARM Model is similar to Kemmis and
McTaggart’s (1988) model in that a concrete solution to ateaching-learning issue is specified in the planning stage,
and the action plan is then implemented and its effectivenessmonitored through data collection and analysis.
The model differs from previous AR models in three
ways. First, it is specifically designed for AR that tries toimprove current practice in accordance with the tenets of the
CEFR. Second, the ‘reflection’ stage, which is typically the
final stage in most models, was incorporated into each stage- a stance shared by Burns (2010, p. 141). Last, simple, anddescriptive terms were used in each stage to avoid theconfusion we experienced when comparing different
models.
Following Mills (2018) and Mertler (2020), detailed
guidance is also provided in each stage of CARM to ensure
the research is conducted systematically and rigorously. For
example, stage 1 consists of 8 steps to develop a research
plan.

2.

Different AR Models
Comparing different AR models is challenging as key
terms and the contents of each step within the models aredefined differently. According to Mills (2018) and Mertler(2020), AR research must be conducted systematically andrigorously so that information can be collected, analyzed,
and used to develop a future plan of action. In contrast,
Kemmis and McTaggart (1998) argue that planning andputting into action some deliberate intervention precedes thesystematic observation of and reflection on the effects of theaction. Regardless of which model one draws upon, “(t)hecentral idea of the action part of AR is to intervene in adeliberate way in the problematic situation in order to bringabout changes and, even better, improvements in practice”(Burns, 2010, p. 2).

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Mills, G.E. (2018). Action research: A guide for the teacher
researcher. (6th ed.). Pearson.
Nagai, N., Birch, G.C., Bower, J.V., & Schmidt, M.G. (2020).
CEFR-informed learning, teaching and assessment: A practicalguide. Springer Nature.

(1) Select a CEFR-focused AR theme(2) Reflect on current practice and teaching theory(3) Gather data (e. g. class observation notes) to see what
problems exist(4) Review related literature(5) Identify specific problems / issues and formulate a
research question or questions(6) Propose solutions based on CEFR
(7) Decide on a research design (Determine what data /research methodology are necessary to examine
proposed solution)(8) Consider research ethics
It must be pointed out that users may not proceed
through these steps sequentially.
A detailed introduction to the model can be found in(Birch et al., 2021), which includes a description of why
action research is the perfect vehicle for teachers tosystematically research putting CEFR educational principles
into practice, as well as a critical outline of the CEFR basedon the outcome of another KAKEN research project (Nagai
et al., 2020).
4.

Conclusion
This presentation briefly introduced the CEFR-focused
AR Model, a product of the first year of a KAKEN project.
The project seeks to (1) promote AR as a method to improvea learning / teaching situation using the CEFR, (2) help
teachers develop the ability to conduct AR systematicallyand rigorously in their teaching context(s), and (3) examine
the viability of the CARM model in the second year throughnumerous small-scale AR projects. Detailed information canbe found on the CEFR & LP SIG homepage (See Note 2).
Notes
1.

2.

JSPS Grant-in-Aid research project (Kaken) (2020-2022)
No. 20K00759 「アクションリサーチの手法を用いた言語教育改善: CEFR の教育理念を参考にして」.
The CEFR & Language Portfolio (LP) SIG is a special
interest group within The Japan Association for
Language Teaching (JALT). For more information on the
SIG and KAKEN, visit https://cefrjapan.net/kaken-5.

Acknowledgement
This research was conducted by the support of JSPS Grant-in-Aid
research project (Kaken) (2020-2022) No. 20K00759 「アクションリサーチの手法を用いた言語教育改善: CEFR の教育理念を参考にして」.
References
Birch, G., Nagai, N., Bower, J.V., & Schmidt, M.G. (2021).
Foreign language education reform through action research.
Putting CEFR educational principles into practice. Manuscript
submitted for publication.
Burns, A. (2010). Doing action research in English language
teaching - A guide for practitioners. (ESL & Applied
Linguistics Professional Series) (1st ed.). Routledge.
Council of Europe. (2001). The common European framework ofreference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment.
Council of Europe.
Council of Europe. (2020). The common European framework ofreference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment.
Companion volume with new descriptors. Council of Europe.
Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R. (eds.). (1988). The action researchplanner. (3rd ed.). Deakin University Press.
Mertler, C.A. (2020). Action research. Improving schools andempowering educators. (6th ed.). Sage Publishing.
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ONLINE THEATRE – A LEARNING TOOL FOR EAPMichael Ashton Walker
Asia University
michael@asia-u.ac.jp
Abstract
With the spate of theatre currently being streamed online, a unique opportunity has arisen to incorporate
professionally filmed plays into academic teaching. As opposed to movies, which construct their stories
through image manipulation, theatre relies on unedited human emotion to convey meaning and its
immediacy can provide an ideal platform for exploring topics in an academic syllabus. By adopting
recorded productions into the EAP classroom, coursebook units such as Socialisation, Anthropology,
Political Science and Business Ethics are dramatically contextualised, subsequently promoting an
integrated learning approach that encourages both intellectual and emotional engagement from thestudents. Additionally, the supplementation of textbook work with theatre clips allows students todevelop personalised associations with the issues being explored, thereby fostering greater authenticity inboth class activities and assignments. Ultimately, this provides a platform for heightened levels of criticalthinking, the nurturing of which is one of the core objectives of any EAP curriculum. This practicalpresentation will look at how the National Theatre’s production of ‘Frankenstein’ was used in a freshmanacademic class to supplement a textbook reading chapter on ‘Socialisation’ before concluding with a listof online resources that offer access to filmed theatre productions.
Keywords: English for Academic Purposes, online theatre, contextualization, critical thinking,integrated learning, practical creativity
Introduction
Due to the significant health risks brought about by
COVID-19, theatres worldwide were forced to close theirdoors in 2020. When the long-term necessity of their closure
became evident, companies began exploring alternativemeans of presenting their work. Online theatre emerged as a
viable substitution for performing live and has subsequently
created greater accessibility among non-traditional theatre
viewers. It has also led to unprecedented opportunities toincorporate digital theatre into education.

formulate their own unique response. Subsequently, a more
personalized learning experience occurs where students areencouraged to collaborate in the construction of meaning
and thereby “reinforce the relevance of ideas that are
identified as fundamental to learning” (Brennan & Pearce,2009).

1.

2.2 Authentic
Secondly, and by extension of the first point,
supplementing EAP coursework with exposure to theatre
promotes increased classroom authenticity. Due to the
dynamic verisimilitude of performance, students can form
deeper levels of identification with an issue that has been
elevated from the purely theoretical. This results in analysis
and discussion taking on a feeling of authenticity andanchoring the communicative process in a ‘real-life’ context(Winston, 2012, p.15). Perhaps more importantly, theprocess of authentic engagement becomes a crucial step in
encouraging critical thinking in both classroom activities
and assessments. The danger is that without exposure to thepolysemic experience of dramatic analysis, output tasks suchas essays and presentations run the risk of becoming astagnant reproduction of literal material.

Online theatre in the EAP classroom
English for Academic Purposes (EAP) may not seem alikely platform for adopting online theatre as a learning tool,
but in fact the correlation between their respective thematic
explorations provides an ideal integration. This is largely
due to the more contextualized nature of EAP, wherelanguage learning is intended to achieve real world
objectives that require specific linguistic competencies(Basturkman, 2010, p. 8). Discipline-related topics covering
the sciences, the arts, ethics and education serve as
frameworks for fostering not only linguistic development,
but also critical thinking. Similarly, such subject matters arealso explored in theatre, but from a more emotive
perspective where character engagement acts as the vehicle
for revealing a play’s thematic foundation. The process ofaligning EAP coursework with a dramatized theatricalinterpretation creates numerous enhanced learning
opportunities for those studying academic English.
2.

2.3 Holistic
Another advantage to utilizing theatre in an EAPenvironment is it contextualizes learning, the importance of
which has been documented across a wide range of language
research. Neelands (1998) found that to understand any typeof spoken content, awareness of how the situation had been
historically, socially and culturally shaped was necessary.
Likewise, Halliday’s (1978) seminal framework operates on
the near identical premise that language is a sociallyconstructed system.

2.1 Associative
The first benefit of incorporating online theatre
content into EAP work is it allows a more associative
approach to the course material. This is because theatre
constructs its meaning through human behavior which isoften ambiguous. Students, in being afforded the space toengage with an issue that has not been definitively curated
via lecture notes or a reading, are given permission to

We do not experience language in isolation…
but always in relation to a scenario, somebackground of persons and actions and events
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from which the things which are said derive
their meaning. This is referred to as the“situation”, so language is said to function in“contexts of situation” and any account oflanguage which fails to build in the situation
as an essential ingredient is likely to artificial
and unrewarding.
(Halliday, 1978, pp. 28-29)

risk in selecting a piece that does not appropriately
incorporate these elements is it will confuse the students
about their intended learning and likely reduce the quality of
their output.
3.2 Assessment
Once suitability of the play has been established,
another key consideration lies in how the piece will befactored into a final grade. Whilst there are undeniable
benefits to supplementing EAP coursework with digitaltheatre, the underlying objective is ultimately to improveacademic skills. The question therefore arises, how much, ifany, of the actual theatre content is required to be referenced
in assessable tasks? Is it there to simply deepen student
understanding or will it form an integral part of their grading
criteria? It is important there is a clear sense of purpose
around what exactly is intended with the inclusion oftheatrical content in an EAP curriculum.

To avoid the demotivating impact of language learning
becoming ‘artificial’ and ‘unrewarding’ (or in other words,
reducing authenticity), contextualization is essential. By
providing students with clarity on how a topic correlates tosituations beyond those found in a textbook, they are allowed
to develop a macro-perspective that shapes learning into aholistic experience. The theoretical design of a syllabus
expands to include not just cognition, but also emotional
intelligence, kinesthetic learning and visual stimuli, all ofwhich become “different points of entry into the work anddifferent ways of becoming involved”. (Nicholson, 2000,
p.179)

Conclusion
It comes as no surprise that until now, ESL classrooms
have offered students little in the way of exposure to theatre.
The combination of logistical challenges, high costs anduncertainty around implementing it into coursework, hasseen theatre viewing remain largely ignored as a learning
tool. However, with the emergence of digital theatre and thevastly improved accessibility this platform offers, educators
have a unique opportunity to integrate dramatized stage
work into their teachings. As has been highlighted, there is aclear correlation between the thematic explorations of an
EAP syllabus and that of many theatre productions andcertainly this should warrant further exploration andresearch by practitioners of academic English looking to
make the classroom a more dynamic learning environment.
4.

2.4 Expansive
Finally, exposure to a powerful theatrical moment
gives students the opportunity to reflect and contemplate on
a topic beyond memorization. Unlike static information thathas been passively absorbed, an emotional response evokedfrom seeing characters on stage, has the potential to resonate
and enable self-generated insights. Such heightenedawareness creates a platform by which students garner the
potential to develop their own voice, and ultimatelytransforms the learning experience into an evolution of theiridentity. Casanave (2002) asserts that a student’s identity isin a constant state of negotiation and for EAP students, acore component of this evolution involves developing theskills and confidence to become critical thinkers. However,
without the culminative effect of association, authenticity
and context, it becomes very difficult to expand their senseof self beyond the cultural conditioning to which many ofthem have been exposed.

References
Basturkmen, H. (2010). Developing course in English for specificpurposes. Macmillan.
Brennan, R., & Pearce, G. (2009). Educational drama: A tool for
promoting marketing learning. International Journal ofManagement Education. 8(1).
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/252760770_Educatio
nal_drama_A_tool_for_promoting_marketing_learning
Casanave, C. P. (2002). Writing games: Multicultural case studiesof academic literary practices in higher education. Laurence
Erlbaum.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1978). Language as social semiotic: The social
interpretation of language and meaning. Edward Arnold.
Neelands, J. (1998). Structuring drama work: A handbook ofavailable forms in theatre and drama. Cambridge.
Neelands, J., & Goode, T. (2000). Structuring drama work: A
handbook of available forms in theatre and drama (2nd ed.).
Cambridge.
Nicholson, H. (2000). Drama, literacies and difference. In E.
Bearne, & V. Watson (Eds.), Where texts and children meet (pp.
113-122). Routledge.
Winston, J. (Ed.) (2012). Second language learning throughdrama: Practical techniques and applications. Routlege.

Implementation
Given online theatre has only recently emerged as a
viable source of content, a practical approach to utilizing itin an EAP classroom remains explorational. However, aswith the use of any supplementary material, certain criteria
should be considered for effective implementation.
3.

3.1 RelevanceThe choice of play requires careful thought, not only interms of thematic suitability, but also in how it will be used
to facilitate critical thinking. More specifically, key
questions need to be applied to the selection process such as
does the piece correlate with the specific learning objectivesof the curriculum? Are there scenes within the play that canbe directly connected to the topic? And finally, does thedramatic action lend itself to an examination of attitudes andvalues at a personal level? (Neelands & Goode, 2000). The

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Effects of Short-Term Study Abroad on Long-Term Motivation
Chiho Kobayashi
Tenri University
c-koba@sta.tenri-u.ac.jp
Abstract
This study attempts to examine the impact of short-term study abroad on Japanese university students'
long-term motivation to learn English and their attitudes over four years in the framework of the L2
Motivational Self System (Dörnyei, 2009). The participants were 13 sophomores who had attended athree-week program in the US. The data were collected five times over a period of more than two years.
A questionnaire was given to the students before their departure, 3 weeks after their return, 5 months later,and 11months later. A follow-up interview was conducted with the students to gain additional information,
5 months later, 11months later, and upon graduation. In the last interview, they were also asked to reflect
on their motivational levels over their four years of university studies. Their data were then comparedwith those obtained from the author's previous studies conducted with participants of longer-term overseas
programs. The results show that many students were able to maintain interest in English and keep a
positive attitude to the L2 community over time. However, while some students were able to maintain apositive self-image, a positive attitude toward English learning, and high levels of motivation, others
could not. Many internal and external factors affected the maintenance of these motivation and attitudes.
Keywords: study abroad, L2 Motivational Self System, motivation, Japanese university students
1.

Introduction
Research has shown that Japanese university students
experience fluctuations in motivation for learning English
over their four years of study, affected by many factors(Yashima & Arano, 2015). The author's previous studies (e.g.,
Kobayashi, 2017) found that studying abroad is a factor that
greatly impacts learners' motivation and attitudes toward L2
learning, even if the length of time abroad is short. However,given the dynamic and context-dependent nature of
motivation, it is uncertain whether learners can sustain theirmotivation after their return when support from theenvironment is no longer available. This study attempts to
examine the impact of short-term study abroad on Japanese
university students’ long-term motivation to learn English
and attitudes over four years in the framework of the L2
Motivational Self System (Dörnyei, 2009).
Specifically, four research questions were posed.
1. How does short-term study abroad affect theirmotivation and attitudes toward English learning
for Japanese university students?
2. How long do they sustain motivational andattitudinal changes after their return?
3. What conditions help sustain their motivational
and attitudinal changes?
4. How is the impact of short-term study abroad
compared with that of longer-term study abroad?

2.2 Material
A questionnaire was developed based on the one used
in a previous study (Taguchi et al., 2009). It consisted of threeparts. The first part asked about students’ experiences andperceived improvement in their English ability during theirstudy abroad. The second part asked about students’ attitudes
and motivation toward English learning, and the third part
asked about their backgrounds. Items in the second part of thequestionnaire were measured by six-point Likert scales. It
contained 69 items measuring 17 variables. The 17 variables
included criterion measure, ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self,family influence, instrumentality-promotion, instrumentalityprevention, linguistic self-confidence, attitudes to learning
English, travel orientation, fear of assimilation,
ethnocentrism, interest in the English language, English
anxiety, integrativeness, cultural interest, attitudes to L2
community, and attitudes to study abroad.
An interview guide was developed based on thequestionnaire. It contained 29 questions about the reasonsthat they participated in the program, experiences during
their study abroad, their perceived English ability, theirmotivation to learn English and attitudes, their experiencesof learning and using English after their return, thesignificance of the study abroad for their lives, their English
learning experiences prior to entering university, and theirfour years of university studies.

2. Method
2.1 Participants
The participants were 13 sophomores who majored in
English at a private university. Their average TOEIC scorebefore the departure was 383.85. There were 6 male students
and 7 female students. Only five of them had visited a foreigncountry previously. The students participated in a 3-weekprogram in an intensive English program affiliated with ajunior college in America from February through March intheir second year, as an elective course. The program was
tailored for them. In the program, they took classes in themorning, visited various places in the afternoon, and stayedwith their host family after school.

2.3 Procedure
This study consisted of five phases, which wereconducted in five different periods of time: before theirdeparture, 3 weeks, 5 months, 11months after their return,and upon graduation. The overall design of this study issummarized in Table 1. In order to elicit overall patterns of
their changes over time, the above questionnaire wasadministered to the students at four of the five phases: phase
1, phase 2, phase 3, and phase 4. A follow-up interview wasadministered to the students at three of the five phases-phrase 3, phase 4, and phase 5--for a deeper understandingof their responses. At phases 3-5, the students participated in
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a 40 to 50-minute semi-structured interview, in which theresearcher interviewed them individually using the interview
guide.

2.4 Data Analysis
Mean scores were calculated for each of the 17
variables, separately for each phase. For each variable, theFriedman test, a nonparametric repeated-measures test, wasfurther performed to examine if there were statisticallysignificant differences in students’ motivation and attitudes
between phases.
The interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatimby the researcher. The researcher read the transcripts line byline and identified recurring patterns. Their data were thencompared with those obtained from the author's previous
studies conducted with the students who participated in six
months or longer overseas programs (e.g., Kobayashi, 2017).

and motivation. Some students were able to maintain those,while others could not.
Various conditions affected the maintenance of positive
self-image, attitude to learning English, and motivation,
including experiences in America, opportunities to use
English in Japan, classroom experiences in Japan,
engagements in other things such as club activities and job
hunting, knowledge of how to study English or how to findopportunities to use English, career options, and previous
levels of motivation.
Among those factors, career options seemed toinfluence whether they continued to make efforts to improvetheir English skills. After coming back, many of themwanted to work using English, which helped them study
English hard, but in the face of the reality, most of themeventually had to give up the idea because of their low
English ability.
In contrast, the participants of longer-term overseas
programs were more greatly influenced by their overseas
experiences. Study abroad affected their future goals as wellas who they were.
Although most of the participants of the short-term
program had to give up the future goals of working using
English and put aside English learning during the job
hunting, they did not give it up completely. In fact, in the
final interviews, some of them stated that they would
continue to study English and to use English for private
purposes after they graduated.

3.

4.

Table 1: Research Design
Phase

Time

Method1

BeforeQuestionnaire

2

3 weeks later

Questionnaire

35 months later

Questionnaire, interview

4

11months later

Questionnaire, interview

5

Upon graduation

Interview

Results and Discussion
The results of the Freedman test show that statisticallysignificant differences were found in variables, such as
criterion measure, ideal L2 self, instrumentalityprevention, attitudes to learning English, interest in the
English language, English anxiety, integrativeness, andattitudes to L2 community. However, the differences were
found only between phases 1 and 2 in the variables, suchas criterion measure, ideal L2 self, and attitudes tolearning English. In contrast, the differences were found
not only between phases 1 and 2 but also between phases 1
and 4 in the variables, such as interest in the English
language and attitudes to L2 community.
The descriptive statistics of the questionnaire data andthe interview data show that before the study abroad, thestudents already had positive attitudes to the L2 communityand culture, and the English language, aspired to travel andwork using English. Right after coming back, their positive
attitudes in these aspects enhanced, even though theirEnglish use during the study abroad was limited and they
perceived their English proficiency improved only a little.
Moreover, they had more positive attitudes to learning
English and became able to visualize themselves as using
English for communication. As a result, they endeavored to
put more effort into studying English.
As time went by, many students were still able tomaintain interest in English and keep a positive attitude to
the L2 community. However, it was more difficult tomaintain positive self-image, attitude to learning English,

Conclusion
In conclusion, short-term overseas experiences havesome impact on students’ motivation and attitudes. However,long-term changes, in some aspects such as self-image,attitude to learning English, and motivation, differ
depending on the various conditions. In some cases, students
want to continue to study English to use English in theirprivate lives. In these cases, it can be said that study abroad
has a life-long impact.
References

Dörnyei, D. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In Z.
Dőrnyei, & E. Ushioda (Eds), Motivation, language identity,
and the L2 self (pp. 9-42). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Kobayashi, C. (2017). Intabyu chosa kara miru tanki ryugaku no
gaikokugo gakushu mochibeshon eno eikyo: Choki ryugaku tohikaku shite [Effects of short-term study abroad on L2 learning
motivation through interviews: A comparison with long-term
study abroad]. Tenri University Journal for Linguistics,
Literature, the Humanities, Social Sciences and Natural
Sciences, 69 (1), 1-30.
Taguchi, T., Magid, M., & Papi, M. (2009). The L2 motivationalself system among Japanese, Chinese, and Iranian learners ofEnglish: A comparative study. In Z. Dőrnyei, & E. Ushioda(Eds), Motivation, language identity, and the L2 self (pp. 4365). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Yashima, T., & K. Arano. (2015). Understanding EFL learners’
motivational dynamics: A three-level model from a dynamic
systems and sociocultural perspective. In Z. Dörnyei, P. D.
Maclntyre, & A. Henry (Eds), Motivational dynamics inlanguage learning (pp, 285-314). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.

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Question Types in PISA 2018 and in MEXT Approved English Textbooks:
Japanese Education Reform Resources
Hiroko Ueda
University College London Institute of Education
hiroko.ueda.18@ucl.ac.uk
Abstract
During 2020 and 2021, the COVID-19 pandemic had detrimental impacts on various fields worldwide.
People experienced unprecedented economic decline and high death tolls. What abilities are required to
face theses serious global issues that plague them in the 21st century? Key competencies require
individuals to acquire abilities to meet the challenge of this complex world and have set the tone foreach country’s educational policies. To assess the extent to which each country’s educational policy has
contributed to acquiring key competencies, the Organization for Economic Co-Operation andDevelopment (OECD) launched the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) in 1997.
PISA is regarded as a tool for governments worldwide to promote education reform and as source ofideas or methodologies for such reforms. This paper aims to determine what types of reading
comprehension questions in what proportions appear on PISA exams in order to see how that compares
the proportion of question types present in current English approved textbooks. We examined thereading comprehension questions included in the 2018 PISA field trial (PQs) and the reading
comprehension questions in English textbooks published in 2017 authorized for use in Japanese highschools (JQs). The findings reveal that JQs have much fewer questions, with question types of multiple
texts, evaluation, and reflection on content with students’ knowledge and experience. The results
indicate that Japanese authorized high school textbooks should especially include questions withmultiple texts, evaluation, and reflection on content with students’ knowledge and experience, which are
helpful to enhance students’ key competencies. Although the results had similarities with previous
research, this paper is among the first studies that have shown that JQs do not value questions withmultiple texts and reflection on content with students’ knowledge and experience, which PQs value
highly.
Keywords: Key competencies, Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), Analysis of
textbooks
by DeSeCo have set the tone for each country’s educational
policies.
To assess the extent to which each country’s
educational policy has contributed to acquiring key
competencies, the OECD launched the Program forInternational Student Assessment (PISA) in 1997 (DeSeCo,
2005). Although the PISA is among the most influential
assessments worldwide, it has faced growing criticism since
its inception (Zhao, 2020). Nevertheless, Hacking (inMatsushita, 2014) argued that the PISA’s influence could becontrolled and tamed as a tool for governments worldwide topromote education reform and as source of ideas or
methodologies for such reforms rather than as simply ameans of assessment, depending on their educational context.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology (MEXT) has utilized PISA results as a tool,
exploiting them as a resource for Japanese educational
reforms to provide ideas and methodologies for the
implementation of educational reforms (Matsushita, 2014).
This paper analyzed the question types in the 2018
PISA field trial (OECD, 2019a) and in the MEXT’s
approved English textbooks as a resource for Japanese
educational reforms. PISA questions were chosen because
PISA assesses the extent to which each country’s
educational policy has achieved the acquisition of key
competencies critical to life in the 21st century, andeducational reforms in Japan value these key competencies.
Questions in MEXT approved English textbooks were alsochosen because they are revised based on the guidelines in

1.

Introduction
During 2020 and 2021, the COVID-19 pandemic had
detrimental impacts on various fields worldwide. People
experienced unprecedented economic decline (Phan &Narayan, 2020) and high death tolls (Reddy, Nguyen, &Deschler, 2020). How can human beings solve theunprecedented global issues that plague them in the 21st
century? What abilities are required to face this challenge
and meet the demands of various contexts worldwide?
To define the abilities required to solve the various
issues the world faces in the 21st century and adapt to achanging world, the Organization for Economic
Co-Operation and Development (OECD) organized theDefinition and Selection of Competencies (DeSeCo), which
finalized its work by defining “key competencies” (DeSeCo,
2005, p. 3). DeSeCo emphasized that the traditional conceptof abilities, which targets knowledge and skill acquisition,
has limitations. It also defined key competencies as theability to deal with arduous tasks in a specific context not
only by using fixed knowledge and skills, but also by using
skills and attitudes using social resources. Key competencies
require individuals to think deeply and act by applying
abilities to adapt to change, learn from experience, and think
and act critically, and use abilities to apply fixed ideas andspecifically formulated methodologies. Key competencies
require individuals to acquire abilities to meet the challengeof this complex world and achieve goals such as balancing
economic prosperity and environmental sustainability morethan mastering certain skills. The key competencies defined125

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Japan.

PT5 and PT8 in multiple texts, and these accounted forabout one third of the PQs. In contrast, JQs included noquestions categorized as PT5 and PT8 in multiple texts. JQs
were each based on a single text, and none of the textbooks
asked students to refer to more than one text in a given
reading comprehension question. Second, while 42.8% of
PQs were questions categorized as PT6, PT7, and PT8,
which require students to evaluate the text, only 3.5% of JQs
were these question types. Third, nineteen percent of PQs
were questions categorized as PT7, whereas these questions
made up only 3.5% of JQs. Questions categorized as PT7
ask students to reflect on the text’s content and form andthen consider why and how it was written. The results
suggest that questions with multiple texts, evaluation, andreflection on content with students’ knowledge andexperience should be included in Japanese authorized
textbooks to improve Japanese learners’ PISA results.

2.

Research questions
This paper aims to determine what types of questions
in what proportions appear on the PISA exams to see howthat compares the proportion of question types present in
MEXT approved textbooks. We examined the reading
comprehension questions included in the 2018 PISA fieldtrial (PQs) and the reading comprehension questions in
textbooks published in 2017 authorized for use in Japanesehigh schools (JQs) and identified trends in the types ofquestions included in each as compared to reading
comprehension questions presented in the past research inorder to answer the following research questions:
1. Regarding types and proportions, how do JQs
compare with reading questions in the PQs?
2. What trends in types of questions included can beobserved for JQs compared to those seen inreading comprehension questions in the previous
research in 2008 and 2010?
3. Which question types have large differences
between JQs and PQs in proportions in terms of
PISA categories?

References
Definition and Selection of Competencies (DeSeCo). (2005). THE
DEFINITION AND SELECTION OF KEY COMPETENCIES:
Executive Summary. Retrieved November 8, 2020, fromhttps://www.oecd.org/pisa/35070367.pdf
Fukazawa, S. (2008). Significance of Designing Questions toEnhance Reading Comprehension ―Through the analysis of
post-reading questions in senior high school English textbooks
in Japan―. Hiroshima University Educational Research, 57,
169-176.
Fukazawa, S. (2010). Analysis of Senior High School Reading
Textbooks in Japan ― Focusing on textbook questions
enhancing inferences and self-expressions ―. Hiroshima
University Educational Research, 59, 196-202.
Matsushita, K. (2014). The Taming of PISA Literacy: Global
Functional Literacy and National Educational Content. The
Japanese Journal of Educational Research, 81(2), 150-163.
Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development(OECD). (2019a). PISA 2018 Released Field Trial New
Reading Items. Retrieved November 8, 2020, fromhttps://www.oecd.org/pisa/test/PISA-2018-Released-New-REA-Items.pdf
Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development(OECD). (2019b). PISA 2018 Assessment and Analytical
Framework. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Phan, D. H. B. and Narayan, P. K. (2020). Country Responses andthe Reaction of the Stock Market to COVID-19 a Preliminary
exposition. Emerging markets finance & trade, 56 (10),2138-2150.
Reddy, P. D., Nguyen, S. A., & Deschler, D. (2020). Bronchoscopy,
laryngoscopy, and esophagoscopy during the COVID-19
pandemic. Head & neck, 42(7), 1634-1637.
The Tokyo Board of Education. (2018). Heisei 31nendo siyou
toritsukotogakkou oyobi tyutokyoikugakkouyou kyokasyo
kyokabetu saitaku kekka [The results of the number of theauthorized high school textbooks chosen in Tokyo]. Retrieved
November 8, 2020, fromhttps://www.metro.tokyo.lg.jp/tosei/hodohappyo/press/2018/08/
24/documents/05_00.pdf
Zhao, Y. (2020). Two decades of havoc: A synthesis of criticism
against PISA. Journal of Educational Change, 21(2), 245-266.

3.

Methods
Thirty-five authorized textbooks were used in 277
high schools in Tokyo in 2019 (The Tokyo Board of
Education, 2018). Ten textbooks most frequently used byhigh schools in Tokyo in 2019 were selected for this analysis.
The textbooks were examined page by page to identify
reading comprehension questions. The collected reading
comprehension questions were compiled on an excel spread
sheet. The reading comprehension questions were thencoded using the eight PISA categories (from PT1 to PT8) in
the PISA report (OECD, 2019b) and five Nuttall categories(from NT1 to NT5) (Nuttall in Fukazawa, 2008, 2010) andthen tallied each category.
4.

Results and discussion
In response to research questions 1, the results showedthat the percentage of the question types PT3, PT5, PT6,
PT7, and PT8 was more than half of the PQs, whereas thepercentage of those question types in Japanese authorized
textbooks was fairly small. These results indicate that thatthe textbooks included very few questions that correspondwith the types emphasized on the PISA test.
In response to research question 2, the trends of JQs
were examined compared with those reading comprehension
questions from 2008 and 2010. Results show that JQs had
similar tendencies to past reading comprehension: Reading
comprehension questions were most commonly categorized
as NT1 questions, which ask students to identify answers
literally written in a text, and least commonly categorized as
NT4 question, which ask students to identify how effectively
an author writes.
Concerning research question 3, the following threequestion types have large differences between PQs and JQs
in proportions. First, PQs included questions categorized as

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Reconceptualising Intercultural and Transcultural Communicative
Competence
Tomokazu Ishikawa**Center for English as a Lingua Franca, Tamagawa Universityt.ishikawa@lab.tamagawa.ac.jp
Abstract
In a globally connected, multilingual, and multicultural world, there is a divergence between the‘convenient fiction’ of Standard English in English language teaching (e.g., Widdowson, 2015) and the‘real-world’ fluidity and flexibility of English use. English as a multilingua franca or EMF (Jenkins,2015) theoretically informs this study of how Japanese university students’ individual experiences andcollaborative reflections on EMF scenarios influence their views of intercultural and transculturalcommunicative competence. Based on empirical data, including a semester-end open-ended
questionnaire, the author advocates a holistic approach to ‘English’ communication with an appreciationof translingual, transcultural, and transmodal accommodation.
Keywords: English as a lingua franca (ELF), English as a multilingua franca (EMF), English language
teaching (ELT), English-medium instruction (EMI), intercultural and transcultural communication
1.

Introduction
Van Lier (2007) famously calls for decentring
predictability and testability in education and centring
human agency and action instead. Even so, the use ofcommercialised English textbooks and large-scale
standardised English tests risks generalising language
learning by providing idealised ‘monolingual’ English users
as unquestioned target models, marginalising interculturalcommunication as a ‘fifth’ skill (Kramsch, 1993), andseparating language from “our understanding of a broader
semiotics” (Pennycook, 2007, p. 49). The author seeks tobridge between essentialist linguistic knowledge forteachability and emergent practices for effective
communication in reference to a currently prominent notionin the field of English as a lingua franca (ELF), namely,
English as a multilingua franca (EMF).

over to the reality of multilingual influences and practices,
cultural diversity, and meaning-making possibilities,
especially in the digital era (Ishikawa, 2020a). For thispurpose, Standard English in ELT is recast as one open
‘system’ among many from a complexity theory perspective(Ishikawa, 2020b). Similar to Baker (2015), the term
awareness is used in this study in a broad sense to index theintegrity of attitudinal motivation, cognitive or notional
understanding, and communication experience in andoutside the classroom. Empirical evidence in the ELF field
has suggested that any set of linguistic forms, culturalreferences, or communicative strategies needs to be adjusted
and adapted according to the situation (i.e., accommodation)with an individual’s knowledge provisional and open toreflection and revision (e.g., Jenkins et al., 2018). To prepare
students for this heightened variability in global encounters,
EMF awareness has two principles: (1) providing students
with experiences of EMF scenarios, and (2) encouraging
their critical thinking about language and culture inreference to their experiences and in reference to publishedresearch.

2.

English as a Multilingua Franca
ELF is a major research field in applied linguistics,
seeking to comprehend how English users communicate
with each other at a global scale. English coexists with otherlanguages, and the notion of EMF repositions English andmultilingualism in ELF (Jenkins, 2015). The working
definition of EMF scenarios is: “Multilingual
communication in which English is available as a contact
language of choice, but is not necessarily chosen” (Jenkins,2015, p. 73). EMF attaches more importance to emergent
multilingual influences and practices than to either the
English language itself or to L1 status (Ishikawa, 2020a). It
coincides with ‘trans-’ theories in applied linguistics(Hawkins & Mori, 2018). More specifically, it underscores
the interplay between (1) multiple, enumerable languages
and cultures in an ideological sense, and (2) real-world fluid,
flexible, linguistic and cultural resources and repertoires
employed through meaning-making cues, signs, and symbols,
the linguistic expressions of which are prime examples.

4.

A sample EMF scenario
Published EMF scenarios may be used to facilitate
students’ discussion. In the following example, two Japaneseexchange students in southeast Spain are texting on mobile
phones.
Extract 1: Travel planning [Translation in brackets]
Student A: あとギリシャについてはギリシャ人から返信なんもこないので無視! [Re Greece there’s no reply at
all from the Grecian and so ignore it!]Student B: Valeee [okk]I bought a dome case for the gopro dakara creo que
podemos sacar buenas fotos!! 💙
Student A: っしゃあああ! あざすあざす! [Woooooo! Thx thx!](Baker & Ishikawa, 2021, p. 151)

Despite what it may appear at first sight, the students
accommodate to each other in their different ways. They
share the first language (i.e., Japanese) and much of its
colloquialism as peer students. Accordingly, Student A’s
pragmatic use of highly informal Japanese sets a friendly
tone. At the same time, Student B’s flexible use of3.

EMF awarenessEMF awareness, for the purposes of this study, isconceived as an empirically researched pedagogic
intervention which aims to bridge the monolingual constructof Standard English in English language teaching (ELT)127

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multilingual resources represents everyday situations they
face and cope with together as exchange students.

capabilities to cope with, and continue learning from,
unpredictability and unexpectedness in global
communication, its pedagogic efforts foreground students’
individual communicative experiences and collaborativereflection on EMF scenarios. On the one hand, EMF
awareness recognises the ideological boundaries of language
and culture. On the other hand, it observes the possibilitiesof transcending and transgressing these perceived
boundaries to meet diverse needs and purposes when
students learn and use English. To conclude, and to quote
one participant’s words:

5.

Studies
The author implemented the pedagogic intervention of
EMF awareness in both L1-shared and international
English-medium interaction (EMI) classrooms as well as
those of L1-shared ELT within Japanese universities. He
explored how EMF awareness influences the students’ viewsof intercultural and transcultural communicative competence
and their understanding of English use. An open-ended
questionnaire and student presentation data from EMI
towards the end of the semester were subjected to
Qualitative Content Analysis (QCA). Also, conversational
interview data from ELT in the middle of, and at the end of
the semester were analysed by the combination of QCA andEggins and Slade’s (2004) speech functions analysis
framework, and interpreted with the help of classroom
audio-recording data. Eggins and Slade’s (2004) framework
for analysis of the functions of conversational moves, if
combined with QCA, lends itself well to inferring aninterviewee’s stance and concerns (Ishikawa, 2021).

I feel that today’s societies focus on boundaries. To give an
example, we tend to distinguish English [from other languages]
and then we often prefer American or British English to other
English. [But] we should produce new communities, ideas andcustoms by using English in multilingual environment.
(Participant A, as cited in Ishikawa, 2020a, p. 414–415)
References
Baker, W. (2015). Culture and identity through English as a lingua
franca: Rethinking concepts and goals in interculturalcommunication. De Gruyter Mouton.
Baker, W., & Ishikawa, T. (2021). Transcultural communication
through Global Englishes: An advanced textbook for students.
Routledge.
Eggins, S., & Slade, D. (2004). Analysing casual conversation.
Equinox.
Hawkins, M. R., & Mori, J. (2018). Considering ‘trans-’
perspectives in language theories and practices. Applied
Linguistics, 39(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amx056
Ishikawa, T. (2017). Conceptualising English as a global contact
language. Englishes in Practice, 4(2), 31–49.
https://doi.org/10.1515/eip-2017-0002
Ishikawa, T. (2020a). EMF awareness in the Japanese EFL/EMI
context. ELT Journal, 74(4), 408–417.
https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccaa037
Ishikawa, T. (2020b). Complexity of English as a Multilingua
Franca: Place of monolingual Standard English. In M.
Konakahara, & K. Tsuchiya (Eds.), English as a lingua franca
in Japan: Towards multilingual practices (pp. 91–109).
Palgrave Macmillan.
Ishikawa, T. (2021). Rigour in ELF language attitude research: An
example of a conversational interview study. In K. Murata (Ed.),ELF research methods and approaches to data and analyses:
Theoretical and methodological underpinnings (pp. 258–275).
Routledge.
Jenkins, J. (2015). Repositioning English and multilingualism inEnglish as a Lingua Franca. Englishes in Practice, 2(3), 49–85.
https://doi.org/10.1515/eip-2015-0003
Jenkins, J., Baker, W., & Dewey, M. (Eds.). (2018). The Routledge
handbook of English as a lingua franca. Routledge.
Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and culture in language teaching.
Oxford University Press.
Pennycook, A. (2007). Global Englishes and transcultural flows.
Routledge.
Van Lier, L. (2007). Action-based teaching, autonomy and identity.
Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 1(1), 46–65.
https://doi.org/10.2167/illt42.0
Widdowson, H. G. (2015). ELF and the pragmatics of language
variation. Journal of English as a Lingua Franca, 4(2), 359–
372. https://doi.org/10.1515/jelf-2015-0027

6.

Findings and discussion
Based on the studies referred to in the previous section,
the author infers that we may not need a radical change in
ELT, but that we do need to give sufficient time in ELT and
EMI classrooms to critically discuss and reflect on theprocesses of global communication. It is also suggested that
discussion in L1-shared classrooms can be an opportunity
for students to ‘multilanguage’, or learn and exploit
previously unfamiliar multilingual resources for theircommunicative effectiveness (Ishikawa, 2017). This is madepossible “when they disassociate English frommonolingualism via their multilingual repertoires” (Ishikawa,
2020a, p. 416). From the participants’ perspectives, effective
global communication depends on (1) our conscious
understanding of linguistic and cultural roles and effects on
interaction as well as meaning-making affordances beyond
language, (2) our flexible, situationally appropriate
interactional practice based on this understanding (which
may be called translingual, transcultural, and transmodal
accommodation), and (3) our motivational attitudes orpositive feelings and curiosity towards this accommodation.
Future research could be conducted to explore how far andin what way EMF awareness finds its place in different
higher education institutions as well as in pre-service andin-service teacher training to prepare ELT and EMI
instructors themselves for today’s mobility andEnglish-within-multilingualism. At the same time, morework is necessary to explore the possible specific stages anddevelopmental processes of the above notional, practical,
and motivational aspects. Future research could also
concentrate on classroom interactions as possible EMF
scenarios.
7.

Conclusion
As EMF awareness spotlights each student’s practical

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Listening to Global Englishes: Some Pedagogical Suggestions
Tomoyuki Kawashima
Gunma University
tkawashima@gunma-u.ac.jp
Abstract
The last 40 years saw the emergence of new concepts that would replace the conventional
ENL/ESL/EFL distinction. The conceptualization of “English as an International Language,” “World
Englishes,” and “English as a Lingua Franca” promoted studies into the variety and legitimacy ofEnglishes and features and tactics that would promote communication among multilingual users ofEnglish. In the meantime, compared with the growing interest among researchers in Global Englishes,
the changes in classroom practice are slow and limited. Not enough light has been shed on thepedagogical application of the new concepts. The proposals for Global Englishes Language Teaching(Galloway and Rose, 2015) include increasing exposure to and raising awareness of English varieties. Inquest of optimal approaches to exposing Japanese learners to Global Englishes, a study was conductedwith 71 Japanese university students. The researcher selected 50 easier listening test questions asked in
the National Center Test for University Admissions and reproduced the recording with ten speakers withdifferent mother tongues. Participants answered the same questions twice with a 2-week interval, firstwith the original recording made by native English speakers and second with the reproduced recording
made by non-native English speakers. The correct answer rate for each question was computed for thetwo listening conditions. A gap larger than 20.0% was found in the correct answer rate for a few test
items, but the overall correct answer rates were close between the two types of recording: 90.8% for thenative speaker English and 88.2% for the non-native speaker English. Though care should be taken ininterpreting the findings due to the practice effect, the results of this research suggest juxtaposing nativeand non-native pronunciations will be a realistic approach for gradual familiarization with Global
Englishes.
Keywords: Global Englishes, non-native speakers, accents, intelligibility
Introduction
Compared with the increased research interest in
Global Englishes, the discussion about how the researchoutcomes can be applied to practice is still limited.
Moreover, a severe shortage of resources has made itdifficult for teachers to try “Global Englishes Language
Teaching” (Galloway & Rose, 2015). Matsuda (2012) notedthat many ELT professionals “are left with no choice but tocontinue to do what they have been doing” (p. 6).
English learners living in a society where they hear
multiple languages daily may naturally develop theirtolerance and adaptability for various English accents, butmany Japanese growing up in an almost monolingual societylack such opportunity. Therefore, precautions should bemade in bringing Global Englishes to the classroom. There
are two primary concerns about exposing Japanese learners
to a variety of English accents. One is how to get learners’
ears used to various English accents, and the other is how todevelop a positive attitude towards the accent. This study
aimed to address the former concern. It was designed toaccumulate data on the difficulty level of listening
comprehension in Global Englishes.
1.

speakers of English. Like this study, the intelligibility of
non-native speech has been explored more often for native
English-speaking listeners than for non-native listeners.
Investigations involving Japanese listeners are far
more limited (Kawashima, 2017), and thus, providing partial
evidence of the effects of various factors on intelligibility.
For instance, reduced speech rate may contribute toimproved non-native speech intelligibility only when it
interacts with the strength of accents (Matsuura, Chiba,
Mahoney & Rilling, 2014), proficiency levels (Orikasa,
2016), and question types (Kawashima, 2019). There ismore evidence against than in favor of the effect offamiliarity. Japanese listeners did not perform better incomprehension when the recordings made of Japanese
speakers were used (e.g., Munro, Derwing & Morton, 2006).
To sum up, it appears more data are required to see thewhole picture of the intelligibility of non-native speech forJapanese listeners.
Research Question
How does the intelligibility of the identical scripted
dialogue differ for Japanese learners of English whenrecorded by native speakers and non-native speakers?
3.

Intelligibility of Non-native Speech for Non-native
Listeners
Reporting that even when foreign accents were strong,
successful communication was possible, Munro andDerwing (1999) denied a clear correlation between accentand comprehension. While this seems to be a welcoming
result for non-native English learners, they did not examine
the intelligibility of non-native speech for non-native
listeners. In their study, native English-speaking college
students listened to the speech samples elicited from Chinese
2.

4. Study
4.1 Participants
The study was conducted with 71 second-year college
students majoring in health sciences. The average TOEIC
score of the research participants was 462.0, suggesting theirEnglish proficiency levels were marginally higher than thoseof the average Japanese university students.
4.2 Listening Test
The researcher chose 50 simpler listening test questions
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from the 225 questions asked in the National Center Test for
University Admissions between 2010 and 2018. The
selection was based on the correct answer rate of Z-kai
students for each test item published by Z-kai.
4.3 Speakers
Ten non-native speakers (M5: F5) from ten countries
were selected from 29 candidates (M14: F15) from 15
countries based on the judgment of two raters regarding thestrength of L1 accent and comprehensibility and thebalances of country and sex.
4.4 Recording
The non-native speakers reproduced the originalrecordings by North American speakers of English. The
recording was conducted in pairs. Listening to the originalrecording, the speakers practiced speaking their lines before
recording. Each pair of speakers recorded ten dialogues. The
recordings used for this study (Kawashima, 2020) areavailable online.
4.5 Administration
Participants answered 25 questions in each class,meaning it took two weeks to complete the test. The originalrecording was used when they answered the test in weeks 1
and 2, and the reproduced recording was used in weeks 3
and 4. They were not informed that they would take thesame test twice, nor was the correct answer disclosed.
4.6 Analysis
The correct answer rate for each test item in percentage
was computed by dividing the number of participants
answering the item correctly by the number of participants.
An error analysis was performed to investigate the cause ofwrong answers.

the man usually get a day?” They listened to the following
conversation between a male Indian speaker and a female
Indonesian speaker.
W: How many emails do you usually get a day?
M: Around 90.
W: That many?
M: Yeah, but a third of them are junk mail.
The choices were as follows, with the selection rate for eachchoice in percentages: 1. “About 30” (77.5%), 2. “About 60”(7.0%), 3. “About 90” (14.1%), and 4. “About 120” (1.4%).
The fact that 14.1% of the participants answered “About 90”
suggests that they properly understood the first keyword of
the male speaker, “About 90,” but misunderstood the second
phrase of this speaker “Yeah, but a third of them are junkmail.”
Conclusion
Because of the practice effect, we must be cautious
when interpreting the findings of this study. The outcomes,
however, suggest that non-native speech is notincomprehensibly difficult for Japanese English learners.
While juxtaposing native and non-native pronunciations may
be a feasible methodology, further research and discussion
on methods for exposing learners to Global Englishes (e.g.,
Hamada and Suzuki, 2020) is required to narrow the gap
between research and pedagogy.
6.

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers
18K12444 and 21K00728.
References
Galloway, N. and Rose, H. (2015). Introducing Global Englishes.
London: Routledge.
Hamada, Y., & Suzuki, S. (2020). Listening to Global Englishes:
Script-assisted shadowing. International Journal of Applied
Linguistics. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12318
Kawashima, T. (2017). Effects of speech rate and familiarity on
intelligibility of non-native speech for non-native ears. AsianEnglish Studies, 19, 34-57.
https://doi.org/10.50875/asianenglishstudies.19.0_34
Kawashima. T. (2019). Intelligibility of slowed speech in IndianEnglish. JACET-KANTO Journal, 6, 5-22.
Kawashima, T. (2020). Listening Practice in Real English. [online
material]. https://real-english.health.gunma-u.ac.jp/
Matsuda, A. (2012). Principles and Practices of Teaching English
as an International Language. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Matsuura, H., Chiba, R., Mahoney, S., & Rilling, S. (2014). Accentand speech rate effects in English as a lingua franca. System, 46,
143-150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2014.07.015
Munro, J. M. and Derwing, T. M. (1999). Foreign accent,comprehensibility, and intelligibility in the speech of second
language learners. Language Learning, 49, 285-310.
Munro, M. J., Derwing, T. M., & Morton, S. L. (2006). The mutual
intelligibility of L2 speech. Studies in Second Language
Acquisition, 28(1), 111-131.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263106060049
Orikasa, M. (2016). The intelligibility of varieties of English in
Japan. World Englishes, 35(3), 355-371.
https://doi.org/10.1111/weng.12209

Results
The average correct answer rate for 50 questions was
close across the two types of recording: 90.8% for native
speakers of English and 88.2% for non-native speakers ofEnglish. The correct answer rate for five test items differedby more than 10% (Table 1). The reproduced recording had
the correct answer rate of 55.9%, while the originalrecording had the rate of 77.5% for the test item (Q20) thatparticipants considered the most challenging. The largest
difference between the two kinds of speech came with Q19,
where the correct answer rate with native speech was 87.3%
and 57.4% with non-native speech.
5.

Table 1
Correct Answer Rate of 5 Items that Resulted in Largest Gaps (%)
Test Item
Q12
Q14
Q18
Q19
Q20
Correct Answer Rate
Native Speech
95.8
94.4
88.7
87.3
77.5
Non-native Speech
80.9
76.1
76.1
57.4
55.9
Difference
14.9
18.2
12.6
30.0
21.6
Pair
2
3
4
3
4
Note. Pair 2=Nepalese (M) & Syrian (F). Pair 3=Filipino (M) &Polish (F). Pair 4=Indian (M) & Indonesian (F).

The error analysis of those two test items indicates thatparticipants overlooked one piece of information. For
example, Q20 asks, “How many junk mail messages does

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Effects of Moving from In-Person to Online: STEM Majors and Poster
Presentations
Madoka Kawano*, James A Elwood** and Reijirou Shibasaki****Meiji University
mkawano@meiji.ac.jp**Meiji University
elwood@meiji.ac.jp***Meiji University
reijiro@meiji.ac.jp
Abstract
Poster session skills are indispensable skills for university students, especially for third-year science
students who will soon enter the academic communities in their specified fields. As novice scholars, they
have opportunities to attend poster sessions and occasionally present posters at international conferences.
The presenters have developed presentation courses for STEM students and implemented them for thelast few years at a private university in Tokyo. In 2020 when the course went entirely online due to the
Covid-19, instructors and students had to embark on an entirely new dimension of online poster sessions.
The steps undertaken in this process will be discussed, as will the logistics of the poster session. The
presentation will include the results of surveys on learner experiences with and perceptions of the poster
session, group work, and self-determination. The results of t-tests were generally similar to those ofprevious years, but enjoyment of making posters and awareness of the usefulness of posters in their future
showed statistically significant improvement. On the other hand, students indicated a significant drop inperception that they gained skills in organizing posters, which likely reflected the new (online) format.
Online courses and the online poster session did, however, seem to facilitate better focus and attendance.
Some students felt less pressure when they presented online.
Keywords: ESP, STEM, poster session, presentation skills, online instructions
2.

Syllabus and Course Design
The course was implemented at a private university inTokyo. In 2020, the three departments in a STEM-related
faculty included approximately 280 third-year students. Eight
instructors taught the course.

1.

Introduction
The Japanese Ministry of Education has been promoting
active learning as one of the major goals of school curriculum
reform. Through learner-centered activities, it is aimed thatstudents learn to study proactively and gain communication
skills which can be applied in various situations. In case of
tertiary education, students were encouraged to be involvedin academic activities in their discipline areas. In particular,
poster sessions are gaining popularity as a type ofpresentations in academic conferences, and members ofprofessional and academic communities are increasingly
invited for the poster sessions (Berg & Hicks, 2018). Nursing
and medical departments have offered preparation courses,
guiding their community members in writing abstracts,
creating posters, and managing Q&A sessions (Halligan,
2018; Rowe, 2017). Against this background, the presenters
have developed and implemented poster presentation courses
for STEM students since 2015. Although the course wasfound to be effective not only in fostering language skills but
also in motivating and preparing them for communications inacademic fields (Elwood & Kawano, 2018), the year 2020
brought unpreceded challenges to the course; due to the
Covid-19, instructors and students had to prepare for andconduct poster sessions entirely online. After considerable
discussions and collaborations among instructors, students,and school staff, this poster session course was implemented,
recorded, and evaluated as scheduled. In this paper, theauthors will:
1. describe how 2020 online poster sessions were planned,
implemented, and evaluated, and2. evaluate the effectiveness of the 2020 online course incomparison to the 2019 in-person course.

2.1 Course Objectives
The course was designed to provide STEM students with
fundamentals of English presentation skills such as researchmethods for developing themes, writing skills for preparing
abstracts and handouts, conceptual power for making posters,
and online rehearsals for performance improvement. In
addition, preliminary training in controlling the speed of
speaking, including pronunciation and prosody, was included.
2.2 Materials
A house-made digital guidebook has been compiled andused in all the classes. In addition, instructors prepared anduploaded their own materials on the university class-web
whereby students could download the materials before class.
Instructors utilized Drop Box to share those materials whereappropriate.
2.3 Syllabus and Online Arrangements
The semester-long course consisted of 14 weeks. Students
were required to have rehearsal, mid-term, and final
presentations in pairs or in groups; the final presentation was
conducted with one poster shared among the participants on
the computer display. The course ended with critiques of theirown presentations and others as well.
All activities were conducted on Zoom meetings,
including breakout rooms which allowed participants to movethe rooms of posters at will. Students worked in groups using
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Google Docs or One Drive when they brainstormed andoutlined the poster contents. Then they submitted theirabstracts, handouts, and posters through the above-mentioned
class-web, while instructors proofread and returned themusing the same function. In one department, students recorded
poster presentations on YouTube, while in another department,
posters were uploaded on a Padlet page; in both formats,students could easily view all the posters both prior to andduring the poster session. In these ways, the use of the recent
technological affordances was beneficial.

According to the t-tests of 2019 and 2020 results, it was
found that in general 2020 results were similar to previous,
in-person sessions. Speaking and listening skills were notaffected by the medium of instruction. However, there was asignificant drop in perception that they gained skills inorganizing posters, which likely reflected the new (online)
format. For students who had never experienced academic
poster sessions before the course, it might have been difficult
for them to visualize how an effective poster is organized.
As for the response to “During this class, did you have any
problems with the class being online?” which was a newquestion item in the 2020 survey, 35% responded yes, while
65% chose “No.” It seems that the online format did impact
learning, and the reasons were explored in open-ended
questions as covered below.

3.

SurveyAt the end of the poster sessions, students were asked torespond to the survey on Google Forms. In total, 177 students
responded to the survey in 2020. The results were comparedwith the responses of 237 students in 2019.

3.2.2 Qualitative Analysis
Traditional, face-to-face preparation allows forconsiderable interaction, but an online format permits lessdirect interaction. Coding of the student responses revealed
that students (a) had difficulties communicating with one
another, especially in preparing a poster in groups; (b) noticed
the lack of gestures and facial expressions in presentations,and (c) experienced some disruptions and technical problems
in Wi-fi networks. On the other hand, students seemed to feelless pressure when they presented online. They enjoyed andbenefitted from the screenshare function and breakout rooms.
Several also noted that the online poster sessions were very
enjoyable. Moreover, online courses and the online poster
session did seem to facilitate better focus and attendance, andseveral students indicated that they felt less pressure whenpresenting online.

3.1 Survey Design
Survey Items included two parts; Part I asked students toevaluate the course in terms of proficiency in skills, affective
reactions to the course, and perceptions of the usefulness ofthe course. In Part II, items were related to group work,
motivation, decision-making processes. In both parts, inaddition to 5-point Likert scale questions, open-ended
responses were invited to allow students to express freely
their thoughts on their learning experiences in this course.
3.2 Results
The results of 5-point Likert scale items were analyzed
with descriptive statistics, while open-ended questions werecoded with KH Coder (Higuchi, 2017).
3.2.1 Quantitative Analysis
The ratings of the respondents were above 3.5, whichindicated that students recognized the effectiveness of thecourse. In particular, as Table 1 shows, students learned basics
of poster session skills; although they felt making a poster inEnglish was difficult, they took advantage of working ingroups; they learned how to write English abstracts both in2019 and 2020.

4.

Conclusions
The present study investigated the effectiveness of an
online poster session course which was conducted for the firsttime in late 2020. Results indicated that the online format
offered some advantages and challenges, yet strategies andexperiences gained in the 2020 iteration are expected to bepolished and integrated into future poster sessions, whether
online or in person.

Table 1
Course Evaluation by Students
Survey item

References
2019 mean

2020 mean

3. Making poster in English difficult

4.11

4.05

4. Working in a group helpful

4.11

4.08

5. Learned how to write an abstract

4.06

4.01

6. Learned poster sessions prep

4.05

3.93

7. Effective posters organization

4.00*

3.68

11. Speaking improved

3.66

3.73

15. Poster sessions useful in future.

4.12

3.97

Berg, J. & Hicks, R. (2017). Successful design and delivery of aprofessional poster. Journal of the American Association of
Nurse Practitioners, 29(8), 461–469. doi: 10.1002/23276924.12478
Elwood, J & Kawano, M. (2018). Developing poster session skills
for Japanese science students: A course of active learning,
Annual Report of the JACET-SIG on ESP, Vol 1, 6-14.
Halligan, P. (2008). Poster presentations: Valuing all forms ofevidence. Nurse Education in Practice, 8(1), 41–45.
Higuchi, K. (2017). A two-step approach to quantitative content
analysis: KH Coder tutorial using Anne of Green Gables (Part II).
Ritsumeikan Social Science Review, 53(1), 137–147.
Rowe, N. (2017). Tracing the ‘grey literature’ of poster
presentations: A mapping review. Health Information &Libraries Journal, 34(2), 106–124.

Note. An asterisk indicates the difference between the two adjacentmeans was statistically significant (p < .05 after a group-wise error
correction).

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Towards an Expanded Paradigm for L2 Grammatical Metaphor:
A Case of EFL Learners’ Deployment of Nominalizations as
Incongruous Semiosis
Hiroshi Takahashi
Fuji Women’s University
hirot711@fujijoshi.ac.jp
Abstract
This study represents a preliminary attempt to expand the scope of inquiry for the notion of grammaticalmetaphor (GM) within the theoretical framework of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) by
incorporating into the canonical GM research paradigm less complete, intermediate manifestations of
GM by language learners during their various developmental stages of linguistic sophistication. GM, a
key component of advanced literacy highly valued in academic writing, is primarily realized throughnominalizations, and the study thus analyzes various patterns of nominalization and related GM
mechanisms in the written production of four Japanese learners of English as a foreign language. The
results indicate a greater tendency on the part of the stronger writers to realize experiential meanings
through more diverse (albeit sometimes less than fully appropriate) patterns of GM, while the weakerwriters are shown to have a preference for more congruent realizations of meaning. This contrast seems
to attest to the SFL contention that second and foreign language leaners’ ontogenetic pathway ofdevelopment parallels that of first language users in terms of linguistic refinement in written
communication.
Keywords: grammatical metaphor, systemic functional linguistics, nominalization, second language
writing

advanced remapping between the semantics and thelexicogrammar of a language, where experiential
meanings are linguistically realized through untypical,“incongruent” expressions, instead of normative,“congruent” choices (e.g. “processes” realized as nominalgroups, instead of verbs). In this sense, nominalization is1.

Introduction
In the current body of research within the theoreticalframework of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), themechanism of nominalization has been well-documented asa major form of “grammatical metaphor” (GM). GM is alexicogrammatical device that enables condensed
presentation of information by refiguring experiences—from dynamic, verb-based, congruous (i.e. unmarked)
construals to static, noun-based, incongruous (i.e. marked)
manifestations, a key feature of advanced literacy anddevelopmental maturity characteristic of an expert academic
writer (Byrnes, 2007; Devrim, 2015; Halliday, 1993, 2004;
Martin, 2008; Ryshina-Pankova, 2015; Schleppegrell, 2004;
Schleppegrell & Colombi, 2002; Young & Nguyen, 2002).
Following the trajectory of a new research focus set forth by
Liardet (2013), this study attempts to broaden the dominant
GM research paradigm in SFL that has focused primarily on
full, appropriate realizations of GM, primarily throughnominalization, by first-language learners, and instead
analyzes instances of more incomplete or intermediate
deployment of GM by Japanese English as a Foreign
Language (EFL) learners in their written assignments for auniversity-level English for Academic Purposes (EAP) class.
Of the four students whose writing was analyzed, two“stronger” writers exhibited a greater tendency to use GM,
including nominalization, while the remaining “weaker”
writers showed a perceived preference for more congruent(i.e. typical) realizations of meaning. This lends support tothe view that learners, regardless of their first language,
seem to undergo parallel developmental stages towardadvanced literacy in a foreign or second language, mostnotably through the use of grammatical metaphors.
2.

the most pervasive form of GM and is thus a central concernof this study, although other manifestations of GM areexamined as well to capture a fuller picture of thephenomenon. To that end, a four-type model of GM by
Liardet (2013) is adopted to analyze texts produced by fourJapanese learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) for
written assignments in a university-level English for
Academic Purposes class. In the model, the following four
realization patterns of GM are posited as a way ofconstructing academically valued discourse:(1) Anaphoric reconstrual (GM1), in which noun phrases
are used to condense what has been more congruently
stated earlier, to establish cohesion through lexicalreferencing (e.g., using “decision” to refer back to theprocess of deciding mentioned earlier in the form of averb phrase);(2) Elaborated nominal groups (GM2), whereby multiple
meanings from previous clauses are metaphorically (i.e.
trans-categorically) encapsulated into a single nominalgroup (e.g. “these widespread misconceptions” can refer
to multiple instances of misapprehension andmisjudgment stated in the preceding part of the text);(3) Cause and effect networks (GM3) involve a
repositioning of logical reasoning within a single clause,rather than between clauses (e.g. “When the building wasdestroyed, many lives were lost.” can be repackaged as,“The destruction of the building resulted in massive
casualties.”); andA Four-Type Model of GM

Grammatical metaphor involves a developmentally
133

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)(4) Meaning accumulation (GM4), where a metaphoricalentity is restated multiple times across a text to set thestage for integrating plural perspectives on a single issue
in a cohesive manner (e.g. reiterating the term“breakthrough” in the body of the text as well as in the
conclusion to characterize a particular event as somehistoricallyandtechnologicallysignificant
advancement).

relative lack of such usage by the weaker writers, who
tended to deploy more congruous semiosis to express
processes with verbs (e.g. “Sellers can sell things on the web
without having to open a store.”) and show logical reasoning
with connectives such as “then” and “therefore”.
4.

Conclusion
Taken together, the results point to the need to treat
intermediate or sometimes incomplete manifestations of GM
in EFL learners’ writing as a key indicator of development
toward more advanced literacy, rather than as signs of
linguistic inadequacy. By broadening the purview ofinvestigation, the dominant GM research paradigm stands tobenefit from the largely untapped troves of data in second
language writing research.
Moreover, although the present study is of rather
limited value with its very small sample size and lack ofcontrol over essay topics for the students, the overall mosaicof language use that has emerged from the data appears tocorroborate the SFL characterization of second and foreign
language learners’ ontogenetic developmental path towardadvanced literacy as largely analogous to that of first
language users (Halliday, 1993; Velazquez-Mendoza, 2015).
This obviously requires further investigation but does offer a
promising point of departure for studies of greater depth andbreadth.

3.

Intermediate Realizations of GM vs. Congruent
Construals
Of the four writers examined, two “stronger” writers(Writers 1 and 2, with TOEFL ITP scores of around 500)
exhibited a notable predilection for nominalizations as
manifestations of GM to achieve higher levels of textual
complexity valued in academic contexts, through all fourtypes of GM, even though some, if not all, of their specificrealizations would normally be deemed incorrect orinappropriate from a strict point of view of formal felicity.
Discussing the pros and cons of today’s ubiquitous use of
the Internet, Writer 1, for example, pointed to a particularadvantage of online connectivity through anaphoricreconstrual (GM1) with “DEVELOPMENT” and a cause
and effect network (GM3) with “CONTRIBUTES TO” inthe following sentence:
The development of the Internet contributes to the
profitable way of communication of companies.
(Writer 1, emphasis added)

References
Byrnes, H. (Ed.). (2007). Advanced language learning. The
contribution of Halliday and Vygotsky. Continuum.
Devrim, D. (2015). Grammatical metaphor: What do we mean?
What exactly are we researching?. Functional Linguistics, 2(1),1-15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40554-015-0016-7
Halliday, M. A. K. (1993). Toward a language-based theory oflearning. Linguistics and Education, 5, 93-116.
Halliday, M. A. K. (2004). Language and the reshaping of humanexperience. In J. Webster (Ed.), The language of science (pp.
7-23). Continuum.
Liardet, C. L. (2013). An exploration of Chinese EFL learner's
deployment of grammatical metaphor: Learning to makeacademically valued meanings. Journal of Second Language
Writing,22(2),
161-178.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2013.03.008
Martin, J. (2008). Incongruent and proud: de-vilifying'nominalization'. Discourse & Society, 19(6), 801-810.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926508095895
Ryshina-Pankova, M. (2015). A meaning-based approach to thestudy of complexity in L2 writing: The case of grammaticalmetaphor. Journal of Second Language Writing, 29, 51-63.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2015.06.005
Schleppegrell, M. J. (2004). The language of schooling: A
functional linguistics perspective. Lawrence Erlbaum.
Schleppegrell, M. & Colombi, M. C. (Eds). (2002). Developing
advanced literacy in first and second languages. Lawrence
Erlbaum.
Young, R., & Nguyen, H. (2002). Modes of meaning in high school
science.
Applied
Linguistics,
23(3),
348-372.
https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/23.3.348
Velázquez-Mendoza, O. (2015). The role of grammatical metaphor
in the development of advanced literacy in Spanish as a first,
second, and heritage language. Functional Linguistics, 2(1),1-13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40554-015-0020-y

Here, DEVELOPMENT refers back to the ongoing growthof the web mentioned more congruently in the beginningpart (e.g. “it enables us to stay connected each otherwherever we are” [sic]), and “CONTRIBUTES TO” realizes
a more condensed and direct causal link by building on that
nominal representation. Although further refinement may bedesirable with what “the profitable way of communication ofcompanies” exactly means, this sentence clearly
demonstrates Writer 1’s at least intermediate mastery of GM
patterns. It is also worth noting that the use of the term
“development (of the Internet)” in two other parts of the text
seems to qualify as a case of meaning accumulation (GM4)
as it paints the prevalence of online communication with arather positive brush from multiple angles.
Another salient feature of the stronger writers’ texts
was their “summative” use of the demonstratives this andthese combined with a noun or a noun group, as an effective
tool to achieve anaphoric reconstrual (GM1), as can beseen in the following sentence by Writer 2, with “THIS
DEPRESSION” referring back to “growth rate of potential
GDP is dropping first” earlier in the text.
In addition to this depression of the growth rate ofpotential GDP which means potential supply, first ofall, demand run short. (Writer 2, emphasis added)
This perceived tendency on the part of the stronger
writers to utilize various patterns of GM contrasted with the134The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Autoethnography as a Reflective Tool to Explore
Integrative Approaches
Sanae Oda-Sheehan
Ochanomizu University
sanaesheehan@gmail.com
Abstract
Although pragmatics constitutes a dynamic portion in developing communicative competence, it is lesslikely to be addressed in the EFL classroom. There seem to be several problematic gaps hindering learning
effectiveness in the Japanese context, including the gap between theory and practice in L2 pragmatics,
the gap between what is taught in school and what is required for practical communication in society, andthe gap between grammar teaching and communicative language teaching (CLT) in the classroom. The
purpose of this study is to explore possible approaches to bridge those gaps utilizing the framework called
the Pedagogical Trinity, which I have developed to integrate L2 pragmatics and grammar pedagogy withthe aim of promoting the implementation of CLT. Toward such end, I investigated multidimensional
elements of the integration using the method of autoethnography. Autoethnography is a burgeoning
approach in qualitative research in which the researcher uses data about self to deepen sociocultural
understanding of complex issues. In autoethnography, the researcher experiences self-reflections, selfdiscoveries, and transformations, and this reflective cycle can manifest itself in readers and audiencethrough the connectivity that can be established between the researcher and others within similar contexts.
In this autoethnnographic study, by analyzing teaching/research journal entries that I kept for nine months,
I obtained interpretive insights indicating that, in the efforts to bring about the integrative approaches, it
can be of help if teachers have 1) multiple perspectives based on their multiple identities, 2) long-term
visions, 3) awareness of the boundaries for each element (L2 pragmatics, grammar, and communicative
language), and 4) readiness for necessary transformations. The findings stress the significance of using
autoethnography as a reflective tool, suggesting a new research direction of language education in aninterdisciplinary approach.
Keywords: autoethnography, pragmatics, grammar, CLT, integration
Introduction
Despite its importance in communicative practice,pragmatics is less likely to be addressed in the Japanese EFL
classroom. There seem to be several problematic gaps in theJapanese context, such as the gap between theory andpedagogical practice in L2 pragmatics, the gap between what
is taught in school and what is required for practicalcommunication in society, and the gap between grammar
teaching and communicative language teaching (CLT) in theclassroom. To explore possible approaches to bridge thosegaps, I have developed the framework called the Pedagogical
Trinity (Oda-Sheehan, 2016). As shown in Figure 1, theframework seeks to integrate L2 pragmatics and grammar
pedagogy to promote the implementation of CLT, while
addressing classroom needs such as test preparation.
1.

Such bridging and integration should be exploredthrough a linkage “between ideas about language learning andthe lived experience of learners and teachers themselves”(Norton, 2016, p. 475), because learners and teachers are vital
agents in the classroom. The present study investigates
multidimensional elements of the integration, such as learnerteacher dynamics, community requirements, and sociocultural challenges by utilizing the method of autoethnography as a reflective tool. The research question
guiding the study is “What can be critical factors to bringabout the integrative approaches in the Japanese EFL context?”
Autoethnography
Autoethnography is a promising qualitative method, inwhich researchers use themselves as the research subject andthe interpretation of their own experiences as the researchdata (Adams, Jones, & Ellis, 2015). This reflective method is“a form of self-narrative adopted in the social sciences”(Chang, 2008, p. 41), and its purpose is to enhance and extend
sociological understanding of complex issues by linking thepersonal to the cultural and the social (Ellis & Bochner, 2000).
Utilizing storytelling techniques, autoethnography aims
to create connectivity with others, through which practitioners
such as teachers can gain profound insights to “function more
effectively with others from diverse cultural backgrounds”(Chang, 2008, p. 13). This implies that the method can bemost suitable for the field of TESOL, in which cultural
diversity and complexities are often intertwined.
The method invites readers to compare themselves withthose in the cultural contexts they read, leading them to2.

Figure 1
The Pedagogical Trinity
Communicative
Language Teaching
(CLT)

Test
Preparation
L2 Pragmatics

GrammarPedagogy

Note. Based on Oda-Sheehan, 2016135

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ethnography, so that we can start an open dialogue forcollaborative exploration of the integrative approaches.

discover new dimensions of their own lives (Chang, 2008).
As researchers reflect on their personal experiences anddevelop in-depth cultural understanding and insights into how
they can improve and transform themselves, this cycle ofreflection, understanding, discovery, and transformation canmanifest itself in readers as well through the connectivity
between researchers and others within similar contexts.

Discussion
These primary findings were then synthesized to weave
into interpretive insights. To answer the research question, it
may be of help in bringing about the integrative approaches if
teachers have: multiple perspectives based on their multiple identities
 long-term visions
 awareness of the boundaries for each element (L2pragmatics, grammar, and communicative language)
 readiness for necessary transformations
Having multiple perspectives and long-term visions,being able to recognize each element of the integration, andbeing committed to necessary transformations could facilitate
the integrative approaches in a holistic and flexible manner.
However, even when I present those factors as critical
for the integration, it is not my intention to claim that they are
the only answer to bridge the problematic gaps. Thoseinterpretive insights simply suggest that my personal findingsin this autoethnographic study have been theorized to deepensociocultural understanding of the research topic. The insights
are not to be generalized as an explicit solution. Rather, they
are to provide a platform to promote open communication
with readers and teachers so that we can collaboratively
explore any possibilities to bring about the integrative
approaches by utilizing autoethnography as a reflective tool.
5.

Methodology
For this autoethnographic study, I kept journal entries
for my research and teaching practices for nine months to
explore any critical factors to bring about the integrative
approaches of the Pedagogical Trinity. Journal writing as areflective instrument can promote teachers’ professional
development (Farrell, 2015), and I aimed to capture my
deepest thoughts and feelings through reflecting on the entries.
For data analysis, I developed the entries into reflective
memos, which triggered my internal dialogue and allowed me
to capture signs of changes in my perceptions and practices.
The collected data were analyzed and interpreted inaccordance with the qualitative research procedure (Bazeley,2013) as well as the strategies for the autoethnographic
analysis (Chang, 2008), guided by the theoretical frameworkof Reflective Practice (RP) (Schön, 1983).
3.

Findings
The reflections on the journal entries revealed that mymultiple identities, especially as a parent and former businessperson, have a great impact on my practices and perceptions,leading me to incorporate different perspectives in myteaching. My effort to help students raise their pragmaticawareness and be prepared to address communicative
challenges in future endeavors seems to be based at theintersection of my multiple identities caring about their longterm benefits. In addition to the short-term needs such as test
preparation, it is important to address long-term needs forpragmatic competence in practical communication.
Also, it became clear that I have high awareness of
independence, territory, and boundaries in general and tend tovalue independent orientation in my teaching as well. Perhaps
this perception has led to the concept of the Pedagogical
Trinity, in which each element (L2 pragmatics, grammar, andcommunicative
language)shouldberecognizedindependently in the integration. In other words, it isimportant to teach integrated contents while maintaining
4.

Conclusion
Through this autoethnographic study, I strived to
explore the integrative approaches to bridge the EFL gaps andreflected on my teaching/research practices and perceptions,making connections with others who may share similar
challenges in their lives. The personally engaging style inautoethnography can make complexities of scholarly work
more accessible to a wider audience, connecting academia tolife in meaningful ways (Adams et al., 2015). In this respect,
the most significant finding of this study can be theconfirmation of the advantage of autoethnography as areflective tool, which has great potential in cultivating the
research field of language education in an interdisciplinary
approach.
6.

References
Adams, T. E., Jones, S. H., & Ellis, C. (2015). Autoethnography.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Bazeley, P. (2013). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.
Chang, H. (2008). Autoethnography as method. New York:
Routledge.
Ellis, C., & Bochner, A. P. (2000). Autoethnography, personal
narrative, reflexivity: Researcher as subject. In N. K. Denzin &Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed.,pp. 733-768). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Farrell, T. (2015). Promoting teacher reflection in second language
education: A framework for TESOL professionals. New York:
Routledge.
Norton, B. (2016). Identity and language learning: Back tothefuture.
TESOL
Quarterly,50(2),
475-479.
https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.293
Oda-Sheehan, S. (2016). What teachers can do in the Pedagogical
Trinity: Pragmatics, grammar, and communicative language
teaching. Accents Asia, 8(2), 1-8.
Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner. New York: Basic
Books.

the awareness of which element is being focused on at agiven time, instead of mixing everything together in the
integration without providing students with a clearer focus in
their learning. This approach seems effective because, due tothe low pragmatic awareness among teachers, there should be
a conscious effort to encourage them to recognize and address
pragmatic features with clearer awareness instead of looking
upon them as a “fuzzy” part of communicative language.
Finally, through the reflections it was confirmed thatmany cases of transformation took place in my professional
development. For example, as a teacher I became more openminded and willing to try new ideas. Also, as a researcher, I
shifted my research focus from method-oriented approaches
to a more collaboration-oriented exploration. During theperiod of journal entries, I gradually realized that sharing myexperiences with others in an autoethnographic orientation
may have more significance than finding methods to bringabout the integration. Such sharing can inspire readers andteachers to reflect on their own experiences through theaforementioned connectivity characterized in auto136

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Developing an Effective English Literacy Program for Public
Elementary Schools Children
Mitsue Allen-Tamai**Aoyama Gakuin University
allentamai@cl.aoyama.ac.jp
Abstract
In the past few decades, a substantial number of studies in L1 literacy research have reported the importance ofphonological awareness and letter knowledge on developing subsequent vocabulary and reading development (e.g.
National Reading Panel, 2000). Along with reviewing some bilingual research underpinning this claim, this paper willreport on the effectiveness of the literacy program the researcher developed for 5th and 6th graders of public elementary
schools in one district in Tokyo, based on those research findings.
After five years of developing the program, the materials and the lesson plans, the researcher worked with theschool board to check the effectiveness of the program. The first study compared the students in experimental schools(149 5th graders and 142 6th graders) and the ones in the control schools (594 5th graders and 582 6th graders) after thetwo years of implementation. The second study compared the three groups of schools: the first group with three years
of intervention, the second with two years, and the third with one year. The total number of the participants in the 5th
grade was 779, and that of the one in the 6th grade was 839. They were all administered tests measuring theirphonological awareness, letter knowledge, vocabulary knowledge, and reading ability. The t-test and ANOVA wereused to analyze the data and suggested that the students developed their reading ability and its subset abilities
significantly in each study and the effectiveness of the program was verified.
Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the influence of some variables on their reading development
and the model suggests that their English literacy development is greatly affected by phonological awareness, letterknowledge, and vocabulary. This study has a great pedagogical implication, since English literacy education was
introduced at public elementary schools in 2020.
Keywords: reading development, phonological awareness, alphabetic principle, elementary school
children
Introduction
Early introduction of English education in elementary
schools has been discussed and practiced in many countries
in the last few decades (Shin & Crandall, 2013), even after thenegative report of the British Pilot Scheme (Burstall, 1970).
Along with the rapid speed of globalization, people in nonEnglish speaking countries are eager to acquire highcommunicative English proficiency. Thus, there is a strongsocial demand for teaching English to young learners
throughout the world (Pinter, 2006, Cameron, 2001) and thetrend has finally affected the foreign language policy in Japan.
The upper graders at Japanese public elementary
schools have been able to take twice-a-week English classes
since last year, 2020, and this dramatic change has caused
several problems. Among them, creating an effective literacy
program is the most urgent issue because it affects thecontinuity of English education at the secondary level. As
Cameron (2003) states, the expansion of TEYL programs will
have a “knock-on effect for the rest of English Education,
particularly secondary level” (p. 105).
In order to solve this problem, the researcher has
developed an innovative English literacy program for upper
graders at public elementary schools and has practiced in all
the elementary schools in one district in Tokyo. This paper
will report on the contents of the program and its evaluation.
1.

phonological awareness and the relationships between lettersand sounds. ‘New Phonics’, which emphasizes the teachingof onset and rime. was incorporated into the curriculum. In
order to develop spoken language, which plays a major rolein literacy development, the program used story-based
instruction.
3.

Method

3.1 Participants and the research site
The district has implemented English education toelementary school children since 2006 and created acurriculum focused on the continuity between primary andlower-secondary schools, dividing years by 4-3-2, instead of
6-3. The researcher has been involved in the English
education in this district and developed a literacy program forit. The school board has decided to apply her program to all
the schools in the district during three different times; from2014 (1st cohort), 2015 (2nd cohort), and 2016 (3rd cohort).
Thus, this paper compares the participants in different
cohorts; namely, 1st and 2nd in 2015, and all in 2016, to
examine the effectiveness of the program.
3.2 Instruments
Four different instruments were developed tomeasure the (1) phonological awareness, (2) letter knowledge,(3) vocabulary knowledge, and (4) reading. Each test had
more than .80 reliability coefficients.

ProgramBased on the abundant L1 research findings on early
literacy development, including the gigantic meta analysis
done by the National Reading Panel (2001), the program
focuses on explicit instruction of letter knowledge,
2.

4.

137

Results
The table below reports the result of the fifth graders in

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Study1, comparing the first cohort and the second cohort.
Although the average showed that the first cohort members
who were in the program for a year showed better scores inall the instruments, the statistically significant differenceswere found in the phonological awareness test (open), andletter knowledge test (read and write). Since the scores were
not normally distributed, U test was used.

The ones in the program for two or three years showed muchbetter performance in those skills than their counterparts.
(Tables are not reported because of the limited space here.)5.

Discussion and Conclusion
In addition to the comparison of the groups to see theeffectiveness of the program, the researcher conductedstructural equation model analysis to investigate therelationship among L2 phonological awareness, letter knowledge,
word knowledge, and reading. The model verifies the validity of
L1 research findings on an L2 learning environment: Phonologicalawareness and letter knowledge predicted the development ofword knowledge and reading ability.
In sum, the results from these two studies present evidence
that the program drawn up to develop students’ bottom-up skills
for reading, namely phonological awareness and letter knowledge
and understanding of the relationships between letters and sounds,
was proven to be effective and the participants in the program
developed those skills.
The fifth graders participated in about 30 ten-minuteliteracy-based activities and they learned to read and write upperand lower case alphabet letters and develop their phonologicalawareness. The sixth graders also received about 30 ten-minuteliteracy-based activities and received the explicit instruction tomatch a letter and its sound, and they started decoding simple
words such as cat, map, and king by developing onset-rime
recognition.
Since English classes will meet twice a week after 2020, thiscurriculum has been adjusted to spare more time to train thestudents’ abilities to blend and segment sounds to increase theirdecoding and encoding skills.

Table 1
Descriptive Statistics of each test for the 5 th graders in Study 1
test

N(ex.)

M sd (ex.)

N(con.) M sd (con.)p

PH(Open)149

17.13 (3.9)

594 15.37 (5.05).00

PH (End)149

18.75 (6.92)

594 16.44 (4.9).08

LK(read)147

27.58 (6.19)

592 24.22 (8.43).00

LK(write)147

16.38 (3.2)

592 14.35 (4.04)

.00

Voc.

149

18.75 (6.92)

594 17.88 (6.23).188

Table 2 reports the result of the sixth graders in Study 1,
comparing the first cohort and the second cohort. Although
the average scores showed that the first cohort members, whowere in the program for a year, showed better scores in all the
instruments, the statistically significant differences were
found in the phonological awareness test (open and end), andletter knowledge test (read and write), and two vocabulary
tests, but not in the two reading tests. Since the scores were
not normally distributed, U test was used.
Table 2
Descriptive Statistics of each test for the 6 th graders in Study 1
test

N(ex.)

M sd (ex.)

N(con.)

M sd (con.)p

PH(Open)142

19.15 (3.3)

582 16.58 (5.04) .000

PH (End)142

19.63 (3.77) 582 17.88 (4.69) .000

LK(read)142

28.75 (4.43) 583 23.95 (9.02) .000

LK(write)142

16.82 (3.0)

Voc. 1142

22.0 (5.76) 583 20.14 (6.25) .001

Voc. 2142

9.43 (8.11) 581

8.02 (8.00).034

Read 1

141

11.1 (4.58) 535 10.62 (4.9).391Read 2141

9.67 (5.98) 536.996

Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the national grant (grant-in-aid forscientific research 2011-2014, and 2016-2021: project number
23320118 and 16H03453)

583 13.79 (4.83) .000

9.26 (5.13)

References
Burstall, C. (1970). French in the Primary School: Attitudes andAchievement. Slough: NFER.
Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching Languages to Young Learners.
Cambridge University Press.
Cameron, L. (2003). Challenges for ELT from the expansion inteaching children. ELT Journal 57/2, Oxford University Press.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Report of the National Reading
Panel: Teaching children to read. Washington, DC: National
Academy Press.
Pinter, A. (2006). Teaching Young Language Learners. Oxford
University Press.
Shin, J. K. & Crandall, J. (2013). Teaching Young Learners English:
From Theory to Practice. Heinle Cengage Learning.

Adding the first and the second cohorts, t-tests wereconducted to compare them to the third group. There were
statistically significant differences in the tests measuring
letter knowledge and phonological awareness among the fifth
graders. The evidence showing the effectiveness of the
program came from the 6th graders data: there were
statistically significant differences in the phonological test,
letter knowledge test, vocabulary tests, and the reading tests.

138

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The Impact of Synchronous Online Foreign Language Teachingon Student Satisfaction and Motivation
Hiroyuki Toda
The University of Tokyo
Hirokun0602@gmail.com
Abstract
The outbreak of COVID-19 in early 2020 forced educational institutions around the world to stop
providing lectures in their classrooms and shift their educational method to online teaching.
Undergraduate foreign language courses in Japanese universities, which are generally required for
graduation, were not exceptions. While the crisis imposed a stifling experience on students, teachers had
to overcome their own challenges as well because they had little prior experience of teaching online.
(JACET Kanto, 2020) Although some studies conducted before the crisis suggest that shifting of face-toface classroom teaching to partial or complete online teaching does not negatively impact academic
performance or substantially compromise student motivation or satisfaction (Francescucci & Foster,
2013; Francescucci & Rohani, 2018; Islam, 2019; Motycka, Onge, & Williams 2013, and Skylar, 2009),
these classes were taught with sufficient preparation and in the absence of any immediate threat of apandemic and were for subjects other than foreign language education. The purpose of this research was
to explore the impact of synchronous online teaching on student satisfaction and motivation when
traditional face-to-face classroom teaching is not available. The magnitude of the impact was measured
quantitatively and qualitatively by analyzing the responses both numerical and transcriptive to aquestionnaire to students participating in the classes the author provided. The findings reveal that thestudents were fairly satisfied with synchronous online teaching while still considering face-to-faceclassroom teaching to offer the best learning environment for them while regarding synchronous online
teaching as the best alternative to face-to-face classroom teaching for foreign language courses becauseof the synchronicity and interactivity it provides. The result of this study also showed that synchronous
online teaching can significantly increase student motivation, and that the students may become lessvulnerable to the external environment and more driven by their own internal aspirations.
Keywords: synchronous online foreign language teaching, student satisfaction, student motivation
1.

Introduction
COVID-19 forced educational institutions anywhere to
shift their educational method to online teaching.
Undergraduate foreign language courses in Japanese
universities were not exceptions. Although some studies
conducted before the crisis suggest that shifting of face-to-faceclassroom teaching to online teaching does not negatively
impact academic performance or substantially compromise
student motivation, these classes were taught with sufficient
preparation and in the absence of a pandemic and were forsubjects other than foreign language education. Therefore, thisresearch aimed at exploring the impact of synchronous online
teaching on student motivation when traditional face-to-faceclassroom teaching is not available. The findings revealed thatthe students regard synchronous online teaching as the bestalternative to face-to-face classroom teaching for foreign
language courses. The result also showed that synchronous
online teaching can significantly increase student motivation.

face classes throughout the academic semester. In this study,
the former group showed higher interest in the subject.
Francescucci and Rohani (2018) confirmed that a completely
synchronous online marketing course achieved the same levelof academic performance as a completely face-to-face coursewith slightly less interest in the subject on the part of thestudents. In Japan, a survey at Shonan Fujisawa Campus of
Keio University during the COVID-19 crisis disclosed thatstudents were relatively more favorable than faculty members
to online classes, and approximately half of the faculty
members and 70% of the students expressed their desire thatthe university would continue to provide online classes evenafter the crisis (Ueda, 2020).
2.2 Student Motivation
Many studies have been conducted on the relation
between foreign language education and student motivation.
Ichikawa (1995) suggested that identifying learners’
motivational patterns could help design a suitable instructional
method for them. He developed a model of learning
motivations and classified them into six motivational
categories from the standpoint of two factors: the degree ofimportance of the learned content, and its utility. Ichikawa
categorized motivations in two groups; intrinsic motivations
and extrinsic motivations and he acknowledged that it was
intrinsic motivations rather than extrinsic motivations thatdrive learners’ willingness to study more strongly.

2. Literature Review
2.1 Online Teaching
Well before the outbreak of the COVID-19 crisis, someresearchers conducted studies on the level of improvement inunderstanding instructional content, satisfaction, motivationon the part of students by type of teaching. Francescucci andFoster (2013) conducted a survey in a Canadian university andcompared two groups of marketing students: a group of
students who attended fully synchronous online classes andface-to-face classes alternately and a group who took face-to139

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2.3 Research Questions
All of the studies on online teaching before the crisis
above did not cover foreign language education for university
students in Japan and the surveys conducted during the crisis
in Japan did not focus on any specific subject. In addition,
Ichikawa’s research did not attribute the emergence of online
teaching as a source of changes in student motivation.
Therefore, the purpose of this research was to explore theimpact of online teaching on the motivation of the students
who learn foreign languages in Japan. Accordingly, thisresearch investigates the following research question:

5.

Discussion and Conclusion
While this research was not specifically designed to
identify the reasons for differences in motivation, commentsfrom the students provide some clues as to why it served to
uplift the motivation of the learners. Many commented thatthey were stimulated by hearing others perform extremely wellin delivering their work in the class. Others indicated that they
became aware of the importance of repetitive practice toenhance their foreign language proficiency after learning fromthe instructor various practicing methods. In business classes,
many students voiced the difficulties of communicating withothers in an unusual environment when they have to rely on
communication tools other than face-to-face talks. In sum, it ispossible that the SOT foreign language classes taught by the
researcher offered the opportunity to raise student awarenessof the gap they have to fill and increased the level of theirmotivation.
This research focused mainly on the impact ofsynchronous online teaching on student motivation during the
COVID-19 crisis and the findings may not be generalizable toother instructors and other disciplines. These findings,
especially those related to motivation, may not have beenobtained if it were not for COVID-19, because under thecircumstances of the pandemic the students had no choice but
to accept online teaching.

Do synchronous online foreign language classes affect student
motivation to study further?
3.

Methods
During the spring semester (April to August) in 2020,
this researcher provided 13 synchronous online foreign
language courses to approximately 300 students in four
different private universities in Japan. In all of the classes
taught, the researcher used Zoom, a video conferencing
application, as the main tool for instruction. Every lecture wasfollowed by the submission of online review sheets, which
students were asked to submit shortly after each lecture.
Towards the end of the semester, an online survey was
conducted using Google Forms with 300 students who
participated in the classes above. The purpose of the survey
was to review what students had experienced about the classes
in comparison with other types of courses provided during thesame semester (by other instructors) as well as with traditional
face-to-face classroom instructions. Close to 80% of the 300
students responded to the survey. The questions in the survey
focused on the impact of student motivation with regard to thesynchronous online instructions provided. In order to measurechanges in aspects of student motivation, the questionnaire
incorporated questions used in Ichikawa (1995). Finally, thesurvey was followed by interviews conducted with thestudents who attended this researcher’s classes.

References
Francescucci, A., & Foster, M. (2013). The VIRI (Virtual, Interactive,
Real-Time, Instructor-Led) Classroom: The Impact of Blended
Synchronous Online Courses on Student Performance,
Engagement, and Satisfaction. Canadian Journal of Higher
Education, 43, 78–91.
Francescucci, A., & Rohani, L. (2018). Exclusively Synchronous
Online (VIRI) Learning: The Impact on Student Performance andEngagement Outcomes. Journal of Marketing Education, 41(1),60–69.
Ichikawa, S., (1995). Gakushu to kyoiku no shinrigaku [Psychology
for learning and teaching]. Tokyo, Japan: Iwanami Publication.
Islam, C., Using Web Conferencing Tools for Preparing Reading
Specialists: The Impact of Ashynchronous and Synchronous
Collaboration on the Learning Process. International Journal of
Language and Linguistics, 62(3), 1–10. doi:10.30845/ijll.v6n3p1
JACET-Kanto. (2020). JACET-Kanto Zadankai tohyo kekka[JACET-Kanto Poll Resultsat the Round-Table Talk]. Retrieved
fromhttps://drive.google.com/file/d/1Jemy3LXFtuCE3H_9kq7AcBZhg1h6vYE/view
Motycka, P. R., & De Groot, E. (1990). Motivational and SelfRegulated Learning Components of Classroom Academic
Performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 33–40.
Skylar, A.A., (2009). A Comparison of Ashynchronous Online TextBased Lectures and Synchronous Interactive Web Conferencing
Lectures. Issues in Teacher Education, Fall 2009, 18, 69–84.
Uehara, K., (2020). Keio SFC ni okeru enkaku jugyo to anketo chousa
kekka [Survey Results on Online Teaching at SFC Campus of
Keio
University].
Retrievedfromhttps://www.nii.ac.jp/event/upload/20200605-5_Uehara.pdf

4.

Analysis and Results
The answers to the questionnaire on motivation werescored according to the degree of agreement on a 5-point
Likert scale to each question. The scores for each question in
the same motivational category were averaged and theresulting figure was used as the score for each motivational
category. The pre-semester scores and the post-semester scores
were compared by conducting a two-tailed t-test with a levelof significance of 0.05 to investigate whether there were anychanges in each motivational category. The result indicatesthat all six motivational categories showed differences that are
statistically significant. This suggests that synchronous online
teaching by the researcher did have some impact on the
motivation of students. The analysis indicated that thesynchronous foreign language classes taught by the researcher
made students more motivated. The learners had reduced
tendencies to be motivated by the influence of external factors.
The cause of their motivation to study seemed to have changed
to more internal factors

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Developmental processes of comprehension depth and learner English
as revealed through grounded reading activities
Peter J. Collins*, Hiroko Suzuki*, and Miho Fujieda***Tokai University
pcollins@tokai-u.jp
hirosuzu@tokai-u.jp**Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University
mfujieda@osaka-med.ac.jp
Abstract
The authors’ aim in conducting this study was to demonstrate how L2 learners can advance their own
reading comprehension depth when given opportunities to situate the language of academic reading
passages. An English for Academic Purposes (EAP) framework developed by the authors is offered,followed by protocol analyses of student participants’ written output. The emerging quantitative andqualitative data demonstrates that the course’s grounded activities supported participants in effectively
contextualizing and reconstructing what they had read. Although language form deficiencies occasionally
undermined their efforts to coherently express complex meanings (Suzuki, 2016), the course’s top-down
reading activities and careful scaffolding empowered them to achieve deeper levels of comprehension.
Keywords: EAP, educational framework, comprehension depth, grounded reading, contextualization
Background
Tertiary English language programs in Japan are
expected to nurture English for Academic Purposes (EAP) by
helping students draw on their own linguistic knowledge andskills. How this is to be achieved, however, is dependent on a
range of practical considerations. Student participant survey
responses (Suzuki & Collins, 2019) have revealed that
language learning at Japan’s high schools is largely limited to
textbook reading passage comprehension.
Previous analyses of MEXT-approved high school
English textbooks have revealed questions and tasks
primarily at the lower levels of cognitive demand (Suzuki etal, 2017). Moreover, every fifth or sixth word, or around 20%of the textbook reading passages are new to high school
students (Suzuki, 2016), although research (Nation, 2006)
indicates that, for a reasonable level of comprehension,
initially-unknown words should not account for more thanapproximately two percent of a text’s running words.
Unsurprisingly, university students in EAP classes face muchhigher rates of unfamiliar words in the readings they are
expected to tackle.
The purpose of the current study was to determine how
L2 learners can advance their own reading comprehension
depth when given opportunities to situate the language
featured in reading passages. The target student participants
were freshmen science majors.

necessary for the participants to engage at the Taxonomy’s“understanding,” “analyzing,” and “applying” levels. The
first half of the course’s task sequence was designed to boost
participants’ receptive skills by promoting their ability tocontextualize what they had learned through reading. The
latter half provided them with opportunities to more
effectively express what they had read in order to confirm
their understanding (Table 1).
Activities at the Taxonomy’s “applying” level asked
participants to create a table to overview or summarize
reading contents, read new texts and take note of concepts ashistorical facts. They were invited to use key words they had
identified from their reading in writing original sentences.
They also tried to identify content and action verbs that would
support their sentence creation. In later stages, they
reorganized their own writing about multiple readings into an
essay. Additional instruction was provided on adding
subordinate information and clarifying relationships between
pieces of information.

1.

Table 1
Comprehension depths expected in the reading activities
Taxonomy
Remembering
Remembering
Understanding

Course design
Reading and writing activities developed for andconducted in lessons in previous research by the authors had
been found to support participants to overcome the obstacles
mentioned above. With this in mind, a required
reading/writing course was designed to bridge the gaps
between the current student participants’ EFL backgrounds
and their potential as EAP learners and users. In an
educational framework reflecting the assumption that bothlanguage and learning are situated (Collins, 2014, Collins &Ito, 2015), participants were exposed to vocabulary andinvited to draw upon prior knowledge of the reading topics.
A key component of the course design was the scaffolding
2.

Applying

Analyzing
Understanding

Activities
Receptive: Analyzing
language
Drawing on L1
background knowledge,
sharing understanding
Creating a table
Writing sentences using
key words
Reading new texts,
writing
Reorganizing written text

Instruction
Predicting meaning frombackground knowledge

Setting an audience:
Explaining phenonema to
non-Japanese students
Constructing sentences todeepen understanding
Identifying content
and action verbs
Forming paragraphs
Using complex sentences

Analyses of participant English
The writing outcomes of 26 participants in one course
were analyzed with emphasis on (1) comprehensibility andauthenticity, (2) quantitative features, and (3) linguisticfeatures. The written outcomes revealed gradually deeper
3.

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7 assignment, for example, “One good conductor is metal
because heat transfer of metal is rapidly.”reading comprehension and sense of genre as well as clearer
notions of their own goals and roles when reading. Althoughminimal explicit language instruction had been given,
participant writing outcomes demonstrated effective
interaction with multiple reading materials.
A corpus tool CasualConc (Imao, 2014) was used toanalyze information such as number of sentences, average
number of words per sentence, and how many different words
and word types used. AntConc (Anthony, 2020) with TagAnt(Anthony, 2015) was used to extract all the verbs used in theparticipants’ writing. AntConc also searched for groups ofspecified words in a corpus; “if,” “because,” “although,” andthe relative pronouns/adverbs “which” and “where” wereidentified to see whether and how participants used them toform complex sentences featuring subordinate clauses.

Concluding remarks
Early participant summaries simply listed importantsentences or phrases without showing evidence ofinterpretation or reconstruction of meaning. However, later
successful summaries featured complex sentence structures, agreater number of content verbs, and more appropriate use ofverb forms in terms of voice, tense, and aspect. These
outcomes point to a deeper grasp of the reading content andmessage. Lingering problems included incorrect use of
discourse markers such as pronouns, articles, and noun forms.
Although these types of language form deficiencies
occasionally undermined participants’ efforts to coherently
express complex meanings (Suzuki, 2016), the scaffolding
provided by the course’s top-down reading activities
empowered them to achieve deeper levels of comprehension
than they had been able to in the purely language-oriented
bottom-up approaches experienced at the high school level.
Further study is necessary to determine obstacles tocontextualizing language while reading, whether they are
cognitive aspects due to limitations of background knowledgeor the communication skills necessary to empathetically share
information and ideas, or to language deficiencies that emerge
in the productive process.
5.

4. Results
4.1 Quantitative results
Table 2 briefly overviews how participants’ English
written output demonstrated their reading comprehension
levels. In the spring semester, the Day 10 assignment was torevise the text written for the Day 9 assignment. Participants
wrote, on average, around 10 more words on Day 10 than on
Day 9; many added words to their keyword table in order towrite in more detail. While increased text length is notnecessarily a sign of comprehending more information, it
does demonstrate a trade-off phenomenon. On Day 7 in thefall semester, participants read about “heat transfer,” afamiliar concept to them, and most of them constructed theirown summaries. On the other hand, the Day 9 topic was drug
addiction, which they had little knowledge of. They found it
difficult to comprehend the content, so analyzing thelanguage itself was more challenging, eventually limiting
their ability to integrate what they had read into their writing.

References
Anderson, L. W. and Krathwohl, D. R., et al (Eds.) (2001). A
Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Allyn & Bacon.
Boston, MA (Pearson Education Group)
Anthony, L. (2020). AntConc (Version 3.5.9) [Computer Software].
Tokyo,
Japan:
WasedaUniversity.
Availablefrom https://www.laurenceanthony.net/software
Anthony, L. (2015). TagAnt (Version 1.1.0) [Computer Software].
Tokyo,
Japan:
WasedaUniversity.
Availablefrom https://www.laurenceanthony.net/software
Nation, I. S. P. (2006). How large a vocabulary is needed for reading
and listening?, Canadian Modern Language Review, 63(1), 5982.
Collins, P. (2014). JTE-ALT-S relationships: Building a framework.
Teaching Skills Development Seminar, Lecture in Toyama,
Japan.
Collins, P., & Ito, M. (2015). Fostering an English Language
Community: The 2014 Tokai University Gakuen English
Olympics. Tokai University, Foreign Language Center Report 35,
125-134.
Imao, Y. (2019). CasualConc (Version 2.1.2)[Computer Software].
Downloaded from https://sites.google.com/site/casualconc/
Suzuki, H. (2016). Scaffolding reading performance: Materials
design based on textbook vocabulary analyses, International
Journal of Curriculum Development and Practice, 18,1, 53-66.
Suzuki, H., & Collins, P. (2019). The impact of contextualization onreading comprehension depth: Analyses of basic and lowintermediate learners’ language and perspectives. Presented at
FLEAT7 2019, Tokyo, Japan.
Suzuki, H., Kawano, M., & Hirai, S. (2017). Activity Designs to
Nurture Reading Literacy Based on PISA’s Criteria: An Analysisof High School English Textbooks. JACET-KANTO Journal 4,
JACET Kanto Chapter, 36-50,

Table 2
Participant written outcomes: Quantitative aspects
Outcomes
TokensTTR ASN* AWL*
ASL*
Spring Day 5
191.9
67.5
13.1
4.8
14.8
Spring Day 9
348.3
48.9
25.3
5.0
14.0
Spring Day 10
362.4
46.4
27.4
5.0
13.6
Fall Day 7
233.2
51.1
18.1
4.6
13.3
Fall Day 10
316.5
56.6
23.2
4.9
13.7
Note. *ASN = Average number of sentences, AWL = Average word
length (in letters), ASL = Average sentence length (in words)

4.2 Quantitative results
An individual case, Participant T, helps illustrate verb
use in written outcomes. 49 content verbs total were found in
T’s writing. For the Spring Day 5 assignment, T used fivecontent verbs appropriately as main verbs in sentences, forexample, “Through chemical reactions we can shrink thelights wavelengths and get it to scatter.” In contrast, for the
Fall Day 7 assignment, T used 11 content verbs in the present
tense in describing a scientific phenomenon, for example,“People can sit around a campfire and warm their hands overit because of the heat radiated from the fire.” On the other
hand, Participant H was still using be-verbs for the Fall Day

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A critical review of WordEngine: Analysing its efficacy for studying
vocabulary and transferring L2 words to long-term memory
Stephen Clarke* and Jaime Morrish***Nagoya College
sjclarke@nagoyacollege.ac.jp**Sugiyama Jogakuen University
morrishjam@sugiyama-u.ac.jp
Abstract
WordEngine is a software platform that provides learners with a digital, gamified version of bilingual
flashcards. Users are shown words in Japanese (L1) and then given a choice of three possible English(L2) meanings. The software developers claim that through repeated meetings with level-appropriate
vocabulary items at spaced intervals through the online quizzes, learners are able to acquire a gradually
increasing number of L2 words over the long term. This study examines the extent to which learners
developed the ability to produce the target L2 words they had supposedly acquired through the software.
The subjects in this study accessed the software on their smartphones and spent between 45 to 60 minutes
using it per week. Tests that involved translating Japanese words into English were administered to college
English majors 5 and 8 months after they had correctly selected each word six consecutive times on
WordEngine. Results showed that the subjects could provide L2 translations for only around one-third of
the target words, though the number would be lower if correct translations that were not studied via
WordEngine were excluded. After discontinuing the use of WordEngine, average TOEIC and VELC
scores in the same department as the test subjects were not negatively affected. Together, these results callinto question the efficacy of WordEngine as a vocabulary learning tool that promotes significant
acquisition of both receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge over the long term.
Keywords: vocabulary, acquisition, long-term memory
1.

Introduction
This study measures the effectiveness of WordEngine,a software platform that offers learners a gamified version ofdigital flashcard learning. WordEngine uses a spaced
repetition system, and the creators claim that an L2 word
becomes “fully acquired” after its correct meaning has been
selected from a list of three possible answers six consecutive
times (Lexxica, 2018). McClean, Hogg and Rush (2013)
found that using WordEngine for 1 or 2 hours per week led to
improvement on a receptive vocabulary size test. This study,
however, did not measure productive knowledge or thedelayed, long-term effects of WordEngine use.

Time 2, December 2019, five months following the point at
which the software developers claim the test words had been“fully acquired”. These tests were based on individualized
multiple-choice tests created by the WordEngine software,
but only the Japanese (L1) item was left on the sheet and thesubjects were directed to write the English (L2) translation.
Finally, at Time 3, January 2019, an additional set of
L2 translation tests similar to those administered at Time 2
was given to the subjects. The gap following the words beingclassified as “fully acquired” was 8 months, the largest yet.
Once class teachers had collected this test, the students were
given the proprietary multiple-choice test (similar to thatadministered at Time 1) upon which the L2 translation tests
were based.
When marking the L2 translation tests, points were
given for correct answers that were not actually the word
studied through the WordEngine software. For example, apoint was awarded if a subject wrote ‘result’ as the translationof ‘ 結 果 ’, even though the translation provided by
WordEngine was ‘outcome’. It could be argued that suchwords were not acquired through the use of the flashcard
software but from other sources, thus, a record of these points
was kept for later consideration.
In the academic year following Time 3, starting in April
2019, the college reduced the time spent by students on
WordEngine, setting the number of required correct responses
per week at 210 and from April 2020, the use of WordEngine
was discontinued completely. Average increases in TOEIC
and the VELC placement test by the students in thedepartment were calculated to compare year groups andinvestigate if decreasing or discontinuing the use of
WordEngine affected students' general proficiency.

2.

Research Question
This paper attempts to answer the following question:
RQ. To what extent does WordEngine promote the long-term
acquisition of L2 vocabulary?
3.

Procedure
Data was collected from 66 second-year English major
students at a two-year junior college in the Tokai area who
had used WordEngine since entering the college. Subjects
were required to obtain 400 correct responses per week intheir first year and 350 in their second, spending between
around 45 to 60 minutes doing so.
Tests of both receptive and productive ability wereadministered at three different points in time. At Time 1,
November 2018, students were given an individualized
multiple-choice test created using the WordEngine software,in which subjects had to select the correct L2 translation of aJapanese word. Time 1 was four months after the test words
had become classified as “fully acquired” by the WordEngine
software. A test of productive ability was administered at
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4.

Results
All tests had a maximum possible score of 30 points
and the mean average scores are shown in Table 1 below. The
scores in parentheses are those which only include the exact
L2 translation learned via the WordEngine software.
In order to investigate any differences between moreand less-able students on the L2 translation tests, scores fromthe VELC placement test were used to separate the top andbottom 25 per cent.

5.

Discussion
There is an apparent discrepancy between the subjects’
performance on the multiple-choice tests of receptive ability
and the L2 translation tests of productive ability. It is a matterof conjecture why the subjects found the multiple-choice tests
easier. One possibility is that the use of WordEngine provided
them with a robust receptive knowledge of the target words,
and a much weaker productive knowledge. However, it is also
conceivable that the distractors in the test questions were
purposely selected to make the questions easy. It is not clear,for example, whether the distractors were other words that thestudents had studied via WordEngine, or whether they werechosen at random without regard to students’ WordEngine
study. If the latter were the case, the subjects may have merely
selected words that they remembered learning rather thanthose that they could identify as a correct translation of thetest word. Nakata (2011) found that WordEngine altered theposition of the correct answer and automatically generated
distractors, however there is limited information on how thisis done.
The gap between performance by the top and bottom
25% of subjects on the L2 translation tests was negligible anddoes not appear significant.
The decrease of time spent using WordEngine and its
subsequent complete discontinuation did not negatively affectthe average increases in TOEIC score in the department. In
fact, by far the most significant increase over two years took
place following the discontinuation. The increase in VELC
scores following the discontinuation was the lowest in thefour years investigated. However, the scores were only
slightly lower than those for the 2017 intake, who used
WordEngine for a full two years.

Table 1
Multiple-Choice Test Results at Three Time Points
Time

Type
Test

1

of

Mean
average of
all subjects

Mean
average for
top 25% on
VELC
placement
test

Mean averageforbottom25%
on
VELC
placement
test

Multiplechoice

27.98

-

-

2

L2
translation

10.60(8.42)

10.83

9.2

3

L2
translation

10.80(8.72)

12.0

10.0

3

Multiplechoice

28.0

-

-

The average increases in TOEIC scores during this period isshown in Table 2.
Table 2TOEIC Score Increases
Student
Year of
Entry

Number of years
WordEngine use

Increase
after 1 year

Increase after 2
years

2017

2

91

120

2018

2

80

91

2019

1

91

188

2020

0

94

-

6.

Conclusion
Between five and eight months following thecompletion of a spaced-repetition study programme using the
WordEngine software, students could produce L2 translations
for approximately one-third of the target words. Therefore, it
is difficult to argue that the subjects had “fully acquired” evenhalf of the words they had studied via WordEngine, since fullacquisition would entail productive as well as receptive
knowledge. Average TOEIC and VELC scores in thedepartment following its decrease in usage anddiscontinuation do not lead to the conclusion that
WordEngine made a significant contribution to increasing
student vocabulary knowledge.

Table 3 shows the average increases in the VELC test scores.
Table 3
VELC Score Increases
Student
Year of
Entry

Number ofyears of Total
WordEngine
use

Increaseafter
1
semester

Increaseafter
2
semesters

Increaseafter
3
semesters

2017

2

13

35

56

2018

2

25

37

39

2019

1

22

49

61

2020

0

11

33

-

References
Lexxica. (2018). Introducing Word Engine. Available fromhttps://www.wordengine.jp/research/pdf/we30/Introducing_Wo
rdEngine.pdf
McClean, S. Hogg, N. & Rush, T. (2013). Vocabulary learning
through an online computerized flashcard site. The JALT Call
Journal, 9, 79-98.
Nakata, T. (2011). Computer-assisted second language vocabulary
learning in a paired-associate paradigm: a critical investigationof flashcard software. Computer Assisted Language Learning,
24:1, 17-38.

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Exploring the Role of a Model on Korean Learners’ English Article
Revisions and General Attention Areas: Using a Picture-Based
Narrative Writing Task
Sujung Park**Hanyang Cyber University
supark@hycu.ac.kr
Abstract
Previous research has investigated models as feedback to examine what learners notice and revise whencomparing their initial texts against models, reporting that their attention largely lies in the order of lexis,
content, and grammar. However, these researchers used learners' self-reports as the main measure forassessing noticing and its subsequent effects into revisions. Thus, this study directly looked into theiractual text revisions for what they notice and revise from a model, with their self-reports as the secondary
data. Also, the common findings that grammar benefited the least from models require further research to
explore the possible factors at play. Therefore, employing a picture-based narrative task with sixteen
Korean adult learners, this study investigated English articles, particularly, to examine in whatenvironments they correctly revise articles, leave them uncorrected, or incorrectly revise them as well as
what general aspects of language, other than articles, they notice and revise in their initial texts. Results
indicated that article-related factors included proficiency, prior article knowledge, language awareness,selective attention, learners' input processing priorities, limited attentional capacity, language learning
strategies, first language (L1) interference, and location mismatches between learner phrases and modelphrases across long stretches of texts. As for their attention to other general aspects of language, they
noticed and revised lexis, content, and grammar, sequentially, while organization, a newly added aspect,produced mixed results depending on what aspects of organization was assessed. This paper concludes
with future research directions with an aim of diversifying attention to different aspects of language.
Keywords: models, feedback, revisions, English articles
Introduction
A review of the existing literature employing models (e.g.,
Coyle & Roca de Larios, 2014; Coyle, Guirao, & Roca de Larios,
2018; Garcia Mayo & Loidi Labandibar, 2017; Guirao, Roca deLarios, & Coyle, 2015; Hanaoka, 2007; Kang 2020; Martinez &Roca de Larios, 2010) points to a need for future research to
explore adult learners using their textual revisions as the main
measure of noticing, supplemented by related qualitative data.
Also, given that grammar was revealed to be the least benefited
area from the use of a model text, it would be worthwhile to focus
on one specific grammatical form and look into what aspects of amodel text may have an influence on learners' noticing andrevisions of that form, with a possibility that other factors may
also intervene in that process. Specifically, the current study chose
English articles, particularly, the first mention and subsequentmention functions. Therefore, based on these motivations fromthe previous studies, as well as for practical purposes, this study
implemented a picture-based narrative model text for an adult,
EFL writing class to examine, when a picture-based narrativemodel is provided as feedback, a) in what types of environments
L2 Korean learners correctly revise English articles, leave themuncorrected, or rather incorrectly revise them in their initial texts
and b) other than English articles, what general aspects oflanguage they attend to and revise in their initial texts.

of 13 female and 3 male students, ranging from 22 to 64 inage (mean: 35.06, SD: 10.02).

1.

2.

2.2 Tasks, Materials, and Procedure
The tasks in this study consisted of three-stage, picturebased narrative writing tasks. Specifically, in the first stage,
after the course had taught the students two lessons on how todevelop narrative texts, they were given 7 days to individually
write and submit a narrative paragraph as an assignment,using the given picture, along with written notes of difficultythat they felt during the writing process. One day after thesubmissions were completed, in the second stage, they were
subdivided into smaller groups of four students by the
instructor and were given another 7 days to take turns
participating in online relay writings per picture strip within
their assigned groups. After the group-based writing stage, thethird stage was back to another individual writing stage,
which allowed 12 days, in which the students were asked toindividually revise their initial texts after comparison with themodel text provided by the instructor. While rewriting, thelearners in this study had access to the model text, as well as
to a dictionary if they would like to, the latter of which also
applied to the preceding two stages of writing. After they
completed their revisions, they then filled out a written
questionnaire as well as an exit survey.

Method
2.3 Data Coding and Analysis
To answer the two research questions, the data included
the students' individual initial texts and revised ones. To answer
the first research question, the data were further narrowed down
to those sentences in the initial and revised texts that contained the

2.1 Participants
The participants of this study were 16 Korean adultlearners, a subset of students from a large English writing
course at an online university in South Korea. They consisted
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noun phrases whose article usage functioned or was supposed tofunction as either indefinite first mention or definite subsequentmention usage. Then among these sentences, the sentences thatconveyed the same, similar, or extended meanings between theinitial and revised texts were further selected as matched pairs ofsentences where the target article usage was assessed as (a)correctly revised, (b) uncorrected, or (c) initially correctly used
but later incorrectly revised, after the model text was provided.
To answer the second research question, four coding categories
were identified to compare the results with the previous studies:
lexis, grammar, content, and organization. The coding for lexis
pertained to changes, additions, or deletions of single words(including spelling), phrasal verbs, or expressions made in therevised sentences. For grammar, morphological or syntacticchanges, additions, or deletions made in the revised sentenceswere included. The coding for content then involved changes,
additions, or deletions in ideational content, mainly resulting in
the units of verb phrases, prepositional phrases, or clauses. Finally,
the coding of organization concerned whether the first sentence
indentation as well as the rhetorical elements of a narrative
paragraph, namely, topic sentences and concluding sentences,were noticed and incorporated into the revisions.
For the data of the categories of lexis, grammar, and content,
the same sentence pairs used for the first research question wereanalyzed. As for organization, the beginning and end of the initialand revised texts were examined, as the first sentence indentation
as well as the rhetorical elements targeted in this study are locatedaround the opening and closing parts of a typical narrative
paragraph.

utilized for future research into more effective use of models
for attending to grammatical forms including English articles.
Finally, this study also diversified the previously researchedwriting genres (mainly, picture-based description tasks) andpopulations (mainly, Spanish young learners) byinvestigating a picture-based narrative writing genre with
Korean adult learners. This enabled the researcher to analyze
the effectiveness of a model for its organizational aspects,
particularly, on the rhetorical elements of a narrative
paragraph. Then this further sheds light on the role of a modelon macro-level aspects of language and what adjustments
might be possibly made to make better use of the model forthem (e.g., offering a model text with the rhetorical parts of it
marked, along with metalinguistic explanations on them).
Despite these contributions, the present study is also notwithout its limitations. The study employed relatively a small
number of participants and analyzed a subset of their data.
This made in-depth analysis possible, but at the same time,
the results should not be over-stated. I suggest, however, that
future studies make use of these findings, those obtained fromthe use of a model text alone without further pedagogicalstrategies implemented. In other words, with the results of thisstudy as a kind of baseline data, future research may proceed
to find ways to maximize the effectiveness of models in an L2
classroom setting for further balancing learner attention todifferent aspects of language (i.e., lexis, grammar, content,
and organization) embedded in models.
References
Coyle, Y., & Roca de Larios, J. (2014). Exploring the role played by error
correction and models on children’s reported noticing and output
production in a L2 writing task. Studies in Second Language
Acquisition, 36(3), 451-485.
Coyle, Y., Guirao, J. C., & Roca de Larios, J. (2018). Identifying the
trajectories of young EFL learners across multi-stage writing andfeedback processing tasks with model texts. Journal of Second
Language Writing, 42, 25-43.
Garcia Mayo, M. P., & Loidi Labandibar, U. (2017). The use of models
as written corrective feedback in English as a foreign language (EFL)
writing. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 37, 110-127.
Guirao, J. C., Roca de Larios, J., & Coyle, Y. (2015). The use of models
as a written feedback technique with young EFL learners. System, 52,
63-77.
Hanaoka, O. (2007). Output, noticing, and learning: An investigation into
the role of spontaneous attention to form in a four-stage writing task.
Language Teaching Research, 11(4), 459-479.
Kang, E. Y. (2020). Using model texts as a form of feedback in L2 writing.
System, 89, 1-11.
Martinez, N., & Roca de Larios, J. (2010). The use of models as a formof written feedback to secondary school pupils of English.
International Journal of English Studies, 10(2), 143-170.

Results and Discussion
As for the first research question, the underlying factors forarticle revisions included proficiency, prior article knowledge,
language awareness, selective attention, learners' input
processing priorities, limited attentional capacity, language
learning strategies, L1 interference, and location mismatches
between learner phrases and model phrases across long
stretches of texts. As for their attention to other general
aspects of language, they noticed and revised lexis, content,
and grammar, sequentially, while organization produced
mixed results in that while first sentence indentation was
relatively easy for the learners to notice from the model andincorporate into their revisions, the two rhetorical elements ofa narrative paragraph targeted in this study were difficult toincorporate.
This study contributes to the findings of previous studies in
the following ways. Firstly, this study looked into textual
revisions between the learners' initial and revised texts incombination with their reflective comments on them as
explanatory data, which helped gain a micro-level, detailed
insight into what was likely happening with the learners whenusing the model text in their revision process. Secondly, giventhat grammar was the least benefited area from the use ofmodels in previous studies, this study examined one specificgrammatical form, English articles, revealing that a multitudeof factors, as listed above, seemed to have been involved thateither positively or negatively affected the learners' noticing
and revisions of that form. These findings, in turn, can be3.

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From traditional teaching to self-learning – A New Japanese School
SystemMaria Bloedel
Maria Bloedel M.A.
m.bloedel@clark.ed.jp
Abstract
The Japanese School System was introduced during the Meiji period and went through a couple ofchanges in the Education System. But all in all it can be stated, that the system didn’t change that much.
Even in the 21st century the basic structure remains of ex-cathedra teaching, or better known as front-ofclass teaching. In 2021 a new school opened in Tokyo, called CLARK NEXT, a new branch of Clark
Memorial International High School with two Campus, Tokyo and Akihabara. This new branch is usinga school system that is completely new to the Japanese system, because it uses coaching rather thanteaching and self-learning to increase the student’s ability to learn all the necessary skills, that are needed
for the fast developing high technological 21st century. This paper gives an overview about the school’s
new method of learning and coaching.
Keywords: Education, Teaching, Coaching, CLARK NEXT1.

2.

Voice Acting/ Broadcast and Manga/Illustrator for
Akihabara. In the afternoon, especially from Tuesday toThursday students study with professionals to deepen
their knowledge about one’s hobby in a way you can do
it at college.

Introduction
Due to the remaining education system in Japan, which
stayed nearly the same, since its introduction in 1872 thesystem lacks flexibility to the immense changes
happening in the 21st century. The typical front-of-classteaching is still the main element of the daily class inwhich the students copy the notes made by the teacher
and then invest time to study exactly this content. But ina high developed society like Japan in the 21 st century,
the system hits a wall. Nowadays all information isaccessible with a fingertip in the blink of an eye andtherefore it is necessary to being able to handle the floodof information that can be used. Because of the oldteaching structure, it can be argued, that Japanese
students lack the ability to make use of this information,
to think for themselves and to work out problems in agroup. To work on these challenges, the new branch of
Clark Memorial International High School, CLARK
NEXT Tokyo and Akihabara focused on a new way tocommunicate information that is not only necessary forthe students to graduate from High School, but far more
to become a flexible and highly skilled member of thesociety.

2.2 Learning by DoingTo improve not only the communication skills of thestudents, but also the way to interact with each other,
CLARK NEXT focuses on active learning, too. Throughprojects and group work students realize the best ways tocommunicate and interact with each other, to reach theindividual goals of the group and to improve one’s own
skills. To help students to level up, the group organizes
them self with the assistance of the teacher, figures out
what works and what needs to be improved and prepares
everything to being able to present and talk about the
project. Answering questions and giving tips to otherstudents to reach their goals are part of the process, too.
Active learning goes beyond the homeroom boarders andincludes the group work in the student’s majors andspecial projects with Universities, professionals or otherinterested parties.

Foundations of effective learning

2.3 Leaning by thinking outside of the Box
The main change, that can be found in the two campus of
CLARK NEXT is the system of coaching instead ofteaching. When it comes to school the traditional image
shows us the teacher in front of the class, writing on theblackboard and the students writing the contents in theirnotebook. Coaching as the new teaching, is letting
students learn at their own pace, decide themselves when
and what they study and discuss their own goals or futureplans with the homeroom teacher, who supports thestudents all the time and helps them to make decisions
and figure out what is necessary to reach one’s goals. By
classes like “Self-Learning” coaching sessions take place
one by one at a time, while the other students focus on
their studies and their goals. The major goal is to let thestudents learn how to learn, to prepare them for society
and to give them the freedom of total diversity in the

To guarantee best results for students in learning andgrowing CLARK NEXT based its foundations on
three fundamental strategies: learning by motivation(professional courses), learning by doing (active
learning) and learning by thinking outside of the box(coaching). In the following these three concepts will
be explained briefly to give an overview about the new
educational system as a first attempt to cope with thechanging environment and society.
2.1 Learning by Motivation
Motivation and curiosity are the internal trigger that drive
humans to learn new things. To use motivation to help
students to learn what they want to learn, CLARK NEXT
has created 6 fields of interest in which students can learn
about their hobbies. These majors are E-Sports, Robotics
and Game Application for Tokyo and Video Creator,
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classroom, because every human being is different.

(Authored book)
Ichikawa, Shogo (1991). Distinctive Features of Japanese Education.
National Institute for Educational Research
Japan International Cooperation Agency (2004). The History ofJapan’s Educational Development.
Okamoto, Kaoru. (2001). Education of the Rising Sun 21 – An
Introduction to Education in Japan. National Federation ofSocial Education, Japan.

2.4 The more the better
Another point that CLARK NEXT focuses on is the wide
range of staff that helps the students on their way of lifelong learning. At CLARK NEXT the central figure in theclass is not the homeroom teacher, as it is the case in otherschools in Japan. The students contacts vary by major andinterest. So every major has its own professional teacher
that works in the field or profession the students want tostudy. These professionals are the next person of contact
after the course teacher, who is similar to the traditional
homeroom teacher, with additional knowledge in thefield of expertise. To fully help the students to overcome
the bridge between themselves and the adults aroundthem, the students are supported by University students
who help with questions related to campus life, school
life in general and specific questions regarding thestudent’s majors. By that the number of staff members in
CLARK NEXT is higher than in other schools, but give
feedback and tailwind in challenging situations.
3.

(Works in another language)
CLARK NEXT (2021). Technology and Creative – suki koso ga,
mirai no chikara ni naru: Gakkō annai 2022. [Technology andCreative – What you like becomes the strength of the future:
School Introduction 2022]. Clark Memorial International HighSchool.
CLARK NEXT (2021). Jūrai no kotei kan'nen ni shibara reru koto
naku, jūnan'na aidea de sakusei sa reta kyōiku [Education createdwith flexible ideas, without being bound by traditional
stereotypes]. Clark Memorial International High School.

Why is this change necessary for the JapaneseSociety?
As Okamoto states in his book Education of the Rising
Sun 21 – An Introduction to Education in Japan: “The“paradox” […] means that trying to apply the approachof “the same good things for all children”, which is for“equality of outcomes”, to the new value of “respect forindividuality” of children, the outcome will not be equalamong children because of their individuality.”(Okamoto 2001: 18). Applying the system of diversity
doesn’t mean to include some group works in theclassroom. This is why CLARK NEXT focuses on themost important point of education – the students
themselves. And to support the students it is important
to encourage individuality and diversity in a different
way than before. This can be reached by giving thechildren a higher goal than just graduating from HighSchool and enter university, but by using theirmotivation, their knowledge and their intelligence. With
this new school system, the students learn how to learn,
to figure out problems, to know whom to ask and how
to use one’s own skills and talents to create a bright andfulfilling future. 1

Notes
1 This article gives only an overview about the new launched school
system and therefore uses the viewpoint of the school to explain it.
It has to be stated here, that this article is only an introduction andeach opinion about it is valued as such.
Acknowledgements
I want to thank Masahiro Tsuchiya, the headmaster of CLARK
NEXT Tokyo and Akihabara for the insights in the new school
system and his support to introduce it to a wider audience. All
material about CLARK NEXT Tokyo and Akihabara will be sharedon enquiry.
References

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Corrective Feedback Acquisition: Important Keys to Make the Training
Beneficial
Shonosuke Shimada*Hamamatsu Kaiseikan Junior High Scholl and High Schollshonosukeshimada@gmail.com
Abstract
The current study aimed at examining how students acquired corrective feedback (CF) through the threetasks for CF training and what kind of CF techniques was observed during the training. A few number sof studies on CF training were conducted to investigate the effectiveness of CF training for L2 learners toprovide CF to each other. In this study, 24 participants were divided into two groups: 12 students in theexperimental (EX) group had CF training, 12 students in the control (CO) group had no training. The
training in Shimada’s (2021) study had three tasks. In Task 1, each participant in a pair gave CF following
the model scripts as a provider and a receiver, and in Tasks 2 and 3, each participant tried to find errors
and provide CF to each other. All the tasks were video-recorded, and their utterances were transcribed, inwhich the number of the CF was counted and analyzed. The result showed that most of the participants
provided more CF in the easy task (Task 1) than in more difficult tasks (Tasks 2 & 3). In addition, a large
number of CF occurrences was led by repetition. This study suggests that, in the early stage of CF
acquisition, CF training might (or should) have students play a minimal role, such as only a CF provider
or receiver. Moreover, what important to succeed in teaching CF might be to consider what CF should betaught first because, in terms of CF types, the difficulty of CF acquisition varies according to learners’
English proficiency. Repetition could be the first CF to be taught during CF training.
Keywords: corrective feedback, corrective feedback training
Introduction
The research on corrective feedback (CF) has beenbroadly taken place, appearing to be conducive to L2 learning
development (e.g., Sato, 2017). Also, CF training, which is toteach L2 learners how to provide CF to their classmates, CF
training has the potential to expand learners’ learning
opportunities (e.g., Sato & Lyster, 2010). The current study
aims to investigate what sort of CF training would be more
effective based on Shimada’s (2021) study.

(Shimada, 2021) involving the explicitly conducted CF
training. The study identified a total of 94 instances of CF
provided by the participants through the three-step trainingtask. The provision of CF and the distribution of its types wereused for the current analysis.

1.

3.1 Participants
There were 24 participants majoring in Foreign
Languages in a private university, and all of them had been
taking English classes and other English-related classes. Their
English proficiency was measured by their TOEIC scores tohave them grouped into an experimental (EX) group (n = 12),and a control (CO) group (n = 12). Afterward, they werepaired with their classmates, but each pair was a high-low
proficiency dyad based on their TOEIC. The average scoresof TOEIC of each group and pair were fairly equivalent.

Previous Studies on CF Training Tasks
Although CF training research has not been fully
explored yet (e.g., Sato & Lyster, 2012; Shimada, 2021), theway of CF training varied according to each study, such as
task types, learners’ duty and communicative burden.
Shimada (2021) investigated how CF training influenced
learners’ provision of CF and the sorts of CF techniques. The
students took the modeling stage and three-step tasks to beable to provide CF gradually. The study revealed that CF
training contributed to learners’ ability of CF production andthe frequency of CF techniques
However, the previous studies and Shimada’s (2021)
study did not clarify to what extent learners understood CF
taught during the tasks and how the training tasks affected
learners’ CF acquisition. The current study aims at examining
how much CF appeared in the training tasks and what kind of
CF techniques were provided with using the Shimada’s data
The research questions are as follows:2.

3.2 CF Training Tasks
The participants had two stages: the modeling stage (15 min)and the practice stage (15 min), and the latter stage contained
three tasks, Task 1 to 3. In the modeling stage, the learners
were lectured on how to provide CF in the form of prompts
and watched a short role-play video with supplementarymaterials to understand CF. In the practice stage, the learners
worked in pairs and took turns to play each role, either
speaker or listener. In Task 1, the speaker was instructed toread aloud one story with four errors written in a handout
while the listener was instructed to find errors and tried to give
CF. In Task 2, the speaker was asked to plan out an original
story based on a given picture but told to include errors on
purpose. Hence, the listener could notice the errors to provide
CF. In Task 3, they talked about a topic for three minutes. In
all tasks, the learners were encouraged to provide CF when
they noticed their partners’ problematic utterances.

1. Is there any difference in the provision of CF among thethree tasks given?
2. What kind of CF techniques are likely to be used bylearners who had CF training?
3.

MethodThe data for the present study were a part of a study

4.
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In order to analyze the data, the provision of CF in thetranscription of all of the utterances during the three tasks wascounted, and one instance of CF was counted as one point.
Also, although a student intended to provide CF, if the CF was
ill-formed, the CF was coded as attempt-but-wrong.
The total amount of CF provision was differently
shown depending on the given tasks. As Table 1 depicting,there were 50 CF provided by the students in Task 1,
consisting of 48 proper CF and two attempt-but-wrong. In
Task 2, there were 39 CF occurred during the task, including
34 of proper CF and five of attempt-but-wrong whereas, In
Task 3, nine CF provision by the students were confirmed.
Unlike the other two tasks above, all of the provision
appropriately occurred. In order to examine whether the total
CF frequency of each task, the Friedman test was conducted,
showing statistically significance.

In all tasks, the learners’ roles and what they had to doin the tasks (i.e., the learners’ responsibility) were different.
These three tasks became gradually difficult in terms of theirroles to play and burdens to be put. As the result of this study
shown, the more difficult task the participants did, the less CF
exchange occurred. Based on the result and the difficulty ofthe tasks, CF training might work effectively when learners
have less responsibility for playing roles and its burdens in
the early stage of the training.
In answering research question 2, the current study
revealed that RP was significantly outnumbered other taught
CF techniques throughout all tasks. Although it was preferred
to use by the learners in Task 1 and 2, the provision of othertechniques (i.e., CR and MC) decreased dramatically. Thismight be because, in the first task, learners were able to select
CF to make an attempt to use. On the contrary, in the second
task, choosing CF became more challenging for learners thanin the first task due to making impromptu CF. Since RP is a
simple CF (Lyster & Ranta, 1997), the other taught prompts
may require learners a longer moment to decide how to givecorrection than RP. Therefore, RP may put the least burden on
learners in the selection of CF to provide and may be theeasiest CF technique in prompt for learners to acquire.

Table 1
The total provisions of CF and ‘attempt-but-wrong’ in each task
Task 1
Task 2
Task 3proper CF

attempt-but-wrong

total CF

48
34
9

2
5
0

50
39
5

Conclusion
This study examined the provision of CF by thestudents with CF training, and what types of it were the mostfrequently used throughout the training. The analyses of theresults showed that the provision of CF gradually decreased
corresponding with the difficulty of the task (i.e., learners’roles and responsibility) and RP was the most favored CF by
the learners. Therefore, this study found the two important
keys to be considered to make CF training effective when CF
training is implemented; (1) the amount of the learners’ roles
and responsibility and (2) types of CF to be taught.
6.

As Figure 1 illustrated, the analysis of the results
showed that the most favored CF technique by the learners
was ‘repetition (RP)’ (n = 42) throughout the three tasks,
followed by ‘metalinguistic clues (MC)’ (n = 15),‘clarification request (CR)’ and ‘explicit correction (EC)’ (n =13). However, ‘recasts (RC)’ (n = 8) was also used by thelearners, with about a fifth of the frequency in RP.
Interestingly, both ‘CR’ and ‘MC’ were not used in Task 3.
The Friedman test was used for investigating the difference ofoccurrence of CF techniques for each task. RP, CR, and MC
were statistically significant, though EC and RC were not.

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr. Yuri, Nishio for giving me valuableguidance through the current research design and the paper writing.

Figure 1

References
Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1997). Corrective feedback and learner
uptake:Negotiation
of
form
in
communicativeclassrooms. Studies in second language acquisition, 19(1), 37–
66. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44488666
Lyster, R., & Saito, K. (2010). Oral feedback in classroom SLA: A
meta-analysis. Studies in second language acquisition, 265–302.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263109990520
Sato, M. & Lyster, R. (2012). Peer interaction and corrective
feedback for accuracy and ﬂuency development: Monitoring,practice, and proceduralization. Studies in Second Language
Acquisition,
34(4),
591–626.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263112000356
Sato, M. (2017). Oral peer corrective feedback: Multiple theoreticalperspectives. In H. Nassaji & E. Kartchava (Eds.), Corrective
feedback in second language teaching and learning. (pp. 19–34).
Routledge.
Shimada, S. (2021). Explicit corrective feedback training touniversity students in peer interaction. LET Journal of Central
Japan. 31, 71–85. https://doi.org/10.20656/letcj.31.0_71

Total frequency of CF types for the learners

Discussions
In answering research question 1, there was thedifference in the provision of CF among the three tasks: 50,
39 and nine CF occurrences in Task1, 2 and 3 respectively.
Also, the number of the provision greatly differed dependingon the learners’ either a mono-role or multi-role in each task.
5.

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Accountability in Program Evaluation: a Theoretical Survey to Explore
Practical Implications to Innovation and Curriculum Articulation
Francisco Naranjo-Escobar
Lakeland University Japannaranjo@japan.lakeland.edu

Abstract
Accountability is critical to quality assurance and implementing innovations effectively. However, there
is a paucity of research on accountability utilization, conceptualization, and evidence collection. In turn,this has prompted scholars to call for a reconsideration of accountability and of the methods/strategies
conducive to it as an observable phenomenon. This idea has gained momentum given the rapid migrationfrom traditional to virtual classrooms, mostly when policies overlook contextual variables affecting
CALL or virtual environments. This paper sought to theoretically address the methodological andconceptual gaps identified in the literature while suggesting potential courses of action that may rationallyjustify decision-making and, ultimately, accountability findings from a social standpoint. To achieve thisaim, this study first built on the available literature to survey the nature of accountability and the sociallyreactive and dialectical processes that produce evidence. Then, an argument was built to assess thestrength of the rationales in the literature and suggest courses of action that consider social and contextual
constraints when implementing technology-related initiatives. The craft of the argument revealed that
accountability comprises a social product derived from evaluand participants' reactive and reflective
engagement regarding contextual values and benchmarks. On this basis, it is recommended that evaluand
members observe environmental factors when assessing initiative implementation and success rate.
Further research is needed to identify other factors that may influence the understanding of accountability
and the observable evidence conducive to it.
Keywords: evaluation, accountability, improvement, empowerment
Introduction2012). Gruba et al. (2016) depart from the concept that
Accountability is a concept defined by its relationshiparguments can clinically assess blended initiatives, and sincewith the processes wherein it belongs. Bovens (2005, p. 185)
evaluation focuses on establishing a dialogue among
defines it as a social relationship based on obligation and astandards, sites, and participants, we cannot escape discussing
need to justify decision-making conducive to the status quo.
the nature of accountability. Therefore, it seems rational to
Evaluation literature presents us with a similar definitionchoose this approach to answer Norris' (2016) call for further
construing it as "the outcomes which are used to show thereflection while considering social aspects. The next step isvalue of a program" (Kiely & Rea-Dickins, 2005, p.5). Norris
defining the contribution of technology implementations in(2016) further explores this definition and describes thethe classroom.
challenges faced by evaluative practice. This author likewiserevises a series of studies revealing a gap in the
2.2 Technology implementations and accountability
conceptualization of accountability: either an indicator of raw
At first, the connection between accountability andcompliance or the result of a complex issue related to social
technology implementations might seem arcane. However, adynamics and contextual values to which the evaluand intends
closer look at how Gruba and Hinkelman (2012)
to cater (Norris, 2016, p.173).
conceptualize
thestabilityof
CALL/technology
implementations answers—albeit partially—evaluative
2. Literature review
concerns:
ensuringsmoothimplementationofThis section departs from the argument-based approach
feedback/changes. These authors argue that stability arises
and then describes the nature of accountability and how
when we construe venues as multi-layered environments withcurrent proposals in the field of technology and blended
at least three layers: macro, meso, and micro (policy,
program evaluation can contribute to its clarification.
administration, and praxis, respectively (Gruba & Hinkelman,
2012; Jones, 2007, p.172)) while considering other factors
2.1 The argument-based approach to evaluationsuch as logistics, integration, stakeholders, or training (seeThe argument based-approach to evaluation responds to
Chambers & Bax, 2006, p.477-478 for a detailed elaboration).
scholars’ calls to incorporate arguments to evaluative
Similarly, Gruba et al.(2016) built on Gruba andendeavors as they allow extrapolating logically the fitness and
Hinkelman's (2012) approach by adding arguments as thefeasibility of conclusions (Chapelle, 2012; LeBaron Wallace,
analytical tools to assess blended learning implementation
2011;), thus seeing it as an analytical tool rather than asuitability. Given the nature of argumentative reasoning,
concept relegated exclusively to testing. Along this line of
Gruba et al. (2016) consider that any factor contributing tothought, Gruba, Cardenas-Claros, Suvorov, and Rick (2016)clarifying any questions is acceptable and, therefore, valid
developed a framework to assess the suitability, sustainability,from an argumentative standpoint.
and logic of blended initiatives in educational settings
following Gruba and Hinkelman's work (Gruba & Hinkelman,
1.

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2.3 Organization, accountability, and program evaluation

findings represent the evaluand.

The next step is reviewing the relevance of social
factors—an extra ingredient to the three-layer design alreadyset forth by technology. Program evaluation literature alreadyprovides hints, as the ideas of power, ecology, and attitudinal
factors are common when participants are analyzed (Bryson,
Patton & Bowman, 2011; Leaton Gray, 2013; Norris, 2009;
Owen, 2007; Stufflebeam & Coryn, 2014). However, as
Gruba et al. (2016) described, Ackermann and Eden (2011b)
provide insights that, albeit from management, solve
stakeholder access issues. These authors developed a powerinterest four-quadrant scheme rendering the following
combinations: subjects (low power and high interest), players(high power and high interest), context-setters (low interestand high power), and crowd (low power and low interest) (seeAckermann & Eden, 2011b, p183). This approach enables
classifying
every
participant,thus
considering
representativeness and stakeholder relevance (see Bryson &Patton, 2015; Patton, 2018) while engulfing most of the
dynamics described in management and stakeholder accessmethods in program evaluation (Ackermann & Eden, 2020;
Bryson, Patton & Bowman, 2011). Therefore, using
Ackermann and Eden's (2011b) approach and the three-layer
design considerations—as Gruba et al.'s (2016) did withblended learning—while focusing on the understanding ofaccountability, can potentially solve the conundrum of how
accountability emerges and what it is in the eyes of every
participant. Participants may well have roles percolating
different levels of power, interest, and layers.
2.

2.5 Practical implications
Practitioners can assess the suitability of their actions at
the micro-level from a critical standpoint that considers any
potential weaknesses. Likewise, teachers can critically assess
their decision-making process from a scalable perspectivethat construes classrooms as multi-layered environments.
Nonetheless, the main goal is to collect information that
improves educational practice; therefore, further practicalresearch is needed to assess the feasibility and practicality ofthe theoretical claims herein exposed.
References
Ackermann, F., & Eden, C. (2011b). strategic management of
stakeholders: Theory and practice. Long Range Planning, 44(3),179-196. doi:10.1016/j.lrp.2010.08.001
Ackermann, F, & Eden, C. (2020). Strategic options development
and analysis. In M. Reynolds, & S. Holwell (Eds.), Systems
approached to making change: A practical guide (2nd ed., pp.
139-200).
Bovens, M. (2005). Public accountability. In E. Ferlie, L. Linn, &C. Pollitt (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of public management(pp. 182-208). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bryson, J. M., & Patton, M. Q. (2015). Analyzing and engaging
stakeholders. In Handbook of practical program evaluation:
Fourth edition (pp. 36-61). Wiley-Blackwell.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119171386.ch2
Bryson, J. M., Patton, M. Q., & Bowman, R. A. (2011). Working
with evaluation stakeholders: A rationale, step-wise approachand toolkit. Evaluation and Program Planning, 34(1), 1-12.
Chambers, A., & Bax, S. (2006). Making CALL work: Towards
normalisation. System, 34(4), 465–479.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2006.08.001
Chapelle, C. A. (2012). Validity argument for language assessment:
The framework is simple. Language Testing, 29(1), 19–27.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532211417211
Gruba, P., & Hinkelman, D. (2012). Blending technologies insecond language classrooms. Palgrave Macmillan UK.
Gruba, P., Cárdenas-Claros, M., Suvorov, R., & Rick, K. (2016).
Blended language program evaluation. Palgrave Macmillan
UK.
Jones, C. (2007). Designing for practice: practicing design in thesocial sciences. In H. Beetham, & R. Sharp (Eds.), Rethinking
pedagogy for a digital age: Designing and delivering elearning. UK: Routledge (pp. 166–179). Routledge.
Kiely R., Rea-Dickins, P. (2005). Program evaluation in language
education. Palgrave Macmillan, London.
Leaton Gray, S. (2013). The 'big society', education and power.
Power and Education, 5(3), 248-261.
doi:10.2304/power.2013.5.3.248
LeBaron Wallace, T. (2011). An argument-based approach tovalidity in evaluation. Evaluation, 17(3), 233–246.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1356389011410522
Norris, J. M. (2009). Understanding and improving language
education through program evaluation: Introduction to thespecial issue. Language Teaching Research, 13(1), 7-13.
doi:10.1177/1362168808095520
Norris, J. M. (2016). Language program evaluation. The Modern
Language Journal, 100(S1), 169-189. doi:10.1111/modl.12307
Owen, J. M. (2007). Program evaluation: Forms and approaches(3rd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Patton, M. (2018). Stakeholders. In B. Frey (Ed.), The SAGE
encyclopedia of educational research, measurement, andevaluation (Vol. 1, pp. 1584-1586). SAGE Publications, Inc.,https://www.doi.org/10.4135/9781506326139.n656
Stufflebeam, D. L., & Coryn, C. S. (2014). Evaluation theory,models, and applications (2nd ed.). San Francisco, California:
Jossey-Bass.

Discussion

2.3 The argument in the literature
Program evaluation literature refers to three key
concepts: participation, access to relevant/representative
information, and improvement based on such findings.
Participation is crucial to access evaluands, to ensure longterm stability and acceptance by the evaluand. The
implementation and evaluation of technology in theclassroom follow similar principles in that participation,familiarity, and contextual values are critical (Chambers &Bax, 2006; Jones, 2007; Gruba & Hinkelman, 2012; Gruba etal., 2016). This perspective makes social factors crucial for
success; however, surprisingly, stakeholders have received
more attention in management than in program evaluation,
thus highlighting the gap pointed by Norris (2016).
2.4 Appraisal of the argument in the literature
While it is methodologically sound to select relevant
stakeholders, filtering poses limitations. The best approach isan inclusive one that categorizes stakeholders by theirpower/interest levels and considers layers to assess reactions
to innovation/changes. There is percolation in the real world,
and administrators may well be practitioners. Inclusivenesspotentially grants raw access to what participants understandis required from their context as members of a complex
ecology. In turn, given the current necessity of online
teaching, resorting to analyzing reactions inclusively canprovide precious information on how and why requirements
are/were operationalized in a certain way. The same applies
to justifying/explaining why there was poor implementationaccording to overarching requirements. This reflective
exercise can only be achieved by conceptualizing
stakeholders comprehensively if the claim is that evaluative
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Young Japanese University Graduates Desire Pragmatic Instructionin University English Courses
Kimiko Koseki
Seijo University
koseki@myad.jp
Abstract
The author has integrated pragmatics, especially speech acts in her English classes. However, she
wondered if pragmatic instruction could really benefit her students most of whom were going to work inJapanese companies and if it could, what speech acts she should teach them. To investigate thesequestions, she sent questionnaires to 132 Japanese women in their 20s and early 30s. Among the 30 who
responded to the questionnaires, 26 answered that they frequently or occasionally used English at work
while four answered that they did not. The research questions were: (1) What do young Japanese
workers want to have learned in university English courses so that it could have benefited them atwork? (2) What speech acts do young Japanese workers recommend the current university students inJapan learn so that they can benefit when they begin to work? The analysis revealed that among 26
workers who used English at work, 12 (46.2%) wanted to have studied pragmatics. The other answers
included business English, expressing opinions in English and explaining Japanese culture in English.
Regarding the second research question, suggestions and requests were the most recommended speechacts. Also, the example situations in which the participants had used suggestions revealed that they had
struggled to use appropriate language in business settings due to a lack of pragmatic knowledge. In
conclusion, college-level English teachers should incorporate pragmatics in their instruction so that
university graduates do not need to undergo unnecessary difficulties in cross-cultural business
communication (Spencer-Oatey, 2010).
Keywords: pragmatics, speech acts, college English, business English
Introduction
Pragmatics studies appropriate/inappropriate use of alanguage in a social context depending on the speaker, thelistener, and the context of an utterance (Taguchi & Roever,2017). Thomas (1983) indicated that pragmatic failure could
be more serious than grammatical errors for L2 users because
pragmatic failure could be taken as insensitive or rude and“reflects badly on him/her as a person” (p. 97). Therefore,
pragmatics must be essential in L2 education. However, it has
seldom been introduced to language teaching curricula(Bardovi-Harlig, 2019) even though research has indicatedthat pragmatics is teachable (Taguchi & Roever, 2017).
Among fields of study in pragmatics, speech acts “havebeen well-studied…research findings about them are readily
applicable to instruction” (Ishihara & Cohen, 2010, p. x).
Nelson, Carson, Al Batal, and El Bakary (2002) defined
speech acts as “a minimal unit of discourse (Searle 1969), a
basic and functional unit of communication (Cohen 1996)” (p.
163).
Therefore, the author has introduced pragmatics such as
speech acts in her English courses. However, she has
wondered if pragmatic instruction indeed benefits her
university students most of whom will work in Japanesecompanies after graduation, and if so, which speech actsshould be studied to benefit their career. To investigate thesequestions, a questionnaire survey was given to young workers
in their 20s and early 30s.
The research questions were:
Q1: What do young Japanese workers want to have learned inuniversity English courses so that it could have benefitedthem at work?
Q2: What speech acts do young Japanese workers recommend
the current university students in Japan learn so that they canbenefit when they begin to work?
1.

2. Methods
2.1 Participants
The participants were 30 female Japanese workers ages
from 23 to 34 with between one to eleven years working
experience after graduating from a Japanese university who
the author taught at high school. They were all female because
the school was a private girls’ school. Regarding theirexperience of English use at work, 26, 86.7% of them had
used English frequently or occasionally at work. Among them,
18 had frequently used English at work.
2.2 Research Methods
Questionnaires asking the following questions weresent to 132 young Japanese female workers, who the author
had taught at high school, through Facebook Messenger inJanuary 2020.
Q1: What do you want to have learned in university English
courses so that it could have benefited you at work?
Q2: Which of the following English functions would you
recommend current Japanese students to study in college
English courses so that it will benefit them when they startworking full-time in the real world? They are requests,
invitations, advice, suggestions, apologies, opposition,refusals, complaints, compliments, and thanks.
Among the responses, 30 were from young workers andthey were analyzed for this study. Later, a follow-up
questionnaire was sent to 26 workers using English at work
to ask what exact situations they used suggestions in.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Research Question 1
Regarding what young workers wanted to learn inuniversity English courses, among 26 who had used English
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at work, 12 wanted to have learned pragmatics. Among them,seven wanted to learn pragmalinguistic knowledge (linguistic
aspects) such as speech acts (e.g., requests, suggestions,
opposition, complaints, refusals), negotiation expressions,polite expressions, taboo expressions and jokes while fivewanted to have learned sociopragmatic knowledge (cultural
aspects) such as avoidance of making frequent unnecessary
apologies, starting writings with conclusion, cross-culturally
different communication patterns and taboo topics. Other
opinions included business English (e.g., business emails,
answering calls) (8 participants), stating opinions in English(7 participants), explaining Japanese culture (5 participants),
history and news of other countries (2 participants) and native
speakers’ expressions (2 participants). On the other hand, four
participants who did not use English at work indicatedpragmatics (polite expressions), business English, stating
opinions in English and studying world history in English
respectively.

Complaints
Compliments
Advice9(34.6%)
9(34.6%)
8(30.8%)

7(38.9%)
5(27.8%)
6(33.3%)

2
(25%)
4
(50%)
2
(25%)

2
(50%)
1
(25%)
1
(25%)

Since the result that so many participants recommendedsuggestions was unexpected, a follow-up questionnaire wassent to the participants who used English at work toinvestigate exact situations in which they used suggestions.
The situations that they provided includes suggesting project
details or solutions to problems to their clients or othercompany employees working in the same projects. Their
descriptions also revealed that they had struggled to makeappropriate suggestions because they were not sure of thepoliteness level of expressions that they had learned.
4. Conclusion
In conclusion, the participants wanted to learn both
linguistic and cultural knowledge of English use in university
English courses. Also, the follow-up questionnaire revealed
that they struggled in using appropriate English at work
because they did not know which expressions that they hadlearned were appropriate in each context that they faced. Of
course, prior research in pragmatics may not be able toprovide Japanese workers with all necessary information.
Furthermore, since English is currently used much moreamong English non-native speakers rather than with English
native speakers (Jenkins, 2015), knowledge of English native
speakers’ norm may not be useful for L2 speakers. However,teaching appropriate English use depending on relationshipwith interlocutors and situations will improve our students’sensitivity in cross-cultural differences in language use andhelp them cope with their future challenges in cross-culturalcommunication more effectively (Spencer-Oatey, 2010).

3.2 Research question 2
Considering what speech acts young Japanese workers
recommended the current university students to learn incollege English courses (see Table 1), suggestions andrequests were the most recommended speech acts. Actually,
more than 80% of workers who used English at work
recommended these two. More than three quarters of theworkers who occasionally used English at work
recommended apologies, thanks and refusals in addition tosuggestions and requests. These five speech acts were also
recommended by more than half of the workers who
frequently used English at work. On the other hand, workers
who did not use English at work recommended requests(100%), suggestions (75%), apologies (75%), thanks (50%),
refusals (50%), opposition (50%) and complaints (50%)
respectively. Therefore, they seemed to feel that all theseface-threatening speech acts looked difficult to perform.

References
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (2019). Introduction to Teaching Pragmatics. In
K. Bardovi-Harlig, Teaching of Pragmatics. Retrieved fromhttps://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/0341-3-h.pdf
Ishihara, N., & Cohen, A. D. (2010). Teaching and Learning
Pragmatics: Where Language and Culture Meet. Harlow,
UK: Person Longman.
Jenkins, J. (2015). Global Englishes (3rd ed.). Oxford, UK:
Routledge.
Nelson, G. L., Carson, J., Al Batal, M., & El-Bakary, W. (2002).
Cross-cultural pragmatics: Strategy use in Egyptian Arabic
and American English refusals. Applied Linguistics, 23(2),163-189.
Spencer-Oatey, H. (2010). Intercultural competence and pragmatics
research: Examining the interface through studies ofintercultural business discourse. In A. Trosborg (Ed.),
Pragmatics across languages and cultures (Handbooks ofpragmatics 7) (pp. 189-215). Berlin, Germany: Mouton de
Gruyter.
Taguchi, N., & Roever, C. (2017). Second Language Pragmatics.
Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Thomas, J. (1983). Cross-cultural pragmatic failure. Applied
Linguistics 4(2), 91-109.

Table 1
What speech Acts Do Japanese Young Workers Recommend
University Students to Study
Speech Acts Worker Workers
Workers
Workers Using Frequentl
Occasionalls Not
English y Using yUsing Using
at Work English at English at English(A+B)
Work (A) Work (B)at Work(n = 26) (n = 18)(n = 8)(n = 4)
Suggestions
22
15
7
3
(84.6%) (83.3%)(87.5%)(75%)
Requests
21
14
7
4(80.8%) (77.8%)(87.5%)(100%)
Apologies
1710
7
3(65.4%) (55.6%)(87.5%)(75%)
Thanks17107
2(65.4%) (55.6%)(87.5%)(50%)
Refusals
16
10
6
2(61.5%) (55.6%)
(75%)
(50%)
Invitations
108
2
1(38.5%) (44.4%)
(25%)
(25%)
Opposition
97
2
2(34.6%) (38.9%)
(25%)
(50%)

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The Role of Language to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goal 4(SDG 4) in Malaysia and Japan
Aliyyah Nuha Faiqah binti Azman Firdaus
Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Hiroshima University
nuha.azman@gmail.com
Abstract
Language is an essential part of human interaction. People use it as a means to communicate, convey
meaning and share experiences. In 2015, the United Nations introduced the Transforming Our World:
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development with the 17 Sustainable Development Goals or SDGs at
its core to address the concerns of poverty, inequality, food security, climate change, protection of
ecosystems and so on. The SDGs were meant to succeed their predecessor – the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs), which consisted of 8 goals, with a new set of goals, targets and indicators
to be achieved in 15 years. Language plays a crucial role in facilitating the social action needed to
implement SDGs, especially the local languages or mother tongue (Marinotti, 2016). It can therefore beseen as a development tool to aid in the successful implementation of the SDGs. I argue that a language
based approach to implementation of SDGs is essential to ensure the success of the goals, as a two-way
communication is needed between the SDG implementers and the people. The proposed study will
explore the role of language within the SDG 4 (Quality Education) context of Malaysia and Japan froma critical discourse perspective. As both countries have pledged to achieve the SDGs by 2030, it would
be interesting to see how SDG 4 (Quality Education) is realised in a comparison of a developing
country (namely Malaysia), on the one hand, and a developed country (namely Japan), on the other. For
comparison purposes, I will also look at how language policies shape and reflect the two different
cultural settings (multiculturalism1 for Malaysia and monoculturalism2 for Japan). It is becoming
important to understand non-Western thinking about the SDGs to highlight the integration of Asianvalues shared by Japan and Malaysia.

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Keywords: Sustainable Development Goals, Quality Education, Education Policy, Critical Discourse
Analysis
1.

Introduction
In 2015, the United Nations introduced the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) as a transformational agenda toaddress issues related to poverty, gender inequality, foodsecurity, climate change, protection of eco systems and soon. (UN, 2015). The concept of sustainability has caught
the interest of governments, businesses and organisations
alike as it encompasses a wide range of social, economic andenvironmental challenges that will require a wide range ofsolutions. Education, research, innovation and leadership are
crucial elements to assist society in solving these problems(SDSN Australia/Pacific, 2017). Education in particular is
expected to play a crucial role in the successful
implementation of the SDGs (Brisset & Mitter, 2017;
Halkos & Gkampoura; 2021). As a matter of fact, SDG 4
aims “to ensure inclusive and quality education for all andpromote lifelong learning” equipped with 10 targets to beachieved by 2030. In an attempt to understand how SDG 4 isarticulated linguistically, this study will investigate the twodominant discourses found in educational policy - utilitarianand transformative in policy documents in Malaysia andJapan while employing a Fairclough’s (2012) version of
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA).

technological skills for the labor market” (Brissett & Mitter,
2017, p.183). In addition, following a neoliberalism andglobalized system, it emphasizes the standardization of
curriculum and the prioritization of STEM (Science,
Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) over thehumanities and social sciences discipline. On the other hand,a transformative approach enables learners to view the world
critically and be equipped with the necessary skills to bringabout change.

2.2 Analysis framework
This study adapted the methodology developed by
Fairclough’s transdisciplinary CDA (2012), which involves
a four phase3 process to analyse key policy documents.
According to van Dijk (2005, p. 352), CDA is one type of
discourse analysis, which aims to “understand, expose andultimately resist social inequality”. Previous research on
policy analysis utilized CDA. Similarly, some studies (e.g.,
Briant Carant, 2016; Spangenberg, 2017 and Cummings et
al, 2018) employed this approach to analyse the text of theSDGs and Agenda 2030. There are two advantages of using
the CDA methodology. First, policy documents can beanalysed to reveal their biases and claims in systemic,
structured way and revealing their hidden fixation and how
different discourses are presented. Second, it allows
researchers to expand or reconsider the existing notion due
to an exploratory nature of the approach. In particular, thefinal phase should give a chance of identifying new
discourse categories, which may even reveal that a dominantdiscourse is justifiable.

2. Background
2.1 Utilitarian and transformative educational approaches
Previous research on policy documents have reported
two approaches to education: utilitarian and transformative.
The former places emphasis on education as a means toachieve “economic growth, labor productivity and155

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3.

Study
The study was designed to address two questions:
RQ1: Which discourses on utilitarian and transformativeeducation will be found in the Malaysian and Japanese
educational policy?
RQ2: How do they relate to the SDG 4: Quality Education?

human resources capable of supporting and developing oursociety and leading the international society” (MEXT,
2008).
There are four policy directions; eight achievementtargets and thirty basic measures. According to Miyashita(2017, p. 13), MEXT thought that the “increasingly severe
economic environment and migration toward aknowledge-based society” (Part1-1) was one of the “crises
facing the country” (Part 1-1).
The emphasis placed on the term ‘human resources’ orin Japanese known as jin-zai, is a phrase commonly used inbusiness. MEXT used this term to refer to the students in its
plan. Students are regarded as human resource outputs
where knowledge is a means of production. The term humanresources appear to be linked to the utilitarian approach, as it
requires education to play a crucial role in developing
workers who will strengthen the economic productivity of
the country and organisations.

4.

Preliminary Results & Discussion
The first phase involved the selection of a research
topic (SDG 4: Quality Education) and presenting an
overview of past discourses related to education policy. The
second phase (step one), involved selecting texts appropriate
to the object of research. The texts chosen for this study
were the Malaysia Education Blueprint (2013-2025) and The
Second Basic Plan for the Promotion of Education(provisional translation) (2013) in Japan. This study analyses
the English language version of both documents. The second
phase (step two) involved analyzing the text in terms ofvision, strategy and means of implementation and goals at
individual words and phrases and how the words relate toeach other.

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5.

Conclusion
The national policies and concerns seem to be alignedwith global goals and concerns in education as in theeconomy.

4.1 The Malaysia Education Blueprint (2013-2025)
The vision and aspirations of the blueprint encompasses
two parts; the education system and student aspirations that
Malaysia both needs and deserves. The Ministry of
Education (MOE) set out five aspirations for the Malaysian
education system as a whole: access, quality, equity, unityand efficiency. To achieve that vision, 11 strategic andoperational shifts were introduced in three waves (timeperiods). Examples of shifts include, provide equal access toquality education of an international standard; be proficientin both Bahasa Malaysia and English language, andencourage the learning of another language (Kementerian
Pendidikan Malaysia, 2013, p. E-1).
The six student aspirations are knowledge, thinking
skills, leadership skills, bilingual proficiency, ethics andspirituality and national identity. The MOE plans to raise theeducation system to “international education standards”, toprepare “Malaysia’s children for the challenges of the 21st
century’, and to meet with the “increased public and parental
expectations of education policy” (Kementerian Pendidikan
Malaysia, 2013, p. E-1). These transformations of theeducation system in Malaysia are to prepare the Malaysian
students for the challenges of the 21st century. These viewsby the MOE indicate characteristics of a utilitarian
perspective, as these changes are necessary to drive thecountry’s economic future.

6.

Contact
For further inquiries, the author can be contacted via
email at: nuha.azman@gmail.com.
Notes
1
The three major ethnic groups, namely, Malays, Chinese andIndians represent a multicultural Malaysia.
2Japan is a relatively homogenous country in terms of migrationand ethnicity.
3
At the time of writing, the author has covered until Phase 2 of theresearch process.

References
Brissett, N. & Mitter, R. (2017). For function or transformation? A
critical discourse analysis of education under the Sustainable
Development Goals. Journal for Critical Education Policy
Studies, 15(1), 181-204.
Cummings, S. and Regeer, B., de Haan, L., Zweekhorst, M. &Bunders, J. (2018). Critical discourse analysis of perspectives
on knowledge and the knowledge society within the
Sustainable Development Goals. Development Policy
Review, 36 (6). 727-742. ISSN 0950-6764.
Fairclough, N. (2012). Critical discourse analysis. In J. P. Gee, &M. Handford (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of discourse
analysis (pp. 9–21). Abingdon and New York: Routledge.
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. (2013). Malaysia education
blueprint 2013 - 2025. Putrajaya: Kementerian Pendidikan
Malaysia. Retrieved fromhttp://www.moe.gov.my/cms/upload_files/articlefile/2013/artic
lefile_file_003108.pdf
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology(MEXT). (2013). The second basic plan for the promotion of
education (provisional translation). Retrieved fromhttp://www.mext.go.jp/en/news/topics/detail/1372662.htm

4.2 The Second Basic Plan for the Promotion of Education(provisional translation) (2013), JapanThe goal of this plan is to “create a new social modelwith independence, collaboration and creativity as core
principles, as well as to achieve the Educational Vision for
the Next 10 Years laid out in the First Basic Plan” (MEXT
2013). The Educational Vision aims “to cultivate, in all
children, the foundations for independence within society by
the time they complete compulsory education; to develop

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Longitudinal Research on Fluency of L2 English Conversations
by High School Learners
Keiko Mochizuki 1,
Tanaka Chizu 3,
Hoshizawa Mie 4
1

3

Tokyo University of Foreign Studies,mkeiko@tufs.ac.jp

Tokushima Prefectural Joto High School,tanaka_chizu_1@mt.tokushima-ec.ed.jp

2Tikhonenko Maxim 2,
and Zhang Zheng 5

Tokyo University of Foreign Studies,maximtikhonenko72@gmail.com

4

Flamingo Inc.
mie.h@app-flamingo.com

5

Tokyo University of Foreign Studies
zhang.zheng@tufs.ac.jp

Abstract

This presentation presents a 20-month longitudinal study on the development of speaking ability observed inJapanese high school learners of English who participated in online speaking lessons.
Keywords: Longitudinal, Fluency, Complexity, High School Learners, the Aptis Speaking Testdepended on the speaker.
Regarding complexity measures, the mean turnlength also showed a steady increase, meaning thatstudents’ utterances tended to become longer. Other
complexity measures turned out not to be so useful. The
numbers of conjunctions and complex sentences did notincrease significantly, but some positive changes wereobserved concerning the variety of conjunctions and typesof complex sentences.
Next, analysis was conducted of students’vocabulary usage. The analysis revealed that the numberof word types in each lesson was only related to the numberof tokens, and the word type/word ratio did not changeover the 20 months. However, the level of the vocabularythat the students used clearly increased – learners tended
to use more complicated words from levels B1 or even C1
by the end of the project, whereas such words were almost
entirely absent in the first lesson.
A qualitative analysis of speaking performance wasalso conducted to explain some of the results of thequantitative analysis. The results showed that learners had
become more confident by the end of the project. At the
beginning they used a lot of short utterances and often
could not participate in the conversation fluently, due tonot being able to understand many questions. Althoughlearners’ listening ability was still not perfect by the end of
the project, they were able to participate in conversations
more proactively. The number of silent pauses also
decreased.

Research Questions
Research question 1: Do online lessons of spoken
English held monthly for 20 months positively affect thedevelopment of fluency and complexity in Japanese highschool learners of English, and which aspects?
Research question 2: How different are the fluency
and complexity of English spoken by learners who havebeen taking the online lessons for 16 months in comparison
to the English of those who have not taken such lessons?
1.

2.

The data elicitation methodology
Data was obtained from video recordings of 25-minutelessons in which students study English and have freeconversations with teachers from the Philippines. Students
also wrote essays on the topic of each lesson, and filled insurveys to evaluate their progress after each lesson and record
what was most difficult for them.
Students were divided into two groups: the 20-lesson
group consisting of 32 students who started the lesson in thefirst year, November 2018 and completed the 20th lesson in
the 3rd year, July 2020, the 3-lesson control group consistingof 22 students who only took 3 lessons (lessons 15-17) in the
2nd year, January-March 2020. Both groups used a textbook
written by members of the research team.
Video and audio data were transcribed manually andthe transcribed texts of selected learners were divided into
units of speech. ELAN software was used to measure freeconversation time in each lesson.
3.

Case Study: the longitudinal analysis
The results of the longitudinal analysis of thechanges in fluency and complexity in the speech of two
students, J003 and J007. The measures described above
were analyzed for the students’ production over 5 lessons:lessons 1, 6, 11, 16, and 20.
In both cases a specific pattern in the developmentof speech rate was observed. Speech rate was relatively
high during the 1st lesson, then it dropped to a lower level,
after which it increased steadily.
The hesitation phenomena/word ratio also increased,
which was predicted by some previous research (DeJong,2009). However, the filled pauses/word ratio turned out not
to have significant role in calculating fluency, and instead

4. Evaluation: the APTIS speaking test
All students took the APTIS speaking test in
September in the 3rd year. 8 learners are selected in eachgroup (the 20 lessons group and the 3 lessons group) toanalyze speech rate, words/min, number of words, ratio of
pause time to speaking time, pause time/speaking time,number of pauses per minute, number of pauses/speaking
time. Each of the 8 students is close to the average score ineach group. The following Figure 1 shows that the 20
lessons group displays higher pruned speech rate than the
3 lessons group.
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Figure 1

Figure 3 Number of pauses per minute

Pruned Speech Rate Aptis Speaking Test

Number of pauses per minute

Pruned speech rate
22.5
22
21.5
21
20.5
20
19.5
19
18.5
18
17.5
17

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Part 1

Part 2

Part 320-month3-monthPart 1

Part 4

In part 1, which corresponds to CEFR A1/A2 levels,the 20 lessons group has shown the best performance, but
in other parts their performance was lower andcomparatively did not change much. In contrast, theperformance of the 3 lessons group has clearly improved
between part 2 and part 3, which can be explained by thefact that to describe two pictures in part 3, the learners used
simpler constructions with higher speech rate.

Ratio of pause time to speaking time
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Part 320-month3-month20-month3-monthPart 4

De Jong, N. H., Steinel, M. P. , Florijm, A. F., Shoonen,
R., &Hulstijn, J. H. (2009). Fluency in L2 is related to fluency
in L1. Paper presented at the Seventh International Symposium
on Bilingualism (ISB7), Utrecht, The Nederlands.
Diessel, H. (2004). The acquisition of complex sentences.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition (2nded.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Foster, P., Tonkyn, A., and Wigglesworth, G. (2000). “Measuring
Spoken Language: A Unit for All Reasons”, Applied Linguistics
21/3, 354-375, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Freed, B. (2000). Is fluency, like beauty, in the eyes (and ears) of
the beholder? In H. Riggenbach (Ed.), Perspectives on fluency(pp. 243-265). Ann Arbor: University in Michigan Press.
Freed, B.D., Segalowitz, N., & Dewey, D. (2004). Context oflearning and second language fluency in French: Comparing
regular classroom, study abroad, and intensive domestic
immersion programs. Studies in Second Language Acquisition,
26, 275-301.
García-Amaya, L. (2015). A longitudinal study of filled pauses andsilent pauses in second language speech. In Lickley, R., Wester,M., Rose, R., Eklund, R. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 7thWorkshop on Disfluency in Spontaneous Speech (pp. 23–27).
Towell, R., Hawkings, R., & Bazergui, N. (1996). The developmentof fluency in advanced learners of French. Applied linguistics,
17, 84-119.
Zaki, H., & Ellis, R. (1999). Learning Vocabulary throughinteracting with written text. InR. Ellis (Ed.). Learning asecond language through interaction (pp. 151–169).
Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Figure 2 Ratio of pause time to speaking time

Part 2

Part 3

References

The following figure 2 shows that the 20 lesson
group produced less long pauses than the 3 lessons group.
Their ratio of pause time to speaking time was below 1 in
all tasks, which indicates that they spoke more than kept
silence. In contrast, the 3 lesson group produced moresilent pauses than speech in all tasks.

Part 1

Part 2

Part 4

The following figure 3 shows, that the number of
pauses in both groups was almost the same except for thetask 1, where the 20 lesson group slightly outperformed the
3 lesson group.

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Tonicity in Japanese Learners of English: With a Special Focus on the
Characteristics of Sentence Stress and Rhythm Patterns
Takuya Hattori**Osaka University
u107964c@ecs.osaka-u.ac.jp
Abstract
As a result of analyzing the pronunciation of tonicity of Japanese learners of English, it was found thatthe pitch range at nucleus was about 5 STs and the percentage of correctly placed nucleus was about
60%. Nucleus misplacements were confirmed in personal pronouns, verbs, nouns, and prepositions. It
was suggested that even Japanese learners who are native speakers of mora-timed rhythm language canpronounce tonicity correctly if taught in class, but special care must be taken not to emphasize personalpronouns.
Keywords: teaching prosody, speech analysis, tonicity, nucleus misplacement, UME-ERJ
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to analyze the actual
pronunciation of English tonicity by Japanese learners ofEnglish. Tonicity is to determine the place of nuclear stress(Halliday, 1967) and one of the components of English
intonation1. In the current English education in Japan,
teachers instruct tone (type of pitch movement) but nottonicity (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science &Technology, 2017a, 2017b, 2018).
However, tonicity is a very important pronunciation
item. According to Jenkins (2000), who investigated theessential elements for intelligible pronunciation ininternational communication, tonicity is indispensable, but
tone is not. In fact, English and Japanese may pronounce
interrogative sentences with rising intonation, while Finnish
and Eastern European languages such as Russian pronounce
interrogatives with falling intonation or descending tones.
In the English language, the last content word of eachintonation phrase (IP) usually receives a prominence. Since
tonicity is not taught, a number of nuclear stressmisplacements have actually been confirmed. A typicalexample is that Japanese learners of English tend topronounce sentence-initial subject pronouns at high pitches(Mori, 2005). For example, it has been pointed out that
pronouncing “I” at a high pitch may cause Japanese learnersof English to be misunderstood as having a strong
assertiveness at least by native speakers of English.
In conventional pronunciation research, voice data
was often collected at one school, so there was a bias in theparticipants’ English proficiency. This study analyzes
pronunciation of various participants by using a learners’
speech corpus for data collection. This study also focuses on
acoustic parameters. In previous studies, these specificnumbers were often omitted.
This study was conducted for the following
objectives:

Literature Review
In the field of speech education, Shibata, Taniguchi,
and Date (2015) investigated the teachability andlearnability of tonicity in 76 Japanese junior high school
students. The results were positive, with learners’
understanding and awareness of nucleus placement
exceeding 70%. Thus, tonicity was found to be teachable
and learnable if properly introduced. While the phonetic
aspects that make up prosody, such as stress and intonation,
are more difficult to teach than segments (Dalton &Seidlhofer, 1994), the finding of Shibata et al. (2015) showsthat tonicity can be taught as early as in junior high school
English education.
In the field of phonetics, Ueda and Saito (2010)
organized syntactic categories in which misplacements ofnuclear stress by Japanese learners of English were observed.
They state that the misplacement does not occur in all
syntactic categories, but is limited to four: interrogatives,
attractive adjectives, negative particles, and personalpronouns:

1.

2.

(1) Interrogative
WHAT class are you attending this afternoon?
(2) Attributive Adjective
I found his essay in the OLD book.
(3) Negative particle
John HASN’T finished the work.
(4) Personal Pronoun
YOU should do the washing.
（Ueda & Saito, 2010, p. 117）
Methods“English Read by Japanese (UME-ERJ),” which is the
only Japanese learners’ speech corpus capable of acoustic
analysis, was adopted. In this corpus, voices of 202 male andfemale university or graduate students are recorded. Thirtyof them were selected as subjects of this study by simple
random sampling. Each speaker pronounces an average of
16 sentences. For the convenience of analysis, sentenceswith multiple IPs were excluded from the list, and a sentencewith single IP was randomly sampled from these 16
sentences.
Praat (version 6.1.48) was used for speech analysis.
Relative semitone (ST) was used as the unit of analysis, not
3.

(1) What is the pitch range at the nucleus in pronunciation
by Japanese English learners?
(2) At what rate can Japanese learners of English correctly
pronounce tonicity?
(3) When do Japanese English learners misplace thenucleus?

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Hertz (Hz), which cannot compare gender differences
equally. The scope of analysis is the nucleus and its tail (thesubsequent part of the nucleus). The reason for including tailis that the pitch movement of nuclear tone is completed in
the tail if the sentence has a tail.

5.

(1) The pitch range by Japanese learners of English at
nucleus was about 5 STs.
(2) Japanese learners of English could pronounce tonicity
correctly at a rate of about 60%.
(3) Misplacements of Japanese learners of English wereconfirmed in personal pronouns, verbs, nouns, andprepositions.

Results and Discussion
The pitch range by Japanese learners of English at
nucleus was 5.16 STs. The evaluation of pronunciation andintelligibility by native speakers of English recorded in
UME-ERJ (inter-rater reliability coefficient was acceptable
at α = .79.)2 was 3.20. In this evaluation, 2 is inaccurate and3 is fair; thus 5 STs will be one goal of instruction.
The percentage of correctly placed nucleus was
63.33%. This was close to 70% of Shibata et al. (2015). If
tonicity is introduced into class, it can be considered thatabout 60 to 70% of students can acquire tonicity. English is a
stress-timed rhythm language, and Japanese is a mora-timed
rhythm language. Although the rhythms are different, thepronunciation of Japanese learners was evaluated by native
speakers of English as being clear.
Misplacements were confirmed in 11 of 30 sentences(Table 1):
4.

Notes
1 In this paper, when intonation in the English language ismentioned it shall refer to the following: the pitch patterns of
spoken English, the speech tunes or melodies, the musical featuresof English (O’Connor & Arnold, 1973, p.1).
2 It is calculated in the present study and was not originally
included in UME-ERJ.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Professor Murakami-Smithfor his kind help in proofreading this manuscript.
References
Dalton, C., & Seidlhofer, B. (1994) Pronunciation. Oxford
University Press.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1967). Intonation and grammar in British
English. Mouton.
Jenkins, J. (2000). The phonology of English as an international
language. Oxford University Press.
MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science &Technology). (2017a). Shogakko gakushu shido yoryo (Heisei
29-nen kokuji) kaisetsu [The Course of Study for elementary
schools guidelines explanation (Heisei 29 academic year)].
http://www.mext.go.jp/component/a_menu/education/micro_detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2019/03/18/1387017_011.pdf
MEXT. (2017b). Chugakko gakushu shido yoryo (Heisei 29-nen
kokuji) kaisetsu [The Course of Study for junior high schools
guidelines explanation (Heisei 29 academic year)].
http://www.mext.go.jp/component/a_menu/education/micro_
detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2019/03/18/1387018_010.pdf
MEXT. (2018). Kotogakko gakushu shido yoryo (Heisei 30-nen
kokuji) kaisetsu [The Course of Sudy for senior high schools
guidelines explanation (Heisei 30 academic year)].
http://www.mext.go.jp/component/a_menu/education/micro_
detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2019/11/22/1407073_09_1_2.pdf
O’Connor, J. D., & Arnold, G. F. (1972). Intonation of colloquial
English (2nd ed.). Longman.
Shibata, Y., Taniguchi, M., & Date, T. (2015). Teachability andlearnability of English tonicity for Japanese junior high school
students. Proceedings of the Phonetics Teaching and Learning
Conference 2015, 5, 83–86. https://www.academia.edu/
33896514/TEACHABILITY_AND_LEARNABILITY_OF_E
NGLISH_TONICITY_FOR_JAPANESE_JUNIOR_HIGH_SC
HOOL_STUDENTS
Ueda, I., & Saito, H. (2010). The interface between phonology,
pragmatics and syntax in nuclear stress misplacement. In M.
Iverson, I. Ivanov, T. Judy, J. Rothman, R. Slabakova, & M.
Tryzna (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2009 Mind/Context Divide
Workshop (pp. 116–122). Cascadilla Press. http://www.lingref.
com/cpp/mcd/2009/paper2351.pdf
Wells, J. C. (2006). English intonation. Cambridge University
Press.

Table 1
Nucleus Misplacements
Voice Data

Word

Stress

HIR_F01_S5_111
HIR_F03_S7_119
HIR_F07_S3_120
HIR_F08_S4_106
KYO_M07_S7_122
RYU_F04_S4_120
RYU_M05_S5_111
TOH_M03_S3_114
TUT_M08_S8_113
WAS_F01_S5_115
WAS_F05_S1_106

wanted
you
was
you
him
teacherwantedgirls
cats
wanted
to

+
−
−
−
−
+
+
+
+
+
+

Conclusion
The results are summarized as follows:

By syntactic category, misplacements were confirmed infour cases of verbs, three cases of personal pronouns, threecases of nouns, one case of prepositions. The category“personal pronouns” was common to the typology of Ueda
and Saito (2010); thus this tendency of Japanese learners ofEnglish turns out to be particularly universal. The strength ofstress did not appear to be related to the occurrence of
misplacement. It is interesting that nucleus was misplaced atyou (−) in HIR_F03_S7_119. The sentence is “Take care of
him for me, won’t you?” A possible reason for thismisplacement is: the tag of a command may have a single IP,
in which case the tone will be rise, which will give thecommand a softening effect (Wells, 2006). The participant
perhaps had a gentle personality, which may have influenced
the results. In the same sentence IWA_M05_S7_119,
IWA_M06_S8_122, TEI_F07_S8_122, the pitch movement
at “you” was suppressed as instructed.

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The Effectiveness of a Multiple-Support ICT-Self Learning System
to Improve English Pronunciation of Intonation
Yuri Nishio*
James Rogers***

Akiyo Joto**
Toru Tatsumi*****Meijo Univerisityynishio@meijo-u.ac.jp** Prefectural University of Hiroshima
joto@pu-hiroshima.ac.jp***Meijo University
jrogers@meijo-u.ac.jp****Gifu University
ttatsumi@gifu-u.ac.jp
Abstract
Japanese intonation is known as pitch accent, so Japanese learners’ intonation is described as having atendency to chunk utterances into short phrases or to put stress on the wrong places. These
characteristics lead to incorrect intonation. When it comes to pronunciation training, technologicaldevelopments can drastically impact the methods in which English pronunciation is taught. This
research project developed an ICT self-learning system to study English pronunciation with a variety ofdifferent features to support pronunciation learning: native videos and sounds, indications for stress, theuse of a circle mark and a pattern for intonation, the use of an arrow to show the direction in which
intonation should follow, learners’ real-time videos, learners’ own voices, and texts to transcribe thevoice of learners simultaneously. Our study aimed to investigate how useful these supports were forpronunciation development. Japanese university students (n=57) participated in this experiment. There
were four sessions: a pre-test, training, a post-test, and a questionnaire for the ICT system. For the
pre-and post-tests, the participants recorded themselves pronouncing target sentences or phrases shownon the screen. After they recorded themselves, they pressed a ‘submission’ button, and their videos wereautomatically uploaded to the server. In the training sessions, the participants listened to thenative-English speaker’s video, saw indications for stress and intonation, watched their own video while
listening to their own voice, and read the transcribed texts. The researchers analyzed the participants’pronunciation by hearing and by using a software called Praat to measure pitch for stress or intonation.
Pronunciation between the pre-and post-tests showed significant improvements. Furthermore, thequestionnaire results indicated that all the supports were beneficial to helping the participants improvetheir pronunciation.
Keywords: pronunciation, intonation, ICT self-learning system, intonation annotations
1.

Introduction
These days, English education practictioners have been
focusing on the new Education Guidelines by the Ministryof Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology(MEXT, 2017). In order to enhance communication skills,
pronunciation is key to conveying one’s message. There areseveral guidelines for elementary school teachers to teachEnglish pronunciation, such as “to pay attention to the vowel
sound in cat, or the ‘th’ sound in math. These are mainly
segmentals because Japanese inventory and English
inventory are different, so some previous research has been
conducted on how consonants and vowels are different, andthus it is challenging to acquire native-like pronuciation.
Joto and Nishio (2020) reported all of the main patterns ofstress, rhythm, and intonation that were included in theJapanese public elementary school textbook Let’s Try 1 andLet’s Try 2. They found that suprasegmentals, such as stress,
rhythm, and intonation, were not taught enough. Wells(2006) mentioned that intonation is mostly neglected inteaching and that intonation errors would hinder theacquisition of native-like fluency.
In terms of intonation patterns, five patterns exist:
falling tone (F), rising tone (R), falling-rising tone (FR),level tone (L), and stylized tone (S). Falling tone is usuallyused for definitive statements, rising tone for yes-noquestions, falling-rising tone for implicational statements,
level tone for non-final sentences, and stylized tone for shortutterances that are routine and predictable (Wells, 2006).
Some research has also reported about intonation prodction(e.g., Saito & Saito, 2017).
The Japanese learners of English tend to pronounce the
chunking of utterances into short phrases or put stress on thewrong places, which can lead to incorrect intonation because
accent should be assigned to every single word. The result isthey put every stress on every word and more stress than isnatural occurs in one sentence. The most important problem
is, as Wells (2006) pointed out, that learners have not betaught English intonation and how intonation should actually
be pronounced.
For teaching pronunciation in general, explicit learning(Cooper, 2006) and regularly training (Nation and Newton,2009) are indispensable. However, an EFL setting such as inJapan has very limited contact with native English speakers
and Japanese learners thus cannot easily get feedback on
their pronunciation on a regular basis. Therefore, the ICT
self-learning system on the Internet would be useful forlearners in that it would enable them to conductpronunciation training on their own, anytime and anywhere.
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2.

ICT Pronunciation Self-learning System
Technological developments can drastically impact themethods in which English pronunciation is taught, and so wedeveloped an ICT self-learning system to study English
pronunciation with a variety of different features to support
pronunciation learning. In the ICT platform we developed(see Figure 1 below), a sentence and the designated tones
were shown on the screen, and the video of a native speakershows how to pronounce it. At the same time, the stress, thecircle mark, the pattern of the intonation, and an arrow
indicating the direction of which intonation should follow
are shown. Simultaneously, the learner can compare theirpronunciation and articulation with the native speaker’svideo which is to the learner’s. The learner is also able tocheck what they said as it is transcribed below the screens,
whether their pronunciation is correct or not.
Learners studied the following text examples thatindicating the intonation types: He is a student. (F), Is he astudent (R), and If only he is a student! (FR). Our study
aimed to investigate how helpful these supports were forpronunciation development.

3.2

Questionnaires on the ICT training
The questionnaire results indicated that the supports(especially the native speaker’s videos), the indication of thestress and the intonation, the self-video, and transcribed texts
were most effective for helping them improve theirpronunciation. They also noted that they were satisfied withthe self-learning system because they realized that theirpronunciation improved.
4.

Result and Discussion
The improvement of their pronunciation between the
pre-and post-tests were analyzed using the acoustic analysis
software Praat, which indicated where the nucleus appearedin the sentence. For perception analysis, five native
American English speakers were asked to listen to theparticipants’ utterances to judge where the nucleus appeared.
These two results proved their intonation improved
significantly. The questionnaire results indicated a particular
recognition of the value of having access to the native
speakers videos. The participants also wrote that they felt allother functions of the ICT platform were useful as well, andconveyed that it gave them satisfaction when they realizedthat their pronunciation improved.

Figure 1

A Screenshot of the ICT Platform for Pronouncitation Trainingof ‘He is a Student.(F)’5.

Conclusion
The ICT training conducted in this study was proven tobe effective for the learners to practice English
autonomously using acoustic and perception analysis.
Satisfaction was reported to be very high, and participants
came to the realization that this system could help them
improve their intonation.
Acknowledgments
This research is supported by Kakenjyosei (20H01295,
18K00787). We thank VERSON2 and Nisho Pro for supporting us
to make the ITC system and video materials.
Note
Here is the URL for the ICT system
https://npl-mock.glexa.net/intonation
References
Boersma, P., & van Heuven, V. (2001).
PRAAT, a system for doing phonetics by computer.
https://www.researchgate. net/publication/208032992_PRAAT_a_system_for_doing_phonetics_by_computer
Cooper, G. (2006). The short and long-term effects ofpro-nunciation instruction. Prospect, 21(1), 46-66.
Joto, A., & Nishio, Y. (2020). JASTEC Journal, 39, 143-158.
MEXT. (2017). Shougakko gakushushidoyoryo, Heisei 29
nendoban. [Elemenatry school new education guidelines]
https://www.mext.go.jp/content/1413522_001.pdf
Nation, I. S. P., & Newton, J. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL listening
and speaking. Routledge.
Saito, Y., & Saito, K. (2017). Differential effects of instruction on
the development of second language comprehensibility, word
stress, rhythm, and intonation: The case of inexperienced
Japanese EFL learners, Language Teaching Research, 21(5)589–608.
Wells, J. C. (2006). English intonation. Cambridge.

3. Method
3.1 Pronunciation Training
Japanese university students (n=57) participated in thisexperiment. There were four sessions: a pre-test, training, apost-test, and a questionnaire for the ICT system. For the
pre- and post-tests, the participants recorded themselvespronouncing target sentences or phrases shown on the screen.
After they recorded themselves, they pressed a ‘submission’button, and their videos were automatically uploaded to theserver. In the training sessions, the participants listened to
the native-English speaker’s video, saw the indication ofstress and intonation, watched their own video and listened
to their own voice, and read the transcribed texts. The
researchers analyzed the participants’ pronunciation byhearing and by using a software called Praat to measure
pitch for stress or intonation.

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A Tale of Two Chinese-Born ESP Teachers:
Constructing Professional Identity at an EMI Sino-Foreign University
HUANG Da-wang*, LÜ Li* and KUANG Qun*** Ningbo University, China
dawang2020@dingtalk.com; lvlidemail@163.com**Shanghai University, China
kuangqun@shu.edu.cn
Abstract
The unprecedented contemporary globalizing movement is creating a different set of tertiary educational
conditions for radical restructuring of language teacher education. As against heavily-examined debateson the dichotomy of NSE-vs.-NNSE language teachers and most recently ESP-vs.-GE teachers, little
research has considered how Chinese-born ESP teachers working at EMI Sino-foreign universities—a
special cohort of mobile language teachers — enlive their travelling policies and professional enterprise.
Our study draws on life-history interview data to examine the identity construction and negotiation ofsuch two ESP teachers at China’s first ever Sino-foreign university following their PhD studies in Britain.
Informed by an adapted model of teacher professional identity, the data analysis reveals confident andresponsible images presented through their discursive and experiential construction in curriculum design,classroom teaching and social service; on the other hand, “hybridity” is conceived as their third spacewith notable advantages in free code-switching of bilingualism, empathy to the students and devotion to
glocalization.
Keywords: ESP teachers, professional identity, EMI, Chinese-born, Third-Space
Introduction
Unprecedented globalization of higher education incontemporary China is creating a different set of tertiary
educational conditions for radical restructuring of language
teacher education (Kumaravadivelu, 2012). From 2003, a
significant change in regulations has allowed theestablishment of Sino-foreign universities as separate legal
entity under Chinese law.
Few studies have examined Chinese-born ESP (English
for Specific Purposes) teachers working at EMI (English as
medium of instruction) Sino-foreign universities, a special
cohort of mobile language teachers (Rizvi & Lingard, 2010)
who are NNSE (Non-Native Speakers of English) themselves
yet enlive their travelling policies and professional enterprise
together with their colleagues and students. Recent
scholarship of language teacher identity recognized thedistinct strengths of being a NNSE language teacher;problematization of the discourse of hierarchy would confront
the importance of native speakers in the learning of English(McKay, 2012). Doing so might be accomplished within a“third space” through negotiation or translation that
represents a hybridity that “is new, neither the one nor theother” (Bhabha, 1994, p. 37).
Our study explores how such two ESP teachers at
China’s first ever Sino-foreign university (The University of
Nottingham Ningbo China (UNNC, est. 2004)) constructed
and negotiated their teacher professional identity in the
globalization of higher education.

and beyond China) were nicely addressed by Tao & Gao's(2018) model of ESP teacher identity which integrates
instructional, disciplinary, professional, vocational, andeconomic frames and the transdisciplinary approach devisedby the Douglas FIR Group Framework (De Costa & Norton,
2017). In Mockler’s (2011) model of teacher professional
identity, such three key domains as personal experience,
professional context and external political environment
constitute teachers’ work and professional practice (Fig. 1).

1.

2.

Figure 1
Teacher professional identity

Our Study
Two Chinese-born ESP teachers were invited to join
our small-scale ethnological research. Both of them received
Doctors’ degrees from prestigious British universities, andnow still hold Chinese nationality. Jiang (anonymous) worked
with UNNC Division of English, and Shan (anonymous) with
Centre for English Language Education (CELE).
The life history method was used to understand thework life narratives of teachers. Semi-structured interviews
were conducted in the mixture of Chinese and English with
3.

ESP Teacher Professional Identity

ESP teachers are generally assumed to take on a wider
multitude of roles as against their EGP colleagues. The multifaceted features of ESP teaching and teachers (particularly in

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individual informants face-to-face to collect both their full life
histories and thematic life histories. These interviews wereconducted from late 2017 to early 2018. Education documents
were examined to see the individuals’ professional lives. Allinterviews were digitally recorded and fully transcribed. Theinterviews were transcribed and a computer package NVivo
was used to assist the storage and retrieval of categorized data.

affective addressing of Chinese universities with “ours”.
However, Shan was mostly happy with the meso context of
UNNC where East meets West. No strict requirements ofteaching and research is another reason for her sense of
belonging to the job.
Concluding Remarks
Chinese-born ESP teachers at Sino-foreign universities,
mastering both western cultures and China’s local education
background, have not been fully recognized and acknowledged by their potential benefits brought to ELT in
China. The uneven flows of educational ideas, goods, services
and knowledge in the globally interconnected andtranscultural world of the 21st century, further present
significant challenges for teacher professionalism and theprovision of schooling (Arber, Blackmore, & VongalisMacrow, 2014). There is a need to further explore thepractices and discourses that may marginalize or empower
these teachers; new and creative teaching relationships thatcan provide insights and mutual understandings between
collaborators; and conflict and contestation in identity
construction by making the conflict visible (McIntosh, 2020).
5.

Results and Discussion
Professional Competence and ESP Teacher Roles.
Both Jiang and Shan came from the educational backgroundof language studies and currently took up ESP and EAP
courses respectively. But both of them preferred to be called
teachers of English language instead of ESP teachers, as they
meanwhile offered a wide variety of traditional language &literature courses and thus had a quite heavy workload (8-14
sessions per week). Their role of researcher turned to besignificantly undermined because of the heavy workload.
Jiang, although positioning himself as a teacher researcher
equipped with the academic mind and interests, had few toptier research publications both in English and Chinese. As a
newcomer working with the teaching-dominating CELE,
Shan took short “breaks” for reorientation.
ELF and Teacher Empathy as the New Glocal
Context. Jiang and Shan, without any unease with their statusof NNSE teachers, stressed English as a Lingua Franca in ELTand Chinese-born teachers’ special advantages of teacher
empathy towards Chinese students. Being a Chinese
empowered them with more advantageous positions to showteacher empathy towards their UNNC students. Because ofshared linguistic, cultural, and educational backgrounds,
according to Braine (2010, p. 28), these NNSE teachers canbetter appreciate the minds and difficulties of their students.
Ideal teacher-student relationship, as Jiang claimed, cannot be
separated from teachers' devotion to the students withpatience, consideration and sympathy, which was typical of
Chinese teachers. Shan and in her eyes her Chinese colleagues
were very responsible and played an indispensable part inrunning a successful Sino-foreign university: to undertakecourses in the front line, to guarantee the implementation of
institutional policies and to link the British-patterned
philosophies with the Chinese education background.
Charity and Institutional Positioning as Professional Habitus. Engagement in practice involves investing
oneself in what one does as well as in one’s relations withother members of the community. Not only did Jiang have astrong desire to support rural education in China, but Shanparticipated in various charities to provide voluntary teacher
training to domestic primary schools. It is also worth notingthat the model teachers Jiang and Shan aligned with are both
Chinese teachers bearing such typical characteristics as
diligence, selflessness and helpfulness. Through engagement,
imagination and alignment, Jiang and Shan at UNNC
distinctly located themselves and others in the world andinclude in their identities “other meanings, other possibilities,
other perspectives” (Wenger, 1998, p. 178). Detachment fromthis Sino-foreign university was revealed in Jiang's reference
to the current school by means of “they” as against the4.

Acknowledgements
This paper was supported by National Social Science Fund of China(Project No. BHA20013), Zhejiang Provincial Social Science Fund
(Project No. 21NDQN226YB) and Ningbo University Strategic
Project on Teaching Reform (No. JYXMXZD202010).
References
Arber, R., Blackmore, J., & Vongalis-Macrow, A. (Eds.) (2014).
Mobile teachers, teacher identity and international Schooling.
Sense Publishers.
Bhabha, H. (1994). The location of culture. Routledge.
Braine, G. (2010). Nonnative speaker English teachers: Research,pedagogy and professional growth. Routledge.
De Costa, P. I., & Norton, B. (2017). Transdisciplinarity andlanguage teacher identity (special issue). Modern Language
Journal, 101, 3-14. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12368
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2012). Language teacher education for a
global society: A modular model for knowing, analyzing,
recognizing, doing, and seeing. Routledge.
McIntosh, K. (Ed.). (2020). Applied linguistics and language
teaching in the Neo-Nationalist era. Palgrave McMillan.
McKay, S. L. (2012). Principles of Teaching English as an
International Language. In L. Alsagoff, S. L. Mckay, G. Hu, &W. A. Renandya (Eds.), Principles and practices for teaching
English as an international language (pp. 36-54). Routledge.
Mockler, N. (2011). Beyond ‘what works’: Understanding teacher
identity as a practical and political tool. Teacher and Teaching:
TheoryandPractice,
17(5),
517-528.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2011.602059
Rizvi, F., & Lingard, B. (2010). Globalizing education policy.
Routledge.
Tao, J., & Gao, A. (2018). Identity constructions of ESP teachers ina Chinese university. English for Specific Purposes, 49, 1-13.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2017.09.003
Wenger, E. T. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning,
and identity. Cambridge University Press.

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Collaborating with disciplinary specialists
in developing pedagogical tools forJapanese graduate students of engineering
Jie Shi
University of Electro-Communications (UEC Tokyo), Japanshi.jie@uec.ac.jp
Abstract
Scientific research is heavily dependent on collaborations among researchers in the same or related
domains. However, the collaboration of researchers or disciplinary specialists from different domains at
the tertiary level is infrequent. In English education field, the area of English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
that focuses on providing the English education that meets the learning needs of learners calls for extended
collaborations with the teachers of students’ disciplines, or the disciplinary specialists at universities, forbetter relevancy and validity of course content, language skills as well as pedagogical approaches. Thoughsuch a collaboration is considered by ESP practitioners to be important and crucial, smooth and effective
collaborations are not easy to achieve for various reasons such as differences in disciplines andunderstanding of education. This presentation reports a case study of a positive experience of thecollaboration between English and engineering language faculty members in a graduate school course of
research English for the graduate school students at a Japanese university of science and engineering. The
course, called Graduate school Technical English, is a university-wide and compulsory course for graduate
school students and co-taught by English (full-time and part-time) and disciplinary faculty members. The
main goals of this course include research article reading, academic writing and conference presentation.
First, the course history, goals, syllabus, teaching methods, materials and teaching faculty are reported.
Then, the specific strategies of teaching academic writing and the co-development of teaching materials
including instructional and evaluation checklists by English and disciplinary faulty members are described.
Some successful pedagogical practices, such as checklists for research article abstract, introduction,
methods, results, discussion and conclusion, developed as a joint effort of English and engineering faculty
members, are detailed. In addition, suggestions for successful communication and working withdisciplinary specialists are offered.
Keywords: ESP, EGAP, pedagogy, team teaching, interdisciplinary
1.

Introduction
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is gaining more
recognition in tertiary English education in Japan as ateaching and curriculum development approach that provides
more specific needs-based teaching to students of different
majors or disciplines, especially the students of non-English
majors. However, the universities that offer English educationas part of the regular curriculum of the graduate school and as
credited courses are scarce. ESP’s basis lies in the fact that it
places students’ needs at the center of the curriculum
development and teaching (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987;
Basturkmen, 2006; Belcher, 2009; Dudley-Evans and St John,
2011). Developing ESP courses based on the academic needs
requires knowhow of language education in EFL anddisciplinary knowledge which contributes to the validity ofthe teaching content and materials. Hence, the best and mosteffective option is collaboration with disciplinary specialists
or teachers of students’ majors.
Interdisciplinary collaboration between English
specialists and disciplinary specialists may take the forms of
co-developing the various aspects of the curriculum or coteaching or team teaching in practice. The former iscomparatively easier to implement than the latter because it
requires less involvement energy-wise and time-wise fromboth groups. Co-teaching or team-teaching with teachers fromdifferent disciplines is not only more challenging to operate

but also rare. Studies in interdisciplinary collaboration haveshown that the teachers in collaborative settings face various
types of differences in, for example, level of interest anddevotion, communication styles, choices of pedagogy andassessment/grading, and discipline-based rotation frequency.
These differences, if occurring frequently, could contribute to
the negative productivity of team work and low willingness
to join collaborative work. However, such difficulties anddifferences can be improved or solved by strategies ofleadership,
systemtrouble-shooting,professional
development activities, long-term appointments, andpersistent practices. Studies on interdisciplinary collaborative
teaching show that qualities of being positive, creative,
patient, flexible, willing to compromise and learn new things
help generate positive results (Orzolek, 2018) and that thedisciplinary specialists of non-English education fields canmake positive contributions to ESP-oriented teaching(Esteban and Martos, 2002). In addition, faculty collaboration
can cast positive effects on students and enhance theunderstanding of collaboration and improve motivation(Jaleniauskienė, Leščinskij and Jucevičienė, 2019).
This paper reports a case study of the collaboration ofEnglish and disciplinary specialists in developing online
teaching tools for checking and providing feedback on
graduate students’ journal paper writing assignments in acompulsory English course, “Graduate school Technical
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English” (GTE), at a Japanese university of science andtechnology. The characteristics of the course, the teamwork
between English and department teachers, the checklists,
and the positive outcome and difficulties shared by bothgroups of faculty are presented.

assignments are displayed and discussed. The positive aspectsof the collaboration with teachers of the students’ majors
proved to be much more positive. English teachers’
knowledge of the students’ major fields in terms of research
writing has been enriched tremendously; the confidence of the
English teachers in the self-developed teaching materials andauthentic feedback content has become stronger; thedepartment teachers have commonly found the collaboratingwith the English teachers refreshing as the changes are rare
and informative about the linguistic aspect and pedagogy
because they consider the English teachers as teachingexperts; the department teachers also benefit from the fact thatthey do not have to teach the aspects that they are not strong
in and leave those aspects to the English teachers who, they
believe, can do a better job in; finally, the students are also
beneficiaries of the interdisciplinary collaboration ofteachers: not only they can learn from both teams in the areasthat the teams are strong in but also are influenced positively
by observing the positive attitudes of the two teams towardcollaboration for better education.
Future research includes conducting surveys on thedepartment teachers to identify the areas of collaboration thatcan be expanded and co-develop teaching materials for varied
programs.

2.

The case study
The course of the case study, the Graduate school
Technical English (GTE), is an compulsory university-wide
course on academic presentation, and research article
reading and writing offered in the first semester of the
Master’s program at the University of ElectroCommunications (UEC) in Tokyo as part of the TechnicalEnglish Program. This case study reports the collaboration
conducted by the English and department teachers to develop
the syllabus, pedagogical tools, such as online teaching-cumfeedback (evaluation) checklists, for the writing componentof one of the four departments of the graduate school of the
UEC: the Department of Computer and Network Engineering.
The student body is around 120 on average divided into threemajor programs.
The 15-week syllabus of the case study and its
implementation and management reflects the outcome of
discussions and negotiation between the department and theEnglish teams. Due to the limitation of the length of thisproceeding, the sample syllabus is omitted. The teachingmaterials include real-life journal articles and presentation
files written by department teachers and students and by otherrepresentative researchers of the fields, authentic lectures on
various strategies for academic skills, and reference books
such as Research genres: Explorations and applications(Swales, 2004), Abstracts and the writing of abstracts (Vol.
2) (Swales and Feak, 2009), and The Elements of Style (Strunk,2007).
Classroom teaching is shared by the two teams on
different topics selected primarily by the department teachers.
Giving feedback on students’ writing assignments is doneusing feedback checklists designed by the author for various
writing and presentation assignments: abstract, introduction,
methods, results, discussion, conclusion and presentation
slides. The questions of the checklists are revised by thedepartment teachers. In addition, the author revises thechecklists yearly according to the syllabus and assignment
adjustments, teaching experience, and department team’s
feedback. Sample online feedback checklists are omitted inthis proceeding due to their lengths

References
Basturkmen, H. (2006). Ideas and options in English for SpecificPurposes. Routledge.
Belcher, D. (2009). What ESP is and can be: An introduction.
English for Specific Purposes in theory and practice.
University of Michigan Press ELT.
Dudley-Evans, T., & St John, M. J. (2011). Developments in
English for Specific Purposes: A multi-disciplinary approach(14th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Esteban, A. A., & Martos, M. V. (2002). A case study ofcollaboration among the ESP practitioner, the content teacher,and the students. Revista alicantina de estudios
ingleses, 15(7).
Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for SpecificPurposes. Cambridge University Press.
Jaleniauskienė, E., Leščinskij, R., and Jucevičienė, P. (2019).
Development of Collaboration in the English for SpecificPurposes courses: Opportunities and challenges. The Journalof Teaching English for Specific and Academic Purposes.
7(3).
National Institute of Science and Technology Policy. (2018). The
current status of and tasks for Japanese scientific research
performance (日本の科学研究力の現状と課題). Retrieved
February 22, 2021 fromhttps://nistep.repo.nii.ac.jp/?action=repository_uri&item_id=4036&file_id=13&file_no=1
Orzolek, D. C. (2018). Collaborative teaching: Lessons learned.
College teaching, 66(3).
Swales, J. M. (2004). Research genres: Explorations andapplications. Cambridge University Press.
Swales, J. M., & Feak, C. B. (2009). Abstracts and the writing of
abstracts (Vol. 2). University of Michigan Press ELT.
Strunk, W. (2007). The elements of style. Penguin.

3.

Discussion and Conclusion
This paper reports on the case study of theinterdisciplinary collaboration between English specialists, orEnglish teachers, and disciplinary specialists, or department
teachers, in a graduate school course of ESP nature for
improving Japanese graduate students’ research English
competences in EST context. The historical development of
the GTE course at the UEC and the co-development of theTechnical English programs, the GTE curriculum, teachingtools such as online checklists used by the English teachers
for giving feedback on and evaluating students’ written

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The Development and Validation of the Audience Awareness Scale
Mari Imai**Tokyo University of Foreign Studies
mari.imai.0104@gmail.com
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to develop a scale to measure the audience awareness and to examine how
to promote Japanese English learners to write English composition that is easier to understand. Whilecommunication via the Internet has become active because of the development of information andcommunication technology, miscommunication has become more likely to occur. Particularly in theJapanese English learner in EFL environments, it is necessary to reduce such miscommunication in
written language. To this end, writing studies have focused on the “audience awareness”, which isdefined as being aware of readers who will read the writing and adjust the way of writing thecomposition so that readers can understand easier (MuCuchen, 2006). Based on the above, this study
conducted scale development and questionnaire survey. In study 1, a new scale that measures the degreeof audience awareness was developed using the examples of the intervention practice in the previous
studies which focused on enhancing the audience awareness of the learners. After creating 45 scale
items, questionnaire survey was conducted on 144 university and graduate students. Exploratory factor
analysis extracted five factor. In study 2, the questionnaire survey was conducted to examine the processof English writing. Structural equation modeling revealed that “reader awareness” had an significant
effect on “opinion statement”， “domain coordination”， “rebuttal”. Also, “opinion statement”
and “domain coordination” had a significant effect on “revision”, while “rebuttal” had no significant
effect on “revision.” This result indicates that to improve writers’ English composition, it is important tointervene in “reader awareness.”

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Keywords: audience awareness, English writing, intercultural communication, scale development, EFL
1.

2.2 Results
Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) extracted five factors:"reader awareness", "opinion statement", "domain
coordination", "rebuttal", and “revision." Their reliability
and validity were also confirmed. This scale was named as“the audience awareness scale” (Table 1)

Introduction
The purpose of this study is to develop a scale tomeasure the audience awareness and to examine how topromote Japanese English learners to write English
composition that is easier to understand.

Study 1; The Development of The Audience
Awareness Scale
2.1 Method
2.1.1
Participants
144 university and graduate student participated thissurvey.

2.

Collection of Scale Items
2.1.2
To develop the scale, firstly items that EFL learners
with high audience awareness would show when they are
writing composition or essay in English was collected.
When collecting items, resent researches (e.g., Ferretti et al.,2009, Midgette et al., 2008, Nussbaum and Kardash, 2005，
Onoda, 2015) whose purpose were to improve audienceawareness were referred. After collecting 50 items,
discussion with doctoral student who specializes educational
psychology and English education was held, then, 45 items
were left.
2.1.3

Questionnaire Survey
Besides 45 items that had novelly collected,
participants were also required to answer five scales;“inference strategy (in Japanese reading, Inuzuka, 2002)”,“inference strategy (in English reading, Inuzuka, 2002)”,“egocentrism (Hirosawa et al., 2017)”, “: Fear of Negative
Evaluation (FNE, Sasagawa et al, 2004)”, and“Opinion-stating omposition (Tanala et al., 2020)”. Survey
was conducted in Japanese

Table 1Results of EFA of the Audience Awareness Scale
Items

M

SD

Factor Loadings
F1

F2

F3

F4

F5

.06

h2

F1：Opinion Statement (ω = .84）
自分の考えを明確には書かない* 1.76

0.66

.78 -.03

.03

.04

.61

自分の立場を明確にする

4.21

0.64

-.67 -.01 -.01 -.07

.01

.44

自分の考えを支持する理由を挙げる

4.44

0.59

-.64 -.07 -.03

.18

.10

.44

自分の考えをはっきりと書く 4.36

0.68

-.63

.05 -.04

.10

.06

.45

自分が何故そう考えたのか書かない* 1.67

0.69

.60 -.03 -.17

.14

.15

.43

1.70
文章の自分の主張が一貫していなくても気にしない*
具体例を挙げながら，自分の考えを支持する根拠を書く 4.37
文章を書いたあと，内容が矛盾していることに気がついていても気にしない* 1.79

0.66

.52 -.20 -.13 -.03

.01

.45

0.61

-.48 -.01 -.03

.09

.07

.25

0.64

.46 -.25 -.20

.13 -.03.42

文章を書いたあと，見直しをしない* 1.83

0.82-.03 -.85 -.03

.10

.11

.71

文章を書いたら，読み返す
4.33
文章を書いたら，内容に矛盾がないか確認する 4.09
文章を書いたら，
自身の主張が一貫しているか確認する 4.13
文章を書いたら，読み手に伝わる表現で書けているか確認する 4.00

0.79

-.03

.76 -.04

.05

.02

.60

0.62

-.04

.74 -.08

.10

.11

.59

0.68

-.20

.63 -.01

.04

.11

.56

0.57

.08

.55

.17 -.07.42

F2：Revision（ω = .85）

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F3：Reader Awareness （ω = .84）
読み手の中に自分とは異なる考えを持つ人がいることを考慮する 3.72
読む人の中に自分とは異なる考え方をする人がいることを想定する 3.85
自分の考えに対する反論を想定しない* 2.35
自分の考えに対して反論されるか
2.69
どうかは考えない*
自分の考えに対する
3.50
反論を想定する

4.

0.82-.03 -.06.86.10 -.04

0.80

-.01

.04

.82

.11

0.87

.10

.14 -.65.08 -.14

0.97-.10 -.14 -.64

.15 -.07

0.98

.07

.11

.53 -.03

.18

0.99

.06

.00

.09

.85

.03

1.00

.04 -.04.02.75 -.04

0.92.17 -.07.00 -.59

.05

1.04

.02

.13

.03

.00

0.78

-.16

.07 -.09

0.99

.00

.05

.05

.00

.89

1.01

-.06 -.06

.02

.02

.74

0.87

.09 -.07.01 -.11

.54

0.88

.27

.02 -.12 -.04

.41

.00

Conclusion
Purpose of this paper was to examine how to promote.76
Japanese English learners to write English composition that
.74 is easier to understandIn Study 1, the audience awareness scale was newly.47 developed and it was revealed that that scale has enoughvalidity and reliability. In Study 2, the process of English.44 writing has been revealed. This result would help both
instructors/teachers and leaners to write compositions and/or.37
essays that are more easy to understand.

F4：Domain Coordination（ω = .81）
読む人の知識量にあわせて表現の難易度を変える 3.26
読む人の知識量に応じて，文章に含める情報を取捨選択する 3.36
どんな人が読んだとしても説明の詳しさは変えない* 2.47
読む人の立場にあわせて，説明の詳しさを変える 3.51
専門用語を用いる際は，読む人が理解できる表現に言い換える 3.78

.57

.54 -.01

F5：Rebuttal（ω = .75）
「自分の考えに対する反論には同意しない」
2.60ということを，理由を挙げて説明する「自分の考えに対する反論には同意しない」
2.65と思う理由を挙げる「自分の考えに対する反論には同意しない」
2.06ということをはっきりと書く「自分の考えとは異なる考えは誤っている」
1.79ということを明確にする

F1
F2
F3
F4
Note: Items with “*” are reverse items.

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3.34 2.95 2.78 2.52 1.98-.38 -.15 -.13 .00.18 .17 .02.25 .24.02

Study 2; The process that How “reader awareness”
effects on “revision”
3.1 Method
The questionnaire survey was conducted (this is the same
survey with Study 1) to examine the process of English
writing.

3.

.75 References
Ferretti, R. P., Lewis, W. E., & Andrews-Weckerly, S. (2009). Do.56
goals affect the structure of students’ argumentative writing
strategies? Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(3), 577–.43
589. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014702
廣澤愛子・大西将史・岸俊行（2018）．自己中心性尺度の作成.38――「他者への共感不全」と「自己内省の困難さ」に焦点を当てて―― 福井大学教育・人文社会系部門紀要, 2,.34
207–223. http://hdl.handle.net/10098/10320
犬塚美輪（2002）．説明文における読解方略の構造 教育心理学研究, 50(2), 152–162.
.82
https://doi.org/10.5926/jjep1953.50.2_152.56 McCutchen, D. (2006). Cognitive factors in the development ofchildren’s writing. In C. A. MacArthur, S. Graham & J.
Fitzgerald (Eds.), Handbook of writing research (pp. 115–.32
130). Guilford Press.
.24 Midgette, E., Haria, P., & MacArthur, C. (2008). The effects ofcontent and audience awareness goals for revision on thepersuasive essays of fifth-and eighth-grade students. Reading
and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 21(1-2), 131–151.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-007-9067-9
Nussbaum, E. M., & Kardash, C. M. (2005). The effects of goal
instructions and text on the generation of counterarguments
during writing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(2),157–169. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.97.2.157
小野田亮介（2015）．児童の意見文産出におけるマイサイドバ
イアスの低減――目標提示に伴う方略提示と役割付与の効果に着目して―― 教育心理学研究, 63(2), 121–137.
https://doi.org/10.5926/jjep.63.121
笹川智子・金井嘉宏・村中泰子・鈴木伸一・嶋田洋徳・坂野
雄二（2004）．他者からの否定的評価に対する社会的不安測定尺度（FNE）短縮版作成の試み――項目反応理論に よ る 検 討 ― ― 行 動 療 法 研 究 , 30(2), 87 – 98.
https://doi.org/10.24468/jjbt.30.2_87

3.2 Results
Structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed that
“reader awareness” had an significant effect on “opinion
statement”， “domain coordination”， “rebuttal”. Also,“opinion statement” and “domain coordination” had asignificant effect on “revision”, while “rebuttal” had no
significant effect on “revision” (Figure 1).

Figure 1
Results of SEM
opinionstatement
R2 = .06.49***.24*
readerawareness.36***

domainR2 = .13

.29**

.18*

revision
R2 = .29.05ns
rebuttal
R2 = .08*p < .05**p < .01***p < .001

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Creating a New Hawaii-Japan Connection:
The Implementation and Development of Overseas Project-Based
Learning Programs, PBLs
Shari Joy Berman* and Megumi Tada***Hirosaski University
sjberman@hirosaski-u.ac.jp**Hirosaki University
tadameg@hirosaki-u.ac.jp
Abstract
This paper will report and analyze a series of project-based learning (PBL) programs initiated and devisedby Berman, connecting two local towns in Japan and Hawaii. Promoted by Hirosaki University since2014, the PBL program has been mostly a collaboration with local companies sponsoring so-called“Glocal” projects, which were conceptualized to reflect the “local” university’s educational initiative,
stressing “Think global, act local.” This type of PBL was meant to cultivate student investment in local
development through experiences abroad. This PBL program sent students on short-term overseas training
trips where they experienced various opportunities such as job shadowing, visiting relevant researchfacilities interacting with the community through homestays, and performing their own local research athome and abroad leading to their giving professional presentations, on multiple occasions, both todomestic and international audiences. This paper describes the planning, operation, and implementationof each cohort, along with subsequent improvements from the first PBL program in 2017 to the fourth in2020 (22 students). Two of the programs were planned as an extension of a two-credit liberal arts
education class and were designed to foster more independent and deeper learning by having students
conduct surveys and make warm-up presentations during the one-semester course, prior to departure. At
first glance, tropical Kona and snowy Hirosaki seem to have little in common, but both places are remote.
Hence, both face similar issues based on the fact that government policies in both countries favor largecity centers over small towns. Students tackled multiple tasks with a strong sense of ownership of theirresearch, both pre- and post-departure, sharing and presenting results publicly in each country. The
purpose of sharing this research is here is to offer a template for other universities to create similar PBLs,
which are highly academic, strongly experiential, and, sometimes, even life-changing.
Keywords: PBL, glocal, experiential learning, international exchange, ESP
Introduction
Predicting post-COVID priorities, PBL programs are
positioned to prevail. The presenters have established a highly
specific protocol for international PBLs, as they arecollectively called, that includes predeparture preparation anda unique definition of PBL. While definitions vary on projectbased or problem-based learning, Hirosaki University PBLs
have come to mean a short-term project with an overseas
focus that plants seeds to prepare students for their future
professions and begins the process of having them pay theirknowledge forward. The original Hirosaki PBLs were part ofa “glocal,” project that teamed local businesses with the local
national university to encourage students to “think global andact local.” The initial program expired in 2019, exactly when
the university faculty finally began to realize the dream. The
instructors were preparing the students, predeparture, andfulfilling the original vision. At the final presentation for theuniversity directors, local proprietors, and local government,
one businessperson said that he “I just heard the best
presentations so far, and now it has ended.” The university
International Department was listening and, while trimming
the budget substantially, took up the cause and kept the project
afloat. Collectively, the presenters were involved in fourcohorts of a Hirosaki-Hawaii Island projects. They strove toimprove the process both pretravel, in Hawaii, and post-returnto Japan. They realized they had created a pattern for others
to follow in the future.
As international exchange gets back on its feet, post-

COVID, the Hirosaki University PBL model provides anadaptable template for instructors to create well-informed
short-term international exchange aimed to nurture
professionals that can fulfill the glocal directive, bringing a
global perspective as they become Japan’s leaders of
tomorrow. This presentation outlines a plan, based on
recounting the various successes in Hawaii and advisingcountermeasures to possible pitfalls. Hirosaki-style PBLs canbe applied as a potentially productive path for students withvaried majors to actually learn strategies in university to
inform and enrich their professional futures.

1.

Previous Research
PBLs have been in the spotlight in recent years, but the
principles and history date back to the early 20th century when
Dewey (1938) advocated an experiential model of learning
through active inquiry. Berkeley (2015) contends that “…thelearner literally builds his or her own mind by constantly
making and changing connections between what is new andwhat is already known.” and that “Students need to do thework required to learn.” Schwartz (2007) presents
numerous PBL project examples especially in the field of
medical education. In essence, however, it is learning by
doing, which is surely and ancient concept.
2.

Objectives and Structures of the PBLs
As one of the objectives of the Hirosaki PBLs was tohelp prepare students for their future professions and allow
3.

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them to experiment and satisfy their curiosity about life
overseas, applicants came from all five University
departments ranging from Medical to Humanities.
Participants were selected based on both individual essays,
and group interviews designed to examine theircommunicative dynamic in a group, which is vital to this sortof project. Most of all, students’ eagerness to learn, and their
willingness to help and learn about others mattered the most.
The following outline of the four PBLs are shown in Table 1
in chronological order.

making presentations locally, and talking about the projects toother students, the participants promoted the new findings andideas to their peers, the university faculty, as well as the local
community.
Of the four PBL projects, two PBLs were Global
Subject courses for two Liberal Arts credits, with 15 meetings
for an entire semester. This is where students began theirresearch and practiced presentation skills. Besides the training
sessions, rehearsal presentations were also conducted at the
English Lounge, a Self-Access Learning Center at Hirosaki
University, where the authors also taught.

Table 1Figure 1

Outlines of the PBLs from 2017 to 2020
Dates

Participating
Departments

Theme

Sept.,
2017

Medical (2), Science(2), Education (1)A Path to Becoming a Glocal
Citizen--Community
Sustainability Hawaiian Style

Feb.,
2019

Medical (2), Science(1), Agriculture &Life Science (1)Giving Community Wellness
an Injection of Glocal
Experience

Sept.,
2019

Humanities (5)A Program for Students to
Examine/Experience the US“Food Bank” Model,Firsthand, and Apply
Sustainable Development
Goals Glocally

Feb.,
2020

Medical (2),Agriculture & Life
Science (2),
Humanities (2)Facing Future - Small Towns
Learning from Each Other andBuilding a Better Tomorrow

General Structure of the PBLs

4. Features of the PBL
The projects stressed student ownership so much that they
became able to conduct research autonomously and speak
sincerely, making things student-centered and spontaneous,
before, during, and after the trip. The presenters believe that
content-based classes and firsthand experience connect thestudents to the real world and get them ready to makethemselves useful to society. It is the sincere hope of thepresenters that the nature of these PBL projects, “Think global,
act local” continue to connect the two local cities and serveboth communities as well as the students as they enter theworkforce. Hawaii gave the students of Hirosaki a personal
taste of ohana and the spirit of aloha and Hirosaki gave
Hawaii Island the notion of glocal importance to small
communities. The first cohort opened a door to a current
partnership with Hawaii Community Colleges.

While the four PBLs took different forms inorganization, the format of the PBLs was constantly
reorganized so as to develop the students’ ownership of the
topics for which they were responsible. Therefore, as shownin Figure 1, the first step in the progression was step 1) Predeparture Research; in the home country, students researchedboth local communities, Hirosaki and Kona, to make in-classpresentations. Students were tasked to find a) issues that werecommon to both rural areas, b) issues that involved theirmajors, and c) information to consider that fell outside of theirareas of expertise, i.e., learning about one another’s fields.
After extensive research, students gave presentations
locally, got feedback from other Hirosaki students, madenecessary changes, and then step 2) Overseas Travel; they
took the PBL trip. While often experiencing homestays andlearning the local culture, students engaged in numerous tasks
such as visiting relevant project locations, job-shadowing,
cultural events, and professional-style research presentations
for local citizens in Hawaii. Step 3) Post-travel activities; after
the trip, they made various other presentations to report theoutcome of their trip to their local community and fellow
students, including feedback from the Hawaii side in theirfindings and improving the content of their research. Students
were also expected to step 4) Pay it Forward; because they
had served as ambassadors for the local community. By

Acknowledgements

Thank you to the Department of International Education &Collaboration, Hirosaki University, and Hirosaki Chamberof Commerce for sponsoring these projects.
References

Berkeley, E.F.(2015).Student Engagement Techniques: A
Handbook for College Faculty. Jossey-Bass.
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education. e-artnow,2016.
Schwartz, P. Mennin, S. & Webb, G.(Ed). (2007). PBL
sekaino daigakudeno shoguru-pu mondai kiban gatakarikyuramu donyu no keiken ni manabu. Tokyo:Shinohara
Shuppan Shinsha.

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An Oral Storytelling Workshop: Glocalizing Language Education
TADA Megumi* and Joshua Lee SOLOMON***Hirosaki University
tadameg@hirosaki-u.ac.jp**Hirosaki University
jsolomon@hirosaki-u.ac.jp
Abstract
This practical report discusses an exploratory workshop utilizing local folklore, Japanese dialect literature,and performative English-language training. The workshop was conceptualized in part to reflect the socalled “local” university’s glocal educational initiative, which stresses cultivating citizens invested inlocal development through the appropriation of global technologies and techniques. The workshop
combined English language education and regional studies using CLIL (content and language integrated
learning) methods. Students first worked with Japanese storytellers (kataribe) trained in local vernaculartales to learn oral performance. The students received performance instruction primarily in Japanese, thenapplied those techniques to scripts translated to English. The second day of the workshop was thenstreamed for students and the local citizenry and included group recitations by students and trained
storytellers both. The pedagogical motivation for this format was in part the recursive reinforcement
afforded by mirror texts (parallel texts) and scaffolding provided by the culturally-familiar material. The
use of mirror texts was unique in that neither the local dialect nor English were the students’ L1. Throughthe process, links were forged between the university and local community and between Japanese andforeign students, and students engaged in intentional, performative English in addition to local dialect,
culture, and history.
Keywords: glocalization, mirror texts, culturally familiar material, performativity, CLIL
Introduction
This practical report discusses an exploratory
workshop utilizing local folklore, Japanese dialect literature,and performative English-language training. The workshop
was conceptualized in part to reflect the so-called “local”
university’s glocal educational initiative, which stresses
cultivating citizens invested in local development through theappropriation of global technologies and techniques. The
workshop involved students performing folktales in English
alongside seasoned folktale performers performing in local
Japanese vernacular. We conclude by suggesting different
contexts this workshop may be adapted to.
1.

experiences. More recent work, particularly by Sheridan,
Tanaka, and Hogg (2016, 2019) has attempted toquantitatively demonstrate the effectiveness of such texts inimproving vocabulary gains as well as emotional investmentin the material for Japanese college students.
3. Workshop Day 1
Pre-workshop preparation for participants was minimal.
The storytellers selected texts in advance, which theworkshop coordinators translated and prepared in mirror-text
fashion. Texts in English, standardized Japanese, and dialect
were sent to students beforehand, but they were not given any
more instruction than to look briefly over them.
Four storytellers (the master teacher, her assistant, andthe two who would perform alongside the students) and five
students (two local Japanese, one from another prefecture,
one from Tibet, and one from Vietnam) joined the workshop.
The organizers explained some of the background of Wa no
Mukashiko and their history of research with the group. We
explained the workshop goals and asked the two storytellers
to give a brief introduction to their stories. One was ahumorous tale; the other was a sad one. The students split into
two groups based on the story which captured their interest.
The workshop then divided itself into two rooms, wherein theparticipants underwent different kinds of training.
Room 1: the comedy story.
The storyteller began by telling the whole story in her
usual performance style while the two students watched andlistened intently. Because of the nature of the story, theperformance involved some physical actions portraying a
brave young lad battling with a robber, the latter getting his
chin and heel cut off, and the village doctor stitching themback on. The actions of swinging the sword, shouting, andjumping made the performance so vivid that the students
gasped while watching it.
After about an hour, the students began to collaborate
with the storyteller. They did a read through, taking turns andBackground
This workshop was designed as a supplement to an
ongoing research and translation project focused on the
Tsugaru vernacular-language storytelling group Wa no
Mukashiko, operating in Hirosaki, Aomori Prefecture. 1 Wa
no Mukashiko are quite active in the local community, giving
charity performances for young and old alike. The groupperforms oral adaptations of Japanese folktales, often
historical and local in nature. The group’s founder, Shibutani
Hakuryū, and master storyteller, Satō Tsuri, are repositories
of knowledge about both local culture and language. The
research project uses interdisciplinary methods tolinguistically analyze the storytellers’ esoteric vernacular,
understand the function of their activities in contemporarysociety, and translation and teaching to both bring their work
to new eyes (and ears) and to open it up to new perspectives.
One of the new perspectives we hit upon early in the project
was combining the texts with language pedagogy.
There are precedents for the utilization of “culturallyfamiliar materials” in language education. As outlined by
Segni and Davidson (2016), seminal research on the topic was
grounded in schema theory and suggests that culturallyfamiliar components can scaffold language learners’
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alternating between Japanese and English paragraph byparagraph. The storyteller and her teacher both gave students
advice along the way. This was followed by practice sessions
done in the same order of the paragraphs, with the students
standing and gesticulating. They checked their pronunciationand learned how to project their voice and how to be
expressive.
Room 2: the sad story. First, the storyteller provided asignificant amount of background to the story, including
historical context and explanation of unfamiliar elements,
such as a historical famine and a type of candy mentioned.
She performed most of the tale once. The students then chosewhich parts of the script each would read in turn and practiced
orally interpreting the passages in the fashion of original
performance. The storyteller gave no specific feedback on
English performance; however, she responded to student
questions concerning rhythm and stress in the original. The
native speaker instructor helped the students revise the script
in several places to better accommodate the storyteller’scomments, for example, by rearranging the order of asentence to place emphasis on a particular word or action.
Students also discovered some discrepancies in the translation,
which they addressed as a group.
After a little more than an hour of practice, the twogroups returned to the main room to share their initialthoughts and reactions to the day’s events. We were toreconvene in a week’s time for the online recital. On student
request, however, the instructors met with multiple
participants during the intervening time to help them practice.
Although not initially planned, the extra practice during
the week between the two days of the workshop proved
necessary in reinforcing student recall. These were highly
motivated learners who expressed some level of anxiety
regarding their upcoming public performance. The extra
practice time helped to allay those anxieties.

Adapting to Other Contexts
The authors recognize the special opportunity Wa no
Mukashiko presents and understand that not all of our readers
may find themselves with a group of local storytellers so
generous with time and energy. However, given the goals of
this workshop—to provide students with some combinationof creative performative language practice, contact with thelocal community, and learning in specialized/local topics—
we feel that a similar experiment could be replicated in manydifferent contexts, especially in less metropolitan areas.
When looking for performative language experts, it may
be useful to consider the educators’ personal contacts andspecialized knowledge. Some familiarity with thebroadcasting industry, performing arts, literary community, or
tourism industry may prove fruitful. One can easily imagine
replicating a similar workshop by borrowing the talents of aradio host, poet, kabuki actor, or a tour or museum guide. For
working professionals, the opportunity to broadcast a short
exhibition piece or advertise their work may be incentive tocooperate. For others, the chance to meet and work with ayouthful demographic may prove alluring. Students may also
be motivated by the untraditional learning context andopportunity to meet new people.
Another possibility would be to introduce students toworking professionals in L1 and have them shadow using
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) in a role-playing setting.
Business majors could mimic a Japanese-style sales pitch or
medical students could practice Japanese-style bedsidemanner, presumably in mock conditions. While some culturaltranslations may at first seem to make this exercise
impractical or awkward, the consciousness students in our
project gained regarding Tsugaru vernacular, language
modality, and linguistic translation suggest that there may bevalue in the process of discovering that awkwardness.
5.

Notes
1 Tsugaru vernacular folktales have not appeared in a substantial
form in English. See Yonezawa (1973) and Ito (2013) for examples.
None of these works seek to apply their contents directly to an
educational context.

Workshop Day 2
The second day of the workshop was primarily
dedicated to the performances themselves. Students andstorytellers both arrived early and practiced theirperformances before the camera, reading their scripts off aPowerpoint slide instead of the papers they initially used.
Audience members viewed the performances throughZoom. After a welcome statement, the coordinators explained
the background of Wa no Mukashiko and the workshop itself
to contextualize the event. Then, three tales were performed
through a combination of English and Japanese: one groupalternated speakers and languages; the other group presented
fully in local dialect first and then in English second. The third
performance was an exhibition piece by the master storyteller
herself.
The audience was composed of native Japanese speakers
both familiar and unfamiliar with the local vernacular, as well
as world-English native speakers. Audience members
included students, university faculty, and regular citizens.
Several remarked that the combined presentation of English
and esoteric local vernacular helped increase comprehension.
4.

Acknowledgements
Thank you to the members of Wa no Mukashiko and our student
participants Osanai Asumi, Zhang Yiguo, Ono Mikoto, Satō Non,and Tran Thi Hoai Thuong for cooperating in this event.
References
Yonezawa, T. (1973). Folktales and Legends of the Tsugaru District.
Bungei kyōkai shuppan.
Ito, K. (2013).Legends of the North of Japan. Aomori chiiki bunka
seikatsuka kenkyūjo.
Sheridan, R., Tanaka, K., & Hogg, N. (2016). English throughculturally familiar contexts: A pilot study in Japan. Language
Education in Asia 7(2), 88–99.
Sheridan, R., Tanaka, K., & Hogg, N. (2019). Foreign language,
local culture: How familiar contexts impact learning andengagement. The Electronic Journal for English as a Second
Language 23(1).
Segni, B. & Davidson, L. (2016). The practices of teaching English
as a foreign language using local cultural contents. Research
Journal of English Language and Literature 4(2), 669–674.

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Challenging Dominant Notions of Bilingualism in the Classroom:
Beyond ‘Japanese and English’
Elisabeth (Libby) Ann Williams
Doshisha Women’s College of Liberal Artselisabethannwilliams@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper introduces a university instructor’s experiences teaching an English-medium introductorybilingualism course. One of the main goals of the course was to critically explore two ‘language myths’commonly found in Japan: (1) that Japan is a monolingual nation and (2) that ‘bilingualism’ is intrinsicallyconnected to English language acquisition. The paper presents two interactive activities that the instructorused to challenge these notions in class. Despite the instructor’s efforts, however, assessment of students’
final assignments suggests that numerous students held these language ideologies at the end of the course.
This paper closes with a brief discussion of possible future activities to more adequately critically engage
students on topics in bilingualism.
Keywords: bilingualism, language ideologies, homogeneity, monolingual Japan
Introduction
Historically, indigenous groups and linguistic minorities
in Japan have brought diversity to the country’s linguistic
landscape, and yet an enduring view of Japan as amonolingual nation has largely persisted in the political andpublic realms (Heinrich, 2012). Heinrich (2012) argues thatthe myth of linguistic homogeny in Japan serves to bothformulate a monolingual and monocultural Japanese identity
while simultaneously marginalizing minority languages andpeoples.
Nevertheless, scholars observe that the idea of‘monolingual Japan’ is being constantly contested not only by
the historical presence of linguistic minorities, but also by
inbound bi/multilinguals such as nikkei Japanese from SouthAmerica (Sugino, 2008) and kikokushijyo returning after
extended periods abroad (Kanno, 2010). Moreover, Turnbull(2019) observed everyday ‘bilingual behaviour’ in Japanthrough his analysis of the frequent use of English-Japanesetranslanguaging in public signage. The consumption of K-pop
music (Phillips & Baudinette, 2020) and Korean language
study is also becoming increasingly popular among Japaneseyouth (Fujita-Round & Maher, 2017). Previous research,
therefore, provides examples of numerous spaces where theideology of ‘monolingual Japan’ is being challenged.
When bilingualism in Japan is discussed, linguistic
diversity is frequently ignored and ‘being bilingual’ is placed
within the framework of English language education. Politicaland educational discourses construct English as essential forboth individual career advancement and Japan’s participation
in a continuously globalizing world (Koshino, 2019;
Yamagami & Tollefson, 2011). In other words, views on
linguistic diversity are often limited to a neoliberal discourseof English attainment for personal and national prosperity.
This paper introduces how these common ideologies ofbilingualism in Japan took shape in an English medium“Introduction to Theories of Bilingualism” class at a Japanese
university. A personal goal of the instructor was to challenge
the idea of Japan as a monolingual country and to pushstudents to view bi/multilingualism outside of the neoliberal
Japanese/English binary through diverse interactive activities.
Despite these activities, however, the majority of students’
final assignments contained ideas that either replicated mythsof Japanese linguistic homogeneity or equated being‘bilingual’ with Japanese-English speakers.

1.

Course Context
This one semester elective course took place over the2020 – 2021 school year at a women’s university in the
Kansai region of Japan. 25 second to fourth year students
registered for the course, with the vast majority being thirdyear students from a department that specialized ininternational studies. All students had previous study abroad
experience as high school students or year-long university
exchange students in primarily English-speaking countries.
One student openly identified as Chinese-Japanese while
another shared her experiences of being zainichi Korean.
2.

Course Activities
As previously mentioned, the instructor sought tochallenge common language ideologies in Japan through thecourse. This was done through a variety of means. For
instance, the instructor regularly and critically addressed
these assumptions within the course lectures. Moreover,publicly available media resources such as YouTube videos,
blogs, manga and were frequently utilized to show not only
the diversity of languages in Japan, but also how Japanesedialects (such as Okinawa-ben) contest the monolingual
language ideology.
The instructor also designed several interactive
pair/group activities to dissect essentialist views of language
in Japan by looking at ‘real-life’ examples. For instance,
students viewed and discussed the documentary Haafu (ハーフ) (Nishikura & Perez Takagai, 2013), which tells the stories
of diverse bi/multilingual (and bi/multicultural) residents inJapan. Students took two classes to discuss the complexity ofidentity among the documentary’s cast, and how identities
were constructed through intersections of language, ethnicity,and gender within the context of Japanese society.
Another activity required students to analysemulticultural family case studies by listening to recordings ofbi/multilingual conversations between parents and young
children after reading descriptions of these families’
linguistics practices and their approaches to bilingual
education. The case studies included one Japanese parent and
one non-Japanese parent (German, Thai, American), and one
Japanese family that purposely uses English in everyday
3.

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speech. Students discussed communication and codeswitching techniques among family members and predicted
how the families’ language practices would affect thechildren’s bi/multilingualism in the future.

study and international experiences in English-speaking
universities.
In the future, the instructor plans to incorporate these
new approaches to challenge homogenous views ofmonolingual Japan and bilingualism:

Results of Student Assignments
As a means of final assessment, students in this course
were required to present on a topic of interest in the field of
bilingualism and then expand on the same topic through ashort research paper. Analysis of the content of student
presentations and papers suggest that despite the instructor’s
attempts to disrupt common myths of linguistic homogeneityand bilingualism, the majority of students replicated theseessentialist ideas in their assignments. Furthermore, althougheach student was sent written feedback by the instructor
following her presentation, many students did not appear toincorporate this feedback into their final papers.
Among the 25 students in the course, 13 chose topics thatframed English acquisition among Japanese nationals assynonymous with “bilingualism”. In other words, English
was not framed as merely one path to becoming bilingual, but
the only (or best) option. For instance, many of these 13
students chose rather general topics (such as “what difficulties
do bilingual children face in Japan?”) but their assignments
focused exclusively on the examples and experiences ofEnglish-speaking children or Japanese nationals learning
English.
The assumption that Japan is a monolingual (and/or
monocultural) country was also present in 11 of the 25 student
assignments. This was frequently tied with student views of
supposedly poor English education in Japan, and was also
given as a reason for Japan’s overall low performance instandardized English testing in comparison to many of its
Asian neighbours (see Education First, 2020). Three students,
however, contested ‘monolingual/cultural Japan’ in theirassignments through illustrating the ways that thisessentialized view can marginalize linguistic and cultural
minorities.
Six students chose topics that diverged from the common
language ideologies of monolingualism and bilingualism bychoosing topics that focused on identity construction (such as
among zainichi Koreans, Filipino-Japanese minorities andkikokushijyo in Japan), or by looking at successful bilingual
programs abroad that taught languages other than English(Spanish, French and Japanese). Lastly, one student presented
on grassroots initiatives in Japan that connect linguistic
minority residents with monolingual Japanese-speaking
children in attempts to facilitate multicultural understanding.
4.

(1) Include more course material on the historicalconstruction of the Japanese language and the history of
linguistic minorities in Japan.
(2) Provide more information about language education in
Japan outside of English (Korean, Chinese, Portuguese, etc.).
(3) If possible, invite a guest speaker from a linguistic
minority background.
(4) Incorporate individual consultations regarding
presentation and paper topics.
(5) Require students to respond to written presentation
feedback before writing their final papers.
(6) Use more Japanese in class to mimic a bilingual
atmosphere.
References
Education First. (2020). The world’s largest ranking of countries andregions by English skills. https://www.ef.com/wwen/epi/#
Fujita-Round, S. & Maher, J. C. (2017). Language policy andeducation in Japan. In T. McCarthy and S. May (Eds.), Language
policy and political education issues in education. Encyclopediaof language and education (3rd ed.) (pp. 491 – 505).
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02344-1_36
Heinrich, P. (2012). The making of monolingual Japan: Language
ideology and Japanese modernity. Multilingual Matters.
Kanno, Y. (2010). Bilingualism and identity: The stories of Japanese
returnees. International Journal of Bilingual Education, 3(1), 1– 18. http://dx.doi.org./10.1080/136700500008667697
Koshino, K. (2019). Tempted by Whiteness?: Linguistic capital andhigher education in Japan. The Journal of Educational
Foundations, 32(1, 2, 3, & 4), 49 – 71.
Nishikura, M. & Takagi Perez, L. (Directors). (2013). Hafu: The
mixed-race experience in Japan. Japan Foundation & CAAM.
Phillips, K. & Baudinette, T. (2020). Shin-Ōkubo as a feminine ‘Kpop space’: Gendering the geography of consumption of K-pop
in Japan. Gender, Place and Culture, 1 – 24.
https://doi.org./10.1080/0966369X.2020.1857341
Sugino, T. (2008). Nikkei Brazilians at a Brazilian school in Japan:
Factors affecting language decisions and education. Keio
University Press.
Turnbull, B. (2019). Beyond bilingualism in Japan: Examining thetranslingual trends of a ‘monolingual’ nation. International
JournalofBilingualism,
00(0),
1–17.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1367006919873428
Yamagami, M. & Tollefson, J.W. (2011). Elite discourses ofglobalization in Japan: The role of English. In P. Seargeant (Ed.).
English in Japan in the era of globalization (pp. 15 – 37).
Palgrave McMillan. https://doi.org./10.1057/9780230306169

Future Directions
After viewing students’ final assignments, the instructor
concluded that more effort in class was necessary to challenge
language myths commonly found in Japan. Nevertheless, theinstructor also believes that while critically engaging withstudents’ preconceived notions is crucial, an educator cannot(and should not) force her/his students to hold a particular
opinion. It is also important to note that students’ assignment
choices may be reflective of their own interest in English
5.

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Critical Factors for the Design and Organization of the Teaching Presence
and Forum Structure in Online Learning Communities for EFL Teachers
Katerina Kourkouli* and Evdokia Karavas***Department of English Language and Literature, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens
kkourkouli@enl.uoa.gr**Department of English Language and Literature, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens
ekarava@enl.uoa.gr
Abstract
The presentation reports on the design and implementation of four (4) online Learning Communities forthe professional development of forty-nine (49) EFL Teachers in Greece using an online platform named
2gather. Based on the theoretical perspectives of Situated Learning, Collaborativism and Connectivism
in collaborative networks, asynchronous online teacher communities constitute a model for sustainable,
coherent and effective professional development. The research is structured as collective case studies
using forum transcript cross-case analysis, focus group interviews, and questionnaires. The findings
complement current cognition on identifying design and organization principles for effective group forum
teacher training. They provide evidence of the effectiveness of the design framework and identify critical
success factors: strong instructional design and organization teaching presence along with thespecification of the forum structure, rhythm, netiquette, and integrated synchronous meetings which areassociated with Communities exhibiting liveliness and reporting higher on perceived learning andeffectiveness for teachers’ teaching practice. The platform environment as well as the forum structure andmaterial are also analytically presented.
Keywords: design, organization, forum, professional development
1.

Introduction
Responding to the need for effective teacher trainingthat can foster teachers’ professional development (OECD2009, Korthagen 2017), the purpose of this paper is toinvestigate how online Learning Communities can be best
designed, organized and coordinated to increase theireffectiveness as a teacher education model. Based on Laveand Wenger’s (1991) theory of situated learning andcollaborative-sociocultural perspectives of learning (Harasim2017), the study identifies critical success factors that areassociated with increased liveliness, perceived learning andreported effectiveness. As a result, it complements current
cognition on design and organization principles for effective
group forum teacher training.

2.1 Data Sources
The method dictated the use of the following data
sources: a) Focus group interviews and questionnaires tospecify effective forum design and implementation principlesb) Teachers’ post – questionnaires to evaluate theeffectiveness of each one of the four online Learning
Communities and c) Community forum transcripts
throughout the 5- month training period to identify thefrequencies and the indicators for the instructional design andorganization teaching presence in each one of the four
Communities and enable the comparison of findings. The
total number of participants was 49 EFL Teachers, 16 in
Community 1 (C1), 15 in Community 2 (C2), 12 in
Community 3 (C3) and 6 in Community 4 (C4).

Research Method
The project involved the design, development,
launching and 5-month operation of online Learning
Communities for EFL teachers in the context of an in-service
teacher training scheme. It also entailed training four
Coordinators to coordinate four online Learning
Communities with 49 EFL Teachers working in state primaryschools in order to address the following research questions:
RQ1. Which are the critical success factors for the initiationand implementation of lively and successful online Learning
Communities for EFL teachers?
RQ2. To what extent is there reported reconstruction of
cognition and practices as well as reported effectiveness ofthe training experience in relation to teachers’ teachingpractice per online Community?
RQ3. What type of instructional design and organizationteaching presence (Anderson et al. 2001) is displayed in each
online Community and which type is associated with
Communities scoring higher on perceived learning andeffectiveness?

2.2 Research Procedure
The research was structured as collective case studies,using mixed methods to explore differences between the four
online Learning Communities, make comparisons and draw
conclusions (Yin 2003). Firstly, focus group interviews andquestionnaires were analysed in order to specify forum designand organization principles that generated lively and active
participation. Secondly, teacher questionnaires after their
participation in the Communities were analysed in order toinvestigate teacher perceived learning and effectiveness of theonline Communities for teacher development and thirdly
forum transcripts were analysed, using Anderson et al’s
coding scheme (2001), in order to assess instructional designand organization teaching presence. Participants’ perceptions
were based on the following four indicators of effectivenessper Community: 1. extent to which new insights into teaching
have been gained, 2. perceived usefulness of the teachers’
involvement for their everyday teaching practice, 3. extent towhich teacher development needs have been met and 4.
frequency of usage of new ideas presented after the online
Learning Community. The findings of the focus group

2.

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research informed the organisation and contributed toorganising, kick-starting and implementing the online
Learning Communities of this study. Finally, the content
analysis of the forum transcripts was compared with thefindings of the survey research for the final findings report.

of the indicators and total frequencies for the instructional
design and organization (D.O.) teaching presence for eachone of the four online Learning Communities. This
information per Community provided a striking finding: thetotal frequencies for D.O. teaching discourse (Figure 3 below)of C1 (94) and C3 (108), were double the frequencies of C2(51) and C4 (45).

Results
The report on the focus group questionnaires andinterviews consisting of 12 out of the 16 Teachers
participating in Community 1 (C1), that managed to head startand gain momentum while other Communities were still
struggling to find their pace, provided us with critical successfactors for the effective design, organization and initiation of
the forum training scheme:1. Activities that generate energy
and rhythm including quizzes and other interactive material 2.
A monthly structure consisting of a) a reflection task b)
provision of study material and c) further discussion activities& integration with practice 3. Specification of the learning
outcome 4. Group forum ground rules and deadlines 5.
Integration of a kick-off session and 1-2 face-to-face ones 6.
Supporting sociability, participation and liveliness 7.
Continuous provision of feedback, guidance and motives and8. Organization of events for the recruitment of members andpromotion of the work accomplished.
As for the 2nd research question, the majority of participants
were mostly positive in their evaluations of the online
Learning Communities with 69% reporting a great deal ofperceived usefulness for their everyday teaching practice(Figure 1).
3.

Figure 3
Frequencies per indicator for Instructional
Organisation Teaching Presence per Community

This finding led to the comparison with the survey results andsynthesis of findings for the final report: the online Learning
Communities scoring higher on the group forum Teaching
Presence for Instructional Design and Organization (C1 andC3) coincided with the Communities scoring higher on all
indicators of effectiveness (C1 and C3 again).
Conclusion
As a result, the findings complement current cognition
on design and organization principles for effective group
forum teacher training. They identify critical success factors:
a strong instructional design and organization teachingpresence along with the specification of the forum structure,rhythm, and netiquette which are associated with
Communities exhibiting liveliness and reporting higher onperceived learning and effectiveness for teachers’ teachingpractice. Finally, the limited scope of this investigationnecessitates the application, testing and validation of findings
in various contexts.
4.

Perceived usefulness of Teachers’ involvement in online Learning
Communities for their everyday teaching practice69%
31%
Very useful0%

Moderately Slightly useful Absolutely
usefuluseless

References
Anderson, T., Rourke, L., Garrison, D. & Archer, W. (2001).
Assessing teaching presence in a computer conferencing context.
Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 5(2), 1-17.
Harasim, L. (2017). Learning theory and online technologies. New
York: Routledge.
Korthagen, F. (2017). Inconvenient truths about teacher learning:towards professional development 3.0, Teachers and Teaching,23(4), 387-405.
Lave, J. & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate
peripheral participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
OECD (2009). The professional development of teachers. In
Creating effective teaching and learning environments: First
results from TALIS, 47-78.
Yin, R.K. (2003). Case study research: design and methods,
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

At the same time, a lot of variation was recorded: C1 and C3
were perceived by participants as more effective than C2 andC4 on all indicators of effectiveness. For instance, 83% of
C3’s participants perceived their participation as very usefulfor their everyday teaching practice, followed by 81% of theC1’s participants responding the same (Figure 2).
Figure 2
Perceived usefulness of Teachers’ involvement in online Learning
Communities for their everyday teaching practice
C2

C1

C3

C4

Very useful
47%
81%
83%
Moderately useful
53%
19%
17%
None reported slightly useful or absolutely useless.

67%
33%

and

Instructional Design and Organization Teaching Presence(Anderson et al. 2001)
a. Setting the curriculumb. Designing methods
c. Establishing time parameters
d. Utilizing medium effectively/ technical issues
e. Establishing netiquette

Figure 10%

DesignFinally, in terms of the 3rd research question, content analysisof the forum transcripts provided us with the exact break-up

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グローバルな医学者・医師育成のための
英語プレゼンテーション講座
川越栄子**滋慶医療科学大学
orchid-e@kcc.zaq.ne.jp
要旨
科研費補助金による研究テーマ「グローバルな医学者・医師育成のための医学英語教材・プログラム開発」の研究の一環として「英語プレゼンテーション講座」を 2 年間実施した。将来国際学会で発表できる医学者・医師等の数を増やすための試みである。
2019 年度、阪大医学部医学科 5 名、歯学科 2 名、薬学科 1 名対象に「英語プレゼンテーション講座」を 5 日間実施した。2020 年度、神戸市立医療センター中央市民病院研修医 5 名・専攻医 5 名を対象に「英語プレゼンテーショ
ン講座」を 5 日間実施した。
医学に特化した ESP 教育を目指し、医学生だけでなく、研修中の医師を対象にした試みは全国であまり例がない。
このような将来のキャリアに直結する教育法を開発することは、医学生・医師にとって大変有効な方法だということを証明でき、将来グローバルに活躍できる医学者・医師を育てることに大きく貢献できると確信した。

キーワード：ESP、 国際学会、プレゼンテーション、医師、医学生
1.

で充分な英語教育は行われていないことを発見した。
そこで、さまざまな e ラーニング教材（医療英語速読
力向上教材（一分間に読める語彙数測定システムを開発）、医療英語語彙 3000 語（音声付）
・診療・ケア基本
表現計 230・国際学会発表英語基本表現 110（音声付）・
13 診療科英語表現（各 12）学習教材、国際学会研究発
表動画教材等）を開発した。実際にこれらの教材を医学科の学生に試用させたところ、英語力は著しく改善
され、英語学習へのモチベーションも大きくあげることができた。
過去 4 回は｢速読｣「医学英語語彙」「基本診療」「学会基本表現」を自習できる教材であったが、今回新たに受けた科研費により、英語母国語話者を相手に、国際学会の模擬練習のプログラムを開発し、世界を相手に活躍できる医学者・医師を育てることができる教材・教授法を開発した。

はじめに

1.1 日本の臨床研究
日本は基礎研究のレベルは高いが臨床研究では後進国である。一流医学誌への掲載、国際学会での発表件数が世界のなかで少ない。一部のノーベル賞学者のようなトップレベルの研究者を除くと世界への発信が他国と比べて少ない。
1.2 医療の国際貢献
日本の医療の国際貢献が問われている。日本の高い医療技術や医療機器を世界に発信することは、国の重要な施策の一つである。従って世界に通用する医療人の育成は日本にとって重要な課題であり、日本医学会
総会は今まで国際的なテーマをあまり大きく取り上げていなかったが 2019 年度より「グローバル化する日本の医療」を基本的な柱の一つとしている。

3.

1.3 訪日・在留外国人への医療体制
訪日外国人は年々増加し、2019 年は 3,188 万人、在留外国人は 365 万人となっていた。現在は減少しているが、ポストコロナの時代になればまた増えることは確実であり、外国人に対して十分な医療提供を準備しておかなければならない。
2.

グローバルな医学者・医師育成のための英語プレゼンテーション講座

今回の科学研究費補助金による研究テーマ「グローバルな医学者・医師育成のための医学英語教材・プロ
グラム開発」の研究の一環として「英語プレゼンテー
ション講座」を 2019 年度・2020 年度の 2 年間実施した。

英語学習の必要性

上記の状況をふまえ、医学生を育てる際に、言葉の問題をまず克服しなければならない。世界共通語である英語で研究・医療技術を世界に発信し、英語で診療ができる医師を早急に育てなければならない。
筆者は、過去 4 回科学研究費補助金を受け、まず全国の医師 3,000 人の英語使用頻度・英語教育への要望、
全国の医学部の英語教育の実態について調査し、大学1772019 年度
阪大医学部医学科 5 名、歯学科 2 名、薬学科 1 名対象に「英語プレゼンテーション講座」を 5 日間実施した。ベルリッツに内容を依頼し、指導を外国人講師に委託した。ベルリッツは留学前の医師等の指導実績が豊富で、当講座のために、特に医療分野の知識が豊富な講師を選んでもらった。

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

内容は次のとおりである。

研修医・専攻医の場合、実際に国際学会で発表する
機会は学生よりも近い未来にあり、自分が発表する内
容は学生よりも持ち合わせているが、コロナウィルス
感染患者を受け入れている大病院の医師で多忙を極めているため、今回は英語による発表練習の準備は無理であった。

1. Presentation structure
2. The opening
3. The body
4. The closing
5. Vocal communication
6. Emphasizing
7. Non-verbal communication
8. Questions & answers
9. Using the level-down technique
10. Delivering your presentation

4.

この内容に沿って講師が説明をし、実例等を示した
後、受講者が実際に練習をした。各項目の練習後、実際に日常の話題・専門科目で学んだ内容を英語で発表させた。
講座終了後のアンケート調査では、全員が講座は「大変ためになった」「ためになった」、医学英語学習へのモチベーションが「大変高まった」「高まった」、「講座
を継続して続けてほしい」と回答した。受講後の変化
は「英語を勉強しようと思った」「留学がしたくなった」「海外旅行がしたくなった」等であった。
2020 年度
神戸市立医療センター中央市民病院（厚生労働省臨床研修指定病院）の研修医（医師国家試験合格後 2 年間の初期臨床研修中）5 名・専攻医（初期臨床研修後 3
年間専門医研修中）5 名を対象に「英語プレゼンテーシ
ョン講座」を 5 日間実施した。同病院の研修医・専攻
医は東大、京大、阪大、神大、北大等の医学科卒業生が多く、2019 年度に対象にした学生よりも国際学会で発表する可能性が高いグループである。
2019 年度同様ベルリッツに内容を依頼し、指導を外国人講師に委託した。2019 年度の講座内容に必要な変更を加え、さらに学会懇親会で使用できる表現練習も追加し、下記のような内容にした。なお 2020 年度は、新型コロナウィルス感染防止のため zoom を使ったオ
ンライン講座形式をとった。

1 日目
2 日目
3 日目
4 日目
5 日目

Presentation/The Opening
Presentation/The Body
Presentation/Supporting and Closing
Presentation/Q&A
Special lesson – Making small talkまとめ

医学生と研修医・専攻医を対象に「英語プレゼンテーション講座」を実施した。
医学に特化した ESP 教育を目指し、医学生だけでな
く、研修中の医師を対象にした試みは全国であまり例がない。このような将来のキャリアに直結する教育法を開発することは、医学生・医師にとって大変有効な方法だということを証明でき、日本にとって重要な課題である「世界に通用する医療人の育成」に貢献できると確信している。
今回は各 5 日間のみであったが、学生・医師の希望にもあるように今回の試みを継続して続け、将来国際学会で発表できる医師・医学者を増やすための教育の質をさらに上げて、全国の医学部に教育法を提言した
いと考える。
参考文献
Chiang C. Manfred. (2004). Presentation Techniques for theInternational Medical Conference. Medical View
Langham C.S. (2010) . English for Oral and Poster Presentations.
Ishiyaku Publishers, Inc.
野口ジュディー. (2012). 『理系英語のプレゼンテーション』.
アルク.
佐藤雅昭. (2015). 『国際学会発表 世界に伝わる情報発信術
指南 流れがわかる英語プレゼンテーション』. メジカルビュー社.
高 橋 希 人 (2011) . 「 世 界 か ら み た 日 本 の 臨 床 研 究 」 .
『medicina』, 48 巻 5 号.
高鳥登志郎. (2008). 「わが国における臨床医学研究の現状と国際比較」. 『政策研ニュース』, No.25, pp 18-23.
植村 研一. (2005) 『医学・生物学研究者のためのうまい研究
発表のコツ』. メジカルビュー社.

(本研究は、科学研究費補助金基盤研究(C)（一般）課
題番号 1 9 K 1 0 5 2 4 「グローバルな医学者・医師

この内容に沿って講師が説明をし、実例等を示した
後、受講者が実際に練習をした。現役医師で実際の医療内容を発表する準備の時間はなく、各項目の練習のみにとどまった。
講座終了後のアンケート回答者全員が「大変ためになった」「ためになった」と答えた。受講後の国際学会へのモチベーションの高まりについては、非常によく英語の勉強になった一方で、自分の英語のできなさに落胆したためモチベーションがあまり高まらなかった
医師の意見が目立った。受講後の変化は、「国際学会に今後も出席しようと思った」「自分の英語力の足りなさに気づいた」「自分で英語をもっと勉強しようと思った」「語学学校に通いたくなった」等であった。
178

育成のための医学英語教材・教育プログラム開発」(2019-2021) 研究代表者 川越栄子 による。
）

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

大学英語授業における機械翻訳の活用―実践的英語使用者としての自律学習者育成に向けてー
幸重美津子* 蔦田和美***学習院大学
mikorindburg@gmail.com**関西外国語大学短期大学部
kazumitsutada@gmail.com
要旨
教育現場における機械翻訳（machine translation: MT）の導入については議論のあるところである。しかしながら英語教育において ICT（Information and Communication Technology）
活用が奨励される現在、MT の実態および可能性についての知識を有し、自らの英語発信において MT 使用の選択ができるスキル（MT literacy）を習得することには一定の意義があると考える。MT 活用には様々な目的がある中で、本発表ではライティングに焦点を当て、参加者自身の思考表出の一助としての MT 導入の実践例を紹介し、参加者の反応を報告する。1 例目では制限言語（controlled language）の導入、pre-edit や post-edit などを経て課題を提出させた結果、学習者は利便性よりも MT による学習効果を認識した。また 2 例
目では、学生が自らの思考の表出精度について MT の可能性をあらためて評価をし、MT
literacy の重要性を認識するに至った。MT 導入についてはまだ実践例の報告も非常に限定されているが、本発表の導入例を通じて、今後の授業における MT 活用の議論が深まることを期待する。
キーワード：ニューラル機械翻訳、L1 思考力、MT リテラシー、モチベーション、自律性

1.

各ユニットの最後にある‛Discussion Questions’に答える形での意見発表の原稿作成に MT を使用させた。ラ
イティング課題として翌週に提出するため、授業外でのタスクとなる MT には、Google 翻訳を選択しダウンロードさせた。これは音声による入力や翻訳結果の発音の確認を自分で行うことが可能だからである。MT 使
用の前に制限言語の概念（Kuhn, 2014）を導入したのち、母語の自然な文章と pre-edit 後の文章の変換結果を分析させて、pre-edit や post-edit（宮田・藤田，2017）の必要性を体験させた。手順は以下の通りである（図 1，2）。

はじめに文科省は、ICT を活用した意見交換・発表等を奨励しており、Society 5.0 への時代の変化を乗り越えるためには、今後、大学英語教育においても、より先進的な取り組みが必要となるだろう。ニューラルネットワークに基づく MT の性能向上とともに、近年の大学生は翻訳ソフトを利用してリーディングやライティングの授業に臨む場合がある。このような実態にどう対応するかには様々な意見があろうが、意見交換の場などでは MTを積極的に使用することでディベートの英文を質量ともに向上させ、重点を作文指導からスピーチ指導に移すこともできる。少なくとも、時代とともに英語学習の目的そのものを再設定する必要があると考える。ICT に対して親近感を持つ現代の若者の学習モチベーション
を高め、英語による発信をサポートしながら積極的に
コミュニケーションを図ろうとする態度、自律した英語ユーザーの育成を意図するものである。

2. 授業実践例１
2.1 参加者
私立大学法学部１年生（25 名）の半期必修リーディ
ング授業の学生で、特に英語に対する関心の高い学生の集まりではないと考える。MT の使用経験がある学生も散見されたが、英語の授業の取り組みにおいては使用は禁止されているものと感じていた学生が多かった。
2.2 授業実践
リーディング教材としては意見の構築に積極的な
Reading Pass 2（南雲堂）を採用した。毎回本文のパラグラフやエッセイの構造、topic sentence や main idea を確認し、のちのライティング課題への基礎堅めをした。
179

図1
pre-edit と post-edit
pre-edit① 各文に主語や述語を入れ、なるべく単文化する。
② 接続詞や discourse marker で文脈を明確にする③ 省略やあいまいな表現を避け、修飾関係を明確にする
post-edit① 代名詞は正しく呼応しているか② 修飾関係は適切であるか③ 一括変換と 1 文ずつの変換を比較する
図2
MT 使用の手順① 母語で論旨明快な意見を構築する② pre-edit③ MT④ post-edit⑤ back translation

MT の変換は一瞬で終わるため、一括変換で意図した意味の英文にならなかった場合には 1 文ずつ変換するなど、post-edit の際も学生は熱心に作業に取り組んだよThe JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)うである。最後に back translation を行い、意図した意味になるかを確認し、必要なら再度 pre-edit からやり直すよう指導した。
2.3 結果一般にハードルの高いライティング課題に対して、100％の学生が期限内に毎週の課題を提出した。終了後に行った質問紙調査（無記名）では、MT の利便性（24％）
よりも、語彙・文法や内容のある発信をする力（40％）
といった学習効果を認識する学生が多数を占めた。中でも、「単語や語句の正しい使い方を知れて表現の幅が広がった」や「難しい内容でも妥協せずに自分で書く自信がついた」という意見が多くみられた。
さらにテキストマイニング（樋口, 2014）によって自由記述欄のコメントを共起ネットワークで示した結果、自分で英語を発信することに自信がつき、前向きな姿
勢になった様子が見受けられた。
3. 授業実践例２
3.1 参加者
本授業の対象学生は、私立大学 3 回生、4 回生（計 35名）で、選択科目として「翻訳演習」の授業を受講している者である。そのことから、英語はもとより翻訳に対する関心は比較的高い学生の集まりであると考える。

3.3 結果MT の精度評価では、全体的に 1 回目ですでに予想以上に精度評価が高いことが示された（73.14％）。しかしその後の和文の pre-edit 後にはさらに向上が見られた（85.43％）。また 1 回目の MT 精度の高さから、pre-edit
に対する動機づけも高まったように思われた。
図 3 の⑨における MT 活用報告発表では、MT 実践での気づきに基づいて様々な pre-edit のルールが発表された。それらの多くは、一般的に承知されているルールとほぼ一致するものであった。しかし、MT に向き合う上で、試行錯誤に基づいて自らのルール作成を行ったことには意義があると考える。また発表では、post-edit における自己英語力の重要性、および back translation の有用性にも言及する学生が多くみられた。
発表後には、先行研究を基に pre-edit の有効性や多様性に関して（宮田・藤田，2017）理解を深めるとともに、back translation（宮部・星野・重信，2007）や post-edit の種類および求められるスキル（Yamada, 2021）などについても解説を行うことで学生の MT 活用への関心を高め、選択の可能性を広げる機会とした。
4.

3.2 授業実践
単学期において通常の英日および日英の「翻訳」授業を行った後、後半の 4 回の授業で MT 実践を行った。
初回に与えられたテーマで和文エッセイを書き、それを MT にかけたものを様々な角度から精査することを主な目的とした。手順は下記のとおりである（図 3）。
まず最初に、MT の素材として自ら和文エッセイの課題を課した目的は、MT の精度を評価する上で、自分の意見を基にするほうが、意図の伝達度合いが図りやすいと考えたことによる。テーマは、当該授業を通じて実施してきた「英文記事を活用した文法学習」についての意見とした。和文エッセイを MT にかけて一回目の精度評価をしたうえで、和文エッセイの pre-edit に取り組ませたのちに 2 回目の MT にかけ、再度精度評価を行わせた。その後、2 回目の MT 出力文を自分の英語力でpost-edit させ、最後に英日の back translation を施行して最初の和文エッセイと比較させた。そして最終日には、
和文の pre-edit をする際に有用であると認識したルールをまとめて、個々に発表をさせた。
図3
MT 授業実践の流れ① 和文エッセイ （500 語程度）
テーマ：英文記事を活用した文法学習② MT1 回目
③ 内容の伝達度評価％（1 回目）④ 和文エッセイの pre-edit⑤ MT2 回目
⑥ 内容の伝達度評価％（2 回目）⑦ MT2 回目の post-edit⑧ Back translation⑨ MT2 回目の結果に基づいて、和文エッセイの preedit についてのルール作成、発表

180

まとめ
実践 1 例目における学習者のパフォーマンスは MTの使用がサポートや誘因となり、提出物や評価にたどり着くための手段となったと考えられる。また難しい
内容の発信を諦めていた学生も、MT の使用で積極的な発信に向けてのモチベーションの向上や自律性の育成につながったように思われる。
実践 2 例目では、和文エッセイの作成から post-edit、
post-edit までの一連のプロセスを体験させたが、学生は課題に対して常時高い動機を維持しているようであった。日常においてこれまでも MT 使用体験を持つ学生もいたが、授業の一環として MT の認識度を高めることで今後の状況の応じた積極的活用への一つのステップとなったと思われる。
今後、大学および社会における英語使用活動において、MT 使用の選択は自由であるものの、使用できるスキル（MT literacy）を自らのツールとして構築しておくことは有益であろうと考える。目的に応じて適切に MTを活用することで、学生の英語使用者としての活動の幅が広がることを願いたい。

参考文献
樋口耕一. (2014). 『社会調査のための軽量テキスト分析』ナ
カニシヤ出版．
Kuhn, T. (2014). A Survey and Classification of Controlled
Natural Languages. Computational Linguistics. 40(1). 122-123.
宮部真衣・吉野孝・重信智宏. (2007).「折り返し翻訳を用いた
翻訳リペアの効果」『. 電子情報通信学会論文誌』，12，31413150.
宮田玲・藤田篤.(2017).「機械翻訳向けプリエディットの有効性と多様性の調査」.『通訳翻訳研究への招待』，18，53-72.
Yamada, M. (2021). Post-editing and a sustainable future fortranslations. Journal of foreign language studies. 24, 83-105.

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

持続可能な開発目標（SDGｓ）の課題を活用する説得力のある英文ライティングを目指した授業
中谷安男
法政大学
nakatanil@hosei.ac.jp
要旨 この発表では、持続可能な開発目標（SDGｓ）の課題を活用する説得力のある英文ラ
イティングを目指した授業に関する実践的な取組みを報告する。SDGs 理解のための適切な教材選び、タスクの作り方、具体的なライティング指導法について考察を行う。
キーワード：SDGｓ ライティング指導 教材選択 タスク作成
1. はじめに⑤ロンドン渋滞税やパークアンドライドの解決策を認
識⑦課題の解決策のパラグラフをテンプレートに沿い執筆⑧ペアで確認しコメントをもらい再度書き直し⑨指導者が CEFR 準拠の評価基準に基づきフィードバック

英語ライティング授業の重要な目標は，課題を認識し解決策を探求し，その成果を客観的に伝える文章力の構築である（中谷、2016, 2020）。幸い 2015 年に国連 で 持 続 可 能 な 開 発 目 標 ： SDGs (Sustainable
Development Goals) が採択され，国際社会の共通課題
として 17 の解決目標と具体的ゴールが整理された（Elkington, 1994)。今や各国の政府と同様，代表的な企業もこの目標を取り入れ，いかに社会貢献を行うべ
きか明示している(Jakki and Sanjit, 2009)。
これらは，学習者の解決課題を提示するのに最適である(Sachs
and Ki-moon, 2015)。しかし英語教育では，様々な問題から適格に課題を選び，体系的に指導する方法はまだ確立されていない。この点に注目し，本発表では SDGsの中から適切な課題を選びタスクを構築し，指導を行った取り組みを報告する(Nakatani, 2020)。授業のテ―マとして SDGs 11 の都市問題を取り扱い，英文で説得力のあるパラグラフの構築を学習目標とした。具体的には，下記の項目で学習を進めた。この際，明確なトピ
ック文を提示し，その内容を適切に補完し，効果的に発展させるサポート文の構築を目指した。

3.

適切な興味深いテーマで課題認識を深め，積極的にタスクに取り組めた。意見をまとめるテンプレートの提示により，サポート文の効果的練習が可能となった。
ペアの確認や，書き直し，有効な評価基準の活用で正確な英文への認識が高まった。

4.

今後の示唆

今回の実践報告などを基にどのようなカリキュラム
や教材を活用し英語科目において SDGｓの指導を行えばよいのか具体的な提案も行いたい。

2. 対象者及び指導の手順
2.1

考察

参考文献

対象者
経済学部 2 年生，24 名参加

Elkington, J. (1994). Towards the Sustainable
Corporation: Win-Win-Win Business Strategies for
Sustainable Development. California Management
Review, 36, 90-100.
Jakki J. M., and Sanjit S. (2009). Marketing of HighTechnology Products and Innovations (3rd Edition) .
Pearson.
Nakatani, Y.(2020). Academic Writing Strategies: Focus on
Global Issues for Sustainable Development Goals.
Kinseido.
Sachs, J.D., and Ban Ki-moon, B. (2015).The Age of
Sustainable Development. Columbia University Press.
中谷安男（2016）『大学生のためのアカデミック英文ライティング』 大修館書店.
中谷安男（2016）『経済学・経営学のための 英語論文の書き方：アクセプトされる ポイントと戦略』中央経済出版社

2.2

授業目標
SDGs 11 の都市の課題を認識し解決策を英文でパラグラフにまとめる。この際，主張に説得力のあるサポ
ート文が書けるようになる
2.3 指導手順①事前活動として都市の交通渋滞に関するグループディスカッション
②3 種類のパターンのサポート文の作り方を学び，例文で演習③交通渋滞と大気汚染に関するモデル文によるインプット④3 種類のサポート文を③のパラグラフで確認

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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

大学教養教育英語科目における英語ポートフォリオの導入―自己調整学習の観点から―
立田夏子*
*弘前大学
tatsuta@hirosaki-u.ac.jp
要旨
本研究の目的は、大学教養教育英語科目にて活用した英語ポートフォリオ（My English
Portfolio）の有効性を自己調整学習の観点から検証することである。
『欧州言語ポートフォリオ』
を基に My English Portfolio を作成し、活用後にリフレクション活動を 2016 年度から 5 年間実施した。リフレクション活動の結果から、各年度前期末において英語能力の自己評価と英語学
習へのモチベーションの向上が既に見られ、それは後期末でも維持されること、1 年を通して教養教育英語科目にて My English Portfolio を活用することへの好意的反応があること、そして、
My English Portfolio によって学生の英語の自己調整学習促進される可能性があることが明らかになった。2018 年度に活用した My English Portfolio は、教養教育英語科目にて有効活用される可能性が高いことが示唆されたため、2020 年度にこの My English Portfolio を取り入れたガイドブックを作成し、大学 4 年間を通して学生が My English Portfolio を活用することが可能となった。
キーワード：大学教養教育英語科目、英語ポートフォリオ、自己調整学習1.

背景
大学における英語の授業には、様々な言語や文化に触れ、新しい言語を自律的に学習し、異文化理解を深めようとする生涯学習としての言語学習につながる資質育成が求められる (日本学術会議, 2012)。本研究では、
この「自律的な英語学習」を育むことを目的に作成し、大学教養教育英語科目にて活用した英語ポートフォリ
オ（My English Portfolio; MEP）の有効性を、目標を達成するための学習者の能動的な一連の学習プロセスである「自己調整学習」の観点から検証する。
日本の大学における外国語ポートフォリオの活用に関して、峯石 (2002) は英語のリーディングとライティ
ングの授業、鷲巣 (2009) は大学の外国語カリキュラム、
清田 (2012) は英語リメディアル教育にそれぞれポー
トフォリオを活用し、その有効性を報告した。これらは紙上のポートフォリオであるが、e ポートフォリオの活用としては、田中ら (2014) による「Lexinote」や宮崎(2013) による「Mahara」が挙げられる。

2.

My English Portfolio
MEP は『欧州言語ポートフォリオ』を基に作成した。
『欧州言語ポートフォリオ』は、複言語主義と複文化主義の現実化に向け、CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) を実現するための個人的な評価ツールとして開発された。
MEP は 3 つのパート（5 項目）から構成される。
2.1 Language Passport
言語運用能力と言語学習経験を証明するパスポート的な役割を担い、報告的機能を持つ:（a）Language Skills
Profile（英語運用能力を自己評価表に従って定期的に自己評価する（2016 年度〜2017 年度前期: CEFR-J (投野,
2013); 2017 年度後期〜: CEFR）;（b）Language History（これまで、英語と日本語以外の何語を・いつ・どこで・どのように学習してきたかについて記入する）
182

2.2 Language Biography
内省を通して言語学習経験を記録し、それを基に今後の学計画を立て、その実行に対しての自己評価を提示するダイアリー的な役割を担い、教育的機能を持つ:（a）Language Biography（それまでの英語学習を振り返りながら、英語学習開始年齢、英語を使用する国の在住・旅行・留学についての情報、授業以外で定期的に英語を使用する機会についての情報、外部試験結果を記入する）;（b）“I CAN” List（英語を使って成し遂げたい
目標（成し遂げたい時期・内容）を具体的に書き、成し遂げたら日付を記入する）
2.3 Dossier
授業で配布された資料や外部試験のスコア表等、英語学習の記録となるすべての資料を保管する。
3.

自己調整学習Zimmerman (1986) は、自己調整学習を「学習者が、
メタ認知、動機づけ、行動において、自分自身の学習過程に能動的に関与していること」と定義している。
Cyclical Phases Model (Zimmerman & Moylan, 2009) は、
学習者の学習プロセスとして、「予見段階」「遂行段階」「自己内省段階」の 3 段階を提示し、学習者がこの 3 段
階を循環的な学習サイクルとして成立させることが自己 調 整学 習の 達成 には 重要 であ ると 説い た。 伊藤(2009) は、自己調整学習の成立には動機づけと「学習方略」が重要な役割を果たすと報告した。立田 (2018) は、
Cyclical Phases Model の自己内省段階と予見段階の間に、学習者が自分の学習達成状況・学習方略を他の人と報告し合う「共有活動」を行う「相互内省段階」を追加し、「予見段階」「遂行段階」「自己内省段階」「相互内省段階」の 4 段階を提案した。

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)の流れより有意に多く（2019 年度後期: χ2 (2) = 18.11, p< .001）、「予見段階」から「遂行段階」へのプロセスにおける教員のサポートの必要性が示唆された。

4. 方法
4.1 手続き
MEP を 2015 年に作成し、2016 年度から担当クラス
にて自己調整学習（2016 年度: 3 段階 (Zimmerman &Moylan, 2009); 2017 年度〜: 4 段階 (立田, 2018)）に基づいて活用した。年度末に下記調査項目 1）の結果に基づいて MEP に改善を加え、次年度にその改善した MEPを活用し、学期末にリフレクション活動を実施するというサイクルを 5 年間繰り返した。

6.

まとめ・今後の課題
2018 年度に活用した MEP は、報告的機能と教育的機能を備え、教養教育英語科目にて有効活用される可能性が高いことが示唆されたため、2020 年度にこの MEPを取り入れた「弘前大学教養教育英語科目 学習ガイ
ドブック」(立田, 2020) を作成し、大学 4 年間を通して学生が MEP を活用することが可能となった。今後の課題としては、記述難易度が高い“I Can” List をいくつかの List を提示してそこから学生が好きな List を選ぶ方法をとるスタイルを検討することである。また、「予見段階」から「遂行段階」へのプロセスにおける教員のサ
ポートの必要性が示唆されたため、学生の MEP 活用を促すような工夫やシステム構築も必要である。現在は、
大学戦略室と連携して、多言語にも対応可能なポート
フォリオの作成、e ポートフォリオの構築、そしてポー
トフォリオの有効活用方法を検討中である。

4.2 対象者
大学教養教育英語科目受講者 1 年次日本人学生: 中級クラス（2016 年度前期 n = 124, 後期 n = 123; 2017 年度前期 n = 103, 後期 n = 100; 2018 年度前期 n = 123, 後
期 n = 77; 2019 年度前期 n = 119, 後期 n = 91）; 初級ク
ラス（2020 年度前期 n = 47, 後期 n = 73）（クラスは基本的に 1 年間同じメンバー）
4.3 調査項目
1) MEP の各項目についての記述の難易度: 1 = とても
簡単〜4 = とても難しい
2) 英語能力の自己評価の変化: 1 = とても下がった〜
5 = とても上がった
3) 教養教育英語科目にて MEP を活用することへの好意: 1 = とても持てる〜4 = 全く持てない4) 英語学習へのモチベーションの変化: 1 = とても下がった〜5 = とても上がった
5) （2019 年度・2020 年度後期）立田 (2018) の自己調整学習における 4 段階の継続的な循環への主観的達成感: ある・なし（困難なプロセス）

謝辞
本研究は、JSPS 科研費 19K00755 の助成を受けたものである。
参考文献
Council of Europe. (2001). Common European framework ofreference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment.
Cambridge University Press.
伊藤崇達. (2009).『自己調整学習の成立過程：学習方略と動機づけの役割』. 北大路書房.
清田洋一. (2012).「英語レメデイアル教育におけるポートフォ
リオの活用―英語学習における自立性の向上―」『. 明星大
学研究紀要―教育学部』, 2, 1–28.
峯石緑. (2002).『大学英語教育における教授手段としてのポー
トフォリオに関する研究』. 渓水社.
宮崎誠. (2013).「グローバル人材育成を支援する e ポートフォ
リオシステムの構築」. 情報メディア教育研究センターシンポジウム 2013, 2013 年 10 月 12 日.
日本学術会議. (2012).『大学教育の分野別保証のための教育課
程編成上の参照基準 言語・文学分野』. 大学教育の分野別
質保証推進委員会 言語・文学分野の参照基準検討分科会.
田中洋也・米坂ズザンヌ・岩崎まさみ・上野之江. (2014).「電子ポートフォリオによる持続可能な英語語彙学習支援」.
『北海学園大学学園論集』, 162, 73–85.
立田夏子. (2018).「ポートフォリオを用いた自律学習の検証：
自己調整学習の観点から」『. 弘前大学教養教育開発実践ジ
ャーナル』, 2, 25–35.
立田夏子. (2020b).『弘前大学教養教育英語科目学習ガイドブック』. 横内裕一郎 (編). 金星堂.
投野由紀夫 (編). (2013).『CAN-DO リスト作成・活用 英語到
達度指標 CEFR-J ガイドブック（CD-ROM 付き）
』. 大修
館書店.
鷲巣由美子. (2009).「国士舘大学における到達レベルと外国語
ポートフォリオ―ヨーロッパの言語共通参照枠（CEFR）とポートフォリオ（ELP）を参考にして」.『外国語外国文化研究』, 19, 1–28.
Zimmerman, B. J. (1986). Becoming a self-regulated learner: which
are the key subprocesses? Contemporary Educational
Psychology, 11(4), 307–13.
Zimmerman, B. J., & Moylan, A. R. (2009). Self-regulation: where
metacognition and motivation intersect. In D. J. Hacker, D. J.
Dunlosky, & A. C. Grasser (Eds.), Handbook of Metacognitionin Education (pp. 299–315). Routledge.

5. 結果・考察
5.1 調査項目 1)
フリードマンの検定の結果、Language Skills Profile の難易度が 2016 年度前期から 2017 年度後期にかけて“ICAN” List 以外の他の項目より有意に高かった（p< .001）。2017 年度後期に自己評価表の使用方法を変更したところ、2018 年度前期に難易度が有意に下がり（p< .001）、2018 年度前期以降は“I CAN” List 以外の他の項目と有意差がなくなった。“I CAN” List の難易度は他の項目より有意に高い状態が続いており（p < .001）、変
更を加える必要がある。
5.2 調査項目 2) 3) 4)
クラスカル・ウォリスの H 検定の結果、各項目において各年度前期末と後期末に有意差はなく、前期末において英語能力の自己評価と英語学習へのモチベーシ
ョンの向上が既に見られ、それは後期末でも維持されていた。また、1 年を通して教養教育英語科目にて MEPを活用することへの好意的反応があった。
5.3 調査項目 5)「ある」が「ない」の人数より有意に
χ2 検定の結果、多く [2019 年度後期: χ2 (1) = 30.87, p < .001; 2020 年度後
期: χ2 (1) = 27.74, p < .001]、MEP によって学生の自己調整学習が促進される可能性があることが明らかになった。
「ない」と回答した場合、「予見段階」から「遂行段階」へ流れが困難であると回答した人数が他の段階へ
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中学生の英文創出につながる動詞指導―カタカナ動詞がもつ意味の応用可能性の調査を通して―
川添明子
長崎大学教育学部附属中学校
t.9e6f4g@outlook.jp
要旨
本研究は、日本語のカタカナ動詞（例：チェックする）と英語の動詞（例：check）との意味的な対応の提示が、中学生の英文創出の指導において効果をもたらすかどうかを調査するものである。星野・清水（2019）は、語彙ごとの日本語と英語の語義の比較分析を通して、小学校英語での語彙指導におけるカタカナ語の有用性と将来性を指摘している。この説を参考に、本調
査では中学生を対象に、英文における動詞の選択補充テストを実施し、生徒にとって未習の英語の動詞 10 語を適切に選択する上で、カタカナ動詞の知識が有用かどうかを検証した。出題用の英文には、動詞 1 語につき 6 用例ずつの計 60 問を作成した。各動詞の得点について TukeyKramer の HSD 検定を行った結果、その平均の有意差から 7 語において、当該カタカナ動詞がもつ意味を応用する指導が、中学生の英文創出に一定の効果をあげる可能性が明らかになった。
キーワード：語彙指導

カタカナ動詞研究の目的
日本の英語教育における課題として、文部科学省は「発信力の育成」を挙げている。その根拠の一つに、同省が全国の中学 3 年生を対象に実施した「全国学力・学習状況調査（2019）」の結果がある。英語 4 技能それぞれの問題に関する平均正答率は、「読む」が 56.2%、「聞く」が 68.3%であったのに対し、「書く」は 46.4%、「話す」は 30.8%と低く、同省は「基本的な語を活用した表現ができていなかった」と分析している。このことから、中学生の英文創出につながるような語彙の指導、とりわけ英文の義務的要素である動詞の指導のあり方の検討が求められているといっても過言ではない。
そこで本研究では、日本語のカタカナ動詞（例：チェックする）と英語の動詞（例：check）との意味的な対応の提示が、中学生の英文創出の指導において効果をもたらすかどうかを調査することとした。カタカナ動詞とは、英語由来の外来語（カタカナ表記）に「する」をつけて動詞化したサ変動詞のことを指す。この調査は、日本人が日常的に用いているカタカナ動詞の知識を足掛かりに、相当する英語の動詞の意味・用法の円滑な理解につなげられないかを探る取組である。
カタカナ語の意味が英語の語彙の意味の理解にもたらす効果を検証した先行研究には、高良（2017）や福田（2019）、そして星野・清水（2019）によるものがある。
福田（2019）は、児童の英語の名詞の意味の理解におけるカタカナ英語の効果について「カタカナ英語の元となる英語表現の多くが、実際に英語でよく用いられているので、カタカナ英語の学習は将来の英語学習にとって有用である。」との見解を示している。また、星野・
清水（2019）は、語彙（動詞を含む）ごとの日本語と英語の語義の比較分析を通して、カタカナ語の意味の活用が児童のよりよい英語の語彙習得につながる可能性を指摘している。しかしながら、これら先行研究のほとんどは小学校英語教育における取組である。よって本研究では、中学校において、カタカナ動詞がもつ意味の
1.

184

応用が、生徒のよりよい英語の動詞の意味・用法の理解につながる可能性について検証した。この研究は、新学習指導要領（2016）の下、2021 年度より指導語彙数が従来の 1200 語から 1600 語～1800 語へと増加する状況にある中学校において、生徒の負担軽減を目指す意味
でも、意義ある取組になると思われる。
研究方法
本調査では、進級直後（5 月）の中学 2 年生 34 名を対象に、英文における動詞の選択補充テストを実施した。このテストは、日本語の意味に合うよう、英文の空所に入る動詞を語群から選ぶ形式で、適切な動詞を選択する上でカタカナ動詞の知識が有用かどうかを調査するものである。なお、調査対象とする英語の動詞は、
教科書 NEW HORIZON（2016）掲載の動詞（219 語）の中から、生徒にとって未習のもので、かつカタカナ動詞（48 語）として日本人による使用頻度の高いもの（例：check「チェックする」）を 10 語抽出した。また、出題用の英文には Oxford Advanced Learners’Dictionary（2015）とジーニアス英和辞典（2014）をもとに、動詞 1 語につき、語義の出現（動詞の中心的な意味から周辺的な意味まで）の順に 6 用例（SVO 構造で統一）を作成した。
調査の意図が生徒に伝わらないよう、テストはこれら
全 60 問を順不同にかき混ぜる形式とした。
2.

結果と考察
本テストの実施後、得られた各動詞の得点について、一元配置分散分析（p<.0001*）を経た多重比較（TukeyKramer の HSD 検定）を行った（図 1 を参照）
。その結
果、動詞 10 語は、その平均の有意差から、カタカナ動詞がもつ意味の応用効果における有意性が認められるグループ（change、check、cut、miss、catch、share、set：
以下、「第 1 群」とする）とそれ以外（save、pass、cover：
以下、「第 2 群」とする）に分類されることが明らかとなった。
3.

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図1

る指導により、用法の理解を十分に補えるものと言える。しかしながら、第 2 群の save、pass、cover に関しては、すべての用例において正答率が低く、規則性のない変動を示した。この結果は、当該動詞においては、カタカナ動詞と英語の動詞との間での意味の差が大きい
ために、ほぼ全ての用法の理解にもつながらなかったものと解釈できる。よって、この 3 語の今後の指導としては、6 用例すべてを生徒に提示することで、英語の動詞がもつ中核的な意味をとらえさせる取組が必要であると思われる。

被験者（n=34）による動詞（10 語）の選択補充テストの結果

結論
本研究では、日本語のカタカナ動詞と英語の動詞との意味的な対応の提示が、中学生の英文創出の指導において効果をもたらすかどうかを調査した。英語の動詞 10 語について分析を行った結果、change、check、cut、
miss、catch、share、set の 7 語においては、当該カタカ
ナ動詞がもつ意味を応用する指導が、中学生の英文創出に一定の効果をあげる可能性が明らかになった。さらに、この 7 語については、生徒のカタカナ動詞の知識
のみにより、またはその知識に特定の用法の理解を補う指導を付加することにより、当該英語の動詞の意味・用法の円滑な理解につながることも明らかとなった。
このようなカタカナ動詞の知識を活かす指導は、教師が授業において当該英語の動詞の指導に費やす時間を最小限に留め、そこから生まれる余剰時間を他の語彙の指導に充てることが可能となるという点でも効率的である。
なお、テストの被験者による意識調査においては、普段、日常的に使っているカタカナ動詞を、英文の動詞として活用するという視点に気づかされたことが有意義だったという感想を多く得られた。今後も、残るカタカ
ナ動詞 38 語について同様の調査を継続し、指導に活かしていけるようにしたい。
4.

英語の動詞としての意味・用法の理解度が高かった
第 1 群の 7 語は、生徒が本来有するカタカナ動詞がもつ意味の応用が可能な動詞であると考えられる。この結果から、教師は、今後の英語の授業における当該動詞の指導を簡略化することが可能になると言える。しかしながら、同じ第 1 群の動詞であっても、用例別の正答率の推移においては異なる傾向が観察された。よって、授業における必要な補充指導のあり方を見出すため、7語の動詞について、その傾向ごとに 3 つのタイプに分類し、考察を行うこととした。
第 1 群の change、check、share（以下、「タイプ 1」とする）は、すべての用例において正答率が高かったことから、たとえ未習の動詞であっても、生徒はその意味・用法を正しく理解できている状態にあることが明らかとなった。次に、cut、catch（以下、「タイプ 2」とする）
は、後半の 2 つの用例のみ正答率が低かったことから、
生徒は動詞の中心的意味は理解できている状態にある
ものの、周辺的意味は（カタカナ動詞の知識の効果が及ばずに）理解できていない状態にあることがわかった（図 2「動詞 cut の用例別正答率」を参照）。今後の指導において、周辺的意味（心理や概念などの抽象的内容）を表す 2 用例を生徒に提示し、当該動詞がもつ意味合
いの幅に気づかせることにより、用法の理解に十分つなげられるものと思われる。
図2

被験者（n=34）による動詞 cut の用例別正答率
cutの用例別正答率
100
正 80
答
率 60
（ 40
％ 20
）
0
①I cut ②I cut a ③I cut ④I cut ⑤I cut ⑥I cut
my arm. tomato. my hair. my nail. taxes. costs.
用 例

また、miss、set（以下、「タイプ 3」とする）は、タイ
プ 2 の特徴に加え、中間部分にあたる 1 用例に正答率の低下が見られた。これについても、その用例を提示す
185

参考文献
笠島準一他. (2016). NEW HORIZON English Course 1. 東京書籍.
笠島準一他. (2016). NEW HORIZON English Course 2. 東京書籍.
笠島準一他. (2016). NEW HORIZON English Course 3. 東京書籍.
福田稔. (2019).「小学校英語教育におけるカタカナ英語について」.『宮崎公立大学人文学部紀要』, 第 26 巻第 1 号,
249-260.
星野 由子・清水遥. (2019).「小学校外国語・外国語活動で扱われるカタカナ語―日本語と英語の語義の比較分析を通して―」.『小学校英語教育学会誌』, 19 巻 01 号, 117-129.
南出康世. (2014).『ジーニアス英和辞典 (第 5 版)』. 大修館
書店.
文部科学省. (2016).『中学校学習指導要領解説 (平成 29 年度
告示) 外国語編』. 開隆館出版販売.
文部科学省・国立教育政策研究所. (2019).『令和元年度 全
国学力・学習状況調査報告書』.
Oxford University Press. (2015). Oxford Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary. 旺文社.
髙良宣孝. (2017).「カタカナ英語を利用した英語の授業―世界
諸英語 (World Englishes) の観点からの英語教育」.『琉球大 学 大 学 院 教 育 学 研 究 科 紀 要 』 , 1 巻 , 221-228.
http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12000/36609

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

日本人大学生における一貫性・結束性判断と英文読解の関係
藤田賢**愛知学院大学
kfujita@dpc.agu.ac.jp
要旨
本研究の目的は、英文読解力、語彙力、文法構文力、英語と日本語での一貫性・結束性判断の関係を調べることであった。日本人大学生 100 名 (N = 92) を参加者として、英日の一貫性・結束性判断課題 (CCJT) の反応時間と正確さが測定された。英文読解力、語彙力、文法構文力の測定は、標準テスト VELC Test （金星堂）を使用した。相関分析の結果、英日の CCJT の反応
時間の相関は r = .42 (p <.01)、正確さは r = .58 (p <.01) であった。英文読解力を従属変数とした重回帰分析の結果、語彙力 (β = .27, p <.001) 、文法構文力 (β = .57, p <.001)、英 CCJT の反応時間 (β = -.16, p =.016)、英 CCJT の正確さ (β = .17, p =.031) の影響が有意であった。日 CCJT
は、反応時間も、正確さも有意な影響は及ぼさなかった。以上の結果から、日本語の一貫性・結束性判断は、英語の一貫性・結束性判断に間接的な影響があり、英語の一貫性・結束性判断
は、語彙力や文法構文力とともに英文読解に直接的影響を及ぼすことが明らかになった。
キーワード：一貫性・結束性、判断課題、英文読解
はじめに
リーディングは、上位レベル処理と下位レベル処理の相互作用として把握され、様々なレベルのコンポー
ネントスキルを駆使して成り立つ認知的活動である。
さらに、第二言語リーディングは、母語でのリーディン
グ力の転移の影響も受ける複合的な能力でもある。
本研究では、日本人大学生の英文読解のコンポーネ
ントスキルとして、語彙力、文法構文力、英語と日本語での一貫性・結束性判断力を設定し、これらのコンポー
ネントスキルの相互の関係、英語リーディングへの影
響について検証することを目的とする。
1.

2.

研究の背景と先行研究
Alderson (1984) による、「第二言語リーディングは、読みの問題なのか、言語能力の問題なのか」という第二言語読解研究の課題提起を受けて、日本語と英語による様々なコンポーネントスキルの相互作用についての研究が行われてきた。藤田・甲田・山下 (2014) では、予備研究として、L2 での結束性理解は、L2 言語知識（語彙・文法力）の強い影響と L1 での結束性理解の弱い影
響を受けることが示唆された。しかしながら、テストの一貫性や結束性の構成概念が曖昧で、信頼性も十分ではなかったこと、L2 読解力との直接の関係は検証されていないことが今後の課題となった。
そこで、藤田 (2019) では、Ferstl (2015)、Hamilton(2010) を参考に、一貫性と結束性の構成概念を整理したうえで、日本人大学生用に英語での一貫性・結束性判
断課題 (Coherence Cohesion Judgement Task) を作成し、一貫性判断の正確さと反応時間を測定し検証した。
続く、藤田 (2020) では、英語での CCJT と平行の日
本語での CCJT を作成し、英語と日本語での CCJT の関係、英文理解と英語や日本語の CCJT の関係について検討した。日本人英語学習者 45 名を参加者として、筆記テストで行われ、判断の正確さのみを測定した。その結果、英語の CCJT の正確さに比べ、参加者の母語である
186

日本語の CCJT の正確さの方が、個人差が小さくより正確に判断できることが明らかになった。また、英語と日本語の CCJT は相互に関連があることが明らかになった。しかしながら、英文理解力への影響は、英語でのCCJT の正確さは中程度の影響があったのに対して、日本語での CCJT の正確さの影響は見られなかった。今後の課題としては、英語と日本語の CCJT は、反応時間も含めオンラインで測定される必要があること、参加者の数を増やすこと、英文読解への影響は、語彙力、文法力などの英文読解のコンポーネントスキルと合わせて検証することなどに整理された。
さらに、藤田 (2021) では、藤田 (2019, 2020) で使用
した CCJT の項目分析を行い、その内容的妥当性の検証を行った。藤田 (2020) の日本語での CCJT（96 項目）の量的な項目分析を行い、その内容的妥当性を英語教
育の専門家により 1 項目ずつ質的に検討した。妥当性が低いと判断された項目の精査、および修正を行った。
以上のような先行研究を発展させるため、本研究では、以下を研究課題とする。
RQ1：英文読解のコンポーネントスキルである、語彙力、
文法構文力、英語と日本語での CCJT の反応時間と正確さはどのような相互関係があるか。
RQ2：英文読解に対して、語彙力、文法構文力、英語と日本語での CCJT の反応時間と正確さはどのような影響を及ぼしているか。
3. 研究
3.1 参加者
日本人大学 2 年生 100 名、データ不備のあった 8 名を除き N = 92 が分析対象。
3.2 実験の材料
英語での一貫性・結束性判断課題 (CCJT) は、藤田(2019, 2020, 2021) で作成し精査したものを使用した。

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

日本語の CCJT は、英語版をそのまま実験者が日本語に翻訳した。課題の各項目は、一貫性の有無、結束性の有無の組み合わせによる 2 文で提示され、参加者は、一貫性の有無を正確に判断することが求められた。項目は 4
条件×24 項目、合計 96 項目で、各項目は 1 点で採点した。テストの信頼性は、英語では Cronbach’s α = 0.83、
日本語では、0.85 であった。英文読解の内容把握力、語彙力、文法構文力は日本人大学生向けの標準テストである VELC Test（金星堂）を使用した。

弱から中程度の相関 (r >.30) を確認すると、英文読解の内容把握力と語彙力、文法構文、英語での CCJT の速さと正確さ、語彙力と文法構文力、英語と日本語の
CCJT の速さ、英語と日本語の CCJT の正確さであった。
これらの結果から、英語と日本語の CCJT は相互に関係があることが明らかになり、言語間を超える共通能力
である可能性が示唆された。
4.3 重回帰分析
英文読解の内容把握力を従属変数とした重回帰分析の結果、英文読解の内容把握力に有意な影響を及ぼす
独立変数は、語彙力 (β = .27, p <.001) 、文法構文力 (β= .57, p <.001)、英語での CCJT の反応時間 (β = -.16, p=.016)、および英語での CCJT の正確さ (β = .17, p =.031)であった。また、日本語での一貫性・結束性判断課題は、
反応時間も正確さも有意な影響を及ぼさないが、相関分析の結果を合わせて考えると、英語での CCJT を通じて間接的に英文読解に貢献するものと推察された。

3.3 実験の手順
参加者は、情報処理室にて、英語の CCJT、日本語のCCJT の順に取り組んだ。課題の遂行に当たっては、できるだけ速く、正確に判断するように指示された。
VELC Test は通常教室で筆記にて行った。
3.4 分析方法：英語、日本語の CCJT については、現実のテキスト文に近い一貫性のある条件での反応時間と正確さに統合し、英文読解の内容把握力、語彙力、文法
構文力とともに記述統計量を算出し、相関分析を行った。その後、英文読解の内容把握を従属変数、他のコン
ポーネントスキルを独立変数とした重回帰分析を行った。

5.

まとめ（教育的示唆、今後の課題）
日本語の一貫性・結束性判断は、英語の一貫性・結束
性判断に間接的な影響があり、英語の一貫性・結束性判
断は、語彙力や文法構文力とともに英文読解に直接的影響を及ぼすもの考えられた。教育的示唆として、英文読解力を向上させるためには、英語での語彙力や文法
構文力だけでなく、英語教育や国語教育において文章の一貫性や結束性についての明示的指導も必要となるものと思われる。今後の課題として、英文読解での一貫性・結束性判断のプロセスについて視線計測や Thinkaloud などによって調べる必要が考えられる。

4. 結果と考察
4.1 記述統計
各変数の記述統計は下記の表 1 の通りとなった。
表1

各変数の記述統計
MeasureE-CCJT RT (ms)J-CCJT RT (ms)
E-CCJT Accuracy
J-CCJT Accuracy
VELC Reading Comprehension
VELC Vocabulary
VELC Grammar & Structure

M
85.5
70.0
18.0
20.8
479.3
494.1
496.6

95% CISD
LLUL
Min Max
21.0 81.2
89.9 54.3 165.4
9.0 68.1
71.8 53.3 101.2
2.7 17.4
18.6 10.5 24.0
2.6 20.3
21.4 10.5 24.0
81.9 462.3 496.2 240.0 649.0
64.0 480.9 507.4 342.0 724.0
84.3 479.1 514.0 331.0 677.0

謝辞
本研究は、日本学術振興会科学研究費助成事業 基盤研究
（C）19K00839（研究代表者：藤田賢）、「日本人英語学習者の一貫性・結束性理解における言語処理と思考・判断に関する研究」の成果の一部である。実験の実施、データ分析においては本学心身科学部の石田光男氏にご協力いただいた。
参考文献
Alderson, J. C. (1984). Reading in a foreign language: a reading
problem or a language problem? In J. C. Alderson & A. H.
Urquharts (Eds.), Reading in a foreign language: 1–27. London:
Longman.
Ferstl, E. C. (2015). Inferences during text comprehension: what
neuroscience can (or cannot) contribute. In E. J. O’Brien, A. E.
Cook, & R. F. Lorch (Eds.), Inferences during reading (pp. 230–
259). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
藤田賢 (2019).「日本人英語学習者における一貫性・結束性処理の測定：予備研究」愛知学院大学『文学部紀要』48 号, 107–118.
藤田賢 (2020). 「英語と日本語による一貫性・結束性判断と英文理解の関係」『愛知学院大学文学部紀要』49, 81–92.
藤田賢 (2021). 「日本人英語学習者向け一貫性・結束性判断
課題の項目分析と内容的妥当性の検証」『愛知学院大学文学部紀要』50, 81–92.
藤田賢・甲田慶子・山下淳子 (2014).「高校生の英文読解における意味的結束性理解、語彙・文法力、日本語読解力の関係に関する研究」名古屋大学国際開発研究科『国際開発研
究フォーラム』44, 54–67.
Hamilton, S. T. (2010). Reading comprehension in adults:
Component skills; false memories; and judgements of coherence(Doctoral dissertation). University of Sussex. Retrieved fromhttp://sro.sussex.ac.uk/6339/

英語の CCJT に比べて、日本語の CCJT では統計的に有意に反応時間が速く、正確であった。母語から第二言語
へと言語が発達するにつれて、CCJT も熟達するものと考えられた。
4.2 相関分析
各変数の相関分析の結果は表 2 の通りとなった。
表2

各変数の相関分析
1

2

3

4

1. VELC Reading Comprehension—

2. VELC Vocabulary.59 **—

3. VELC Grammar & Structure.79 **.46 **—-.18-.25 *

—

**

5

6

7

4. E-CCJT RT-.32

5. J-CCJT RT

-.04

-.08

-.09

.42 **—

6. E-CCJT Accuracy.36 **.15.30 **

-.09

-.08

—

7. J-CCJT Accuracy

-.07

-.11

-.11

-.03

-.20

.58 ** —187

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

診断的リスニング指導法：リスニング指導に自信が持てる方法― Diagnostic Listening Instruction Methods: How to Instruct EFL
Listening with Confidence ―上田 眞理砂**立命館大学
marisa@ec.ritsumei.ac.jp
要旨
本実践報告の目的は、受講者にリスニング指導に自信を持ってもらうことである。現在、教職課程のカリキュラムや教育実習の履修内容には、リスニング指導法は含まれていない。故に、英語教員として教壇に立つも、誰一人、「リスニング指導」については、何の教育も訓練も受けておらず、各々の教員が自己流で指導している。本実践報告では、理論とエビデンスを元に、学習者がどの段階で、何故理解に至らなかったかを、ピンポイント
で指摘できる方法や、原因と治療法も紹介する。具体的には、日本人英語学習者に非常に多い「聞いただけでは理解できないが、見たらわかる」という『症状』のメカニズムを、
言語理解に関する理論を元に理論的に解説し、 更にそのような症状が発生する『原因』
をエビデンスを提示して解説する。最後に、人間の情報処理に関する理論やストラテジー
を元に、そのような症状を改善していく具体的な『治療法』を紹介する。
キーワード：リスニング、指導法、理論、エビデンス、リスニング・ストラテジー

2.2 診断法と治療法
日本人英語学習者の音声よる単語認識率が 26%であり、最もつまづく可能性が高い場所が、音素の識別レベルであることがわかったが、その診断方法がディクテーションである。まず、解答に必須箇所の文中の内容語1のみをディクテーションさせる。聞き取れていない場合、原因は次の 2 つのいずれかである。
l 語彙力不足l 音声情報処理能力と文字情報処理能力の乖離
前者である場合、学習者はオーディオ・スクリプトで当該箇所の内容語を見ても意味がわからない。この場合、語彙力不足が原因である。『治療法』は品詞、意味、発音、スペルを学ぶことである。一方、後者であった場合、学習者はオーディオ・スクリプトで当該箇所の内容語を見れば意味が理解できる。この場合の『治療法』は音声情報処理能力と文字情報処理能力の融合である。具体的な『治療法』として、当該内容語を含むオーディオ・スクリプトを見ながらその部分の音声を数回聞いた後に、当該内容語を含むその部分の音声を「何も見ずに」数回聞くことである。必要に応じて「見ながら聞く」「見ないで聞く」を繰り返す
ことを指導する。この『治療法』の理論的裏付けとして人間の情報処理に関する理論(Schneider & Shiffrin,1977)がある(図 3)。人間の情報処理には下から積み上げるようにして 2 段階あり、初期段階である「制御過程」で、特定の情報を、意識して繰り返し繰り返し処理することで、やがて特段の注意を払わなくてもこの情報が処理できる「自動過程」に移行し、他の情報を処理できる余裕が生まれるのである。つまり「音素の識別」が自動化されることにより、学習者は

1.

はじめに
リスニングの授業では、英語を聞かせて解答させた
後、答え合わせ。必要に応じて文法や語彙の指導、オーディオ・スクリプトや訳文、語彙リストを配布、間違ったところや、わからないところがあった場合、「わかるまで何回も 音声を聞いておくように」、という様な『指導』が一般的である。しかし、実は
これは指導ではない。「指導」とは「どこで」「何故間違ったのか(或いは、何故わからなくなったのか)」「原因」「再発防止のために、何が必要か」といったことを具体的にわかりやすく説明することが指導ではないだろうか。

2.

日本人英語学習者の最大の弱点、原因と治療法
池村(2003)は、「日本人英語学習者の音声による単語認識率がわずか 26％である」と報告している(図 1)。これを人間による言語理解に関する理論モデル(Anderson, 2010) (図 2)に当てはめてみると、
日本人英語学習者の実に 74％が、最初の段階である
音素の識別レベルでつまづいていることがわかる。

2.1 原因日本人英語学習者の音声よる単語認識率が 26%である一方、文字によるそれは 79％と両者には大きな隔たりが観察される(図 1)。つまり、日本人英語学習者
が Perception レベルでつまづく理由は、音声による情報処理能力と文字による情報処理能力の間に大きな乖離があることが原因と考察される。

1

本実践報告内において、「内容語」とは、名詞、動詞、
形容詞、副詞、5H１H を指す。
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図2「文法的な区切れ」を理解できたり、リスニングの最終目的である「話者の意図を理解すること」に注意を払う余裕が生まれてくるのである。
次に、解答に必須箇所の文中の内容語のみを
ディクテーションさせて、全ての内容語が聞き取れていた場合であっても、オーディオ・スクリプトの中の解答に必須箇所である文に、スラッシュなどを記入させる方法や文法的な構造を問うことで、学習者が理解に至らなかった、または正答できなかった場合の原因
が「文法的区切れ」段階で発生したかどうかを診断できる。音素の識別段階で問題がなくても、文法的知識が不十分で理解に至らないケースもある。この場合の『治療法』は、文法指導である。
さて、「音素の識別」や「文法的区切れ」レベルのいずれにおいても問題がない場合でも、学習者が理解に至らなかったり、正答できなかった場合の原因は多岐に渡るが、多くの場合、以下の 2 項目が考察される。
l 推測
l 背景的知識
前者の場合、リーディングにおけるいわゆる「行間を読む能力」が不十分であることが原因である。具体的な例として、以下を挙げる。

人間による言語理解に関する理論モデル (Anderson, 2010)

図3

人間の情報処理に関する理論モデル(Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977)

Questions: (Answers in red)
1. Where was Marisa?
In a bathroom.
2. What was Marisa doing?
She was reading a book.
3. What happened to the book?
She dropped it into the bathtub.
<Audio script>
Marisa was lying down looking at a reading book. The room
was full of steam. Suddenly Marisa got some soap in hereye. She reached wildly for the towel. Then, she heard asplash. Oh, NO! Arghhhhhh! OMG!

図4

図5

西洋の浴槽の例

西洋の浴槽用 本立ての例

謝辞
本実践報告は日本学術振興会 科学研究費 JP17K03037 の助成を受けたものです。
（著書）
Ueda, M. (2015). Towards Effective Teaching Methods in EFL
Listening for Intermediate Learners, Keisuisha: Japan.
上田眞理砂, Davey, I. (2007). イギリス英語リスニング・
ブック, 2nd Edition. 語研(株).

解答できなかったり、誤った答えをした学習者への『治療法』として、上記青字部分から 1 の解答が、splash から 3 の解答が「推測」をすることにより可能
であることを指導する。また、2 を解答するために
は、「背景的知識」として 図 4 や図 5 のような写真を見せて、西洋の浴槽の形状や大きさなどに関する知識が必要であったことも指導する。リスニングは、
単純に音声だけに頼ってするものではないことを併せて指導することが重要である。

（論文）
Anderson, J. (2010). Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications, 7th
Edition. Freeman: New York.
Ikemura, D. (2003, May). 音声聞き取り困難の克服をめざす
リスニング指導：キーワードと文脈の有効利用を考える[Listening instruction for acoustic problems: a considerationof effective usage of keywords and contexts]. Paper presented
at spring programme of Kansai Chapter, The Japan
Association for Language Education & Technology, Osaka,
Japan.
Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. (1977). Controlled and automatic
human information
processing: I. Detection, search, and attention. Psychological
Review, 84, 1-66.
Ueda, M. (2014). The Effects of Three Different Teaching
Methods on EFL Intermediate Listeners, The English
Language Research Journal, 1(1),45-85.

図1

日本人英語学習者の文字及び音声による単語認識(Website)
http://listening-marisa.com
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オンライン授業をとおしての英語教育における文学教材導入の実践
報告―イギリス文学の散文の場合―
後中陽子

関西大学（非）yaoshunyu@hotmail.com
要旨
大学の英語教育の現場から教材としての文学作品が消えつつある昨今の状況にあって、筆者は、2008 年以来、教材としての文学作品（英語で書かれた詩・随筆・散文・小説・寸劇を含む）に対する学生の意識調査を行ってきた。事前調査として、2009 年度、一般教養英語の授業内にイギリス文学の詩の導入を行った結果、英詩にふれる機会を一度設けるだけでも、文学に対する学生の意識に変化が生じることが確認された。この結果に基づき、爾来、筆者は一般教養英語の授業内にイギリス文学あるいはアメリカ文学の詩・散文などジャンルを変えて、文学教材の導入を継続している。2020 年度前期は、オンデマンド型のオンライン授業をとおして、私立大学 60 名の学生を対象に、一般教養英語の授業内にイギリス文学の散文を導入した。本研究は、その授業実践と学生の意識調査の結果を報告するとともに、文学教材を用いた授業展開の可能性を考察するものである。
キーワード：文学教材、イギリス文学、散文、オンデマンド型のオンライン授業
はじめに
近年とみに文部科学省が実践的コミュニケーション
能力の育成を外国語教育の目標に掲げ、企業が TOEICを重視する風潮にあって、大学の英語教育における文学は縮小される傾向にある。コミュニケーションを重視する日本の英語教育政策のもと、英語教科書の教材としての文学が消えつつあることが指摘されている（江利川，2004，2008）。筆者は、ほんとうに文学作品
は教材にならないのか、このような大学の文学離れの傾向は学生のニーズに合っているものなのかという疑問を抱き、2008 年以来、教材としての文学作品（英語で書かれた詩・随筆・散文・小説・寸劇を含む）に対する学生の意識調査を行ってきた。2020 年度はオンデ
マンド型のオンライン授業をとおして、一般教養英語の授業内にイギリス文学の散文を導入した。本研究はその授業実践を報告するとともに、文学作品を教材として英語を学習することに対する学生の意識調査の結果から、教材として文学作品を用いた授業展開の可能性を考察することを目的とする。

比較から得られた考察は、後中（2011）に詳述しており、一般教養英語の授業内に英詩を導入するきっかけ
が、文学教材で英語を学習することに対する学生の意
識に変化をもたらすことが確認された。

1.

表1
2009 年度

文学教材（イギリス文学の詩）導入前のアンケー

ト結果

注. 彩色は筆者による。数値が±0.7 以上の高い相関関係を示すものに付した。表 2 も同様。

事前調査
2008 年 4 月から 9 月、事前調査として私立大学 3 校
232 名の学生を対象に、大学の英語教育における教材としての文学作品（英語で書かれた詩・随筆・散文・小説・寸劇を含む）に関する意識調査のアンケートを行った。結果、全体の 62％（144 名）の学生から「文学が好き」という回答があった。
そこで筆者は、2009 年 7 月から 2010 年 2 月、私立大学 2 校 99 名の学生を対象に、一般教養としての英語の授業内で、文学作品の一例としてイギリス文学の詩の導入を実施し、英詩の導入前と導入後とで学生の意識に変化がみられるかアンケート調査を行った。量的研究として、ピアソンの相関係数を用いて統計処理した結果を次の表に記す。表 1 は英詩の導入を行う前、表 2
は英詩の導入を行った後の統計である。表 1 と表 2 の2.

表22009 年度

ト結果

190

文学教材（イギリス文学の詩）導入後のアンケー

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3.2 授業の目標と流れ
大学の方針により Learning Management System（LMS）
は、Google Classroom のプラットフォームを使用し、オンデマンド型のオンライン授業を行った。本授業は、一語一語の意味、文の構成をじっくり分析しながら、正確で流暢な読解能力の育成をめざすとともに、文学作品が書かれた時代背景、作者のことを学びながら作
品を味読することを目標とする。精読で解説する講義
動画や課題として取り組む翻訳にフィードバックを行うとともに、文学作品のことばのリズム、作家の特徴、作品の登場人物などについて理解を深めるため、朗読の音声教材、作家の故郷の動画、翻案作品の紹介などを配信した。オンライン授業の特性を活かし、聴覚的、視覚的な側面から作品に親しみ、深く考え、味わって読む能力を養成しようとするものである。
3.3 アンケート調査結果
上記の授業内で、イギリス文学の散文・小説の導入
前と導入後とで、文学教材で英語を学習することに対する学生の意識調査のアンケートを行った。アンケー
トについては Google Forms を使用した。導入前の 1 回目の調査の回答受付期間は 2020 年 6 月 6 日から 6 月 19
日まで、導入後の 2 回目の調査の回答受付期間は 2020
年 7 月 25 日から 8 月 5 日までである。以下、それぞれの結果を表 3、表 4 に記す。両者の比較では、文学作品を用いて英語を学習することは実益につながり、文学は面白いのだと認識を新たにする学生の意識の変化を示すポイントの上昇が高かった。

英文学はおもしろい(n=6)
Q9Q11 前のQ10の問いに１～
３【嫌い～ふつう】とお答
えの方にうかがいます。教材としての英文学作品に関してはどうですか？(n= 6)
Q12 前のQ10の問いに４～
５【好き】とお答えの方にうかがいます。教材としての英文学作品に関してはどうですか？(n= 6)

英文学は難しくない(n=6)
Q8Q10 英語が「好き」か「嫌い」かについてうかがいます。(n= 6)

好きな英文学作家がいる(n= 6)
Q7

英文学のおもしろさがわからない(n= 6)Q4

Q6 資格英語、点数主義の風潮はつまらない(n= 6)

英語学習に英文学は難しすぎる(n= 6)Q3Q5 英文学で英語を学ぶのは現実に役立つ、実益につながる(n= 6)

就職にはTOEIC等、資格
英語が重要だ(n= 6)
Q2

文学教材（イギリス文学の散文・小説）導入
前のアンケート結果
Q1 英文学で英語を学ぶことは実益にはつながらない(n= 6)

2020 年度前期【質問０】英文学（英語で書かれた詩・散文・小説）が「好き」である。(n= 6)
Q1 英文学で英語を学ぶことは実益にはつながらない(n= 6)-0.2101.000

Q2 就職にはTOEIC等、資格英語が重要だ (n= 6)

0.451-0.323Q3 英語学習に英文学は難しす
ぎる (n= 6)

0.969-0.167

0.501

1.000

Q4 英文学のおもしろさがわからない (n= 6)

0.283

0.710

-0.116

0.216

1.000

0.183

-0.478

0.928

0.256

-0.3420.453-0.461

0.932

0.539

-0.392

0.881

1.000

-0.0450.949-0.302-0.0010.623-0.526-0.358

0.116

0.927

-0.228

0.107

0.902

-0.470-0.417

0.899

1.000

0.337

-0.489

0.798

0.484

-0.398

0.872

0.859

-0.488-0.479

1.000

0.822

-0.123

0.642

0.891

0.300

0.485

0.576

-0.090

0.119

0.675

1.000

-0.041-0.730-0.357-0.066-0.592-0.143-0.159-0.706-0.7250.074-0.1551.000-0.199-0.611-0.438-0.180-0.609-0.181-0.228-0.617-0.6790.076-0.221

0.972

1.000

Q5 英文学で英語を学ぶのは現実に役立つ、実益につながる(n= 6)
Q6 資格英語、点数主義の風潮はつまらない (n= 6)
Q7 好きな英文学作家がいる(n= 6)
Q8

英文学は難しくない (n= 6)

Q9

英文学はおもしろい (n= 6)

Q10 英語が好きか嫌いかについて伺います。(n=6)
Q11 前のQ10の問いに１～３【嫌い～ふつう】とお答えの方。教材としての英文学作品に関してはどうですか？ (n= 6)
Q12 前のQ10の問いに４～５【好き】とお答えの方。教材としての英文学作品に関してはどうですか(n= 6)

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

注. 彩色は筆者による。表 3、表 4 ともに 2020 年度前期の統計結果については、有意水準 5％の数値±0.811 以上の高い相関関係を示すものに彩色を付した。
表4

Q10 英語が「好き」か「嫌い」
かについてうかがいます(n= 6)
Q11 前のQ10の問いに１～３【嫌い～ふつう】とお答えの方にうかがいます。教材としての英文学作品に関してはどうですか(n= 6)
Q12 前のQ10の問いに４～５【好き】とお答えの方にうかがいます。教材としての英文学作品に関してはどうですか(n= 6)

英文学はおもしろい(n= 6)
Q9

英文学は難しくない(n= 6)
Q8

好きな英文学作家がいる(n= 6)
Q7

資格英語、点数主義の風潮はつまらない(n= 6)
Q6

英文学のおもしろさがわからない(n= 6)
Q4

就職にはTOEIC等、資格英語が重要だ(n= 6)
Q2

Q3

Q1

Q5 英文学で英語を学ぶのは現実に役立つ、実益につながる(n= 6)【質問０】英文学（英語で書かれた詩・散文・小説）が「好き」である。
(n= 6)
Q1 英文学で英語を学ぶことは実益にはつながらない(n= 6)

英語学習に英文学は難しすぎる(n= 6)

文学教材（イギリス文学の散文・小説）導入
後のアンケート結果
英文学で英語を学ぶことは実
益にはつながらない(n= 6)2020 年度前期【質問０】英文学(英語で書かれた詩・散文・小説)が「好き」である。(n= 6)

3.1 対象と授業環境
対象は、私立大学文芸学部 2 クラス 2 年生から 4 年
生の 60 名、1 クラス内に文学科日本文学専攻、芸術学
科舞台芸術専攻、造形芸術専攻、文化・歴史学科、文化デザイン学科の学生を含む。文学科英語・英米文学専攻の学生は含まない。科目名は前期「ESP1」、後期「ESP2」、一般教養としての英語学習の選択科目である。
実施期間は、新型コロナウイルス感染拡大の影響で開始が遅れ、前期は 2020 年 5 月から 2020 年 8 月までの 15 回と、後期は 2020 年 9 月から 2021 年 1 月までの15 回、2 セメスターともオンデマンド型のオンライン
授業を継続した。テキストは、清宮倫子･清宮協子編著の The Poetry and Prose of British Literature（2011）を全講義 30 回通年使用し、文学作品（おもにイギリス文学の散文・小説）を教材として扱った。授業の最初に扱った作品は散文ではなく演劇だが、16 世紀エリザベス朝の Shakespeare から始め、17 世紀、18 世紀、19 世紀、
20 世紀の代表的な作家の作品の抜粋を講読した。
なお、3.3 で後述するピアソンの相関係数を用いて統計処理したアンケート調査結果は、後期に受講生が一部入れ替わり同一ではないため前期の統計をまとめる。

表3【質問０】英文学（英語で書かれた詩・散文・小説）が「好き」である。(n= 6)2020 年度のオンライン授業をとおしての英語教育
における文学教材導入の実践報告
文学教材を導入するという一つのきっかけが学生の意識に変化をもたらすという事前調査の結果を踏まえ、
本節では、2020 年度のオンライン授業をとおして教材としてイギリス文学の散文を導入した授業実践を報告
する。
3.

1.000
-0.3621.000

Q2 就職にはTOEIC等、資格英語が重要だ(n= 6)0.746

-0.453Q3 英語学習に英文学は難しすぎる(n= 6)

0.749-0.041

0.266

1.000

Q4 英文学のおもしろさがわからない(n= 6)-0.2360.831-0.397

0.214

1.000

Q5 英文学で英語を学ぶのは現実に役立つ、実益につながる(n= 6)

0.778-0.479

0.982

0.325

-0.328Q6 資格英語、点数主義の風潮はつまらない(n= 6)0.948-0.454

0.914

0.549

-0.383

0.916

1.000

Q7

好きな英文学作家がいる(n= 6)

0.068

0.882

-0.262

0.396

0.764

-0.275-0.105

Q8

英文学は難しくない(n= 6)-0.2100.885-0.352

0.178

0.989

-0.297-0.342

0.816

1.000

Q9

英文学はおもしろい(n= 6)

0.751-0.545

0.988

0.222

-0.478

0.982

0.916

-0.355-0.4351.000

Q10 英語が「好き」か「嫌い」かについてうかがいます(n= 6)

0.916-0.136

0.649

0.712

0.084

0.731

0.833

0.231

0.112

0.654

1.000

-0.001-0.725-0.057-0.282-0.608

0.016

0.003

-0.749-0.6480.092-0.049

1.000

0.153

-0.8340.004-0.070-0.742

0.051

0.132

-0.742-0.7920.138-0.0130.938

Q11 前のQ10の問いに１～３【嫌い～ふつう】とお答えの方にうかがいます。教材としての英文学作品に関してはどうですか？(n= 6)
Q12 前のQ10の問いに４～５【好き】とお答えの方にうかがいます。教材としての英文学作品に関してはどうですか？(n= 6)

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

おわりに
オンライン授業をとおして教材としての文学作品（おもにイギリス文学の散文・小説）を導入する前と導入した後とを比較し、学生の意識にどのような変化が生じるかを検証することは、教材としての文学作品の有用性を探る上で重要な手がかりとなるだろう。本
研究では文学教材が「好き」、または「嫌い」であることと、その理由の相関関係を数値の上から分析し、加えて、質的データとして学生の自由記述のコメントについても考察する。e-Learning を有効的に活用し、いかに楽しくオンライン授業ならではの工夫ができるか、
学生自らが文学教材の面白さを感じとり、興味をもって英語学習をするには何が必要であるのか、学生の意
識調査からみえてくるものを探りたい。
4.

参考文献
江利川春雄. (2004).「英語教科書から消えた文学」.『英語教育』, 53(8), 15–18.
江利川春雄. (2008).『日本人は英語をどう学んできたか―英語教育の社会文化史』. 研究社.
清宮倫子・清宮協子 (編). (2011).『よくわかるイギリスの文学
The Poetry and Prose of British Literature』. 南雲堂.
後中陽子. (2011).「英語教育における文学作品導入の調査報告―英詩の場合―」. JACET Kansai Journal, 13, 74–85.
191

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Kitchen 2020―≪私の言葉≫はコロナ禍を生きる学生の心に届くのか―
藤岡千伊奈**流通科学大学
Cheena_Fujioka@red.umds.ac.jp
要旨
本稿は、まさに“声に出して読みたい英語”であふれている吉本ばななの『キッチン』の英訳版 (Yoshimoto,1988/2018)を味読した授業の実践報告である。2020 年度に 13 年ぶりに本作を採用したが、コロナ禍のため急遽、Zoom によるオンライン授業を導入した。私立大学の非英語専攻の 2 年生から 4 年生を対象に、通年で精読授業を実施した。ここでは、content-based の授業をできるだけ英語で行い、様々なタスクを課すことで、学習者の四技能・内容理解・批判的思考力・共感力の向上を目指した。また、Zoom のブレイクアウトルームを活用することで学習者間での交流を試み、学年末には、グループ・プロジェクトとして朗読劇も導入した。学年末に実施したアンケートの結果等によると、言語学習面に一定の効果が見受けられる一方で、情緒面の効果は著しく、コロナ禍での本作の精読活動が有効であったことが示唆された。
キーワード：現代日本文学の英訳版、リアルタイム配信授業、Zoom、コンテントベースト・アプローチ
はじめに「Be your friend 私の言葉はどこまであなたの孤独にとどくのだろう」と、吉本ばなな著『キッチン』（1988）の単行本の帯に記されている。筆者は、80 年代後半か
ら国内外で広く読み継がれている本作の英訳版 Kitchen（Yoshimoto, 1988/2018）を 2000 年代に教材として使用
し、その成果は報告済みであるが(藤岡, 2006, 2008;
Fujioka, 2007)、今回はコロナ禍で Zoom を用いたオンライン（後期初回のみ対面)での実施となった。本稿では、筆者が実践した精読授業を報告し、奇しくもコロナ
禍で孤独を感じる人が増える中、コロナ禍を生きる学
習者への情緒的効果を言語的効果とともに紹介する。
1.

現代日本文学の英訳版の効果
筆者は、これまでも先行研究（Ghosn, 2002; Hadaway
et al., 2002; McCloskey & Stack,1996; Richard-Amato, 1996,
as cited in Fujioka, 2007）を挙げ、第二言語習得においての文学の言語学習面、および、情緒面での有効性を提唱してきた。ここでは、精読授業において、従来使用される西洋文学ではなく、学習者にとってより親しみやすい現代日本文学を教材として選択した。その理由は、1）
日本文学を英語で読むことの新鮮さ・面白さ、2）文化の障壁がないことから、語彙の意味がより容易に推測できる可能性が増す、3）前述の結果、文学を英語で読む不安やフラストレーションが軽減され、内容把握の向上が期待できるためである（藤岡, 2014）。
2.

3. 方法
3.1 参加者2020 年度に関西圏にある私立大学の非英語専攻（7 学部）の 2 年生から 4 年生を対象に、「イングリッシュ・
セミナー1・2」において通年で精読授業を実施した。前期は、42 名、後期は、39 名の受講生(途中放棄者含まず)が参加した。参加者は、自宅、または、大学の自習室から Zoom での双方向のリアルタイム配信授業に、原則カメラをオンにして授業に参加することとした。

192

3.2 使用教材
世界 30 カ国以上で翻訳され現代日本文学として高く評価されている、吉本ばななの『キッチン』の英訳版
Kitchen（Yoshimoto, 1988/2018；ジェレヴィーニ・吉
本,2002）を使用した。バッカス氏による英訳版は、多少の誤訳があるものの、生き生きとした英語表現に満
ちあふれ、登場人物の感情がストレートに伝わることから、むしろ原作より、読者の心に染みるのではないかと感じさせる。本作の主な選択理由には、1) 80 年代に出版されて以来、国内外で高く評価され読み継がれている、2) 主な登場人物は学習者と同年代の大学生であることから学習者にとって感情移入しやすく、学習意
欲の向上が期待できる、3) 混沌とした今を生きる学習
者の心に響く英語表現にあふれ、実用的な対話が多い
ことが挙げられる。
3.3 授業の目的
授業形態は訳読式ではなく、content-based で可能な限り英語で実施した。本作を味読して様々なオーガナイ
ザーを用いたタスクを活用しながら、学習者の四技能・
内容理解・批判的思考力・共感力の向上を目指した。
3.4 手順
下記の手順で、できる限り対面授業と同じ方法で授業を試みた。ただし、従来実施していたクイズは、オン
ラインでは実施できず、課題を多めに課すこととした。
(1) 授業前に学生は 6-7 頁予習して授業に参加する。
(2) 前回読んだ部分の粗筋を学生に尋ねて、内容を振り返る。
(3) 感情を込めて 1-2 頁程度朗読（教師、または、学生）しながら、質問して内容理解を確かめ、重要な英語
表現やポイントを解説する。さらに、登場人物の言動等について意見交換しながら、読み進める。
(4) Zoom のブレイクアウトルームを活用してグループに分け、各自前回の課題を共有（画面共有の使用を推奨）して意見交換をする。
(5) (4)のアクティビティの後、特に優れた学生の提出

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

課題を Zoom の画面共有の機能を用いてクラス全体と共有する。そして、教師が課題の称賛に値する点（優れた着眼点やイラストの工夫等）を指摘し、ほかの学生に感想を聞く。
(6) 学年末には、グループで好感を抱いた場面を選択し、朗読劇を発表する。発表後、投票で MVP（最優秀賞）のグループと個人を決定し、表彰する。
(7) 読了後、幾つかの項目についてクラス全体で最後の意見交換を行う。

「現代日本文学の使用」に対して高評価の学習者は、
78.4％に達した。次に、情緒面への効果として、「登場人物やその状況に共感することができた」と回答した者
は、70.2%、さらに、「登場人物が発した言葉が心に響いた」と感じた学習者は、最も多く 83.8％に及んだ。リーディング力の向上等の言語学習面については、一定の効果にとどまったが、思考力・想像力の向上には、70.2%
が肯定的であった。また、朗読劇等のグループ・ワークの活動に関しては半数以上が有意義に受け止めていた。

3.5 タスク
下記は、通年の授業において、学習者の内容理解・批判的思考力・共感力の向上を狙い、各自に課した主な課題である。教師は、様々なオーガナイザーのテンプレー
ト（8・13 除く）を使用し、学習者は大学の LMS（学習管理システム）を通じて、オンラインで提出した。
(1) Mind-mapping a kitchen (pre-reading task)(2) Completing the timeline of Kitchen (Part 1/Part 2)(3) Describing my favorite place in this world(4) Drawing the Tanabes’ kitchen(5) Listing the menu from Kitchen(6) Comparing and contrasting Yuichi and Sotaro(7) Writing reflections on Kitchen (Part 1/Part 2)(8) Personal project (at the end of spring semester)(9) Casting Kitchen(10) Drawing the most impressive scene so far(11) Filling in the character web(12) Writing a recipe from Kitchen(13) Reader’s theater (group project)

5.

アンケート調査の結果
学年末に、当該授業による学習面、および、情緒面の影響に関して無記名のアンケート調査（N = 37）をグー
グル・フォームで作成し、オンラインで実施した。学習者は 12 項目の質問のうち 10 項目に対して、1（全くそう思わない）から 5（強くそう思う）の中から自分の意
見を選択した。さらに、記述式質問 2 項目として、最も効果的に感じた課題とその理由、そして、通年、または、半期で当該授業を履修した感想を回答した（詳細は発表時に提示）。図 1 は、10 項目の選択質問を 4 つのカテ
ゴリーに分けて全回答の平均値を示したものである。
4.

図1

アンケート結果（各質問カテゴリーの平均値）
4.2

4.15

4.11
1. 現代日本文学の効果（2項目）

4

2. 情緒面への効果（2項目）

3.8
3.64

3.6

3.5

3. 言語学習と思考力への効果
（4項目）

3.4
3.2

4. グループ・ワークの効果（2項目）

3

特に、現代日本文学と情緒面への有効性が認められた。
「英訳版を読むのを楽しめた」と回答（5. 強くそう思う、4. そう思う）した学習者は、全体の 81％となり、193

考察とまとめ
上述のアンケート結果では、当該授業の効果として、学習者の情緒面への効果が最も顕著であった。特に、学習者が本作の登場人物とその状況に共感し、登場人物の言葉に感銘を受けたことが明らかになった。さらに
情緒面への有効性は、多くの学習者の提出課題、授業中の反応、学年末に実施した記述式テストの解答（コロナ禍で本作を精読した意義）から見受けられた。また、提出課題の中には、予想以上に独創的・批判的思考力を示
すものが多くあり、文学の思考力を育成し、引き出す力が示唆された。結果として、ライブ配信授業の限界は多少あったものの、80 年代の名作 Kitchen （Yoshimoto,1988/2018）は、コロナ禍を生きる多くの学習者の心にも深く響いたことが明らかになった。これには、唯一の家族である祖母を亡くし、天涯孤独となった大学生の主人公≪私≫の境遇に、奇しくもコロナ禍で孤独感が増した多くの学習者が自らの境遇を重ねた結果、従来よりも共感が増した可能性が考えられる。よって、今回の実践を通じて、英語教育における文学を活用した“情緒教育”の意義を改めて認識できる契機となった。
参考文献
藤岡千伊奈. (2006, June 3). 「吉本ばななの『キッチン』を使ったインテンシブ・リーディングの授業」［実践報告］. 2006年度 JACET 関西支部春季大会 立命館大学.
Fujioka, C. (2007). Teaching EFL with contemporary Japanese
literature: A literature-based approach using Banana
Yoshimoto’s Kitchen. Journal of Literature in Language
Education, 1, 1-11.
藤岡千伊奈. (2008, September 11-13). 「現代日本文学を英語で味わう―よしもとばななの『キッチン』の英訳版を導入した精読―」［私の授業］. 第 47 回 JACET 全国大会 早稲田大学.
藤岡千伊奈. (2014, November 29). 「三島由紀夫の短編を英語で読む―”Swaddling Clothes”を活用した精読授業―」［実践報告］. 2014 年度 JACET 関西支部秋季大会 龍谷大学.
ジェレヴィーニ, A. G.・吉本ばなな. (2002). 『イタリアンばな
な』. NHK 出版.
Ghosn, I. K. (2002). Four good reasons to use literature in primaryschool. ELT Journal, 56 (2), 172-179.
Hadaway, N. L., Vardell, S. M., & Young, T. A. (2002). Literaturebased instruction with English language learners, K-12. Allyn &Bacon.
McCloskey, M. L., & Stack, L. (1996). Voices in literature:
Silver. Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Richard-Amato, P. A. (1996). Making it happen: Interaction in thesecond language classroom (2nd ed.). Longman.
吉本ばなな. (1988). 『キッチン』. 福武書店.
Yoshimoto, B. (2018). Kitchen (M. Backus, Trans.). Faber & Faber.
(Original work published 1988)

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

オンライン授業での自律した学習者の育成―英語学習の目標設定の支援―
林

千賀*

*成蹊大学
c-hayashi@bus.seikei.ac.jp
要旨
本稿は、自律した学習者の育成を目的とした大学の英語選択科目に関する実践研究である。当該科目は 2020 年度に筆者の勤務する大学で新設され、Holec（1981, p. 3）の提唱するオートノ
ミーの定義 －「自分の学習に責任を持つ能力（”the ability to take charge of one’s own learning”）」－に基づいて設計された。1 年次生 40 名（前期 20 名、後期 20 名）を対象に英語学習の目標を
段階的かつ協働的に考えさせた結果、半数以上の学生は「コミュニケーションのための英語」に高い関心を示し、それが長期目標にも反映されていることが明らかになった。しかしながら、
この長期目標は学生が設定した超短期、短期、中期目標には有機的に結びつけられておらず、
適切な目標設定の支援の必要性が示された。未曾有の新型コロナウィルスの影響でオンラインでの新規開講を余儀なくされたが、オンライン授業の課題も明らかになり、特殊な学修環境下での協働を核とした自律した学習者育成の可能性に示唆を与えるものとなった。
キーワード：自律した学習者、英語学習の目標設定、段階的目標設定、オンライン授業、支援
はじめに未曾有のコロナ禍で学修環境が一変し、教育のニュ
ーノーマルが形作られ始めた 2020 年度であったが、教育の神髄は変わらず、主体的・自発的に取り組む学習者の在り方が常に求められている。そこで本稿では自律した学習者の育成に関して、特に大学 1 年生の英語学
習の目標設定に着眼し、その特徴や必要な支援のあり方を考察する。

ける個人差や同じ学習者内の発達段階に応じたオート
ノミーのレベル差、さらに個人的・心理的な側面だけでなく、社会的な側面も含めた学習者同士の学び合いを通した学習者オートノミー育成にも着目し、学生と教員および学生同士の協働を核とした学習者オートノミーの育成を試みた。

1.

英語選択科目：「自分でデザインする英語学習」
本実践研究の対象は 2020 年度に新設された選択科目（「自分でデザインする英語学習」）である。当該科目は、筆者の勤務する大学で 2019 年度まで 1 年次の必修科目として開講されていた Freshers’ English（FE）の授業
内容を基盤に、FE での筆者の実践研究（林, 2018; 林,2020）や 2019 年度のヘルシンキ大学（フィンランド）
で の 授 業 観 察 な ら び に 同 大 学 Autonomous Learning
Modules（ALMS）のカリキュラム担当者との懇談を経て、勤務先大学の教育理念、学生のニーズやレベルに適した授業内容を考案し開講するに至った。
2.

2.1 学習者オートノミー
学習者オートノミーについてはさまざまな定義があるが、当該科目は Holec（1981, p. 3）の提唱する定義－「自分の学習 に責任を持 つ能力（”the ability to takecharge of one’s own learning”）」－に基づいて設計された。
具体的には、それぞれの学生が自らの英語学習の目標（超短期、短期、中期、長期）を設定、学習計画を立案、さまざまな学習方法を実践しその学習効果を理解しながら、自分の学習スタイルに適した学習方法を探究・選択する。さらに学習過程のモニタリングおよび自己評
価を通して学習計画の見直しや修正を行うことで、学生の主体的かつ協働的な取り組みを促した。
また小嶋（2007）で指摘されているオートノミーにお194

2.2 授業内容
各学期 14 回（100 分授業）全て Zoom を用いたオンライン授業を行った（表 1 参照）。またブレイクアウト
ルームの機能も活用し、ペア・グループワークをほぼ毎回の授業で行い、学生同士の協働学習の時間を多く確保した。さらに「省察的対話」（Kato & Mynard, 2016）を促すため、学期中に 1 人 1 回（約 30 分）Zoom 上で個人面談（アドバイジング）も実施した。
表1

授業内容
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

オリエンテーション・英語と自分（1）
成蹊大学英語科目概要・英語と自分（2）「成蹊多読」の紹介・英語と自分（3）アメリカ英語とイギリス英語・英語学習のリソース留学について考える：留学プログラムの紹介
留学について考える：先輩学生の留学体験談「成功する英語学習者」について考える4 年間の履修計画・英語学習計画を立てる
自分の英語学習スタイルの確認・学習方法の提案
学習計画の振り返り・学習スタイルの拡張・shadowing
学習スタイルの拡張（省察）・速読
自分の英語学習の動機付け
仕事と英語：グローバル社会で活躍する卒業生のお話
効果的な語彙学習・学習計画の振り返りと修正

2.3 対象者
対象は 2020 年度前期および後期に当該科目を履修しThe JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

た 4 学部（経済・経営・法・文）40 名（男：22 名、女：18 名）の 1 年次生である。学生の英語能力はさまざまであるが、TOEIC®300-600 の範囲である。
2.4 目標設定理論と目標設定の手順
目標設定理論の重要性、目標設定と課題のパフォー
マンスやモチベーションとの関係性に関してはすでに
多くの研究で指摘されている（Locke, 1969）。そこで当該授業では「英語と自分」と題するワークシート 3 種類を用いて、これまでの自分の英語学習の振り返りを促しながら目標設定（超短期・短期・中期・長期）をさせた。ワークシート 1（付録 A）では、敢えて「長期目標」などの言葉は使用せず、長期目標を考えるきっかけになる質問（(1-5)「英語を使ってどのようなことをしてみたいですか」）を最後に含めることで、自由な発想で具体的なアイディアをまとめさせるようにした。そして翌週にワークシート 2（付録 B）、翌々週にワークシー
ト 3（付録 C）をそれぞれ用いて、長期、中期、短期、
超短期と段階的かつ具体的な目標設定へとつなげた。
3.

学生の英語学習の目標設定とその特徴
表 2 はワークシート 3 内に記された長期目標である。

表2

長期目標（n = 40, 複数回答有）
英語での円滑なコミュニケーション
洋画・洋楽を楽しみながら理解する
将来の夢・仕事
留学
日本の魅力を英語で伝える

26 名
8名
5名
2名
1名

65%
20%
13%
5%
3%

それぞれの目標には個々の学生の興味や関心が反映されているが、半数以上の学生が「英語での円滑なコミュニケーション」を目標として掲げ、英語運用能力の向上に対する高い関心が窺える。そしてその内 5 名の学生は、「様々な文化、思想に触れて自分の視野を広げたい」、「自分の考え方や物事に対して様々な方向で見られるようにしたい」、「英語を利用して、中国人や韓国人、
フランス人など様々な国籍の方と知り合いたい」など、英語でのコミュニケーションの先にあるものを具体的にイメージし、英語をコミュニケーションや自己成長の手段として捉えていることが明らかになった。
一方でそれらの学生の中期目標をみると、「英語で話せるようになる」、「TOEIC700」などが挙げられているのが特徴である。学生の目標や意識が受験英語からコミュニケーションを重視した英語運用能力の向上に移行しているにもかかわらず、それが中期・短期・超短期
目標には十分に関連づけられておらず、コミュニケー
ションを軸とした具体的な目標に段階的に落とし込む
支援の必要性が示された。
また、TOEIC300-400 程度の学生は「英語を好きになる」、「失敗を恐れずに英語でコミュニケ－ションをとる」など情意面に関する目標に偏る傾向が顕著に見られた。そのため、情意面と併せて言語面も含めたバラン
スのとれた目標設定の支援が求められているといえる。
オンライン授業の課題
オンライン授業としては初めての試みとなった協働を核とした学習者オートノミーの育成だが、終回授業
4.

195

時のアンケートでは「オンライン授業のため他の生徒がどのように取り組んでいるかが分からない中、同じ受講生と英語学習について意見交換をしながらできた
ことは、とても安心でき励みになった」など肯定的なコメントが受講生より寄せられ、対面授業には劣るものの、オンライン授業においても学生の協働の機会をある程度確保することができたと言えよう。しかしながら、対面授業時と同じような協働学習の時間と質の両方を担保するには、比較的早い段階でのクラスの雰囲
気作りや学生との信頼関係の構築が肝要である。
また教員側としてはタイムリーな指導ができないもどかしさがあったが、少なくとも 1 人 1 回の個人面談を実施したことで、学生それぞれの個性や学習スタイ
ルも把握することができ、個々の学生のレベルやニーズに応じた目標設定の支援の一助になったと考える。
5.

まとめ
本実践研究の結果、「コミュニケーションのための英語」に対する学生の高い関心が長期目標に反映されている一方で、それを段階的な目標に絞り込む支援の必要性が示された。また学生同士の協働の機会の確保に加えて、学生と教員との 1 対 1 の個別面談も組み込む
ことで、オンライン授業に於いても協働を核とした学習者オートノミー育成の可能性が示唆された。
参考文献
林千賀. (2018).「Freshers’ English での学習者オ―トノミー育成を目指した取り組み－英語学習の目標設定と学習計画」『成蹊大学一般研究報告』51(3), 1-26.
林千賀. (2020).「英語への苦手意識のある学生の学習者オート
ノミー育成－Freshers’ English での 2 年目の取り組み」『成蹊大学一般研究報告』52(3), 1-20.
Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy and foreign language learning.
Pergamon.
Kato, S., & Mynard, J. (2016). Reflective dialogue: Advising inlanguage learning. Routledge.
小嶋英夫. (2007).「英語科教員養成プログラムの研究開発－大学教育の新しいパラダイムに基づいて」遠藤孝夫・福島裕敏（編）『教育養成学の誕生－弘前大学教育学部の挑戦』(pp.
174-196). 東信堂.
Locke, E. A. (1969). Purpose without consciousness: a contradiction.
Psychological reports, 25, 991-1009.
付録 A. ワークシート 1：「英語と自分」(1-1) 英語学習歴を教えてください。
(1-2) 海外渡航歴があれば、滞在期間と国名を教えてください。
(1-3) これまでどのように英語学習をしてきましたか。
(1-4) 英語を動物にたとえ、その理由も教えてください。
(1-5) 英語を使ってどのようなことをしてみたいですか。
付録 B. ワークシート 2:「英語と自分」(2-1) (1-5)の質問に対する回答について、そう思うようになったきっかけや出来事があれば教えてください。
(2-2) そうなるためにはどのようなことが必要になりますか。
(2-3) その実現に向けて、現在行っていることはありますか。
(2-4) やり始めようとしていることはありますか。
付録 C. ワークシート 3:「英語と自分」(3-1) 自分の長期目標（(1-5)の回答参照）(3-2) 目標達成に必要だと思うもの・こと（(2-2)の回答参照）(3-3) 中期目標（2 年後の目標。自分で考えてみよう）(3-4) 短期目標（半年後の目標。自分で考えてみよう）(3-5) 超短期目標（3 ヵ月後の目標。自分で考えてみよう）

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

オンライン共有スプレッドシートを用いた自律性を促す授業外語彙学習
ラムスデン多夏子

京都外国語大学
t_ramsden@kufs.ac.jp
要旨
近年の ICT の進展に伴い、教育の場でも様々なオンラインツールが利用されている。発表者はその中でも、学習者間で学習内容を共有する機能に注目し、学習者が自律的に個人の語彙集を作成する授業外課題を実践した。参加者は、外国語専攻（主に英語）の２−４年の大学生英語学習者 57 人（主に CEFR B1 レベル）で、TOEIC 対策を目的とする 14 週間の選択授業の履修者である。語彙集には、単語、品詞、意味、例文のほか、同義語などの学習メモを記録し、クラス全員が共有するシートに学習を蓄積していく。語彙数のノルマを設定し、教師は毎週の期限後に学習状況をチェックした。学習結果と学期末アンケートから、多くの学習者が語彙力等
英語力の向上を実感し、その理由として自分オリジナルの語彙集作成や他の学習者との共有を挙げた。また、６割以上の学習者が今後課題でなくても続けたいと回答し、自律的な語彙学習の一方法として有効であることが示唆できた。
キーワード：自律的学習、授業外学習、共有、語彙集、オンラインツール

1.

はじめに
2020 年新型コロナウィルス感染症が蔓延し、国内の多くの大学で遠隔授業が行われた。これをきっかけに日本の大学教育における ICT 活用への関心が一層高まり、教材の与え方、教授法、学習者の活動等、教員は従来の教授法からの大きな方向転換を余儀なくされた。
特に、他の学習者に会えない孤立感への配慮は多くの教員を悩ませたと考えられる。
発表者は数年前から、学習者の自律的学習習慣を促す目的で、授業外で視聴する映画や音楽等から自ら選んだ表現をスプレッドシートに蓄積する授業外課題を実践してきた。この課題に Google 共有スプレッドシー
トを用いて、クラス全員で１ファイルを共有する表現集を作成させたところ、自己決定や自己選択、学習プ
ロセスの可視化、共有を通じた学び合い等の理由から、多くの学習者の自律性が促され動機づけに寄与するという興味深い結果が見られた（ラムスデン、2020）。この課題では、情報源に娯楽性があったことが理由の一つだと考えられたが、本実践では、同じツールを資格
英語（TOEIC）クラスの授業外課題に応用し、学習を可視化し共有することで、動機づけに関して同様の結果が示されるかを検証した。

2.

自律的学習と共有による動機づけ
ICT の高度な発達により、学習者は教師から与えられなくても知識や情報を入手できる時代になった。これに伴い、教師の役割は、従来の「教える」から「導く」へ転換していくと言われている（山本、2020）。また、社会の変化を反映し、テクノロジーの活用が外国語学習者の動機づけを高めるという報告もある（Adolphs etal., 2018）ことから、ICT を活用しつつ学習者が自律的に取り組めるような授業内外活動の工夫を教師はます
ます求められる。
196

自律的学習を促すには、学習者が学ぶ内容を自ら決定すること、進歩を可視化することなど様々な方法があるが、仲間との教え合いや学び合いも動機づけに有効とされる（Dörnyei, 2001）。学習者は共に学ぶ相手を求める傾向があり、自分以外の学習者の存在を可視化することで学習者同士のつながりを感じ、学習活動の動機づけが維持される（秋山、2012）。
学習者の自律的学習を促す実践として、授業外学習
課題についてはあまり例が報告されていない。授業外
学習といえば主に、授業の予習や宿題といった教師からの指示に基づく反強制的な学習が課されているのが実際である（坂田・福田、2011）
。
3.

実践方法
本実践の参加者は、TOEIC 対策の選択授業を履修する外国語専攻（主に英語）の大学生英語学習者２−４年
生 57 人（主に CEFR B1 レベル）で、１学期 14 週間のうち、当該の授業外学習課題を 11 週間行った。
本課題では、授業中に学習した教科書（TOEIC 公式
問題集）の範囲から、学習者が自ら学びたい語彙を選び（週に５つは教師が選んだ）、スプレッドシート（図１）に記録していく。毎週の学習語彙数のノルマを 10個以上とし上限はない。記録する内容は、単語（またはフレーズ）、品詞、意味、例文、同義語などの学習メ
モで、例文は自分で作文するのではなく、「TOEIC らしい例文」をインターネット等から探してくることとした。教師は毎週の期限の後に語彙の数をチェックし印をつけた。
学習を記録する Google スプレッドシートを２つ作り、１つは 30 人、もう１つは 27 人が共有した。２つに分けたのは、57 人が 1 つのスプレッドシートで作業すると、シートの動作が遅くなり同時編集が困難になるためである。他の学習者が書き込んだり削除したりする

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

ことを防ぐため、各学習者は各自のシートにロックを
かけた。

れる」
「人によってわかる単語とわからない単語は違う」「自分で選んだ特別さがある」と記述式コメントにあるように、学習者には自律的な選択欲求があることがわかった。教師に学習語彙を選んでほしいと答えた学
習者は８割がノルマ未達成者であった。
本来の意味での自律的学習者となるには、自主的に学習を継続し習慣化することが望ましい。この学習を「課題でなくても続けたい」と答えた学習者が 63%もいたことは、本実践が自律性を促す学習として効果があると示唆できる。８割を超える学習者が「語彙が増えた」と答え、力の向上を実感できたことも本実践を高く評価した結果であると考えられる。

図1

共有スプレッドシートの例

表2

期末アンケート（選択式）の回答 (n=57)

毎週の授業の冒頭部分に、教科書の範囲の語彙と問題に対する小テスト（全９回）を行い、学期末に語彙集についてのアンケートを実施した。アンケートは選択式の問いのほか、自由記述の設問もあった。
4.

結果と考察
本実践でスプレッドシートに記録した語彙の数と毎週の小テスト９回（25 満点）の平均点を表１に示した。
結果として、半数近くの学習者がノルマ未達成であり、娯楽性のあった以前の課題と比較すると未達成者が多かった。しかし、ノルマ達成者の平均は 156.2 でノルマを 42%上回り、最高は 366 と 274（週平均 33 と 25）であった。多くの語彙を記録した学習者ほど、類義語な
どの学習メモを多く書く傾向があった。小テストの結果もわずかであるが、ノルマ未達成者よりもノルマ達成者の点数が高かった。
表1

記録した語彙の数と小テストの点数（ノルマ＝110）

参加者全員

n
57

M
118.5

SD
57.9

Min
0

Max
366

Total
6754

小テスト
23.0

ノルマ達成

30

156.2

49.8

110

366

4686

24.5

ノルマ未達成

27

76.6

31.6

0

107

2068

21.3

表２は期末アンケートの選択式の問いに対する結果である。共有については、約４割の学習者が他の学習者の学習の様子を意識して取り組んでいたことがわかる。記録した意味、例文、学習メモは個人によって違うため、他の学習者が調べたものを参考にしたことが推察される。実際にこれを共有を肯定する理由に挙げている学習者もいた。共有にあまり効果を感じなかった学習者の多くがノルマ未達成者であったこと、９割近い学習者が共有に肯定的であることから、自分以外の学習者の存在を感じさせる工夫が動機づけに効果があると示せたと言えよう。
このほか注目したいのは、「学習する語彙や表現を自分で選ぶ方がいい」と答えた学習者が 75％に上ったことである。従来の語彙学習といえば、教師が選んだ学
習語彙を語彙テストのために学習者が覚えるという形
式が典型的だと思われるが、「自分で選んだ方が覚えら

質問
共有について他の人のシートから学ぶことがあった
他の人が頑張っているから自分も頑張ろうと思った
他の人よりも頑張ろうと思った
共有してもしなくてもあまり効果は変わらない
他の学生に自分のシートを見られるのは嫌ではなかった
自律性についてこの語彙集を始めて英語学習の意欲が上がった
学習する語彙や表現は自分で選ぶ方がいい
この語彙集を課題でなくても続けるつもりだ
この語彙集を課題でなくても続けたいがするかどうかわからない
英語の力について
この語彙集を始めてリスニング力が上がったと思う
この語彙集を始めてリーディング力が上がったと思う
この語彙集を始めて語彙が増えたと思う

%
43.9
42.1
15.8
24.6
87.7
28.1
75.4
14.0
49.1

19.3
36.8
82.5

5.

まとめ
記述式のコメントに今回の課題について「新しい学習法」「新鮮」と書いた学習者が数名あった。今まで「教えられる」「与えられる」学習に慣れていた学習者であっても、多くの学習者が自律的に課題に取り組む力を持っており、それを欲している様子が本実践から窺えた。
今回は TOEIC に特化した語彙集であったが、授業により様々な形で応用が可能であると考えられる。今後の課題として検討したい。

参考文献
Adolphs, S., Clark, L., Dörnyei, Z., Glover, T., Henry, A., Muir, C.,
Sánchez-Lozano, E., &Valstar, M. (2018). Digital innovation in
L2 motivation: Harnessing the power of the Ideal L2 Self.
System, 78, 173–185.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2018.07.014
秋山豊. (2012).「大学通信教育における生涯学習支援の推移と動向」.『大正大学大学院研究論集』, 36, 197–206.
Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Motivational strategies in the language
classroom. Cambridge University Press.
ラムスデン多夏子. (2020).「オンラインファイル共有ツールを活用した自律性を促す授業外学習 MTD（日英等価表現集）」. JACET 関西支部 2020 年度支部大会.
坂田浩・福田 T. スティーブ. (2011).「継続的英語自律学習を支援するためのワークシート：「Learning How to Learn」と自己評価用紙の作成について」.『徳島大学国際センタ
ー紀要・年報』, 14–24.
山本崇雄. (2020).『「教えない授業」の始め方』. アルク.
197

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)「グローバル人材育成」を再考する－
Global Leadership Program の実践－
柿元悦子

九州産業大学
kakimoto@ip.kyusan-u.ac.jp
要旨

高等教育の教育目標に欠かすことのできない「グローバル人材育成」であるが、従来日本では競争原理・市場原理にのっとった「国際経済活動において活躍しうる人材の育成」
として取り組まれてきた。本発表ではその問題点を、ジェネリック・スキル養成、および
グローバル・シティズンシップ教育の 2 観点から吟味し、その在り方を再考する。ジェネ
リック・スキル養成では、最も包括的には、対自己・対他者・対社会、の 3 分野における能力を設定することを提案し、グローバル・シティズンシップ教育においては、「「グロー
バル倫理」を理解する「グローバル意識を持った市民」を育てること（北村、2016）」の妥当性を論じる。また本学で 2020 年度後期にスタートさせた人材育成の試み 「Global
Leadership Program」について、その内容、および参加者に対して実施した事前・事後調査から読み取れる学生の意識についても報告する。
キーワード：グローバル人材育成、ジェネリック・スキル、グローバル・シティズンシップ教育
はじめに「グローバル人材育成」が社会に出る直前の学生への教育として高等教育における使命と見なされて久しい。
その根拠資料としてしばしば用いられる 2012 年「グ
ローバル人材育成戦略」（グローバル人材育成推進会議
審議まとめ）は果たして十分な指針たり得ているだろうか。本発表ではまず、上記資料の分析を行うとともに、ジェネリック・スキルの考察、そしてグローバル・シティズンシップ教育の流れの概観をとおして、高等教育に必要な「グローバル人材育成」を再考していく。
1.

「グローバル人材育成」の問題点「グローバル人材育成戦略」は 2012 年にグローバル
人材育成推進会議によってまとめられて以来、人材育成」という言葉が「教育」とあたかも置き換えられて大学におけるグロ－バル人材教育の指針を示す重要な文書の一つとされてきたといえる。
「はじめに」の一節内だけでも「我が国経済が本格的な成長軌道へと再浮上するためには、創造的で活力のある若い世代の育成が急務である。」「グローバル人材に対する経済的社会的な需要・期待は、 本推進会議設置後のこの 1 年程度のわずかな間に限ってみても、我が国社会のトップ・リー
ダーとしての期待から、国境を越えた市場の拡大や海外での現地生産の強化等に対応した厚みのある中核
的・専門的人材層の需要へと急拡大する様相を呈しており」などがみられる。その他随所に「我が国の経済的な発展と国際社会との関わり」「経済成長の原動力となるべき有為な人材」（p.６）
「グローバル人材の育成及び活用」（p.８）などの表現が連ねられるとおり、日本の将来の教育構想を語るというより、まぎれもなく経済戦略を記したものであるといえる。
2.

日本においてジェネリック・スキルが注目されるようになったのは 1998 年大学審議会「21 世紀の大学像と今後の改革方策について―競争的環境の中で個性が輝く大学―（答申）」においてと言われている。これら能力は知識基盤社会といわれる 21 世紀において変化が急速で予測不能な状況への対応を可能とする、知識、スキル、柔軟性、創造性、問題解決力そしてコミュニケーシ
ョン能力などを包含する幅広い資質能力といえる。以下、オーストラリア国立職業教育研究センター（NCVER,
2003）のまとめにしたがって 3 地域の分類を概観すると表 1 のとおりである。
表 1 国・地域別ジェネリック・スキルの分類
国

能力

Aus.

Basic/fundamental skills,
People-related skills,
Conceptual/thinking skills,
Personal skills and attributes,
Skills related to the business world,
Skills related to the community

U.S.

Basic/foundation skills,
Higher order thinking skills,
Interpersonal and team skills,
Personal characteristics and attitudes

E.U.

Acting autonomously and reflectively,
Using tools interactively,
Joining and functioning in socially heterogeneousgroups

オーストラリアは“employability skills（雇用可能性技能）に始まり生活全般において人々が有するべき能力を掲げ、アメリカ合衆国では雇用可能性より広く、個人的達
成感やコミュニティへの関わりがその目的に含まれて3. ジェネリック・スキル（汎用的能力）
198

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いる、とされる。ヨーロッパ DeSeCo においては、「独

自でより広範な哲学的、人類学的、経済的、心理学的、
社会学的見地」（NCVER, 2003, p.7）から分類されている。上記に代表される各国・地域の捉え方から最も包括的には、対自己・対他者・対社会、の 3 分野における能力として考えることが妥当と思われる。
グローバル・シティズンシップ教育「国際理解教育」としてユネスコ主導で 1974 年に始まって以来 1989 年には「21 世紀のシティズンシップ教育」が提唱された。2014 年にグローバル・シティズン
シップ教育は、地球規模課題の理解や解決、国際的協調、
社会的変容を促す態度の獲得を目的とするものとして生まれ 2015 年の国連総会において「持続可能な開発目
標 SDGｓ」が採択されるに至っている。社会を構成する
人々の多様化・多民族化が急速に進むヨーロッパでは国家の枠を超えたシティズンシップ教育が発達し、2002 年にイングランドでは中等学校において必修化された。2021 年の今日、昨年来の人類の危機に世界が同時に直面する状況を経て、我々は 21 世紀の「グローバル人材教育」にふさわしい指針を必要としている。小林
(2014)は「地球市民アイデンティティ」の重要性を述べる。
「経済成長の原動力」としての見方に偏らず、社会、
とりもなおさずグローバルな社会における有為な人材としてのジェネリック・スキルを擁し、かつ地球市民としての視野を持つも人材が必要とされている。
3.

４．本学 GLP について2020 年 9 月より、社会のグローバル化に対応できる
広い視野を持ち国際社会の最前線で活躍する学生の育成を目的として学部横断の Global Leadership Program を開始した。多様な専攻の学生 11 名が選抜され TOEIC ス
コアは 418 から 885 と幅があったが、いずれも英文履
歴書により自己アピールを適切に行い、かつ英語面接
においてパフォーマンレベルの高い 2 年次生であった。
プログラム全体像としては、1 年次の基礎科目履修を経て、2 年次後期から 3 年次後期までに主要科目を履修、4 年次に成果発表を行うものである。表 2 は科目概要を示す。プログラムの中核科目と言える GLPⅡでは福岡に拠点を置く国連機関である国連ハビタット福岡本部（アジア太平洋担当）よりその職員が直接講義を担当する授業が 6 回行われる。他の回でその準備やまとめをグループワークとして協働して行う。中間・最終発表
では国連職員の講義をいかに理解し肉付けできたかを示すことが求められ、各グループは自分たちが他者・社会に働きかけるためのプロジェクトを発表した。活動中の使用言語は原則英語である。プロジェクト案は次年度に持ち越し、具体的実施へと進めていく。これらの活動はリーダーシップ育成の重要なプロセスとなる。
表 2 科目概要
科目
内容
English skills & mind-set for global leaders
GLPⅠ
Special lectures by UN Habitat
GLPⅡ
Language/Internship programs abroad
GLPⅢ, Ⅳ
Domestic internship
GLPⅤ
Mentoring
GLPⅥ
Final presentations
GLPⅦ

199

また、2021 年前期には海外 3 大学との Online 交流を実施している。中でもポーランドとの交流では途中 2 週間のインターバルを含んで 2 か月にわたり 4 回のセッションを行う中で SDGｓをテーマとしたグループディ
スカッション、最終プレゼンテーションを行った。授業
外での相互のやり取りも含め互いに学びあい成果を上げていたと思われる。またオーストラリアとの交流は学生主導で互いに楽しめるものとすべく、今後活動リーダーが大学の他の学生にも参加を促した活動とすることになっている。
プログラムの開始前、GLP 履修者 11 名および複数学部の非履修者 169 名を対象にグローバル人材に関わる意識調査となるアンケートを実施した。3 つの観点、1：
グローバルな視点（7 問）、2：キャリアデザインとグローバル企業への関心（7 問）、3：コミュニケーション技
能（5 問）、（その他 4 問）合計 23 問に対し 5 件法による回答を求めた。総じて高い値を示したのが GLP 生、次いで国際文化学部生であった。商学部生では「日本社会と国際化（3.7）」「日本企業の海外展開（3.7）
」芸術学
部生では「キャリアデザイン（3.1）」「プレゼン技術（3.3）」が他学部生より高い点は学部特性を表していると考えられる。GLP 生においては学期末に Post テス
トも実施した。興味深いのは値の低下がみられた点である。低下が最大（-0.64）だったのは観点 1 の「異文化理解の知識」である。同時に学生のコメントでは「とても重要だと思います。でもその一方でそれはすごく
難しいことだと以前よりも感じるようになりました。」「ある程度お互いが歩み寄るべきだと、協働することの重要性を感じている。
」などが得られた。次に値の低下が大きいのは「キャリアとグローバルな視点（-0.45）」であった。同時に「世界で活躍したいと思うようになったので、より必要だと思います。」「日本人であるがゆえの固定観念にとらわれないためにも必要であると思う。
」などの回答があり、意識が高まったことにより現実をより的確にとらえるようになったことで値が低下したことが推測される。発表では詳細を報告する。
参考文献

Australian National Training Authority (2003) Defining
generic skills: At a glance, Adelaide: National Centre
for Vocational Education Research.
原田亜紀子 (2020) 「グローバル・シティズンシップ教育に関する研究動向」『東京大学大学院教育学研究科紀要』 59,
197-206
北村友人 (2016) 「序論 グローバル時代における「市民」の育成」佐藤学・秋田喜代美志水宏吉・児玉重夫・北村友
人編『岩波講座教育変革への展望７ グローバル時代の市
民形成』(pp.1-20)岩波書店
小林亮 (2019) 「ユネスコの地球市民教育が追及する能力―
グローバル時代における価値教育の新たな展望―」『論叢玉川大学教育学部紀要』18-32
文部科学省 (2012) 「グローバル人材育成戦略（グローバル
人材育成推進会議 審議まとめ）」グローバル人材育成推進会議
清水禎文 (2012) 「ジェネリック・スキル論の展開とその政策的背景」『東北大学大学院教育学研究科研究年報』61-1,
275-287
滝沢利直・重光由加・小沢一仁 (2019) 「「Society 5.0」における教育とは(1)～これからの社会における教育のあり方を考える～」『東京工芸大学工学部紀要』Vol.42 No.2, 1-8

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大学英語教科書のポストリーディング活動の類型化とクリティカル・シンキング
近藤 睦美* 東 自由里***京都外国語大学
mu_kondo@kufs.ac.jp**京都外国語大学
j_higashi@kufs.ac.jp
要旨
本研究は新しい学習指導要領に提示されている「深い学び」の基盤となるクリティカル・シ
ンキング（CT）に焦点をあて、大学英語教育で使用されているリーリングテキストの分析を行い、CT スキルがどのように機能しているのか、その活用実態を明らかにし、また改善のための条件も明らかにした。調査分析では、EFL 海外出版社および大学英語教科書協会会員社から2020–2021 年度に出版されたリーディング教材の中から「CEFR B1」（または TOEIC 500-700、
中級）と示された 20 冊を対象とし、改訂版 Bloom’s Taxonomy （Anderson et al., 2001）を軸にPost-reading 活動の類型化を行った。その結果、（１）CT の定義が教科書間で定まっておらず、（２）事実的認識次元における「理解」や「応用」といった低次思考能力を問う問題が多く、
「分析」
「評価」
「創造」といった高次思考能力を問う練習問題が限定されていることが明らかになった。リーディング教材に求められる高次思考能力型タスクの理想型は Taxonomy の認知領域に潜在している。
キーワード： Critical Thinking、Bloom’s Taxonomy、大学英語教科書、ポストリーディング、高大接続

1.

本研究の背景2016 年の世界経済フォーラム「第四次産業革命」宣
言、2018 年には経済協力開発機構（OECD）が「21 世紀スキル」の中核として CT、創造性、協労、コミュニ
ケーションの 4 つを「21 世紀スキル」の中核として位置付けた。これを受けて、経済産業省は「Society 5.0」
を、文部科学省は「Society 5.0 に向けた人材育成の推進」を提唱した。
CT によって未知なる領域での問題解決能力を鍛えることができるなら、その延長線上に、新たな価値を生み出す創造力が開花するであろう。高等教育とクリティ
カル・シンキング（CT）も切り離すことができない関係にある。
「高等教育世界ランキング」の学生調査で教育充実度を測定する際にも、欧州、米国、日本の共通項目として、「CT のスキルの成長が支援される機会がどの程度あるか」が問われている（Times Higher Education,
2021）。さらに、教育現場では、CT は、シラバスや学修
評価の要素に含まれるようになった。

2.

CT の定義と方法論的特質
教育界において CT の思考方法に大きく影響を与えたのは J. Dewey である。それ以降、理系、文社系の垣根を超え、多様な分野の研究者が CT の定義を打ち出している。日本では、CT に「批判的思考」という訳語を充てることが多いが、本研究ではあえてこの訳語を使用しないこととする。批判は CT の一要素に過ぎない。
改訂版 Bloom’s Taxonomy と密接な関係にある CT は、
国際学力到達度テスト（PISA）が定義する読解リテラシ
ーの枠組みとも一致している（Willms, 2013）。これが「深い学び」の基礎となる。

200

3.

調査方法と分析対象
2003 年以降、中等教育では OECD が実施する PISAに強く影響を受けた教育改革が実施されてきた。2017–2019 年改訂学習指導要領では、3 つの資質・能力：①「知識及び技能」、②「思考力、判断力、表現力」、③「学びに向かう力、人間性等」を「主体的な学び」
、
「対話的
な学び」
、
「深い学び」を通して達成されるものと考えられている。それでは進学後の大学英語教育は、どうあるべきか。高等教育での自律学習の促進に繋がる CT と英語教育におけるポストリーディング活動（PRA）を検証する。

3.1 大学英語教科書
近年、英語リーリングテキストでは明らかに Bloom’s
Taxonomy を意識して作成されたもの、CT を鍛えることを目的としたもの、教科書のタイトルにも、そしてリーリング教材の練習問題にも CT の用語の使用が顕著になってきている。
本研究において分析対象とした大学英語教科書は、
大学英語教科書協会会員社より 2021 年度に出版された新刊教科書 10 冊と、日本の多くの大学で採用されている海外 EFL 出版社より出版された 9 冊とした（表１参照）。当初、分析対象となっていた教科書の一冊はリーリング教材ではなくスタディスキルが中心であることが判明したため外した。教科書は全てリーディングス
キル育成を目的に発刊されたもので、レベルは出版社
より「CEFR B1」（または、TOEIC 500-700、中級）と示されたものに統一した。
「CEFR B1」は高校三年間の英語で育成される目標として設定されており、英語検定に換算すると準一級と二級に相当し、高大接続の鍵を握る自律学習の入り口レベルでもある。

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図1

3.2 分析方法
本研究では、PRA に焦点を絞り、各教科書の PRA を
大項目と小項目に分類した後、小項目のタスクを遂行する際、必要とする認知領域を、Bloom’s Taxonomy の６つの認知領域（①記憶 ②理解 ③応用 ④分析 ⑤評
価 ⑥創造）を用いてラベル付する作業を行なった。

PRA に必要な認知領域の割合
日本EFL教科書 (n=10)

CreateEvaluate

Apply

Understand Remember3%

表1

分析対象とした大学英語教科書リスト
出版社

出版年

指示文

Vocab
notes

1

Creative Ideas for Products & Services

松柏社

2021

英

◯

2

映像で学ぶ ABCワールドニュース3

金星堂

2021

英

○

3

English for Mass Communication -2021 Edition-

朝日出版社

2021

日

◯

日英

◯

4

異文化理解のためのVOAニュース15

英宝社

2021

5

INSIDERで観て学ぶ 総合英語と世界の深部

金星堂

2021

日英

X

6

構造で読む英文エッセイ ＜中級編＞【第3版】 南雲堂

2021

日英

◯

7

Living as Global Citizens

南雲堂

2021

英

X

8

Meet the World 2021−English through Newspapers− 成美堂

2021

日

◯

9

Modern Britain: Culture, Society and History

松柏社

2021

英

◯

10 TARGET 総合英語のターゲット演習【準上級】 金星堂

2021

日

X

2013

英

△

2016

英

△

2020

英

X

2019

英

△

2018

英

△

2018

英

X

2019

英

△

2020

英

△

2018

英

△

12 Longman Academic Reading Series 2
13 New Interactions Level 2 R & W
14 NorthStar R & W (5th Ed.) Book 2
15 Pathways: R, W and CT (2nd Ed.) Level 1
16 Prism Reading Level 2
17 Q Skills for Success (3rd Ed.) Level 3
18 Reading Explorer (3rd Ed.) Level 2
19 Unlock Level 3 R, W & CT (2nd Ed.)

National Geographic
Learning
Pearson Education
ESL
McGraw-Hill
Education
Pearson Education
ESL
National Geographic
Learning
Cambridge Univ.
Press
Oxford Univ. Press
National Geographic
Learning
Cambridge Univ.
Press

23%

4%
18%

46.2%

48.6%

語彙問題

17.3%

18.2%

文法説明・問題

5.8%

0.0%

リーディング以外のスキル育成問題

17.3%

0.0%

発展問題

13.5%

23.4%

0%

9.8%

Higher-Order
Thinking Skills

28%
18%
5.

最後に
高次思考能力（HOTS）は目標言語の習得がなければ活用できないということではない。むしろ HOTS の使
用は言語習得のプロセスをより深いものとし、役立つと考えられている（e.g. Common Underlying Proficiency）。
また、HOTS が LOTS より優れているということでもない。英語学習では Taxonomy の６つの認知領域は全て使用する必要がある。重要なのはそのバランスであり、CTは LOTS と HOTS の連携強化の役割を担うことができる。
大学英語教育において、CT 自体が目的ではないが、不可欠スキルであることに疑いはない。教員の工夫次
第で、どのような PRA にも CT を活用することが可能である。学習者の言語能力の質向上は、日本の高等教育
全体の質転換に直結するのである。

参考文献
Anderson, L.W., & Krathwohl, D.R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy forlearning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Complete edition).
Longman.

PRA の大分類とその割合
内容理解問題

12%

20%

表2
海外EFL教科書20%

海外EFL教科書 (n=9)

分析結果
対象とした教科書の PRA を分析した結果、リーディ
ングの内容理解問題及び語彙学習の占める割合については、日本 EFL 教科書と海外 EFL 教科書に大きな違いはなかったが、日本の教科書は言語へのフォーカスが強い一方で、海外 EFL 教科書は読んで理解したことをもとに発展的なタスクを含む傾向が強く、また自律学
習促進に繋がる方略を紹介する教科書も複数あった（表 2 参照）。語彙や文法など言語にフォーカスした問
題は、Taxonomy の認知領域では「記憶」や「理解」といった低次思考能力（LOTS）を使うものが多い。このため、日本 EFL 教科書の PRA は、海外 EFL 教科書と比べ、LOTS に偏っており、認知領域のバランスがあまり良くない(図参 1 照)。

日本EFL教科書

12%

33%

4.

方略使用の練習問題

Higher-Order
Thinking Skills

9%

テキスト名

11 Active Skills for Reading 1 (3rd Ed.)

Analyze

Willms, D. (2013). Programme for International Assessment(PISA) for Development. https://www.oecd.org/pisa/aboutpisa/
5.Willms - OECD PISA for Development.pdf.
ベネッセコーポレーション. (2021). 「Times Higher Education
世界大学ランキング日本版 Official Guide 2021」パンフレ
ット.
201

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コロナ禍におけるオンラインアプリを用いた
速読・多読活動の実践報告
松田早恵*

天野貴史**

鈴木大介****摂南大学
sae@ilc.setsunan.ac.jp**摂南大学
amano@ilc.setsunan.ac.jp***摂南大学
daisuke.suzuki@ilc.setsunan.ac.jp
要旨
本発表では、外国語学部の英語専攻 1 年生から 3 年生 537 名がオンラインで取り組んだ速読と多読の活動を報告する。新型コロナ感染症拡大により授業がオンライン化されたため、速読はMicrosoft FORMS や Moodle による解答回収とリーディング速度報告に切り替え、多読はオンライ
ンアプリに切り替えた。多読で利用したアプリは、前期は無料の Extensive Reading Central（以下、ER Central）で、後期は有料の Xreading である。多読に関しては、アプリや学年により目標語数が違ったため一概に比較はできないものの、懸念された 1 年生は予想外に健闘を見せた。他方、どの学年も締切間近の駆け込み多読が多かったため、読書を習慣づけるにはやはり担当教員からの定期的な働きかけが必要であることが示唆された。しかしながら、オンラインアプリの利用には、
学生に本へのアクセスや速読・多読の機会が提供できたこと、リーディング速度・総語数や課題の提出状況などが管理できたことなど意義があったと言える。
キーワード：速読、多読、オンラインアプリ
背景
Nation（2013）が提唱するように、読解力や読解速度を伸ばすためには、多様なリーディング活動を授業に組み込む必要がある。本学部の現行カリキュラムでも、英語専攻 1 年生～3 年生のリーディング必修科目において、①主教材による精読、②共通教材を用いた速読、③図書館の多読用図書を用いた多読に取り組んできた。
1 年生は非常勤 5 名、2 年生は専任 2 名・非常勤 4 名、3 年生は専任 3 名・非常勤 3 名が担当しているが、2020
年度は、新型コロナ感染症拡大により授業がオンライン化されたため、②と③の実施が難しくなった。そこで、
急遽②と③は専任教員が管理することとし、ICT ツールとオンラインアプリを利用した速読と多読活動に切り
替えた。
1.

2. 実践
2.1 対象外国語学部英語専攻 1 年生～3 年生 537 名がリーディング必須科目の共通課題として取り組んだ。学年の内訳は表 1 の通り。後期には 3 年次再履修生 12 名が新たに加わったため、計 549 名の取り組みとなった。
表1

学生の構成
コース

1 年生

2 年生

3 年生

英プロ

-

18

26

国キャリ

-

146

159

188

164

185

計

537

注 英プロは「英語プロフェッショナルコース」を、国キャ
202

リは「国際キャリアコース」を指し、2 年生からいずれかのコースに配属される。

2.2 速読共通教材としては、1 年生用には Timed Reading for
Fluency 1 (Nation and Malarcher, 2018) 、2 年生用には同じシリーズの 2 を用い、前期に#1-20、後期に#21-40 を課した。3 年生はダウンロードが可能な Asian and PacificSpeed Readings for ESL Learners（Quinn, Nation and Millett,2007）電子版を利用し、前期に#1-15、後期に#16-30 に取り組んだ。学生は各自時間を計ってパッセージを読み、読み終わった時間を記録した後、内容把握問題を解く。読むのにかかった時間と問題への解答を Microsoft
Forms や Moodle に入力して提出した。締め切りを各学期の前半と後半の計 2 回設けて活動を見守った。
2.3 多読前期は、ER Central を用いて多読を試みた。ただし、
2 年生・3 年生の英プロ生 44 名は、試行を兼ねて Xreadingを利用した。ER Central（https://www.er-central.com/）は無料で利用できる多読アプリで、本というよりは読み
切りタイプの短い読み物が収められている。各学生が読んだ読み物の数、総語数、内容把握テストのスコア、
リーディング速度などのデータは、管理者画面から確認できる。目標は 1 年生 1 万語、2 年生 1.5 万語、3 年
生 2 万語と低めに設定した。テストの合格基準は 60 点と定めた。
後期にはオンラインテスト分の学部予算を転用し、Xreading（https://xreading.com/login/index.php）の学生アカウ
ントを 3 学年分準備した。Xreading は、1,000 冊以上のGraded Readers が収められている有償の多読アプリである。ER Central と同様、読んだ量や速度などのデータ

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が自動的に蓄積できるため、大学のみならず高校での実践も報告されており（Walker, 2020; O’Sullivan, 2019）、
ER Central よりも多読図書が充実していることから、後期は目標を 1 年生 3 万語、国キャリ 2 年生 4 万語、国キャリ 3 年生 5 万語、英プロ 2 年生 8 万語、に引き上げた。英プロ 3 年生は、前後期とも 10 万語を目標とした。読書速度を優先するためテストスコアの合格基準は設けず、300 wpm 以上で読んだ場合のみ異常値として表示される設定とした。
3. 結果
3.1 速読
速読に関しては、学年によって教材のレベルが違うので一概に比較はできないが、どの学年もリーディン
グ速度に学生間でかなり大きな開きがあることがわかった。速い学生は 1 分 30 秒未満であったが、遅い学生は同じ教材に 3 分以上かかっていた。図 1 は、前期の 1年生の例である。

後期は全員が Xreading に切り替え、549 名で取り組んだ。図 3 は、後期の目標と読んだ平均文字数（総語数）をグループ別グラフにしたものである。
図3

後期 Xreading 結果

目標値に近い結果を残したのは、1 年生と 3 年生英プロで、一方 2 年生は英プロ・国キャリ共に低調に終わった。全体としては、目標を達成した学生は 3 人に 1
人（37％）にとどまった。

図1
1 年生前期（後半）の速読速度と平均得点

また、全学年に共通する傾向として、締め切り間際の駆け込み提出が多く見られた。本来ならば授業内で毎回取り組み、教員の指導の下で徐々にスピードを上げていくことを目的としているが、授業とは切り離された取り組みでは課題が残った。一気にまとめて課題を提出した学生に果たして速読練習の効果があったのか。
3.2
多読
多読は、前期には 2 年生・3 年生の英プロ生、計 44
名が Xreading を先行試行したことから、ER Central は 1
年生全員と 2 年生・3 年生の国キャリ生、計 493 名が使用した。図 2 は、前期の ER Central での総語数の結果を学年ごとに表したものである。

4. まとめ
速読に関しては、前期と後期で若干のスピードの改善は見られたが、どの速度でも正答率は 8 割と一定であった。7 割～8 割スコアが取れるようならさらに速度を上げる努力がされるべきであったが、そのあたりの
適切な指導ができなかった。正答率は成績に影響がな
く、課題達成率のみを評価の対象にするということになっていたが、正答率 10 割を目指して慎重に読んでしまっていた学生がいたかもしれない。
多読に関しては目標語数が違うため一概には言えないものの、一般に考えられているより 1 年生が健闘したことがわかった。ただし、どの学年も締切間近の駆け込み多読が多かったため、読書を習慣づけるにはやはり担当教員からの定期的な働きかけが必要であることが示唆された。また、特に下位層に英語仕様のアプリが使いこなせない学生もいたようで、未提出の学生も一定数いたことなどからも課題が残った。しかしながら、オンラインアプリの利用により、コロナ禍で学生に本へのアクセスや速読・多読の機会が提供できたこと、リーディング速度・総語数や課題の提出状況などが管理できたことは、大きな意義があったと言える。
参考文献
Nation, I. S. P. (2013). What should every EFL teacher know?
Portsmouth: Compass Publishing.
Nation, P. & Malarcher, C. (2018). Timed Reading for Fluency 1.
Seed Learning.
Nation, P. & Malarcher, C. (2018). Timed Reading for Fluency 2.
Seed Learning.
O’Sullivan, M. (2019). Using a digital reading program in a Japanesepublic high school. Lecture held at JACET Kansai study group forliterature in language education June meeting.
Quinn, Nation and Millett (2007). Asian and Pacific Speed Readings
for ESL Learners
https://www.wgtn.ac.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/1068064/asi
an-and-pacific-speed-readings-for-esl-learners.pdf
Walker, R. J. (2020). Successful Users of Xreading: Toward a
Million Words. Extensive Reading World Congress Proceedings,
5, 23-31. https://jalt-publications.org/content/index.php/jer/article/view/517/75

図2

前期 ER Central 結果

203

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英字新聞に対する CEFR-J の有効度に関する研究
八島等

広島文教大学
hyashima@h-bunkyo.ac.jp
要旨
一昨年までの３年間、CEFR-J で示されている語彙を高等学校の改訂版検定教科書で用いられている語彙と比較する調査を行った。CEFR-J の A1 から B2 までの語がどの程度改訂版検定教科書でも用いられているのかを見てみた。その延長の研究として、CEFR-J で示されている語
彙が英字新聞でどの程度用いられているのかを２度調査した。総異なり語の内訳を見ると、A1から B2 までの４つのレベル、及びそれ以外の割合が検定教科書と似ていることがわかった。
すなわち、A1 が約 21-2%、A2 が約 18-9%、B1 が約 23%、B2 が約 14-5%であった。この結果、
CEFR-J の有効性に疑問が残った。語彙カバー率を考えると、約 77-78%に過ぎないことになるからである。また、CEFR-J に載っていない語の内訳は、CEFR-J に載っている語の派生が最も多く、次いで、ハイフンでつないで１語とする CEFR-J の語の複合語が多く見られた。そこで、本研究では、三度、英字新聞を調査対象として、CEFR-J が日本人英語学習者にどの程度有効なものであるのかを調査する。
キーワード：CEFR-J,

英字新聞,

有効性,

語彙カバー率研究動機
８年前に、日本人英語学習者（高校生）にとって文脈からの意味推測のために「最適な」未知語の割合を求めて、50 語、60 語、80 語、100 語に１語という４つの割合で調査した。その結果、100 語に１語の場合、語彙サ
イズが 3,000 語（word family）程度あれば、平均で 60%以上の、4,000 語程度あれば、平均で 80%以上の、それぞれ推測成功率が得られることがわかった。また、80 語に１語の場合でも、語彙サイズが 4,000 語程度あれば、推測成功率は平均で 80%以上であることがわかった（八島, 2013）。
「未知語の割合が高すぎなければ、第二言語学習者は文脈から 60%～80%の未知語の推測ができると期待してもよいであろう」（Nation & Coady, 1988）ということから、「適切な」未知語の割合とは 60％以上の推測成功率を収められるものであると考えられる。
また、3,000-5,000 語は「一生懸命努力すれば、学習者にとって達成可能であるように思われる」（Schmitt, Jiang,& Grabe, 2011）語数である。以上のことから、日本人英語学習者にとって「最適な」未知語の割合は、100 語に１語（語彙カバー率 99%）であることがわかった。
（八島, 2013, 2020c）
読解に関しては、６年前、98%以上の語彙カバー率の題材の内容を、どの程度理解することができるのかを調査した。その結果、学習者には、Hu & Nation（2000）
や Schmitt, Jiang, & Grabe（2011）が「適切な」読解に必要と主張する 98%の語彙カバー率は「適切」ものとは言えないことが判明した。語彙カバー率が 99%の場合のみ、平均で 60%以上の読解問題の正答率を得ることができた（八島, 2015）。Hu & Nation は、「適切な」読解とは、 85.7%の多肢選択式読解問題と 56.5%の記述式読解
問題の正答率を得られるものとしている。これは平均すると 71.1%ということになる。一方、Schmitt, Jiang, &Grabe は「適切な」読解とは 60%以上の正答率を得られるものとしている。以上のことから、読解に関しても「適切な」語彙カバー率は 99%であることがわかった。
1.

204

以上の２つの研究から、日本人英語学習者にとっては、Carver（1994）が提唱する 99%の語彙カバー率が最低必要であると考えられる。
しかし、実際に、日本人英語学習者はその 99%の語彙カバー率に達するために、どのような語を何語程度習得すればよいのであろうか。そこで、参考となるのが『JACET 8000』である。しかし、最近注目を集めているのは欧州評議会（Council of Europe）が 2001 年に公表した 言 語 能 力 の 到 達 度 指 標 で あ る Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching,assessment（学習、教授、評価のためのヨーロッパ言語
共通参照枠）、略称、CEFR である。英語に限らず、外国語に関する言語能力を A（基礎段階の言語使用者）、
B（自立した言語使用者）、C（熟達した言語使用者）の３つのレベルに大きく分け、それをさらに、A1・A2、B1・B2、C1・C2 の合計６段階のレベルに分けて表している。
その CEFR を日本に導入するために、構築されたのが CEFR-J である。そのプロジェクトの中で、CEFR-J
Wordlist が作成され、A1 は 1165 語、A2 は 1416 語、B1
は 2453 語、B2 は 2788 語の合計 7822 語が収められている（投野（2013）では「語」ではなく、「項目」となっている）。
そこで 、 CEFR-J に収 め られて いる語 がどの 程度『JACET 8000』に載っているのかを調査した。その結果、A1 で 85 語、A2 で 209 語、B1 で 453 語、B2 で 980
語の合計 1727 語が『JACET 8000』には載っていないことがわかった。それは、実に、CEFR-J に収められている語のうち、５分の１以上の 22.08%に当たる。レベルが上がるにつれて、載っていない語の数が増えることがわかった（八島, 2016）。
研究目的
以上のことから、本研究の主な目的は、CEFR-J に収められている語はどの程度、英字新聞で用いられてい2.

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

るのかを調査することである。そのために CEFR-J の語と英字新聞の語との対応を調査した。また、今までの２度に渡る調査結果との比較をし、CEFR-J に載っていな
い語の特徴についても調査する。

それ以外の語：968 語 (23.30%)*それ以外の中の語は品詞違い語：118 語 (2.87%)
総異なり語：4112 語
5.2 英字新聞の使用語彙の実態
昨年英字新聞の語彙の実態を CEFR-J の A1 から B2までの語との関係から分析を２度行った。以下に１度目の調査結果を示す（八島, 2020a）。
A1 ：417 語 + 10 語 (22.14%)
A2 ：347 語 + 7 語 (18.35%)
B1 ：426 語 + 8 語 (22.50%)
B2 ：252 語 + 18 語 (14.00%)
それ以外の語：444 語 (23.02%)*+された語は品詞違い語：43 語 (2.23%)
総異なり語：1929 語

3. 研究方法
3.1 形式
使用テキスト使用したのは、今回から、CEFR-J Wordlist Version 1.6である。従来使用していた Version 1.0 からかなり改定されたもので、A1 が 1166 語、A2 が 1411 語、B1 が 2445
語、B2 が 2779 語の合計 7801 語から成り立っている。
このリストと The Japan Times の 2020 年 10 月 19 日版
から 25 日版で用いられている語との共通性・相違性を調査した。
3.2 形式
研究手順及びデータ分析の方法
まず、CEFR-J と英字新聞での使用語との対応を調査した。英字新聞で使用されている語を A1 から B2 までの４つのレベル、及びそれ以外の５つに分類した。
CEFR-J の特徴を考慮して、固有名詞は、月と曜日、オ
リンピック以外は調査対象から外した。その後、CEFRJ に載っていない語がどのような語なのかを考察した。
4. 分析結果
4.1 英字新聞の使用語彙の実態（10 月 20 日分）
英字新聞１日分の語彙の実態を CEFR-J の A1 から B2までの語との関係から分析を行った。
A1 ：641 語 + 28 語 + 26 語 (22.18%)
A2 ：580 語 + 30 語 + 42 語 (20.80%)
B1 ：668 語 + 23 語 + 86 語 (24.79%)
B2 ：466 語 + 40 語 + 63 語 (18.16%)
それ以外の語：441 語 (14.07%)*+された語は品詞違い語：121 語 (3.86%)*++された語は派生語：217 語 (6.92%)
総異なり語：3134 語
4.2 CEFR-J 以外の語の特徴
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

CEFR-J 以外の語の特徴としては以下の６点が挙げられる。
CEFR-J の語の複合語（battlefield; drugmaker など）
辞書では重要語になっている語（adhere; convict など）
ジャーナリズム用語（abduct; woo など）
ジャーナリズム以外の専門用語（inning; playoff など）
正式語（堅い書き言葉）（endemic; ostracize など）
低頻度語（abrasive; unleash など

5. これまでの研究の分析結果
5.1 高等学校の改訂版検定教科書の使用語彙の実態
一昨年の研究において、３年分の改定版検定教科書が揃ったので、まとめの意味で、採択数上位３冊の使用
語彙の実態を CEFR-J の A1 から B2 までの語との関係から分析を行った。以下に Revised ELEMENT English
Communication Ⅲ の収録語の例を示す（八島, 2019a,
2019b）。
A1 ：920 語 (22.37%)
A2 ：825 語 (20.06%)
B1 ：923 語 (22.45%)
B2 ：476 語 (11.58%)
205

謝辞
本研究は、R2-R5 科研費（基盤研究 C・課題番号：20K00881・研究代表者：八島等）の助成を受けて行われた研究の一部である。
参考文献
Carver, R. P. (1994). Percentage of unknown vocabulary words intext as a function of the relative difficulty of the text:
Implications for instruction. Journal of Reading Behavior, 26 (4),413-437.
大学英語教育学会基本語改訂委員会 (編). (2003).『大学英語教育学会基本語リスト JACET List of 8000 Basic Words』.
Hu, M., & Nation, I. S. P. (2000). Unknown vocabulary density andreading comprehension. Reading in a Foreign Language, 13(1),403-430.
Nation, I. S. P., & Coady, J. (1988). Vocabulary and reading. In R.
Carter & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary and language teaching(pp. 97-110). London: Longman.
Schmitt, N., Jiang, X., & Grabe, W. (2011). The percentage of words
known in a text and reading comprehension. The Modern
Language Journal, 95 (1), 26-43.
東京外国語大学投野由紀夫研究室.『CEFR-J Wordlist Version
1.0』.
東京外国語大学投野由紀夫研究室.『CEFR-J Wordlist Version
1.6』（URL:http://www.cefr-j.org/download.html#cefrj_wordlist.
より 2020 年 12 月８日ダウンロード）
投野 由起夫. (2013). 『英語到達度指標 CEFR-J ガイドブッ
ク』. 東京: 大修館書店.
八島 等. (2013). 「文脈からの推測のための最適な割合と語彙サイズを求めて」.『日本教科教育学会第 39 回全国大会
論文集』, 106-107.
八島 等. (2015). 「日本人英語学習者における語彙カバー率と読解との関係」.『日本教科教育学会第 41 回全国大会論文集』, 138-139.
八島 等. (2016). 「これからの日本人英語学習者が習得すべ
き語彙の実態」.『日本教科教育学会第 42 回全国大会論文集』, 46-47.
八島 等. (2019a). 「CEFR-J から見た高等学校の改定版検定教科書の語彙の実態」.『日本教科教育学会第 45 回全国大会論文集』, 204-205.
八島 等. (2019b). 「CEFR-J から見た高等学校の改定版検定教科書の語彙の実態」.『広島文教大学紀要』, 54, 65-74.
八島 等. (2020a). 「CEFR-J の英字新聞に対する有効性の一研究」.『日本教科教育学会第 46 回全国大会論文集』, 8586.
八島 等. (2020b). 「CEFR-J は英字新聞に対してどの程度有効か」. 第３回 JAAL in JACET 学術交流集会発表資料.
八島 等. (2020c). 「文脈からの推測のための最適な割合と語彙サイズを求めて」.『広島文教大学紀要』, 55, 1-12.

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

非文法的に倒置された埋め込み疑問文の直前に置いた節の長さが文全体の自然さへ与える影響
曾根 洋明**宮城大学
sonehiro@myu.ac.jp
要旨
本研究では，埋め込み疑問文の直前に節や句が置かれた場合，話者の意識がそれに向けられ，
文の主動詞など前方に存在する語の存在感が減少し，その存在感減少により，埋め込み疑問文の auxiliary-subject-verb という非文法的語順が，意識において，ある程度正当化されると考えた。その効果は，前置節等の音節数の増加により大きくなり，ある一定の音節数において横這い状態になると仮説を立て，それを検証することとした。調査対象文[1]において，効果は増大
後，節区切りを考慮した補正音節数が 80 前後で横這い傾向となった。調査対象文[2]においては観測区間の終点においても更に増加傾向が見られた。これらは仮説を否定するものではなかった。
キーワード：埋め込み疑問文，倒置，自然さ，前置節
緒言
Bruening（2017）によると if あるいは whether によって 導 か れ る yes-no 埋 め 込 み 疑 問 文 は 通 常 ，subject-auxiliary-verb の 語 順 を と る が ， if あ る い は
whether が先頭に生起しない場合に限って，倒置語順す
なわち auxiliary-subject-verb の語順となる方言もあるという。また，それらの方言においては，副詞類が介在すると if あるいは whether と倒置語順が共起可能な場合があると言う（Bruening, 2017）。

く、周囲の人々との相互行為を通じて、自然とある言語を習得した話者」とある。よって、母語話者には、主として、①親から習得した話者と②当該言語を話す母語話者
住民が大多数を占める地域でそれら母語話者住民から習得した話者が含まれると考えられる。このため、本研究では、次のカテゴリに該当する者を母語話者として，回答対象者とした。
(a) 親が 0 才～18 才の間に少なくとも 12 年
間，米国，カナダ，英国，アイルランド，
オーストラリア，ニュージーランドに居住し，その親から英語を習得した英語母語話者。
(b) 0 才～18 才の間に少なくとも 12 年間，上記各国に居住し，地域住民から英語を習得したと考えられる英語母語話者
自然さ：文の自然さの定量化は次のように行った。評
価対象文とその文が自然だとする所見を英語母語話者に示し，その所見に対する彼らの考えを，strongly agree (度数 4)，agree (3)，disagree(2)，strongly disagree (1)の中から選択させ，その度数の相加平均を「自然さ」の指標とした。
音節数：切れ目のないひとまとまりの音。本研究では（南出他, 2014）に依った。
補正音節数：音節数+節と節の区切りの数
希薄化：埋め込み疑問文の主節の直前に節や句などが置かれた場合，特にそれが長いものの場合には，節や句に話者の意識が惹きつけられ，文全体の主動詞の存在意識が薄らぐことが考えられる。本研究ではこの現象が存在することを仮定し，希薄化と呼ぶこととした。
回復：希薄化により UIEQ が適格な，自然な構造と感じられること。
3.2 方法UIEQ を含む例文は，Bruening（2017）および Kolbe

1.

本研究の目的
埋め込み疑問文の主節の直前に，節や句などが置かれた場合，特にそれが長い場合には，節や句に話者の意識が惹きつけられ，文全体の主動詞などの存在意識が薄らぐことが考えられる。このため，話者は，発話しているうちに，埋め込み疑問文の主節をあたかも文全体の主節と誤認識しやすく，埋め込み疑問文の主節
で倒置が起きても，文全体を疑問文にするための自然な倒置と感じる場合があると考えた。本研究ではその現象が存在すると仮定し，それは前置句や節の音節数が長くなるとともに強くなり，ある一定の音節数に到達した後は横這いになると仮説を立てた。横這いになると考えたのは文全体の主動詞などの存在意識はそれが 0 になった後に負になることはないからである。本
研究では，if 使用可において，広く副詞類以外にも間投
詞 well なども文全体の主動詞などの存在意識に影響を与えると考え，前置句や節の音節数により文全体の自然さがどのように変わるかの調査，解析を試み，仮説のような動向が見られるか検証した。今回は，特に，非文法的に倒置された yes-no 疑問文 2 文の自然さの変化が仮説に沿うか検証した。
2.

3. 調査
3.1 用語の本研究での定義
UIEQ：ungrammatically inverted embedded question. 非文
法的に倒置された埋め込み疑問文
母語話者：中野他（2015）には「出生後、教育ではな
206

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)と Sand, A（2010）を参考に作成した。具体的には次のような 2 文である。
[1] John asked if, X, would he/she still be eligible
for membership.
[2] Jane asked me if, Y, would it be okay.
なお，X には補正音節数 0 から 122 までの節を，また Y には補正音節数 0 から 110 までの節を導入した。
次にそれらの文を米国に居住する英語母語話者に示し，「自然さ」を平均として導いた。
本研究では，希薄化による回復のみを考慮して補正した場合の文全体の「自然さ」Ninsert-restored-only を，以下のように定義した。
なお，本研究ではΔ = Δinsert-restored +Δinsert-unnaturalと仮定することとする。

と付記している。本研究では，この現象は，前置された節や句が長くなると，節や句に話者の意識が遮られ，先に発話した，文全体の主動詞や if，whether などの補文標識の存在感が薄められることが原因で発生すると考えた。前述のように，本調査において Ninsert-restored-only
は，補正音節数が増加するとともに増加した。[1]においてはその後横這いとなった。これは，目的で述べた仮説に合致する。横這いとなるのは，ある程度の補正
音節数以上では文全体の主動詞などの存在感が強く打ち消されほぼ皆無となり，それ以上は存在感の減少がなくなるからであると考えた。[2]においても横這いとなるポイントが補正音節数を増やすことで現れると推測した。
なお，補正音節数が，[1]においては 40 以下で，また[2]においては 2 以下で，「自然さ」の乱高下が見られた。
これは存在感を打ち消す力以外の，補正音節数がある
一定の数以下において働く，他の力の存在を示唆した。

Nobserved = N0 +Δ= N0 +Δinsert-restored +Δinsert-unnatural∴ N0 +Δinsert-restored = Nobserved －Δinsert-unnatural∴ Ninsert-restored-only = Nobserved －Δinsert-unnatural
Nobserved: 測定された文全体の自然さの値
N0: 挿入節の補正音節数が 0 の場合の文全体の自然さ
Ninsert-restored-only: 希薄化による回復のみを考慮して補正した場合の文全体の自然さ
Δ: N0 から Nobserved への変動値
Δ insert-restored: 前置節が主動詞等の存在意識を希薄することに起因する，文全体の「自然さ」の上昇値。正の値をとる。
Δ insert-unnatural: 埋め込み疑問文が埋め込まれていない状態で前置節が元々持つ不自然さに起因する，調査対象文全体の「自然さ」の減少値。負の値をとる。
近似曲線：Excel の近似曲線機能を用いて近似曲線を引き，補正音節数に対する，対象文が持つ「自然さ」の変化傾向を観察した。

まとめ
本研究では，前置された節や句の伸長により埋め込
み疑問文を内包する文の主動詞や if，whether の存在感が希薄化し倒置が正当化されると考えた。実際，希薄化を仮定しそれのみに焦点をあてた「自然さ」の値は上昇が見られ，一つの文例では一定の補正音節数で存在感がほぼ皆無となったと推測され，横這いとなった。他 1 例は更に上昇が続いた。
なお，本研究は希薄化による回復の効果のみを観察したが，前置節が元来固有する自然さ，不自然さを加味し，文全体の真の自然さに焦点を当てて，次の研究
としたい。
5.

結果および考察希薄化による回復のみを考慮して補正した場合の文全体の自然さ Ninsert-restored-only，すなわち，測定された文全体の自然さの値に，挿入節が元来持つ不自然さに起因して減少した文全体の「自然さ」の幅（正値）を可算して得られた値は，補正音節数が増加するにつれて上昇した（図 1）。文[1]においては，3.0 を越えた。その後，補正音節数 80 前後で横這い傾向が見られた。[2]においては 90 前後において 3.5 を越え，なおも増加傾向が見られた。これらの現象は目的で立てた仮説に反しない。
ところで，本研究の対象文は補文標識 if が存在する文である。Bruening（2017）は，方言によっては倒置語
順 auxiliary-subject-verb が 起 こ り ， そ の場合 ， if や
whether などの使用と倒置語順は相補的分布にあるという。しかし，Bruening（2017）は，if や whether が使われた場合でも，副詞類が UIEQ に前置された文では，ifあるいは whether と倒置語順は共起可能な場合がある
4.

参考文献
Bruening, B. (2017). Subject–auxiliary inversion. The Wiley
Blackwell Companion to Syntax, Second Edition, 1-28.
Kolbe, D., & Sand, A. (2010). Embedded inversion worldwide.
Linguaculture, 2010(1), 25-42.
南出康世他 (編) (2014). 『ジーニアス英和辞典』第 5 版. 東京,
日本: 大修館書店.
中野弘三他 (2015). 『最新英語学・言語学用語辞典』. 東京, 日
本: 開拓社.
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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

英語教育における「ダイバーシティ教育」の定義に関する検討－Society5.0 時代に向けて
原めぐみ

追手門学院大学
m-hara@otemon.ac.jp
要旨
先行研究から英語教育における「ダイバーシティ教育」の定義の提案を試みた。辞書の定義、企業における「ダイバーシティ」、大学・小学校における「ダイバーシティ教育」、学習指導要領における「ダイバーシティ」に関する記載事項から共通点を探った。その結果、英語教育における「ダイバーシティ教育」を「英語の授業を通じて、多文化共生社会に関する情報・知識を習得し、多様性に対する認識・理解を深めることにより、自他を尊重する態度を身につけ、その場に応じた適切な判断や具体的な行動をすることができるように促す教育。」と定義することを提案する。
キーワード： ダイバーシティ教育、英語教育、多文化共生社会
はじめに
Society5.0 時代においては、AI やイノベーションにより、今までの閉塞感がある社会から、地域、年齢、性別、言語等による格差が無いより開かれた多様な社会になると言われている。それに伴い、遠隔に存在する人や従来接する機会が少なかった多様な人とコミュニケーシ
ョンを行う必要性が高まると思われる。従って、教育現場においても、自分と異なる他を尊重する「ダイバーシ
ティ教育」が必須となる。以前から英語教育においては、
異文化理解が言語の学習と共に重要視されていたが、IOT の発達や多文化共生社会が進む時代では、限られた海外で活躍する人を育成するための英語教育ではなく、国内外の英語を使用する多様な人々を意識したコミュ
ニケーション能力が育成されるべきである。そこで本稿では、辞書や各分野における「ダイバーシティ教育」の意味を整理し、英語教育における「ダイバーシティ教育」の定義を提案したい。
1.

に始まり、次の段階として雇用形態別の多様性の推進、
さらに次の段階では、多様な人材が能力を発揮できる
環境整備の推進へと進化してきた。「ダイバーシティ」という言葉が広まったと理由として、中村(2017)は 2004
年に経済同友会が｢多様を活かす、多様に生きる―新たな需要創造への企業の取組み｣の中で提案した「ダイバーシティ・マネジメント」をあげている。
「『ダイバーシ
ティ・マネジメント』とは、性別、年齢、国籍或いは障害の有無といった 個人の属性に関わりなく異質、多様な人材の能力や発想、価値観を融合させることにより、組織全体の活性化を図り、企業の価値創造力や商品提案力の強化を目指す人事・経営戦略である。
」と定義されている。中村(2017)はダイバーシティを「組織が均質な状態から、多様性を内包した状態」と定義している。

辞書に見られる「ダイバーシティ」、「ダイバーシテ
ィ教育」
オンライン辞書・事典サイトのジャパンナレッジで見出し語として「ダイバーシティ教育」が唯一掲載されていた『デジタル大辞泉』では、「人種・国籍・ジェン
ダー・年齢・障害・宗教・価値観などが多様であることを理解し、相互に尊重する態度や行動を促す教育」と定義されている。
「ダイバーシティ」のみでは、「1.多様性。
相違点。
」「2.企業で、人種・国籍・性・年齢を問わずに人材を活用すること。こうすることで、ビジネス環境の変化に柔軟、迅速に対応できると考えられている。
」と説明されていることから、「ダイバーシティ」という言
葉は、特に企業やビジネスの環境で使用されていることがわかる。

3.2 大学における「ダイバーシティ教育」
大学教育におけるダイバーシティ＆インクルージョ
ン教育について森(2018)は、「現在のダイバーシティ＆インクルージョン教育の研究成果に大学教育を対象としたものはなく「経営」と結びついているものが大半である」としている。そして、大学におけるダイバーシテ
ィ教育の対象者は、教職員ならびに学生であり、目的は次の 2 点とされている。
（1）人権に対するアウェアネス(気づき)を促し、人権尊重の意識を高める。
（2）現代社会に対応できる力を身につける。
森(2018)による「ダイバーシティ＆インクルージョン
教育」の定義は、「個々人が持つ要素の多様性（ダイバーシティ）を活かすことにより、組織全体の成長・発展を推進するインクルージョンのための教育」である。ここで言う教育は、大学全体を指しており、本稿で定義しようとしている英語教育という文脈ではない。

各分野による「ダイバーシティ」、「ダイバーシテ
ィ教育」の定義・解釈
3.1 企業における「ダイバーシティ」
企業における「ダイバーシティ」の取り組みは、中村(2017)によると、1980 年代以降、女性の活躍推進を中心

3.3 小学校における「ダイバーシティ教育」
小学校を対象に「ダイバーシティ教育」について調査を行った渡邉他(2017)は「『ダイバーシティ』を、文化、人種、国籍、ジェンダー、障がい、宗教、政治的信条な
どのそれぞれが多様であることと定義し、『ダイバーシ

2.

3.

208

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ティ教育』はダイバーシティを受け入れ、互いに多様性に配慮し、多様性を尊重し合う態度や行動を醸成する教育のことである」と定義している。渡邉他(2017)らが行った調査では、2 割から 6 割程度の学校が何らかのダ
イバーシティに関する取り組みをしているが、その内容に関しては、各学校の実態（外国籍児童が多い等）と関連していることがわかった。
3.4

外国語の学習指導要領における「ダイバーシティ
教育」『高等学校学習指導要領（平成 30 年告示）解説外国語
編英語編』(2018)においては、教材についての配慮事項
で、題材を選択する 4 つの観点が示されている。その中に、「ダイバーシティ教育」という文言はないが、そこから関連するキーワードを抜粋すると、「多様な考え方に対する理解」、「英語の背景にある文化に対する関心」、「広い視野から国際理解」、「国際協調の精神」などがある。さらに補足説明として、「文化の多様性や価値の多様性に気付かせ，多様な背景や価値観を持った人々を理解し，共生していこうとする態度を育てるという観点が必要である。
」とあり、「ダイバーシティ教育」の必要性が学習指導要領においても示されている。
4. 英語教育で「ダイバーシティ教育」を行う意義とその定義の提案
4.1 英語教育で「ダイバーシティ教育」を行う意義
日本教科内容学会（2021)では、英語という教科の認
識論的定義を次のように説明している。
英語は言語（目標言語と母語）と文化（目標言語
文化と自国文化）を対象とし、学習者が英語運用能力を習得する過程を通じて、国際社会における自己の価値形成や自己実現能力を高める教科である。
そのために言語的、文化的、社会的、人間的側面の相互作用によって、学習者のより良い国際理解とグローバル社会の主体的な構成員として求められる多文化マネジメント能力や言語運用能力など資質や能力の基礎を養成するとともに、文化や人間の存在価値や意義を認識・理解するための基礎を形成する教科である。
つまり英語を学習するということは言語スキルを身につけるということではなく、言語と切り離せない文化や社会背景を理解し相手とやりとりすることである。
それだけではなく、人間の基盤となる考え方や態度を育成することができる科目であると言える。
4.2 英語教育における「ダイバーシティ教育」の定義の提案
以上の先行研究による「ダイバーシティ（教育）」の定義のキーワードとして、「多様性への理解」、
「尊重す
る態度」
、
「行動」、
「共生」、
「インクルージョン」などの語が共通して挙げられている。さらに、中西他（2018）はグローバルコミュニケーションが以下の 3 つのレベ
ルで人の心理に影響を与えるとしている。
・私たちの思考の幅を広くし、考えを深めてくれる（認知）・自分一人では思いつかないような視点を得たり、経験し尽くせないような心情を共有したりすることができる(感情)209

・独自の思いや考えを世界に発信し、国際社会の発展に貢献することができる（行動）これらのキーワードを元に、英語教育における「ダイバーシティ教育」は、「英語の授業を通じて、多文化共生社会に関する情報・知識（knowledge）を習得し、多様性に対する認識・理解（awareness）を深めることにより、自他を尊重する態度（attitude）を身につけ、その場に応じた適切な判断（judge）や具体的な行動（behavior）をすることができるように促す教育。」と定義することを提案する。この定義を授業実践という文脈に反映す
ると、使用する教材によって、情報・知識（knowledge）の習得が行われ、教授法により多様性に対する認識・理解（awareness）や態度（attitude）が高められる。そして、エッセイやプレゼンテーションなどの学習成果物によってその場に応じた適切な判断（judge）は評価され、行動（behavior）に関しては授業での協働学習や授業外での具体的な行動の変化によって示されることになる。
定義に記述されている多様性のカテゴリーとしては、国籍、人種、ジェンダー、年齢、文化等が含まれるものとする。
5. 英語教育における「ダイバーシティ教育」の授業実践方法の提案
授業ではニュースを題材にした教材により知識を習得し、課題を達成するために英語をツールとして使う
TBLT（タスクベースの教授法）で教えることを提案する。TBLT の意見交換タスクなどを用い、課題完成のために他とやりとりをし、相手に配慮や共感する態度を高め、自分の意見を発信できるようにする。その様な授業を通して、海外に行った際や国内の多文化共生社会
において「ダイバーシティ」を意識したコミュニケーシ
ョンができるようになることが望まれる。
6.

今後の課題
今後の課題は、授業実践を行う際に、効果的な教授法を具体的に検討する必要がある。さらに今後、時代と共に変化する「ダイバーシティ教育」の定義をアップデー
トし続けなければいけない。
参考文献
デジタル大辞泉(2012).『デジタル大辞泉』.ジャパンナレッジ（オンラインデータベース）小学館.
文部科学省 (2018). 『高等学校学習指導要領（平成 30 年告示）
解説 外国語編 英語編』. 開隆堂出版.
森朋子. (2018). 「大学における「ダイバーシティ & インクルージョン教育」の重要性」. 東京家政学院大学紀要, (58),
1, 19-27
松村昌紀(2017). 『タスクベースの英語指導ーTBLT の理解と実践』.大修館書店中村豊. (2017). ダイバーシティ & イ
ンクルージョンの基本概念・歴史的変遷および意義. 高
千穂論叢, 52(1), 53-84.
中村豊. (2017). ダイバーシティ & インクルージョンの基本
概念・歴史的変遷および意義. 高千穂論叢, 52(1), 53-84.
中西のりこ, 仁科恭徳. (2018). 『グローバルコミュニケーショ
ン学入門』. 三省堂.
日本教科内容学会.（2021). 『教科内容学に基づく教員養成のための教科内容構成の開発』.あいり出版
渡邉健治, 大久保賢一, 竹下幸男, & 深田將揮. (2017). 日本の小学校における「ダイバーシティ教育」に関する調査. 畿
央大学紀要, 14(2), 25-40.

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

he/she エラーと母語干渉と地域性の訛りスプリング・ライアン*、田淵龍二***東北大学 高度教養教育・学生支援機構
spring.ryan.edward.c4@tohoku.ac.jp**ミント音声教育研究所
tabuchiryuji@nifty.ne.jp
要旨
本研究では日本人英語学習者の発音において、明瞭性を阻む he/she エラー（he が she に聞き取られてしまう）に着目し、自動音声認識と双方向添削によって、he/she エラーの頻度・重要性を調べ、指導によって he/she エラーがどのぐらい正せるかを調査した。また、地域の方言が
he/she エラーと関連している可能性を検討した。生徒に he/she エラーが起こりやすいと思われる文を読み上げてもらい、その後 he/she エラーに関する指導を実施し、再度同じ文を読み上げ、結果を比較した。同時に、育った地域を調査した。その結果、ほとんどの学生が he/she エラー
を起こしていた。しかし、多くの学生は東北出身でいたため、どの地方に he/she エラーが多いかという点に関してははっきりと言えない。レッスン後のエラー率は 10％以上落ちたが、有意差は確認できなかった。さらに指導方法を調べる必要がある。
キーワード：自動音声認識（ASR）、双方向添削、発音教育、母語干渉、方言
1.

はじめに
近年、日本の英語教育において、コミュニケーション能力が重視され、特にスピーキングが着目されつつある。その中、スピーキングの基礎となる発音において、「完璧な発音を目指す」方向から明瞭性（intelligibility）
が高い発音への観点シフトが見られる（e.g. Kang et al.,2020）
。発音が明瞭であるかどうかを判断するのに、自動音声認識（ASR）が有効であるとの指摘があり（e.g.
Spring, 2020）、発音教育に適用する研究もある（e.g. 田淵・スプリング, 2021）。ただし、明瞭性は従来の発音教育と観点が異なるため、日本人英語学習者はどのような音や語句において明瞭性が低いのかはまだ明白ではない。そこで、本発表では、以前の授業で出現した想定外の発音勘違い（田淵・スプリング 2021）を取り上げ、その問題の由来と解決法を探求する。

をすべて発見していると限らない。例えば、田淵・スプリング（2021）によれば、ASR と双方向添削を取り入れた英語発音教育を実施した際、he が she に聞き取られてしまう意外な失敗（以降 he/she エラー）が多いことに気づいた。機械処理だけではなく、英語母語話者が聞いても結果が同じであった。Yoshinaga et al. (2021) によれば、ハ行の「ヒ音」とサ行の「シ」を同じ舌の位置でありながら微妙な呼気流で区別していることが分かった。また、国立国語研究所（1966）によれば、ハ行の「ヒ音」がシの音に近い現象は東京と東北地方でよく現れる。そのため、方言による母語干渉をうけて he/she エラーが生起した可能性が考えられる。そこで、本研究は以下の研究課題と取り組むことにした。he/she エラーは：
1． 日本でどのぐらい見られる問題なのか
2． 方言に関わる母語干渉なのか
3． どのような指導をすれば改善されるのか

2.

先行研究
World Englishes とされるほど各地域で独特の発音を保ちながらも、十分にコミュニケーションが取れている観点から、英語教育で目指すべき発音を「正しく」「標準的」な発音から「明瞭性のある」「伝わる」発音へ変えるべきとの指摘が多くある（e.g. Kang et al., 2020）。他
方、近年の ASR は非英語母語話者のデータも利用し、正確さが上がり、日本人英語学習者の発音の明瞭性を測れるようになった（e.g. Spring, 2020）。
こうした中、ASR を英語教育に取り入れている実例が多くみられる（e.g. Ahn & Lee, 2016; 田淵・スプリン
グ, 2021）。ただし、これまでの研究は学生の総合上達に着目し、学習者が困る独特な問題が明白とは言えない。
Kang et al. (2020) によれば、母語や個人差により、発音で躓くところが異なる。日本語母語話者においては、R・L の区別や Th・S の区別などが複数の先行研究で報告されてきた（e.g. Saito, 2011）。しかし、多くの先行研究は重要な指摘ながら、発音の明瞭性に基づいていない
ため、日本人が英語を話す際に、誤解されやすいところ
210

3.

研究方法
日本人英語学習者（宮城県の大学 2 年生 39 名）でス
ピーキング小テストを行った。テストには NatTos（田淵・スプリング, 2021 参照）を利用した。he を含む文（He is very kind, so she likes to talk to him; He couldn’t
stand the shirt）が入ったスピーキング小テストを発音レッスン前に実施してもらった。NatTos では ASR と双方
向添削による客観評価ができ、学生のデータ収集と練習に使える仕組みとなっている。添削例を図 1 に示した。上段の A が課題文で、受験者はまずリード音声を聞いたあとに読み上げを開始する。その音声を ASR が書き起こしたものは下段の B に出力される。AI の認識
B と課題文 A の双方を比較して、異なった文字は赤で強調表示される。図 1 のように視覚化された評価は、受験者だけでなく指導者にも共有される。

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図1
ASR と双方向添削の様子

5.

議論・結論
he/she エラーが多数見られるため、日本の英語教育に指導項目として加える必要があると考えられる。
また、図 2 の出身地分けデータから、he/she エラーの原因は個人差がありながら、地方の方言による可能性はあると考えられる。東北地方には確かに多いようであるが、他地方にも同じエラーが現れる指摘があり（e.g.
滝川 2019）、本研究のデータでは東北地方だけに現れる現象であることは考えにくい。しかし、本研究のデータでは関西などの地方の比較データがないため、はっきり言えないため、さらに調査したい。
he/she エラーのレッスン前後の改善について、有意差は確認できなかったが、総合のエラー率の平均は大分
減り、レッスン前の時点で 100％のエラー率の学生がレッスン後に 0％まで落ちた学生もいたため、幾分の学生が改善したように思える。ただし、エラー率が若干上がった学生もいて、エラー率があまり変わっていない学生もいるため、改善ができた学生とできなかった学生の相違点について調査し、指導法の再検討が必要と考えられる。特に、指導法に関しては、呼気流や摩擦音の強度にもっと観点をおくと、指導の効果があがるかもしれない。
he/she エラーに関しては従来の理論と経験則に基づいた指導には限界があるように見受けられた。日本語におけるヒとシの混在と調音に関する知見（Yoshinaga
et al., 2021）などを参考に、地域差と個体差を考慮しながら改善指導法を探求することが求められている。
スピーキングテストにおいて、人による音声聞き取りという従来の主観評価では目立たなかった he/she エ
ラーをチェックするためには、評定者の意識と訓練だ
けでなく、ASR による客観評価を加えることも検討される必要があると思われる。いずれにしても、今回の実
践と研究は外国語教育での ASR の可能性を示した。

最初の小テスト終了後に出身地について訪ねた。その後、学生に he/she エラーの問題に気づかせ、h と shの発音レッスンを実施した。he/she エラーの原因は舌が上がり過ぎ、奥歯を触ると考えられるため、レッスンではまず、舌の位置について話し、舌が奥歯を触らないよ
うに顎を下に引っ張り、口を大きく開くようにと指導した。また、舌の位置が自然と微妙に変わることに気付
かせ、he により近い含み笑いの「ヒヒヒ」や「ヒヤリとした」の音を練習させてから、he により遠い「東」や「一つ」の音を練習させた。このポイントと練習を頭に入れ、再度に同じ小テストを実施した。
発音データに関しては、NatTos の 39 名の学習履歴か
ら学生の he/she エラー率を計算した。
4.

結果
図 2 はレッスン前の学生全体の総合と出身地ごとのhe/she エラーを起した割合を示した物である。福島のエラー率が少ないように見えるが、データ数が少なく傾向は明確にならなかった。
図2

前テストで he/she エラーを起した出身地別人数（N=34）
総合 (34)
青森(5)
岩手(2)
山形(5)
宮城(13)
福島(3)
その他(6)
0%

20%

40%

起していない

60%

80%

参考文献
Ahn, T., & Lee, S.M. (2016). User experience of a mobile speaking
application with automatic speech recognition for EFL learning.
British Journal of Educational Technology, 47(4), 778-786.
Kang, O., Thomson, R. I., & Moran, M. (2020). Which features ofaccent affect understanding? Exploring the intelligibility
threshold of diverse accent varieties. Applied Linguistics, 41(4),453-480.
Saito, K. (2011). Identifying problematic segmental features toacquire comprehensible pronunciation in EFL settings: The caseof Japanese learners of English. RELC Journal, 42(3), 363-378.
Spring, R. (2020). Using multimedia tools to objectively rate thepronunciation of L1 Japanese EFL learners. ATEM Journal:
Teaching English through Multimedia, 25, 113-124.
Yoshinaga, T., Maekawa, K., Iida, A. (2021). Aeroacoustic
differences between the Japanese fricatives [ɕ] and [ç]. The
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 149(4), 2426-2436.
国立国語研究所. (1966).「日本言語地図第 1 集」.国立印刷局.
滝川史明. (2019).「静岡市方言における母音の無声化」『静言論叢』, 2, 1-35.
田淵龍二・スプリング・ライアン. (2021).「全自動赤ペン添
削によるスピーキング学習支援の提案―AI による自動音
声認識を 3 秒で添削―」.『言語教育エキスポ 2021 予稿
集』

100%

起こした

注 秋田県、茨城県、北海道、富山県、長野県の学生は 1 名
ずつしかいなかったため、「その他」にまとめた

また、レッスン前後の he/she エラー率を表 1 に示す。
対応のあるサンプルの t 検定で有意差を確認した。レッ
スン前後の両方の小テストを全部実施し、少なくとも 1
回に he/she エラーを起こした学生（N=24）の結果を観察した。
表1

レッスン前後の he/she エラー率の平均（標準偏差）

エラー率

事前

事後

59.04%(31%)

46.10%(35%)

t 検定結果
t
p
-1.58
.13

211

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)「英語嫌いを増やさない英語教育」に関する
言語イデオロギーの考察―夜間定時制高校英語教師の視点から―
森谷祥子
東京大学
shokott@gmail.com
要旨
夜間定時制高校に通う生徒を取り巻く、英語を中心とした言語イデオロギーを、彼らを指導す
る日本人英語教師 1 人の視点に注目し考察する。筆者は都内の夜間定時制高校でのエスノグラ
フィック調査を実施し、対象教師とのインタビューデータのディスコース分析（Blommaert,
2005）を行った。結果次の傾向が表出した：（1）経済格差や学歴社会の認識に基づく高卒資格獲得の重視、（2）英語文化資本の認識に基づく「英語嫌い」の問題視、（3）日本語単一言語主義に基づく日本語能力の重視、（4）多言語多文化主義に基づく継承語の重視、（5）人権尊重主義に基づく自己表現の重視、（6）社会性育成を目指すコミュニケーション力の重視。また、近代公教育の（A）競争主義・効率主義、（B）人格尊重・人道主義という 2 つの方向性（浅野, 1998）
に関して、2 つの方向性が共存する一方、方向性（B）と英語の関連が低いことが示された。
キーワード：言語イデオロギー、夜間定時制高校、ディスコース分析、単一言語主義、現代日本公教育

1.

3.

はじめに
日本の応用言語学研究ではこれまで、夜間定時制高校はほとんど焦点が当てられてこなかった。しかし、夜間定時制高校の生徒たちが持つ、不登校経験、外国ルー
ツ、貧困、障害などのマイノリティ属性は近年社会問題として注目されており、教育現場で様々な課題への対応が求められている。本研究は、マイノリティの視点を重視し、多言語多文化化が顕著となっている日本における英語教育の意義の再考に向けた課題を呈したい。

2.

理論的枠組
言語人類学の分野で発達してきた言語イデオロギーという理論的枠組みを用いる。言語イデオロギーは、「考えや関心の複雑な体系で、それらを介して人々は言語行為を解釈するもの」（Irvine, 1998, p.52）と定義され、言語は概念や象徴として捉えられる（Seargeant,2009）。分析では近代公教育の 2 つの方向性に関する浅野（1998）の主張を足がかりとする（表 1）。マクロレ
ベルのイデオロギー構造と調査結果を照合し、夜間定時制高校を取りまく言語イデオロギーの解明を試みる。
表1

近代公教育における 2 つの方向性（浅野, 1998, pp. 124-125)
方向性（A）：競争主義・効率主義「資本主義確立に不可欠な合理性・効率性・秩序性をもつ
労働者階級と、国民国家統合に必要な国民意識・国家への忠誠心をもつ国民の育成」を目指し、公教育における「選抜的競争と管理的訓練」を志向する。
方向性（B）：人格尊重・人道主義「諸個人の個人的な発達を権利として平等に保障する機構」である学校教育を通して「より普遍的な人間性の発展
や、既存の社会秩序そのものを変革する諸能力にも連鎖し得る」知識の普及を目指す。

212

先行研究
Kubota（2002）は、グローバライゼーションと日本の英語教育に関して、近年日本国内の民族的、文化的、言語的多様化がますます顕著になっているにも関わらず、
言語的、文化的本質主義に基づく国家主義や、日本の国際化を促進するための英語普及への志向性が強く働いていると主張する。日本の多言語環境に注目した Kanno（2008）は日本の小学校での比較調査から、非特権階級の子どもの多言語使用、つまり、非英語を母国語とし日本語を第二言語として学ぶことは、概して低く価値づけられると結論づけた。Kubota（2002）や Kanno（2008）の主張は、日本の英語教育において、上記の方向性（B）
よりも方向性（A）が強く機能していることを示唆する。

4.

現地調査の概要
東京都内にある夜間定時制高校 1 校におけるエスノ
グラフィックな現地調査（2015 年 9 月から 2017 年 6 月）が行われた 1。主な調査方法は，英語の授業を中心とした参与観察，生徒（36 名）や教職員（11 名）へのイン
タビュー，学校に関連する資料の収集である。調査校での英語授業は全学年週 2~3 コマあり、2 人の日本人英語教師が担当していた。その内、週１コマ程度チームティーチングが行われ、日本人英語教師と 2 人の Assistantlanguage teacher（ALT、非常勤）が担当していた。
本発表では、調査校での教歴が 10 年以上で、調査校の英語教育や生徒たちの特徴や傾向に関する知識が豊富であると思われた日本人英語教師 O 氏（男性、50 歳
代）のインタビューデータに注目し、分析・考察を行う。
O 氏は現地調査におけるゲートキーパーであり最も重要なインフォーマントの一人であった。O 氏との個別インタビュー（2017 年 2 月実施）は書き起こされ、
Blommaert（2005）のディスコース分析の手法を参考にした方法で、キーワードの書き出し、切片化、カテゴリ
ー化、概念化などを用いながら、質的に分析された。

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

5.

分析結果と考察O 氏のインタビューデータから、言語や言語教育にまつわる次の 6 つの傾向が表出した（表 2）

・言語に直接関係する行為ではないが、調査校の生徒を取り巻く言語イデオロギーと深く関係・背景には、調査校を越えた日本の教育界全体の歴史＝帝国主義からの脱却を目指す日本の教育（志水他, 2014）。
夜間定時制高校など一部の学校で 1960 年代頃から在日コリアン等の生徒に実践されてきた（安田, 2017）
・英語優位イデオロギーより日本語優位イデオロギーへの抵抗としての実践。社会的弱者に置かれる「外国人」の多くがアジア・南米などの発展途上国出身。→方向性（B）前景化、英語との薄い関連性

表2
O 氏のインタビューから表出した 6 つの傾向
（1）経済格差や学歴社会の認識に基づく高卒資格の重視
O 氏の言及：・定時制独自のテスト作成テクニック。背景に、配慮が必
要な生徒や、時間的制限
・単位取得の容易さへの自己批判
考察：
・高卒資格獲得に必須である「英語」単位取得重視の背景には、生徒が格差社会や学歴社会を生き抜くのに高卒資格が重要であるという認識→方向性（A）前景化
・生徒の英語学習の質保障との葛藤（6）社会性育成を目指すコミュニケーション力の重視：
O 氏の言及：・英語授業やテストでのコミュニケーション力重視。背景に文法教授の困難さ
・日本人生徒 R の変化＝以前は極端に内向的、教員らの働
きかけの結果外向的に・中国ルーツの男子生徒 Q や友人の男子生徒 S の外国人生徒らに対する包摂的コミュニケーション
考察：
・調査校全体における、「情報伝達」としてのコミュニケーション（cf. Block, 2002）とは異なる、人格形成や人間関係構築のためのコミュニケーション重視。背景に、生徒の過去の人付き合いの嫌な経験
・必ずしも英語でのコミュニケーションが求められる訳ではない→方向性（B）前景化、英語と間接的な関連（2）英語文化資本の認識に基づく「英語嫌い」の問題視
O 氏の言及：・英語授業の目標＝『将来学ぶ必要がでてきた時に』嫌な思いが残らないよう、『英語嫌いを増やさない』こと・英語は異文化理解につながる。それは自明のこと
・日本における英語の必要性の低さ
考察：・「英語」＝「グローバル言語」、使用者に社会経済的恩恵をもたらす文化資本（Bourdieu, 1986）・グローバル社会の競争で日本が生き残るための英語の重視→方向性（A）前景化
・英語必要性の低さの認識との葛藤

注 二重カギカッコ内はインタビューでの発言。

6.

結論
夜間定時制高校の英語教師 O 氏とのインタビューの分析・考察から、英語を中心とした言語や言語教育に関する認識には、浅野（1998）が主張する公教育の方向性（A）と方向性（B）が、様々な葛藤や対立を孕みながら共に機能している様子が示された。ただし、方向性（B）
が前景化するのは、英語との関連性が低い場合であり、むしろ、マイノリティ言語に対する日本語優位イデオ
ロギーが強く表象される場合であった。ここに英語教
育の潜在的限界が見える。教育の中で、あらゆる個人の
人間性の発達を目指す上では、英語イデオロギーだけ
ではなく日本語優位イデオロギーへも関心の目を向ける必要があろう。特に、格差社会の中で生きづらさを抱えやすいマイノリティの人々の視点を重視すれば、方向性（B）への積極的な働きかけは重要である。多様化が進む現代日本で、すべての人の学ぶ権利が保障され、生きる力の育成につながる英語教育・外国語教育のあり方を問うべきであろう。

（3）日本語単一言語主義に基づく日本語能力の重視
O 氏の言及：・フィリピン人生徒 P（L1＝現地語とタガログ語、L2＝英語と日本語）の日本語学習停滞への懸念
・理想的な日本語指導方法＝基礎的ドリル、継続的・系統的個別指導
・生徒 P の英語力の低さと良好な母語維持
考察：
・生徒 P の多言語性の認識＜日本語能力の重視
・日本における単一言語的な日本語優位イデオロギーと、英語を含むその他の言語の周縁化
・日本語優位という既存の社会構造の変革より、個人の言語能力の変化によって、日本社会での競争に勝ち抜く力を育成しようとする姿勢→方向性（A）前景化（4）多言語多文化主義に基づく継承語（HL）の重視
O 氏の言及：・O 氏の中国や韓国への造詣の深さと、外国人生徒に対する中国語や韓国語の使用
・中国ルーツの生徒 Q（L1=日本語・中国語？、HL=中国語）の母文化尊重に対する肯定的態度
・生徒の外国人親への敬意
考察：・(3)の日本語単一言語主義と対立
・多言語多文化への受容的態度は調査校の特徴。多様な社会的背景を持つ生徒たちの支援に極めて重要
・生徒との個人的関係性構築や学校内のインフォーマルな場面に限定。日本語単一言語主義との葛藤の下、多言語多文化主義が後景化→方向性（B）限定的な前景化

注1
本調査に関する学校名や個人名はすべて仮名である。また，研究結果に支障がない範囲で情報は一部改変されている。
参考文献（重要なものを抜粋）
浅野慎一. (1998).『現代日本社会の構造と転換』.大学教育出版.
Blommaert, J. (2005). Discourse: A critical introduction. Cambridge
University Press.
Irvine, J. (1998). Ideologies of honorific language. In B. Schieffelin,
K. Woolard, & P. Kroskrity (Eds.), Language ideologies:
Practice and theory (pp. 51–67). Oxford University Press.
Kanno, Y. (2008). Language and education in Japan: Unequal
access to bilingualism. Palgrave Macmillan.
Kubota, R. (2002). The impact of globalization on language teachingin Japan. D. Block & D. Cameron (Eds.), Globalization andlanguage teaching (pp. 13–28). Routledge.

（5）人権尊重主義に基づく自己開示の重視
O 氏の言及：・外国ルーツの生徒に対する「本名宣言」（安田, 2017）の推進。他の教員との共通認識
・通名使用への強い批判
考察：213

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

ハイブリッド学習の有用性―自己調整学習者の育成に向けて―
香林

綾子

平安女学院大学
ayako-kobayashi@heian.ac.jp
要旨
本研究の目的は一学期間ハイブリッド学習に参加していた大学生を対象に、ハイブリッド学習に対する彼らの経験、意見やニーズを調べ、ハイブリッド学習の有用性および限界点について考察し、教育的示唆を提供することである。調査は、日本の大学に通う英語を学ぶ非英語専攻の二つのリーディングのクラスに所属する一年生 51 名（男子 32 名、女子 19 名）を対象に行なった。学期末に、研究に参加する承諾を学生から得た後、Forms での質問紙調査を実施した。
ハイブリッド学習として、課題の回収の他に、対面 4 回、Zoom 5 回と Flipgrid を 6 回実施した。
また、Microsoft の Teams も活用し、Study Group も割り振り学習の促進をはかった。質問紙調
査の分析の結果、授業で使用した Flipgrid は英語で発表する自信に肯定的な影響があるということが示唆された。また、今後の授業形態に関しては、時間を有効に使える、コミュニケーシ
ョンが取りやすい、という理由からハイブリッド学習のニーズが高いことが分かった。
キーワード：ハイブリッド学習、EFL classrooms、Flipgrid、自己調整学習

1. はじめに2000 年代以降、テクノロジーの急速な発展に伴い、世界的に多様な授業形態を通して学びが促進されるようになってきた。とりわけ、高等教育において、ハイブ
リッド・ラーニング（以下、ハイブリッド学習）が実施されてきている。2020 年度は、コロナ禍に伴い対面授業の実施が困難になったので、日本の大学も遠隔授業が奨励され、教員も授業形態に対して柔軟に対応す
るように求められた。ハイブリッド学習は、これまでに多くの実践研究が報告されている。しかし、国内ではほとんどが伝統的な教室活動の中で行われているもので（藤本、2018）、2020 年に多くの大学で実施されたオンタイム型の Zoom の授業やアウトプットの機会を提供する Flipgrid を使用した授業形態に対する学習者の経験やニーズは十分に把握されているとは言い難い。
そこで、本研究では、一学期間ハイブリッド学習に参加した学生の経験やニーズを把握し、ハイブリッド学
習の有用性および限界点について考察し、教育的示唆を提供したい。
2. 背景
ハイブリッド学習はブレンディッド・ラーニングと同義として使用されてきている（Klimova & Kacetl, 2015）。
ハイブリッド学習の定義は文脈によって多様であるが、一般的に、科目の性質や目的、教員および学習者のス
タイルや学習環境に応じて、学習の機会が最大限に活かせるように、対面、オンライン学習、オンタイム型、
オンデマンド型などの組み合わせからなる授業形態をさす。ハイブリッド学習は、協働学習を促す、文化間
コミュニケーションに対する意識をあげるといった利点が報告されてきているが、準備には時間がかかり、教員も学生もテクノロジーの使用にはスキルや知識が必要になる。また、オンライン学習では、学生は、教員の存在なしで、学習を進めていくことになるため、自己調整学習能力が求められ、教員は自己調整学習者の育成に対する知識やスキルが大切になってくる（e.g.,214

Mcmahon & Oliver, 2001）。
3. 本調査（アクション・リサーチ）
3.1 目的
本研究では、ハイブリッド学習に対する学生の経験やニーズを調べ、ハイブリッド学習の有用性について検討し、教育的示唆を提供する。
3.2 参加者
本調査は、日本の大学に通う英語を学ぶ非英語専攻の一年生の二つのリーディングのクラスを対象に行なった。授業の目的は、論理的な文章が読めるようになり、書けるようになることだった。英語に関しては興味があるともないとも言えない学生が多く、英検 2 級を持っていた学生が約 4 割（18 人）いた。調査の参加者 51
名（男子 32 名、女子 19 名）は、一学期間（2020 年 9月末から 2021 年 1 月末）授業に参加していた。

3.3 教育的介入
対面 4 回の他に、
Zoom 5 回と Flipgrid を 6 回実施した。
クラスの人数が多かったことと、コロナの対策として、ひとクラスを 3 つのグループに割って対面を行う必要があったため、
1 グループは 30 分だけの授業になった。
対面時は、対面ならではのディスカッションをメインに持つようにした。Microsoft の Teams も活用し、Study
Group も割り振り学習の促進をはかった。また、Flipgridの回数などは、学生と一緒に決めながら実施した。定期的にインターネットを通して次の課題を回収した：（1）Teams でのクイズ 6 回、（2）発表用のスクリプト
6 回、（3）Flipgrid 6 回、（4）Mini-Reports（ディスカッ
ションの問に対する課題 12 回）、（5）Study Group Notes
3 回、（6）Reports 2 回。
4. データ収集と分析
学期末に、研究に参加する承諾を学生から得た後、Forms での質問紙調査を実施した。調査に関する回答はThe JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

コンピューターで統計的に分析され、全て%や平均などで示される、回答した内容から個人が特定されるようなことや成績には一切関係ない旨が説明された。ハイ
ブリッド学習についての経験やニーズを把握するために、次の３つについて聞いた。（1）英語に対する自信がついたか、（2）Flipgrid の学習効果について、とその理由、（3）今後、どのような形態の授業が一番受けた
いか、とその理由。英語に対する自信については、あてはまる数字 1（ = 全くあてはまらない）〜6（ = と、2 =（10–20%）、3 =てもよくあてはまる）1 =（0–10%）、4 =（60–80%）、 5 =（80–90%）、 6 =（90–（20–40%）100%）の 6 件法で回答してもらった。
（2）に関しては、3 件法（1 = そう思わない、2 = どちらとも言えない、3= そう思う）で、（3）に関しては、選択肢から選んでもらった。また、（2）と（3）に関しては、それぞれの選択に対する理由を記述式で回答してもらった。

表1

英語に対する自信（N = 51）
SD

最小値

最大値

英語で理解する自信が
ついた

3.76

1.050

1

6

英語でコミュニケーシ
ョンする自信がついた

3.49

0.987

1

6

英語で発表する自信が
ついた

3.80

1.059

2

6

Flipgrid に対する学習効果は、半数以上（57%）の学生が効果があると感じていたことが分かった。
「そう思うわない」が（6%）
、「どちらとも言えない」が（37%）だった。アウトプットの機会を増やすという点では、ある程度狙いどおりの成果である。
今後受けたい英語の授業形態については、表 2 で見られるように、対面が多いものの、Zoom、対面と Zoomの併用、
Flipgrid、
対面と Flipgrid の併用、Zoom や Flipgridなど全てを併用するハイブリッド型を合わせる、ハイブリッド学習はかなりのニーズがあると示唆される。

おわりに本調査を通して、授業で使用した Flipgrid は英語での発表に対する自信に影響が大きいことが分かった。また、今後の授業では効率がいいやコミュニケーションが取りやすい、という理由から Zoom やハイブリッド学
習を希望する学生のニーズがかなり高いことが示唆された。ハイブリッド学習は、対面の良さを保ちつつ、個々のニーズに応えられるという点においては、今後も有効な授業形態になると示唆される。
参考文献
藤田かおる (2018). 定義からみる日本におけるブレンディッ
ドラーニングの概要: Revision of blended learning in Japan,
Global studies, 2, 127–137.武蔵野大学学術機関リポジトリ
https://id.nii.ac.jp/1419/00000869/
Klimova, B. F, & Kacetl, J. (2015). Hybrid learning in its current
role in the teaching of foreign languages, Procedia-Social and
Behavioral Sciences, 182, 477–481.
Mcmahon, M., & Oliver, R. (2001). Promoting self-regulated
learning in an on-line environment. Proceedings of World
Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia andTelecommunications
2001,
1299–1305
http://ro.ecu.edu.au/ecuworks/4816

今後受けたい英語の授業形態 （N = 51）
件

対面

21

Zoom

17
*

対面と Zoom の併用（半々）5Flipgrid

3

対面と Flipgrid の併用（半々）

2

1

6.

表2

授業形態

その他

自由記述の回答からは、Flipgrid が効果的だったと思う理由（23 件）として、一番多かったのが発表する機会があったことで、スピーキングの訓練になっただった。効果的ではなかったという意見は 2 件のみで、理由としては、「使い方が難しい」、「コメントが全く機能していなかったので、対面した状態や Zoom などで行ったほうが効果的ではなかったかなと思う」だった。
Flipgrid は無料のアプリで便利であるが、動画でコメントを返すのにはまだまだ抵抗があることが分かる。この辺りは、Flipgrid の限界点とも利点（動画でコメントを返すことを制限しているアプリでそれを奨励している）とも言えるが、動画ではなく、オンタイムでコメントしたいという学生のニーズはあるようである。これは、教員が新しいテクノロジーの使用を促すとき、その狙いを明確に示す必要があると示唆している。
今後受けたい授業形態に関しては、対面がいいと言う一番の理由は、コミュニケーションがとりやすい、ということだった。その他の理由としては、「対面の方が集中できる」、「講義の前後で交流できるから」などが見られた。また、Zoom に関して、一番多かった理由
は、「時間や場所を有効に使える」、「発表するときに緊張しないから」、「気軽に参加できるから」、「ズームの方が先生や生徒と距離が近くに感じ、私の中でとても話しやすいから」、「対面より zoom の方がよりよく音が聞こえる」、「zoom によってもコミュニケーションは可能だと思う」というようなコミュニケーションがしやすいという興味深い意見がみられた。また、対面とZoom の併用（半々）の理由としては、友達作りには、対面がいいが、慣れてくれると効率を優先し、Zoom がいいという意見がみられた。以上の意見は、学生のハ
イブリッド学習に対するニーズを反映している。

結果と考察
英語に対する自信については、表 1 に見られるように、3 項目全て、4（60–80%）に近い数字ということから、全体的に英語に対する自信は、「どちらかと言うとついた」と実感していることが明らかになった。

M

2

注. * それぞれの授業形態の回数が半々

5.

項目

対面、Flipgrid、Zoom、Teams など全てを併用するハイブリッド型

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英語音声指導・音声学習の際の留意点：＜複眼的視点＞の重要性
高橋直彦
東北学院大学教養学部
shinshiza777@gmail.com
要旨
英語の音声指導を行う際も音声学習を行う際も＜複眼的な視点＞をもつことが重要であるという点を論ずる。
とりわけ音声学は（頭で理解して得られる）＜形式知＞と（実際にやってみてわかる）＜実践知＞とのバランスをとることが要求される典型的な分野である。この点を、具体例を通して学習者に的確に伝えることが重要である。＜複眼的視点＞の重要性を伝えるには ＜見える化＞（図式化・音声化・動画化）を通じて、学習項目が直感的・具体的・全体的に把捉可能な方法を目指すことが有効で、先行研究の知見を土台としつつも、指導者の様々な工夫が加えられたものでなければ訴求力を欠く。自作の教材を準備することが肝要である。＜複眼的視点＞としては、以下の項目を中心に据え、いくつか適宜織り交ぜつつ授業展開を行う。
(1) 形式知 vs. 実践知 (2) 音声学（音声実質）vs. 音韻論（システム、型） (3) 統合関係 vs. 連合関係/選択関係 (4) 静的 vs. 動的 (5) 音声 vs. 文字 (6) 英語 vs. 他言語
キーワード：複眼的な視点、形式知、実践知、見える化、自作の教材

1.

学習者に伝えることによって、学習者の動機・理解促進に寄与することを目指す。

研究の目的
英語の音声指導を行う際には、また音声学習を行う際においても、＜複眼的な視点＞をもつことがきわめて重要であるという点を論ずる。

8. 指導の手順＜複眼的視点＞の内実としては、以下の項目を中心に据え、各回の授業でそのうちの項目をいくつか適宜織り交ぜつつ授業展開を行う。
(1) 形式知 vs. 実践知(2) 音声学（音声実質）vs. 音韻論（システム、型）(3) 統合関係（syntagma tic relations）vs. 連合
関係/選択関係（paradigmatic relations）(4) 静的 vs. 動的(5) 音声 vs. 文字(6) 英語 vs. 他言語

2.

仮説・課題
いかなる学問分野でも言えることであるが、とりわけ音声学は、（頭で理解して得られる）＜形式知＞と（実際にやってみてわかる）＜実践知＞とのバランスをとることが要求される典型的な分野であると言ってよいと思われる。このきわめて重要な点を、授業を通じて学習者に様々な具体例を通して的確に伝えることが重要である。

3.

方法＜複眼的視点＞の重要性を伝える際には、＜見える化＞（図式化・音声化・動画化）を通じて、学習項目
が直感的・具体的・全体的に把捉可能な方法を目指す
ことが有効である。この＜見える化＞は、先行研究の知見を土台としつつもなお、指導者の様々な工夫が加えられたものでなければ訴求力がないものと考える。
自作のパワーポイント・ムービー・Flash 等を準備することが肝要である。

図：言語音の３次元的分類

4.

結果
上記の＜見える化＞の方法により、学期開始時と学期終了時とでは、＜形式知＞と＜実践知＞のバランスの取れた習得が、テスト・レポート・アンケート等により、実際に観察可能となっている。
参考文献

5.

授業の学年担当
大学１年生
6. クラスの人数
20～30人7. 授業の目標
音声学の授業においては、とりわけ＜複眼的視点＞をもつことが重要であることを様々な具体例を通じて

早田輝洋. (1999).『音調のタイポロジー』. 大修館書店.
Ladefoged, Peter and Keith Johnson. (2014). A Course in
Phonetics. Wadsworth Pub Co.
Laver, John. (2010). Principles of Phonetics (Cambridge Textbooks
in Linguistics). Cambridge University Press.
Pike, K. L. (1943). Phonetics: A Critical Analysis of Phonetic
Theory and a Technique for the Practical Description ofSounds. University of Michigan Publications.
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枡矢好弘. (1976). 『英語音声学』. こびあん書房.
杉藤美代子. (2012).『日本語のアクセント、英語のアクセン
ト』. ひつじ書房.
高橋直彦. (2011).「英語冠詞再訪」. 東北学院大学教養学部『東北学院大学教養学部論集』, 158,15–39.
高橋直彦. (2020).『新視座 英文法——ひな形方式 101 第 1 階梯——』. 三恵社.

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メディア英語クラスにおける
東京オリンピック関連製品の広告コピー制作
塩見佳代子
立命館大学
kshiomi@ba.ritsumei.ac.jp
要旨
本発表では、映画を題材として４技能を養成する Media English クラスにおけるアクティブ・
ラーニングの取り組みの一つを紹介する。このクラスでは、英語４技能を養成する一環として、最初に映画に関する英文記事を読み、映画の背景知識を得ると共に、映画を複数回視聴して英語表現を学び、最終的に字幕無しで内容を理解できるようになることを目指す。また、視聴した映画の批評を行い、映画で扱われているテーマや社会問題に関しても話し合う。そして、映画で扱われている様々な分野の動向を分析すると同時に、それぞれの業界に関連するアクティビティを導入する。今回はその中でも、特に広告業界を舞台に繰り広げられる映画 「ハート・オブ・ウーマン」を基に、学生が取り組んだ海外スポーツブランドの東京オリンピックに向けての広告コピー制作の内容を報告する。
キーワード：広告コピー、キャッチフレーズ、アクティブ・ラーニング、東京オリンピック
1. はじめに映画を題材にしたクラスでは、映画の背景知識を学
び、映画を視聴しながら英語表現を学び、映画の内容理解を確認する受信型の授業が行われる場合が多い。
本発表者も映画を用いたクラスでは、最初の数年間は
主に英語学習者の受信型能力を育成してきた。しかしその後、英語の 4 技能養成をするために試行錯誤を重ね、映画に扱われているテーマや業界に関連するアク
ティビティを取り入れながら、学生の英語発信型能力を養成するために様々な方法でアクティブ・ラーニン
グを導入してきた。本発表ではその中でも特に、広告業界で作られる広告コピーを題材に学生が行ったプロジェクトを紹介する。

3.2 授業内容
本クラスでは、広告、ファッション、ホテル、航空業界やスポーツ分野を舞台にした複数の映画を用いて授業を行う。学生は、様々な分野におけるビジネスシーンを中心に、映画に登場する主人公の葛藤や選択、
取り組みなどを視聴すると同時に、映画のシーンと関連のあるアクティビティに取り組む。映画の題材により、今までテーマに関わるディスカッション、自己 PR
動画作成、ボイスオーバー・ナレーション、映画批評、俳優になりきっての演技、広告コピー制作などを行ってきた。広告コピー制作は、映画「ハート・オブ・ウーマン」を基にしたアクティビティであるが、学生は海外のスポーツブランドの日本展開を念頭に、バーチ
ャル広告コピー制作を行い、その企業の国際マーケティング担当者にコメントをもらった。

2. 英語教育とアクティブ・ラーニング
文部科学省(2012)の中央教育審議会答申「新たな未来を築くための大学教育の質的転換に向けて」では、「教員による一方向的な講義形式の教育とは異なり、学習者の能動的な学習への参加を取り入れた教授・学習法の総称」を、アクテイブ・ラーニングと定義している。教育研究者や授業実践者等からも、講義を聞くだけではなく、「読解、作文、討論、問題解決活動の中で、分析、統合、評価などの高次思考課題を行う学習」の必要性や(Bonewell & Eison, 1991)、学生の能動的学習の質向上には教員が学びの内容にこだわることが大切である点が指摘されている(溝上, 2007)。その意
味では、学生の専攻分野と関連したトピックを題材にアクティビティを導入することは重要となる。

3.3 映画「ハート・オブ・ウーマン」と広告コピー
この映画では、主人公のニック（広告マン）はある
アクシデントから女性の考えが聞こえるようになる。
それを利用して、クライアントになる可能性のあるNike（女性部門）に向けて、以下の広告のアイデアをピッチする。そのアイデアは、元はといえばダーシー（女性の上司）の考えたものであったが、クライアン
トに大変好評で、アイデアが採択されることになる。
You don’t stand in front of a mirror before a run wondering
what the road will think of your outfit. You don’t have tolisten to its jokes and pretend they’re funny in order to run
on it. It would not be easier to run if you dressed sexier. The
road doesn’t notice if you’re not wearing lipstick. Does notcare how old you are. You do not feel uncomfortablebecause you make more money than the road. And you cancall on the road… whenever you feel like it. Whether it’s
been a day…or even a couple of hours since your last date.
The only thing the road cares about, is that you….pay it avisit once in a while. Nike. No games, just sports.

3. 授業実践
3.1 受講者
選択英語である Media English クラスは、本学経営学部・国際経営学科の２年生以上で、TOEFL480 点以上
あるいは TOEIC550 点以上を取得している学生を対象に開講されているが、今回は 29 名が受講した。

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3.4 広告コピー制作の手順(1) 映画から広告に必要なキャッチフレーズ作成のヒントを学ぶ。
(2) 映画と似た設定で、海外スポーツブランドの東京オリンピックに向けた広告コピーを考案する。
(3) 広告コピーの内容に合った背景画を選び、１枚のスライドを作成する。
(4) 練り上げた広告のキャッチフレーズや広告コピー
をクラスで発表する。
(5) 海外スポーツブランドの国際マーケティング
マネージャーからコメントをもらう
4.本学部学生の制作した広告コピー
学生の制作した主なキャッチフレーズの例を挙げると以下のようなものがある。
1. Is your best the best?
2. Get your wings
3. Take a step forward Tokyo2020
4. Fun of running
5. Be the champion
6. Run Anytime Anywhere
7. Never stop challenging
8. Run, Japan, Fun
9. Run to Meet Yourself
10. Go beyond the dream
11. RUN TO THE TOKYO2020
12. Feel the History by Running
13. Wear sporty & beauty
14. You are already athlete
15. THE SKY’S THE LIMIT

図 3 企業の国際マーケティング担当者からのコメントは広告のコンセプトを考える上で役に立つ(n=29)
そう思う
4.30%
43.50%
52.20%

少しそう思うどちらでもない

5.2 広告コピー制作で難しかった点-ブランドを保ち、Tokyo Olympics についても含める点-広告における独創性を考えるのが難しかった。
-伝えたいことを短く表現するフレーズを探す点-どうすれば人を惹きつけられるか。
-日本らしさを出すのが難しかった。
-フリー素材で良いものを探すこと。
-画像と Tagline の内容がぴったり合っていること。
5.3 広告コピー制作で工夫した点-オリンピックの戦うイメージを取り入れた。
-オリジナル性を短い文でいかに出せるかという点。
--キャッチーな文言を考える点-アスリートが希望を持ってスポーツに挑めるようなものを考えた。
-いかにアスリート以外の一般の人を巻き込むか。
-日本とオリンピックを両方考えて案を考えるところ。
-人の注意を惹きつけるような工夫。

5. 広告コピー制作について学習の振り返り
5.1 アンケート結果
広告コピー制作に関するアンケートから、「そう思う」と「少しそう思う」を合わせると、広告コピー制作で広告やマーケティングに興味を持った(78%)、キャッチ
フレーズとデザインに独創性を持たせた（87%）、企業の国際マーケティング担当者からのコメントは役立つ(95.7%)の回答があった。（図 1-2-3 参照)
図 1 広告作成プロジェクトで広告・マーケティングに興味をもった (n=29)

5.4 広告コピー制作で今後向上させたい点-テーマにもう少し関連づける。
-キャッチフレーズをもっと刺さるものに。
-わかり易く印象に残るものを作ることを心がけたい。
-一目見てその商品に興味を持つようにキャッチーなフレーズを考える。
-もっとオリジナルでユーモアなものを作りたい。
-ありふれたものはなく独創性で気を引くものを作る。
-自分で画像を撮ってみたい。
-ふさわしい画像をネットから持ってくるのは難しい
ため自分で撮りたいと思った。
-画像のデザインについての基本を学ぼうと思った。

そう思う

13%
30%
9%

6. 終わりに
広告コピーのアイデア立案と制作は、ビジネスを専攻にする本学部の国際経営学科の学生には大変関心のあるものであった。今回は、東京オリンピックをテーマに海外企業のバーチャル広告コピーを制作したが、このアクティビティは応用範囲が広く、学生が所属する大学や学部、そしてクラブやその他のイベント紹介の PR などにも活用することができると考えられる。

少しそう思うどちらでもない

48%

あまり思わない

図 2 広告のキャッチフレーズとデザインを考案する際、独創性をもたせた(n=29)

参考文献
Bonwell, C.C., & Eison, J.A. (1991). Active Learning: Creating
excitement in the classroom. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education
Report No. 1. George Washington University.
溝上慎一.(2007).「アクテイブ・ラーニング導入の実践的課
題」.『名古屋高等教育研究』7 号, 269-287.
文部科学省. (2012).「新たな未来を築くための大学教育の質的転換に向けて」.中央教育審議会答申.

そう思う
4%
9%

57%

30%

少しそう思うどちらでもない
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オンラインでもできる「小学校外国語」指導案作成と模擬授業―学生の気づきからわかったこと―
澁井とし子
東京福祉大学t_shibui@nifty.com

要旨
教員養成課程の学生を対象に行ったオンラインでの小学校「外国語の指導法」の授業実践報告を行う。学生は初めて指導案を作成したが、その後模擬授業を行い他の人の授業を見てお互いに学び合いができた。特に今回はオンライン上で模擬授業をするという誰も経験したことのないスタイルに臨み、初めは難しいと思い込んでいた英語のやり取りも工夫次第でできることはたくさんあるとの発見に繋がった。更に講義だけでは理解するのが難しかった点も実際に授業を行ったり、児童役になり授業を受けたりすることで「気づき」が生まれた。例えば学生から
は「いろいろな単元の授業を見ることができ、指導案を書くだけでは気づくことができなかったことに気づくことができた、オンラインでも少し工夫するだけで楽しい授業にできる、意味のある授業を作ることができると実感した、児童役になって改めて習ってきたことは重要だと気づくことができた。
」等の振り返りがあった。
キーワード：教員養成、指導案、模擬授業、気づき
3.2 授業方法
クラスで 3～4 人のグループを組み、各グループで担
当希望レッスン箇所を第 3 希望まで出してもらい、教員はクラスでレッスン箇所が重ならないよう、調整を行った。授業で指導案の書き方を指導した後、オンライ
ンのブレイクアウトセッションを利用し、グループ指導案作成のための学生同士の話し合いの時間を設けた。
指導案作成は、授業時間内だけでは完成しないため、授業外のメールでのやり取りを主とし、提出された指導案に教員がコメントをつけてグループ代表の学生に返却した。この間授業内では、グループごとに口頭でのアドバイスも行った。このやり取りを各グループ 5 回
程行い、指導案、及びワークシート等の完成に導いた。
模擬授業に関しては、1 グループ 15 分とし、ティー
ム・ティーチングを行えるよう、ペアを 2 組作り、1 つずつ計 2 つの活動を行ってもらった。模擬授業の開始前に簡単に授業の背景と本時の目標の説明を学生が行った。授業者以外は全員が 5 年生の児童役となり、模擬授業を受けた。
模擬授業後に全員がグーグルフォームの授業評価に入力したが、相互評価の評価基準は事前に全学生に送り、何を評価されるのか、また自分たちが何を評価するのかを明確にした（表 1）。相互評価の際は、例のように 4 スケールで回答した。例）はい、きちんと示していた。はい、少し示していた。いいえ、あまり示していな
い。いいえ、全く示していない。そしてその際、事前配布された各グループの本時の目標が書かれた一覧表を見て各グループの授業の目標と活動が一致しているかを判断してもらった。学生が授業評価を入力後、各模擬授業後に口頭によるコメントを数名が発表して全体で感想を共有し、最後に教員がまとめのコメントを述べた。また、授業者は別途授業を行った感想を作成して、教員にメールで送った。教員はそれを読み、実際に授業を行ってどのように学生が感じたのかを把握した。

はじめに2020 年 4 月に小学校高学年の外国語は「教科」となった。また、大学の小学校教員養成課程コア・カリキュ
ラムでも「外国語の指導法」と「専門的事項」の 2 科目が必修科目となった。2020 年に教員養成課程 2 年生の学生は、これらの授業をいずれもオンラインで受講した。本校では学生の学籍番号の奇数、偶数に分けた対面
授業も秋期から取り入れられたが、2 キャンパス中 1 キ
ャンパスは全てオンラインで、もう一方も数名が大学に来ただけでほぼオンラインで行うこととなった。このような状況であったが、「外国語の指導法」では手探り状態であった模擬授業を通して、学生にはいくつかの「気づき」見られた。そのため本研究では、指導案作成と模擬授業を行った授業の実践報告を行う。
1.

「外国語の指導法」授業概要
外国語の指導法の授業は、指導案作成と模擬授業を通して教科化された小学校外国語の授業を適切に行えるようになることが目標である。授業では、小学校外国語の授業を視聴し、教員によるモデル授業を体験し、指導案作成等について理解した後、学生は 3～4 人グループになり、自分たちで担当レッスンを選んで指導案を作成した。教員による数回の添削の後、学生はグループでの模擬授業を行い、自己評価と相互評価を行った。
2.

3. 授業の対象及び方法
3.1 授業対象
対象の学生は、教員養成課程の大学 2 年生 1 クラス
35～44 名の 4 クラス（男性：80 名、女性：76 名）合計
156 名である。2020 年 10 月～2021 年 3 月の間に行った。研究対象は、小学校「外国語の指導法」15 回の授業である。学生による指導案作成と模擬授業は、小学校
5 年生と限定し、検定教科書は学校図書の「JUNIORTOTAL ENGLISH 1」を参考にし、トピックを考えた。
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表1

うに授業が出来なかったことがとても悔しかった。不測の事態に備えてもうちょっと対応を考えておけばよ
かったと思う。

模擬授業相互評価項目
評価項目
1.

授業の初めにモデルを示していたか。

2.

授業での指示（クラスルームイングリッシュの使用）
は適切か。

3.

授業を進めるスピードは適切か。

4.

ティーム・ティーチングになっているか（1 人だけで教えていないか）。

5.

5 年生に適した活動内容になっているか。

6.

本時の目標と活動が一致しているかどうか。

7.

児童が聞きたくなる、言いたくなる活動であったか。

8.

模擬授業の流れは良いか、無理はないか。

注）4 スケールで回答、最後にコメントを入力

授業後、教員は模擬授業の相互評価をまとめ、クラスで出たデータとクラスメイト全員のコメント（無記名）をまとめ、授業者全員にメールで送った。授業者にはそのコメントを読み、今後の参考にしてもらった。更に学生には、次の授業では模擬授業経験者としてコメントを述べるよう指導した。
3.3 分析方法
指導案、模擬授業はそれぞれ評価基準を設定した。模
擬授業評価は、表 1 の通り学生が入力し、その結果が自動的にグーグルフォームで％表示された。相互評価の学生によるコメントと模擬授業後の感想は教員が読み、「気づき」のことばをコード化し、多かったものを摘出した。そして①指導案を作成しての感想、頑張った点②模擬授業を行っての感想、反省点 ③模擬授業を受けての感想 ④講義を受けるだけではわからなかった
点の 4 項目に分類した。
4.
結果
4.1 指導案を作成しての感想、頑張った点
他の教科と違い英語で指導案を書く点が難しかった。
児童が言いたくなる活動を考えるのが難しかった。繰
り返し児童に表現を聞かせるようにした。教材の工夫（視覚情報にこだわった）をした。パワーポイントスラ
イド、チャンツの音源、絵カードの作成など、教材研究にオリジナリティを持たせた。
4.2 模擬授業を行っての感想、反省点
児童の表情が見えないと授業し難い。フリー素材を使用して、教材作成をした。パワーポイントを使用し、絵カードを動かしながら授業をするなど工夫をした。
パワーポントを活用するとわかりやすい授業が行えるとわかった。全員が慌ててしまい出すべき資料が出せず、児童とのキャッチボールがうまくいかなかった。質問等をうまく言えない児童へのサポートがなかなかう
まくできなかった。身振り手振りをもっとやってもよかった。完璧に準備していてもトラブルがある、その対応ができなかった。画面共有ができていたのに、当日できない、音が出ない等色々とトラブルがあり、思ったよ

4.3 模擬授業を受けての感想
先生が同じ英文を繰り返して聞かせるとわかりやすい。ただ英語を言うのではなく、大事なところを強く言われるとわかりやすい。歌や音源を取り入れるとより楽しくなる。パワーポイントのスライドや実物で示すものがあるとわかりやすい。先生がお手本を見せると活動がわかりやすい。モデルを示してくれた時の発音が丁寧で、聞き取りやすいとわかりやすかった。ドリル
だけではつまらないとわかった。何をしているのかわ
からないと、児童は理解できないとわかった。バンダナ、
エプロン、看板などあると何をしているのか、店員などとわかりやすい。具体物を使った学習がよかった。視覚
情報は大切、わかりやすい。先生の発音、声の大きさ、ジャスチャーの大切さがわかった。先生が早口だとわかり難い。褒めている、児童を受け入れて、相槌があるとよい。指導者全員が明るい雰囲気と笑顔で親しみやすいと児童が緊張せずに楽しく活動に参加できると思った。何より児童を巻き込んで楽しめることが一番であると思った。児童の参加型の授業がよいと思った。授業のレベルを徐々に上げていっていたのがよかった。
いろいろな模擬授業を見て良いところ、課題だと思う
ところに気づくことができて良かった。
4.4 講義を受けるだけではわからなかった点
モデルを示すって何？何度も繰り返すことの利点や効果は？児童が楽しい、言いたくなる活動とはそもそも何？と講義の説明だけでは良く理解できず、消化不良であった点が模擬授業を受けることで、以下のように学生の受け取り方が変化した。何をするのか最初に見せられるとわかる。何度も聞かせているとよい。先生
が繰り返して児童の発話の後、言うとよい。音源がある、
或いは音、リズムがあると発話しやすい。好きな色を聞く活動から始め、お店屋さんごっこをしながら楽しく学べるというのはとても良いと思った。
5． 考察
学生は初めての指導案を何度も修正し、わかりやす
い授業となる練習を通して生みの苦しみを乗り越え、工夫する力強さを身につけたようである。また他の人の授業を見て新しい発見があることでお互いに学び合いができた。特に初めは難しいと思い込んでいた英語のやり取りも実物の活用やクイズの導入など児童目線に立つと児童の発話を促す工夫はいろいろとできることがわかった。更に回を重ねることでオンラインの画
面共有を効果的に使用し、パワーポイントや動画を取り入れ視覚に訴える授業を行えるようになった。そして音声中心ではっきり、繰り返し聞かせることや先生の表情や声のトーンが児童にとって楽しい授業になるかどうかの鍵になる等、学生の「気づき」があった。
参考文献
小川隆夫・東仁美.(2017).『小学校英語はじめる教科書 外国
語科・外国語活動指導者養成のために－コア・カリキュラ
ムに沿って－』吉田研作(監). mpi.
吉田研作(代).(2019).『JUNIOR TOTAL ENGLISH 1』.学校図書.

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対人異文化コミュニケーションのＥＳＬ教授法－日本人大学生対象のオンライン授業での実践報告
大味潤

東京経済大学非常勤omiju2@hotmail.com
国際社会に於けるグローバリゼーションに呼応し、英語教育でも異文化理解が必要と考える反面、無国籍とも言うべき国際語としての英語教育が国内外で隆盛である。しかし現状は中高での英語教育では受験対策、また大学では TOEIC 対策に終始しており、文科省が掲げるアジアでトップクラスの英語力は望むべくもない。その一方学習者は国際語としての英語の在り方には懐疑的であり、概念自体に理解は示すものの自身の目標としてはみなしていないことが分かっている。実際に Participatory Research を用いて行ったインタビュー調査では、学習者の英語
ニーズはその場で対応出来る英語力や、自分の気持ちを自身の言葉で相手に伝えるコミュニケーションでの実践力であった。そのようなニーズに対応すべく、この 15 年を掛けて教員側目
線ではなく学習者目線で開発・実践して来た ESL 教授法と教室活動から日本人向けの英語教
育を問い直すと共に、今回のコロナ禍でのオンライン授業を通じて得た成果から改めてその有効性を論じたい。
キーワード：ＥＳＬ、第２言語習得、第２文化習得、異文化適応、異文化コミュニケーション

これからは、異文化理解や異文化コミュニケーショ
ンはますます重要になる。その際に、国際共通語としての英語力の向上は日本の将来にとって不可欠であり、アジアの中でトップクラスの英語力を目指すべきである。今後の英語教育改革においては、一定の基礎的な知
識・技能とそれらを活用して主体的に課題を解決するために必要な思考力・判断力・表現力等を育成すること
は、児童生徒の将来の可能性の広がりのために欠かせない。
もちろん、社会のグローバル化の進展への対応は、英語さえ習得すればよいということではない。日本人としての歴史・文化等の教養とともに、思考力・判断力・表現力等を備えることにより、自ら情報や考えなどを発信し、相手とのコミュケーションができなければならない。（文部科学省 今後の英語教育の改善・充実方策について報告～グローバル化に対応した英語教育改
革の五つの提言～ 平成 26 年 10 月）をなす東西文化に属する場合、異文化摩擦は意識上であれ無意識であれ日常となって当然である。
英語に潜在する欧米文化に無知故にその常識を持たず、また言語一般に対し古文漢文同様の学習方法を想定しがちな日本人に対しては、文字中心の言語情報だ
けでなく言語社会の規範たる非言語情報をも合わせて教授する必要があると考えた。日本語教育に日本語事情があるのと同様、ＥＳＬを主題にしつつ、米国西海岸
文化の第２文化教育を加え、英語圏文化への適応力やネイティブスピーカーとのコミュニケーション力を目指した英語教授法を、インタビュー調査によって得られた日本人学習者の視点や意見を元に作り上げて来た。
今回は15年に渡って実践したそんな授業報告である。

１．はじめに日本の英語教育は日本の学習者のニーズに合っているのであろうか。各種テストにおける高得点を目指す
語学教育としてではなく、人間の成長に役立つべき教育そのものの一環として考慮した場合、現在の英語教
育とは違ったアプローチが可能なのではないだろうか。
日常で使う前提の無い外国語教育として教える場合と生活の中で意思疎通を図る為の第２言語教育として教える場合では、その在り方は自ずと異なって来ると考える。ＥＩＬとしての英語が推奨され、また実生活でもネット上のコミュニケーションが主体となってきた昨今でも、ディバイスのスクリーンに映るのはそれぞれに文化、信条、そして常識までもが異なる話者である。
共通言語として英語を使用したコミュニケーションを取る際に於いても、話者個人は各言語文化の影響を強く受けており、コミュニケーション上の前提や常識は必ず異なっている。それが増して日米のように好対照
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２．オンライン授業の制約
２０１９年に端を発したコロナ禍により翌年以降オンライン授業以外の選択肢が無くなることが多かったが、対面に比べてコミュニケーションでの情報量が圧倒的に少ないオンライン授業の様々な厳しい条件下、このような異文化適応を目的とした教授法がどこまで有効なのか、又同時に対面とオンライン授業で共通する問題点と異なる問題点は何かを図らずも検証する必要に迫られた。
３．対象クラスオンライン授業クラスは２０２０年度の大学１年生の必修２クラスで、週２回２学期各１４週ずつ。初中級レベル。履修人数は１７人～１８人だが、新型コロナウ
イルス対策として１年を通しＺＯＯＭでの顔合わせのみで、直接の顔合わせは１度も無いまま終わった。比較
対象は２０１９年度以前のクラスで条件はほぼ同様。
無論、当時は教室での対面授業のみである。
４．日米異文化差取り扱う英語圏の異文化要素としては米国西海岸英The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

語文化に焦点を当て、１）日米の基本動作の違いになる
「笑顔」
「視線」
「握手」
「距離」
、２）聞こえ方の違いになる「声量」「被せ合い」「間の埋め方」「強弱リズム」、
３）見え方の違いである「上肢」「下肢」「ジェスチャー」「顔の表情」、４）会話の運び方の違いとなる「ユーモア」「優先順位」「対立」「論争」、５）認知的な違いの「主観客観」「時間感覚」「個か集団か」「論理」の全２０項
目を取り上げており、それぞれ日本文化の価値観と米国（欧米）文化の価値観とを比較対照させ行っている。
５．実践内容授業は主に先述の英語圏の文化規範についての異文化理解の講義と、それに基づいたペアワークでの日常
会話練習（当クラスオリジナルの規定会話とスモールトークを中心とした自由会話）で構成している。また応用としてスピーチ（自己紹介や社会問題に対する意見表明）と、即応力養成の為の様々なチャレンジ課題にも取り組ませた。チャレンジ課題は街角やバイト先でのトラブルを想定した「駅でのトラブル対処」
「店舗での
客対応」
「イベント会場での案内」等での即興会話、単語の知識に頼らず事実や概念をその場で考えて相手に伝える「４字熟語」「連想ゲーム」「出来事描写」等を行わせている。これらのアクティビティはいずれもパウロ・フレイレの教育哲学に基づき、銀行型教育よりも問題解決型教育を重視し、また学習者自身が自分の環境世界を表現すべきという原則を踏まえてのものである。
指導手順としては、①授業形態、クラスメート、英語発話に慣れる期間、②異文化理解と異文化適応で英会
話力の向上と行動変容をする期間、③自力で考えその場の伝達力を向上する期間、の３段階を経て英語コミュニケーション力を養った。授業教材の具体例や授業の進行の仕方等の詳細は発表の際に行う。
その１年の間、授業初回、前期終了時、後期終了時の３回の量的データで学生の意識変遷を数値で追い、授業終了時の紙面アンケート並びに春休み期間を使った
有志対象のインタビュー調査で質的データの収集も行った。尚、このインタビュー調査では被験者参加型の調査方法である「Participatory Research」を使っている。
数値データでは概ね英語学習に対する数値上昇を示
し、質的データでは教室活動や英語習得についての学生の視点や、英語発話時の心理的葛藤とその要因や解決方法を示唆していた。
６．結論
例年年度末に行っている質量双方のアンケート結果
では、前年までの対面授業のデータと比較してもほぼ同一で好評であった。オンライン授業の為、クラスとしての一体感形成は行えなかったが、受講クラス中唯一の顔出しのクラスのようで、画面越しにも友人作りは行えていたようである（学生同士はグループごとに学外で数回直接会っていたとのこと）。但し緊急事態宣言
下で海外渡航が事実上禁止された影響か、学生の海外志向性は調査開始以来、初めて数値が下がっていたことは特筆に値する。
一方で対面に比べコミュニケーションで受け取る情報量が圧倒的に不足しており、例えばカメラの位置が相手の画面と異なる為に目線が固定出来ず、また音質が悪く声色が伝わりにくく、着席のままなので姿勢が223

固定されジェスチャーを初めとして全体的に動きに制約が掛かった。特に学生が受講する場所の制約で声量が制限されたり、常に座っている為に上下半身の姿勢矯正の練習等はほぼ不可能となったりしている。何よりこのように目の前に人がいない状況のみの練習では、画像と言う情報は確かにあるものの、所詮画面の中の画像データとしての相手でしかなく、対面対人コミュ
ニケーション能力の向上は極めて難しいと言わざるを得ない。
またＺＯＯＭ機能の為にアクティビティ間のタイムロスが多く（全体画面からブレークアウトセッション
間の切り替えやグループワークへの振り分けの手動作
業等）、またＷｉ－ＦｉやＺＯＯＭそのものへの接続不良等も頻繁に起こる為（画像が出ない、音声が聞こえな
い、画面がフリーズする等）、対面のクラスと比較して時間は大幅に無駄になった。
例年の対面クラスとの直接の比較は出来ない為、データ照合等による直接の総合的検証は不可能に近いが、２０２１年度のコロナ禍による再びの複数回の緊急事
態発令に際し、双方を経験する羽目になった学生（対面からオンライン授業への移行を前期に２回繰り返した
１年生）が次年度以降に出ている為、詳細はその学年の調査結果を待ち、将来の研究課題としたい。
参考文献
Ada, A., & Beutel, C. (1993). Participatory research as a dialogue
for social action. Unpublished manuscript.
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Bloomsbury USA
Academic.
Omi, J. (2003). Japanese graduate students’ voices toward English
communication problems in U.S. Unpublished Dissertation.
University of San Francisco.
大味潤. (2009).「異文化教育を中心とした英語教育の実践
例」.『総合政策学部総合政策研究紀要第 16・17 号』, 95108. 尚美学園大学.
大味潤. (2010).「尚美学生の英語ニーズと国際語としての英語についての考察」.『総合政策学部総合政策研究紀要第19 号』 67-80. 尚美学園大学.
大味潤. (2011A).「尚美大１年生の英語受容とそのニーズについての考察」.『総合政策学部総合政策研究紀要第 20 号』,
1-15. 尚美学園大学.
大味潤. (2011B).「再履修生が語るコミュニケーション型英語
授業の長期的効果」, 『総合政策学部総合政策研究紀要第21 号』, 113-137. 尚美学園大学.
大味潤. (2013).「異文化適応クラスにおける学生の意識変遷に関する調査」,『尚美学園大学総合政策紀要第 22-23 号』,
1-15. 尚美学園大学.
大味潤. (2014A).「異文化適応クラスにおける学生の意識変遷に関する通年調査」.『尚美学園大学総合政策紀要第 24号』, 73-88. 尚美学園大学.
大味潤. (2014B).「異文化適応を目的としたＥＳＬクラスの授業内活動とその有効性の質的検証」. 『尚美学園大学
総合政策論集第 19 号』, 59-76. 尚美学園大学.
文部科学省(2014).『今後の英語教育の改善・充実方策について 報告～グローバル化に対応した英語教育改革の五つの提言』.
https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/chousa/shotou/102/houkoku/attach/1352464.htm
Park, P. (1989). What is participatory research?: A theoretical andmethodological perspective. Unpublished manuscript. Universityof Massachusetts.

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

日本人英語学習者のコードスイッチング―英語母語話者を交えた小集団会話の質的分析―
山本綾**昭和女子大学
a-yamamoto@swu.ac.jp
要旨
日本人英語学習者が英語で会話をするとき、英語から日本語へとコードスイッチング（以下「CS」）することがある。本研究では、日本人英語学習者と英語母語話者が行った雑談会話を資料とし、CS の事例を会話分析の枠組みを用いて検討する。日本語による意思疎通が困難な
英語母語話者が参加している会話においても、英語から日本語への CS が起こることを示した
うえで、CS がどのような場面で起こるのかについて調査する。次に、日本語への CS が起きた
あと会話がどのように展開するのかを探る。得られた結果をもとに、英語から日本語に CS する動機や、CS をめぐる会話参加者たちのふるまいについて考察する。
キーワード：日本人英語学習者

英語母語話者

はじめに日本語を母語とし英語を学ぶ人（以下「日本人英語学
習者」）が英語で会話をするとき、日本語を使用することがある。会話の途中で使用言語を切り替える現象は、
コードスイッチング（code switching; 以下「CS」）と呼ばれる。英日間 CS については、これまで主に語彙や構
文レベルの特徴、発話機能などに焦点をあてて調査が進められてきた。ただし、その多くは、両言語のバイリ
ンガル話者どうしの会話や、日本人英語学習者がペアやグループで教室にて行った会話を資料として用いている。つまり、日本語でも意思疎通できる人びとが英語で話す状況を設定し、そこで起きた CS を観察している。
実際には、日本語を全く（または、ほとんど）理解しない人との会話でも、日本語への CS は起こる。
1.

事例 1 【ディズニーランドとディズニーシー】

Tina: Which one is better.
ﾙﾘ:
Mmm [mm.
ｽﾐﾚ:[Mm mmm.
ﾏﾕ:
Land, land. [Land, land.
ﾙﾘ:[Hh mmm, どっちだろうな:
ｽﾐﾚ:[Hh いや Mm I I like, I prefer to Sea?

コードスイッチング

会話

資料と方法
本研究で用いた資料は、イギリス出身の英語母語話者 1 名と日本人英語学習者 2 名または 3 名からなるグループが、英語で行った雑談会話である1。4 グループによる合計約 118 分間の会話を録音・録画し、発話を全て文字化した。その中から CS の事例を抽出し、CS 直前
および直後のやりとりも含めた一連の発話連鎖を、会
話分析の方法を用いて質的に検討した。
2.

3. 結果
3.1 課題 1 英語→日本語 CS が起こる場面
日本人英語学習者による英語→日本語 CS は、次の 3つの場面でたびたび観察された2。
場面(1) 話し手が発話の産出/理解に困難を抱えている場面(2) 話し手が感情/態度/主観的な評価を表明する
場面(3) 複数のタスク/話題が同時に進行しているそれぞれの場面の CS 事例を示す。
事例 2

場面(1) 発話産出上の困難

I worked at uh:m fruits parlor. Fruits parfait. Fruits
mmm なんていえばいいんだ. （ﾏﾕ: Hh）Fruits mm
patisserie?
Tina: Hmm（ﾙﾘ: Mmm.）Ehm like bake, like bakery?
ﾙﾘ:

事例 1 では、日本語をほとんど理解しない英語母語話者
Tina の質問に、ルリとスミレが回答の中で「どっちだろうな」「いや」と日本語を用いている。英語モノリンガ
ル話者との会話で起きたこのような日本語への CS は、
従来の CS 研究では管見の限り扱われていない。
そこで本研究では、日本語での意思疎通が困難な英語母語話者と日本人英語学習者の会話を収録し、次の 2
つの研究課題に取り組む。
研究課題 1 日本人英語学習者による英語→日本語 CSはどのような場面で起こるのか
研究課題 2 英語→日本語 CS が起きた後は、どのようなやりとりが続くのか得られた結果に基づき、なぜ英語→日本語 CS が起こるのか、日本語への CS に会話参加者たちはどのように対処しているのかについて考察する。

224

事例 3

場面(2) 主観的な評価の表明

Elly:((スマートフォンをミクに差し出す)) That’s me in awhite dress.
ﾐｸ:
Ah white dress?
Elly: Mm.
ﾐｸ:
Mmmm.
Elly: Next to the girl [((不明瞭)) Hhh
ﾐｸ:[いいね: Looks good. Hmm.
ｱｲｶ:
[Hmmmmm.
ﾐｸ:
Mmmmm. Eh: Ahw. Sexy.
全員: Hhhhhh
ｱｲｶ: 大人っぽいね.
事例 4

場面(3) 複数タスクの管理

Elly:((スマートフォンをアコに差し出す)) That’s me.
[Hhhhh. In a white dress.
[Eh:::: Wow. E.
全部[食べちゃった. Hhhhh

ｱｺ:
ﾐｸ:

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

ｱｺ:
ｱｲｶ:

[Is it your classmate?
もったいないよ. Hhのように対処しているのだろうか。日本人英語学習者
による英語→日本語 CS は、他の学習者に宛てたものと考えられる。他の学習者と英語母語話者は、その CS を独話（または「内語」; 金子, 2013）として聞き流すか、
日本語で素早く短い応答を返すにとどめる。本研究の会話参加者たちは、あらかじめ日本語の使用可否や日本語を使用した場合の修正方法などについて取り決め
はしていなかった。事前の合意や明示的に共有された手順がなくとも、英語母語話者と日本人英語学習者たちは暗黙のうちに協働し、英語で会話が続くように調整を図っていると考えられる。

3.2 課題 2 英語→日本語 CS が起きた後のやりとり
英語→日本語 CS が起きた後を見ると、日本語での発話は長く続かないことがわかった。たいていは、CS 直後の最初の移行適格場（transition relevance place; Sacks
et al., 1974）で、再び英語への CS が起こる。英語への再 CS は、日本語 CS をした学習者自身によって行われる場合もあれば、他者によって行われる場合もある。前者では、１つのターン内で英→日→英と CS が複数回起こることもある。後者では、英語→日本語 CS の後、他の学習者あるいは英語母語話者が発話権を取り、英語で会話を続ける。それぞれの事例を示す。
事例 5

同一ターン内における英語→日本語→英語 CSｶﾅ:

But she uh she said it’s it’s なんだろう it’s it’s mm the
UK’s chocolate is better than KitKat.

事例 6

英語→日本語 CS の後、他の会話参加者が英語 CS

注1

会話資料は、2016 年 2 月に東京都内の大学構内の教室で収録した。参加者は全員女性、年齢は満 18～22 歳である。日本
人英語学習者の英語運用能力は、直近の TOEIC® L&R スコア
で 445～890（中央値 585）
。英語母語話者の日本滞在歴は約 5ヶ月（前年 9 月に Gap Year で来日）。
表I can get free their, breads? (Tina: Mm) (ｽﾐﾚ: Mm)
Because I am I’m I work.
Tina:[Uh that’s so good. Hhh
ｽﾐﾚ・ﾙﾘ: [Hhhhh
ﾏﾕ:゚おかしくなってきちゃった.°
ｽﾐﾚ:
Hh And I worked at Zoo?
Tina:
Hmm oh which zoo.
ﾏﾕ:

会話参加者の組み合わせ （全員仮名）ｸﾞﾙｰﾌﾟ 日本語母語話者
英語母語話者1
マユ、スミレ、ルリ
Tina
2
リョウコ、カナ
Tina
3
アイカ、アコ、ミク
Elly
4
アリサ、ミズキElly
2
全ての CS が場面(1)(2)(3)で起きていたわけではない。これ
らのいずれにも当てはまらない場面で起きた CS もあった。
事例 8 (1) (2) (3)以外の場面で起きた CS
ﾏﾕ: Because my mother cook.
Tina: Uhh okay.
ﾏﾕ: Dinner and lunch, so I don’t, I cannot cook.
何も作[れない.
ｽﾐﾚ:[Hh anything?

ある学習者による英語→日本語 CS に対し、別の学習者が日本語で応答することも稀に見られた。そうした
日本語での一往復のやりとりは、隣接応答ペア（adjacency pair; Sacks & Schegloff, 1973）を形成する。直後には、事例 7 のように英語への CS が起こる。
事例 7

日本語による隣接応答ペア

ﾙﾘ: Eating. [Let’s eating? Hhh
ｽﾐﾚ[Ah
隣接応答ペアﾏﾕ: いいの?
（質問―回答）ﾙﾘ: いいん[じゃないの.
ｽﾐﾚ:
[うん:
ﾏﾕ: Okay? [Okay?
ｽﾐﾚ:[Okay okay. Okay okay.
ﾏﾕ: Eating okay?

謝辞
本研究は JSPS 科研費 JP17K02984, JP21K00658 の助成を受けたものです。
参考文献
Fotos, S. (1995). Japanese-English conversational codeswitching inbalanced and limited proficiency bilinguals. The Japan Journal of Multilingualism and Multiculturalism, 1(1), 2-16.
藤村香予. (2013).「二言語話者の談話における「コードスイッ
チング」・「コードミキシング」の必要性―英国に住む日本人の場合―」.『安田女子大学紀要』, 41, 23–32.
金子朝子. (2013).「日本人英語学習者の会話中における母語使用について」.投野由起夫・金子朝子・杉浦正利・和泉絵美(編著).『英語学習者コーパス活用ハンドブック』(pp. 62–71).
大修館書店.
Nishimura, M. (1995). A functional analysis of Japanese/English
code-switching. Journal of Pragmatics, 23, 157-181.
Sacks, H., & Schegloff, E. A. (1973). Opening up closings. Semiotica, 8(4). 289-327.
Sacks, H., Schegloff, E. A., & Jefferson, G. (1974). A simplest systematics for the organization of turn-taking for conversation.
Language 50(4). 696-735.
横山吉樹. (2001). 「英語学習者の言語の切り替え―談話分析のフレーミングの観点から―」.『北海道英語教育学会紀要』, 1, 63-71.

まとめと考察本研究では、英語母語話者と日本人英語学習者の会
話を資料として、英語から日本語への CS の事例を観察した。その結果、研究課題 1 については、CS が起こる
3 場面を明らかにした。課題 2 については、日本語へのCS は会話の局所的構造内にとどまり、CS 後は速やかに英語へと再度 CS が起こることを明らかにした。以上の結果をふまえ、2 点考察する。
まず、日本語を理解しない参加者がいる会話において、なぜ英語→日本語 CS が起こるのだろうか。学習者による日本語 CS には、少なくとも 2 つの動機があると考えられる。一つは、話し手の内面を即座に表すことである。場面(1) (2)の CS に見られるように、英語で表現できないときの合図やフィラー、率直な情動の表出がこれに相当する。もう一つは、会話中のタスクや話題の管理である。場面(3)の CS に見られるように、会話の本筋から逸脱・派生したタスクや話題を、効率よく迅速に処理しようとするものである。
では、こうした日本語への CS に会話参加者たちはど
4.

付録 発話の文字化に用いた記号．下降調で切れ目あり , 下降調で短い切れ目あり? 上昇調で切れ目あり : 音の引き延ばし Hh 笑い°小声 ［ 発話の重複 (( )) 補足的な情報

225

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

大学生が小学校外国語教育に必要と考える知識・能力とその決定要因稲葉みどり**愛知教育大学
mdinaba@auecc.aichi-edu.ac.jp
要旨
本研究では、小学校教員養成外国語（英語）コアカリキュラム（文部科学省，2017）で提示されている「外国語の指導法」「外国語に関する専門的事項」「授業実践に必要な英語力」等の学修内容について、学部生がその意義や必要性、有用性等をどのように捉えているかを調査した。その結果、実践に必要な英語力の向上や教室活動、指導技術、授業づくり等の授業に直結する内容については平均値が高かった。一方、第二言語習得論、外国語教授法、異文化知識等の理論や背景知識については平均値が比較的低かった。さらに、必要性等の判断に影響を与える因子を特定するために探索的因子分析を行った。その結果、「教育的実用性」、「理論的応用
性」、「支援的有用性」の 3 因子が抽出された。以上から、大学教育においては教授法の理論的根拠への理解を深める指導、理論と実践を結び付けた実習、英語を継続的に学べる支援等が必要であることが示唆された。
キーワード：教員養成，初等英語教育,

英語コアカリキュラム，学部生

はじめに小学校で英語教育が本格的に開始され、教員養成大学においては、初等英語教育を行う教師の育成とそれに必要な教育プログラムの開発等が課題となっている。
本研究では、小学校教員養成外国語（英語）コアカリキ
ュラム 1（文部科学省，2017）で提示されている「外国語の指導法」「外国語に関する専門的事項」「授業実践に必要な英語力」等の学修内容について、学生が意義や必要性、有用性等をどのように捉えているかを明らかにし、教育に応用することを目的とする。
1.

2．研究の背景
英語コアカリキュラム（文部科学省，2017）は、試案（東京学芸大学, 2016; 2017）の段階で初等外国語教育に携わる大学教員、及び、指導主事等の教える側を対象としてその有用性が検証された。よって、本研究では、学ぶ側である学生を対象とした調査を行い、学生側に意識を明らかにする。
3.

研究の方法
研究の対象は、小学校教諭免許の取得に必修である
初等英語科教育に関する科目の受講生で、英語を主専攻としない学部 1・2 年生である。意識調査は、東京学
芸大学（2017）で提案されたコアカリキュラム（試案）を基に 25 項目について、「在学中にどの程度学びたい
か、必要だと感じるか」について 5 件法で調査を実施した。
設問は、A~F の 6 つの学修領域に分類した。A（A1~A4）は、教室活動等に関する 4 項目、B（B1~B4）は、指導
技術や子どもとの関わり等に関する 4 項目、C
（C1~C4）は、授業構成、学習評価等に必要な 4 項目、D（D1~D4）
は、第一言語・第二言語習得論、外国語教育の理念等に関する 4 項目、E（E1~E4）は、異文化理解等に関する4 項目、F（F1~F5）は、実践に必要な英語力に関する 5
項目である。

226

4．結果と考察
4.1 全体の平均値の分析
表 1 は、調査内容と領域（A~F）
、及び、平均値を降順に並べたものである。
調査は、180 名の対象者から 175
名の有効回答を得た。
全体の平均値は 4.10、最大値 4.17、最小値 3.45 である。
表 1 全調査項目の平均値
調査 25 項目F5. 分かりやすく言い換えられる英語力
F4. ALT 等との打ち合わせができる英語力
A1. 教室活動の方法
C3. 授業構成や学習指導案の作成の仕方
B3. 発話の引き出し方F3. 児童の発話や行動に対応できる英語力
B4. やりとりの進め方
A4. ティーム・ティーチングの方法
E3. 外国・地域の生活・習慣に関する知識F2. 教室英語・意味のある会話ができる英語力
C4. 学校・児童のニーズへの対応の在り方
F1. 発音・抑揚を意識して発話できる英語力
B2. 英語での語りかけ方
A3. 教材・ICT の活用の仕方
A2. 教材開発の仕方
E2. 異文化交流の知識D1. 子どもの外国語の学び方の特徴
D3. 外国語教授法の特色と活用法
B1. 読む活動・書く活動への導き方
E4. 歌・絵本・児童文学等に関する知識C1. 目標・学習評価の基準や方法
C2. CAN-DO リストの活用の仕方
D2. 英語を母語とする子どもの学び方
E1. 海外の初等英語教育の理念や方法
D4. 外国語教育・言語習得に関する理論

平均値
4.47
4.41
4.37
4.37
4.36
4.36
4.34
4.27
4.24
4.22
4.21
4.19
4.18
4.18
4.17
4.16
3.97
3.95
3.92
3.9
3.87
3.66
3.63
3.57
3.45

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

全 25 項目の平均値について、等分散性の保持をルー
ビン検定で確認し、分散分析一元配置で検定した結果、項目間では有意差が見られた（df = 24，F = 16.2202, p< .001）。よって、項目間で意識の差が認められた。
図 1 は、学修領域別の平均値のグラフである。6 領域
間で分散分析一元配置の検定をした結果、有意差が見られた（df = 5，F = 8.4712, p < .001）。
図 1 学修領域別の平均値
4.4
4.2
4
3.8
3.6
3.4

4.24

4.33
4.2
4.04

4.03
3.75

5．教育への示唆
本研究の結果から、調査対象の学生は、初等英語教育の現場ですぐに役立つ実践的知識を身につける必要性を強く感じていることが明らかになった。従って、初等英語科教育等の授業では、実践に直結するような知識や経験を構築できるような内容を講義に盛り込むことが必要だと考えられる。一方、第二言語習得論、外国語教授法、異文化知識等の理論や背景知識に関する項目
は、相対的には低かった。よって、教授法の理論的根拠や有効性への理解を深めること、第二言語習得研究等から得られた知見を生かした具体的な指導法や外国語教授法等を授業を紹介したり、理論と実践を結び付けた実習等をすることが有効な方策の一つであると考えられる。さらに、教育実践に必要な英語力を向上させる
ために、体系的、かつ、継続的なプログラムの提供等の支援が必要であることが示唆された。

以上から、学修項目全体について、学生は概ね学びた
い、必要であると認識し、否定的な項目はなかった。平
均値が一番高かったのは、実践に必要な英語力の向上
で、次に、教室活動、指導技術、授業づくり等の授業に直結する内容であった。一方、比較的認識が低かったのは、第二言語習得論、外国語教授法、異文化知識等の理論や背景知識に関する項目であった。この傾向は酒井・内野（2008）と瀧沢（2019）の結果と類似していた。
4.2 探索的因子分析
各項目の必要性や有用性の判断に意識に影響を与える因子を探索した。まず、全グループの 25 項目の回答に対して、IBM SPSS（version 25）を用いて、予備的な探索的因子分析（最尤法に基づくプロマックス回転）を行った。その結果、A4、B1、B2、C1、C4、E4、F4 の 7
項目は因子負荷量が 0.35 未満であったので、分析から除外した。残りの 18 項目について再度同じ手法で分析を行い項目間の相関行列を得た。さらに、各項目の必要性や有用性の判断に影響を与える因子を特定するために探索的因子分析を行い、表 2 の結果を得た。
表 2 探索的因子分析の結果
項 目
第 1 因子
F3
0.806
F5
0.73
F2
0.729
A1
0.605
B4
0.571
C3
0.565
F1
0.517
B3
0.517
A3
0.455
A2
0.431
D3
0.415
E1
-0.159D4-0.042D2-0.019D1
0.201
C2-0.092E2-0.058E3
0.147

第 2 因子
-0.026-0.031-0.001-0.254-0.048-0.0450.238
0.074-0.013
0.035
0.33
0.731
0.714
0.68
0.662
0.533
0.02
0.102

第 1 因子には 11 項目が入っている。負荷量は項目内
では F3、F5、F2 の 3 項目は 0.7 以上と高い。これらは、実践に必要な英語力である。F1 も 0.517 も英語力に関する項目である。次に A1、B4、C3、B3 が 05 以上の負荷である。これらは指導技術等、授業に直結する内容である。よって、これらを「教育的実用性」と命名した。
第 2 因子には、E1、D4、D2、D1、C2 の 5 項目が入っている。これらは、第二言語習得や外国語教育に関する理論知識で教育への応用できる内容である。よって、「理論的応用性」と命名した。第 3 因子は、E2 と E3 で、異文化知識や教育の背景となる知識である。これらは、会話等の題材や教室活動の背景となって、授業づくりを支援するものである。よって、「支援的有用性」と命名した。これらは、学生が身につけるべき英語教員の資
質・能力の必要性や有用性の判断に関与する 3 つの因子であると考えられる。

注
1「コアカリキュラム」「コア・カリキュラム」の二つの表記があるが、本稿では、前者に統一した。
謝辞
調査に協力して下さった学生の方々にこの場を借りて感謝の意を表します。
参考文献
文部科学省（2017）.「外国語（英語）コアカリキュラム案」
https://www.mext.go.jp/component/a_menu/education/detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2019/04/04/1415122_3.pdf. 2020 年 10
月 20 日閲覧.
酒井英樹・内野駿介（2018）.「小学校教員養成において必要とされる知識・能力に関する大学生の自己評価―小学校教員養成課程外国語（英語）コア・カリキュラムの点から―」『小学校英語教育学会誌』18 (01),100-115.
滝澤広人（2019）.「小学校外国語（英語）コアカリキュラム
案に対する学生の意識調査」『岐阜大学教育学部研究報告人文科学』67（2）, 101-110.
東京学芸大学（2016）.『文部科学省委託事業 英語教員の英
語力・指導力強化のための調査研究事業平成 27 年度報告書』.
東京学芸大学（2017）.『文部科学省委託事業 英語教員の英
語力・指導力強化のための調査研究事業平成 28 年度報告書』.

第 3 因子0.094-0.057
0.086
0.103
0.037
-0.053-0.072-0.016-0.004-0.078-0.0330.132-0.023-0.045-0.033
0.068
1.019
0.516

227

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

開発教育を取り入れた英語授業―2 つの授業形態（対面と web）の実践を通して―
小林香保里
立命館大学
kmt23381@fc.ritsumei.ac.jp
要旨
本研究は、学習者がアクティブラーニングを通して、国際問題を理解し、議論に必要な英語力を身につけようと努力する過程を考察した実践報告である。全学生対象に開講された教養科目の一つ「参加型学習で学ぶ開発教育」において実施した。グローバル社会に必要とされる人材育成のため、開発教育の内容とその参加型学習の手法を取り入れた英語での授業である。2019 年度（対面授業)と 2020 年度（web 授業）を比較し、同じ授業概要、目標だが、対面と web という異なる授業形態での指導手順の差異や工夫、それぞれの利点と学生の学びについて述べる。いずれの授業形態においても言語活動がより意義深くなり、内容
理解や英語学習への強い動機づけとなったようだ。学生の成長ぶりについて報告したい。
キーワード：CLIL, Motivation, Learner Autonomy, Collaborative Learning, 開発教育
はじめに
本授業（参加型学習で学ぶ開発教育）は、全学生対
象の選択教養科目の一つで、留学生も含めた多様な学
習集団で学び、秋学期、週 1（90 分）、全 15 回で、全て英語で行われた（受講生の募集対象英語レベルは、
TOEIC 380-580）。
教養科目は、それぞれの担当教員が持つ専門分野を
trigger に、履修者の関心や専攻の文脈でリサー チ、ディスカッション、プレゼンテーションをする小集団授業である。こうした内容を日本語以外のターゲット言
語で実施する。単に知識を深めるだけでなく、多様な背景を持った学生同士の交流からも多くを学ぶ（教養
科目開講方針より）。
私は、かねてよりグローバル社会に必要とされる人材育成には、開発教育の内容とその参加型学習の手法が有効であると考え、一般教養の必修英語科目の授業に適宜取り入れてきた。選択教養科目の開講方針とも一致することから、開発教育の様々なテーマを取り扱った授業を学生中心のワークショップ形式で 2017 年度
より英語で実施している。開講 4 年目の 2020 年度は、
社会情勢対応のため、初めて全て web 授業（Zoom ライブ配信）となった。本発表では、2019 年度と 2020 年度を比較し、同じ授業概要、目標だが、対面と web という異なる授業形態での指導手順の差異や工夫、それぞれの利点と学生の学びについて述べる。いずれの授業
形態においても観察された学生の英語への強い学習意
欲と成長ぶりについて報告したい。
1.

2. 背景
2.1 開発教育
開発教育は、文化、人権、環境などに関連した世界の様々な問題の解決に向けて、それらが起きる社会構造を理解し、それらの問題と自分とのつながりを考えながら、一人ひとりが参加し、協力して行動する態度を養うことを目的とした教育活動である。
（小貫、2004）
単なる知識の注入ではなく、いかに学ぶかに重点を置228く。従来の教師中心の授業では限界があるので、学習者中心の参加型学習、いわゆるアクティブラーニングが取り入れられている。参加型アクティビティには、学習者が体験しながら問題の本質に気づくことができるようなゲーム、シミュレーション、ロールプレイなどがある。理解や知識を深めるためにディベート、インタビュー、プレゼンテーションなどを行う。学習者
自身が能動的に学び、考えを深めていくために意見の交換や他の学習者との協同作業を重視している。
2.2 Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)
CLIL は、学習内容を中心に語学学習を進める教授法である。Coyle ら (2013)によると、その教授法は、扱う内容が現実に即したものが中心であるので、言語活動
がより現実味を帯びたものとなり、言語活動を促進す
るばかりか、学習内容の理解を深めるのに効果的である。また、学習者の学習意欲を高めるのにも役立っている。元来ヨーロッパなど多言語習得を目指す地域や国々で進められており、外国語学習に特化したものではないが、外国語学習にも応用が可能で、多くの語学指導者が関心を寄せている。開発教育の内容や参加型の手法を取り入れた英語教授法は、CLIL の考え方にも合致し、幅広い英語学習者にも効果的であると考える。
3. 手法
3.1 学生2019 年度（対面）:日本人学生 12 名（1 年 11 名、3
年 1 名）、留学生 6 名。2020 年度（web）：日本人学生
7 名のみ（1 年 4 名、2 年 1 名、4 年 2 名）。
3.2 授業概要
導入レベルの開発教育の内容を主に４つのトピック（多文化理解、環境、教育、フェアトレード）にしぼり、参加型で学習する。開発教育の参加型の授業は、
単なる知識の注入ではなく、学習者が体験しながら能動的に「知り・考え・行動する」を促す。問題の本質に気づき、考えを深めていくために、意見の発言や他

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)の学習者との協同作業を中心に授業を進める。テキス
トはなく、適宜資料等を配布。

発目標）を基に討論する。学生は意見を集約してチャットに送信。（グループ活動時、グループリーダ
ーは教師と ES）
授業後：教師と ES で手分けし、チャットに送信された学生の意見を WORD で一覧表にまとめる。学生は、授業のふりかえりアンケートに記入（web）。翌週、各グループの発表担当者がまとめを発表。

3.3 授業の目標
1. 相手の主張を理解し、それに対する自分の意見を持
ち、意思伝達できる力を獲得することができる。
2. 持続可能な社会のために授業で紹介する事象や関連事項について調査し、まとめ、自分の意見を交えて発表することができる。
3. 持続可能な社会のために自分が取るべき行動について議論できる。

3.5.3. Group Presentation：学期末にグループ（3-5 人）
で、トピック（社会問題）を決め、問題点（クイズ形式）、原因を調べてまとめて（スライド作成）発表する。その後、聴衆も含めてグループを再編し、解決策を話し合う。その際、presenter が話合いのグループにて討論をリードし、2019 年度はメンバーで SDGs ポスタ
ー作成、2020 年度は、教師と ES の補助のもと WORD
で一覧表にまとめた。最後にクラス全体で共有。各グ
ループにいる presenter が発表。

3.4 評価
平常点評価 100%➡授業参加:30%、グループプレゼン
テーション:20%、レポート（英語）:50%（10% x 5）
3.5 指導手順
主に 4 つのトピック（社会問題）を扱う。各トピッ
クについて 2 週をセットとする。
3.5.1（2019 年度―対面授業）（1 週目）ワークショップ形式の授業【グループリーダーを中心としたグループ活動。教師と ES（Educational
Supporter として参加している学生）は全体をモニター】（宿題）トピック関連事項について調べてまとめる。
解決策に関して調べた事に加え自分の意見も書く。
（2 週目）グループ活動中心（教師と ES は全体をモニ
ター）
1) 宿題のレポート（要約）をペアで共有。
2) パートナーのレポート(要約）をグループ内で共有。
3）グループリーダーがまとめてクラス全体で発表。
4) グループで問題解決について SDGs（持続可能な開発目標）を基に討論し、ポスターを作成。
5) グループリーダーがクラス全体にポスターを提示しながらまとめ（問題及び解決の方向性）を発表。
6) 授業のふりかえりアンケート用紙に各自記入。
3.5.2（2020 年度―web 授業）（1 週目）
事前準備：授業で使用する資料や活動（web 用にアレンジ）の手順書を作成し、事前に学生に配信。授業開始
前に ES と打合わせ。
授業中：ワークショップ形式の授業（グループワーク
時、グループリーダーは教師と ES）（宿題）トピック関連事項について調べてまとめる。
解決策に関して調べた事に加えて自分の意見も書く。
（2 週目）
事前準備：グループ活動（web 用にアレンジ）の手順書を作成し、事前に学生に配信。授業開始前に ES と打
合わせ。
授業中：
1) 宿題として課されたレポート（要約）をペアで共有。
2) パートナーのレポート(要約）をクラス全体に向けて発表する。
3) グループで問題解決について SDGs（持続可能な開3.6 ふりかえり
学生にトピックごとに授業ふりかえりアンケートを実施。加えて、プレゼンテーションとコースのふりか
えりアンケートも実施（2019 年度計 7 回、2020 年度計9 回）。また、教師も ES と毎授業後ふりかえり時間をもうけ、省察（観察と検討）をノートに記入。
4. 2 つの授業形態の比較
4.1 web 授業で対面授業より困難だった点
1）学生をモニターするのが困難
・学生一人ひとりの細かい様子を把握できない・臨機応変に個別に学習サポートができない
2) 進行に時間がかかる
・事前準備に時間がかかる・グループ活動や実施する活動の変更や割愛
3）ディスカッションの時間増加
・英語の習熟度が低い学生にとっては負担増
4.2 web 授業で取り入れてよかった点
1) ペアでのレポート共有時間の増加
・周囲を気にせず、じっくりと話合えた
2) Active Listening（傾聴） の強化
・学生の自信や学習の動機付けにつながった
3) 海外からゲストスピーカー招聘
・web だからこそ実現した
5. まとめweb での授業実施は、試行錯誤の連続であった。発表
者自身もオンラインセミナーで学び、実施可能なことを即実践した。また、学生及び自身のふりかえり作業
により、授業改善を絶え間なく試みた。発表では、ふりかえりの内容を中心に学生の学びや今後の授業への展望について述べたい。
参考文献
小貫 仁(2004) 開発教育教会（編）『開発教育ってな
あに？』開発教育教会、8-9
Coyle, D., Hood, P., & Marsh, D. (2013). Content and Language
Integrated Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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ケースメソッドの EFL リーディング授業への応用―予備的試行―
金澤佑**関西学院大学
yu-kanazawa@kwansei.ac.jp ; yu.kanazawa.res@gmail.com ; @knzw783
要旨
大学 EFL 教育の枢要たるリーディングにおいても、HOTS（高次思考技術）や「学びの共同体」の理念を踏まえた、学習者中心のアクティブラーニングを取り入れる必要がある。この目的を達成する上で、ハーバード・ビジネス・スクールで開発され世界中のビジネススクールで行われているケースメソッド教授法の理念や実践を学際的に取り入れることが有望であることを提言し、その試行的実践について報告する。学習者は、授業担当者が独自執筆したケースを読んで予習した上で授業に臨み、ケース議論を行った。振り返りアンケートの結果、ケースメソッドを使用した授業は学生の満足度が総じて高く、従来型授業よりケースリーディングを好む傾向があることが分かった。一方で、クラスによって若干発言数のばらつきや発言者の偏りが見られるといった課題も見つかり、それらへの対応策などについても建設的意見が得られた。
キーワード：ケースメソッド、リーディング、HOTS（高次思考技術）、授業実践、教授法
はじめに
プロジェクト型授業（山中他、2021）やコミュニケーション中心授業等と比べると、リーディング指導はLOTS（低次思考技術）中心・座学中心の受動的な形態となってしまいがちである。深い思考力や創造性・共同性といった 21 世紀型スキルを涵養するためには、
HOTS（高次思考技術）や「学びの共同体」の理念を踏まえたアクティブなリーディング活動を開発する必要がある。本論は、ケースメソッド教授法 (Ellet, 2018) の理念や実践を学際的に取り入れることが有望であることを提言し、その試行的実践を報告するものである。

で予習を行った。授業ではまず、日本型ケースメソッド（髙木・竹内、2006）に倣って、ウォーミングアッ
プを兼ねてグループ単位の議論の時間を設けた。それに続き、クラス全体討論に移行した。最後に、普段行っている教科書を中心とした従来型授業との比較を含んだ振り返りアンケートを実施した。

1.

結果
アンケートの結果、ケースメソッドを使用した授業
は学生の満足度が総じて高く、従来型授業よりケース
リーディングを好む傾向があることが分かった。一方で、クラスによって若干発言数のばらつきや発言者の偏りが見られるといった課題も見つかり、それらへの対応策などについても建設的意見が得られた。
4.

ケースメソッド交響楽団 (orchestra) にもなぞらえられるケースメソッドの特徴として、次のようなものが例示される。
・ ケースは重要性のあるトピックについてのものであり、十分な量の情報が非線形的に（秩序化された
無秩序の状態で）含まれている。
・ 教師の役割はファシリテーターではなくディスカッションリーダーである。
・ ケースの問題への明確な正答は無い。教師は学習者を正答に向けて誘導する代わりに、非指示的指導のもと学習者の創造的な解決策の構築を補助する。
2.

おわりにポストメソッド教育学へのパラダイムシフトの重要性が叫ばれて久しい (Kumaravadivelu, 2001) 。しかし、画一的に特定の教授法を適用しないということは、
個々の教育者が状況に応じて臨機応変に教授法を組み合わせたり編み出したりしなければいけないということである。つまり逆説的ではあるが、ポストメソッドの時代においてこそ多様な教授法への広く深い理解が求められている。ケースメソッド教授法の知見がその対象の一つに値することの提言を以って本論を閉じる。
5.

方法
比較対照実験形式研究手法の限界についての指摘を踏まえ（柳瀬、2020）、実験群・対照群といった人工空間を設定するのではなく実際の授業の場でケースメソッドを実践した。一・二回生の大学生を対象としたリーディングの授業の最終週を活用し、ケースメソッドを活用した授業を試験的に行った。2020 年に、Teachingwith cases (Anderson & Schiano, 2014) の著者らによるHarvard Business Publishing Education 主催の集中講座を
本論著者が受講した際の模擬授業実践を参考に、外部試験を受験する大学生についての仮想的ケースを独自執筆した。学生は授業に先立ってケースを受け取り、ケースを読んで指定の発問的設問の答えを考えること
3.

参考文献
Anderson, E., & Schiano, B. (2014). Teaching with cases. Harvard
Business School Publishing.
Ellet, W. (2018). The case study handbook (Revised edition).
Harvard Business Review Press.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2001). Toward a postmethod pedagogy.
TESOL Quarterly, 35 (4), 537-560.
髙木晴夫・竹内伸一. (2006).『実践！日本型ケースメソッド教育』. ダイヤモンド社.
山中司・木村修平・山下美朋・近藤雪絵. (2021).『プロジェク
ト発信型英語プログラム』. 北大路書房.
柳瀬陽介. (2020).「当事者の現実を反映する研究のために」.
JACET(編)『英語授業学の最前線』(pp. 25-48). ひつじ書房.

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21 世紀型スキルの育成を目指した
教科等横断的な授業実践と効果分析―中学校におけるカリキュラムマネジメントから―
島﨑 圭介* 柏木 賀津子***堺市立殿馬場中学校
Keisukeisuke2015@gmail.com**大阪教育大学
kashiwag@cc.osaka-kyoiku.ac.jp
要旨
本研究の目的は、公立中学校の生徒の教科学習で得た学びを新たな文脈で活用する力、それに伴う思考力、創造力を育成することである。研究の方法として、PISA 調査等を参照して 4 つの観点（読解力、数学的リテラシー、科学的リテラシー、英語力）から作成した「活用力調査
テスト」の変容を見とる。カリキュラムマネジメントの視点からコンピテンシーベースで複数教科を関連付け、思考と協働を伴う連続発展的な教科等横断的な授業をフェーズ 1、フェーズ
2 の 2 つの期間で実施した。フェーズ 2 の授業終了後に「活用力調査テスト」の各リテラシーの平均点の一元配置分散分析を行った。結果として、合計点、英語力（F（2, 87）= 5.48, **p= .005, η²= .06, 効果量中）、読解力、数学的リテラシーにおいて有意差が認められた。以上の結果から、教科等横断的な授業により、生徒の学び活用する力を向上させることができたと結論づけることができた。
キーワード：教科等横断的授業、21 世紀型スキル、PISA、カリキュラムマネジメント
表1

1.

はじめに
本研究は、教科等横断的な授業により、これまでに教科学習で獲得してきた知識やスキルを、日常生活を含む他の場面で活用する力を育成することを目的としている。
「思考の方法」、「働く方法」、「仕事のツール」、「世の中で生きる方法」の 4 つのカテゴリーに分けられた
21 世紀型スキル（Griffin、 McGaw & Care, 2014）を基盤としている。これらを測る一つの指標として PISA 調査を活用する。PISA とは、OECD のプログラムであり、15 歳の生徒を対象に、現実の課題に直面した時に活用することのできる、読解力や数学的、科学的な知識やスキルなどの能力を測るものである（OECD、筆者訳）。

教科等横断的な授業実践一覧
共通するねらい想像力・創造力、問題解決能力、批判的思考、学び方の学び、コミュニケーション、情報活用能力、協働フェーズ 1

1) 理科①
2) 英語①（×家庭科）
3) 英語②（×理科）
4) 理科②5) 英語③6) 理科③（×音楽）
7) 英語×理科

4 つの白い粉の見分け方
バランスの良い食事メニュー作り
紙飛行機と揚力
蒸留−4 つのビンの水溶液の区別
絵並べと物語音、空気、楽器
無人島で生き延びる方法

フェーズ 2

1) 英語×社会
2) 英語×社会×技術家庭

2. 研究の方法
2.1 研究の手続き
本研究の対象は、中学 2 年生（調査開始時は 1 年生）
99 名で欠席者・転出入者を除いて 88 名である。PISA 調査（2000〜2012）を引用・参照して、活用力調査テストを作成し、教科等横断的な授業の事前、事中、事後に調査を行った。フェーズ 1 では、7 回（全 13 時間）の「理科と英語」の連続発展的な教科等横断的な授業を実施
し、フェーズ 2 では、「英語と社会（歴史）
」
、
「英語と社
会（地理）
、技術家庭科」の 2 種類の教科等横断的な授業を実施した（表 1）。

3.

“Tonotter”と歴史旅行プランを作成しよう

カリキュラムマネジメントについて
本研究における教科等横断的な授業は、カリキュラ
ムマネジメントに取り組み、すべて計画段階から複数の教科担当者と協働的に取り組んだ。ビジョンを共有するために、育てたい子ども像、育てたいコンピテンシ
ーを明確にするための協議を行なった。フェーズ 1 では、まず理科と英語の統合的な授業をゴールとして設定し、ゴールに向けて必要と思われる知識やスキルをどの単元でどのように育めるのかを考え、一連の授業を計画した。全体を通して、実践期間中は、授業担当者
全員で授業ごとに情報を共有し、次の授業に向けて話し合うということを常態的に行った。なお、英語の授業に関しては、筆者と学年の教科担当者との T.T で実施した。

2.2 活用力調査テスト
活用力調査テストは、読解力、数学的リテラシー、科学的リテラシー、英語力の 4 つの観点で作成した。なお、英語力に関する問題は、根岸（2017）を参考に作成
した。

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4.

結果の分析と考察
活用力調査テストを一元配置分散分析により分析した（表 2）。その結果、教科等横断的な授業が生徒の学びを活用する力に効果があったということが認められた。全体には、合計点の平均点の伸びが見られた（F（2,87）= 17.03, **p = .001, η²= .16, 効果量大）
（図 1）
。各リ
テラシーから取り出すと、英語力（F（2, 87）= 5.48, **p= .005, η²= .06, 効果量中）で有意差が見られた。顕著なものとして、数学的リテラシーで大きな点数の伸びが認められた（F（2, 87）= 27.61, **p = .001, η²= .24, 効果
量大）
（図２）
。
分析の結果から、英語力の伸びに関して、自身の考えや思いを、異なる場面で既習事項を活用しながら創造的に表現した経験から、学習の活用に向けた思考プロ
セスが身についたものであると考える。加えて、数学を直接的に取り扱った授業は行っていないにも関わらず、このような伸びが認められた理由として、一連の授業において獲得した思考プロセスが、相互に影響を与えたものであると考えられる。
表2

記述統計量

図1

合計点の平均点の推移（n=88, *p < .05, **p < .01）

図2

数学的リテラシーの平均点の推移（n=88, *p < .05, **p < .01）

一連の教科等横断的な授業を通して、教科の内容を活用する力、そのための思考力、創造力、想像力、仲間と共に協働的に問題解決を目指す力が向上したことが活用力調査テストの結果から認められた。
5.

まとめ
本研究では、21 世紀型スキルを枠組みとして、教科等横断的な授業が生徒の学びを活用する力、それに伴う思考力にどのような効果があるのかを明らかにすることを目指した。
「活用力調査テスト」結果を一元配置
分散分析した結果、合計点、読解力、数学的リテラシー、
英語力において有意に伸びがあった。英語力に関して
は、教科の枠を越えて他分野の内容に関することを、英語を使いながら問題解決的に学び、表現した経験から、学びを活用する思考プロセスが身についたものであると考える。また、特に大きな伸びが見られた数学的リテ
ラシーにおいては、そのような思考プロセスが大きく影響したことが考えられる。
本研究で取り組んだ教科等横断な授業が可能になった背景に、実践校の協働的な体制がある。本研究を協働的に進めていく中で、工夫した点として 2 点ある。
まず一つ目は、共通のビジョンを持つということである。教科等横断的なカリキュラムを推進していく上で、教育活動の内容・方法上の連関性と、マネジメント
上における教職員相互の協働性が重要である。複数教員または、複数教科が協働性、連関性を持ちながら教育活動を行なっていくためには、内容面だけでなく、方法
面でのつながりを生み出すことが有効である。どのよ
うな内容を、どのように実践していくのかというビジョンを共有することで、協働的につながりのある実践を行うことができた。ビジョンの共有に向けて、実践の前だけでなく、実践中にその都度、協議することで、進むべき方向を見失わないようにした。
二つ目の工夫は、短・中期的な取り組みを重ねたことである。本研究は約 1 年間の実践を、2 つのフェーズに分けて取り組んだ。比較的短い期間で取り組みを考えることで、より集中的に共通ビジョンを持ちながら実践を重ねることができるだけでなく、多忙さからくる困難さを軽減するものだと考える。年間を通してずっと実践し続けることで、難易度が高くなることを避け、
小さなチームで短・中期集中型で実践に取り組んだ。
最後に、本研究では、予測不可能な 21 世紀の社会を生き抜くための力を育むために、教職員が共通ビジョンを持ち、教科の枠を越えて協働的に取り組むことができた。その結果、生徒の学びを異なる文脈で活用する力や思考力を育成することができた。このような協働的な実践が今後より一層必要であると考える。
参考文献
中留武昭・曽我悦子. (2015). 『カリキュラムマネジメントの
新たな挑戦 総合的な学習における連関性と協働性に焦点をあてて』. 教育開発研究所
根岸雅史 (2017). 『テストが導く英語教育改革「無責任なテスト」への処方箋』. 三省堂
OECD. Programme for International Student Assessment.
https://www.oecd.org/pisa/ ）参照日 2020.10.15）
Patrick Griffin, Barry McGaw, Esther Care. (2012). Assessment andTeaching of 21st century skills

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音楽大学における英語プレゼンテーション力の育成と学生の意識―タキソノミー・テーブルを基にした質問紙を使って―
中西千春・川井一枝
国立音楽大学
nakanishi.chiharu@kunitachi.ac.jp

宮城大学
kawaik@myu.ac.jp
要旨
本研究は，Bloom の『教育目標の分類体系：認知領域』（1956）の『改訂版』（Anderson & Krathwohl
et al., 2001）で提示されたタキソノミー・テーブルを，日本の教師が授業デザインに活用しやすくするために取り組んでいる研究の一部である。本授業は英語によるプレゼンテーション力の向上を目的としているが，音楽大学において表現力を涵養することは不可欠であることから，最初に日本語のプレゼンテーションを実施することで表現力全体の向上を目指した。タキソノ
ミー・テーブルから該当する箇所を抜粋して自己評価表を作成し，学生は自分のプレゼンテー
ションを振り返りオンライン上で回答した。一般的には，日本語で行う方が学生の心理的ハードルは下がると推測されるが，日英両言語のプレゼンテーションにおける意識調査もした。
キーワード：認知プロセス，タキソノミー・テーブル，プレゼンテーション，英語，日本語
はじめに音大生は，演奏に対する高い自己表現力が求められ，日々，演奏表現の向上に励んでいる。しかしながら，彼らの英語に対する学習意欲は低めであり，英語を自分のメイン・ツールにしようとする者はあまりいない。音楽大学の英語授業を音大生の関心・生活・習慣に合ったものにカスタマイズすることは，彼らのモチベーショ
ンを高め，思考力と言語力を滋養する可能性があると考える。本授業は英語によるプレゼンテーション力の向上を目的としているが，最初に日本語のプレゼンテーションを実施することで，思いの丈を話させ，音大生の表現力全体の向上を目指した。
本研究では，英語プレゼンテーション力育成を目標とした選択必修の「英語」授業において，音大生の取り組み状況や意識，プレゼンテーション力がどのように変化していくかについて調査する。本研究では，ブルー
ムの教育目標の分類体系：認知領域の『改訂版』（Anderson & Krathwohl et al., 2001）で提示されたタキ
ソノミー・テーブル（Anderson & Krathwohl et al., 2001）を参考にして調査を進める。
タキソノミー・テーブルとは，Bloom と師弟関係にあった Anderson らが，認知面の教育目標をより具現化し，実際の指導現場においても使い易いように改良し，作成した表のことである （Anderson & Krathwohl et al.,2001）
。縦軸には 4 つの知識タイプ（事実・概念・手続
き・メタ認知）を，横軸には 6 つの認知プロセス・カテ
ゴリー（記憶する，理解する，応用する，分析する，評価する，創造する）をおいた。6 つの認知プロセス・カ
テゴリーには, それぞれを構成する 19 の認知プロセス（動詞）があり，具体的にどのような認知を促すのか，
詳細が示されている。タキソノミー・テーブルは授業デザインや授業分析に使うために作成されたツールであり，教師教育における積極的な活用が望まれる。
1.

2.

調査方法
233

本調査は音楽大学の選択必修の「外国語コミュニケーション（英語）」の授業を通して行った。詳細は以下の通りである。
実施時期：2021 年 4 月～5 月
参加者：大学 1 年生 90 名
授業方法：対面とオンラインを併用
プレゼンテーション課題：①日本語プレゼンテーショ
ン「私の好きな音楽」（60-90 秒程度），②英語プレゼンテーション：My Favorite Music（6 文程度）
課題提出の方法：一部は教室で発表したが，主に Google
Classroom で自撮りを提出した。
2.1 手順
第 1 週：①オリエンテーションを行い，日本語と英語のプレゼンテーションに対する意識調査を実施した。
②ワークシートを配布して，日本語プレゼンテーショ
ンのキーポイントを説明した。学生は日本語プレゼ
ンテーション（1 回目）とその自己評価を行った。
第 2 週：ワークシートを配布して，英語プレゼンテーシ
ョンのキーポイントを説明した。学生は英語プレゼンテーション（1 回目）とその自己評価を行った。
2.2 プレゼンテーションに関する質問紙
プレゼンテーションに関する質問紙は 6 項目・4 件法
で，項目は以下の通りである。
①日本語でプレゼンテーションを上手くやる自信がある。
② 日本語でプレゼンテーションするのは楽しい。
③日本語プレゼンテーションを上手にできるようになりたい。
④英語でプレゼンテーションを上手くやる自信がある。
⑤英語でプレゼンテーションするのは楽しい。
⑥英語プレゼンテーションを上手にできるようになりたい。

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

2.3 プレゼンテーションの評価
タキソノミー・テーブルの知識と「認知プロセス・カ
テゴリー」のサブカテゴリ－に分類されている[19 の動詞]（[ ]内は認知プロセス）を参考にしてルーブリックを作成した。学生が自己評価しやすいよう 0～3 点の 4段階とし，教員も同じものを使い，学生の自己評価と併せて学生のプレゼンテーション力を総合的に評価した。
項目は以下の通りであり自由記述欄も設けた。
① 構成は「はじめ・なか・おわり」で作成できましたか。
（手続き的知識を応用する: ［既知の手順でやってみる］）② 音楽についての客観的情報（作曲家・作詞家・演
奏家・特徴など）を十分に説明できましたか。（事実的知識を記憶する・理解する：［記憶から取り出
す・要約する・説明する］）③ その音楽が好きな理由を十分に述べることができましたか。
（概念的知識を理解すると分析する: ［要約する・説明する・全体と部分を区別する］）④ 視聴覚情報（現物・イラスト・写真・スライドなど）を適切に使えましたか。（事実的知識を理解する，
手続き的知識を応用する：［例を出す，既知の手順でやってみる］⑤ 声の大きさ・スピード・明瞭性は適切にできましたか。（手続き的知識を応用する［既知の手順でやってみる）⑥ 表情・視線・姿勢・ジェスチャーなどの工夫ができましたか。
（（手続き的知識を応用する［既知の手順でやってみる）⑦ 内容を十分に頭に入れて，原稿を読まずに話すことができましたか。
（事実的知識を記憶する：［記憶から取り出す］）
調査結果
4 月に実施したプレゼンテーションに関する質問紙
調査の結果は表 1 の通りである。
3.

表1

プレゼンテーションに関する質問紙
項目

日本語

英語

1 自信

2.0

1.5***

2 楽しい

2.2

2.1*

3 向上したい3.5

3.5

日本語と英語の差を検証するため t 検定により分析した結果，「自信がある」の項目で t(89)=6.857, p<.001,「楽しい」の項目で t(89)=2.263, p<.05 となり有意な差を確認した。
実際にプレゼンテーションをした後に行った学生の自己評価（日本語・4 月実施）と同（英語・5 月実施）の結果は表 2 の通りである。欠席者を除いた分析対象
者は 88 名となった。
プレゼンテーションの評価（学生の自己評価）
項目
1 構成

日本語
1.9

1.9

2.1**

3 好きな理由

2.0

2.1

4 視聴覚使用

0.5

1.3***

5声

1.7

1.8

6 ジェスチャー等

1.3

1.5*

7 暗記

2.1

1.8***（注）回答者は 88 名である。***p<.001, **p<.01, *p<.05

同じく日本語と英語の差を検証するため t 検定により分析した結果，「構成」は t(87)=-3.799, p<.001,「説明」
は t(87)=-2.891, p<.01,「視聴覚使用」は t(87)=-6.507,
p<.001,「ジェスチャー」は t(87)=-2.345, p<.05,「暗記」
は t(87)=2.742, p<.01 という結果になり，それぞれ有意な差を確認した。
「好きな理由」の結果は t(87)=-1.291，「声」の結果は t(87)=-1.195 となり差はなかった。
4. 考察
4.1 日本語と英語に対する意識の差
4.1.1 プレゼンテーションに対する意識
実際にプレゼンテーションを実施する前の調査であるが，プレゼンテーションをする「自信」と「楽しさ」
については，日本語と英語で有意な差を確認しており推測した通りの結果であった。一方，「向上したい」と思う気持ちはどちらも等しく，大学 1 年生の 4 月という新たなスタートを迎え，学習意欲が高かったのではないかと考えられる。
4.1.2 プレゼンテーションの評価（自己評価）
意識調査とは逆に，学生の自己評価は「暗記」を除き，
英語プレゼンテーションの方が高い傾向にあった。6 文で話す短い設定にしたため難易度のハードルが下がり，学生達は英語プレゼンテーションに対して「思っていたより意外と簡単だ」と感じ，自己評価が高めになったではないかと推測する。
4.2 タキソノミー・テーブルからの視点
プレゼンテーションの授業では，計画から実施に至るまで様々な認知プロセスを使っていることを改めて認識できた。

（注）回答者は 90 名である。**p<.001, *p<.05

表2

2 説明（客観的情報）

英語
2.1***

234

5. まとめ
本稿では，1 回目の調査結果を報告するに留まったが，本調査を通して，プレゼンテーションに対する意識とパフォーマンスする力，また日本語と英語の両方から調査することで，学生のプレゼンテーション力がどのように変化していくか，総合的に観察し分析できるのではないかと考えている。今後，授業内の指導を重ねて7 月に第 2 回目の調査をする予定であり，前後の比較を検証した結果は当日報告する。
参考文献
Bloom, B. S. (Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.
Vol. 1: Cognitive Domain. New York: McKay
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, DR (Eds.). (2001). A Taxonomy for
Learning, Teaching, Assessing, Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomyof Education Objectives, Complete edition, New York: Longman.

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

オンデマンド型オンライン試験の実践報告―テスト履歴の分析から分かること―
森田光宏 榎田一路 天野修一 阪上辰也
広島大学外国語教育研究センター
mmorita@hiroshima-u.ac.jp
kenokida@hiroshima-u.ac.jp
shamano@hiroshima-u.ac.jp
tsakaue@hiroshima-u.ac.jp
要旨
本実践報告は，オンラインでの試験に関して，紙媒体での試験との違いを報告し，オンライン試験の実施方法や実施体制の改善につなげることを目的としている。報告対象は，1 年次生約1200 名が受講する教養教育としての必修英語授業である。この授業では，英語語彙・文法学習をオンラインで行わせ，その学習の成果をマークシート形式の試験により確認していたが，2020 年度はコロナ禍のため試験をオンラインで行う必要があった。オンデマンド型試験として，学習管理システム上に試験を配置し，制限時間を設け，指定した期間に受験をさせた。結果として，単位修得条件を満たせなかった受講生は増えたが，条件を満たした場合の成績は紙媒体での試験よりも良かった。一方で，この変更により，試験の受け忘れや機器トラブルなど，
紙媒体での試験では生じなかった問題も起こった。これらのオンライン試験の実施により得られた知見をもとに，今後のオンライン試験のあり方について議論する。
キーワード：オンライン授業，試験，学習ログ
2.2 試験について
コロナ禍にあった 2020 年度は英語授業はすべてオンラインでの実施となった。コミュニケーション基礎 I はそれ以前からオンラインでの自学自習であったが，期末試験は対面でマークシートを用いて行っていた。この期末試験をオンラインで実施する事となった。また，連動科目は非同期（オンデマンド）型オンライン授業とし，従来通り小テストも行ったが，この小テストがどの程度ペースメーカーとして機能するか分からないと言う懸念もあった。これらの問題を解決するために，期末試験だけで成績を決定するのではなく，期末試験と同
じ形式，同じ問題数の小テストをオンラインで行う事とした。小テストは 2 回として，それぞれ，1100 語を対象とした。オンラインで行う小テストと期末試験はサーバーの負荷も考慮し，指定した 5 日間のうちでできるだけ早く受験をするように促した。2020 年度と2019 年度以前の試験実施上の相違点を表１にまとめた。

1.

はじめに
2020 年度はコロナ禍のために多くの大学でオンライン授業行うことを余儀なくされ，学会や研究会ではオンライン授業の実践報告が数多くなされている。出版されたものも多くあり，大学英語教育学会中国・四国支部研究紀要（2021）では，特別企画として「オンライン
授業を含むコロナ対策英語授業の実践報告」として 19
編の報告を掲載した。また，著者らの所属する大学でも実践を書籍としてまとめた（森田・榎田，2021）。オンライン授業の実践が蓄積される一方で，オンライン授業における評価，特に，小テストや期末試験（以下，試験）に関する報告は少ない。本実践報告は，オンラインでの試験に関して，これまでの紙媒体での試験との違いを報告し，今後のオンラインでの試験実施の改善を目的とする。
2. 対象授業について
2.1 対象授業の概要
本実践報告の対象授業は，広島大学の 1 年生のうち半数にあたる約 1200 名が受講するコミュニケーション
基礎 I である。この授業の受講生は，英語の語彙・文法
を WBT（Web-Based Training）教材を用いて，自学自習
形態で学ぶ。この授業で扱う語彙・文法は，広島大学外国語教育研究センターが独自に作成した「広大スタン
ダード 6000 語彙リスト（HiroTan）」に収録されているものである（語彙リストについては榎田他, 2021 を参照）。この語彙リストは冊子体としてだけでなく，オンライン単語学習システムでも提供されている。
本授業は自学自習形式ではあるが，学習のペースメ
イキングのために，もう一つの英語授業と連動している。具体的には，語彙リストから毎週 200 語を範囲として指定し，連動授業内で小テストを行っている。

表12020 年度と 2019 以前の試験実施上の相違点
2020 年度

2019 年度以前

方式

オンライン

対面マークシート

受験日

指定した期間内

指定した日時

小テスト

2回

なし

期末試験

あり

あり

オンラインでの試験は，広島大学が正式に採用している学習支援システム(LMS)である Blackboard R9.1
(Bb9)上で行った。問題形式は次の４種類である。
235

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

図1

2.
3.
4.

英単語の音声を聴き，その意味としてもっとも適切な日本語を選択肢から選ぶ問題
英単語を見て，その意味としてもっとも適切な日本語を選択肢から選ぶ問題
日本語を見て，その意味としてもっとも適切な英単語を選択肢から選ぶ問題
英語の語群と日本語文をもとに，日本語の意味にあうように英語を並べ替え，5 番目にくる語句を選ぶ問題

年度別得点分布

0.04

year

density

1.

2019
2020

0.02

この形式は 2020 年度もそれ以前も変わらず共通である。
ただし，2019 年度以前は各形式で 50 問を出題し，合計200 問としていたが，2020 年度は，1 と 4 の形式で機械的なトラブルが起こりやすいことがわかったため，それぞれ 25 問として，合計 150 問の出題とした。また，
対面マークシート式の場合には，1 の形式で 15 分，その他の形式をまとめて 35 分の試験時間としていたが，オンラインでの試験では，1 から 4 まで分かれ，それぞれ異なる試験時間を設けた。
3.

実践の結果と考察
本授業は各試験で 6 割以上を取ることを単位修得条
件の 1 つとしているので，紙媒体で期末試験のみを行った 2019 年度と，オンラインで 2 回の小テストと期末試験を行った 2020 年度を比較することで，オンラインでの試験について考察をする。表 2 の合計にあるように，単位修得条件を満たさなかった受講生は 2020 年度の方が 2019 年度に比べて多い。これは，2020 年度は 2
回の小テストで 6 割に満たなかった受講生がいる分と考えられるが，その中には，受験を忘れていたという受講生もいる。繰り返しリマインダを出しているが，その時期や頻度などを考える必要がある。
また，第 1 回小テストでは，1 の形式で音声が再生されない，試験の途中で PC やブラウザが動作不良を起こした，また，通信が不安定になったという報告もあり，混乱が見られた。この混乱により，特に最終日の締め切
り間際に受験した受講生は，焦って試験を受けたこともあるようである。事前に機器や準備状況の確認をしっかりとさせることで再発を防ぐ努力が必要だろう。

0.00
60

70

80

score

90

100

成績が良好であった要因としては，試験時間の制限が最も大きいと考えられる。紙媒体の期末試験の場合には，リスニングとその他の形式と大きく 2 分して制限時間を決定したため，4 の形式で時間が足りなくなる
受講生が多く見られた。一方で，オンラインでの試験では，システムの都合上，形式毎に制限時間を決めたために，4 の形式でも十分な時間があり，最後まで問題を解くことが出来たようである。
図 2 に示すように，半数近くの受講生が制限時間である 20 分まで試験を受け，その平均は約 15 点である。
一方で，11 分以下の受験時間では点数は下がる傾向にある。これらの受講生は，他の形式で十分に全体の 6 割以上が取れていると判断し，4 の形式を真剣に受けなかった可能性もある。この点も含め，得られた学習履歴などを精査し，改善策を考える必要がある。
図2

500

25

400

20

300

15

200

10

100

5

得点

受験人数

形式４の試験受験時間別人数と得点分布

表2
2019 と 2020 年度の各試験における 6 割未満の受講生割合
2019 年度

2020 年度

第 1 回小テスト

N/A

3.3%

第 2 回小テスト

N/A

3.8%

期末試験

8.7%

4.7%

合計

8.7%

11.8%

0

0
0

一方で，成績だけを見てみると，オンラインでの試験の方が紙媒体での試験より良いことが分かる。図１は，単位修得した受講生の得点割合をカーネル密度を用いて示したものである。青で示した 2020 年度の受講生は9 割に近い平均点を取っており，
7 割程度である 2019 年
度より良い成績であった。
236

1

2

3

4

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

テスト受験時間

参考文献
大学英語教育学会中国・四国支部. (2021). 「【特別企画】オンライン授業を含むコロナ対策英語授業の実践報告」. 『大学英語教育学会中国・四国支部研究紀要』, 18, 105-144
榎田一路・森田光宏・阪上辰也・鬼田崇作・天野修一. (2021).
「広大スタンダード 6000 語彙リスト(HiroTan)の運用と改良」. 『広島外国語研究』, 21, 141-152
森田光宏・榎田一路 (編). (2021). 『コロナ禍の言語教育―広島大学外国語教育研究センターによるオンライン授業の実践―』. 渓水社.

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

大阪大学におけるオンライン型「プロジェクト発信型英語」授業の試み―同期および非同期型英語授業でのアクティブ・ラーニング―
三木訓子* 岡田悠佑***大阪大学マルチリンガル教育センター
miki-n@lang.osaka-u.ac.jp**大阪大学大学院言語文化研究科
okada@lang.osaka-u.ac.jp
要旨
本実践報告は、大阪大学におけるオンラインでの「プロジェクト発信型英語」科目を担当した
二教員による取り組みを発表する。教員の一名は全て非同期で、もう一名は非同期と同期を併用し、毎回、各学生独自の研究プロジェクトの調査結果を英語でスライド資料を用いて LMS で発表する課題を中心に授業を展開した。非同期型授業では学生間やり取り確保の仕掛けとして
掲示板での発表への質疑応答を出席の代わりとし、また教師からのフィードバックを学生間の学びが発生するよう工夫した。併用型で行った授業では、非同期時には学生の発表と相互コメントを掲示板で行わせ、同期時にはグループ内とクラス全体での発表と意見交換を行い、中間・期末発表では、発表開始から終了までを学生だけで行わせることで学生の自主性を涵養した。以上の実践により、オンラインであっても LMS でのやり取りを中心に、対面と遜色ない学
生主体の状況論的学びが可能であることが示唆された。

キーワード：LMS (Learning Management System)・フィードバック・学びの実践共同体・専門家の見識・自律的学習者
1.

はじめに2020 年 4 月以降、新型コロナウイルス対策として我が国の大学授業は対面からオンラインへと大きく舵を切り、教員はその中で最大限の教育効果を引き出すための授業方法を模索した。発表者の所属する大阪大学
でも全ての外国語科目がオンラインで行うことと決定され、2021 年 5 月現在もその方針は継続されている。
本実践報告は、大阪大学全学共通教育科目の中の１つ、「受講生それぞれの興味関心事を出発点に、個人もしくはグループ単位で行うリサーチ・プロジェクトを中心」とした授業により、「英語の 4 技能全てと学業に必要な研究力そして研究発信力を伸ばしていくこと」を目標と目的とした「プロジェクト発信型英語」を担当
する教員二名が行った、オンラインでのアクティブ・
ラーニング型英語授業の教育価値確保に向けた工夫と仕掛けについて発表するものである。
2.

非同期型プロジェクト発信型英語授業
今回、発表者の一人である岡田が担当した授業は 1
年次生対象のプロジェクト発信型英語授業であり、全ての授業回を非同期型の授業で行った。学生が顔を合わせる機会がない中で、「授業参加の条件としての学び」と「参加による学び」を授業外・授業内の課題に組み込むことで、誰かの言葉の animator から自分の言葉で自分を表現する author という学生の主体性の確保・転換 (Goffman, 1981) と英語で学術活動を行う実践共同体での学び (Lave & Wenger, 1991) を実現した。
まず「主体性確保のための仕掛け」として、週 1 度の授業ごとに独自のリサーチ・プロジェクトの成果を発表動画にして LMS の掲示板に提出させるという授業
外課題を課した。この課題を積み重ねた成果として期
237

末発表を課していたが、実際の学会発表や過年度の学生の期末発表の動画資料を用い、どのように毎回の発表をまとめれば期末発表となるのか、発表の構成やス
ライド資料のデザイン・デリバリーの仕方など、どのような学術発表の具体的なやり方が基準にそったものなのかといった、期待される成果の形を具体的に示した。この成果の可視化と共有により、英語で学術活動を行う学びの実践共同体としての授業での毎回の授業
参加の準備という周辺的な実践から最終的な成果を生み出す中心的な活動への過程を体験させることに成功した。
次に「対話性の確保のための仕掛け」として、LMSの掲示板に提出されたクラスメイトの課題を授業日に確認し、その発表内容についての英語での質問を授業
日翌日までに 4 名以上に行うことを出席条件として課し、さらに授業日翌々日に質問が来ているかを確認させ、来ていれば次の授業日までに英語で返信すれば参加点に加算することとした。質問が来ない場合も考慮
し、4 名以上への質問は返信と同じく参加点に加算することとした。また毎回の課題には教師が授業開始時間までに個別にフィードバックを掲示板上で返信し、さらに全体的なフィードバックをクラス全体に向けて掲
示し、誰の発表のどの部分を真似すべきかを具体的に明記することで、お互いから学ぶことができるようにした。教師のフィードバックは「専門家の見識」(professional vision: Goodwin, 1994) を具現化してみせることで、学生の社会化を促すという仕掛けでもある。
こうして仕掛けられた主体的・対話的な参加によって学生たちは、LMS でのやり取りを中心とした英語での学術活動を実践する共同体の成員として、プロジェ
クトの完成とその発表を成果とする実践を行った。

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3.

るようにするための方策としては、毎時の授業においてグループ代表者がクラス全体に向けて発表する際に、教員が開会宣言から質疑応答、終了までの一連の流れを学会発表を意識したフォーマルな司会で進行することで、役割の在り方と使用する表現を提示した。
対面での隣の学生やグループ内の学生にパソコンの操作や教員の指示について互いに質問したり答えたりできるという気軽で気兼ねない環境をオンライン上に構築したこと、教員を役割のモデルとして見せたこと、教員の干渉を最小限にとどめたことによって、学生の多面的な能力が引き出された。困ったときには誰かが助けてくれるというクラスの絆は良いパフォーマンス
を発揮できる場の雰囲気を醸成し、それにより成績評
価に直接結びつくがゆえに緊張を伴う中間・期末発表
であっても安心して臨めることが可能となった。
教員が示した学会を想定した司会進行は、そのまま現実社会で通用する能力を教え込むことなく学生に獲得させることにつながった。中間・期末発表では、いったん発表が始まればその日に予定されている発表全てが終了するまで教員は一切かかわらないという状況の中、司会を担当した学生たちは自分たちで工夫しながら発表を取り仕切っていった。特に Zoom の反応ボタ
ンを人数の多い聴衆からの確認と同意を得るためにうまく活用したことは、司会進行を容易にするだけでな
く、聴衆の意識を発表に引き付け、能動的な聞き手とさせた。また、名前だけがずらりと表示された黒く無機質な画面の向こうに自分の発表を聞いてくれている人がいるという実感を発表者に持たせることにも貢献した。以上より、オンラインであってもグループダイ
ナミクスは有効に作用し、学生の自律的で主体的な学びが促進されることが確認された。

非同期・同期併用型プロジェクト発信型英語授業
ここではもう一人の発表者、三木が担当した非同期・同期併用型プロジェクト発信型英語授業について報告する。この授業は 1 年次生および 2 年次生対象で、授業開始から学生の通信環境が整ったことを確認する
までを非同期で、それ以降を同期で行った。同期時における授業への出席は原則パソコンからとしたが、やむを得ない場合はスマートフォンやタブレットも可とした。大学内にはアクセスポイントが設置され、自宅での通信が従量制の学生には大学より Wi-Fi が無料で貸し出された。
学生はプロジェクトのテーマを自分事として解決したい問題や達成したい目標とし、問題解決や目標達成のために実現可能な計画を立て、それを実行し、最後に結果を発表した。計画を遂行するにあたっては、文献によるリサーチに加えて自分で実験・アンケート調
査・インタビュー調査のいずれかを行うことも要件とされた。毎週の課題として、非同期・同期どちらの場
合も LMS の掲示板にプロジェクトの進捗を報告する動画提出が課され、その翌週には前週に提出された動画のうち 2 名以上の動画を視聴し、質問やコメントを投稿することが求められた。同期時ではグループに分かれてプロジェクトについての進捗を全員が発表し、次いでグループ代表者をメンバー互選により選出した。
代表者がクラス全体に向けて発表した後に他グループ
より質問を受け付け、それに答えることでプロジェク
ト内容を深化させた。教員は毎週の提出物や発表にフィードバックを与えたが、最終発表ではそれに加えて学生の相互評価からのコメントも全員に開示した。中間・最終発表では、開始から終了までを教員が全く関与することなく学生だけで行わせることで、自主的・自律的な態度を涵養した。いずれの場合も発言するときにはビデオをオンにすることを求めたが、そのためには教員とのラポール（Nguyen, 2007）と学生のグルー
プダイナミクス（Hackman, 2002）が重要なポイントであると考え、それを踏まえて授業を計画した。
まず、非同期でも教員と学生の間にラポールを醸成するために、教員が LMS に上げた動画資料には音声だ
けでなく胸から上の教員ビデオを埋め込み、表情やジェスチャーが見えるようにした。同期授業ではグループ内での自由闊達な議論による学生相互の学び合いによってグループダイナミクスを作用させるために
Zoom を導入した。2020 年 4 月時点においては初めて
Zoom で授業に参加する学生がほとんどであること、パソコン操作の習熟度が学生によって大きく異なることから、参加も出入りも自由な Zoom を使った雑談会を開
催し、操作に慣れさせるとともに学生同士の親睦も深めた。また、わからないことがあった時、気軽に質問を書き込めるスレッドを LMS の掲示板に立て、学生同士で問題を解決できるようにした。オンライン上での意見交換や発表を有機的なつながりを感じさせるものにするために、教員から学生に話しかけるときにはア
イコンタクトを意識し、ジェスチャーを Zoom の画面に映る範囲で多用した。また、それらができている学生に多くのポジティブコメントをすることで、学生にオンラインでの授業参加における双方向性についての意
識づけを行った。
中間・期末発表で司会進行が完全に学生だけで行え

4.

終わりに
オンラインで授業を行うことが決定されたとき、限られた準備期間と資源でいかに対面授業と同等の効果を生み出すかの模索がなされた。また学生も教員も直接顔を合わせない中でのつながりの希薄さが危惧された。本実践報告では大学が提供する LMS をプラットフ
ォームに様々な仕掛けと工夫を行うことにより、学生は対面授業と同じように主体的・対話的に学び、社会的・学術的活動の構成員として各自のプロジェクトを完遂しその成果を発表することができた。これらの実践から、オンラインであっても対面と劣らない学習者
中心の学びが可能であることが示唆された。
参考文献
Goodwin, C. (1994). Professional vision. American Anthropologist,
96, 606–633.
Goffman, E. (1981). Forms of talk. University of Pennsylvania
Press.
Hackman, R. (2002). Leading teams: Setting the stage for great
performances. Harvard Business Review Press.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate
peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press.
Nguyen, H. t. (2007). Rapport building in language instruction: A
microanalysis of the multiple resources in teacher talk.
LanguageandEducation,
21(4).
284-303.
https://doi.org/10.2167/le658.0

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理工系における授業の英語化を改善するための方策
永井 正司**名古屋工業大学
nagai@nitech.ac.jp
要旨

質の保証をともなった「授業の英語化（EMI）」を達成するために、EMI に関する因果関係、相互作用、時間展開の解明、EMI における新たな価値創出、およびその他の知見について論じる。まず、「モチベーション」「授業の質（授業理解度）」「相互理解度の高い英語」の 3 要素間には、共変関係（A と B が連動する）、時間的先行性（A が B に先行しておこる）などの因果関係、相互作用が存在することを明らかにしたうえで、授業の英語化にかかる
過大な負担を避けながら、新たな価値を創出するための工夫や学習者のコンピテンシーについての知見を共有する。
キーワード：英語による授業，English Medium Instruction, English as a Lingua Franca

1. はじめに

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Franca）の研究において，英語を母語としない話者が使教育･研究の国際化に対応するため，大学における専う共通媒介言語としての英語が探究されており，これ

門科目授業の英語化は急務である．国立大学法人名古は工学系の専門科目授業を英語化する際の基盤と な屋工業大学では，中期目標・中期計画において， 英語

りうる．ELF 研究では，Lingua Franca Core と呼称さによる講義・演習のみで大学院博士課程（工学研究科）

れる共通核（典型的･中核的用法の多用，周辺的･重複の必要単位をすべて充足できる計画を明記している的用法の脱落，簡略化その他）の解明や，ビジネス･ 人（2020 年度までに全専攻で完了）．本稿では， 工学系

文社会科学の学術分野での研究が蓄積されてきてい科目授業の英語化に関する支援策の具体例を紹介する

る．ところが，工学系の授業に特化した実証研究はまだとともに，それらを基盤として支える言語学的知見や不十分の状態であり，詳細な実証研究が必要である．

英語化された授業の質保証などの検討課題について述ELF の共通核のうち，工学系の授業で重要べる．

もの，理工系に特有のストラテジー，日本人 英語の特度が高い

徴のうち工学系の授業での相互理解度を高めるものな

2.

工学系授業の英語化に向けての支援策（実施例）

どを明らかにすることや、工学系授業への英語導入のコストを下げる一方 で，コミュニケーション性を向上

FD 研究会の開催
過去の開催題目させて授業理解度を高めることを可能にする諸方策が「授業の英語化に成功する 3つのポイント」

必要である。

（授業評価アンケートで高評価をうけた授業
英語化の実例，およびポイント解説）

4.

「日英対応のシラバス作成法」

英語による工学教育と「授業の質保証」
授業の英語化を真に達成できたと言えるためには，（英文シラバスを書くための思考法・作成法

さらに，根本的な課題が残っている．それは，英語化さについて，高等教育開発の専門家が解説）れた授業に（日本語による授業と同等以上の）質の保証「Tips for English Medium Instruction」が担保されてこそ，本質的な価値が存在しうるという（ネイティブスピーカーによる英語アドバイことである．授業の言語が日本語から英語に置き換わス）ったというだけでなく，「価値の源泉である授業内容そのものが，英語で完全に伝えきれているか」という質の3.

「共通語としての英語」と共通核の探求

保証について問われる必要がある．このためには，細部

工学系の専門科目授業を担当する教員は，授業の英を突き詰めた研究が不可欠であり，英語が事実上の共語化にあたって，ネイティブ･スピーカーの英語を規範

通言語となっている工学分野では，とりわけ喫緊の課とすることが多い．しかしながら，「授業内容の伝達」

題であると考えられる．

を主眼とする場合は，ネイティブ英語への志向から脱して，「相互理解度の高い英語能力」が求められる． 近年，共通語としての英語（ELF， English as a Lingua
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5.

諸要素間のダイナミズム
授業の英語化にあたっては，教員側の「動機付け」（もしくは，英語化に対する意欲）も重要である．英語のネットワーク外部性（ユーザー数と便益性が比例関係）に関する認識や内発的･外発的動機などが主要な要素になると考えられる．そして，「授業の質（授業理解度）」「ELF（共通語としての英語）」「動機付け」3 要因の間には，共変関係（A と B が連動する），時間的先行性（A が B に先行しておこる）などの因果関係，相互作用が存在すると想定される．動機付けの向上が ELFのスキル向上をもたらしたり，ELF のスキルが授業理
解度の向上に不可欠であったりするなど，いろいろな関係の組み合わせや強弱があり得るからである．要因
間の重層的な因果関係， 相互作用，時間展開のメカニ
ズムを解明し，そのメカニズムに基づいて，時間的な発展性（たとえば，A が B を，B が C を，C が D を，そして，そのことがさらに A を強化するといった好循

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環など）を組み込んだ，「授業の英語化プログラム」の構築が必要である。
6.

学習者のコンピテンシー

最後に、EMIにおける学習者のコンピテンシーについて、JSPS 科研費研究（課題番号 18K00781）による知見を共有したい。研究分担者鈴木がおこなったBEVI分析によれば、Global Resonanceスコアの高い者がEMIによって最も恩恵を受けることや、理工系の学生はBasic
Determinismのスコアが（文系学生より）高いため、EMIの方法論にも工夫が必要であることが示唆されている。
これらの最新知見についても、詳しく述べたい。

謝辞
関連する基礎研究の一部は JSPS 科研費（研究代表者:
永井正司，課題番号 18K00781）の助成を受けている。

参考文献
Mercer, S. & Dörnyei, Z. (2020). Engaging Language Learning inContemporary Classrooms. London: Cambridge University
Press.
永井正司(編著). (2021). Defining Variables, Factors and Core
Values in English Medium Instruction. 開成出版.
鈴木章能. (2021).「学習者のコンピテンシーに注目した英語によ る 授 業 」 永 井 正 司 ( 編 著 ). (2021). Defining Variables,
Factors and Core Values in English Medium Instruction. (pp. 17–
48). 開成出版.

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TOEIC L&Rオンライン試験と GTEC テストの相関関係 について
寺西雅子* 大年順子**荻野勝***剱持淑*****岡山大学
tmasako@okayama-u.ac.jp**岡山大学
otoshi-j@okayama-u.ac.jp***岡山大学
masaru@okayama-u.ac.jp****岡山大学
ykenmots@okayama-u.ac.jp
要旨
本発表では、TOEIC L&R オンライン試験と GTEC テストのスコアの相関分析を行った結果を考察し、加えて、岡山大学が独自に開発した CAN-DO リストを用いたアンケート結果も報告する。
2021 年 4 月に、岡山大学入学者 2258 名が全学 GTEC2 技能テストを受験し、そのうち 96 名がTOEIC L&R オンライン試験を受験した。TOEIC L&R オンライン試験の総合得点と GTEC2 技能テストの総合得点の相関分析では、中程度の相関が認められた。さらに、約 2300 名の大学入学時における英語レベルを経年比較に基づき考察すると、従来の TOEIC L&R 試験（マークシート式）と TOEIC L&R オンライン試験では、TOEIC L&R オンライン試験のスコアが高めに出る傾向が確認された。コロナ禍において、オンライン試験の需要が高まる中、2020 年 4 月から実施できるようになった TOEIC L&R オンライン試験が、今後、大学生の英語力を測る指標としての外部検定試験のひとつになるかどうか検討することを目的として、GTEC テストと比較しながら詳細に報告する。
キーワード：TOEIC オンライン試験、GTEC、Can-Do リスト、自己評価
1. はじめに岡山大学では、新入生約 2200 名の英語力の把握および習熟度クラス分けの目的として、2008 年度から 2017年度まで継続して TOEIC L&R テスト（マークシート式）
を利用してきた。2018 年度入学者から、英語力を評価する方法の一つとして、従来の全学統一 TOEIC L&R 試
験にかわり、ベネッセコーポレーションが運営する
GTEC テストを導入した。そして、入学時 4 月に実施する全学統一 GTEC（2 技能）テストを基に 1 年次必修英語のクラス分けを行い、12 月に実施する GTEC テストの結果を基に 2 年次必修英語のクラス分けを行っている。
しかし、GTEC スコアと TOEIC スコアの換算表が必ずしもうまく対応しておらず、各学生の GTEC スコアがどの程度の英語力を意味するのか、学生も教員もイメージしにくいところがある。そこで、TOEIC オンライン試験
が英語力を測る指標としての外部検定試験のひとつになるかどうか検討することを目標として、2021 年度第
1 学期の必修授業の中からサンプルグループを選び、大学の予算で 2021 年 4 月に TOEIC L&R オンライン試験を
実施した。
これらを、
同じく 2021 年 4 月に実施した GTEC
スコア（2 技能）の結果と照らし合わせて分析した。本
発表では、TOEIC オンライン試験の実施内容、および
TOEIC オンライン試験のスコアと GTEC スコアの相関分析を報告し、岡山大学が独自に開発した CAN-DO リストを用いたアンケート結果もあわせて紹介する。
2. TOEIC オンライン試験と GTEC テストの実施
2.1 実施時期、実施方法および実施対象者
全学 GTEC テストは、2021 年 4 月 3 日～7 日に実施さ241

れ、2021 年度入学者 2258 名が受験した。TOEIC オンラ
イン試験は、2021 年 4 月 20 日～27 日の間に実施した。
TOEIC オンライン試験の受験者は、1 年生必修クラスより 3 クラスを抽出した。岡山大学では、社会系、自然系、生命系の３つの系に分けて、教養英語必修クラスを開講している。このうち、自然系 7 クラスから GTEC
スコアに基づいて行ったクラス分け順位のうち、上位
２、３、５番目の３クラスで、合計 96 名が受験した。
ただし、分析には、CAN-DO リストのアンケートに回答
した 92 名を用いた。実施方法は、両テストとも新型コ
ロナウィルス感染拡大の影響を受けて、自宅受験であった。
2.2 試験内容について
両テストは、どちらも受験者の能力に合わせて、出題するテスト問題を変化させ、短時間で受験者のスコアを算出する仕組みとなっている。GTEC テスト（GTEC
Academic）は、リスニング・リーディングの２スキル
を最大 30 分で測定する。受験者に合わせて問題を出題
し、出題数は受験状況によって異なる。各スキル 250
点で、２スキル総合は 500 点満点である。TOEIC オンラ
イン試験は、リスニング（45 問）が約 25 分、リーディ
ング（45 問）が 37 分の構成で、合計約 60 分間である。
リスニング・リーディングの各セクションについて、
UNIT ONE で共通の問題セット（25 問）が出題され、UNIT
TWO では UNIT ONE の正解状況に応じて受験者ごとに異なる問題セット（20 問）が出される。スコアの意味は、マークシート方式と同じとされている。

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

図 3: TOEIC トータルスコアと GTEC 総合得点の散布図

2.3 結果スコア
全 2258 名の GTEC スコア総合得点の平均値は 243.96
点であり、TOEIC オンライン受験対象者 92 名の GTEC ス
コア総合得点の平均値は 243.53 点である。また TOEIC
オンライン試験受験者 92 名の GTEC スコアは 217 点~270点である（図１の赤い部分を参照）。一方、TOEIC L&R
オンライン試験の総合得点の平均値は、540.92 点であった（図２参照）。
図 1: GTEC 総合得点の分布図

また、全入学生約 2300 名に関する入学時の経年比較を概観すると、2014-2017 年の TOEIC L&R テスト（マークシート式）の平均点は約 472 点であった。
2018-2019
年の GTEC Academic 試験（キャンパス内受験）の平均
点は約 241 点であった。そして、2020-2021 年の GTEC
Academic 試験（自宅受験）の平均点は約 244 点と僅かに高い数値となった。さらに TOEIC オンライン試験（自宅受験）の受験者 92 名の平均点が、
約 540 点であった。
従って、近年の入学者の英語レベルに大きな変動がな
いものと仮定するならば、従来の TOEIC L&R テスト（マークシート式）と TOEIC L&R オンライン試験では、オ
ンライン試験のスコアが高めに出やすい傾向があることが確認された。
4.

Can-Do リストのアンケート分析
岡山大学では、2020 年に独自の Can-Do リストを作成した。この Can-Do リストのアンケート項目（リスニング 11 項目；リーディング 11 項目）について、TOEIC オ
ンライン試験の受験者 92 名の回答が得られた。GTEC ス
コアをもとに対象者を８つのグループに分け、質問項
目ごとに「まったく当てはまらない」から「非常に当てはまる」まで５段階で自己評価をしてもらった。受験者のスコアグループ別の Can-Do 項目についての自己評価の結果は、一部に自己評価が高めの項目があったが、想定した難易度と大概ね一致していた。

図 2 : TOEIC トータルの分布図

5.

結び
本調査においては、TOEIC オンライン試験のスコアと GTEC スコアの相関は中程度の相関が認められる結果となったが、それぞれの試験結果の傾向が一部明らかとなった。１回限りのテストで英語力を測るのではなく、複数の診断テストや、また自己評価なども組み合わせて実施することにより、よりよい授業や自己学習につながる分析考察を継続したい。

3.

謝辞
TOEIC オンライン試験の実施に関して、ご協力いただいた
是近成子先生に感謝を申し上げます。

TOEIC オンライン試験のスコアと GTEC スコアの相関分析

今回の調査では、TOEIC 総合得点と GTEC 総合得点の相関係数は、r=.518** (df = 90, p<.01)となり中程度の相関が認められた（図 3 参照）。ただし、GTEC Academic
試験と TOEIC 試験（日常生活やビジネスに関連する内容）では、測定しようとしている構成概念が異なることも考えられ、更なる調査が必要である。

参考文献
大年順子・剱持淑・寺西雅子. (2020). 「岡山大学 GTEC を用いた Can-Do リストの開発」.『岡山大学教育研究紀要 (5)』(pp. 44-59).

242

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

英語教育現場における機械翻訳の活用に関する実態調査と分析結果
山田優* ラングリッツ久佳 ** 小田登志子 *** 守田智裕 **** 入江敏子 ******

立教大学

yamada@apple-eye.com
****

**.

愛知工業大学

hisaka@aitech.ac.jp*****

名古屋市立富田高校

tomohiro.mochida@gmail.com***東京経済大学
toda@tku.ac.jp

愛知工業大学bgi0015toshi@gmail.com

要旨
英語教育と機械翻訳（MT）に関する議論は近年、盛んに行われているが、我々の知る限り
では、日本の英語教育現場における MT の利用に関する実態調査は存在しない。筆者らは、英語教員を対象に、2021 年 3 月に英語教育と MT に関する実態の概要を把握する目的でオン
ライン・アンケート調査を実施した。中学、高校、大学の教員約 130 名（のべ）からの回答を得た。全調査結果は、山田ら（2021 forthcoming）で報告する予定だが、本稿では、その一部を「with MT 時代」の英語教育を考えるうえで重要な項目に焦点を合わせて報告する。
キーワード：機械翻訳, 翻訳, 倫理, アンケート

1.

はじめに
機械翻訳（以下 MT）の精度が向上し、日常生活において MT を利用する場面が増えた。このことは、日本の英語教育とその現場にも影響を与えている。海外でも外国語教育と機械翻訳に関する議論は盛んで（田村・山田, 2021）、教員と学習者を対象に MT の外国語教育利用に関する調査が行われている。これによると、
例えば、外国語の学習者の多くが MT の恩恵を受けており（Clifford et al., 2013; Jolley & Maimone, 2015）、
MT が禁止されているにもかかわらず学習者の 90％がMT を 使 用 し て い る こ と な ど が 明 ら か に な っ た（O’Neill, 2019)。であるならば、大学等の教育機関では、外国語教育での MT 利用に伴う剽窃や著作権等の倫理的問題に関する取り決めを検討すべき時期が来ており（Groves & Mundt, 2021）、Bowker（2020）は教員に対する MT 活用のリテラシー教育を実施した。
先行研究から分かるように、MT と外国語教育の問
題を巡っては、まず MT 利用に関する実態調査を実施し、それに基づいて教育機関の外国語教育ポリシーの見直しと、教員と学生に対する MT リテラシー教育が必要になる。しかし、我々の知る限りでは、日本の英語教育における MT 利用に関する現場の実態調査は存在しない（田村・山田, 2021）。そこで、我々は英語教員を対象に、2021 年 3 月に英語教育と MT に関する実態の概要を把握する目的でオンライン・アンケート調査を実施した。中学、高校、大学の教員のべ 130 人か
ら の 回 答 を 得 た 。 調 査 結 果 は 、 山 田 ら （ 2021
forthcoming）で報告する。本稿では、その一部を、英語教育が機械翻訳と共存していく将来、「with MT 時代」（田村・山田, 2021: 55）を考えるうえで重要となる項目に焦点を合わせて報告する。

243

2.

データ収集
本アンケートは大学と中高の英語教員（専任、非専
任は問わない）を対象に Google Forms を通してオンラインで実施した。日本語版と英語版を作成し、日本語話者のみでなくその他の言語話者の回答も収集した。
複数の学会を通して連絡を行い、回答の協力を求めた。
アンケートは全 27 問の項目から構成される。一人につき複数回の回答を行うことができるようにした。これは、例えば大学教員が同時に高校生に英語を教えている場合、アンケートの回答に想定する学習者が異なることを考慮した。合計 134（のべ）の回答を得ることができた。有効回答数は 133 であった。
教員がアンケートを回答する上で念頭に置く指導対
象 学 習 者 は 、 主 に 大 学 生 （ 110 ） 、 続 い て 高 校 生（18）、中学生以下（4）、その他（1）であった。学習者が英語を学ぶ理由は、必修科目が最も多く（103）、専攻対象として英語を学習している者は23%（30）であった。学習者の英語力（TOEIC スコア
換 算 ） は 、 TOEIC 400 点 程 度 （ 53 ） 、 500 ～ 600 点（39）、300～380 点（28）であった。

3. 結果（抜粋）3.1. 授業での MT 使用の実態
まず、教員の授業中の MT 活用有無については、教員の大半が MT を使用していないことが判った。使用する（かなり頻繁／頻繁に／たまに使用する）との回答
が 14 であったのに対し、使用しない（あまり／全く使
わ な い ） と の 回 答 が 109 で あ っ た 。
しかしながら、アンケートの別の質問から、実際には、学生は授業の課題等をするために MT を使用していると、教員の多く（109）が思っていることが判明。にもかかわらず、陽に MT の使用を禁止している教員も、ほとんどいないことが判った。つまり、現場では学生The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

4. おわりに
教員は、英語教育と MT の問題を認識している。しかし、現場で MT の使用を禁止も許可もせず、学生の使用を黙認している。積極的にアクションを起こしている教員もほとんどいない。また、学習者の英語力と機械翻訳の英語力の比較の質問で、半数以上の教員が、MT のほうが優れていると答えた。これは、MT の活用
方法・方針を考える上で重要になる。現場で MT を活用したいと考えている教員は一定数存在する。
「with MT 時代の英語教育」に向け、MT リテラシー
教育は必須である。本稿で示した結果は極めて限定的ではあるが、今後の英語教育と MT との関わりについての議論の端緒としての資料となることを期待する。

が、コソコソと MT を使って課題等を行っている状況
を教員が黙認（禁止も許可も無し＝83）しているのである（図 1）。
図1

外国語の授業（自宅学習を含む）で、学生の機械翻訳の利用を禁止していますか？
100

83
25

18

7
他

可

禁

⽌

そ

の

許

も

禁

許

⽌

可

…

0

3.2. 学習者の英語力 vs.機械翻訳
学習者の英語力と比較して、MT の英語と、学習者の英語のどちらが優れているか、という質問をした(成果
物ベースの主観評価)。教員の半数以上が、学生よりもMT の方が非常に優れている（学生<<MT）、優れている（学生<MT）と回答した（図 2）。この結果は、教員にとって、英語を学ぶ学生にとっても複雑な状況を表している。「with MT」時代英語教育のあり方を考える上で重要であろう。

謝辞
本稿執筆にあたって、協力頂いた田村颯登（関西大学）および平岡裕資（翻訳ラボ）に深く感謝を申し上げる。なお、本研究は日本通訳翻訳学会「機械翻訳と外国語教育を考える」プロジェクトの支援を受けた。
参考文献
Bowker, L. (2020). Machine translation literacy instruction forinternational business students and business English instructors.
Journal of Business & Finance Librarianship, 25(1-2), 25–43.
https://doi.org/10.1080/08963568.2020.1794739.
Clifford, J., Merschel, L., & Munné, J. (2013). Surveying thelandscape: what is the role of machine translation in language
learning?. @tic. revista d'innovació educativa, 10, 108–121.
https://doi.org/10.7203/attic.10.2228.
Groves, M., & Mundt, K. (2021). A ghostwriter in the machine?
Attitudes of academic staff towards machine translation use ininternationalised Higher Education. Journal of English for
Academic Purposes, 50, 100957.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2021.100957.
Jolley, J. R., & Maimone, L. (2015). Free online machinetranslation: Use and perceptions by Spanish students andinstructors. Learn languages, explore cultures, transform lives,
181–200.
https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=129
8&context=teachlearnfacpub#page=202. （2021 年 6 月 7日）.
O’Neill, E. M. (2019). Online translator, dictionary, and searchengine use among L2 students. CALL-EJ: Computer-Assisted
Language Learning–Electronic Journal, 20(1), 154–177.
http://callej.org/journal/20-1/O'Neill2019.pdf. （2021 年 6 月 7日）.
田村颯登・山田優（2021）「外国語教育現場における機械翻訳の使用に関する実態調査：先行研究レビュー」 MITIS
Journal, 2(1), 55–66. [Online]
http://jaits.web.fc2.com/Yamada_Tamura_3.pdf （2021 年 6
月 7 日）.
山田優・ラングリッツ久佳・小田登志子・守田智裕・田村颯
登・平岡裕資・入江敏子（2021 forthcoming）外国語教育と機械翻訳に関する実態調査. 通訳翻訳研究への招待, 23号.

図2

学習者の英語力と機械翻訳の英語力の比較（教員の主観）

3.3. MT の使用に対する考え方と活用のための知識
このような状況ではあるが、英語教育への MT 使用に関しては、肯定的に考えている教員が多かった（図3）。積極的に活用したい（13）、できることなら活用したい（44）。しかし、MT を用いた授業の実践を行うために必要な知識については「あまり／全く知らない」との回答が多かった。教員の中には MT を使用
してみたいという気持ちはあるものの、適切な利用方法が分からないために活用できていないものもいる。
教員に対する MT リテラシー教育の必要性が再確認できた。
図3

授業で機械翻訳を活用したいですか。
44

50

36

25

13

8

7

く
な

他

活

⽤
し

た

は
活
⽤

そ
の

い

る
…
控
え

⾔
…
ら

と
も

な
…
ど
ち

こ
と
る
で
き

積
極

的

に
活

⽤
…

0

244

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

遠隔教育のオンライン国際協働型学習(COIL)の実践―英語教育の観点から―
安西弥生* 福田彩***青山学院大学
yayoi.wikiwiki@gmail.com**東京外国語大学
fukuda_aya@tufs.ac.jp
要旨
本実践報告は、東京外国語大学、国際基督教大学、カリフォルニア大学アーバイン校、青山学院大学の教員によるオンライン国際協働型学習(COIL)を実践したことについての、大学英語教育の観点からの実践研究発表である。COIL は、Collaborative Online International Learning を指し、文部科学省「大学の世界展開力強化事業（COIL 型）」の助成を受けているプロジェクトである。授業の実践は、２０２０年１０月から１１月に行われ、青山学院大学１９名、東京外国語大学１０名、国際基督教大学３７名、カリフォルニア大学６０名が協働学習を行った。実践の結果、日本人大学生は同期型よりも非同期型オンラインコミュニケーションを好む傾向があり、COIL が英語学習意欲の向上や異文化理解を深めることが明らかになった。
キーワード：英語教育、遠隔教育、オンライン国際協働型学習、協調学習
はじめに
本実践報告は、東京外国語大学、国際基督教大学、カ
リフォルニア大学アーバイン校、青山学院大学の教員が、オンライン国際協働型学習(COIL)を実践したことについての、大学英語教育の観点からの実践研究発表
で あ る 。 COIL は 、 Collaborative Online International
Learning を指し、文部科学省「大学の世界展開力強化事
業（COIL 型）」の助成を受けているプロジェクトである。このプロジェクトでは、グルーバルな人材育成と留学などグローバルな交流の促進が期待されている。
大学英語教育における COIL 型学習については、統制された実験環境で、日本人大学生は「（私たちの学習方
法は多様化している」「私たちは協調学習ができる」等のオープン・ラーニングの認識が高まることやビデオの映像や音声の活用だけでなく、スマホを使いリアル
タイムで、英語でチャットができることが明らかになっている（安西, 2019）。また日本の大学では、全般的にオンライン教育では顔出しを強要してはいけないという方針があり、一方で海外の学生は、顔出しをすることに抵抗がないという文化の差がある。安西(2021)は、実
験環境で実証研究を行い、「顔出し」の有無は、学生の認識に有意な差を生じさせないことが明らかにした。
実証実験は着実に進んでいるが、大学英語教育の授業
で、どのような影響があるのかは明らかでないので、本発表では授業実践の場でのケーススタディを報告する。
1.

４大学共通の活動としては、１）担当教員によるオンラ
インミーティング、２）各大学の学生がミニブログの作
成、３）ミニブログを共通のプラットフォームである
Discord 上で、非同期型のオンライン国際協働型学習、
４）ZOOM を利用した同期型国際協働型学習であった。
５）リフレクション、６）COIL の応用学習は、第一著
者の授業のみで実施した。授業実践後の学生の感想を非同期型・同期型オンライン学習の比較など教育工学の観点から分析を行った。
図1

非同期型 COIL の一例

3.
方法
授業の実践は、２０２０年１０月から１１月に行われ、参加学生は、青山学院大学１９名、東京外国語大学
１０名、国際基督教大学３７名、カリフォルニア大学６０名であった。４大学の授業の共通した目標は、同期型
及び非同期型のオンラインコミュニケーションを通して、異文化理解を深めることで、具体的なテーマは、“Day in the Life with Technology”で、各学生がミニブロ
グを作成し、Discord で国際協働学習を行った（図 1）
。
2.

245

結果と考察

日本人学生は非同期型のコミュニケーションを好む傾向があることがわかった（表１）。また COIL を通じて、英語が世界共通語（English as a Lingua Franca）であることの実体験を得られたことが学習意欲につながったことが明らかになった。更に国内・国外の学生と交流することで、学生は、意見の多様性、学生生活におけるテクノロジーの様々な活用方法に関する気づきがあった。また、このような COIL 型学習を行う際には、特にThe JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

日本人学生には足場架けが必要だということも示唆された。
表１
日本人学生が好む COIL の学習形態
Font Size

観測度数

期待度数

残差

非 同 期 型
COIL

13

9.0

4.0

同期型 COIL

5

9.0

-4.0

合計

18

注. 自由度１，X2=3.56、P=.059

4. 結論
Academic English を学ぶ日本人大学生にとって、英語を世界の共通語(ELF)として用い、日本の他大学に在籍する日本人学生、留学生、帰国子女や、米国の大学生とオンラインでの協働学習を行うことは新鮮で、伝統的な教室の壁が取り除かれる画期的な学習であった。
謝辞
本研究は JSPS 科研費 21K00730 の助成を受けたものです。
参考文献
安西弥生(2020). 「ZOOM を活用したオンライン国際協働型学
習の基礎研究」 『CRET 年報 第 5 号』, 37 - 39
安西弥生(2021 予定).「同期型オンライン国際協働型学習のイ
ンストラクショナルデザインの研究：「顔出し」が学生の認識に及ぼす影響」 『CRET 年報』, 第 6 号

246The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

グループ活動における交流国ごとの方略的能力の比較分析と今後の授業形態の展望加藤和美
東海大学kazumilk@tokai-u.jp

要旨
本発表者は、2012 年からグループ活動を英語で円滑に行うための教材と教授法開発を行っている。全 5 回で完結する特別授業を実践した後は iPad を教室の Wifi に繋げて実際に海外の大学生とグループ活動を行っている。日本人同士で行う同文化間でのグループ活動と、異文化間で行うグループ活動との違いを比較分析しながら学生のコミュニケーション能力を養ってきた。
本発表では、まずコロナ前に行ったシンガポールの学生との共同授業の様子と、コロナ禍で行ったタイの学生との共同授業の様子を紹介し、英語レベルと双方の方略的能力の違いを報告する。また、本発表ではコロナ前後で利用した機材やネット環境を考慮しながらコロナ収束後におけるこれからの新しい授業のあり方をディスカッションしたい。
キーワード：英語教授法、ICT、グループ活動、異文化コミュニケーション、中間言語語用論

1.

はじめに
海外の大学とのオンライン授業をする際、自己紹介
や国の紹介プレゼンテーションがメインになることが多い。本発表者の共同授業の特徴は、単に自己紹介だけではなく、海外の学生と混合グループで一緒にタスクを完成させる目的を設定していることである。日本人
学生２名、シンガポールの学生２名の合計 4 名１組のグループを作り、iPad にインストールされたスカイプ
を利用して教室内でシンガポールの大学生と作品完成型のタスクを行ってきた。2020 年はコロナ禍において状況が変わりシンガポールとの交流が困難となったた
め、以前からオファーのあったタイの教員と共同授業を行う事となった。また、教室で複数の iPad を利用するのではなく、各学生が自分のパソコンやスマートフ
ォンで自宅から授業を受ける授業形態に変わった。本
発表では、交流相手が変わったことを機に、交流国ごとのコミュニケーションの違いを比較し、コロナ収束後はどのような授業方法で海外の学生との共同授業が可
能であるかを紹介する。

材を作成した。さらにその教材を利用した教授法を『高校英語授業を知的にしたい』の本にて紹介した。
図１：6 つの絵（三浦 2009）

2. 教材とタスク活動
本発表者は、三浦（2009）が『ヒューマンな英語教育
がしたい！』の本の中で紹介しているタスク Picture
Story を利用して、日本国内の３大学と１高校において英語によるグループ活動を実践し、授業方法を長期に渡って改良して来た。Picture Story とは、６つの絵（図１）から４つを選んで英語で自由に物語を作成したのち、グループ内でそれらの作品を紹介、話し合い、グループで１つの作品を完成させる作品完成型タスクである。本タスクは「言語表現を指定しない目的志向型のタスク」であるため、グループ活動中には、提案、依頼、賞賛、断り、申出など様々な表現が発せられることが特徴である（加藤 2016）。実際にイギリスの大学に行き、現地の大学生に同じタスクを実践してもらい、その様子をビデオカメラで録画し、グループ活動のモデル教
247

その後、さらに、ブルネイ、シンガポール、タイの大学生にも同じタスクをグループで実践してもらい、そのグループ活動の様子をビデオカメラで録画し、同じように動画教材を作成した。これらの動画は英語母語話者であるイギリス人大学生のモデル教材と異なり、第二外国語として英語を使う国の大学生と、日本と同じように外国語として英語を使う国の大学生の英語を聞くためのものである。英語母語話者以外の英語を繰り返し観ることで、様々な特徴のある英語に触れるだ
けでなく、国ごとに異なる方略的能力を知ることができる。また、実際にオンラインで共同授業を行う交流国のグループ活動の動画であるため、事前に動画を分析して攻略法を考えるために役立つと考えた。また、本発
表者が今まで作成した 5 回で完結する特別授業を再考し、新たな教授法を作成した。最終的に外国の大学生と実践する場は 1 回だけではなく、３回設けた。そして、日本人大学生が自身のグループ活動の様子を分析する
機会を十分に取った。さらに、本発表者が作成した教授The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

法の中には、毎回学生から「言いたかった表現」を集める活動があり、何年に渡って収集してきたため膨大な数の英語表現が集まっていた。そこで、「言いたかった
英語表現」をまとめ、300 を越える英語表現を目的別に分類し、「グループ活動のための英語表現集」を作成した。今回のタイの大学生とのグループ活動実戦では、第１回目のグループ活動でタイの大学生とグループ活動を実践した際に感じた「言いたかった表現」を、「グル
ープ活動のための英語表現集」と照らし合わせてピックアップし、本当に必要な表現を学習、習得したのちに再チャレンジ、再度動画を分析して３回目のグループ活動に臨んだ。これらの新しい教授法により、言語習得と方略的能力を学習し、よりグローバルな人材育成を目指せるよう工夫した。本発表は共著出版本（加藤 2016）の続編として実戦報告する。
3. 実践
3.1 シンガポール
コロナ前から共同授業を行っていたが、2018 年の時
点ではお互いの国や大学紹介のプレゼンテーションと質疑応答を行うにとどまっていた。しかし、学生がより多く発言できるよう翌年からグループによるタスク活動を追加した。2019 年の授業ではシンガポールの学
生はパソコンを教室の wifi に繋げ、日本人大学生は 2
名で iPad１台を使いオンライン上でスカイプを利用してシンガポールの学生とグループでタスクを行った。
スカイプによるグループ活動の様子をアプリの録画機
能で録画し、実践後は録画ビデオを再生しフィードバ
ックを行った。実際の交流の様子のビデオを観察すると、予想に反しグループ内の日本人学生の発話量はシンガポールの学生の発話量よりも多かったことがわかった。また、日本人学生側の英語習得レベル別にグループを観察してみると、レベルが低い学生の方がより発話が多いことがわかった（表１B）。その理由として、シンガポールの学生は日本人が積極的に話そうとする姿を見ると聞く側に徹し、理解しようとしてくれていた点が大きい。また、英語習得レベルが高い日本人学生は日本人同士で文法の確認をしてしまう傾向にある(表1A)が、英語習得レベルの低い学生は何とかして単語だ
けでも伝えようとすることから英語の発話が多く見られる結果となった。この数字は発言の量のみを比較してあるもので、発話の質は考慮していない。

4.

考察
本研究では、シンガポールとタイの大学生とのオンライン共同授業におけるグループ活動の様子をビデオ
観察にて比較した。学生の感想によると、タイの学生の英語はわからない、最初は全くわからなかった英語がビデオ分析と書き起こしによって何となくわかるようになった、実際に話をしている時には何を言っているかわからなかったけど書き起こしをして意味がわかっ
た、２回目は慣れた、など、実戦の回数を重ねることで耳が慣れていることがわかる。また、タイ、シンガポー
ルのどちらの国に対しても英語の聞き取りが難しかったとの感想が多いわりには日本人の発話量が多いことがわかる。発話量が多い理由はそれぞれの交流相手によって異なるが、英語母語話者でない国の学生との交流は日本人学生がリードする側に回ることができることがわかった。感想の中には、もう一度やりたい、もっといろんな国の人と話をしたい、などが多かったことから、事前準備と実践、フィードバックを繰り返すことでモチベーションをあげることが可能であると考える。
今後も引き続き教授法を工夫し様々な国の大学とオンライン授業を続ける予定である。

表1

シンガポールの学生と日本人の学生の発話量の比較
日本

シンガポール

観察

A（高）72%28%

日本人同士が日本語で文法を確認することが多いがシンガポールの学生は待ってくれる

B（低）62%38%

単語だけでも積極的に話そうとする。シンガポールの学生は聞くに徹する

オンライン授業を行っていたためスカイプではなくzoom を利用した。時間調整し共同授業を 3 週にわたって 3 回行った。1 回目は顔合わせ、2 回目にグループ活動、3 回目の共同授業では再度グループ活動を行った。
その都度日本人学生が主体となって zoom を開催し、そのグループ活動の様子を録画した。日本側は週 2 回の英語授業であるため、タイの学生とグループ活動をした次の授業ではすぐにフィードバックを行うことができた。本授業では学生が動画を見て全ての発話を書き起こし、グループメンバー4 名の発話部分を色分けした。
グループ活動の実践後に全体を観察してみると、やはり日本人の発話が全体的に多いことがわかる。また、１回目のグループ活動でほとんど発言できなかった学生が２回目のグループ活動で発言ができるようになっていることがわかる。ただ、これらはシンガポールの学生とのグループ活動とは大きく違う点がある。日本人学
生のモチベーションとタイの学生とのモチベーションの違いが発話の量に差が出たと考える。後日タイの先生とのフィードバックによると、タイの学生は日本人との英語によるコミュニケーションが怖いとの感想が多かったようだ。タイも日本と同じく英語使用の機会がなく、英語は外国語として学習している環境である。
そのため、授業でどれだけ英語に慣れたか、会話をしてきたかによるため、教員と学生との信頼関係や全体のモチベーションによる影響が大きいと考える。＊資料を載せるスペースがないため、詳細は口頭発表にて紹
介する。

参考文献
Kato, K. (2019). Task-based Methods and iPad Materials for Active
Learning 2018 JALT Diversity and Inclusion, pp.369-377.
加藤和美. (2016).「小グループが英語で打ち合わせ、英語でプレゼンテーションできる指導―ネイティブ・スピーカーのグループ活動から学ぶー」.三浦孝（編）『高校英語授業を知的にしたい』(pp.198-228).研究社.
三浦孝. (2009).『ヒューマンな英語教育がしたい！』研究社（高）英語習得レベルが高いグループ（低）英語習得レベルが低いグループ

3.2 タイ王国
コロナ禍に実践した。
日本側もタイ側も zoom による
248

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

J-POSTL エレメンタリーの開発―小学校教職課程履修学生のための Can-do 記述文―
山口高領* 米田佐紀子***秀明大学
takane46@gmail.com**玉川大学
yoneda_s@lit.tamagawa.ac.jp
要旨
JACET 教育問題研究会は『J-POSTL エレメンタリー』の完成版を発行した。本発表は、この指導者用ポートフォリオの中核をなす自己評価記述文（SAD）から履修生用のものを特定する
最終段階において行われた全国の小学校教職課程履修生に対する質問紙調査結果と、その調査過程で得られた履修生の様子を報告する。4 期 2 年間の調査では、93 の各 SAD に対して、全国の述べ 21 の大学で学ぶ教職課程履修生(n=530)が、学期の初めと期末にて 5 段階で自己評価するよう求められ、期末ではポートフォリオ使用についての記述式回答が求められた。分析の結果、4 期のどの SAD も 2 回目に向けて平均値が上昇したが、自立学習と評価といった分野のSAD への自己評価が低いことが判明した。この結果を踏まえ、本ポートフォリオの活用に対する妥当性と信頼性を担保するために、編集委員会で履修生用の SAD を特定した。また、ポートフォリオ使用についての回答分析を通じて、使用効果が確認され、課題が現れた。
キーワード：Teacher Education, Elementary school, Portfolio, Self-assessment descriptor
1.

はじめに
JACET 教育問題研究会（教問研）は、CEFR の理念を反映した The European Portfolio for Student Teachers of
Languages（Newby et al., 2007）を日本の文脈に合わせて翻案化して、『言語教師のポートフォリオ(J-POSTL)』（教問研，2014）を発行した。2016 年から『J-POSTL
エレメンタリー』の開発を開始し、2021 年 3 月にその完成版（教問研，2021）を発行する運びとなった。このポートフォリオは、小学校での英語指導者の授業力を可視化し、小学校教員養成課程履修者及び小学校での外国語（英語）指導者の活用を想定して作られた。
本発表は、このポートフォリオの中核をなす自己評価
記述文（SAD）を特定する最終段階において履修生に対して行った SAD についての質問紙調査結果と、その調査過程で得られた履修生の様子を報告する。なお、
SAD は Can-do 形式で記述された文 1 である。
2. 履修生への質問紙調査
2.1 最終段階の調査に至るまでの背景
まず、『J-POSTL』を基に、聞き取り調査と諮問会議によって草案として 167 の SAD が作成された。次に、この草案の SAD について、全国の大学の英語教員養成課程担当者（n=63）への質問紙調査により、93 の SAD
が小学校教職課程にて扱われる候補となった。
2.2 調査目的と回答履修生
これらの候補としての各 SAD が、小学校教職課程履修生にとって学修素材として適切かどうかを判断するために、最終段階としての質問紙調査が行われた。調
査期間は 2018 年度後期から 2020 年度前期までの 4 期 2年間であり、全国 13（述べ数では 21）の国立・私立大学で開講された小学校用外国語についての授業の履修生（n=567）から回答が得られた。複数の期で参加した
249

履修生の回答は参加し始めた期の回答だけを分析対象とすることで、重複のない回答（n=530）だけが分析対象となった。
2.3 調査方法
回答者は、年度の半期を使って行われる各授業受講開始時期に、原則的にエレメンタリー試用版を受け取り、93 の各 SAD に対して 5 段階（できない・あまりよくできない・どちらとも言えない・まあまあできる・
できる）で自己評価（1 回目）し、受講終了時期に、再度自己評価（2 回目）を行うと同時に、試用版ポートフ
ォリオの使用感を尋ねる質問紙に回答した。
2.4 調査結果の概要
調査結果の概要は、以下のとおりである。
(a) 各期別の各 SAD の評価値は平均として 1 回目から 2
回目にかけて上昇した（効果量 d が 0.14 から 0.92）。
(b) 各期の 2 回目の回答の平均値（n=84, 90, 116, 240）の平均値（n=93）をそれぞれ基準値（3.23, 2.95, 3.27, 3.71）とした場合、4 期とも各期での基準値を上回っている
SAD 数は 34、下回っている SAD 数は 35 であった。
(c) 自立学習と評価といった分野に属する SAD に対する自己評価は概ね低かった。
2.5 調査結果の分析と履修生用 SAD の特定各期における結果は、履修生の大学・授業担当者・履修生の違いを反映しているが、コアカリキュラム施
行前後の授業内容や、2020 年度前期のようにコロナ渦の中遠隔授業を通じてのデータ収集になったという各期の時期的影響も考えられる。そのため、分析は期毎に行い、それを全体としての解釈に反映させた。
その上で、以下の 3 つの基準をすべて満たす SAD を履修生用に含め、教職課程での学修目標として重視をThe JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

するべき SAD を追加として特定した。
(1) 平均の伸びとしての効果量 d が 0.3 以上の結果が出ている期の数が 3 か 4 であること(2) 2 回目における平均値が 3.00 以上の結果が出ている期の数が 3 か 4 であること(3) 各期における基準値以上の平均値を超えている期の数が 3 か 4 であること
これらの 3 基準を設定したのは、(1)は、一定以上の自己評価の変化（上昇）がある SAD が履修生の学びに資すると考えたからであり、(2)は、たとえ一定以上の自己評価の上昇があっても、半期の学修終了後に一定以上の自己評価の高さが必要と考えたからであり、(3)は、たとえ一定以上の自己評価の高さがあったとしても、93 の SAD の中での相対的な自己評価の高さが必要だと考えたためである。
以上の基準を適用し、93 の SAD の中から、42 の SADと、教職課程担当者を中心とする編集者会議で 28 のSAD が特定された（表 1）。この表から、講義を通じて学修した履修生の自己評価の高さ・低さが推察される。
分野「教育環境」「教授法」「授業実践」では、自己評価が高まる度合いが比較的高く、分野「自立学習」「評価」では、比較的低いことが示されている。
表1

特定された SAD の数と分野
3 基準を満たした
SAD 数

課程を考慮して追加された SAD 数

Ⅰ 教 育 環 境
(15)

11

2

Ⅱ 教授法 (26)149Ⅲ 教授資料の入手先 (5)2

3

Ⅳ 授業計画(17)6

5

Ⅴ 授業実践
(18)

95

Ⅵ 自立学習(2)

0

1

Ⅶ 評価 (10)03

合計 (93)

42

28

分野

校時代の学習体験として、「音声や身体を使った活動」
や「楽しい授業・教師のおかげで意欲が向上した」といったテーマが上位に登場した。
セクション「教育実習に臨む前の期待と不安」では、サブテーマから「期待よりも不安が多く」挙がり、その原因として、「児童と直接関わっていないことが背景にある」ことが判明した。
質問紙は、「ポートフォリオを受け取ったとき、どのように感じましたか」という問いも設けている。この問いに対しては、「否定的な感情」や「肯定的な感情」というテーマが上位に現れた。また、「ポートフォリオ
を活用して良かった点」では、省察による自己や今後の課題の認識といった「振り返り」のテーマが最上位に現れた。ポートフォリオ使用の意義はポートフォリ
オに掲載しているにもかかわらず、「使用する意義がわからない」という意見が現れたが、これは「教員が関与する授業内外での使用の必要性」を示唆している。
4.

さいごに
教員養成課程では、指導する力を学修するために、教員の講義を聴くことに留まることなく、授業観察・
授業体験・模擬授業といった体験が求められている。
こうした体験に対する省察を通じて、自己評価を行い、課題を把握するといった学修の効果が存在することが、試行調査から明らかになった。また、本調査が示す分
野ごとの自己評価の高さ・低さを示した結果は、全国の小学校教職課程で学ぶ履修生の自己評価をある程度反映している可能性がある。より多くの履修生が小学
校外国語の指導法についてより良い学修ができるよう、
ポートフォリオを使った指導方法の共有・改善に向けて、今後も調査・研究が求められている。
注
1
例えば、分野「教授法」の SAD には、「児童を話す活動に積極的に参加させるために，協同的な雰囲気を作り出し，具体的な言語使用場面を設定できる。」がある。
謝辞
本研究は、19H01288「省察ツールとしてのポートフォリオの体系化と活用ガイドの開発」の助成を受けています。
参考文献
Newby, D. et al. (2007). European Portfolio for Student Teachersof Languages (EPOSTL). ECML/Council of Europe.
JACET 教育問題研究会(編). (2014).『言語教師のポートフォリオ(J-POSTL)』. JACET 教育問題研究会.
http://www.waseda.jp/assoc-jacetenedu/FullVersionJPOSTL.pd
f
JACET 教育問題研究会(編). (2021).『小学校英語指導者のポー
トフォリオ(J-POSTL エレメンタリー)』. JACET 教育問題研究会.
http://www.waseda.jp/assoc-jacetenedu/CompleteJPOSTLElem
entary.pdf
山口高領・米田佐紀子. (2020).「学生調査から見えた小学校英語教職課程履修生に求められる資質・能力」『言語教師教育』7(1). 31-50.
http://www.waseda.jp/assoc-jacetenedu/VOL7NO1.pdf

注. 各分野名に続くカッコ内は、試用版の 93 記述文の中で当該分野に属する SAD 数を示す。

3.

履修生のポートフォリオ使用
4 期 2 年間の試用調査では、受講終了時期に、ポートフォリオの使用感を記述式で尋ねる質問紙調査も行っている。第 1 期に対してテーマ分析を使って行われた
主な分析結果（山口・米田, 2020）を紹介する。
ポートフォリオは、SAD のセクション以外にも、自己評価を促すためのセクションを設けている。まず、セクション「自分自身」では、教員養成課程の初期段階で、外国語教育に関する自己の経験や全般的な課題を考察することを期待している。分析結果から、小学
250

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

日本人大学生の英語使用および英語学習に対する意識の変化―日台の遠隔共同授業を通して―
竹田里香* 渡辺彰子** 大和田和治****立命館大学r-takeda@fc.ritsumei.ac.jp**立命館大学
watana@fc.ritsumei.ac.jp***立命館大学
owada@fc.ritsumei.ac.jp
要旨
本発表は，日本の私立大学で食マネジメントを専攻する学生と台湾の私立大学でホスピタリテ
ィを専攻する学生との Zoom を用いた遠隔共同授業の実践報告である。授業目標は，食を中心とするお互いの文化を英語で学び合うことにあった。授業では，台湾の学生と日本の学生のグループディスカッション，食文化に関するプロジェクト，グループ発表等が行われた。日本人
学生は，英語圏における短・長期留学経験者，英語のセルハイ高出身者，帰国子女など様々な背景を持っていた。全授業終了後，2 名の授業観察者が日本人学生に対して，英語使用および英語学習に対する意識の変化を探るため，日本語で半構造化インタビューを行った。その結果，
学生の異文化経験は多岐にわたっていたが，今回の ELF 環境での授業を通し，自らの英語学習経験に照らしながら，ELF における英語使用者としての意識を体得し，英語学習意欲を高めていたことが明らかになった。
キーワード：日台遠隔共同授業，異文化理解，専門外国語，インタビュー調査，ELF
背景
グローバル化が進む世界の中で，多くの人が英語をEnglish as a lingua franca（ELF）（Jenkins, 2000 参照）として使用している。また ，English as an International
Language（EIL）に関しては，日本では 1970 年代後半より，英語教育の専門家が EIL 教育において様々な努力を行い，今ではいくつかの日本の大学で EIL が英語プ
ログラムの中に取り入れられるようになってきている（Hino, 2018 参照）。このような流れの中，Oda（2018）は，学生が様々な英語に触れることのできる多文化英語プログラム（multicultural English language program）が，日本の大学における理想例であるとしている。
一方，異文化理解に関しては，異文化間能力（Byram,1997）が世界中の言語教育で重要性を増しており，言語および異文化理解のスキルの向上を目指すには，異文化の背景を持った学習者同士が交流する授業もしくはプログラムが望ましいとされる（Çiftçi & Savaş，2018 参照）。そのような実践の場として，アジア太平洋カレッジでの共同教育プログラムのような高等教育機関の実践例も報告されている（崔, 2019 参照）。また，ビデオ
会議による異文化交流について，Lee et al.（2018）は，
videoconference-embedded classroom（VEC）に参加した
学生の 81%が肯定的意見を持っている，と述べている。
本研究は，ELF と異文化理解，そして VEC を取り入れた遠隔共同授業の実践報告である。以下では，本授業の内容をまず概観し，参加学生へのインタビュー調査の結果に基づき，学生の英語使用および英語の意識の変化について質的に考察する。
1.

251

2. 内容
2.1 学部の英語教育
食マネジメント学部の英語プログラムでは，3 段階のステップにより，英語学習者を育成することを目指している。STEP 1 で集中的に学習し，自らの英語力のレベルを知るとともに自律した学習者（autonomous learner）
をめざし，STEP 1 で学んだことを基盤にして STEP 2
では，自分の将来の職業を見据えた学習（career-mindedlearning）をサポートしながら， STEP 3 の専門の学び（expert learning）へと繋げる。本実践報告の授業は，二回生秋学期からの STEP 3 にあたる専門外国語科目
Gastronomic Sciences Ⅰ で，Step 1 と Step 2 で学習したことをもとに，媒介言語である英語を通して，より専門性の高い英語を学ぶことを目標としている。
2.2 授業内容
本授業は，2020 年度秋学期開講の遠隔共同ゼミ形態の授業であり，受講生は，日本の私立大学で食マネジメ
ントを専攻する学生と台湾の私立大学で食とホスピタ
リティを専攻する学生であった。日本側の学生は二回生以上で，15 回中最初の 3 回と，最後の 2 回は日本側だけの授業で，合同の授業は 4 回目から 13 回目の計 10回行われた。クラス人数は日本側が 10 名，台湾側は 50名であった。
授業目標は，日台の食文化を中心に互いの文化を英語で学び合うことにあった。
授業内容は，①食文化・食ビジネス・ホスピタリティ
に関する英文記事を事前に読み，ライティング課題として要約と意見を書き，ディスカッションに備える，②
食の共同プロジェクトでは，オンラインツール Padlet（オンライン上の掲示板）を利用し（図 1 参照），1 週

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)の留学経験有）間に食べた食事や，互いに紹介したいお菓子やユニー
クな食材の写真をアップし，コメントを残したりディ
スカッションを行う，③専門の講師から講義を聞き，グループディスカッションを行う，④グループで 10 分程
度のプレゼンを行う，⑤毎回の授業の感想を書く，など
が主な活動であった。

・

図１

学生が自由に投稿をした Padlet の例「やっぱり何かしゃべるときに，日本語が出てくるんですけど，英語にそれが頭の中で変換できないというか，
言いたいことがあるけど文章にならないことがやっぱり多いので，喋る練習を普段からしていった方がいいな
っていうふうに思いました。ネイティブスピーカーとしゃべるときは，汲み取ってくれるから安心してしゃべれ
るけど，今回のようなときは空気を読まないといけなく大変だった」（学生 C，4 週間の短期留学経験有）

以下に，インタビュー結果から明らかになった 2 点を挙げる。
(1) 英語使用に対する意識の変化
英語使用に自信のある学生は，英語使用に対する意識の変化は感じられなかった。一方そうでない学生は似た文化背景を持つ台湾の学生とコミュニケーションをとる際，言語だけでなく，ノンバーバルの要素を取り入れるなどして，英語使用に関しての苦手意識を減らしていた。

2.3 インタビュー調査
全授業終了後，10 名の日本人学生に対して，授業担
当者ではない授業観察者 2 名が，Zoom を利用し，1 名につき 30 分から 1 時間の半構造化インタビューを日本語で行った。主な質問は以下の 3 点であった。

(2) 英語に対する意識の変化
一般的な英語の科目と異なり，本授業は専門外国語という位置づけであった。そのため，多くの学生は，自分の専門を生かし，単語力を増やし専門的な英語力をつけたい，と感じていた。

1． このクラスの率直な感想を教えてください。
2． 台湾の学生との英語によるコミュニケーション
についてどう思いましたか。
3． 自分自身と英語のこれまでの関係、そしてこらからの関係について教えてください。
結果と考察
筆者らは，台湾側は全学生が教室に集まってグルー
プごとで一台の PC を共有していたため，スムーズにグ
ループディスカッションが行われていなかったのではないかと危惧していた。しかしながら，インタビュー調
査の結果，学生は本授業を肯定的に捉え，満足をしているようであった。参加者 10 名の学生の英語レベルは多岐にわたり（1 回生終了時の Versant Speaking Test の結果に基づく CEFR レベルで，B2（1 名），B1（4 名），A2
は 4 名，A1（1 名）であった），短・長期の留学体験，
英語のセルハイ高出身，帰国子女等，学生の異文化経
験・海外経験は様々であった。以下にインタビューの書
き起こしデータから抜粋して（一部改変）紹介する。
3.

・「アジアだから似てるのかなとか思ったけど，違うことも結構多くて，逆にすごい似てるなって思うことも多くて，その発見は面白かった。文法とかって大事だと思って生きてきたけど，身振り手振りをもっとうまく使ったりとか，感情を顔とか表情で，表現したら，言いたいことが言葉で出てこなくても伝わって，コミュニケーショ
ンに必要なのは言葉だけじゃない。何か急いで携帯とかで調べて，写真で出して見せたりとか，他にも手段はあるって痛感しました」（学生 A，10 カ月の留学経験有）・「しゃべている中で，台湾の子に，紹介したものとかを知らないって言っていたら，食べて欲しいなって思いました。最初は本当に全然話せなくて，ニコニコして聞いているだけだったんですけど，聞いているうちに，考えないといけないっていう意識が芽生えてからは，相づちの打ち方を研究してみたりしました」（学生 B，11 カ月

まとめ
非英語専攻の学生がこの授業で，自らの専門を通して英語を学び，発信し，学習意欲を高めている点，および学生同士のインタラクションを通して，台湾の学生に分かりやすく通じる英語を使用し交流を行おうしたことで，母語規範（native norm）によらず，ELF の感覚と意識を自然に自ら体得していた点が明らかになった。
そして，この学部の英語教育の目標である「食」と「異文化」を英語教育に有機的に結びつけることで，自律した英語学習者への意識が見られた。
4.

252

参考文献
Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing interculturalcommunicative competence. Multilingual Matters.
Çiftçi, E., & Savaş, P. (2018). The role of telecollaboration inlanguage and intercultural learning: A synthesis of studies
published between 2010 and 2015. ReCALL, 30(3), 278-298.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0958344017000313
Hino, N. (2018). English as an international language for Japan:
historical contexts and future prospects. Asian Englishes, 20(1),27-40.
Jenkins, J. (2000). The phonology of English as an international
language. Oxford University Press.
Lee, J.S., Nakamura, Y., & Sadler, R. (2018). Effects of videoconference-embedded classrooms (VEC) on learners’
perceptions toward English as an international language (EIL).
ReCALL, 30(3), 319-336.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S095834401700026X
Oda, M. (2018). A post-EFL approach to the administration ofEnglish language programs, JACET EFL SIG Journal, 2, 32-38.
崔慶原. (2019).『グローバル人材へのファーストステップ―海外の学生と PBL/TBL で学び合う―』. 九州大学出版会.

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

一般教養英語リーディングクラスにおけるオンライン授業―学生の実状に即した改善案―
志村美加

中竹真依子

小杉弥生

学習院大学外国語教育研究センター
langcentereng21＠yahoo.co.jp
要旨2020 年度はコロナ禍で、本学の学生も大学へ登校する機会のないまま一般基礎教養英語のリーディングクラスをオンライン形式で受講することになった。受講する学生の実態を把握し、より良い授業に改善するために、1 学期末と 2 学期末の 2 回にわたって 1・2 年生約 500 人を対象にアンケートを行った。回答を分析した結果、多くの学生が １）デジタル機器や LMS を問題なく使用できるようになるまでに時間がかかった、２）自律学習の困難さを認識していた、３）オンライン授業と対面授業のそれぞれの良い点を認識していたことが明らかになった。また、
2 学期末には対面授業を望む学生が約 4 割いる一方、好ましい授業形態としてはオンライン授
業と対面授業のどちらでもよいと考える学生が約 4 割を占めることも明らかになった。ただし、オンライン授業は教員に時間的かつ心理的、肉体的に負担を強いることになるため、過度の負担にならない実施方法の検討が必要である。
キーワード：オンライン授業

一般基礎教英語1.

はじめに2020 年度はコロナ禍で混乱の中、本学では新入生を含む 1・2 年生が登校する機会がないまま一般基礎教養
英語クラスの履修を始めることとなった。特に新入生
は大学生活を具体的にイメージすることができないま
ま、継続的に目標達成へ向けた地道な努力をすることが求められる“自律した学習者”として積極的に学ぶことが求められるオンライン授業を履修することになり、教員への質問や問い合わせが数多くあった。そのため、学生の実態を把握し、学生にとってより良い授業とするため、1 学期末と 2 学期末の 2 回にわたってアンケー
トを実施した。本研究では、オンライン授業の一形態としてオンデマンド形式で授業を行った発表者３人が実施したアンケートの回答分析から、コロナ禍における個々の学生の学習環境、そしてオンライン授業の問題
点や受け止め方を明らかにすることを目的とする。
2.

被験者とアンケート調査
本研究の被験者と実施したアンケートの詳細は次の通りである。

2.1 被験者
対象学生は、発表者が担当した一般基礎教養英語のリーディングクラスを履修する 1 年生および 2 年生の学生約 500 名である。1 年生計 307 名、2 年生計 194 名が履修しており、欠席者や回答しなかった学生を除き、実質回答者数は 1 年生 296 名、2 年生 174 名となった。
1 年生のリーディングクラスは合計 10 クラス、2 年生のリーディングクラスは合計 8 クラスとなる。学生の専攻は経済学、法学、政治、哲学、心理学、物理学、化学、経済学などであり、学科ごとに履修する形式となっている。
2.2 アンケート
1 学期末である 2020 年 7 月と 2 学期末の 2020 年 12253

リーディングLMSコロナ禍

月から 2021 年１月にかけてアンケートを実施した。
アンケートは選択肢形式と自由記述形式の項目からなり、オンライン授業下における学生の学習環境や、オンライン授業と対面授業のそれぞれの良い点、またオンライン授業において困った点などについて尋ねた。
項目は、学生の実況を把握するため、そしてより良い授業にするために必要な情報を得ることを目的とした 15
項目を中心に構成された。なお、本研究ではアンケート
項目の中の７項目の回答分析を取り上げる。
アンケートの実施方法としては、それぞれの教員がLMS を用い、各学期の最終授業で学生に回答を依頼した。回答期間は約 1 週間とし、記名式とした。
3.

アンケートの回答分析結果
アンケートの回答を分析した結果は次の通りである。
3.1 使用している機器
学生が使用している機器を確認するための項目では、
1 年生と 2 年生共に、1 学期と 2 学期で使用した機器に大きな相違は見られなかった。1 年生・2 年生の約半数がパソコンを主な機器として使用しており、約 3 割の学生がパソコンとスマートフォンを併用していた。また、タブレットやスマホのみを 1 年間使用していた学生も少なからず見受けられた（図１参照）。
図1

1・2 年生が使用した機器の割合（1・2 学期末の平均）
（％）

PC

Ta*

Sm**

3種共

PC＋Ta PC＋Sm Ta＋Sm その他

１年生

50

1

3

4

2

39

1

0

２年生

52

2

3

5

2

33

3

0

*Ta:タブレット **Sm: スマートフォン[なお、1 学期の 5 月時点で、インターネットの使用通信量の制限がある学生が 19％、大手携帯会社が学生のオンライン学習支援のため行っていた支援措置（最大50GB の追加データ無償提供）を利用できる環境にある
学生は 55％だった（調査対象学生数 151 名）。]

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

3.2 デジタル機器や LMS の使用の不慣れ
1・2 年生共に、デジタル機器や LMS を問題なく使用できるようになるまでに時間がかかっていた。学生から寄せられたコメントには下記のようなものがある。

＜対面授業の長所＞◕ クラスメイトとコミュニケーションができ交流が深まる◕ わからないことや質問したいことがあったらすぐに先生やクラスメイトに聞ける◕ 他の受講者の理解度や状況を確認できる◕ 実際に会って顔を見ながらの方が話し合いなどはしやすい◕ 緊張感がある◕ より集中できる◕ 授業や課題を後回しにしなくなる◕ ウェブクラスの使いかたについて戸惑った◕ 対面の授業とは違い、提出したと思っていた課題が提出できていなかったり、途中まで進めていた
課題のデータが消えてしまったことがあった◕ 今まで紙を使って勉強していたため、パソコンに慣れておらず、ワード等の操作を気軽に周りに聞くことができなかったこと。
◕ Word もあまり使い慣れていないため、初めのうちは行間などを規定の書式にする方法を探すのに苦労した◕ パソコンでの文字打ちに慣れていないため、グループトークがスムーズに進まなかった◕ たくさんファイルがあって、やることがごちゃごちゃになってしまった

3.5 好ましい授業形態
対面授業とオンライン授業では、どちらが良いかを問う項目では、1 年生、2 年生共に対面形式の授業が好
ましいと考える学生が最も多く、次にどちらの授業形
態でも良いと考える学生が多かった。1・2 年生を比較した場合、2 年生の方が対面授業を望む割合が低かった。
また、２学期末には、どちらでも良いと考える学生がそれぞれの学年で４割近くを占めた（図２参照）。

また、インターネット環境が学習に影響していることを示すコメントも多くみられた。

図 2 学生が最も好ましいと考える授業形態
対面◕ 授業の途中で画面が固まってしまったり、回線の不具合で授業に参加できないことがある◕ パソコンを今まで使ってこなかったので、Wi-Fi のつなぎ方からよくわからなかった。また、ワードの使い方もよくわからず、課題に取り組むことがつらいと感じることがあった◕ パソコンの調子が悪くなると課題ができない

(%)

オンライン

どちらでも

１年生 1学期

52

15

33

2学期

45

18

37

２年生 1学期

40

28

32

2学期

34

25

41

3.6 オンライン授業を継続することに対する意見
各学期末に、次の学期もオンライン授業を行うことに賛成か、反対かを尋ねた項目には、1 年生、2 年生の双方の学年において、1 学期は賛成の意見が多かった。
2 学期末には、1 年生は反対の意見が多く、2 年生は賛
成の声の割合が減少した。また、2 学期末には、双方の学年でどちらでも良いと考える学生が約４割を占めた（図３参照）。

3.3 自律学習の困難さ
オンライン授業に関しては、自律学習の困難さを認識している学生もいた。
◕ 課題の提出期限を忘れてしまうこと◕ オンラインは自室でほとんどをこなすので、オンオフが難しい◕ ネットの検索などが同時に行えたり、メールが届いたりするので、集中しづらい◕ 課題メインであるため、締め切りに間に合えばい
いという発想になり、本来の時間帯で授業を受けにくくなって生活リズムが少し狂う◕ リラックスしすぎて頭にあまり入ってこない。集中力や危機感が薄く、気が散りやすい

図 3 次学期にオンライン授業を継続することに対する意見(%)

3.4 オンライン授業と対面授業のそれぞれの長所
戸惑いながらもオンライン授業の履修を始めた学生
も、1 学期末にはオンライン授業と対面授業の長所を認識していた。

4.

賛成

反対

どちらでも

１年生 1学期

38

31

31

2学期

25

38

37

２年生 1学期

44

27

29

2学期

34

26

40

考察
PC 等の使用機器や LMS の最低限の使用方法を分かりやすい方法で提示する必要がある。また、自律学習がより円滑に進むように教員がサポートする必要がある。
オンライン授業の継続に反対の声が強くないのは、
LMS の掲示板やチャットでの学生同士の意見交換やピア・レビュー機能を用いたライティング活動、オンライ
ン上の Active Learning や Covert Teaching、丁寧な本文や問題の解説など様々な授業を試みた結果だと思われる。
こうした授業形態は、教員に時間的・身体的・心理的にかなりの負担を強いるため、過度の負担にならない実施方法を検討する必要がある。

＜オンライン授業の長所＞◕ オンデマンド形式の授業ならば、何度でも先生の解説を見直せること◕ 自分のペースで勉強ができる◕ チャットで質問や話し合いができること◕ 学習しながら気になることをすぐに調べられる◕ 通学しない分、時間や体力に余裕が生まれたこと◕ 体調が悪い時にも授業に参加しやすい
254

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

省察のシェアを通しての学習自律の変容は
シェアグループの特徴によりどう違うのか―協働グループの特徴による Zoom 授業での自律変容の分析―
河内山晶子
明星大学
Ako3939@gmail.com
要旨
本研究は、リアルタイム・オンライン授業の協働活動での学習者自律の変容について、協働活動の方法的要素を中心として分析する研究である。特に協働活動のグループの特徴により、学習者自律変容にどのような差があるかを、
学生の振り返りコメント、教師の面接、観察、質問紙等で質的に分析する。グループの特徴とは、動機づけの高さの高低を指し、それを基に 3 様のグルーピングを行い、1 学期間の実践を通してその変化を比較分析する。それに加え付随的に、活動内容の教育的効果についても、教材精選による効果、テーマの設定方法の工夫による効果、活動時間の確保に支えられた練習の繰り返しによる効果等を、動機づけ理論、自己決定理論、自己効力感の理論から検討を加えていく。
キーワード：学習者自律

協働

リアルタイムオンライン会議システム（Zoom）

はじめに「教育界で 100 年かかる IT 革命がこの 1 年間で起こってしまった」と言われるように、対面授業が行えないことによる苦肉の策であるオンライン教育は驚異的な飛躍を遂げた。中でもリアルタイム・オンライン授業の活用は特にめざましい普及を見せた。教師も学習者も全く新しい体験の授業に取り組んだわけだが、リアル
タイム・オンライン授業には多くの利点があることに気づかされた。発表者は学習者自律を研究テーマとして取り組んできており、このような状況下の授業において、自律がどのように伸長され得るかが課題となった。また、このようにオンラインで教育も仕事も行われていく時代だからこそ、自律的学習者であることは、より必要であるとも言えよう。人と人との関係が分断され疎遠になりがちな傾向の中だからこそ、協働の意識を高め、繋がる力を伸ばすことが望まれる。その協働を支えるのが自律した個である。ますます自律の育成に力を入れていくことが望まれよう。

ブレイクアウトルーム

は、動機づけ研究を深化させ、従来の枠組みからシフト
して、自分が決めた程度（自己決定）の度合いにより動機付けの強さが大きくなるという自己決定理論を展開
し、バンデューラら（1981）は自分ならできるという自信の感覚を自己効力感として、その成り立ちや測定方法、他の理論との整合性を論じてその高め方を示した。
これらの理論を踏まえて動機づけと学習者自律の諸要
素を測定する尺度がピントリッチ（2004）によって実験に用いられた。日本でも動機づけ研究は市川（2004）や櫻井（2017）によって日本の文脈での展開がなされている。

1.

2. 先行研究2020 年 4 月否応なくオンライン授業に取り組むこととなり、すでに 1 年以上がたった。その間、飛躍的に普及率が上昇したのがリアルタイム・オンライン授業である。当初、オンデマンドと課題提出を加えたいわゆるオンライン授業に対しては、その教育的効果を疑う見方もあった。しかしながら、研究報告によると予想以上の効果を上げている。１年間の Zoom 授業の前後における英語学習への動機づけの高さを比較したところ統計的に有意な上昇を見せた例（Toda2021）や、約 400 名への調査により学生は半数以上、教員も 3 割強が将来的にオンライン授業を続けたいとの調査報告（植原 2020）もある。さらに、2021 年 3 月に 1744 名の学生対象に行われた文科省調査でも、半数以上がオンライン授業を肯定的な受け止めていることが報道された。
（日経 2020）
次に、本研究の最終目的である学習者自律育成という観点から先行研究を概観すると、デシら（2000、2017）255

3. 学習環境の背景
2020 春より、従来教室内で行っていた協働活動を、
リアルタイム・オンライン会議システムのブレイクア
ウトルーム（以下 BOR）で行った。Zoom 使用は、個々の教員の裁量による決定であり、発表者は 2020 年全授業をフルタイムで Zoom 授業を行った。大学全体の実施率
は 2 割に満たない模様であったが 2021 年春は、大学から全教員に対して Zoom 使用が通達されるに至った。このことはオンライン技術の浸透が着々と進み、その長所への認識も高まったことを物語っていよう。発表者の 300 回近い Zoom 授業の体験から得た有用性についての見解を以下にまとめた。これらは発表者の観察、学生アンケート、教員間意見交換、報道記事等の記述を基にまとめたもので 4 つの観点から 14 項目を記している。
4 観点は順に（A)距離的要素 4 項目、(B）視聴覚的記録性 4 項目、（C）Chat /BOR の機能 4 項目、(D)外部連携 2 項目である。
1)すぐに参加でき通学時間を学習時間にあてられる。
2)講師や友人との距離感が近く親しみや安心感が大。
3)画面上に友の顔と名前が提示されてわかりやすい。
4)リアル対面より負荷が和らぎ対人的困難者に適す。
5)画面共有で資料や白板が目前で見え記録も残せる。
6)誰の声もはっきり聞こえる。
7)音声ミュート活用で音読練習や歌も思い切り可能。

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

8)授業録画による欠席学生や教師研修に効果的。
9)アンケートで挙手/チャットを選び回答が得やすい。
10)チャット使用により授業の流れを尊重できる。
11)ブレイクアウトルーム（BOR）で多様な出会い可。
12）BOR は選択入室可で、雑音もなく集中できる。
13）ゲストの招致が容易で、直接的接触は効果的。
14)世界の語学教室等とのコラボが可能である。

（２）研究方法
協働活動において BOR でペアをつくる際、①動機づけの高い学習者どうし、②高い学習者と低い学習者、③低い学習者どうしという 3 パターンとなるように、26 人
を 3 群に分けた。組み換えをする場合も、その群の中での組み換えをし、これを 1 学期間継続した。
6. 分析手法
分析手法は KJ 法を用いた。研究に具体的に適用しやす
いよう KJ 法の手順を示しているうえの式質的分析法に沿って分析した。学生の記述文、面接スクリプトから、意味的にまとまった塊ごとに言説を書き出し、情報ユニット化し、一つ一つ、同質か異質かとの判断で峻別し、カテゴリー化（メタ情報化）した。その各々の塊の概念を抽出すると共に、それらの間の距離を考慮しつつ大きなスペース上に、位置づけていく（マッピング）作業を行う。さらにはカテゴリーのさらに上位にある概念（メタメタ情報）を論理的に抽出し、上位概念間の関係をストーリー化する。この関係図として視覚化されたものにより、学習者の学習自律の変容の様相を明らかにする。つまり、協働活動メンバーの特徴の違いによる差を論じることとなる。

4. 目的
発表者の授業実践で常に目標としているのは、自律の育成である。本研究でも、「真の協働の基盤となる学
習者自律の育成に向けて、リアルタイム・オンライン授業ではどのような授業が展開され得るか」を試みるこ
と、特に、その試みにおいて最も効果を上げるための要
因を探ることが本研究の目的である。教材、活動内容、
活動形態、時間配分を、動機づけと学習者自律の先行研究の知見に基づいてデザインし、特に協働の形態中、協働グループの特徴に注目してその効果を分析した。
RQ:協働活動のシェアグループの特徴により学習者
自律の変容にはどのような差があるか？
5. 方法（１）授業手順：授業の流れは以下の通りである。
毎回：開始後の 10 分は BOR で会話し人間関係作りとミニトーク＋最後に振り返りシート
1) オリエンテーション TOEIC 問題と質問紙。
2) 名作映画導入・台詞テキスト配布(視聴は宿題として課す）(授業中に短時間全員面接)
3） 物語に沿ってクライマックス 5 場の（1）の台詞の実感的理解と身体表現伴う発話練習
4) 同上（シーン２）
5) 同上（シーン３）
6) 同上（シーン４）
7) 同上（シーン５）
8) テーマについて動画等の資料を提示しつつ BOR で議論（動機づけ理論）
9) 関連事項（物語当時の社会背景・社会問題・文化背景・映画産業・演技論、俳優論、監督論・・）を列挙し、自分が興味のあるもの選択し決定（自己決定理論）リサーチ開始。
自分に合ったやり方（日本語英語共用/英語のみ）でのリサーチおよび英文づくりを開始。助けが必要な場合、Deep L 翻訳アプリを自分の英語力養成のための使用法で適宜活用。
10）同上
11）同上
12）発表の場の提供：ほぼ 2 人組 BOR で各組にネイテ
ィブが参加しコメントと英語の助言をする。
いろいろな組を作り直して、繰り返し練習を重ねる（プレゼンを重ねて自己効力感が向上）
13）同上
14）全員の前でファイナル発表を披露する
15）発展指導（長期休暇への助言、年間計画への助言、今後の英語学習への助言等）
尚、教員は学期 2 回、学生全員と面接し学習相談の機会を設定。
（最初の 2 回までの期間およびリサーチ中）

7. 結果
概要のみ簡潔に言及すると、「低-低群に比べて、高高群、高-低群では、英語学習に関する重要な気づきを行動に落とし込み、すぐに行動に移し、その行動を継続していくことにおいて長けているという特徴が認められた。また、授業や学習で得た情報を分析的に明確に理解しようとする態度が強いことと認められた。その強さは高-高群が高-低群を凌いでいた。
参考文献
Deci, E. L. and Flaste, R., Why we do what we do, New York, 1995.
Ryan, R. M., &, E. L., Self-determination theory and thefacilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and wellbeing, American Psychologist, 55, 2000.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L., Self-determination theory: Basic
psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness, New
York: Guilford Press, 2017.
eLearning Strategy Research Institute. (2020). Daigaku ni okeru
onrain jugyo no kinkyu dounyu ni kansuru chosa hokokusho.
[Research Report Concerning the Emergency Introduction of
Online Teaching]. Retrieved from https://www.digitalknowledge.co.jp/archives/22823/
Toda, H., The Impact of Synchronous Online Foreign Language
Teaching on Student Satisfaction and Motivation, Tokyo, Universityof Tokyo, 2021.
櫻井茂男, 「自律的な学習意欲の心理学」,誠信書房, 2017.21

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大学英語教育における児童英語指導法の一考察―Classroom English 指導にフォーカスして―土屋佳雅里**東京成徳大学
k-tsuchiya@tsu.ac.jp
要旨
小学校外国語教育の本格的な導入に伴い、児童英語を指導できる教員のニーズが高まっており、大学英語教育でも児童英語指導法を習得できる科目が設置されている。発表者は、私立大学英語関係学科などにおいて、児童英語指導法の科目を担当している。講義トピックは児童英語教
育をめぐる理論および指導法（歌・チャンツ、絵本・物語の活動等）と多岐にわたるが、注目したいのは Classroom English（以下、CE）である。大学英語教育では、CE に特化した科目は少ない。しかし、英語での授業運営は中学・高校英語で基本とされることから、適切な CE の運用力は小学校から重視されている。そこで、本発表では、2019 年以降の児童英語指導法の授業実践（目標、授業計画、内容、授業コメント等）を報告しながら、特に Classroom English に焦点をあて、考察する。学生のコメントには、実際に指導する側として体験しなければ得られないであろう客観的な実践の振り返りもあり、模擬授業の意義が感じられた。
キーワード：児童英語教育、小学校外国語教育、児童英語指導法、Classroom English
背景
現行学習指導要領（2017）では、小学校外国語活動が第 3 学年・第 4 学年に必修化、外国語科が第 5 学年・第6 学年に教科化となった。小学校外国語教育の本格的な導入と並行し、児童英語を指導できる教員のニーズが高まっている。児童英語教育とは、字義通り、「児童を対象にする英語教育」であり、児童英語教育とは概して
第 6 学年までを対象とする英語教育を指すといえる。
ただ、児童は何を指すか？によって意味合いは異なってくる。児童英語指導法を習得する科目は、外国語活
動・外国語科の指導者養成の意義を持つだけではない。
1.

中・⾼英語教員免許取得を目指す学生にとって、小学校
英語の下地がある生徒をいかに指導するかを考える為に、重要な知見を得る意義もある。また、児童を小学校の場で学ぶ子どもたち以外にも視野を広げると、児童
英語指導は学校教育に限らず、民間英語教室等も含まれるようになり、大学卒業後の進路先として、民間で児童英語指導力を活かしたいと希望する学生も少なくない。このような現状に鑑みると、児童英語指導法は、多様化する指導の場に柔軟に対応できる科目であり、大学英語教育での必需性はますます高まると思われる。

／省察／指導案作成、などである。また、毎回の講義トピックとは別に、Classroom English：教室英語（以下、CE）運用力の養成を重視している。大学で CE に特化した科目は希である。しかし、「英語の授業は英語で行うことを基本とする」方針が、高等学校では前学習指導要領（2008）から、中学校では現行学習指導要領（2017）に明言され、適切な CE 運用力の養成が求められており、小学校においても、「指導者（日本人の教師）も英語を使うよいモデルとして、授業中の指示や質問にはできるだけ英語を使用するよう努力したいもの」と推奨されている（文部科学省、2017、p.118）。授業では、CE を独立したトピックとしては扱わず、毎回の講義で触れ、CE に関する気づき、具体的な語彙・表現、指導のコツ・
テクニックなど、学生が少しずつ CE 運用力への意識や認識を高められるようにしている。
実践報告と考察
本発表では、2019 年以降の児童英語指導法の授業実践（授業計画、内容、授業コメント等）を報告しながら、特に CE 運用力の養成に焦点をあて、考察する。2019 年
度の対面授業でのコメントには、｢英語で説明する場合も、何回か違う表現を用意して、発言していくほうが、一回で聞き取れなった場合や、一つの表現方法では理解できなかった生徒（児童）がいた場合に有効｣というような、たとえ模擬でも実際に指導側を体験したからこそ得られた客観的な振り返りもあり、模擬授業の意
義が感じられた。しかし、2020 年以降はオンライン授業であるため、実際の模擬授業に代わる指導内容に切り替えている。そこで、対面およびオンラインの異なる
授業形態間においても比較しながら報告し、考察する。
3.

実践概要
発表者は、私立大学英語関係学科において、2019 年
4 月より、児童英語指導法に関する科目を担当している。
小学校外国語教育および民間英語教育における基本的な児童英語指導力を理論と実践の両面から身につけ、両者を比較しながら、いずれの分野でも対応できるフ
レキシブルな指導力を養うことにフォーカスしている。
主な講義トピックは、小学校外国語教育の概要／民間
英語教育との違いについて／異文化理解・他者理解／
英語の 4 技能（聞くこと・話すこと〈やり取り〉
・話こ
と〈発表〉
・読むこと・書くこと／様々なアクティビテ
2.

参考文献
文部科学省.(2017).「小学校外国語活動・外国語研修ガイドブック」.
https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/kokusai/gaikokugo/1387503.htm

ィ（絵本、歌・チャンツ、ゲーム等）／ICT 活⽤／評価257

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航空機操縦士訓練生に必要な英語力調査と没入型 VR 教材の検証
西川惠* 縄田義直***東海大学
megumi-nishikawa@tsc.u-tokai.ac.jp**航空大学校
nawata@kouku-dai.ac.jp
要旨
本発表は非英語母語話者である航空機操縦士訓練生の英語力を養成する教材や教授法開発のための資料として、実際の飛行訓練中の録画を基に飛行訓練教官と訓練生のやり取りを分析した結果を報告する。分析の結果、操縦動作（強さ・速さ・度合・タイミング等）を説明する特定の品詞の使用、物標の見え方や位置の説明、高度やスピードを表す数字が特徴的であった。
さらに、飛行中は航空管制官と他機との交信が飛び交う点や、教官からのやり取りを基にその場で計器や物標で確認をしながら操縦装置に動作を加えることが必要な点が飛行前後のブリーフィング等で必要とされる英語力と大きく異なる等、ノイズや非言語的負荷等による特殊な状況下での言語使用訓練が必要であることも分かった。この分析結果を基に、フライトシ
ミュレーションソフトを利用して開発した VR 英語教材についても報告し、使用者からのアンケート回答結果から今後の課題をまとめる。
キーワード：ESP、飛行訓練に必要な英語力、VR、没入型簡易的フライトシミュレータ教材
1.

官との PFB」に必要な英語力に加えて、訓練生にとってもう一つの要となる場面、「飛行中の教官とのやり取り」
についてはどのような特徴があるのだろうか。本研究では、飛行中の機内の録画を基に教官と訓練生のやり取りの文字起こしを行い、分析した結果を報告する。今回分析対象としたのは約 3 時間の飛行訓練（2018 年 6
月撮影）のうち、離陸から着陸までの約 1 時間を分析した。分析対象の訓練生は撮影当時 20 歳（男性）1 名で訓練初期段階にあった。文字起こしには対象者と同じ訓練課程を終え資格取得した大学 4 年生（2 名）を雇用した。
分析の結果、以下の言語・環境的特徴が明らかになった。

はじめに
国際民間航空機関の需要予測によると、2030 年には
航空機操縦士が大量に不足すると予測され、安定的養成と確保は世界的課題となっている。近年自国以外で英語を媒介言語として飛行訓練を受けるケースが増加するにつれ、非英語母語話者である航空機操縦士訓練生（以下、訓練生）の特殊目的のための英語（English forSpecific Purposes: ESP）力を養成する教材や教授法開発が急務とされる。しかし、その特殊性の高さから対策は追いついていない。
2.

先行研究
飛行訓練は、大きくは座学とフライトシミュレータ
による訓練、実機を使っての飛行訓練にわけられる。訓練生が特に訓練開始初期段階に苦戦するのが英語での実機訓練である。飛行訓練教官によると、訓練の質と進捗の大きな要となるのは、Post Flight Briefing（PFB）で問題点の整理を行い、課題を洗い出し、準備を次回のレッスンまでにできるかどうかにかかっているという（Nishikawa and Nawata, 2019）。PFB 時には操縦時の描写（操縦動作、風景、物標等）、副詞や形容詞を使って操縦動作（強さ・速さ・度合・タイミング等）を説明す
る、教官の指摘を理解し、できたこととできなかったことを描写・比較・分析・評価し、それを基に質問すること等ができる必要があるとされる。また、操縦動作の説
明では日本語ではオノマトペが使用される表現が英語
では副詞や形容詞で説明されることが分かっている（西川・縄田, 2020）。飛行中の航空管制官（ATC）との航空無線（RT）については、コールサインの付け忘れや高度や速度を表す数字の誤りが特徴的であることが分かっている（西川, 2021）。
3.

①操縦動作（強さ・速さ・度合・タイミング等）を説明する特定の品詞（形容詞や副詞）の使用（表 1 参照）②物標の見え方や位置の説明により気象条件や機体位
置、高度や速度について把握した上で操縦動作を行う
点（表 1 参照）
③高度やスピードを表す数字（表 2 参照）④管制官と他機との交信が飛び交い、エンジン音等の雑音（ノイズ）が多い点（表 2 参照）⑤教官とのやり取りを基にその場で計器や物標を確認しながら操縦装置に動作を加えることが必要な点（表 2参照）
飛行訓練では、エンジン音や他機と ATC との交信が入り混じる特殊な状況下で物標や計器、機体部位の見え方や位置を確認しながら（表 2）、教官から操縦動作について細かく指示を受ける（表 1）。訓練生は指示内容を理解し、指示通りにその場で計器や物標を確認しながら操縦装置を操作し機体をあるべき態勢や状態にコントロールすることが望まれる。

飛行中に必要な英語力の特定「飛行中の ATC とのやり取り」および「飛行後の教258

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

表1ともできる。また、アドオンソフトウェアをダウンロー
ドして特定の航空機を追加したり、シーナリーを開発する等、コンテンツを拡張してカスタマイズすることもできる。作成した教材では実際の訓練地と訓練機での飛行を設定し、HMD での画面を PC モニタで教官役が同時に確認して指示を英語で出し、訓練生が聞き取り・復唱・操縦動作等を行う英語訓練を行った。

機内での教官による物標・操縦動作等の説明
経過
発話
時間
11:41 Ok? Not too fast because we need practice ok? Nice and slow.
We just make moving on ok? All right, take one*** Look at
windsock, so we have little bit crosswind from right, not verymuch because it is variable. Now we wanna*** hold it hold itback hold it back ok? Now we wanna going to do, we werestill do moving, we wanna got nice and slowly increase thethrottle to all way in the full ok? Nose coming up from theground, let’s the gentle down pressure when you got pressureok? （中略） Watch now airspeed. Ok? What’s the airspeed?
注. 経過時間：機体が駐機場所から移動開始してからの経過
時間、→度合・タイミング、→物標、→
操縦動作（機体の位置・向き・状態）、→操縦装置・機体部位、→速さ、高さ、方向（左右、上下、前後）
、
→
計器確認

図1
HMD に表示される風景

例えば、飛行前に行う機体の状
態チェックというタスクでは、機外でギアの状態を確認する
チェック作業を訓練生が HMDを装着して行い、その隣で教官が PC モニタで画面を確認しながら（図 2）英語で指示を出す。
これに対して訓練生は確認作業を行い英語で返答する。訓練課
程を修了した訓練生に使用感についてアンケートおよびインタビューを行った。その結果、実際の訓練風景を忠実に再現できている点、その状況下で身体を動かしながら英語使用を訓練できる点について良い評価が得られた。一方、教官からは長時間の使用は視力への影響が懸念されるとの意見があった。

表2

訓練生と教官との機内でのやり取り例
経過
時間
15:16
15:20
15:27
15:30
15:33

話
発話
内容
者
I And keep the climb coming, expedite your climb. 操縦O Xx71P, turn right HDG 020.
×
I Airspeed 62 ok?
S
I Maintain your HDG
H
I This is good expedite your climb because we have A
traffic right below us 1000ft ok?
15:37 T Ok
15:38 I So, keep the climb coming up, don’t push操縦
down. Keep the climb coming up.
15:41 T Ok
15:42 I This traffic right below us.
15:57 I Ok, now you can go back to maintaining 80kt S
注. 話者：I→Instructor、T→Trainee、O→Other trainee（他機で訓練中の訓練生）、A→ATC
内容：S→Speed、H→Heading / HDG、A→Altitude、操縦→bank、
climb 等、×→I と T には無関係のやり取り（他機から A への呼びかけ等のノイズ）

図2

教官確認画面（PC モニタ）
今後は、訓練初期段階での飛行
前・中・後における再現可能な遭
遇状況を精査しタスクを考案す
ること、体系だったカリキュラ
ムに組み込むこと、評価項目やルーブリックを考案すること等が必要である。紙媒体のテキス
トや音声教材、自主学習をサポートするウェブサイト等も、シミュレーションの要素を補助し、より学習効果を上げるためのツールとして考えられるであろう。また、身体への影響、使用時間と疲労度、
HMD の重さと集中力の関係等も学習効果への重要な一要因として今後も検証を継続していく。

4.

訓練生用教材
これまでに得られた分析結果を基に、従来の紙や CD
ベースのものではなく、飛行訓練中の特殊な状況をよりリアルに再現するためフライトシミュレーションソ
フトを Virtual Reality（VR）機器で体験する形式の英語教材を作成した。仕様等は表 3 の通りである。

謝辞
本研究は JSPS 科研費 19K00835 の助成を受けて行った。

表3

訓練生用フライトシミュレーション教材
機器
PC

仕様・製造社・製品名・型番等
CPU（Intel Core i7-9700K）、OS（Windows 10 Home 64bit 版）、
SSD（1TB）、メモリ（32GB）
PC 用モニタ
ASUS VG278（27 インチ）
フライトシミュレーション X-Plane 11 Global（Laminar Research 社）
ソフトウェアVALVE INDEX V003683-20
VR Head Mount Display（HMD）（VALVE）＆キット

参考文献
西川惠. (2021).「飛行訓練における状況没入型教材開発のための無線コミュニケーションに関する検証実験」. 『大学英語教育学会 ESP 研究会年度レポート』, 22, 14-28.
Nishikawa, M., & Nawata, Y. (2019, May). Identifying the English
language skills required by non-native English speaking pilot
trainees during flight training. Paper presented at theInternational Civil Aviation English Association ConferenceTokyo 2019, Chiba, Japan.
西川惠・縄田義直. (2020).「航空機操縦士訓練生は英語で何ができることが望まれるのか－日英 PFB 比較からみる必要な英語力－」. Japan Association of Applied Linguistics in Japan
Association of College English Teachers (JAAL in JACET)
Proceedings, 2, 95-102.

X-Plane 11 では航空機の種類（小型機・ヘリコプター・
旅客機等）や状態（損傷等）と飛行地域、空港、気象条
件、時刻を選択でき、モニタ上には機体、シーナリー（景色）やコックピット内の計器等が映し出される（図 1）。
同じ条件下でのフライトを何度も繰り返し練習するこ259

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

遠隔授業におけるリスニング、スピーキング練習の試み―5G 世代のための授業に対する意識改革―
三浦寛子**北海道科学大学
miura@hus.ac.jp
要旨
遠隔授業を実施するにあたり、これまでの対面授業と質的に劣らない授業を行うにはどうした
ら良いか、特に過去の学生にとって満足度の高かったオーラルコミュニケーション活動やペア
またはグループ活動をどのように含めていくかを見出すことは急務であると感じている。本研
究は実践研究であり、遠隔授業におけるリスニング、およびスピーキング練習に対して、学生の満足度と教員が感じた成果と課題を明らかにすることで、より良い授業の持ち方を探ることを目的とする。授業後のアンケート結果によると、授業評価は例年の対面授業と遜色がなかったことから、学生は授業に満足していたことがうかがえる。オーラルコミュニケーション活動の持ち方については、学生同士が顔見知りでは無い中で取り組ませる難しさ、ICT 活用の在り方などに課題が見つかった。
キーワード：遠隔授業、オンライン授業、オーラルコミュニケーション活動、ICT

1.

はじめに
新型コロナウイルス感染症の感染拡大に伴い、遠隔授業の運用が加速度的に進められている。文部科学省
も対面授業に相当する教育効果が得られることを条件に、今後についても感染症のみならず、災害発生等の非常時に遠隔授業を弾力的に運用することとしている。
遠隔授業が一時的なものではなく、授業の幅を広げる
可能性があると考えて今後の授業の持ち方を模索する
ことは意義がある。本研究の目的は、遠隔授業におけるリスニング、およびスピーキング練習に対して、学生の満足度と教員が感じた成果と課題を明らかにすることで、より良い授業の持ち方を探ることである。

にとってのメリットもあるが、モチベーションの維持や時間管理の難しさも問題視されている。
また、遠隔授業が教員に敬遠されがちな要因の一つとして、学生の様子が把握しにくい点があげられる。
学生が目の前にいれば、間違いを指摘してアドバイスすることもできるし、モチベーションの低い学生に声をかけて集中するよう導くこともできる。しかし遠隔授業では英語嫌いの学生をフォローするのが難しくなる。
オーラルコミュニケーション活動を行うには、タイ
ムリーなやりとりが必須であるため、本研究では zoomを利用したライブ型のオンライン授業を選択した。

2.

3.

オーラルコミュニケーション活動での ICT
従来の授業におけるスピーキング練習では、学生が英語でのやりとりの際に感じた困難な場面の解決策や
新 し い 表 現 を 活 動 後 に 学 ぶ 、 い わ ゆ る Task-Based
Learning であった。授業中にはスマートフォンの使用を禁じていたため、活動後に辞書等で表現の確認を行ったり、他の学生と話し合ったりしていた。
一方、遠隔授業において学生はパソコンの前におり、おそらく手の届く範囲にスマートフォンが置いてある環境下で受講している。2015 年の総務省の調査によると、インターネットは年代に関わらず何かを調べる際の最も一般的なツールとなっており、情報収集の一般的手段として定着しつつある。そのため、遠隔授業中の ICT の使用に関しての制限は一切設けなかった。
これは入学してすぐに遠隔授業が始まった１年生にとって、人間関係が構築できていない状況でスピーキング活動をすること、また間違えることに対する抵抗感を軽減する狙いもあった。
遠隔授業におけるオーラルコミュニケーション活動
は、段階を設けて３つの活動を用意した。なお、前期は学生はカメラをオフで受講しており、後期の Spot the
Differences の小グループ活動としてのブレイクアウト

遠隔授業の種類について
表１は遠隔授業の種類と受講する学生から見たメリットとデメリットを示したものである。受講する学生
表1

遠隔授業の種類と学生から見たメリットとデメリット

ライブ型

オンデマンド型
ハイブリッド型

メリット
受講感が高い理解を助ける資料や映像が見やすい自分のペースで学習できる
繰り返し視聴できる
オンラインでも良い
授業と対面が必要な授業で使い分けられる
受講形態の嗜好に基づいて選択できる
事前に予習をすることで、授業では要点や弱点が確認できる

デメリット
通信環境環境の差が影響する
質問ができない
モチベーションの維
持が難しい
スケジュール管理が難しい

ハイフレック実施できる授業が限ス型*
られる
ブレンド型 **
予習をせずに受講すると理解が難しくな（反転授業、る
e-learning）
注. * ** どちらもハイブリッド型に分類される

260

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ルームではカメラをオンにするよう指示していた。
3.1 写真を用いたリスニング
教員が用意した写真を提示しながら、その写真に関する話題を提供した。学生には英単語の意味を調べさせたり、話した内容についての質問への回答をチャッ
トに入力させたりした。
3.2 図の描写
教員があらかじめ用意した図（図 1 参照）の描写をし、学生は説明を聞いて描くという活動に取り組ませた。学生にとって馴染みのない単語については、学生にスペリングを伝え、調べた意味をチャットに入力させて確認した。学生が理解できているかどうかは、随時、反応ボタンで確認した。
図1

実際に使用した図

3.3 Spot the Differences
インターネット上にアップロードされているフリーの Spot the Differences の絵を用いてスピーキングで 2 枚の絵の間違いを探し当てる活動をした。学生は 3〜4 名でブレイクアウトルームに入って教員の絵について尋
ねる文や学生の絵を描写する文を考える時間を設けた。
その後、各グループから教員が無作為に選んだ学生と教員が音声でやりとりをした。
4.

対象学生と調査方法
対象学生は２つの Intermediate Class 91 名と Advanced
Class 26 人である。オーラルコミュニケーション活動については、Intermediate Class ではジェスチャーが加わるなど教員のアプローチが若干異なるものの、どのクラスでも同じ教材を用いた。
大学が実施する授業評価アンケートと Google Formを使ったアンケート調査を後期の最終授業後に行った。
どちらも無記名で web 上に回答するものである。
Google Form では、それぞれの活動について①楽しかったか、②難しかったか、③オーラルコミュニケーシ
ョン力を高めるのに役立ったか、の３問を共通問題とした。問いに対する強い否定（全く楽しくなかった、
全く難しくなかったなど）から高い肯定（とても楽しかった、とても難しかったなど）までを６段階に分けてその度合いを測った。また、それぞれの活動の良かった点をコメントで入力させた。Spot the Differences に
ついては、ブレイクアウトルームは役に立ったか、また教員、学生の発言から学ぶことがあったかなどの質問も加えた。

5.

結果と考察
授業評価アンケートの結果は、例年とほぼ変わらないものであった。1 年生は対面での英語の授業と比較できないが、遠隔授業にそれなりの満足度と達成度を感じ261ていたようである。
写真を用いたリスニングについて Advanced Class の
学生のコメントで「周りの人のリスニングのレベルを知ることができるのと共に自分の力を高めることもできた」というものがあった。クラスの仲間とほとんど顔を合わせていない中で受講するにあたり、他の学生を意識していたことがうかがえた。
Advanced Class の学生が一番楽しいと感じた活動は図の描写であった。Intermediate Class の学生は Spot the
Differences を あ げ て い る 。 難 し さ に 関 し て はIntermediate Class が図の描写となっており、Advanced
Class は Spot the Differences であった。これは Advanced
Class の学生は自分で文章を作ろうとすると同時に、なるべく正確に話そうとする意識が働いていたためではないかと思われる。その点、Intermediate Class では翻訳
ソフトの文章をそのまま読み上げていることが疑われるケースが見られた。伝わった成功体験を感じさせるには良いが、学生が何か習得できたかどうかについては疑問が残った。Advanced Class では、日本語でも名称のわからないものを検索することで英語の単語を見つけて使用した事例があった。
ブレイクアウトルームの活用に関しては、Advanced
Class の学生はブレイクアウトルームでの時間を人と相談するよりも自分で考える時間として使う傾向があり、役に立ったという実感が Intermediate Class と比較して顕著に低かった。また、カメラをオンにしない学生がいるグループは活発な話し合いができなかったことがコメントから明らかになった。
Spot the Differences において、Intermediate Class の学
生は Advanced Class の学生よりも他の学生の発言から学んだと感じている度合いが高かった。それに対して
Advanced Class の学生は教員から学んだと感じている方が高かった。
学生は何かを検索する際に特に決まったサイトを利用していたわけではなく、検索で上位に上がっていた
もので調べることが多いこともわかった。
6.

課題と今後の研究について
遠隔授業を行う際に、対面授業と同じ内容を同じ指導法で行うことを目指すのではなく、遠隔授業の利点を生かしたやり方があるはずである。学生同士のペア
でのスピーキング活動のあり方については、モチベーションの高さや人間関係が影響すると思われるので、今後も検討が必要である。社会に出てからの英語との付き合い方を考えると、今後は積極的に ICT を活用す
る授業を展開し、その上で随時使い方を指導していく
ことが大切であると感じた。それと同時に文章の意味を考えさせたり、英作文をさせたりする際の公正な評
価のありかたについて研究する必要性も強く感じる。
参考文献
総務省. 若者層とシニア層の ICT 利活用の特徴.
https://www.soumu.go.jp/johotsusintokei/whitepaper/ja/h27/ht
ml/nc122500.html
山内祐平・大浦弘樹・安斎勇樹・伏木田稚子. (2014). 「高等教育における反転授業の研究動向」.『日本教育工学会第30 回全国大会講演論文集』 (pp. 741-742). 岐阜大学.
山本堅一. (2021). 「ハイブリッド授業の質をどう高めていくか」.（北海道大学高等教育研修センター主催 2021 年 3
月 23 日資料）. 北海道大学高等教育推進機構.

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学習英文法における従属節の that の取り扱いについて
大野真機*

須田拓基***昭和大学
mohno@cas.showa-u.ac.jp**昭和大学
t.suda@pharm.showa-u.ac.jp
要旨
動詞 worry の語法の 1 つに，worry that 節の形で概略「（that 節）を心配する」の意を表すものがある（e.g., I worry that she won't be at the airport.）．That 節を目的語に取っている（ように見える）ことから，この用法での worry は他動詞であり，that 節は文中で名詞節として働いていると判断してしまう．しかしながら大抵の英和辞典や文法辞典は，この用法の worry は自動詞であり，that 節は原因・理由を表す副詞節であると述べる．本発表では，研究者たちのあいだで
いまだコンセンサスのない，（ある特定の種類の述部に後続する）that 節は名詞節なのか副詞節なのかの問題を取り上げる．この問題は「学習者のニーズに応える役割を担う学習英文法」と「言語学的に正しい分析」の板挟みにあることを指摘し，解決の落としどころを探る．具体的には，「義務的な副詞類」（Quirk et al.（1985））という考えがカギを握ることから，「補部と付加部」の概念の導入が学習英文法で求められていることを主張する．

キーワード：名詞節と副詞節，自動詞と他動詞，5 文型，補部と付加部，義務的な副詞類
らは，例えば be glad に続く that 節が一般に「原因・理由の副詞節」と分析されていることから，G5 が beworried that をそれらと同じように扱っているのがわかる．Worry that = be worried that であって，前者は自動詞＋副詞節，後者は形容詞＋副詞節であるとするのが G5の立場だ．1, 2

はじめに単語の品詞の識別と文法機能の把握を文脈に基づき行うことができるだけの文法力を持つ英語学習者にとって，辞書・辞典は問題解決のための確かな拠り所となっている．しかしながら品詞と文法機能の関係は使用頻度の高い基本的な語である機能語において，辞書・辞典でどのように記述・説明したらよいのか簡単ではない問題を投げかけることがある．本発表では自動詞・他動詞の区別と，動詞に後続する that 節の取り扱いについて，研究者たちのあいだでコンセンサスがないことから記述・説明の仕方が異なり英語学習者に混乱を引き起こしている英語表現の 1 つとして worry that を取り上げる．次節では，この表現にはどのような記述・説明の仕方がなされているのかを概観し，問題点を整理す
る．続く 3 節では言語学的な議論から worry that の正しい記述について一定の結論を導き出したあと，4 節では「英語学習者のニーズに応える学習英文法」と「言語学的に正しい分析」の両方を満たす可能な解決策の方向として，学習英文法での補部と付加部の概念の導入がカギとなることを主張する．
1.

他動詞＋名詞節なのかWorry that 節について，主に統語的振る舞いを通してその性質を探る．
3.

3.1 Wh-clefts
次の(2)で，what が表す内容は worry の目的語に相当するものである．つまり wh 句の値は that 節の中身であることから，この that 節を副詞節とすることには無理がある．
(2) What I worry is that we’ll go public and get a lot of hypebut go nowhere.3
また that 節は be 動詞に後続し補語として働いていることは，that 節が名詞節であることを示唆している．

自動詞＋副詞節なのか
代表的な学習英和辞典で，語法に強いと評判のジー
ニアス英和辞典（G5）は worry that と be worried that をまとめて取り上げ，次のように説明する．
2.

3.2 Wh-extraction
次の例では what が他動詞 feel の目的語位置から that
節を超えて移動しているのがわかる．

(1) G5：worry の項
I worried that he would come. = I was worried that he would
come. 彼が来るのではと気をもんだ．
前者の that 節は原因・理由を表す副詞節．後者は本来，名詞節だが worried を形容詞とみなせば原因・理由を表す副詞節とも考えられる．
ここで「worried を形容詞とみなせば」というところか
262(3) Talk to your spouse or partner about the physicalcloseness you need. Share how you feel about your body,and talk about what you think or worry that your partneris feeling.4
一般に「原因・理由を表す副詞節からは，wh 句を取り出すことができない」（*What can't you buy the camera

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

because you don't have?（今井・中島 1978:448））ことから，worry に続く that 節を副詞節としていては(3)のような振る舞いを説明することができない．

と共通したところがあり，また（目的語）名詞節は動詞に取って不可欠な要素であることを考え合わせると，
worry に続く that 節は Quirk et al.（1985:55）がいうところの「義務的な副詞類（obligatory adverbials）」の 1 つと捉えるのが見込みのある方向性のように思われる．その場合，「義務的な副詞類」が説明体系のなかで機能す
るには，「動詞にとって必要な要素なのか」あるいは「動詞にとって随意的な要素なのか」の判断に依拠する補部・付加部の概念が，これまでの 5 文型での「目的語・補語」と「それ以外の修飾要素」の区分に取って代わられる必要がある．

3.3 その他
Worry は it を形式主語とする外置構文を許し，it isworried that の形式で概略「that 節以下のことが懸念される」という意を表す．
(4) The country’s largest general scientific organization, theAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science,
said it was worried that the restrictions might reduce
attendance at its annual meeting in two weeks in
Boston.5

注
1 興味深いことにジーニアス英和辞典の第 4 版では，この同じ
worry that 節について「that 節は元来は原因・理由を表す副詞
節なのでこの worry は自動詞とされていたが，今は他動詞と解せられその目的語の名詞節とみられる」と述べられていた．
2 この類の that 節が名詞節なのか副詞節なのかは一定の習熟度に達した英語学習者の関心を惹きつける問題のようで，例
えば石橋他［編］（1966:1107），渡辺他［編］（1976:790），渡辺他［編］（1981:267），渡辺他［編］（1995:465, 932）などで取り上げられている．なお，副詞節であるとするものに小西［編］（1980），名詞節であるとするものにジーニアス英和大辞典や
八木（1996, 1999）などが挙げられる．
3 https://hbr.org/2001/02/too-soon-to-ipo
4
https://www.cancercare.org/publications/88breast_cancer_coping_with_your_changing_feelings
5
https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/30/science/scientists-donaldtrump-travel-ban.html?_r=0
6 5 文型および学習英文法の成立過程については宮脇（2012），
川嶋（2015）を参照されたい．

通常 it 外置文に現れる that 節は，対応する能動文では動詞の目的語として振る舞う．Worry に続く that 節は目的語名詞節であるとするのがよい．
また名詞の worry はいわゆる同格の that 節を取ることができる（Huddleston and Pullum 2002:965）．
(5) In an emotional interview he spoke of his fear of thecondition and his worry that he will never work again.
(BNC Online)
名詞 worry に続く that 節と，動詞 worry に続く that 節を比べたとき，一方を名詞節，他方を副詞節と区別しなけ
ればならない積極的な理由はないように思われる．む
しろ that 節は両者で共通に名詞節を形成しているとするのが正しい記述ではないか．
何が問題なのかWorry に後続する that 節が原因・理由を表していると解釈できることから，これを副詞節と分析することには一定の根拠がある．一方で，統語的な振る舞いからは that 節は名詞節と分析することも可能だと分かった．
学習英文法 6 が土台とする 5 文型からは，「動詞は自動詞と他動詞に分類される」こと，「動詞に後続する要素は目的語か補語である」こと，そして「副詞は文型構
成要素ではない」ことが読み取れる．これらを前提に例
えば worry に続く that 節のような表現を記述・説明しようとすると，「学習者にとって有用なツールとしての文法」を重視すれば自動詞＋副詞節になり，「言語の正しい記述・説明を重視する文法」に立てば他動詞＋名詞節となる．つまり，5 文型の枠組みでは「目的語になれるのは名詞」であること，および「自動詞と他動詞は目的語を取る・取らないことで区別」されることから，2 つの異なる立場が決着を付けることなく残り続けてしまっているのだ．
4.

今後の展望
本研究で取り上げたような worry に後続する that 節
をどう取り扱うのかについて，従来は「that 節は名詞節なのか副詞節なのか」という問題として捉えてきた．しかしながらこうした問題の設定の仕方には，5 文型の考え方が前提されているように思われる．
前節までの議論で，5 文型に立脚する学習英文法が適切な記述のための道具立てを持たないことに問題の原因があることを指摘した．Worry に後続する that 節は仮に副詞節だとしても，その統語的振る舞いは名詞節
5.

263

参考文献
Huddleston, R. & Pullum, G. (2002). The Cambridge Grammar of
the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
今井邦彦・中島平三. (1978). 『文（II）』. 東京：研究社．
石橋幸太郎他［編］. (1966). 『英語語法大事典』. 東京：大修館.
川嶋正士. (2015). 『「5 文型」論考－Parallel Grammar Series, PartII の検証』. 東京：朝日出版.
小西友七［編］. (1980). 『英語基本動詞辞典』. 東京：研究社．
宮脇正孝. (2012). 「5 文型の源流を辿る: C. T. Onions, An
Advanced English Syntax (1904) を越えて」『専修人文論集』,
90, 437-465.
Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum, G. Leech & Svartvik, J. (1985). A
Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London:
Longman.
渡辺登士他［編］. (1976). 『続・英語語法大事典』. 東京：大修館.
渡辺登士他［編］. (1981). 『英語語法大事典・第 3 集』. 東京：
大修館.
渡辺登士他［編］. (1995). 『英語語法大事典・第 4 集』. 東京：
大修館.
八木克正. (1996). 『ネイティブの直観にせまる語法研究：現代英語への記述的アプローチ』. 東京：研究社．
八木克正. (1999). 『英語の文法と語法：意味からのアプロー
チ』. 東京：研究社．
辞書・コーパス
BNC Online (https://scnweb.japanknowledge.com/)『ジーニアス英和辞典』第 4 版. 2006. 東京：大修館書店.
『ジーニアス英和辞典』第 5 版. 2015. 東京：大修館書店.
『ジーニアス英和大辞典』. 2001. 東京：大修館書店.

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口の動きに焦点を当てた英語リンキング指導の効果
阪上

潤

立命館大学
ritsusak@fc.ritsumei.ac.jp
要旨
本研究では、英語のリズムを作る要素の中でもリンキングに焦点を当て、口の動かし方を示した指導を行った。1 回のみ 24 分のみのオンデマンド指導であったが、リンキングができていた
割合は大きく上がり、ある程度効果的であったことが示唆された。
キーワード：リンキング、プロソディ、口の動き、顎1.

音の発音から、リズムの指導までを行う。コロナ禍の影響でオンライン授業となったが、当該授業では個別に動画を見て学習し、課題を提出するオンデマンド式をメインとした。

はじめに日本人にとって、英語の発音、特にリズムなどのプ
ロソディの習得は依然として困難である。その中で、口の動きに焦点を当てた指導法が増えており、成果を上げているが、多くは分節素に関するもので、文単位での口の動きを分析し、プロソディ指導に活かしたものは多くない。また、少ない回数のプロソディ指導の効果を示したものも少ない。本研究では、リンキングに焦点を当て、口の動きを提示した、1 回 24 分間のみの短時間のビデオ指導が、リンキング習得に効果があるかを検証するものである。

3.2 実験協力者
本稿では、筆者が担当した 2 クラス 44 名のうち、Before, After ともに期日内に提出した 31 名を対象とする。Before, After で発音の録画もしくは録音の提出を求
め た が 、 提 出 先 を 学 内 の LMS で は な く Flipgird（https://info.flipgrid.com/）にし、また、他の学生からは見れない設定にした為（自分の提出物の確認も困難になってしまう）、トラブルが多く、対象者が少なくなっている。

2. 先行研究2.1 プロソディの重要性
発音を大きく、L や R の音などの分節素とリズムやイントネーションのプロソディに分けたとき、プロソ
ディの方が明瞭性に貢献しているという研究もあることから（Hahn, 2004）、英語の発音指導においては、個別の音だけではなく、リズムなどのプロソディの指導も重要となる。英語の発音の特徴の一つであるリンキ
ングも、リズムの習得において大事な要素となるが、開音節を基本とする日本語を母語とする日本人英語学
習者は、子音が連続する箇所や、子音で終わる語末に母音を挿入する傾向にあり（Koike, 2014）、このことがリンキングの習得を困難にしていると考えられる。よって、いかに不要な母音を挿入させないかを考える必要がある。本研究では、

3.3 指導法とデータ採りの概要
まず、何も指導をしない段階で教科書内からピックアップしたフレーズと文章を発音したものを録画か録音したものを提出してもらい、これを Before として扱う。次週から教科書の学習をはじめ、Unit 1 で扱うリンキングの指導を終えた後に改めて録画か録音したものを提出してもらい、これを After として扱う。Before,
After ともに使用したフレーズと文章、またリンキングをするように促した箇所は以下の通りで（表 1）、Before
ではこの他に 17 文を発音してもらった。使用したフレーズと文章はすべて教科書のリンキングを扱う Unit 1の中にあるものである。今回は前の単語が子音で終わり、次の単語が母音で始まるパターンのリンキングのみに焦点を当てる。

2.2 口の動きに焦点を当てた研究
L や R など個別の音の指導に口の動かし方を提示するのは一般的で、効果を上げている（數見, 2003）。また Erickson et al. (2014)や Mori et al. (2011)では、文章の発音で日本人英語学習者と英語母語話者の顎の開き具合を比較しており、違いが明らかになったが、それらの違いを指導に活かした研究はあまりない。

表1

使用したフレーズ

3. 研究方法
3.1 授業概要
本研究は、2021 年度前期に、筆者が担当する英語授業で行われた。本授業はコンピュータを使いながら、英語の発音、Word の使い方、タイピングなどを学ぶものであり、発音に関しては、教科書に則り、子音や母
264

番号

フレーズ

1

take out

2

keep on3

take off4

check in

5

watch out

6

We would like to check in.

リンキング要請箇所

check in

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7

Your flight
AK1092.

numberis

8Your seat is number fourteenA.

seat is, fourteen A

9That’s an aisle seat.

That’s an, an aisleなった。今後は、今回習得が困難だったものをどうすれば改善できるか、またリンキングとともに明瞭性がどう変化したか、長期的に効果があるのか、口の動かし方に変化があったかなど、さらなる分析を続けたい。

number is, 10（one-ou）

謝辞
本研究は JSPS 科研費 20K13121 の助成を受けたものである。

指導法は、教科書に沿ってリンキングとは何かの説明をし、練習をした後、英語母語話者の発音の様子を、
ナチュラルスピードと、1/3 のスピードで流しながらポイントを説明し、口の動かし方を真似ながら、耳だけでなく、目からの情報も頼りに発音を練習するように促した。動画の時間はおよそ 24 分となった。動画は学生が好きな時に何度でも見られるようにしておいた。

参考文献
Hahn, L. D. (2004). Primary stress and intelligibility: Research tomotivate the teaching of suprasegmentals. TESOL Quarterly, 38,
201-223.
Koike, Y. (2014). Explicit pronunciation instruction: Teachingsuprasegmentals to Japanese learners of English. In N. Sonda &A. Krause (Eds.), JALT2013 Conference Proceedings. Tokyo:
JALT.
Mori, Y., Hori, T., & Erickson, D. (2011). The roles of duration, F0,
F1, and jaw displacement in the realization of accent for
English vs. Japanese speakers. NINJAL International
Conference of Phonetics and Phonology, Kyoto, Japan.
數見由紀子. (2003). 英語音声習得のための自己学習用教材の開発--平成 13 年度重点化経費プロジェクト報告. 言語文化論叢, (7), 31-45.
山根繁. (2015). 日本人学習者の目指す明瞭性 (intelligibility)の高い英語発音とは. 関西大学外国語学部紀要, 13, 129-141.

4.

結果
指導前と指導後でのリンキングが出来ていた割合を示す（表 2）。表の 1~5 はフレーズのみ、6~12 は文章の中で出てきたものである。すべてのターゲットにおいて、リンキングができている割合が上がっていること
がわかる。
表2

指導前後でのリンキングの成功率
番号

ターゲット

1

指導前（％）

指導後（％）

take out

35.5

87.1

2t

keep on

51.6

93.5

3

take off

48.4

90.3

4

check in

45.2

93.5

5

watch out

45.2

80.6

文章内
6

check in

48.4

93.5

7

number is

12.9

51.6

8

1-0 (one-ou)

3.2

19.4

9

seat is

54.8

80.6

10

fourteen A

9.7

41.9

11

that’s an

61.3

93.5

12

an aisle

3.2

54.8

5.

考察
指導前においては、5 割前後の成功率のものが多かったが、文章の中での that’s an をリンキングしていたが癖の割合が一番高かったことが特徴的である。ただし、前の単語が r や n で終わるリンキングは出来ていない割合が非常に高いことがわかる。
8 番の割合が非常に低いが、これは Before で 23 人、After
でも 21 人が one-zero と発音しており、これをとりあえず出来ていないとカウントした為で、扱いには検討の余地がある。
6.

結論
1 回のも、25 分のオンラインビデオ指導においても、
リンキングの習得を促すことが出来ることが明らかに
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PBL に基づく英語科指導法の実践
大場浩正**上越教育大学
hohba@juen.ac.jp
要旨
本稿では、教員養成系大学において、授業科目「中等英語科指導法」を履修している大学生と大学院生が、「プロジェクト学習（Project-based Learning: PBL）
」を活用し、中学校英語学習用の教材とその指導法の開発を通して「思考力・判断力・表現力」を身に付け、主体的・協働的な学習者になることを目指した実践を報告する。プロジェクト学習では、4 名が１チームとなり、チームが設定した課題に基づき、中学生が心を動かされ、英語に興味を持つような教材を作成し、学生間でプレゼンテーションと評価（自己と他者）を行った。毎回の授業および最終的な振り返りの分析に基づき、学生たちは指導案の書き方やルーブリック評価表の作成方法および英語表現のみならず、課題設定やその解決に向けた調査（外部への取材などを含む）を通して多くのことを学び、チーム内での協働性を発揮し、主体的に行動できるようになって行ったことが明らかになった。
キーワード：英語教員養成、プロジェクト学習（PBL）、思考力・判断力・表現力、主体的・協働的
はじめに
本稿の目的は、教員養成系大学において、授業科目「中等英語科指導法」（教科の指導法に関する科目）を履修している大学生と大学院生が、「プロジェクト学習（PBL）」を活用し、中学校英語学習用の教材とその指導法の開発を通して「思考力・判断力・表現力」を身に付け、主体的・協働的な学習者になることを目指した実践を報告することである。英語学習者の資質・能力を育成する指導を行うためには、学生自ら「主体的・対話的で深い学び」を体験し、このような学びを実現する授業を設計できる能力を養う必要がある。しかしながら、学生の姿として、教員養成系大学においても、
アクティブラーニング型の授業になじめず、卒業後、実際の学校現場において、児童・生徒が「主体的・対話的で深い学び」を追求できるような授業を、設計・実践できる能力を身に付けることができない。また、社会のグローバル化や学習観の転換（探索的知識基盤社会へ）について理解していないなどの課題がある。
従って、このような課題を解決すためには、アクティブラーニング型の典型的な授業スタイルとしてのPBL の導入が有効であると思われる。

活動計画、⑦身につけたい力を含む）を作成し、その後、実際に教材開発を行った。教材は、パワーポイン
トを用いて全て英語での解説や生徒間のディスカッシ
ョンを含むものであった。
PBL のデザインは以下のようであった。
(1) 第 1 回目の授業で、ガイダンスとして、PBL 型授業の価値のインストラクション（実施する意義・意図の説明）、課題の設定および評価方法について説明し、チーム編成を行った。
(2) 第 2 回目以降は、PBL 型授業の理論的背景として、
Kim (2001)、Tuckman (1965)および Tuckman and Jensen(1977)による組織の発達に関する考え方を紹介し、チームの結束性を高めるように促した。深い話し合いを目指した人間関係構築のプロセスに焦点を当てた。
(3) 7 週間（授業は週 90 分 1 コマ）に渡り、授業内外で企画を進めた。最初に担当教員のアドバイスを受けながら「プロジェクト企画書」を完成させた。学生たち
は、プロジェクト企画書の作成を通して主体的にプロジェクトの目的を設定し、課題の発見や情報収集の方法を学んだ。また、パワーポイントを用いた教材作成
により、ICT 技術の習得も目指した。なお、コロナウィ
ルス感染症対策のため、教育実習が変則的になったた
め、課題や授業外でプロジェクトを進める時間が多くなった。
(4) 毎時間、ポートフォリオとしての学習履歴を残すた
めに、詳細な振り返りを記述した。振り返りの内容として、活動前は①本日の目標・役割・課題であり、活動後は①行ったこと、学んだこと、理解したこと、②
気づいたこと・感じたこと、③次回までの課題、④本
日の取り組みへの動機の高さ（10 段階）とその理由、および⑤質問等であった。
(5) 評価に関しては、指導者が作成した ICE (Ideas、Connections & Extensions) ルーブリックによって各チームの模擬授業を全員が評価した。また、各チームは、自分たちで独自のルーブリックを作成し、自己評価を

1.

PBL を活用した実践
PBL に基づく授業実践は「中等英語科指導法（授業論）」（教科の指導法に関する科目であり）で行われた。
プロジェクトでは、学校教育を専攻する 48 名の大学生と大学院生がランダムに 4 名が１チームとなり、チームが設定した課題に基づき、中学生が心を動かされ、英語に興味を持つような教材を作成し、学生間でプレゼンテーション（模擬授業）と評価（自己と他者）を行った。
プロジェクトの遂行においては、まず、詳細な「プロジェクト企画書」（①プロジェクト名、②プロジェク
トの最終ゴール、③課題を解決するために調べたり、実行すること、④プロジェクトの価値、⑤情報源、⑥2.

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3.

成果と課題
作成された教材のテーマは、「汚い水で何が悪い？」「みんなが食べている魚は安全？」「クリーンアップオーシャン（海洋ゴミ問題）」「Mottainai（食品ロス）」「Can
you read? ～독～」
「平等な社会のために～高田瞽女の歴史を基に～」「世界の水問題に対して私たちができることは？」「世界の通学路から教育と貧困について意識を高めよう」「Throw the “throw away”」「10 年後の世界について考えよう」など教科書や SDGs に基づくテーマがほとんどであり質的には高いものであった。
毎回の授業および最終的な振り返りの分析によると、学生たちは指導案の書き方やルーブリック評価表の作
成方法および英語表現のみならず、課題（問い）設定
やその解決に向けた調査（外部への取材などを含む）
を通して多くのことを学び、チーム内での協働性を発揮し、主体的に行動できるようになったようである。
図 1 と図 2 は、典型的なチームの結束性の発達を表している。すなわち、最初はお互いにメンバーの様子を見ながら良い関係でプロジェクトを進めている。しかしながら、メンバーが本音で意見を主張し始め、その食い違いからチームの状態が悪くなるが、お互いの意
見を尊重し合える関係性ができると再びチーム状況が良くなり主体的・協働的に進めことができた。
図1
チーム A の動機レベルの平均の推移
10.00

動機レベル

9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
5.00
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

時間
図2
チーム B の動機レベルの平均の推移
10.00

動機レベル

9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00

2

3

4

5

6

図3
チーム C の動機レベルの平均の推移
10.00
9.00
8.00
7.00

6.00
5.00
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

時間

ある学部学生は、「教材作成までのチーム活動を通して、協働することの良さや大切さを学んだ。発表までのグループ活動で、役割分担をしながら指導案、授業
スライドなどを作り上げていった。この授業は授業時
間内にみんなで協力しなければならなかった。それが強制力となって、その場で意見を出し合って形になっていくことに快感を覚えた。このことから、個人にあった学習形態はあるものの、多様な学習方法を知っていることはとても重要だと気づいた。また、企画書段
階から、計画→実践→評価→改善の PDCA サイクルを用い、対象とする中学生にとって、より良い授業にするために改善を重ねた。思考ツールを用いて、広いテーマから範囲を絞って深めていくことができた。自然と思考が深まる実感を得た。このように、仲間と協力して、より良い授業を作ろうと努力できる点、改善に向けて即時的に客観的評価を得られる点がチーム活動の良い点だと考える。もちろん、グループの仲間と良好な関係を持っていることが前提である。良い関係を築くことを含め、プロジェクト学習をすることの意義
を、身をもって理解した。」と最終的な振り返りを行っている。他の多くの学生たちも同様に、今回のプロジ
ェクト学習の価値に言及している。このように、PBL
は、Society 5.0 時代の子ども達の指導をリードする教員を育成する効果的な方法であると言えるだろう。
最後に、今回の PBL で開発した教材と指導法を用いて実際に中学校の英語授業で実践する予定であったが（3 チーム程）、コロナウィルス感染症対策のため、実施出来なかったことが残念であった。
参考文献
Kim, D. K (2001). Organizing for learning: Strategies forknowledge creation and enduring change. Pegasus
Communications, Inc.
Tuckman, B. W. (1965). Developmental sequence in small group.
Psychological Bulletin, 63, 384-399.
Tuckman, B. W. and Jensen, M. A. (1977). Stages of small-groupdevelopment revisited. Group & Organization Studies, 2,419-427.

5.00
1

ベルが下がったチームである。活動後の振り返りによると、一名が若干チーム活動へ遅刻したこと、また、もう一名は、教材の改善点が見つけられず、チームにあまり貢献できなかったことに責任を感じていたよう
である。

動機レベル

行った。

7

時間

一方、図 3 のチームは、12 チームの中で唯一動機レ
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芸術分野における英語ニーズとジャンルの言語特徴―日本の芸術家たちの事例より―
渡辺紀子* 三崎敦子***立命館大学
nwr13127@fc.ritsumei.ac.jp**関西大学
atsuko@tskmisaki.com
要旨
本発表では日本の芸術家の事例を通して芸術分野における英語ニーズおよびジャンルの特徴を示す。はじめに、計 40 名の国内外を拠点とする日本の芸術家ら（美術、ダンス、音楽）との半構造インタビューと作品発表の場や研鑽の場の参与観察に基づき、芸術家たちの間で使用される国際共通語と英語ニーズを検討する。次に、国内を拠点とする芸術家たちが英語で使用する主なジャンルや英語コミュニケーション実践の場面を異なる専門分野や雇用形態や役割の間で見られるニーズの違いも指摘しつつ検討する。さらに、芸術分野を横断して使用されている３つのジャンルに焦点を当て、芸術家個人のホームページを中心とする資料の観察と分析を通して、緩やかながらもジャンルとしてそれぞれ言語特徴を有することを示す。むすびでは、国内を拠点にする日本の芸術家たちが必要とする英語のうち優先度の高い使用場面とジャンルを提示し、学内外での学びの機会の必要性を論じる。

キーワード：芸術家、ジャンル、英語ニーズ、国際共通語、グローバル化

1.

はじめに
1960 年代より特定集団で使用される英語に関する
ESP （English for Specific Purposes） の研究は発展し、1990 年代より「ジャンル」の概念（Bhatia 1993）が重視されるようになった。一方で、芸術実技分野の分析は極限られ（Hocking, 2003, 2018; Hammond, 2018）、量的研
究への偏りもみられる（Dressen-Hammouda, 2013）。本
発表では、質的研究と量的研究の組み合わせにより、日本の芸術家の事例を通して芸術分野における英語ニーズおよびジャンルの特徴を検討する。

2.

本研究の対象と研究方法
本研究の分析は 2016 年から 2021 年にかけて収集されたデータに基づく。質的研究では計 40 名の国内外に拠点を持つ日本の芸術家（美術 15 名、音楽 10 名、ダンス 10 名）と助成機関プログラムオフィサー（２名）、芸術分野専門の通訳・翻訳者（3 名）と半構造インタビューを実施した。加えて、国際舞台芸術会議１件、音楽家と振付を学ぶ人対象の連続講座１件ずつの参与観察のほか、作品発表の場やトークイベント等を観察して配布資料を収集した。量的研究のデータは、ウェブサイト
（計 70 サイト）が主な情報源である。欧米および日本の美術家（各 15 サイト）
、音楽家（各 10 サイト）
、舞踊家（各 10 サイト）をランダムに選出して公式のポート
フォリオサイトを観察した。次に、これらのサイトに掲載されている 20 名（美術家 12 名、音楽家・舞踊家 8名）のプロフィール文と 20 名（美術家 10 名、音楽家・舞踊家 10 名）のアーティスト・ステートメントの PAIL
分析とムーブ分析を実施した。

たちとのインタビューより、それぞれの分野の伝統を誇る言語圏では英語以外の言語が国際共通語として使用されていることがわかった。例えば、ドイツ語圏の歌
劇場は多国籍化しているが、団員たちの共通語はドイツ語であり、イタリア人指揮者をゲストに迎える際にはイタリア語が使用されることもあるという。一方、現代美術やコンテンポラリーダンスなどの新しい分野は非英語圏でも英語が使用されている。
国内を拠点とする芸術家による実際の英語使用は留学経験者を除くと限定的であったが、インターネットを使った発信を始め、英語使用ニーズの高まりが確認された。後述するように、英語が使用できるとキャリアを形成・発展させる際に有利であることも確認された。
4. 芸術家たちによる英語使用ジャンルと場面
4.1 英語で使用される主なジャンル
インターネットを用いて自らの活動を英語で発信している、発信しようとする傾向が分野を横断して見られる。使用頻度は SNS の方が高いが、日本語のみ使用される傾向にある。英語が使用されるのはポートフォ
リオサイトであり、自らプロモーション活動をする必要のあるフリーランスの芸術家の間でニーズが高く、実際に海外からのオファーにもつながっている。
ポートフォリオサイトは様々なジャンルから構成されるが、インデックス、プロフィール文、アーティスト
ステートメント、作品タイトルなどは国内拠点の芸術家も英語を使用している。英語版は翻訳者などに依頼して作成されるため、一つ一つの作品の趣旨を自ら英語で書いて掲載しているのは、海外留学後に海外を拠点に置き、国境を越えて活動する振付家に限られた。
英語で応募書類を作成してインタビューに応じられる人は、国境を越えて助成金や滞在プログラムやコン

3. 芸術家たちの国際共通語と英語ニーズ
非英語圏のヨーロッパを拠点とする・していた芸術家
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クールやフェスティバルなどに応募している。その際に重視されるのは企画書である。このジャンルを使用するのは、主にフリーランスの美術家や振付家や団体の主宰者であるが、英語使用は留学経験者に限られる。
4.2 英語コミュニケーションを実践する場面
国境を越えて活動する芸術家たちは、現地の画廊への売り込みのほか、レセプション会場、自分のアトリエの公開期間中など、劇場のアートディレクター、芸術家、
画廊主、アートコレクター、愛好家などと交流する機会がある。その際、インフォーマルに自らの作品や構想について英語で語ることが仕事のオファーや展示のチャンスなどにつながるため重視される。振付家の間では、国際見本市等など、海外の芸術家や専門家たちと英語で交流する機会やプレゼンテーションをする機会が国内でも増えている。海外の振付家とコラボレーション
する、海外の劇場に振付を提供する、国際会議に参加す
る、海外でダンサー対象のワークショップをする機会も増えており、通訳を介さずに英語が用いられる。
5. 芸術家たちが英語で使用するジャンルの言語特徴
5.1 ポートフォリオサイト
ポートフォリオサイトに共通する構成要素は表紙の役割をするトップページである。ここに作品（Works、Portfolio）と自己紹介（About, Bio, Profile）というインデックス項目が観察した 70 サイト全てに存在した。連
絡先（Contact）の項目もほぼ全てのサイトで観察された。
インデックス項目は日本語サイトでも英語表記である。
トップページでは分野を問わず芸術家としての自己が視覚的に表現されるが、分野間で相違点も見られる。
美術家は最新作や代表作を掲載する（30 中 27 サイト）
が、音楽家や舞踊家は、自らのパフォーマンス写真やポートレート写真を掲載する（40 中 33 サイト）。
5.2 プロフィール文
芸術家としての自己を打ち出すプロフィール文は、芸術家特有のジャンルとして定着していることが確認された。欧米の芸術家の間では文章・段落形式で表現される傾向があり（35 中 30 サイト）
、平均ワード数は（322）であった。日本人の芸術家の間でも、同様の傾向がみられるが（35 中 28 サイト）
、平均ワード数は（180）と短く、一段落に留まる傾向にある。リスト表記も見られ、
欧米日ともに特に美術家による使用事例が確認できた（欧米美術 15 中 5 サイト、
日本美術家 15 中 7 サイト）。
三人称の使用のほか、ムーブ分析により次のような共通する構成要素が明らかになった。
1． 芸術家の職業：美術家、写真家、画家、ピアニス
ト、ダンサー、振付家など（現在形）
2． 生い立ち：出身地、学歴、職歴、師事（主に音楽
家が提示）
（過去形）
3． 表現手段（美術家限定）：創作材料など（現在形）
4． 業績、受賞：代表作の紹介（現在完了形・過去形）
5． 現在の活動状況（任意で使用）：現在の創作活動
や所在地など（現在形）ルである。元々、美術家が使用するジャンルであったが、現在では他の分野の芸術家にも使用されている。特に欧米ではパフォーマーとの兼業者を含む振付家と作曲家の間でもこのジャンルが使用され、パフォーマーによる使用事例も確認された。欧米の美術家の平均ワー
ド数は 150 であったのに対し、振付家や作曲家は 470 とワード数において大きな差が認められた。
一人称の使用のほか、ムーブ分析により次のような構成要素が明らかになったが、その順序や構成は流動的である。背景以外は現在形で表現される。
1． 創作等の活動のテーマと専門分野の自己定義
2． 背景（コンテキスト）：現在の創作活動や手段に至った経緯 （現在形、現在完了形、過去形）
3． 創作の過程や手段
4． 創作する動機、意図、意義
5． 受け手への影響：特に振付家、作曲家、演奏家が聴衆や他のパフォーマーとのつながりに言及。
6.

むすびに
本研究は、芸術家の間の国際共通語は英語に限らな
いが、インターネットの普及、助成支援制度の拡充に伴い国内を拠点としていても、英語使用ニーズが高まっており、キャリア上有利であることを確認した。
優先度の高い英語使用場面は、画廊などでの売り込
み時やレセプション会場など通訳に頼れない場面である。これらの場面では「ジャンル」になっていないイン
フォーマルな話しことばが使用されるが、自らの作品や構想を語るため、いわゆる「日常会話」とは異なる。
書きことばの英語使用は、留学経験者以外は翻訳者頼みで習得のハードルの高さが窺えた。ジャンルとしての言語特徴を学ぶと、翻訳者選びにも、自ら英文を編集する際にも、日本語での使用時にも役立つだろう。
これらのジャンルやコミュニケーション実践は日本
語では定着しておらず、留学経験者以外は学外で、多くの場合自力で学んでいる。近年は助成機関や一部の大学において芸術家に必要な英語やジャンルが教えられていることも確認できたが、個別の取り組みに留まる。
学内外で芸術家に学びの機会を提供する必要がある。
謝辞
本研究は JSPS 科研費 16K02941 の助成を受けたものです。
参考文献

Bhatia, V. K. (1993). Analysing genres: Language use inprofessional settings. London: Longman.DressenDressen-Hammouda, D. (2013). Ethnographic approaches to
ESP research. In B. Paltridge & S. Starfield (Eds.), The
handbook of English for specific purposes (pp. 501–517).
Chichester, UK: Wiley.
Hammond, M. (2018). Using discourse analysis to develop
L2 learning materials for hands-on creative-tourism
workshops. OnCUE Journal, 11(2), 123–130.
Hocking, D. (2003). The genre of the postgraduate exegesis
in art and design: An ethnographic examination. Hong
Kong Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8(2), 54–77.
Hocking, D. (2018). Communicating creativity: The
discursive facilitation of creative activity in arts.
Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Hocking, D. (2020). Artist’s statements, ‘how to guides’ andthe conceptualization of creative practice. English forSpecific Purposes.

5.3 アーティスト・ステートメント
アーティスト・ステートメントは、自らの作品や活動に通底する創作意図やテーマを共有するためのジャン
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Serial Number

J60CFP0072 (invited)

AuthorKim, Miso

Title

Designing translingual and transmodal online classes: Continuing English as a
Lingua Franca (ELF) education in online spaces
The aims of this presentation are: (a) to make a case for creating translingual andtransmodal spaces in online English classes, (b) to introduce a teacher-friendly guideline fordesigning the classes, and (c) to share a sample lesson plan and the students’ responses.
First and foremost, English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) interaction takes place in third
spaces (Bhabha, 1997) wherein speakers of different first languages negotiate meaning together(Matsumoto, 2011). The speakers draw on not only languages but also a plethora of multimodal
resources to communicate. According to Canagarajah (2021), “everything in the context is
potentially communicative and, thus, can become semiotic repertoires” (p. 4). Therefore,emphasizing English skills alone is not sufficient for developing students’ competence to interact.
Rather, it is crucial to provide access to diverse semiotic resources in the classroom, and students
should be allowed to mix the resources creatively to develop translingual and transmodal
competence in real-life situations.
To create such spaces, the online classroom has to include as many semiotic repertoires as
possible, including but not limited to pictures, voices, stickers, doodles, colors, video clips, andtexts. Simultaneously, the online tools have to be as low-tech as possible to make sure that all
students can participate regardless of their tech-savviness. Based on this principle, I introduce a
guideline for teachers to explore online resources and to tailor them to their classes.
Lastly, I share a 100-minute, intermediate-level class lesson plan and the students’
responses. It begins with a multimodal attendance check, mood check, and online small talk. Twosmall-group and whole-class activities follow, which incorporate video clips, online learner-friendly
corpus, texts, traditional textbooks, stickers, voices, and pictures. It finishes up with announcing theassignments through several channels to ensure all students have understood the important
information.

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Serial Number

J60CFP0183 (invited)

AuthorTakino, Miyuki

Title

Switching Cultural Frames: Developing Cultural Intelligence by BELF Users

English has become the dominant language in cross border business as its use has spread across theworld. As an increasing number of English exchanges involved and are conducted among
non-native speakers, scholars have conceptualised English as a Business Lingua Franca (BELF) andcalled for English training and education to reflect this multicultural reality (Otsu, 2019; Pitzl &Ehrenreich, 2015). Building on the work of the BELF community, this paper seeks to deepen
understanding of the role of culture in communications in English in international business contexts
using the concept of Cultural Intelligence. Cultural Intelligence (CQ) (Ang & Dyne, 2015; Ott &Michailova, 2018) is defined as the “capability of an individual to function effectively in situations
characterised by culturally diverse settings” (Ang & Dyne, 2015 p3). Cultural Intelligence consistsof the mental capability to acquire and understand cultural knowledge, combined with the
behavioural capability to exhibit appropriate verbal and nonverbal actions in culturally diverse
interactions. This paper shares the findings of the thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews of
20 Japanese users of English who are currently working in a cross-cultural environment, and theirnarratives of navigating the cultural difference are discussed. The analysis finds that many of theusers of English have adjusted their cultural knowledge by questioning their own cultural
assumptions developed in the past, and developed the concept to switch cultural frames wheninteracting in English. The author also presents key strategies used by participants to switch cultural
frames. The key implication of this paper is the perception of “switching cultural frames”, alongwith the concept of CQ, could be an effective framework to integrate cross-cultural competencewith English education in non-English speaking countries.

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Serial Number

J60CFP0021

AuthorHumphreys, Gareth

Title

Designing, implementing and evaluating an intercultural e-learning innovation

In the context of a global pandemic, intercultural learning opportunities through study abroad arelimited. It has been necessary, therefore, for many universities to build initiatives in home contexts
to provide intercultural learning and prepare students for the cultural and linguistic diversity
associated with English use in intercultural communication. E-learning may offer effective learning
options in the current climate (and beyond). However, in designing learning programmes it isimportant to avoid essentialism through "target" culture learning around national culturalcharacterisations and English language use as fixed. Such learning overlooks both diversity amongindividuals and variability in English as a lingua franca use in intercultural contexts. The
presentation outlines an action research process conducted at a non-language major university in
Kyushu. The process involved observations of essentialist educational practices within theuniversity which led to the systematic design, planning, implementation, and evaluation of ane-learning innovation. The pedagogical framework was oriented towards both Global Englishes anda model of intercultural awareness to conceptualise the intercultural skills for learning, as
potentially important areas to help students characterise the realities of complex interculturalcommunication in global contexts of English use. A qualitative evaluation was conducted on
student learning with data from the reflective writing of 22 students. Differences among thestudents were in gender (female 9; male 13), age (19-22), study discipline, and past experiencesusing English. A thematic analysis revealed the innovation led to awareness of the importance of
non-essentialist perspectives towards culture and English language use and a view of multiculturaland multilingual contexts of communication as representing learning opportunities. The
pedagogical orientation and how it is was implemented may provide a useful example of online
intercultural education in home contexts in a context of reduced student mobility caused by the
pandemic.

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Serial Number

J60CFP0027

AuthorKawamoto, Julia; Carson, Eleanor; Willey, Ian

Title

What Interviews and Class Observations Reveal about Teachers’ Medium of
Instruction in Remote Learning

In Japan, university English instructors hold differing principles regarding the amount and functionsof Japanese and English that they use when teaching. However, what happens to these principles
when classes shift to remote learning systems, as occurred in the Covid-19 pandemic? In aquestionnaire survey of English instructors at three universities in Shikoku, we found that using
online platforms such as Zoom enabled teachers to make creative use of their second language(either Japanese or English) for teaching purposes. The present study aimed to build upon thesequantitative findings by elucidating how distance learning affects teachers’ medium of instruction(MOI) through interviews and class observations. First, 12 university English teachers (6 Japaneseand 6 non-Japanese; both groups balanced for gender) participated in one semi-structured interview
on Zoom. Observations of 1-2 Zoom classes were then conducted with 6 of these participants (3Japanese and 3 non-Japanese). Interview transcripts underwent thematic analysis; for observations,the amount of Japanese and English used in classes was calculated, and the function of each usageclassified. In interviews, most participants asserted that their MOI went through an initial period ofdisorientation when first using Zoom but through experience they were able to adapt and use
Japanese and English as they would in normal classes. Class observations generally confirmed
participants’ interview statements regarding the amount of Japanese and English that they tended touse; however, the functions for which they used these languages often differed from theirstatements. Use of the Chat and Broadcast functions also afforded both Japanese and non-Japaneseteachers with means to use their second language in written modes as well as encourage English use
by students. This study found that online platforms such as Zoom may necessitate a reconception of
MOI as something fluid, context-dependent, and multi-modal.

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Serial Number

J60CFP0033

AuthorInada, Takako

Title

Emotional factors for the ultimate attainment of higher English proficiency

When we think about what kind of English education to be aimed for to overcome the changes of
the times, it would be important for students to acquire not only reading and writing skills, but also
listening and speaking skills. At present, English education in Japan to develop students' English
communication skills is still in a developing stage. Communication skills in English will be vital foryoung people as future global citizens because they are lack of it. To accomplish this, teachers
should create a student-centered classroom where students can participate in activities on their own
with positive emotions to develop their communicative English skills. The purpose of this research
was to identify what emotional factor(s) could be associated with the attainment of higher English
proficiency in lessons to develop communication skills. Therefore, the present study posed thefollowing research question: "What emotional factor (s) could affect students’ achievements (higher
TOEIC IP scores) in student-centered, communicative English classrooms at a Japanese
university?" Regarding the methodology, 108 freshmen from four classes (about 27 freshmen ineach class) at a Japanese university participated in this research. The pedagogical design was astudent-centered, English lessons including pair/group work and active learning that focused on thedevelopment of the students’ communicative skills, reading, and writing. A questionnaire survey
including background information investigated the relationships among students’ English
proficiency (judged by TOEIC IP after the course), foreign language enjoyment (FLE), foreign
language classroom anxiety (FLCA), motivation, and self-confidence. A multiple linear regression
analysis was calculated, and the results of the questionnaire exhibited that the students who hadstrong motivation, greater self-confidence, and more enjoyment could expect to receive higher
TOEIC IP scores. Based on the result, teachers would do well to use teaching methods that promotestudents' emotions such as motivation, self-confidence, and enjoyment.

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Serial Number

J60CFP0045

AuthorOi, Yoko

Title

How do Self- & Peer assessment have Effect on High School students’ Writing
Anxiety?

This study examined the effects of student assessment type (self- or peer assessment) on Japanesehigh school students’ writing anxiety and the validity of the Second Language Writing Anxiety
Inventory (SLWAI) devised by Cheng (2004). A total of 293 Japanese high school students (agedfrom 15 to 18 years old), who were divided into two groups, participated in a five consecutive
writing and student assessment sessions. Before and after the writing sessions, the students
completed the SLWAI. The obtained data were subjected to an exploratory factor analysis to
examine the effects of the writing practice and student assessment type on the factor structure ofwriting anxiety for this study sample. The following three factors were identified in the SLWAI
data for both the self- and peer assessment groups before the writing practice: Avoidance to write
an English composition caused by anxiety about evaluation, Uneasiness towards writing in English,
and Inactive attitudes while writing. However, a different factor structure was found between thetwo student assessment groups after the writing sessions, though Avoidance to write an English
composition caused by anxiety about evaluation was again found as a common factor between the
self- and peer assessment groups. Overall, the exploratory factor analysis also supported the validityof SLWAI as an instrument for investigating writing anxiety of Japanese high school students withsatisfactory internal consistency reliability. Moreover, student assessment types had some effect on
the factor structure of students’ writing anxiety. Avoidance to write an English composition causedby anxiety about evaluation was identified as the main factor of writing anxiety for Japanese highschool students.

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Serial Number

J60CFP0081

AuthorMotteram, Johanna; Zhou, Yujia; Negishi, Masashi

Title

Linking a Computer Based Test of Speaking to the CEFR-J: Looking for Evidenceof Can-dos

This is an exploratory study which investigates the potential for links between candidate
performance on British Council Tokyo University of Foreign Studies-Speaking Test for Japanese
Universities (BCT-S), a computer delivered test of speaking proficiency used for admission
purposes at Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, candidate perceptions of own English language
speaking proficiency with reference to the CEFR-J descriptors for speaking, and candidate results.
BCT-S is based on the speaking component of Aptis, the British Council’s CEFR based test ofEnglish proficiency. Test items are written in Japan with reference to Japanese high school students’life and English language learning experience, but within the international item specifications of the
Aptis test. Aptis items and scoring criteria are directly linked to the CEFR descriptors. As such, it isanticipated that there will be connections between candidate performances in response to BCT-S
tasks and the CEFR-J descriptors, through the designed-in alignment of the test and the CEFR.
For this research, following successful completion of BCT-S, candidates (n=30) were invited tocomplete a self-assessment of their spoken language proficiency based on the CEFR-J can-do
descriptors. The CEFR-J can-do descriptors also form the basis of the text-analytical frame which
was used when analysing the candidate performances in response to the BCT-S task prompts. A
final analytical stage of construct-mapping of BCT-S items and responses to the CEFR-J descriptors
was also undertaken. The triangulated findings from this study provide additional evidence tosupport the use of BCT-S as a university admissions test in Japan, as candidate results andperformances, candidates’ self-assessments, and construct-mapping outcomes clearly reflect the
CEFR-J can-do descriptors.

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Serial Number

J60CFP0083

AuthorNakai, Ayako

Title

The Effects of Timed Reading in English Reading Classes in Japan

Several researchers and the author developed a new reading skills textbook, Strategic Reading forWorld Issues based on AFP News. This study sought to compare different teaching methods toimprove student's English reading proficiency through the use of AFP News passages within thattextbook. 65 university students was divided into three groups and who all worked on the same text
and comprehension questions from the book. Group A did timed reading of the passages andconducted follow-up discussion of the content with their group members. The students in group B
did the timed reading as well as reading aloud the summary of the passages from the textbook.
Group C was taught via the grammar translation method with the same text. Before the treatment,
the pretest English proficiency scores of both groups were almost the same according to one-way
factorial ANOVA. After the treatment, the comparisons were analyzed using a two-way ANOVA.
The differences between pretest and posttest scores in the three groups showed statisticalsignificance. An interaction effect was found in the three groups (F(2,62)=4.0888, ｐ＜.05). As aresult of simple main effect, significant improvements in Group A (timed reading＋discussion) andGroup B (timed reading＋reading aloud) were recorded. These results show that the grammartranslation method may not be the most appropriate method to improve reading abilities because it
does not address reading speed. This study recommends teachers to teach undergraduate students
using timed reading skills. Further, the opportunity to speak English through discussion and reading
aloud may also assist students in improving their reading speed, enriching their vocabulary anddeepening comprehension. Within this study the Anxiety towards English Scale was also utilized toanalyze students’ attitudes. The results of both student gains and attitudes will be presented in theconference.

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Serial Number

J60CFP0097

Author

Minematsu, Kazuko

Title

Student Engagement in Reflection and Exploration throughout Oral Presentation
Activities

The purpose of this qualitative study is to investigate how university students engage in reflectionand exploration throughout oral presentation activities (OPAs). The OPAs include two types ofactivities: (a) a pair work activity in which students exchange advice and feedback with threedifferent partners to make their presentations better, and (b) an oral presentation activity in which
students not only make their oral presentations in front of peers but also observe and evaluate peers’presentations. Participants were three university students and their partners selected from a larger
scale study. Data collection was carried out in three phases: during pair work activity, after pairwork activity, and after making oral presentations in front of peers. The text data from response,reflection and comment were qualitatively analyzed using the concept of cognitive apprenticeship(Collins, 2006; Dennen & Burner, 2008). The findings of this study are as follows: During pairwork activity, the partners’ comment and suggestions have made him/her aware of the new strategy
to cope with the problem. After pair work activity, the students compared their own presentation
with others’ (reflection) and explicitly stated reasoning to problem solving processes. Then they
were guided to a mode of problem solving on their own (exploration), which led them to set
sub-goals. After making oral presentations, they could build a conceptual model of the processes
that are required to accomplish the tasks. Through the OPAs, the students experienced reflection on
their process, comparison of their own performance to that of others, and comparison of theirperformance to a set of criteria for evaluating performances by way of cognitive and metacognitive
processes. These aspects are important for learning because they could help students to determine
what factors lead to success and to formulate an explicit model of a good performance.

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Serial Number

J60CFP0104

AuthorShino, Ayano

Title

The Use of Repetition in English Lessons in a Japanese Primary School

This study investigates how repetition is effectively utilized among homeroom teachers (HRTs),
assistant language teachers (ALTs), and pupils in English lessons in a Japanese primary school toachieve clear understanding with each other. Along with internalization, English education was
introduced at primary level in many Asian countries. In Japan, English education became
compulsory in 2011. Fifth and sixth graders in all public primary schools take English activities
classes for 35 hours per academic year, in which the main purpose is to get used to English throughsongs, games, and so on, and pupils are not assigned to a class by a grade or score (MEXT, 2014).
However, English became a formal subject for fifth and sixth graders in primary schools in 2020, in
which pupils receive English lessons partially based on the current curriculum of English in juniorhigh schools despite the fact that most HRTs have no certificate for teaching English (MEXT,
2018). In the study, conversation among the HRTs, the ALTs, and the pupils in English classes
were audio-recorded for about 50 hours in total and analyzed partially based on existing research onclassroom discourse (e.g., Sinclair & Coulthard, 1975; Walsh, 2013), conversation (e.g., Schegloff,
et al., 1977), and classroom-based conversation (e.g., Seedhouse, 2004) analytic approaches. The
results of the study reveal that repetitions with various functions, such as securing the pupils’
understanding, encouraging the pupils to answer a question in English, and confirming what thepupils and the ALTs said, are frequently and effectively used in primary English lessons not only by
the HRTs and the ALTs but also by the pupils. Based on the results, the study will discuss how the
HRTs and the ALTs can conduct team-taught lessons more effectively in Japanese primary schools.

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Serial Number

J60CFP0109

AuthorOcampo, Merissa

Title

Go to Happiness: A Positive Psychology Interventions for Changing Times

The unexpected changes impacting various aspects of life as a result of the spread of the COVID-19
pandemic have become a global challenge for all. Anyone, regardless of age, has been in danger ofdeveloping associated mental health problems, which due to circumstances we have to accept
temporarily. Meanwhile, solving such psychological and emotional uncertainty is not an easy task.
It is a process. Within the educational context, we sought a way to respond positively to the current
situation by implementing positive psychology interventions at a university in the Tohoku region ofJapan. In this study, the focus on gratitude was part of an overall goal of enhancing 350
undergraduate students’ happiness and satisfaction. They participated to strengthen their positive
feelings and emotions, with a specific focus on the feeling of gratitude. In addition, the researcher's
Family Environment Mode Approach (FEMA) was also implemented to eliminate stress andanxiety in the classroom. This study compared participants' feelings of gratitude in life using a
Gratitude Questionnaire (GQ-6), Individual Gratitude journals, and a Basic Psychological Needs
Satisfaction and Frustration Scale (BPNSFS) questionnaire. The results of participants’ gratitude
journals revealed that amongst these participants, gratitude was reported to be most strongly felt
towards friends, peers and fellow members of the same hobby clubs, and least so towards teachersand members of their own family.

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Serial Number

J60CFP0111

Author

McLean, Stuart

Title

Using an online meaning-recall (L2→L1) vocabulary test and a fine-grained
lexical profiler to match learners with lexically appropriate reading materials
Meaning-focused input and fluency development activities help provide a balanced

language education (Nation, 2007). Thus, matching learners with lexically appropriate
meaning-focused and fluency development materials is important. However, research suggests thatthe use of commonly used vocabulary levels tests and/or lexical profilers with Japanese university
learners is problematic as they are (1) based on the word family and not the flemma, (2) estimate
knowledge of 1,000-words with too few words, (3) 1,000-word bands are too coarse a unit, and (4)meaning-recognition tests overestimate learners' ability to employ lexical knowledge when reading(Stoeckel, McLean & Nation, 2020).
This presentation describes how an online self-marking (typed responses can be
downloaded for manual marking) meaning-recall test (https://vocableveltest.org/) and an online
lexical profiler (https://nwlc.pythonanywhere.com/) were used to match 64 Japanese university
none English majors with lexically appropriate meaning-focused learning materials and fluency
development materials. The lexical profiler and levels test used 250-word bands from a mixed
difficulty and frequency ordered list. This information was used to then match learners with
lexically appropriate meaning-focused input materials and fluency development materials.
Levels tests data indicated that most learners knew 100% of the words in the first
1,000-words of English. Students were asked to circle words in the 2,000-word level speed-readingmaterials that were used by the institution. Then, students were interviewed to establish why thesewords were unknown. The previously used materials were wrongly believed to be appropriate
owing to the use of a lexical profiler and vocabulary levels test based on the word-family, the use ofa meaning-recognition levels test,

and the use of 1000-word bands in the levels test and lexical

profiler.

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Serial Number

J60CFP0114

AuthorChekhovska, Yuliia; Monoi, Naoko

Title

Teacher Appearance as a Method of L2 Willingness to Communicate (L 2 WTC)
Development in Elementary English Class in Japan
Willingness to communicate (WTC) has gradually increased its popularity in thesocio-educational and psycholinguistic area as a method of raising a motivation to speak a certain
language. At first, the aim was to measure the extend of motivation for a native language learning,but gradually its power has spread over the second language acquisition area as well. A well-known
assistance of an English as a native language teacher in the classroom is seen as an excellent tool toenhance students’ ability of English. Nevertheless, students’ willingness to learn and speak English
as a foreign language in the presence of a language teacher of foreign origin is still to be studied.
This study finds out if a representative of a target community is in the elementary schoolclassroom as an “English teacher” will enhance WTC competence of L2 young learners. It also
examines how the presence of a foreign-looking teacher in an English classroom influences students’motivation to speak more English in a daily context.
The research instruments used in this study are classroom teaching and observations,video and questionnaires, as well as discussions.

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Serial Number

J60CFP0127

AuthorZong, Yuchen

Title

Towards 'skill plus will' EFL writers: Exploring the effects of hope-infused writing
strategy instruction among non-English-major Chinese university students

Perhaps the priority for many, if not most, teachers of English writing in higher education in China(and elsewhere) is to promote students’ writing skills. Yet, less attention has been given toencouraging their willpower, which is empirically proven to mediate the skill development. The
relevance of the ‘skill plus will’ nature of teaching has been brought to the forefront by the
COVID-19 pandemic, where EFL learners, particularly with non-English majors, report to havemore challenges and psychological fluctuations in improving their English writing, partially due torestricted opportunities for practice. The present project is grounded in the field of language
learning strategies, i.e., intentionally selected processes which help actualise writing skills, andconceptualises the ‘will’ element as ‘hope’, a construct that theoretically involves agency thinking
and strategies from positive psychology (PP). A mixed-method, quasi-experimental design was
adopted. Writing strategy instruction infused with insights of hope intervention from PP wasproposed as an innovative pedagogical approach. It was hypothesised to target the ‘skill plus will’
instructional aim, i.e., to improve students’ writing proficiency, strategy use, and hope. This
presentation will be based on the data collected before, during, and after an 8-week intervention
among non-English-major participants (experimental group n=30, control group: n=42) at a public
university in China. Reflecting upon writing strategy task sheets, hope questionnaires, introspective
journals, and stimulated recall interviews, we discovered differential levels of development of hope,writing proficiency (e.g., coherence, lexical resource) and strategies (in terms of both quality andnumber of use) between groups. The reciprocal influence among hope-scape, English writing
strategy and product was found to be mediated by participant’s immediate and recent learning
demands, especially in the pandemic. The presentation will also shed light on the pedagogicalimplications for incorporating a focus on both skill and will in the teaching of EFL writing.

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Serial Number

J60CFP0128

AuthorPeng, Hua

Title

Constructing Alignment in an EAP Course: How can we Translate CSE and CET
Guidelines into Real Classroom Practice?

The implementation of China’s Standard of English Language Ability, shortened as CSE afterwards,
in 2018 and College English Teaching Guidelines, shortened as CET afterwards, in 2020, have bothseen a surge of research in the field of English teaching in China’s Higher Education. What seems
under-researched, however, is how to integrate the two documents and translate their guidelines into

d
e
l
e
c
n
a
C

real-time classroom teaching practice, especially in teaching English-for-Academic Purposes
courses. To explore this uncharted area, the present study looked into a spoken EAP course which
was offered to a class of students diversified in terms of disciplinary profile, grade, gender andnationality at a first-tier Chinese university for the 2020 Fall Term. The study aims to showcase
how CSE and CET can be used to inform real-time classroom practice and build up quality EAP
courses in which the general and the specific objectives are rigorously aligned with activities andthe corresponding testing rubrics in order to evaluate whether these objectives are really achieved inthese learning activities. Through the lens of seminar interactions, a section in the EAP course inquestion, the present study firstly demonstrated stepwise how to translate CSE and CET guidelines
into an EAP course curriculum. It then examined a host of datasets including participants’
self-reflection reports, peer assessment scoring sheets as well as their SET (Student Evaluation ofTeaching) questionnaire results before it concluded that constructive alignment facilitated by CSE
and CET guidelines is conducive to positive learning outcomes in the EAP course. The study
provides viable alternatives for teaching professionals to build up quality College English courses.

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Serial Number

J60CFP0133

AuthorWahyuni, Naning

Title

What Makes English Lessons Interesting? Learning from Pupils' Perspectives ofInterest

As main actors in educational practices, teachers need to understand their students' needs andinterests to create an engaging and meaningful environment where students can discover the value
in what they are learning. This study aimed to understand pupils' perspectives of interest and what
they thought of interesting lessons encompassing instructional methods and materials employed by
the teachers. Two grades five classes of an Indonesian school consisting of 48 pupils and theirrespective English teachers participated in this study. Nine lessons covering 36 English classroom
sessions were observed across one academic term. A questionnaire was repetitively administered to
all participating pupils after each observed lesson. Selected pupils were interviewed after eachsession. All the collected data were then examined and analyzed using thematic and NVIVO
qualitative data analysis. The findings revealed that topic interest was a prominent factor from the
instructional materials aspect.

The more in-depth analysis discovered four types of topics whichmainly attract pupils to engage more in the lessons.

They are (1) topics related to daily life andpersonal referenced experience, (2) topics that promote other subjects' contents, (3) novelty of new
topics and world-wide related news, (4) language topics/contents embedded in stories. Whereas
various learning activities offered during the classroom learning was the center of pupils' interest in
the instructional methods, such as games, story reading, group work, videos/audios utilization,
pictured cards simulation, story reading/telling/listening, drama, and performance, presentation, andhome project. The findings suggested ways for teachers to enhance students' motivation inclassroom activities by empowering them to connect their learning materials and real-life
experiences and discover meaning and value in their learning. The finding also provided
suggestions on how instructional methods can be creatively elaborated to increase students'
possibility of becoming situationally interested.

285

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Serial Number

J60CFP0134

AuthorParsons, Martin; Oe, Hitomi

Title

Podcasting with Children: Towards Society 5.0
More and more citizens are now expected to be able to learn and use so called 21st

century skills than ever before. And while Japan makes moves towards realising a new social
paradigm known as Society 5.0, the reality in schools is that Japan lags behind other OECD
countries in ICT use. MEXT also suggests achieving Society 5.0 will necessitate a transformation in
the way learning will need to be done. This includes a move from “one-size fits-all” classes basedon age or year level and situated in traditional classrooms, to situations in which individuals learn
according to their own pace, ability and interests, in collaborative, mixed-age groups utilisingvarious educational institutions and other facilities.
This presentation will describe the development of events which provide opportunities foryoung children to use technological resources to develop English language skills through podcast
production. In these events, primary school pupils and university students worked together in a
mentor-learner paradigm to develop English language podcasts on topics of personal interest.
Together, they practiced oral English skills and learnt the techniques required to record, edit andproduce a final product which could be released on the internet. Survey results indicate that thepupils had a high level of satisfaction and demonstrated an openness and willingness to engage withthe linguistic and technological resources which they will need in the future.

286

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Serial Number

J60CFP0147

AuthorGaynor, Brian

Title

A Comparative Survey of Communicative Language Learning in the Classroom
and Online

The ongoing Coronavirus pandemic had necessitated a shift from classroom-based instruction toonline or remote instruction. This has involved a dramatic increase in the use of information andcommunications technology (ICT) to deliver online instruction. However, this expanded use of ICT
has also required a corresponding change in students’ approaches to learning. This is particularly
the case for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) courses that focus on communicative interaction
between students, and between students and teachers. This mixed-methods research undertook acomparison of students’ attitudes to various aspects of communicative language learning in bothclassroom and online settings. A group of 93 non-English major students at a science andengineering university in northern Japan completed a questionnaire survey measuring their attitudes
to teaching instruction, peer-to-peer student interaction, spoken and written communication,assessment, and learning motivation. Subsequently, 23 of the students participated in individualinterviews to elaborate on the main findings from the survey. Analysis of both the survey andinterview data show that students clearly prefer in-class language learning. They associatedcommunicative language learning with spoken interaction, whereas the need to use ICT in online
classes diminished the quality of peer-to-peer interactions and had a corresponding adverse effecton their motivation. Findings from the survey have noticeable implications for how communicative
language learning courses should be planned and conducted during the ongoing pandemic.

287

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Serial Number

J60CFP0150

AuthorRudolph, Nathanael

Title

Contextualizing Critical Approaches to Research and Practice in English Language
Education in Japan

Transdisciplinary scholarship and social movements have documented how the dominant narrativeof “homogeneous Japan” perpetuates essentialized and idealized notions of Japaneseness-Otherness
relating both to Japanese society, and Japan contrasted with “the world beyond.” Individuals in andbeyond academia have worked to problematize and counter the homogeneity narrative by detailingJapan’s history as a site of movement, change, diversity and hybridity from time immemorial, andto cultivate space for voice for people rendered marginalized and invisible as “Japanese” and/or as
members of Japanese society. Critically-oriented applied linguistics and English language teaching(ELT) scholarship has likewise sought to explore identity, experience and manifested inequity in
English language education in Japan. Recent work has contended, however, that a large portion ofthis scholarship fails to draw upon contextualized, transdisciplinary work and critical communal
voices, and instead “imposes” conceptual frameworks grounded in assumptions about identity,
experience and inequity, upon individuals and groups in (and beyond) ELT. This, the presenter willassert, both: a) results in marginalization of the identities and voices of the people criticalscholarship aims/claims to serve in Japanese society and education therein, and b) contributes todamaging broader academic and social efforts to address inequities and empower individuals. In
order to address these concerns, the presenter will discuss a framework for contextualizing critical
approaches to inquiry and practice in Japan grounded in principles including: 1) listening to,learning about and dialoguing with the community/ies we serve (and work and live in); 2) pursuingknowledge of and drawing on sociohistorically contextualized, transdisciplinary scholarship andsocialmovements;

3)

continuously

reflecting

upon

what

“framesourseeing”

asresearcher-practitioners. In doing so, the presenter will provide attendees with some key questions
that can be used to interrogate whether critical approaches to inquiry and practice are contextualized
or imposed.

288

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Serial Number

J60CFP0168

AuthorZáborská, Dorota

Title

CLIL Approach in Online General English Reading and Writing Courses: A
Retrospective Qualitative Analysis of Students’ Learning Experiences

The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of a CLIL (content and language integrated
learning) approach in two, one-year long synchronous online general English courses at a public
university in Japan. The researcher also reflected on the impact of positive communication
consciously practiced throughout the course to enhance students’ wellbeing. Two qualitative
datasets were obtained and analyzed from the second semester. Data Set 1 included answers to an
open-ended, end-of-term survey (N=62). Students articulated how they perceived their progress,
content-wise and language-wise. Data Set 2 came from weekly entries into reflective portfolios
summarizing each class, and reflections on personal learning experiences. Data Set 1 resulted in
10,000 Japanese characters, and Data Set 2 produced 55,158 words of English text. The two
research questions in this study were “How will students respond to having a popular book on
Ageing as their core textbook?” and “How can positive psychology interventions enhance students’
wellbeing in an online learning setting?” Other sub-questions dealt with the students’ motivation,and their perceived content and linguistic gains. To address the researcher’s conscious efforts tocreate a positive atmosphere within the COVID-19 context, students’ overall impressions wereanalyzed through the lens of positive psychology, making use of the concepts of positive
communication in particular. Several themes emerged from a thematic content analysis, revealing
challenges students faced, ways of overcoming such challenges, as well as the positive learning
curve they noticed, and the relevance they felt for their future lives. The design of the course,
selected teaching materials, and instructor’s carefully planned ways of facilitating collaboration
proved efficient in developing positive classroom dynamics, which lead to enhancing overall
students’ wellbeing and perceived improvements in language skills. The overall findings validate
the tailored CLIL approach and the practice of positive communication.

289

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Serial Number

J60CFP0176

AuthorImai, Junko

Title

Writing conferences for actual writing: An advanced L2 learner’s caseL2 writing literature reports L2 writing conferences (WrCs) full of difficulties such as L2 learners’
unpreparedness and their over-emphasis on grammar (e.g., Cumming & So, 1996). Many WrC
studies have been conducted with intermediate learners, but little has been known about WrCs withadvanced-level learners. As part of a large research project, I observed WrCs with an advanced
learner of English and his graduate-student tutor over a semester in a college-level EAP program in
the U.S. The learner was an undergraduate exchange student from Japan. His tutor had experienceteaching writing and volunteered as a tutor for this study. Both speakers were male and majored in
the same discipline. I video-recorded each WrC session, collected text drafts and revisions, andconducted playback sessions with each participant. I explored their focus during their WrCs, text
changes, the structure of their conversations, and their performances through the content anddiscourse analysis. Their WrCs proceeded smoothly and were student-centered. The learner was on
tasks right from the beginning and decided what they focus and negotiated problems with his tutor.
Whenever parts requiring revisions came up, he revised the texts on the spot. The pair spent muchtime discussing how to develop the texts further and often engaged in collaborative writing andlanguaging (Swain, 2006).

His tutor accepted the learner’s initiative and contributed ideas whennecessary, sitting back, giving options, and relinquishing his initial feedback. They also filled in theoutline collaboratively as a revision plan. Their focus was not on grammar itself, but it was treatedalong with discussing the content. The pair exchanged a variety of non-linguistic cues to achieve
their learning or instructional goals.

Pedagogically, this study addresses skills and knowledge

needed for L2 learners to make use of WrC opportunities beyond grammar editing and simple
revisions and effective tutor support.

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Serial Number

J60CFP0182

Author

Saito, Aiko; Markve, Stephen

Title

Cognitive Linguistics for EFL Writers: a Study of Pluriligual Online Team
Teaching Sessions

The class in question was a group of 11 English major 3rd years after 6-month study abroad
program. They aimed to master effective presentation skills in 15×90min online sessions in 2020. It
was the 9th and 10th weeks that we had plurilingual team-teaching Zoom sessions to introduce
cognitive linguistics notions to see their tool, words. By then, students were over all confident incasual English conversation, yet tended to either staying within their comfort zone to write
grammatically correct sentences in limited patterns, or trying to raise readability scores by merely
switching everyday vocabularies with archaic ones. In order to liberate their mindset, the twoteachers decided to introduce cognitive linguistics to students. In the first session, students wereasked to observe a painting, and write a short story based on it. Then, we focused on verbs theyused. Some verbs are lighter in information volume than others. Some are richer, and have larger
potential information to follow. Their assignment for the next session was to collect as many ways
to translate the verb “escape,” one of the “rich” vocabularies they discussed in class. Exploringtranslation options and bilingual discussion on the topic helped widening recognition of the target
English vocabularies. In the second session, students discussed other examples of “rich”
vocabularies to invite readers’ profound imaginations, in contrast with simpler lighter ones that can
speed up the story. Finally, each participant presented their new creative story verbally, challenging
the next speaker to try out other possibilities to entertain audience, just like the competition of
narratives among the travelling company in Cantuerbury Tales. Students’ word choice became
fearless, and the course of plot was pretty creative. A student commented “I’d never seen words insuch a way.” The presentation will include a brief demonstration.

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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Serial Number

J60CFP0110

Author浅野元子; 藤枝美穂

Title

サイエンスニュースを用いた学術英語への導入授業―ジャンルの理解度に関する考察

ジャンルはテキストの種類を指すといわれて久しい。ジャンルの理解には，テキストのパターンや役割に対する気づきが重要となる。サイエンスニュースは，最新の研究をわかりやすく伝えるという目的を持ったジャンルテキストとされ，学術英語の学習への導入として適した素材の一つである。サイエンスニュースは主に研究論文を出典とするが，この二つはジャンルとしては異なるものであるとされる。また，ジャンルの理解度は学生によってばらつきがあることが示唆されており，理解を高める方略や指導について研究されている。そこで筆者らは，大学 1 年生の前期 15 回の授業で短いサイエンスニュースの音声を教材としてジャンルを意識させる演習を行い，要約を書く課題を通じてジャンルの理解と英語力との関連性を検討した。初回の授業でジャンルの考え方を説明し，２回目以降のほぼ毎回の授業でさまざまなサイエンスニュースの聴解を行い，トランスクリプトの構成要素（ムーブ）について分析を行ってもらった。また，サイエンスニュースの出典の研究論文
抄録を紹介し，抄録に典型的な，背景，方法，結果，結論というムーブについて説明を行った。後半の授業では，それらを踏まえて，サイエンスニュースをもとに抄録のムーブを意識して要約を書いてもらった。学生の要約を，抄録の論理展開を基準として評価し，英語実力試験の成績との相関性を調査した。大半の要約は，抄録の構成要素を有しており，すべての構成要素を抽出できているものもあった。しかし，なかには，抄録ではなくサイ
エンスニュースの論理展開を再現しているものもあった。先行研究と同様に，ジャンルの理解度にばらつきがあることが示唆された。そして，英語実力試験の成績が良い学生が必
ずしもジャンルの理解度が高いとは限らないことが判明した。このことは，より多くの学生にジャンルの理解を深めてもらう方略を検討するうえで意義があると考えられた。

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The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Serial Number

J60CFP0160

Author

伊藤満里

Title

アクティブ・ラーニングを通して学ぶ「英米小説講読」

英米小説を英語で読んだ経験がない学生が、アクティブ・ラーニングを通して、英米文学の初歩（入門）を学ぶ「英米小説講読」授業を紹介する。対象は人文学部英語コミュニケーション学科 2 年生（TOEIC300-875)23 名・年間必修科目。目標は The Lion, the Witch and theWardrobe を原書で読み、英語の基礎を復習しながら、日本語らしい日本語に訳すこと、一定量の英文を日本語に置き換えることなく、英語のまま理解できるようになる。文章に秘められた内容、深層心理、聖書やシンボルを探り、英米文学作品を英語で鑑賞することができる。テキスト 1 課を 2 回の授業で読む。英米短編小説（A3 両面 1 枚）や外国の文化・習慣や食について書かれた文章（A4）も読む。プレゼンは年 2 回、発表時間 10 分、質疑応答 10-40 分。後期は Narnia 全 7 冊を「食」をテーマに発表。文献や配布資料の作成、プ
レゼン方法を指導した後、グループごとに 7 週間で準備する。作品を決定し、原書を読む。
配布資料（あらすじ、「食」とシンボル、時代背景、映画との違い、参考文献一覧）、PPTと TF（プレゼンに関する問題を英語で 5 問）作成、（作品のイメージに合う）楽曲を探す。
配布資料と TF は事前に提出。定期試験の半分は配布資料の持込可で、学生が作成した TF問題の一部が採用される為、発表する側と聞く側の受講態度が高まる。アンケート調査によると、1 番苦労したことは「原書を読むこと」。感想は「面白かった」「英米小説に興味が持てた」「またやりたい」「英文を読む力が上がった」と前向きな意見が多く、プレゼンを通してのモチベーションは「変化なし」52％、「少し高まった」35％、「高まった」13％。
授業に「満足している」「大変満足している」が 66％であった。5 年間試行錯誤した授業内
容とアンケート結果を紹介し、今後の課題も考察する。

293

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Serial Number

J60CFP0161

Author

笹尾洋介; 小川洋一郎

Title

時事英語力の測定を目指したオンラインテスト「CNN GLENTS」の開発と妥当性検証の試み

本発表の目的は，「時事英語力」を測定し即時診断フィードバックを提供するオンラインテ
スト CNN GLENTS（CNN Global English Testing System）の開発および妥当性の予備的検証を行うことにある。CNN GLENTS は，リスニング（30 問）とリーディング（20 問）から成り，ディクテーションを除くすべての問題は三肢選択式である。素材となる英文は，特定の分野に偏らないように政治・経済・文化など様々なトピックから選定されており，通常ニュース，ショートニュースおよびインタビューが含まれる。さらに，実際に CNN で使用された生の素材（ナチュラル音声版：NT 版，約 160～180wpm）に比べて，聞き取りやすいように再度スタジオで録音し直した素材（ナレーター音声版：NR 版，約 120～140wpm）を設けた。こうして開発された CNN GLENTS に対して，（１）ラッシュモデルに基づく項
目分析，（２）自己申告された TOEIC Test との関係の調査，（３）NT 版と NR 版とのスコア調整を行った。（１）と（２）について，2020 年 3 月～5 月にオンライン上で 994 名にNT 版を受験してもらいデータ分析を行った。その結果，得られたスコアに高い信頼性があり（Rasch person reliability = .87, Rasch item reliability = .99），適合度分析において特に問題となる項目は検出されなかった。また，TOEIC Test 得点との相関は，Pearson’s r = .671 と中程度の相関があった。
（３）の調査を行うために，上記と異なるテスト項目を作成し，2020
年 7～10 月にオンライン上で合計 3,345 名（NT 版 1,377 名，NR 版 1,968 名）に受験してもらった。その際，リーディングの 20 問は，共通項目（アンカー項目）として扱って分析を行った。項目難度の推定値を見ると，NR 版の項目が NT 版の項目よりも有意に易しくなる
ことが示された（t(29) = 2.423, p = .022）。この項目難度の差を補正できるよう，NT 版と NR
版の得点の換算式を考案した。現在いわゆる「生の英語」の理解度を測定できるテストが乏しい状況で，CNN GLENTS が高校生・大学生から社会人まで幅広く時事英語力を測定し今後の学習をサポートできる可能性について検討する。

294

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Serial Number

J60CFP0165

Author

二五義博

Title

３種類の球技を活用した体育 CLIL の実践報告

学習者の英語学習に対する興味・関心を高め、オーセンティックな英語使用の場面を提供
し、内容への思考活動や協同での学びを取り入れながら英語力の向上を目指すには、CLILの活用が効果的であろう。最近、CLIL に関する授業実践報告が増えたが、実技教科と英語の教科横断的指導に関する研究はまだ少ない。体育と英語を組み合わせた指導を行うこと
は、単に英語の指示に合わせて体を動かすレベルにはとどまらず、試合データの分析、戦術の話し合い、チームの団結や円滑な試合進行のためのコミュニケーション面においても、
幅広く英語使用が図れると思われる。そこで、本発表の目的は体育の教科内容をコアとしながら、CLIL の 4C からの分析により、３種類の球技（サッカー、バレーボール、バスケ
ットボール）の内容を英語で学ぶことが、内容への動機づけ、コミュニケーション能力育
成、思考や協同学習の視点でいかなる効果があるかを探ることである。本実践は、中国地方の国立工業高等専門学校１年生 105 名（サッカー）、122 名（バレーボール）、145 名（バスケットボール）を対象とした。授業目標は、CLIL の４つの軸に基づく教材を作成することにより、体育技能の向上を目指しながら、その中で必要な英語表現を習得し、思考力を高め、チームの団結力を図ることである。毎回の 90 分授業は、挨拶など→グループワーク（Warm-up と２種類のドリル）→作戦タイム→メインゲーム→振り返りの流れで指導した。
授業後には、選択式（４件法）と自由記述式を併用したアンケート調査を実施した。研究結果、３種目に共通する利点として、内容への高い興味・関心、特に「話す」「聞く」の面
での英語学習効果、作戦タイム等での思考力の高まり、団結力の深まりなどが見られる一方で、グループワークでの英語使用の質の向上といった共通の課題もあった。また、ゲーム展開の速さのような種目特性の違いから、どの種目が CLIL との適合性があるかも明らかにされた。

295

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Serial Number

J60CFP0172

Author尊田望

Title

英語学習に見られるパンデミックが大学生に与えた影響

COVID-19 のパンデミックは 2020 年の晩冬から日本でも広がり始め、その結果、この年の大学は、遠隔授業あるいは少人数やマスク着用などの制限付きでの対面授業が強いられた。
特に 1 年生は入学式もなく、新しいクラスメートと会うこともできず、クラブ活動やアルバイトもできないまま、大学生活が始まった。本研究は、パンデミックが大学生の英語学
習にどのような影響を与えたかを調査するものである。参加者は、西日本の国立大学 1 年
生で、英語会話（リスニング・スピーキング）及び英語（リーデイング・ライテイング）の履修生 600 名で、英語による口頭プレゼンテーションやエッセイ課題で学生が取り上げたテーマを分析することで、学生が特に関心のあること、考えている事柄の傾向を分析した。英語会話の授業では、(1) “What is happiness to you?”、(2)”What kind of world do you wantto live in?”、(3) “What is the purpose of life to you?”、(4)”The future of X” （X は自分で決める）という題目をベースに、学生は具体的なトピックを自分で設定し、1 分間のプレゼンテー
ションをクラスの前で披露した。ライティングの授業では、”What improvement does youruniversity or Japan or the world need?”（my university と Japan と the world から一つ選ぶ）の問いに対する答えを 3-5 段落の英文エッセイに書いて提出した。取り上げられたトピックの傾向として、パンデミックそのものを取り上げたもの、健康や保健衛生に関するものが目立った。また、パンデミックにより強いられた遠隔授業に関する批判や改善案なども見られた。さらに、旅行やバイトなどができず、一人になったり、本を読んだり、考えたりす
る時間が増えた分、より内向的・内省的になったというコメントも多かった。このように、
パンデミックは、大学生が社会問題や深い内容の事柄について考える機会をたくさん与えることになったようである。意味を重視する学習活動という意味で、COVID-19 は不幸中の幸いとして、英語学習者に貴重な経験をもたらしたと言える。

296

The JACET International Convention Proceedings: The JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention (Online, 2021)

Serial Number

J60CFP0181

Author

杉森直樹

Title

収録語彙の類似性に基づく学術語彙リストの比較

近年の英語教育では EAP、EMI、CLIL 等の重要性が増してきているが、これらにおける学術語彙の指導には、学術語彙リストが指標として使用されることも多い。Coxhead(2000)のAcademic Word List 以外にも最近では新たな学術語彙リストが発表されているが、これらの学術語彙リストの類似性や独自性に関する横断的研究はまだ十分にはなされておらず、
学術語彙の指導の際にどの語彙リストを使用することが適当であるかの判断が難しい場合も多い。そこで本研究では、比較的近年に発表された 4 種類の学術語彙リストに含まれる語彙を比較し、その特徴を対応分析(コレスポンデンス分析)を用いて調査した。対象とした語彙リストは、1)Academic Spoken Word List (Dang, Coxhead, & Webb, 2017)、2)JACET8000
共通学術語彙リスト(大学英語教育学会基本語改訂特別委員会, 2016)、3)BABILON 2000 (石川, 2018)、4)New Academic Word List (Browne, Culligan, & Phillips, 2013)の 4 種類である。最
初に各語彙リストに収録されている語彙のクロス集計表を作成し、次にそれに基づいて各語彙リストの類似性と収録語彙の関係を対応分析によって調査した。その結果、BABILON
2000 と New Academic Word List は収録語彙が比較的類似していることが示され、Academic
Spoken Word List は口語語彙リストとして他のリストとは距離があることが示されたほか、JACET8000 共通学術語彙リストは日本人英語学習者用の語彙リストとして独自の特徴を持つことが判明した。発表ではこれらの結果に基づいて各語彙リストの特徴と利用する際の妥当性について論じる。

297

Special Sponsors for the JACET 60th Commemorative International Convention(Online, 2021)
Platinum Sponsorship:
The Institute for International Business Communication（一般財団法人 国際ビジネスコミュニケーション協会）
Platinum Sponsorship:
Eiken Foundation of Japan（公益財団法人 日本英語検定協会）
Sponsorship:
Hituzi Syobo（ひつじ書房）
Exhibition (in alphabetical order):Asahi Press Inc.（株式会社 朝日出版社）
Cengage Learning（センゲージラーニング㈱）CHIeru Co., Ltd.（チエル株式会社）
CosmoPier Publishing Company（コスモピア株式会社）
CreAid Learning, Inc.（クリエイド・ラーニング株式会社）
EdulinX Corporation（株式会社 EdulinX）
Eiken Foundation of Japan（公益財団法人 日本英語検定協会）
englishbooks.jp（株式会社 ドリームブロッサム）
Global Eight Institute（一般社団法人 Ｇｌｏｂａｌ８）
Hituzi Syobo（ひつじ書房）
Kinseido Publishing Co., Ltd.（株式会社 金星堂）
KIRIHARA SHOTEN K.K.（株式会社 桐原書店）
mpi Matsuka Phonics inc.（株式会社 mpi 松香フォニックス）
Pearson Japan K.K.（ピアソン・ジャパン株式会社）
PROGOS Inc.（株式会社 プロゴス）
SANSHUSHA Publishing Co., Ltd.（株式会社 三修社）
SEIBIDO（㈱成美堂）
Shohakusha Publishing Co., Ltd.（株式会社 松柏社）
The Institute for International Business Communication（一般財団法人 国際ビジネスコミュニケーシ
ョン協会）
The Japan Institute for Educational Measurement, Inc.（株式会社 教育測定研究所）
Turnitin Japan（ターンイットイン・ジャパン合同会社）

    ®       
「聞く・読む・話す・書く」を目的で、目標で、レベルで。

    ®     
日常生活やグローバルビジネスにおける活きた英語の力を測定する、世界共通のテスト    ®
                     ®
                         ®     
英語学習初級者から中級者を対象とした日常生活における
活きた英語の力を測定する、世界共通のテスト          ®
                            ®
               

セミナー・イベントについてはこちら

学校での活用事例はこちら

https://www.iibc-global.org/toeic/corpo/seminar̲event.html

https://www.iibc-global.org/toeic/corpo/case/school.html

お問い合わせ：一般財団法人 国際ビジネスコミュニケーション協会
                                                ­                                                        

TEL：03-5521-5012 〒100-0014 東京都千代田区永田町2-14-2 山王グランドビル
IIBC公式サイト https://www.iibc-global.org

多くの大学の入学試験で英検の級・スコアが利用可能！

英検 は大学入試にも役立ちます
法政大学
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明治大学
日本大学
早稲田大学

2021年度入試

英検活用大学
の一例

立教大学
龍谷大学
東京理科大学専修大学
ほか

一部の大学を抜粋し、2021年度大学入試において志願者数が多い順に掲載しています。

※掲載順（志望者の多い順）は、2021年私立大一般選抜の志願状況に関する（株）旺文社教育情報センターの調査による。 ※英検を活用できる大学は、英検ウェブサイト内「英検・TEAP・IELTS 活用校検索」
をご確認ください。 ※入試に利用可能な英検実施方式や、必要な級・スコア、優遇される内容等の詳細は各大学の募集要綱等をご確認ください。

実用英語技能検定 2021年度 試験日程
※個人申込の日程です。団体申込は別途申込期間と試験日の設定があります。
二次試験は一定の条件により、いずれかの試験日程を協会が指定します。
詳しくは、英検ウェブサイト
（https://www.eiken.or.jp）をご確認ください。

第一次試験
二次 試 験

A

1〜3級

B

2〜3級

C

1級・準1級

申込受付（個人申込）

2回

10月10日
11月7 日
11月14日
11月23日

第日
日

試験日程のご都合が合わない方 英検の受験機会を増やしたい方
こちらの試験がおススメです！

従来型・
個人申込

毎週実施 ※・1日で4技能が測定できる英検

3回

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2月27日
3月 6 日2022年※級や地域により毎週実施でない場合があります日※英 検S -CBTは1検定回につき、同じ級を2回受験できます2022年※一部都道府県で平日も実施中

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日一次試験と二次試験を1日で受験できる

2022年

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取得した級、CSEスコアも従来型の英検と同様、生涯有効

11月1日〜 12月10日（書店は 8月20日 締切） （書店は 12月3日 締切）※最新の情報は、英検ウェブサイトをご確認ください。

※英検 は公益財団法人 日本英語検定協会の登録商標です。

全国で開催中！
東京、大阪、名古屋、福岡では月1回以 上の受験チャンス！

試験結果のウェブ閲覧は、筆記テスト

13 日後の13 時 から

期間制限なしで過去スコアも確認可能

日本国内の大学入試でも利用可
留学だけでなく、日本の多くの大学入試でIELTSが利用されています。

TEAPスコアが利用可能

高校1年生以上対象 ※11月21日

申 込 期間

最後の 3

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会!
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※コンビニ・郵便局ATM支払いによる申し込みは、申込締切日より約1週間前に締め切ります。
※受験上の配慮申請必着日は、申込締切日より約3週間早く設けています。
ご注意ください。
お問い合わせブリティッシュ・カウンシルと公益財団法人 日本英語検定協会は、日本でのIELTSを共同運営しています。
IELTS is jointly owned by the British Council , IDP : IELTS Australia And Cambridge Assessment English.

年３回（7月、9月、11月）

2021年度 試験日程・申込期間回

検索

受験のチャンスは※スコアの有効期限 ：スコア取得後2年度の間有効（取得翌年度および、翌々年度の大学入試に利用できます。)

第詳しくは英検 IELTS
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詳しくは
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英検サービスセンター
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TEL：03 - 3266 - 6556

9 : 30 〜17: 00（土・日・祝日除く）

詳しくはTEAPウェブサイトへ

TEAP

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明日の授業に活かす「意味順」
英語指導 理論的背景と授業実践
田地野彰 編 定価 3000 円 + 税

教育文法の最新理論「意味順」を活用した英語指導法の決定版、ついに登場。「意味順」を軸に英語指導の体系化をめざす。その理論的背景を、教育言語学、理論言語学、英語史、英詩研究の観点から検証するとともに、豊かな指導経験に基づいた授業への導入例を紹介する。中高
から大学までの英語授業の未来を切り開く教師や研究者にとって必読の書。執筆者：田地野彰、
金丸敏幸、川原功司、高橋佑宜、笹尾洋介、奥住桂、藤木克哉、山田浩、佐々木啓成、村上裕美、
加藤由崇、渡寛法、桂山康司

JACET 応用言語学研究シリーズ

英語授業学の最前線

第１巻

一般社団法人大学英語教育学会（JACET） 淺川和也・田地野彰・小田眞幸 編 定価 2000 円 + 税

自由研究 ようこそ！ ことばの実験室（コトラボ）へ
松浦年男著

定価 1400 円＋税

言葉の仕組みや特徴の調べ方を小学生に向けて解説。調べ学習

JACET、 大 学 英 語 教 育 学 会 が、の参考資料としても使える。①

創立以来行ってきた応用言語学

・「「は」考える（「隠れた「っ」を探せ！」

研究の理論と実践を形として残と「が」はどう並んでる？」）、②作

すためにスタートしたシリーズ。

る（「 漢 字 だ け 文 を 書 い て み よ う 」）、創刊号の本書は、授業学をテー③調べる（「世界のことばで「日本」マに開催された「英語教育セミ

は何と呼ぶのか？」・「手話のことを調ナ ー」（2016 〜 2018 年 度 ） をべよう」） の 3 つの観点から、言総括した内容（基礎編、理論編、

葉の楽しみ方が分かるよう工夫

応用編、資料編）の 4 部で構成。

知を再構築する 異分野融合研究のためのテキストマイニング
内田諭・大賀哲・中藤哲也編

定価 3600 円＋税「中納言」を活用したコーパス
日本語研究入門
中俣尚己著

定価 1800 円＋税

ベーシックコーパス言語学
石川慎一郎著

定価 1700 円＋税

第2版

統計で転ばぬ先の杖
島田めぐみ・野口裕之著

定価 1400 円 + 税

されている。

「問う力」を育てる理論と実践
問い・質問・発問の活用の仕方を探る
小山義徳・道田泰司編

定価 2800 円 + 税

英語教育における自動採点
現状と課題

石井雄隆・近藤悠介編
翻訳叢書

21

定価 1700 円＋税

近刊 9 月上旬刊行

言えそうなのに言わないのはなぜか
構文の創造性と競合性

アデル・E・ゴールドバーグ著
木原恵美子・巽智子・濵野寛子訳

テキスト計量の最前線

言語学と科学革命

左古輝人編

山梨正明著

データ時代の社会知を拓く

定価 2800 円 + 税

実験認知言語学の深化
篠原和子・宇野良子編

定価 5400 円＋税

認知言語学への展開

定価 3200 円 + 税

マンガ学からの言語研究「視点」をめぐって
出原健一著◉ひつじ書房の刊行案内や特別セールなどのお知らせは、「ひつじメール通信」から配信しております。ご希望の方は、toiawase@hituzi.co.jp までメールでご連絡ください。

定価 3800 円 + 税

定価 3500 円＋税〒 112-0011 東京都文京区千石 2-1-2 大和ビル 2F
TEL 03-5319-4916 FAX 03-5319-4917
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