14

Protecting Geographical Indications as

Collective Trademarks: The Prospects and Pitfalls
Invited Researcher: Dev Gangjee（*）

Geographical Indications (GIs) are defined in Article 22.1 of TRIPS as 'indications which identify a goodas originating in the territory of a Member… where a given quality, reputation or other characteristic of the goodis essentially attributable to its geographic origin.' They are words or symbols which indicate both geographicalorigin as well as certain qualities associated with that origin. Prominent examples include Champagne, Parmaham, Darjeeling tea and Kobe beef. By regulating the use of such labels, consumers are protected against
confusion or deception and producers from the region have a collective remedy where their valuable goodwill ismisappropriated. Thus GIs are functionally similar to Trademarks.
However, there are important differences as well, as GIs are geographical names, which trademark doctrine
considers descriptive and therefore unprotectable. They also give rise to a collective interest in their protection.
This report reviews the extent to which these differences are accommodated in the current legal regime forprotecting GIs in Japan, which includes administrative regulations, unfair competition law and trademark law.
Additionally it focuses on (i) the new Regional Collective Trademarks law due to take effect from 1 April 2006;
and (ii) the consequences of international protection of GIs through the trademark regime.
This study concludes by highlighting the inequitable consequences of ‘First in Time, First in Right’ as asolution to trademark versus GI conflicts, through the case study of international trademark registrations for
Kobe beef. It proposes a solution to these conflicts based on the recent WTO Panel Report (DS 174) which
considered the relationship between GIs and trademarks.

Introduction
This article explores some of thecontroversial issues which arise out of thenational and international protection of traditional
regional products as ‘geographical brands’ orGeographical Indications (GIs). While there are
well established international product labels
such as Scotch for whisky and Champagne forsparkling wine, Japan has several products withtremendous potential, such as Kobe beef, Uonumasan Koshihikari rice and Wajima lacquer-ware.
The analysis in this article(*1) is therefore
concerned with one central issue - What is themost appropriate method for protecting such
geographical brands under Intellectual Property(IP) law?
There is already a well developed body of IP
law which protects valuable brands and it is
widely acknowledged that GIs are functionallysimilar to Trademarks. Both ensure that customers
are not confused or misled and that genuine
producers may benefit from the attractive poweror goodwill of these brand names. However,functional similarity does not imply that thesetwo categories of IP overlap completely andseveral unique problems arise when it comes to
GI protection. Consequently while aspects ofexisting laws with regard to misleading labelling,registered trademarks and unfair competition do
apply to such geographical brands, they also
require special legal arrangements to ensure
adequate protection. Japan has recently introduced
new legislation which provides for registeredprotection of such names as a modified form ofCollective Mark. This study asks the following
question: To what extent will this consolidated
protection regime adequately protect GIs both (a)nationally and (b) internationally?
In answering this question, this study seeks

Lecturer in Intellectual Property of London School of Economics, Research Associate of Oxford Intellectual
Property Research Centre(*1) This article summarizes a longer report, which the author compiled as a Visiting Researcher at the Institute ofIntellectual Property (IIP), Tokyo. The author would like to thank the IIP for both its generous sponsorship as well as
for its assistance and support in the preparation of this work. He also wishes to thank several officials at both theJapan Patent Office (JPO) and the Japan External Trade Organisation ( JETRO), who along with Ryo Maruyama
provided invaluable guidance.
（*）

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to understand both the strengths and weaknessesof protecting GIs within the trademark system,
rather than under a separate sui generis system ofprotection. It also proposes a solution to some of
the inevitable problems which will be faced in thisprocess.

GIs are thus words and symbols whichindicate the origin of goods and distinguish themin the market, which is also the case fortrademarks. The distilled essence of Trademarks
and GIs is that they both protect valuable
signs.(*4)

Ⅰ Geographical Indications : A
Conceptual, Legal and Practical
Introduction

They are both functionally similar in that:(1) Both indicate the origin of the goods. While
the trademark indicates commercial origin, a GI
indicates geographical origin.
(2) Both serve as guarantees of quality. While a
trademark guarantees consistent quality, a GI
provides more specific guarantees such as adefined area of production, according to a certain
traditional process etc(3) Finally, both trademarks and GIs can act asvaluable commercial brands.

GIs are a little known species of IP.
Therefore an overview of the basic principles ofthis species of intellectual property is a necessary
starting point.
1

Defining GIs: Their Functional Similarity
with Trademarks

GIs may be best described as signs whichindicate a product’s geographical origins and also
convey something about its qualities orreputation, which depend on that place of origin.
(*2)
Well known examples of such products would
include Champagne from the region of that namearound Epernay in France and Kobe beef, from theHyogo Prefecture of Honshu, Japan. These names
apply to regional agricultural products, foodstuffs
such as meats and cheese, wines and spirits andpossibly even traditional craft products. They
indicate a causal connection between the productand the place.
The most relevant legal definition is found in
Article 22.1 of TRIPS,(*3) which reads:‘Geographical indications are, for the
purposes of this Agreement, indications
which identify a good as originating in the
territory of a Member, or a region or
locality in that territory, where a given
quality, reputation or other characteristicof the good is essentially attributable toits geographical origin. ’This raises the obvious question: If GIs aretrademarks are functionally similar, why should
GIs be treated as a separate category of IP? The
answer to this lies in the historical developmentof trademark law and the underlying policies
supporting GI protection.
2

The Significant Differences between GIs
and Trademarks

Despite their functional similarities, GIs
differ from trademarks in three important ways.
Unlike a trademark which usually has a single
registered owner, there exists a collective
interest in the protection of such geographicalbrands. No single producer from the region canclaim exclusive rights to Banshu Somen.(*5) At thesame time others from outside this region should
not be allowed to use this name. This would
deceive consumers as well as unfairly competewith the genuine producers. So what is required
is a collective right for all genuine producers to
use the name and a right to prevent others frommisusing it. Trademark law historically used tovests rights in a single entity. This has now(*2) For an overview, see <http://www.wipo.int/about-ip/en/geographical_ind.html>(*3) The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, Apr. 15, 1994 which is Annex 1C of the
Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization 33 ILM 81 (1994). Also available at<http://www.wto.org/english/docs_ e/legal_e/legal_e.htm#TRIPs> (hereinafter TRIPS). Part II, Section 3 of
TRIPS refers to Geographical Indications.
(*4) For a judicial acknowledgement of the similarities between the two, see Chocosuisse Union des Fabricants Suisse de
Chocolat v Cadbury Ltd [1998] RPC 117, 128; Consorzio del Prosciutto di Parma v. Asda Stores Ltd [2002] FSR 3(para 100) (HL). For an academic analysis, see N Dawson ‘Locating Geographical Indications: Perspectives fromEnglish Law’ (2000) 90 Trademark Reporter 590, 594.
(*5) Banshu Somen has been filed for as a Certification Mark in the US by the Hyogo-ken Kanmen Kyodo Kumiai(Registration No. 2238960). The mark may viewed by searching the US trademark database at
http://tess2.uspto.gov/bin/gate.exe?f=tess&state=f9m86u.2.1● 113 ●IIP Bulletin 2006

changed with the introduction of Certification andCollective Marks.(*6)

products are also therefore protected as national
emblems.(*9)

The second reason why GIs developed as aseparate category was that trademark rights were
not granted for geographical terms. In order for a
trademark to be registered, a universal
requirement is that it must be distinctive.(*7)
However, using a geographical name on the label
will usually be descriptive of the place of
production of the goods. So a packet of tea withthe label ‘India’ on it will lead consumers tobelieve that the product originates in India rather
than from a specific producer or company.
Accordingly geographical terms usually cannot
perform a trademark function of indicating asingle producer.(*8) The other significant reason
why geographical terms were also not registeredby individuals was because there is an interest in
keeping such terms free for use by all producers
from that region.

Thus in many countries, a separate systemof registered protection emerged for thesegeographical labels which allowed for collective
rights. Such a system of registered protection
which is separate from trademarks is referred toas sui generis GI protection in international
discussions in this area. Originally France
developed the model for protecting such products
and it has now been applied at the European level,
where a system for the registration andprotection of agricultural products and foodstuffs
exists under EC Regulation 2081/92.(*10) The
scope of protection is also greater thantrademarks. Most trademark protection systems
prevent use of a sign which would be confusing or
misleading. On the other hand, sui generis GI
protection prevents the use of such names, even
where they may not be any confusion.(*11) A
trademark system would not prevent the use of‘Banshu-style Somen, Made in Korea’ as it would
not confuse consumers about the origin of the
product. However, this would still misappropriate
goodwill and unfairly suggest that the Korean
product was the same as the Japanese one. The
EC Regulation and other specific agreements likethe Lisbon Agreement(*12) prevent this fromhappening.

Finally, GIs also give effect to specific policy
interests, beyond the traditional consumer andproducer protection concerns of trademark law.
Increasingly, governmental policy for ruraldevelopment and agricultural policy depends on
the protection of GIs, as such valuable brands
stimulate the progress of rural regions. This
comes at a time when WTO negotiations haveresulted in the gradual withdrawal of direct
subsidies and state aid for farmers. Such indirect
assistance by protecting and promoting traditional
products will help regional producers to compete
in global markets. Finally, such products are often
more than just economic commodities, being partof the rich heritage of a region or country. For e.g.
tea in Japan has a rich history of sociologicalpractices and cultural associations. These

However, instead of establishing a separate
system of protection for such labels, somecountries have opted to protect such products
within the trademark system through Certification
Marks or Collective Marks.(*13) Japan has also
opted to protect such product names through a
modified Collective Mark regime, as will be seenin Section III below.

(*6) Of these options, Japanese law only provides for Collective Mark registration and as will be seen in Part II,
geographical names are usually not permitted to be registered as Collective Marks.
(*7) See Art 15.1 of TRIPS which defines the subject matter of a trademark and reads: ‘Any sign, or any combination ofsigns, capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one undertaking from those of other undertakings, shall becapable of constituting a trademark.’ (emphasis added)(*8) However, in certain circumstances, geographical terms do become registerable as trademarks for e.g. when they
develop secondary meaning.
(*9) Several of the policy reasons for protecting such products are discussed in D Rangnekar ‘The Socio-Economics ofGeographical Indications’. Available at www.iprsonline.org/unctadictsd/docs/CS_Rangnekar2.pdf(*10) Council Regulation (EEC) No 2081/92 on the Protection of Geographical Indications and Designations of Origin for
Agricultural Products and Foodstuffs [1992] OJ L208 1. (Hereinafter, Regulation 2081) There is a separate set oflaws to protect wines and spirits.
(*11) For e.g. see Article 13 of Regulation 2081.
(*12) See Article 3 of the Lisbon Agreement for the Protection of Appellations of Origin and their International
Registration, Oct. 31, 1958, 923 UNTS 205 (hereinafter Lisbon Agreement).
(*13) The TRIPS Agreement leaves the choice of protection system open to WTO Members. For Certification Mark
protection for geographical names in the USA, see Lanham Act § 4, 15 USCA § 1054. In the UK, Schedule 2 of theTrademark Act 1994 deals extensively with geographical Certification Marks.

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3

Where it gets Controversial – Conflicts
between Trademarks and GIs

As we have seen in Section I.B above,geographical terms are usually excluded fromregistration as trademarks. If this rule operated
universally, there would never be a conflict
between GIs and trademarks. However, thetrademark system sometimes declares certain
geographical words to be ‘generic’ or open for use
by anybody as they describe a type of product. It
also permits the registration of geographicalmarks in certain situations.
Generic use occurs when a geographicalterm is used for a kind of product, rather than anindication of the place of origin of that product.
For e.g., ‘Dijon Mustard’ used to denote a style ofmustard originally from the French town of Dijon
but now refers to a certain kind of mustard,
regardless of its place of production.(*14) Thisrequires expensive litigation, which can be seenfrom the experiences with protecting thedesignation Champagne in international markets.(*15)
A determination of generic status is often madeaccording to trademark principles and thetrademark system does not prevent such products
from becoming generic, even after they are
registered.
The other area of conflict is where a GI issought to be protected in a country where there isprior registered trademark right for the same
name. This occurs because in certain situations, ageographical name is permitted to be registeredas a trademark. This happens when:relevant public was not geographic, it could be
registered.
(2) Names which were initially geographicalhave acquired secondary meaning. Marlboro™ isthe name of a leading cigarette brand by Phillip
Morris and also a US county.(*17) By heavy
advertising over time, when consumers hear orread Marlboro™, they think of the product(cigarettes) and not the place. Thus descriptive
names acquire secondary meaning and become
distinctive.(*18)(3) When the geographical significance may bearbitrary. This implies that no reasonableconsumer would think that the products were
produced in such a place. Thus Amazon.com™
may be registered for books as no reasonableconsumer would assume that the business islocated in the Amazon rainforests.
In all these situations, geographical words
can be registered as trademarks, by anyone who
files an application. So GIs may be registered as
trademarks by registrants from outside thegeographical region concerned. This is the reason
why the registered protection of GIs becomes apriority.

Ⅱ

Protection in Japan is provided through a
combination of existing laws. These satisfy
Japan’s existing obligations under international
agreements. However, they may not provide
adequate protection for Japanese GIs.
1(1) These names do not have a primarygeographical significance to the relevant public.
One of the early cases which reconfigured judicial
thinking was Magnolia’s Trade Mark application
for metal.(*16) ‘Magnolia’ was an obscuregeographical name, so the court determined that
if the primary significance of the mark to the

The Present Legal Frameworkfor Protecting GIs in Japan

International Standards of GI Protection

The principal pre-TRIPS international IP
agreements, to which Japan is a signatory, usually
had fairly low standards of protection for GIs.
Existing Japanese law satisfies most of theseobligations, which are based on preventing
consumers from being deceived, misled or(*14) Briefly explained at <http://www.wipo.int/about-ip/en/about_geographical_ind.html>(*15) See Comite Interprofessionel Du Vin De Champagne And Another v NL Burton Pty Ltd and Another 38 A.L.R. 664(FCA) [Australia]; Chateau-Gai Wines Ltd. v. Institut National des Appellations d'Origine des Vins et Eaux-De-Vie etal. (1974) 51 D.L.R. (3d) 120 (SC); Institut national des appellations d'origine des vins et eaux-de-vie v. Andres Wines
Ltd. (1990) 74 O.R. (2d) 203 (CA) [Canada]; J. Bollinger and Others v. Costa Brava Wine Co. Ltd. [1960] R.P.C. 16(Ch D) [U.K.]
These, along with references to other cases on Champagne are listed in Annex I of the full Report.
(*16) In Re Magnolia Metal Company's Trade-Marks [1897] 2 Ch 371 (CA)(*17) See the official county website at http://www.marlborocounty.sc.gov/(*18) See generally McCarthy on Trademarks and Unfair Competition, Fourth Edition Ch 15 for an overview of secondary
meaning.
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geographical region mentioned on the
product, such use is prohibited.

confused.
The Paris Convention for the Protection ofIndustrial Property of 1883(*19) is the first andmost general of the international IP agreements.
It prohibits the use of false indications of source,
primarily through border measures to prevent the
movement of goods which are falsely labeled. The
Madrid Agreement for the Repression of False or
Deceptive Indications of Source on Goods of1891(*20) while marginally extending the scope ofprotection, also provides for border measures andprevents the slide of certain wine-related
geographical indications into generic terms, bylegislative fiat. Finally, the Lisbon Agreement for
the Protection of Appellations of Origin and theirInternational Registration of 1958(*21) provides for
an international registration system and stronger‘absolute’ protection, but Japan is not a signatory
to it. The relevant standards today are in TRIPS,
which is regarded as the most significant
international instrument today for GI protection.

This is a higher standard of protection, which
would prevent the ‘Banshu-style Somen, Made in
Korea’ situation from occuring. While this is an
important new development in international GI
protection its scope is still limited to wines andspirits.(*22)
2Japanese Laws Regulating the Use of
Geographical Terms

For convenience of analysis, Japanese laws
may be divided into those which provide Negative
Protection i.e. prevent the registration or use of ageographical term by someone who is not entitledto its exclusive use; and Positive Protection
which provides registered protection for the
genuine producers of such products.

(1) All use of geographical terms which is
misleading or deceptive must be prohibited.

Negative protection means not allowing thegeographical term (e.g. Kobe beef) to beregistered or owned either by any one single
producer from that region, or producers fromoutside that region, who can then mislead
customers about the origin and quality of thegoods. The most significant laws which prevent
either of these situations from occurring
include:–(*23)

This is a very broad standard and the existing
consumer protection, unfair competition, labelling
and advertising regulation laws and trademark
laws of most countries already provide for thislevel of protection. Nothing new is required
because it is a relatively low level of protection
which essentially prevents consumers from being
misled, lied to or cheated.

(1) Act against Unjustifiable Premiums andMisleading Representations(*24)(2) The Unfair Competition Prevention Law(*25)(3) Notification No. 4 of the National Tax
Administration, for wine and spirit names(*26)(4) Trademark Law(*27) as it normally prevents
the registration of geographical marks(2) Geographical terms associated with wines
and spirit now receive greater protection,
which does not depend on consumer
confusion or deception. If the term isbeing used by producers from outside the

As it presently stands, Japan does notprovide ‘Positive’ or registered protection for
geographical labels and marks. The mostpromising possibility was the Collective Mark,
which is provided for in Section 7. However, in

So if one were to summarize Japan’sinternational obligations for GI protection, theywould be –(*19) The Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, 20 Mar 1883 as revised at Stockholm on 14 July
1967, 828 UNTS 305 (1972).(Hereinafter, the Paris Convention)(*20) Madrid Agreement for the Repression of False or Deceptive Indications of Source on Goods, Apr. 14, 1891, 828
UNTS 389 (hereinafter the Madrid Agreement).
(*21) Lisbon Agreement for the Protection of Appellations of Origin and their International Registration, Oct. 31, 1958,
923 UNTS 205 (hereinafter Lisbon Agreement).
(*22) Article 23 of TRIPS.
(*23) Each of these laws is explained in greater detail in the final project report, which is available with the IIP.
(*24) Law No. 134 of 15 May 1962, as amended.
(*25) Law No. 47 of 19 May 1993, as amended(*26) Notification (28/12/1994) under the Law Concerning Liquor Business Associations (Law No. 7 of 1953). The law isavailable at <http://www.wipo.int/clea/docs_new/pdf/en/jp/jp013en.pdf>(*27) Law No. 127 of April 13, 1959, as amended.

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Japan, even Collective Marks must satisfy therequirements of sections 3 and 4 of theTrademark Law and as we have seen above, theseprevent the registration of geographical marks.
This lack of registered protection in Japan led tothe introduction of new legislation for theprotection of such products – the Law on
Regionally Based Collective Marks, which is due
to come into effect on 1 April 2006.

Ⅲ

The New Law on Regionally
Based Collective Marks

1

An Overview

The new law is centered on a special type ofRegionally Based Collective Mark.(*28) As seen
above, a collective mark indicates commercial
origin of goods or services from members of agroup. Only members of the group who satisfy
the conditions for belonging to that group can use
the mark. An agricultural cooperative is an
example of such a collective organization and it
would hold the title for the benefit of all membersof the group, who can use it.
The Key Points of the new Law are that:(1) The mark can be applied for by a Collective
Association, which is recognized by law. Suchmarks must be applied to goods which come fromthat area or have a close connection with it.
(2) The mark should consist of both the place
and product name; e.g. Kobe Beef or Uonuma-san
Koshihikari Rice
(3) Since it consists of a geographical name, itwill have to show acquired distinctiveness.
(4) There are strict limitations on the transfer orassignment of such marks.
(5) Provision is made for a ‘fair use’ right forprior users from the area to continue using themark.
(6) If the requirements for registration are
violated, the marks registration may be opposed
or if it has been granted, then invalidated.
2

Possible Contentious Areas

One of the key differences between GIs andtraditional trademarks is the former often

requires the involvement of public or quasi-publicbodies. This is evident even in countries whichhave traditionally been opposed to strong GI
protection, such as the US and Australia withregard to their wine GI systems. Even in the US,
several Certification Marks have been filed which
are owned by Government bodies.(*29) This is dueto the public policy interests served by GI
protection and discussed in Section I.B above.
Therefore the new law would need to consider
the involvement of the local or regional
government, as a neutral party, in the following
situations. While the Japanese Patent Office (JPO)
will register such Collective marks, it is notwithin its present responsibilities to mediate suchdisputes.
(1) Setting the standards for the productGIs usually indicate that certain raw
materials have been used and a specific procedure
has been followed. Thus not any ham from theParma region of Italy can be called Proscuitto diParma; only ham that is air-dried and cured in acertain traditional way, for a certain number ofweeks can use this label. So what happens if there
are 100 producers from a region, who seek toregister a traditional product and 50 make it byprocess A.B.C., 40 make it by process A.B.D. and10 follow process A.B.E.F.? Which is the genuine
process? This can become quite political andcontroversial.
Also in many countries, there is governmental
assistance and support programs exist to
encourage producers to form collective
associations, frame common standards andregister such products. This is the case in Europe
and countries such as India and Thailand.
(2) Defining the geographical boundaries
Sometimes a town or region has veryclear-cut administrative boundaries, which may
easily be found on a map. However, in others
cases, the geographical name may not correspondexactly with a geographical area for e.g. ‘Shinshu’for Soba or ‘Shinshu’ for apples. Shinshu is ageographical area but does not have precise
administrative geographical boundaries today;closest match is Nagano prefecture today. So whowill fall within the region and who will be outside(*28) The author is grateful to the JPO for providing translations of the law. He also acknowledges the useful insights of
Ryo Maruyama on the rationale behind such a law.
(*29) For e.g. Pride of New York (Serial No. 76580496) filed in 2004 for agricultural products by the New York State
Department of Agriculture and Markets; A Taste of Iowa. Iowa Grown (Serial No. 76457464) filed in 2002 foragricultural products and foodstuffs by the Iowa Department of Economic Development; Wisconsin Cheese (Serial
No. 76536404) filed in 2003 for dairy products, namely cheese by the Wisconsin Milk Marketing Board Inc.
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it? By involving the local government right fromthe beginning, there is a greater chance that an
accurate and historically authentic boundary will
emerge through consensus.
(3) Objectively applying the collective mark,without discrimination
What happens if the collective mark ownerdoes not apply the mark objectively and fairly to
any producer who satisfies the specification
requirements? The answer appears to be that the
aggrieved party can seek the cancellation of theRegionally Based Collective Mark. This principle
was also established in a recent US decision withregard to the Certification Trademark for Idaho
Potatoes in 2003.(*30)
This does not mean that the government
must interfere in the mark or regulate the mark,but if it is involved in the process in a
co-operative manner and supportive, with a lighttouch, this will probably benefit all concerned.

Ⅳ

Problems with the International
Protection of GIs as Collective
Marks

There are significant advantages to protecting
such labels through the existing system oftrademarks. Adapting Collective Marks instead of
introducing a new and possibly cumbersome sui
generis European-style protection system has
obvious advantages. It also does not requiresetting up a separate formal governmental
registry to oversee such registrations.
Furthermore, protecting GI products as
Collective Marks within the trademark systemopens up the possibility of using the international
Madrid system, administered by WIPO, to fileinternational trademark registrations after
registration in Japan.
However, there is one critical danger withusing the trademark system. We have alreadyseen that geographical signs can be registered as
trademarks. Furthermore, the trademark system

operates along the lines of ‘First in Time, First in
Right’. What this means is that in case of aconflict between two marks which are similar or
the same, the one which has prior rights will
triumph.(*31) This leads to the inequitable result of
speed in registering a mark being the deciding
factor for ownership. Trademark registries willusually give the right to exclusive use of the markto the person who has filed first.
This study makes the alarming discovery
that the valuable brand of Kobe beef has recently
been applied for as a trademark, in various
depictions, in the US,(*32) in Australia(*33) and in
Canada,(*34) by non-Kobe producers. If theprinciple of ‘First in Time’ is followed here, thenthese applications would be able to prohibit
others, including authentic Kobe producers, fromselling their product under the Kobe name. Such asituation has occurred in the past, when Italianproducers of Parma ham were obstructed frominitially registering their marks in both the US(*35)
and Canada(*36) because of a prior registration for
Parma.
An inefficient option would be to commence
litigation for invalidation of all these marks inevery jurisdiction where a GI has been
misappropriated. However, this study concludes
on a more optimistic note. It traces the evolutionof recent jurisprudence where despite theprinciple of ‘First in Time’, subsequent GIs(whether protected under a sui generis system ofprotected under the trademark system) may bepermitted to coexist with prior trademarks. This
coexistence exists as almost every trademark law
allows a descriptive ‘fair use’ of certain terms on
a product label. For e.g. Section 26(1)(ii) of theJapan Trademark Law lays down the ‘Limits oftrademark right’ and states that the effects of a
trademark right shall not extend to “(ii)trademarks indicating, in a common way, thecommon name, origin… quality, raw materials…
or the method… of manufacturing… thedesignated goods”. A GI, such as a regionallybased collective mark, indicates both the origin of
the product as well as acts as a brand – it is both(*30) Idaho Potato Commission v. M&M Produce Farm & Sales 335 F 3d 130, 67 USPQ 2d 1348.
(*31) The International Trademark Association (INTA) has suggested that this should be the solution for Trademark v GI
conflicts. See INTA’s resolution: Protection of Geographical Indications and Trademarks (September 24, 1997) at:<http://www.inta.org/policy/res_geoindtms.html>(*32) Serial No.s 78510403; 78672855; 78500177; 78442533; 78242973; 74651767.
(*33) ‘Kobeef ’ TM No. 534191; ‘Kiwi Kobe Beef’ TM No. 642426(*34) ‘Kobeef ’ Registration No. TMA441166(*35) Consorzio del Prosciutto di Parma v Parma Sausage Products 23 USPQ 2d 1894 (1992 TTAB)(*36) Consorzio del Prosciutto di Parma v Maple Leaf Meats Inc [2001] 2 FC 536 (Federal Court of Canada, Trial Division)

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descriptive of origin and distinctive. This dual
function and therefore the possibility ofcoexistence has been accepted in the recent WTO
Panel Ruling on GIs,(*37) which means that such aninterpretation of the fair use exception under
Article 17 of TRIPS would be permissible, despite
the rights to exclusive use which trademark
owners are guaranteed under Article 16. So while
trademark law may not be the best mechanism ofsecuring exclusive rights to use a GI, at least it
cannot be used to prevent coexistence.

Conclusion
The focus of this study has been on theprotection of GIs within the trademark system. It
explains the framework of protection as well as
highlights some of the advantages anddisadvantages of this method of protection.
Where there are disadvantages, it has alsosuggested solutions. It is hoped that this practicalcontribution will encourage policy makers andJapanese producers of such products to actively
seek protection of their names in international
markets. What is at stake here is more than justmarket economics and increased profits, as suchproducts often reflect the heritage, tradition andculture of a place. GI protection has the potential
to improve the conditions farmers and rural
producers, who often do not see the benefits ofIntellectual Property protection in a globalized
world.

(*37) Report of the WTO Panel: European Communities – Protection of Trademarks and Geographical Indications(WT/DS174/R) 15 March 2005.

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