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A Comparison of the Korean and Japanese Approaches
to Foreign Family Names
JIN Guanglin*

Abstract
There are many foreign family names in Korean and Japanese genealogies.
This paper is especially focused on the fact that out of approximately 280
Korean family names, roughly half are of foreign origin, and that out of thoseforeign family names, the majority trace their beginnings to China. In Japan,
the Newly Edited Register of Family Names (新 撰 姓 氏 錄), published in 815,
records that out of 1,182 aristocratic clans in the capital and its surroundings,
326 clans—approximately one-third—originated from China and Korea. Does
the prevalence of foreign family names reflect migration from China to
Korea, and from China and Korea to Japan? Or is it perhaps a result of
Korean Sinophilia (慕華思想) and Japanese admiration for Korean and Chinese
cultures? Or could there be an entirely distinct explanation? First I discuss
premodern Korean and ancient Japanese foreign family names, and then I
examine the formation and characteristics of these family names. Next I
analyze how migration from China to Korea, as well as from China andKorea to Japan, occurred in their historical contexts. Through these studies, I
derive answers to the above-mentioned questions.
Key words: family names (surnames), Chinese-style family names,
cultural diffusion and adoption, migration,
Sinophilia in traditional Korea and Japan

1

Foreign Family Names in Premodern Korea

The precise number of Korean family names varies by record. The
Geography Annals of King Sejong (世宗實錄地理志, 1454), the first systematic
register of Korean family names, records 265 family names, but the Survey of
the Geography of Korea (東國輿地勝覽, 1486) records 277. In the 1930 census,
250 family names are recorded, while the South Korean census of 2000 docu-

	  * Professor, Niigata Sangyo University

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Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia Vol. 5 2014

ments 286 family names, along with 4,179 ancestral seats (pon’gwan, 本貫).1
The ancestral seat refers to the birthplace of the putative apical ancestor (始祖) or the founder (中 始 祖) of the family name. It can also refer to the area
considered to be the clan’s hometown. Even within a family of the same
name, a clan’s expansion and development can bring about a new ancestral
seat. In South Korea today, there are ten times more ancestral seats than thenumber of family names.
About half of Korea’s 280 or so family names originate from outside of
the Korean peninsula (according to a 1985 study, 136 out of 275 Koreanfamily names were categorized as foreign surnames), and among thosenames, the majority are from China.2
In the following sections, I will present how foreign family names arrived
in premodern Korea in each historical period.
1.1

Names of Foreign Families Descended from Kija
Four clans claim to be directly related to Kija (Jizi in Chinese, 箕子), andseveral other clans claim to be the descendants of those who followed Kija
from China. Kija is a mythical figure said to have been a Shang (商) aristocrat. He is recorded in such Chinese texts as the Great Commentary on theBook of Documents (尙書大傳), Records of the Grand Historian (史記), and the“Treatise on Geography” in the History of the Former Han Dynasty (漢書, 地理誌). While Kija’s kingdom was called Kija Chosŏn (箕子朝鮮) in premodern
Korea, nowadays it is considered to be more legendary than historic fact. The
following are the four clans that purport to be descended from Kija.
Ch’ŏngju-Han clan (淸州韓氏) The Ch’ŏngju-Han clan is said to originate
from Kija’s descendant Urang (友諒). The thirty-second descendant of Urang,
an early Koryŏ (高 麗, 918–1392) figure by the name of Han Ra (韓 蘭,
853–916), is the founder of the Ch’ŏngju-Han clan. According toCh’ŏngju-Han genealogical records, the last king of Kija Chosŏn, Jun (準),
had three sons by the name of Usŏng (友 誠), Upyŏng (友 平), and Urang (友諒). It is said that the Haengju-Ki clan (幸州奇氏), T’aewŏn-Sŏnwu clan (太原鮮于氏), and Ch’ŏngju-Han clan (淸州韓氏) originated from those three sons,respectively.
Haengju-Ki clan (幸 州 奇 氏)

In An Augmented Reference of Documents on

1 Yi Su-gŏn 2003, pp. 339–351. Ch’oe Tŏk-gyo and Yi Sŭng-u 1985, pp. 22–27.
“The Historical Development of Korean Family Names,” in Doopedia (http://
www.doopedia.co.kr/).
2 Kim Chŏn-ho 2003, pp. 136–140.

﻿A Comparison of the Korean and Japanese Approaches to Foreign Family Names 17

Korea (增 補 文 獻 備 考), the apical ancestor of the Haengju-Ki clan is said tohave been Ki Usŏng (箕友誠), the forty-eighth descendant of Kija. This record
states that when Wiman (衛 滿) of the state of Yan (燕 國) usurped the throneof Kija Chosŏn in 194 BCE, Ki Jun (箕準), its last king, fled south and became
the king of Han (韓). Ki U-sŏng is said to have descended from Ki Jun. The
founder of the Haengju-Ki clan was an early-twelfth-century Koryŏ dynasty
figure named Ki Munyu (奇文儒).
T’aewŏn-Sŏnwu clan (太 原 鮮 于 氏) In An Augmented Reference ofDocuments on Korea, a descendant of the king of Mahan (馬 韓) is recorded
to have given rise to the T’aewŏn-Sŏnwu clan. In the genealogical records of
the T’aewŏn-Sŏnwu clan, Sŏnwu Jŏng (鮮 于 靖), a man who lived during thereign of King Kojong (高宗, r. 1213–1259) of Koryŏ, is said to be the founder.
Ich’ŏn-Sŏ clan (利 川 徐 氏) In An Augmented Reference of Documents on
Korea, the Ich’ŏn-Sŏ clan is said to have descended from Kija, and its apicalancestor is said to have been Ki Jun (箕準), the last king of Kija Chosŏn. The
founder of the Ich’ŏn-Sŏ clan was Shin’il (神 逸) of Unified Silla (統 一 新 羅,
668–935). Among the many ancestral seats of the Sŏ clan, many were originally associated with the Ich’ŏn-Sŏ clan.
Besides these family names, the Hamyŏl-Namgung clan (咸 悅 南 宮 氏),
T’aean-Kyŏng clan (泰 安 景 氏), Ponghwa-Kŭm clan (奉 化 琴 氏), Miryang-No
clan (密陽魯氏), T’osan-Kung clan (兎山宮氏), and others are said to descendfrom followers of Kija. The founders of these five clans were all men of theKoryŏ dynasty.
1.2

Foreign Family Names from the Han Dynasty
Though not many Korean clans claim to have originated from the Handynasty (漢朝, 206 BCE–220 CE), the following are some examples:Kŭngsŏng-Na clan (錦 城 羅 氏) The clan’s apical ancestor is said to havecome to Korea during the reign of Emperor Gaozu (高 祖, r. 202–195 BCE) of
the Western Han dynasty (西 漢). The founder of the Kŭngsŏng-Na clan was
Na Ch’ongrye (羅總禮) of the early Koryŏ period.
Kosŏng-Lee clan (固城李氏) The Kosŏng-Lee clan is said to have descended
from Li Pan (李 槃), who came to Korea by way of the invasion of WimanChosŏn (衛 滿 朝 鮮) by Emperor Wu of the Han (漢 武 帝) in 108 BCE. The
founder was Li Huang (李 璜), who is said to be Li Pan’s twenty-fourthdescendant and who lived during the reign of King T’ŏkjong (德 宗, r. 1016–

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Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia Vol. 5 20141034) of the Koryŏ dynasty.
Huang clan (黃 氏) Huang Luo (黃 洛), who drifted into Silla (57 BCE–935
CE) while heading to Vietnam as an envoy of Emperor Guangwu (光 武 帝, r.
25–57) of the Han, is said to have been the apical ancestor of the Huang clan.
Several ancestral seats claim to descend from Huang Luo, but the founders of
those ancestral seats, with the exception of one who lived during the lateUnified Silla period, were all men of the Koryŏ dynasty.
1.3 F oreign Family Names in the Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla
Periods
There are many clans that claim to have come from China during theThree Kingdoms (三 國 時 代, 1st cent. BCE–7th cent.) and Unified Silla
periods. Of those, the majority are said to have come to Korea during theUnified Silla period. The following is a list of clans that came from China
during the Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla periods: the Andong-Chang
clan (安東張氏), Andong-Son clan (安東孫氏), Ap’hae-Chŏng clan (押海丁氏),
Changhŭng-Wi clan (長興魏氏), Chindo-Kim clan (珍島金氏), Chinju-Hyŏn clan
(晋 州 邢 氏), Ch’ogye-Pyŏn clan (草 溪 卞 氏), Chuksan-An clan (竹 山 安 氏),
Ch’ungju-Ch’oe clan (忠州崔氏), Haeju-O clan (海州吳氏), Haengju-Ŭn clan
(幸 州 殷 氏), Hamyang-Yŏ clan (咸 陽 呂 氏), Haep’yŏng-Kil clan (海 平 吉 氏),
Hyoryŏng-Sagong clan (孝令司空氏), Kwangju-No clan (光州盧氏), Musong-Yu
clan (茂松庾氏), Namyang-Hong clan (南陽洪氏), Namyang-Pang clan (南陽房氏), Namyang-Sŏ clan (南陽徐氏), Okchŏn-Ryuk clan (沃川陸氏), Onyang-Pangclan (溫 陽 方 氏), P’aju-Yŏm clan (坡 州 廉 氏), P’unggi-Chin clan (豊 基 秦 氏),
Pyŏnghae-Ku clan (平海具氏), Pyŏnt’aek-Im clan (平澤任氏), Sangju-Chu clan
(尙州周氏), Sinch’ŏn-Kang clan (信川康氏), Sinchang-Maeng clan (新昌孟氏),
Suwŏn-Paek clan (水原白氏), Ŭiryŏng-Nam clan (宜寧南氏), Ŭiryŏn-Ok clan
(宜 寧 玉 氏), Wŏnju-Wŏn clan (原 州 元 氏), Yŏnan-Lee clan (延 安 李 氏),Yŏngch’ŏn-Hwangbo clan (永川皇甫氏), Yŏngwŏl-Ŏm clan (寧越嚴氏), etc.
The putative apical ancestors of the clans above came to Silla for various
reasons. Some were scholars dispatched by the Tang dynasty (唐朝, 618–907)
to Koguryŏ (高 句 麗, 37? BCE–668 CE) and Silla, others were a part of theSilla-Tang Allied Forces (羅唐聯合軍) against Paekche (百濟, 18? BCE–660 CE)
and came to settle in Silla, and still others migrated to Silla to flee from theAn Lushan (安祿山之亂, 755–763) and Huangchao (黄巢之亂, 875–884) rebellions. Some fled to Silla during the chaos of the Five Dynasties and Ten
Kingdoms Period (五 代 十 國, 902–979), and some others drifted into Silla on
the way to Japan as envoys of the Tang dynasty. Over ten clans claim to havedescended from the Eight Scholars (八學士), who were dispatched to Silla andKoguryŏ from Tang.

﻿A Comparison of the Korean and Japanese Approaches to Foreign Family Names 19

Most of the founders of the clans mentioned above were men of the Koryŏ
period. Only a few date to the Silla period. Few clans have clear records thatdetail the relations between the putative apical ancestor and the founder.
Hence, even where the founder of a clan was a historical figure, it is often
difficult to demonstrate the connection between the clan founder and theputative apical ancestor. Here are a few examples of such clans:Yŏnan-Lee clan (延安李氏) Li Mao (李茂), who served as a Tang general in
the 660 attack on Paekche, is said to have settled in Silla afterwards. The
Yŏnan-Lee clan later divided into ten different branches, the founders ofwhich were all Koryŏ dynasty figures.
Kwangju-No clan (光州盧氏) Lu Sui (盧穗) came to Silla with his children
to flee the An Lushan Rebellion (安祿山之亂) in 755 and subsequently became
the putative apical ancestor of the Kwangju-No clan. The Kwangju-No later
divided into two branches, the founders of which were both Koryŏ dynasty
figures.
Suwŏn-Paek clan (水原白氏) The apical ancestor of the Suwŏn-Paek clan issaid to have been a Suzhou (蘇 州) man by the name of Yu Jing (宇 經), whocame to Silla in 780 and became an official. The Suwŏn-Paek consider thelate Unified Silla official Chang Jik (昌稷) as their founder.
Ŭiryŏng-Nam clan (宜寧南氏) In 786, during the reign of the Tang emperor
Xuanzong (玄宗), Jin Zhong (金忠) was dispatched to Japan as an envoy, andon route he encountered a typhoon and drifted to Silla. The Silla kingbestowed upon him the Nam family name. The founder of the Ŭiryŏng-Nam
clan was Nam Kunbo (南君甫), a Koryŏ dynasty figure.
Chuksan-An clan (竹山安氏) The Tang man Li Yuan (李瑗) came to Silla in807, and his three sons were bestowed the An family name by the Silla kingfor having pacified Japanese pirates (倭寇). They subsequently settled in Silla.
The Chuksan-An clan was divided into two branches, the founders of whichwere both Koryŏ dynasty figures.
Namyang-Hong clan (南陽洪氏) Hong Tianhe (洪天河) is said to have been
the apical ancestor of the Namyang-Hong. A Tang scholar who wasdispatched to Koguryŏ, he fled domestic turmoil in Koguryŏ and settled inSilla. The founder of the Namyang-Hong clan was Hong Ŭnyŏl (洪 殷 悅), a
meritorious subject who appears in the History of Koryŏ (高麗史).

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Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia Vol. 5 2014

Haengju-Ŭn clan (幸州殷氏) Yin Hongyue (殷洪悅), a scholar sent to Sillain 850, is said to have been the apical ancestor of this clan. The founder ofthe Haengju-Ŭn lived during the reign of King Kojong (高 宗, r. 1213–1259)
of the Koryŏ dynasty.
Okchŏn-Ryuk clan (沃川陸氏) The apical ancestor of the Okchŏn-Ryuk clan
is said to have been Lu Pu (陸普), a Tang man who arrived in Silla in 927 andsubsequently settled there. The founder of the Okchŏn-Ryuk clan was Ryuk
Indan (陸 仁 端), a Koryŏ man who lived during the reign of King Ch’ungyŏl
(忠烈王, r. 1274–1308).
1.4 Foreign Family Names in the Koryŏ Period
1.4.1 Family names from China
Several dozen clans originated from China during the Koryŏ dynasty: theCh’ungju-Ch’i clan (忠州池氏), Hamjong-Ŏ clan (咸從魚氏), Hamp’yŏng-Mo
clan (咸平牟氏), Hyŭnp’ung-Kwa clan (玄風郭氏), Kanghwa-Wi clan (江華韋氏), Kŏcang-Sin clan (居昌愼氏), Kŏcang-Yu clan (居昌劉氏), Kyŏnju-Sŏp clan,(慶州葉氏), Kwangchŏn-Tong clan (廣川董氏), Nŭngsŏng-Ku clan (綾城具氏),
Milyang Tang clan (密 陽 唐 氏), Posŏng- Sŏng clan (寶 城 宣 氏), Sangsan-Leeclan (商山李氏), Sinan-Chu clan (新安朱氏), Sinchang-P’yo clan (新昌表氏),
Suan-Kye (遂安桂氏), T’aean Lee clan (泰安李氏), Tanyang-U clan (丹陽禹氏),
TamYang-Kuk clan (潭陽鞠氏), Talsŏng-Ha clan (達城夏氏), Talsŏng-Pin clan
(達 城 賓 氏), Turŭng Tu clan (杜 陵 杜 氏), Yangsan-chin clan (梁 山 陳 氏),
Yŏhŭng-Min clan (驪興閔氏), Yŏnan-Myŏng clan (延安明氏), Yŏngsan-Sin clan
(靈山辛氏), Yŏyang-Chin clan (驪陽陳氏), etc.
While the putative apical ancestors of these clans are said to be from theSong (宋 朝, 960–1279), Yuan (元 朝, 1279–1368), and Ming dynasties (明 朝,
1368–1644), a good number of them were from the Song. Most of theseputative apical ancestors were scholars invited to Korea, Chinese envoys, orrefugees who fled the incursions of northern peoples. As there is considerable
detail about the relationships between these putative apical ancestors and theirdescendants, chances are good that these ancestors, unlike those of the
pre-Koryŏ foreign clans, did in fact originate in China.
The following examples give a better idea of the formation of these clans
in Korea.
Kŏcang-Sin clan (居昌愼氏) Shen Xiu (愼脩) is said to have been the apicalancestor of the Kŏcang-Sin clan. Shen was a Song dynasty resident ofKaifeng (開封) who came to Koryŏ during the reign of King Munjong (文宗,
r. 1046–1083). Because he was a learned man and adept in medical practice,Shen was appointed to an official post. Shen Xiu is recorded in the History of﻿A Comparison of the Korean and Japanese Approaches to Foreign Family Names 21Koryŏ.
Kŏcang-Yu clan (居 昌 劉 氏) The apical ancestor of the Kŏcang-Yu clan issaid to have been a Song scholar dispatched to Koryŏ during the reign ofKing Munjong.
Sinan-Chu clan (新安朱氏) The Sinan-Chu are said to have descended fromZhu Qian (朱潛), a great-grandson of Zhu Xi (朱熹). Zhu Qian settled in Korea
to flee the Mongol Invasions of 1224. He subsequently became the putative
apical ancestor of the Sinan-Chu.
Nŭngsŏng-Ku clan (綾城具氏) The apical ancestor of the Nŭngsŏng-Ku clan
is said to have been Ju Cunyu (具存裕), who, along with Zhu Qian (朱潛), fled
the Mongol Invasions of 1224 and settled in Koryŏ.
Kwangchŏn-Tong clan (廣川董氏) The apical ancestor of the KwangchŏnTong clan is said to have been Dong Chengxuan (董 承 宣), the forty-third
descendant of the Western Han scholar Dong Zhongshu (董仲舒). Dong cameto Koryŏ as an envoy from the Ming and settled there. The ancestral seat of
the Kwangchŏn-Tong clan is China’s Guangchuan (廣 川), Dong Zhongshu’s
birthplace.
1.4.2 Family names from those who followed Yuan princesses to Koryŏ
During the Yuan dynasty, princesses were often married off to Koryŏ
royalty. Between the reigns of King Ch’ungyŏl (忠 烈 王, r. 1236–1308) andKing Kongmin (恭愍王, r. 1351–1374), approximately eighteen clan ancestors
were said to have accompanied the princesses and settled in Koryŏ. The
following clans have such origins: the Anŭm-Sŏmun clan (安 陰 西 門 氏),
Ch’ŏngju-Yang clan (淸州楊氏), Chuksan-Ŭm clan (竹山陰氏), Hanam-Chŏng
clan (河南程氏), Wŏnju-Pyŏn clan (原州邊氏), Hoesan-Kam clan (檜山甘氏),
Kaesŏng-No clan (開城路氏), Kaesŏng-Pang clan (開城龐氏), Kŏje-Pan clan (巨濟 潘 氏), Kokpu-Kong clan (曲 阜 孔 氏), Kosan-Yan clan (谷 山 延 氏),
Kŭmsŏng-Pŏm clan ( 錦 城 范 氏), Munkŏng-Chŏn clan ( 聞 慶 錢 氏),
P’ungch’ŏn-Im clan (豊川任氏), Yŏnan-In clan (延安印氏), Sunch’ŏn-To clan
(順天陶氏), Tŏksu-Chang clan (德水張氏), and Yonggang-P’aeng clan (龍岡彭
氏).
1.4.3

Family names from other ethnic groups
There are instances of Uighurs, Vietnamese, and Jurchens settling in Korea
during the Koryŏ dynasty, but I will avoid going into too much detail here.

22

Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia Vol. 5 2014Yŏnan-In clan (延 安 印 氏), Tŏksu-Chang clan (德 水 張 氏) Those who
accompanied the Yuan princesses included non-Han Chinese people as well.
The putative apical ancestor of the Yŏnan-In was Inhu (印 候), a Mongol. He
accompanied a Yuan princess and arrived in Koryŏ in 1257. He subsequently
received a surname from the King of Koryŏ. The putative apical ancestor of
the Tŏksu-Chang was an Arab who also followed a Yuan princess to Koryŏ.
He received the name of Chang Sunyong (張舜龍) from the Koryŏ king, andhis arrival in Koryŏ is recorded in the History of Koryŏ.
Kyŏnju-Sŏl clan (慶州偰氏) Sŏl Son (偰遜), the putative apical ancestor of
the Kyŏnju-Sŏl clan, was a high-ranking Uighur official of the Yuan dynasty
who settled in Koryŏ during the Red Turban Rebellion (紅 巾 之 亂, 1351–
1366). As Sŏl Son had already interacted with King Kongmin (恭愍王) as an
official of the Yuan, he was appointed to an official post in Koryŏ andbestowed the family name of Sŏl. Sŏl is said to be a reference to the Selenga
River in his hometown.
Hwasan-Lee clan (花 山 李 氏) Lee Yongsang (李 龍 祥), the putative apicalancestor of the Hwasan-Lee, is said to have been a royal of the later Lydynasty (李朝) in Annam (安南). When the Ly dynasty fell to the Tran (陳朝),Lee in 1226 emigrated to Koryŏ by way of Song.
Chŏnhae-Lee clan (靑 海 李 氏) The putative apical ancestor of theChŏnhae-Lee was a Jurchen by the name of Li Chi’lan (李之蘭), who settled
in Koryŏ in 1351 and was bestowed Chŏnhae as his ancestral seat. Lee had
pacified Japanese pirates and aided in the establishment of the Chosŏn
dynasty (朝 鮮, 1392–1897), which led to his being recognized as a meritorious subject in Chosŏn.
In the historical records of Koryŏ and Chosŏn, many Jurchens andManchus are said to have immigrated to Korea and established family names.
However, in current Korean genealogies, Chŏnhae-Lee is the only clan thatclaims Jurchen ancestry. This is in great contrast to the many clans that claim
to have descended from China. Presumably, the geographical proximity of theJurchens and Manchus to Korea led many of them to immigrate. Yet most of
their descendants did not record their Jurchen or Manchu ancestries in their
genealogies.
1.5 Foreign Family Names in the Chosŏn Dynasty
1.5.1 Chinese family names in the first half of the Chosŏn dynasty
Comparatively few clan names came from China during the early half of﻿A Comparison of the Korean and Japanese Approaches to Foreign Family Names 23

the Chosŏn dynasty. They include those of the Kyŏnju-Ping clan (慶 州 氷 氏)
and the Chinju-Nang clan (晋州浪氏). It seems that not many people migrated
from China to Chosŏn during this period. The putative apical ancestor of theKyŏnju-Ping clan, Bing Rujing (氷 如 鏡), is said to have been a Ming envoy
who came and settled in Chosŏn in 1467.
1.5.2 C hinese family names that entered Chosŏn during Hideyoshi’s
invasions and at the fall of the Ming dynasty
Many Chinese came and settled in Chosŏn during Hideyoshi’s invasionsof Korea (壬 辰 倭 亂, 1592–1598), and also at the fall of the Ming dynasty(1644). The surnames that resulted from these movements include theChŏlgang-Chang clan ( 浙 江 張 氏), Chŏlgang-P’yŏn clan ( 浙 江 片 氏),
Chŏlgang-Si clan (浙 江 施 氏), Chŏlgang-Sŏ clan (浙 江 徐 氏), Chŏnju-Ho clan
(全 州 扈 氏), Haeju-Sŏk clan (海 州 石 氏), Hapch’ŏn-Ma clan (陜 川 麻 氏),Kangŭm-Tan clan (江陰段氏), Kanghwa-Man clan (江華萬氏), Kanghwa-Sa clan
(江華史氏), Kwangdong-Chin clan (廣東陳氏), P’arŭng-Ch’o clan (巴陵楚氏),
P’arŭng-Ho clan (巴陵胡氏), Soju-Ka clan (蘇州賈氏), Yŏngyang-Ch’ŏn clan
(潁 陽 千 氏), etc. There are two main reasons why these people came andsettled in Chosŏn. Some members of the Ming army that aided Chosŏn
during Hideyoshi’s invasions decided to remain in Korea, while others firstwent back to China, then returned to Chosŏn upon the fall of the Ming
dynasty. Many ordinary Chinese also immigrated to Chosŏn after the fall of
the Ming. Many of the ancestral seats of these clans are located in China. The
following are a few examples.
Chŏlgang-Si clan (浙 江 施 氏) The putative apical ancestor of theChŏlgang-Si clan was a Ming soldier by the name of Shi Wenyong. (施文用).
He came as a member of the Ming army to repel Hideyoshi’s invasion anddecided to remain in Chosŏn to recover from injuries sustained in battle.
Kwangdong-Chin clan (廣 東 陳 氏) The putative apical ancestor of theKwangdong-Chin clan was Chen Lin (陳 璘), a Ming general who fought torepel Hideyoshi’s invasions of Korea. When the Ming dynasty fell to the
Qing in 1644, Chen Lin’s grandson, Chen Yongsu (陳 泳 素) came and settled
in Chosŏn through his grandfather’s connections.
Soju-Ka clan (蘇 州 賈 氏) Jia Weiyue (賈 維 鑰), a Ming dynasty man from
Suzhou, is said to have been the apical ancestor of the Soju-Ka clan. Jia hadcome to Korea as a member of the Ming army to repel Hideyoshi’s invasionsof Korea and died in battle. When the Ming dynasty fell to the Qing in 1644,
his grandson Jia Chen (賈琛) is said to have fled to Chosŏn.

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Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia Vol. 5 2014P’arŭng-Cho clan (巴 陵 楚 氏) Chu Haichang, (楚 海 昌), the putative apicalancestor of the P’arŭng-Cho, was a Ming dynasty official who fled to Chosŏn
upon the fall of the Ming dynasty in 1664.
1.5.3 F amily names that arrived in Korea with the return of Chosŏn
prince hostages to the Qing
After the second Manchu invasion of 1636 (丙 子 胡 亂), several Chosŏn
princes were taken as hostages to Shenyang (瀋陽). When one of the princes,Ponglim Taegun (鳳 林 大 君), returned to Chosŏn, he brought with him nine
Chinese men guilty of resisting the Qing and plotting a Ming restoration.
Owing to their crimes, those men too were held captive in Shenyang. The
nine who accompanied Ponglim Taegun back to Chosŏn were Huang Gong(黃功), Wang Wenxiang (王文祥), Wang Yiwen (王以文), Wang Meicheng (王美承), Feng Sanshi (馮三仕), Pei Sansheng (裵三生), Zheng Xianjia (鄭先甲),Yang Fuji (楊 福 吉), and Liu Xishan (柳 溪 山). Of the nine clans that theyfounded, only the Imgu-P’ung clan (臨朐馮氏), Nangya-Ch’ŏn clan (瑯琊鄭氏),and Chenam-Wang clan (濟南王氏) remain in Korea today. The ancestral seatsof all three clans are their founders’ hometowns in China.
1.5.4

Japanese family names
Korea and Japan have a long history of intermigration. It is well known
that ancient people living on the Korean peninsula migrated to Japan, andnumerous Japanese migrated to Korea as well. It is thought that in ancient
times the Japanese often traveled to the southern part of the Korean peninsula, and that some are likely to have settled there. From medieval to earlymodern times, the southern part of the peninsula had three open trade zones
for the Japanese, and many Japanese resided in those areas. In the History ofKoryŏ, records for the years 999, 1012, and 1039 mention that several
Japanese chose to join Koryŏ. In the Annals of the Chosŏn Dynasty (朝鮮王朝
實 錄), similar records for 1425, 1426, and 1435 state that several Japanesechose to join Chosŏn and were bestowed family names by the king.
However, most family names of Japanese origin in Korea have been lost, with
only two remaining today:
Urok-Kim clan (友 鹿 金 氏) The putative apical ancestor of the Urok-Kim
clan was a Japanese man named Sayaka (沙也可), who was initially a memberof Hideyoshi’s invasions of Korea but chose to surrender to Chosŏn. He
distinguished himself in military service fighting the Manchus and was subsequently appointed to a high-ranking position. The Chosŏn king subsequently
bestowed on him a Korean-style family name.

﻿A Comparison of the Korean and Japanese Approaches to Foreign Family Names 25

Hambak-Kim clan (咸 朴 金 氏) The putative apical ancestor of the
Hambak-Kim clan is also a Japanese soldier who surrendered to Chosŏn
during Hideyoshi’s invasions. He too received a Korean-style family namefrom the king and was appointed as an official.
The origins of other foreign family names are unclear. What we do know
is that most of such names trace their roots to China.
1.6

 Comprehensive Study of Premodern Foreign Family Names inAKorea
So far I have examined foreign family names in premodern Korea. On
the basis of this examination, we can take the origins of Chosŏn-period
foreign family names as basically historical. The origins of several Koryŏperiod foreign family names can also be demonstrated as factual. However,the veracity of the origins of many foreign family names cannot be substantiated with any historical documentation other than the clan’s own genealogicalrecords. Moreover, clans of foreign origin founded before the Koryŏ period
do not possess genealogical records that clearly detail the relationshipbetween the putative apical ancestor and the founder. Hence, it is impossible
to confirm whether they accurately reflect the putative apical ancestor’s
migration to Korea.
In this section I will analyze the family names and genealogical records
of premodern Korea. I will also examine how people migrated to Korea in ahistorical context. Through these studies I hope to better understand andexplain the existence of so many foreign family names in Korea.
1.6.1

The formation and characteristics of premodern Korean family
names
Korean family names began with the introduction of Chinese culture andChinese characters, in particular. If we look at Silla steles from the sixth
century, for example, people are recorded without family names, but onlywith their given names and tribal or village affiliations. This demonstrates
that ancient Korean society referred to people by given names and notsurnames. As ancient Koreans came into contact with China, they began toadopt Chinese-style family names. Royalty and the central aristocracy of
Koguryŏ and Paekche adopted family names between the fourth and fifth
centuries, while in Silla, family names began to be used around the sixth
century.
Viewing the formation and dissemination of family names in Korea by
period, we can say that the use of Chinese-style family names among royalty
and the central aristocracy occurred in the latter half of the Three Kingdoms

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Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia Vol. 5 2014

and Unified Silla periods. During early Koryŏ times, the use of family names
spread among the rest of society’s ruling elite, and a system of clans andancestral seats was established. In 1055 a law allowing only those withfamily names to take the state examinations (科擧試驗) was promulgated, andthis greatly accelerated the use of family names among the elite. Ordinary
citizens (良 民) began adopting family names throughout the first half of theKoryŏ period. From the tenth century, some of the lowest class of people (賤民 層) could obtain family names after being freed from their low status. In
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the lowest caste of people without
surnames comprised half of the total population of Chosŏn.3 Most lowborn
people began to acquire family names in the late sixteenth century. With the
Kabo reforms (甲午更張) of 1894, family names were completely disseminatedin Korea, and the Law of Census Registration (民 籍 法) of 1909 legallyallowed anyone to obtain a family name and ancestral seat.
Now we will take a closer look at how, from the late Three Kingdoms to
the Unified Silla period, many family names began to form according tosurname usage among royalty, the central aristocracy, envoys sent to China,
and Koreans studying in China.
The royal family of Koguryŏ was the Ko clan (高 氏), Paekche royalty
belonged to the Puyŏ (扶餘氏) or Yŏ (餘氏) clans, Silla’s royals were membersof the Pak (朴 氏), Sok (昔 氏), and Kim (金 氏) clans, and the royal family of
Kaya (伽倻, 42–562) was the Kim clan (金氏). Most of these royal clans have
putative apical ancestors associated with myths. The Koguryŏ royal clan’s
putative apical ancestor, Chumong (朱 蒙), is said to have been born from an
egg produced from the union between the son of the heavenly god (天帝) andthe daughter of the river god. The Ko family name is said to come from thename Koguryŏ or from the fact that Chumong was born from an egg lit fromon high by sunlight. The Paekche royal clan’s putative apical ancestor, Onjo(溫 祚), is said to be a son of Chumong. He is said to have taken the namePuyŏ from the state of Puyŏ, the parent kingdom that gave birth to both
Paekche and Koguryŏ. The Silla royal clan’s putative apical ancestor,
Hyokkose (赫 居 世), was given the surname Pak because it was said that hewas born from an egg that looked like a gourd, which is called pak in
Korean. Both Alji (閼 智), another putative apical ancestor of Silla, and Suro
(首 露), the ancestor of Kaya, obtained the surname Kim because they weresaid to have been born from golden eggs. T’alhae (脫 解), the third putative
apical ancestor of Silla, was also born from an egg, then having been cast out
3 Yi Su-gŏn 2003, pp. 333–338. “Korean Family Names,” in Encyclopedia of
Korean Culture (Seongnam: Academy of Korean Studies, 1991), vol. 12, pp.
467–477.

﻿A Comparison of the Korean and Japanese Approaches to Foreign Family Names 27

to sea and discovered by a magpie. The character for his surname, Sok (昔),was said to have been derived from the character for magpie (鵲).
Owing to the influence of the Chinese system of surnames, royal families
began to form new family names by connecting them to the founding mythsof human births from eggs. Through this process, Silla and Kaya created theKim and Pak surnames, which are very rare, if not entirely unused, in China.
On Cheju island (濟州島), south of the peninsula, there existed the independent
kingdom of T’amna (耽 羅), whose three founders sprouted from the groundwith the surnames Ko (高), Ryang (良), and Pu (夫).
After royalty adopted Chinese-style family names, they began creating
new surnames by bestowing family names upon members of the aristocracy.
In Silla, the elites of the six tribes of Yangbu (梁 部), Saryangbu (沙 梁 部),
Chomryangbu (漸梁部), Ponpibu (本彼部), Hanjibu (漢祗部), and Sub’bibu (習比 部) were bestowed the surnames of Lee (李), Ch’oe (崔), Son (孫), Chong(鄭), Pae (裵), and Sol (薛). Silla is said to have used other family names, suchas Chang (張) and Yo (姚), as well. Most Korean family names originated in
Unified Silla. The Silla and Kaya royal clans Kim and Pak, together with theSilla aristocratic clans of Lee, Ch’oe, and Chong, later came to form the fivemain clans of Korea.
In Koguryŏ the elite used such family names as Ŭl (乙), Ye (禮), Song(松), Mok (穆), U (于), Chu (周), Ma (馬), Son (孫), Chang (倉), Tong (董), Ye(芮), Yŏn (淵), Myŏnglim (明 臨), and Ŭlji (乙 支), which coexisted withlegendary surnames such as Wi (位), Wu (羽), Nak (洛), Puchŏn (負鼎), Taesil(大 室). In Paekche the eight main families were the Chin (眞), Hae (解), Sa(沙), Yŏn (燕), Paek (白), Kuk (國), Mok (木), and Hyŏb (劦), while other elites
used such surnames as Wang (王), Chang (張), Sumi (首彌), Koi (古爾), Sama(司馬), and Hŭkchi (黑齒). After Koguryŏ and Paekche fell to Silla and Tangin the seventh century, their royal family names, as well as many aristocratic
surnames, ceased to be used. Hence, very few clans are considered descendants of Koguryŏ or Paekche.
Many new family names were formed when Wang Gŏn (王 建) founded
the Koryŏ dynasty in 918 and bestowed surnames upon local gentry who had
extensively contributed to the establishment of the dynasty (開 國 功 臣). For
example, Hongsul (弘述) was given the surname of Hong (洪), while Paeoksam(白玉衫), Samnŭngsan (三能山), and Poksakwi (卜沙貴) received the surnamesof Pae (裵), Sin (申), and Pok (卜), respectively. Until that time, these people
lacked surnames and were referred to only by their given names.
The following family names were received during Koryŏ period, and theirclans became powerful in government (starred clans are those that originatedwith a founder from China): the Andong-Chang clan (安 東 張 氏)*,Andong-Kŭn clan (安東權氏), Changhŭng-Im clan (長興任氏)*, Ch’ogye-Chŏng

28

Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia Vol. 5 2014clan (草溪鄭氏), Ch’ilwŏn-Yun clan (漆原尹氏), Chinju-Kang clan (晋州姜氏),
Chinju-Yu clan (晋州柳氏), Chŏndo-Kim clan (淸道金氏), Chŏnju-Ch’oe clan
(海 州 崔 氏), Ch’ŏnju-Han clan (淸 州 韓 氏)*, Ch’ŏngju-Kim clan (淸 州 金 氏),
Ch’ŏnju-Kyŏng clan (淸州慶氏)*, Ch’ŏngju-Kwak clan (淸州郭氏), ChuksanPak clan (竹山朴氏), Habch’ŏn-Lee clan (陜川李氏), Haeju-Choe clan (海州崔氏), Haengju-Ki clan (幸州奇氏)*, Haep’yŏng-Yun clan (海平尹氏), Hansan Lee
clan (韓山李氏), Hoengsŏng-Cho clan (橫城趙氏), Ich’ŏn-So clan (利川徐氏)*,
Iksan-Lee clan (益山李氏), Ilsŏn-Kim clan (一善金氏), Inch’ŏn Lee clan (仁川李 氏), Kohŭng-Yu clan (高 興 柳 氏), Kyŏngju-Choe clan (慶 州 崔 氏),
Kyŏngju-Kim clan (慶州金氏), Kyŏngju-Lee clan (慶州李氏), Kwangsan-Kim
clan (光山金氏), Munhwa-Yu clan (文化柳氏), Musong-Yu clan (茂松庾氏)*,Namp’yŏng-Mun clan (南 平 文 氏), Namyang-Hong clan (南 陽 洪 氏)*,Ŏnyang-Kim clan (彦 陽 金 氏), P’ap’yŏng-Yŭn clan (坡 平 尹 氏), P’yŏnggangCh’ae clan (平康蔡氏), P’yŏnsan-Yu clan (平山庾氏), P’yŏngyang-Cho clan (平壤 趙 氏), Puan-Kim clan (扶 安 金 氏), Pugye-Hong (缶 溪 洪 氏), Sinchŏn-Kangclan (新 川 康 氏)*, Sŏnju-Lee clan (星 州 李 氏), Sowŏn-Yŏm clan (瑞 原 廉 氏),
Sunchang-Sol clan (淳昌薛氏), Sunŭng An clan (順興安氏), Tanyang-U clan (丹陽禹氏)*, Tŏksu-Lee clan (德水李氏), Tongbok-O clan (同福吳氏), Tongju-Choeclan (東 州 崔 氏), Ubong-Choe clan (牛 峰 崔 氏), Wŏnju-Wŏn clan (原 州 元 氏),
Yangch’ŏn-Ho clan (陽川許氏), Yangsŏng-Lee clan (陽城李氏)*, Yŏhŭng-Min
clan (驪興閔氏)*, Yŏnchŏn Hwangbo clan (永川皇甫氏)*, Yŏyang-Song clan
(礪良宋氏), etc. Among these clans, some originated in the Silla period, whileothers were newly formed in the Koryŏ period. Most family names incontemporary Korea can be found in this list. One observation supported bythis list is that quite a few Koryŏ elite clans claim to originate from China.
Family names of Chinese origin were scarce during the Three Kingdoms andUnified Silla periods, but they suddenly increased in the Koryŏ period.
Analyzing the formation of Korean family names from the Three
Kingdoms to the Koryŏ period, we can arrive at the following conclusions.
Though ancient Korean society possessed only given names and no surnames,
relations with China and cultural influence from China prompted the adoptionof Chinese-style family names (漢 姓). During the process of adoption, thekings of Koguryŏ, Silla, and Kaya created new family names by connecting
the names to their state foundation myths. Paekche rulers took the name Puyŏ(扶餘), the name of their originators, as the royal clan name (王姓). Likewise,
Ko (高) and Kim (金), the royal family names of Koguryŏ, Silla, and Kaya,
despite having also been used in China, became completely different
surnames in Korea. Pak, another royal Silla clan, was a family name that did
not exist in China, and Paekche also formed family names unique to theirstate. The Ko (高), Pu (夫), and Ryang (良) clans of T’amna on Cheju Island
were also given an indigenous origin by way of a foundation myth. Thus, we﻿A Comparison of the Korean and Japanese Approaches to Foreign Family Names 29

can see that in this way ancient Korean kingdoms did not merely adopt
Chinese style family names, but rather adapted the family names to theirfoundation myths. Fantastic myths and tales concerning founders were not
restricted to royalty, but can be found among aristocratic clans as well. The
putative apical ancestor of the Namp’yŏn-Mun clan (南 平 文 氏) was a childborn in a stone crate in the Silla period. It is said that because of his intelligence, the king of Silla bestowed upon him the name Mun (文). The putative
apical ancestor of the Haŭm-Pong clan (河 陰 奉 氏) was also found in a stone
crate, by a lake during the Koryŏ period. It is said that the old woman who
discovered the child offered him to the king, whereupon the king created thename Pong (奉) for the child. The putative apical ancestor of theP’apyŏng-Yun (坡 平 尹 氏) was discovered in a jade box in a lake during theKoryŏ dynasty. The old woman who discovered the child gave it her own
family name of Yun.
Elites also independently adopted Chinese-style family names in uniqueways. In the case of Koguryŏ and Paekche elites, some adopted Chinese
surnames outright, while others took names of a more indigenous character.
For example, the family name of Hae (解) is taken from the Korean word forsun as a reference to the foundational myths of Koguryŏ and Paekche. Other
surnames, such as Ŭlji (乙 支) and Hŭkchi (黑 齒), were perhaps Koguryŏ or
Paekche given names or tribal names transformed into family names. The
founder (太祖) of Koryŏ, Wang Gŏn (王建), bestowed family names on meritorious subjects who helped found the dynasty. The family names he gave,such as Hong (洪), Pae (裵), and Pok (卜), corresponded to the first letters of
the subjects’ given names. Hence, Koreans did not simply take on Chinesestyle family names, but rather created new names by relating them to given
names, tribal names, and myths. Similar phenomena can be seen in the adoption of Chinese-style family names among the Mongols, Manchus, and othernorthern nomadic peoples. In the case of Silla, however, such independent
adaptation cannot be found. Instead, the Silla elites of the six tribes (部)adopted their family names—Lee (李), Ch’oe (崔), Son (孫), Chŏn (鄭), Pae(裵), and Sol (薛) —from powerful Tang dynasty clans.
In the early Koryŏ period, the use of family names spread to everyone in
the aristocratic class, and during the first half of the Koryŏ dynasty it eventually extended to regular citizens. In this process of adoption, many took on
Chinese-style family names and connected their putative apical ancestor to
China, despite no real historical connection. Though during the Three
Kingdoms and Unified Silla periods few related their putative apical ancestor
to China, this practice increased during the Koryŏ period. Chinese culture andinstitutions were imported in great quantities throughout the Three Kingdoms
and Unified Silla periods, and as Chinese characters, Confucianism, and30

Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia Vol. 5 2014

Chinese systems became well established, Korean upper-class people increasingly came to esteem and admire China. This mindset vis-à-vis China seems
to account for the sudden increase in family names of Chinese origin. As I
have shown earlier, some clans had an actual apical ancestor from China.
Many other clans, however, connected their putative apical ancestor to China
without reference to historical fact, simply because their family names wereidentical to those used in China. The respect for Chinese culture inpremodern Korea no doubt encouraged this practice.
As mentioned earlier in this discussion, some clans claim that their putative apical ancestors were descendants of Kija, or were connected to the Handynasty, or came over to Korea from China during the Three Kingdoms or
Unified Silla period. Most of these clans do not possess records linking theirputative apical ancestors to their actual founders, and historical clan founders
were by and large people of the Koryŏ dynasty. This shows that in the Koryŏ
period, when forming family names by adopting Chinese-style family names,
people began to link their putative apical ancestor to China. This phenomenon continued during the Chosŏn dynasty as well, because while the use offamily names was well established among Koryŏ elites, regular citizens andpeople of the lower class continued to adopt surnames up until the end of theChosŏn dynasty. Moreover, although genealogical records were first kept inKoryŏ, they became widespread only in the Chosŏn dynasty. It seems that in
the process of creating and disseminating genealogical records, many clans
began to formulate new stories of origins connecting them to their putative
apical ancestors. Even among ancient Korean ruling families that created new
family names from state formation myths, some clans show signs ofconnecting their putative apical ancestors to China. In the History of the Three
Kingdoms (三國史記), an entry during the reign of King Kwanggaet’o (廣開土王, r. 391–412) states that the Koguryŏ ruling family adopted the surname Ko(高) because they believed themselves to be descendants of Zhuanxu
Gaoyang (顓頊高陽氏), grandson of the mythical Huangdi (黃帝).4 In the biography of Kim Yusin (金 庾 信), a stone monument to him is said to haverecorded Kim as the descendant of Shaohao Jintian (少 昊 金 天 氏), the son of
Huangdi (黃 帝),5 despite the fact that Kim was known to be a Silla generalwith Kaya royal blood. Silla royal clans in general seem to have identified
themselves as the descendants of Shaohao Jintian. The Ko clan of Koguryŏ aswell was likely identified as descendants of heroic figures of Chinese myth,and similarly for the Kim royal clans of Kaya and Silla.
4 Kim Pu-sik 金富軾, 三國史記 (History of the Three Kingdoms), trans. by Kim
Sa-yŏp 金思燁 (Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 1997), p. 373.
5 Kim Chŏn-ho 2003, pp. 99–101.

﻿A Comparison of the Korean and Japanese Approaches to Foreign Family Names 31

Despite numerous family names of foreign origin in contemporary Koreansociety, the clans with the largest populations in Korea today tend to be
indigenous. In the 2000 census, the top ten most common family names were
Kim (金), Lee (李), Pak (朴), Ch’oe (崔), Chŏng (鄭), Kang (姜), Cho (趙), Yun(尹), Chang (張), and Im (林). The top ten most populous clans were theKimhae-Kim clan (金海金氏), Milyang-Pak clan (密陽朴氏), Chŏnju-Lee clan
(全 州 李 氏), Kyŏngju-Kim clan (慶 州 金 氏), Kyŏngju-Lee clan (慶 州 李 氏),Kyŏngju-Ch’oe clan (慶州崔氏), Chinju-Kang clan (晋州姜氏), Kwangsan-Kim
clan (光山金氏), P’apŏng-Yun clan (坡平尹氏), and Ch’ŏngju-Han clan (淸州韓氏).6 Of these surnames and clans, those that have putative apical ancestors
from China are the Cho, Chang, Im, and Ch’ŏngju-Han, and they are far
outnumbered by clans with indigenous origins. In fact, foreign family names
founded by those who immigrated between the late Koryŏ and Chosŏn
periods are quite rare, and their numbers few. Moreover, while populous
surnames of foreign origin such as Cho, Chang, Im, and the Ch’ŏngju-Han
claim ancestry from China, verifying this is nearly impossible. Thus, whilefamily names of foreign origin are numerous and make up almost half of all
family names in Korea, their populations are comparatively small.
1.6.2

 istorical context of premodern family names of foreign origin in
H
Korea
This section will analyze the use of foreign family names from theperspective of historical population migrations to the Korean peninsula inpremodern times.
The first migration to the Korean peninsula in the historical records isthat of Kija’s easterly migration (箕子東來說). However, the historicity of Kija
is unclear, as is that of the ancient state called Kija Chosŏn (箕 子 朝 鮮). An
archaeological find has shown that people who used the surname of Ji (箕)lived in northern China during the Shang and Zhou dynasties, and so there isa chance that these people migrated to Manchuria or the northern part of the
Korean peninsula during the transition from Shang to Zhou. While there areseveral Korean clans that claim to be descended from Kija, the founders ofthese clans were all Koryŏ-period figures whose exact relations with theirputative apical ancestor are not recorded. Hence, there is a chance that theseclaims were fabricated in later generations. There is also a chance that theseclans are somehow related to the myth of the last king of Kija Chosŏn, who
fled from the Yan (燕 國) general Wiman (衛 滿) to the southern half of the
Korean peninsula and ruled over the Han (韓) people. And since Wiman is
6 “The Historical Development of Korean Family Names,” in Doopedia (http://
www.doopedia.co.kr/).

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Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia Vol. 5 2014

known to have actually existed, the last king of Chosŏn, Ki Jun (奇 準), may
have existed as well. It is therefore possible that the clans claiming to havedescended from Kija had ancestors among Ki Jun’s group, which establishedanother polity in the southern half of the peninsula.
According to Chinese records, during the Qin dynasty’s unification ofChina and again during the transition from Qin to Han, many people living in
China’s northern regions fled by the tens of thousands to Manchuria and the
Korean peninsula to avoid turmoil. This was probably the beginning of population migration from China to Korea. It was during this movement that
Wiman Chosŏn (194–108 BCE), a state dominated by Chinese immigrants,
was established, followed by the establishment of the four Han commanderies(漢 四 郡) in 107/8 BCE. It is easy to imagine that many people moved from
China to Korea during the rule of the commanderies. Still, from an examination of the origins of Korean family names, we see that there are surnames
relating to Kija, but none that relate directly to Wiman, and very few that areconnected to the Han commanderies.
The next recorded period of mass migration out of China was during the
Chinese Three Kingdoms, the Western and Eastern Jin dynasties, and theNorthern and Southern Dynasties periods. For example, the History of theThree Kingdoms (三國史記) states that in 217, Xiayao (夏瑤), of Pingzhou (平州), brought with him over a thousand households and submitted toKoguryŏ.7 The owner of Anak (安 岳) Tomb No. 3 was Tong Su (董 壽), an
official from Early Yan (前燕) who emigrated to Koguryŏ in 336. We can see,from the many tombs and grave goods left by people, that even after the fallof the Han commanderies, many Chinese people continued to live on oldcommandery lands. However, almost no Korean family names from thisperiod have Chinese putative apical ancestors.
It can be said that from the end of the Chinese Warring States period to
the Northern and Southern Dynasties, many Chinese moved to Manchuria andthe Korean peninsula, blended among the indigenous people, and over time
forgot about their Chinese origins. The Chinese came to the Korean peninsula
when Koreans were not using family names. The arrival of Chinese migrants
must have stimulated the adoption of Chinese-style family names among
Koreans at the time.
Many Chinese also likely migrated as Chinese Buddhism, Confucianism,
Daoism, laws, and governing systems were introduced to Korea during the
Chinese Western and Eastern Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties, and Sui
and Tang periods. Among Korean foreign family names, there are approxi7 Kim Pu-sik 金富軾, 三國史記 (History of the Three Kingdoms), trans. by Kim
Sa-yŏp 金思燁 (Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 1997), p. 338.

﻿A Comparison of the Korean and Japanese Approaches to Foreign Family Names 33

mately ten clans whose putative apical ancestors are said to have been
Chinese scholars who arrived in Koguryŏ or Silla as members of the Eight
Scholars Group. While such claims may seem fabricated, it was nonethelesstrue that many scholars came to the Korean peninsula during this time
period.
Large-scale migratory movements of people from China to the Korean
peninsula almost ceased in the Unified Silla period. However, many people
did come to Korea during the Koryŏ dynasty to escape the chaos of theChinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period and the incursion ofnorthern nomadic tribes in the Song. Several clans of foreign origin in Korea
have putative apical ancestors who are said to have fled to Koryŏ to avoid
political turmoil and nomadic raids.
In the late Koryŏ period, many people from China settled in Korea when
five Koryŏ kings wed Yuan princesses. The History of Koryŏ records thatduring the transition period between Yuan and Ming, many northern Chinese
fled to the peninsula. Similar records can be found among clans of foreign
origin in Korea.
In addition, many Ming dynasty soldiers who came to aid Chosŏn during
Hideyoshi’s invasions settled in Korea. Afterwards, during the transition from
Ming to Qing, many scholars who refused to be ruled by the Qing, as well assome descendants of Ming soldiers who had been in Korea to combat
Hideyoshi’s invasions, came to settle in Ming-friendly Chosŏn. Quite a few
clans of foreign origin have putative apical ancestors that arrived in Korea inthis time period.
As we can see, migratory movements from China to Korea continued overlong periods of time, and many of those movements were reflected in theformation of foreign family names in Korea.
As the geography of the Korean peninsula suggests, it is not farfetchedto say that many Manchus, Khitans, and Japanese as well must have settled
in Korea. However, among Korean clans of foreign origin, those that originated from China form the majority, and only very few claim to havedescended from Japanese or Manchus. This is because Koreans adopted
Chinese-style family names owing to their high regard for Chinese culture.
The paucity of non-Chinese foreign family names may be due to the fact that
Koreans tended to look down upon the cultures of the Manchus, Khitans, andJapanese.

2

2.1

Foreign Family Names in Ancient Japan

Ancient Japanese Immigrants in Historical Context
Unlike foreign family names in premodern Korea, the system in ancientJapan was relatively complicated. Therefore, to understand the foreign family

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names of ancient Japan, we must first examine the history of immigration to
Japan.
Immigration to the Japanese archipelago occurred most frequently
between the Yayoi (弥生時代) to Asuka (飛鳥時代) periods, from the third (orfifth) century BCE to the seventh century. The physical anthropologist
Haniwara Kazurô once made headlines by arguing that over a period of athousand years, approximately one million people immigrated to the Japanesearchipelago.8 Foreign immigration into Japan can be divided into thefollowing four phases:
2.1.1 From the third century BCE to the third century CE
During the third (or fifth) century BCE to the third century CE, Japan experienced a large cultural change in the Yayoi period. Rice farming, which cameto Japan by way of China and the Korean peninsula, and the dissemination ofbronze and iron production, weaving techniques, and iron farming implements allowed the hunter-gatherers of the Jōmon period (縄文時代) to transition into an agricultural society.
The Japanese archipelago during the Yayoi period is thought to haveexperienced a large shift in ethnic makeup as well. Anthropological theories
based on physical traits of Japanese skulls and mitochondrial DNA assert thatnew groups of people from China and Korea settled in the Japanese archipelago, and that the indigenous Jōmon people and foreign Yayoi people
combined to create the Japanese people. Japan’s Yayoi period coincided with
China’s Warring States period, Qin dynasty, Han dynasty, and Three
Kingdoms period. Historical records show that many Chinese fled the chaosof the Chinese mainland to the Korean peninsula. With the formation of thefour Han commanderies in the first century BCE, many Chinese settled in
Korea. It is not difficult to imagine that a portion of the same movements ofChinese emigrants would have moved to the Japanese archipelago during the
Yayoi period.
As is well known in China and Japan, Xu Fu (徐福) set out to the east in
search of an elixir for immortality for Qin Shihuang (秦始皇). During the sametime period, the Chronicles of Japan (日 本 書 紀) and the Record of Ancient
Matters (古事記), two of the oldest Japanese histories, record the myth of theSilla prince Amenohiboko (天 日 槍) and the Kaya prince Tsunugaarashito (都怒我阿羅斯等) coming to Japan during the reign of Emperor Suinin (垂仁天皇,
allegedly r. 29 BCE–70 CE). Shrines and geographic names relating to
8 Haniwara Kazurô 埴原和郎, “Nihonjin no keisei” 日本人の形成 (The Formationof the Japanese People), in Nihon tsūshi 日 本 通 史, ed. by Asao Naohiro 朝 尾直弘 et al. (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1993), vol. 1, p. 96.

﻿A Comparison of the Korean and Japanese Approaches to Foreign Family Names 35

Amenohiboko and Tsunugaarashito are spread throughout western Japan.
While we cannot take the myths of Xu Fu, Amenohiboko, andTsunugaarashito at face value, the stories suggest that people from China andthe Korean peninsula were settling in the Japanese archipelago during the
Yayoi period.
2.1.2 From the fourth to fifth centuries
During this time, the kingdoms of Koguryŏ, Paekche, Silla, and Kaya
were established in the Korean peninsula. With the southern campaigns of
Koguryŏ on the way, it is possible that many Silla, Paekche, and Kaya people
fled to Japan. And in fact, the settlement of the Hata clan (秦 氏) of Silla andthe Aya clan (漢氏) of Kaya and Paekche is recorded in Japanese histories.
Records of the Hata clan (秦 氏) appear in the Chronicles of Japan andthe Record of Ancient Matters. There it is said that during the reign ofEmperor Ōjin (応 神 天 皇, allegedly r. 270–310), the head of the Hata clan,
Yuzukinokimi (弓月君) led a group of people from 120 villages and migrated
from southern Korea to Japan. The leaders of this group claimed to be thedescendants of the Qin royal family, so they came to be called the Hata (秦)in Japan. They seem to have been Chinese who had resided in the Hancommanderies or descendants of Chinese settlers in Korea from an earlier
period, not indigenous people of the Korean peninsula. They may have been
Chinese residents who were pushed out of Korea with the formation ofindigenous kingdoms such as Koguryŏ, Paekche, Silla, and Kaya. While they
were originally Chinese, they were likely very Koreanized, having lived on
the peninsula for a long period of time. It also seems that many indigenous
Koreans were among these groups as well. Thus, the Hata were likely aregional group made up of both Chinese and indigenous Koreans, not exactly
a blood-related clan. They first settled in Kyushu and eventually spreadthroughout western Japan, centered around Kyoto. They were involved incopper and tin mining, sericulture, textile production, and in government theylooked after storehouses, worked as scribes, and managed finances. Their
woodworking expertise was used in ancient Japanese construction of capitalbuildings. They were also involved in the establishment and management ofimportant shrines and temples.
The settlement of the Aya clan (漢 氏) also appears in the Chronicles ofJapan and the Record of Ancient Matters. Like the Hata, the head of the Ayaclan, Achinoomi (阿知使主), is said to have led a group of people from seventeen villages in Paekche and to have gone over to Japan during the reign ofEmperor Ōjin. This group came to be called the Aya clan (漢 氏) in Japan.
They arrived in Japan from the southern part of the Korean peninsula, and it
is highly possible that they were Chinese residents of the Daifang

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Commandery (帶 方 郡). The leaders of the Aya claimed to be descendants of
the royal family of the Han dynasty. Like the Hata, the Aya, it seems, were
Chinese living in the commanderies who were subsequently pushed out withthe rise of Koguryŏ, Paekche, Silla, and other indigenous kingdoms. As they
had been residing in Korea for a long time, they were likely a regional groupwith both Chinese and Korean elements mixed in. The pronunciation of Aya(漢) is thought to have derived from Anra (安羅), a polity in the Kaya confederacy in the southern part of the Korean peninsula. The Aya clan mainly
settled in the area of Nara and were involved in the iron industry, performed
scribal and diplomatic duties, managed storehouses and finances, ran farms
belonging to the royal family, and also served as guards in the palace.
Other groups that settled in Japan from Paekche from the fourth to fifth
centuries include the Kawachinofumi clan (西文氏). This group mainly settled
in the Osaka area, and its putative apical ancestor, Wani (王仁), is believed tohave brought Confucian works and Chinese characters to Japan.
2.1.3

From the late fifth to sixth centuries
Many skilled workers in the Korean peninsula moved to Japan in the late
fifth century. People of the textile industry, along with potters, artists, blacksmiths, tailors, and horsemen settled in the Nara and Osaka regions ofwestern Japan. These people, who claimed to be the descendants of Han
dynasty royalty, came mainly from the kingdom of Paekche. They were called
Imakinoayato (今來漢人), to distinguish them from the Aya clan that had alsocome from Paekche, earlier in the fourth to fifth centuries. The ancientJapanese court sent many of the Imakinoayato as diplomats to the Sui andTang dynasties.
In the sixth century, as Buddhism, Confucianism, and medical knowledge
arrived by way of Paekche, many scholars migrated to Japan. Towards thelatter half of the sixth century, as Koguryŏ and Japan began having relations,many Koguryŏ monks came over to Japan and constructed temples. A groupof Silla immigrants resided in the region of Osaka presently known as Kishi(吉 士). These people are said to have been involved in sea trade, pottery
production, and diplomatic work.

2.1.4 The latter half of the seventh century
Many refugees from Paekche and Koguryŏ fled to Japan when both kingdoms fell to the combined forces of Silla and Tang in the latter half of theseventh century. The Japanese court bestowed the family names of
Kudaranokokishi (百 濟 王) and Komanokokishi (高 麗 王) to royalty. Several
royal family members and aristocrats became officials of the Japanese court,
and many were sent to settle the then-frontier areas of eastern Japan. For this﻿A Comparison of the Korean and Japanese Approaches to Foreign Family Names 37

purpose, Koma district (高麗郡), a Koguryŏ settlement, and Shiragi district (新羅 郡), a Silla settlement, were established in the present-day prefecture of
Saitama in 716 and 758, respectively.
2.2

Foreign Clans in the Newly Edited Register of Family Names
Here I will analyze and discuss ancient Japanese foreign family names
recorded in the Newly Edited Register of Family Names (新撰姓氏錄) of 815.
I would first like to discuss the classification of the 1,182 clans of the capitaland its surrounding areas found in the Register. In this document, elites are
divided into descendants of the imperial line (皇 別), descendants of the gods(神別), and descendants of foreigners (諸藩). Members of the Japanese imperial family after the reign of Emperor Jimmu (神武天皇, allegedly r. 660–585
BCE) are considered to be descendants of the imperial line. There are a totalof 335 clans in this category. There are 404 clans classified as descendants ofthe gods—clans formed prior to Emperor Jimmu. This category included
those whose ancestors were gods indigenous to the area (土 着 神) and those
whose ancestors were connected to gods descended from Heaven (天孫) priorto Emperor Jimmu. There are 326 groups originally from China or Korea
recorded as descendants of foreigners. In addition, there are 117 clans in theRegister not belonging to any of the three categories owing to unclear
origins. The Register records that out of 1,182 family names in the capital andits surroundings, 326 names, approximately one-third, originated from China
and Korea. This shows how many elites in the capital area came over from
China and Korea and hints at the possibility of large-scale migratory movements from the Chinese mainland and Korean peninsula to the Japanesearchipelago.
In the next two sections, I will examine the clans that originated in China
and Korea and that are recorded in the Register.
2.2.1

Clans of Chinese descent
Out of 326 clans descending from foreigners and found in the Newly
Edited Register of Family Names, 163 clans are said to originate from China.
They include the earlier-mentioned Hata and Aya clans, those who came from
Tang and their descendants, as well as other groups that claim to havedescended from the royalty or aristocracy of various Chinese dynasties.
While these groups claim to be descendants of Chinese royalty, the vast
majority of them came to Japan via Korea, and it is likely that many were infact indigenous Koreans.
A common characteristic of these groups is that many adopted the namesof Chinese dynasties as their family names. These clans also claimed to havedescended from the dynasties that served as their surnames. Others chose to38

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adopt regular Chinese family names. Most clans, however, chose to adopt
Japanese-style family names much like those used by Japanese aristocrats atthe time. These Japanese-style names seem to be closely connected togeographic regions in which these groups resided. Also, in accordance with
the naming system of ancient Japan, each family name was followed by akabane (姓), or hereditary title used to denote rank and political standing.
Such kabane included Kimi (公), Asomi (朝 臣), Omi (使 主), Suguri (村 主),
Muraji (連), Miyatsuko (造), Obito (首), Imiki (忌 寸), Sukune (宿 禰), Fubito(史), Kusushi (藥師), and Eshi (画師).
Clans of Chinese descent recorded in the Register are the following: Hata(秦), Hatahito (秦 人), Uzumasa (泰 秦), Hatago (秦 子), Ayahito (漢 人), Fumi(文), Yako (楊 胡), Yako (楊 侯), Kura (内 蔵), Hirata (平 田), Sakanoue (坂 上),Ôtomo (大 友), Sakurano (樱 野), Kuwabara (桑 原), Tsukushi (筑 紫), Takaoka(高 岡), Nagaokaimiki (長 岡), Kochi (己 智), Nakamura (中 村), Ôishi (大 石),
Nishikiori (錦織), Hinokuma (檜前), Matsuno (松野), Tanabe (田邊), Ôyama (大山), Takamuku (高向), and Hafuribe (祝部). The list also includes groups whocame to Japan from Tang and whose family names changed: Li (李) →Kiyomune (清 宗), Shen (沈) → Kiyomi (清 海), An (晏) and Xu (徐) →Sakaeyama (榮 山), Zhang (張) and Meng (孟) → Suse (嵩 山), Lu (盧) →Kiyokawa (清川), Ma (馬) → Niioki (新長). This shows that by the early ninth
century, when the Register was published, foreign groups that immigrated toJapan were changing their family names into Japanese-style surnames.
2.2.2

Clans of Paekche descent
There are 104 clans of Paekche descent recorded as descendants offoreigners in the Newly Edited Register of Family Names. Here are just someof the 104 family names: Kudara (百済), Yamato (和), Tsuki (調), Hayashi (林),Kaguyama (香山), Hirota (廣田), Asukabe (飛鳥部), Sugano (菅野), Kazurai (葛井), Miyahara (宮原), Tsu (津), Funa (船), Takano (高野), Sakata (坂田), Fuha(不破), Ka (賈), Kinunui (衣縫), etc. These family names were written alongside the kabane, in accordance with ancient Japanese custom. Some of thekabane of Paekche-descended clans include Kokishi (王), Kimi (公), Asomi(朝 臣), Omi (使 主), Suguri (村 主), Muraji (連), Miyatsuko (造), Obito (首),Sukune (宿禰), and Fubito (史). In the case of clans of Paekche origin, a few
clans of royal blood adopted the name of their state, Paekche, as their familyname. Most, however, adopted regular Japanese-style surnames instead.
2.2.3 Clans of Koguryŏ descent
There are 41 clans of Koguryŏ origin listed as descendants of foreigners
in the Newly Edited Register of Family Names. A few of those 41 familynames include Koma (高麗), Koma (狛), Ôkoma (大狛), Kô (高), Ô (王), Sena﻿A Comparison of the Korean and Japanese Approaches to Foreign Family Names 39(背奈), Toyohara (豊原), Takata (高田), Kifumi (黄文), Kuwabara (桑原), Yasaka(八 坂), Torii (鳥 井), etc. The kabane found alongside these family names
include Kokishi (王), Kimi (公), Asomi (朝 臣), Omi (使 主), Suguri (村 主),
Muraji (連), Miyatsuko (造), Obito (首), Sukune (宿 禰), and Fubito (史).
Members of the royal family adopted their country name as a surname, whileother clans used the same family names they had in Koguryŏ. Most clans,
however, adopted regular Japanese-style family names.
2.2.4

Clans of Silla descent
Out of the 326 clans listed as descending from foreigners in the Newly
Edited Register of Family Names, 8 clans are classified as descendants of Sillapeople. They are the Tachibanamori (橘 守), Miyake (三 宅), Toyohara (豊 原),
Unabara (海原), Maki (真城), Itoi (糸井), Fushimaru (伏丸), and Hine (日根).
In accordance with Japanese custom, these family names are followed bykabane such as Muraji (連), Miyatsuko (造), and Fubito (史). There is a hierarchy among kabane, and clans originally from Silla, it is interesting to note,
did not possess high-level kabane. None of the clans from Silla adopted theircountry name as their family name. This seems to be because no member of
the Silla royal family had settled in Japan at that time. All clans from Silla
adopted Japanese-style family names. Among them are four clans that claim
to be descendants from Amenohiboko (天日槍), the mythical Silla prince said
to have come to Japan.
2.2.5 Clans of Kaya descent
Out of the 326 clans descending from foreigners and listed in the Newly
Edited Register of Family Names, 9 clans are classified as Kaya descendants.
They are the Michita (道 田), Ōchi (大 市), Shimizu (清 水), Tatara (多 多 良),Hirata (辟田), Ōtomo (大伴), Toyotsu (豊津), Karabito (韓人), and Arara (荒荒).
Following Japanese custom, these family names are followed by kabane suchas Kimi (公), Muraji (連), Miyatsuko (造), and Obito (首). All the clans from
Kaya adopted Japanese-style family names. Among them, 3 are said to bedescendants of Tsunugaarashito (都 怒 我 阿 羅 斯 等), the mythical Kaya princethat came to Japan.
2.3

Foreign Family Names in Ancient Japanese Naming Systems
In ancient Japan, uji (氏) referred to blood-related groups, whereas kabane(姓) was a hereditary title indicating the status of one’s family or the occupation of a powerful clan. In ancient China, xing (姓) referred to blood-relatedgroups, and shi (氏) indicated a hereditary occupation—the opposite of Japan.
Around the fifth century the ancient Japanese state was in the early stagesof development, and it was while the Yamato court was establishing its rule

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over Japan that family names became established and systematized. The court
bestowed uji and kabane on elites in the capital and powerful families elsewhere in the country according to their contribution to the Yamato regime,
and these subsequently became hereditary. Most of these uji and kabane seemto have originated from geographic and occupational names. During the
expansionary period of the late seventh century, there were eight kabane
enacted into law—Mahito (真人), Asomi (朝臣), Sukune (宿禰), Imiki (忌寸),Michishi (道 師), Omi (臣), Muraji (連), and Inagi (稲 置) —and a system of
surnames became firmly established. Even commoners (良 民) came to haveuji.
As the older uji-kabane system collapsed in the mid-Heian period, kabane
became increasingly uncommon. Myōji (名 子, 苗 子), an appellation representing specific families, began to be used, and was fully adopted by theruling class by the early medieval period. After the Meiji Restoration brought
an end to feudalism in 1868, anyone in Japan could use a myōji. Myōji can beseen as a more progressive successor to uji.
If we compare the formation of family names in Japan with that of Korea,
the most significant characteristic is that Japan did not adopt Chinese-stylefamily names despite using Chinese characters. This difference influenced
how family names developed in each country. In Korea, the use of Chinesestyle surnames encouraged people to locate their putative apical ancestors in
China, and in this process, many clans came to claim Chinese ancestry.
Hence, we cannot view the putative apical ancestors of Korean clans offoreign origin as accurate reflections of population movements from China to
Korea. In Japan, however, people did not adopt Chinese-style family names,and so families did not tend to link putative apical ancestors to China for themost part.
The Newly Edited Register of Family Names, published during the expansion of the uji-kabane system, records several characteristics of Japanesefamily names. A third of the 1,182 clans in the Register originated fromoutside Japan. Some of these groups adopted their country names as familynames, while others took Chinese-style surnames, but the vast majority ofclans of foreign origin used regular Japanese-style family names. This
demonstrates that by the early ninth century, the Japanese system of surnames
had developed into an institution different from that of the Chinese. The
Register also classified its 1,182 clans into three groups: descendants of theimperial line, descendants of the gods, and descendants of foreigners. Clans
were descended from two types of ancient gods: gods descended fromHeaven (天孫) and indigenous gods (土着神). In the Register, the descendantsof such indigenous gods had higher social standing than the descendants offoreigners, and this shows that the Japanese valued the indigenous over the﻿A Comparison of the Korean and Japanese Approaches to Foreign Family Names 41

foreign. This linkage with the gods is similar to how ancient Korean royalfamilies created new Chinese-style surnames by linking them to state foundation myths.
The fact that the Japanese did not adopt Chinese-style family names andinstead linked their origins to indigenous myths and gods suggests that Japan
did not experience the Sinicizing tendencies of Korea. Hence, the claim that
one-third of the clans recorded in the Register originated from China andKorea is likely a reflection of reality, not of a mindset or ideology. Of course,many elite lineages contain records that one suspects are highly embellished.
However, in view of the large-scale migrations from Korea and China toJapan between the fourth and seventh centuries, the large number of clans
with foreign origins recorded in the Register is no exaggeration.
In Korea, people adopted Chinese-style family names, and their Sinophilia
created a tendency to link their putative apical ancestors to China. In contrast,in the case of ancient Japan, elites tended not to fabricate connections
between their putative apical ancestors and China or Korea due to a similar
mindset that strived to imitate Chinese or even Korean practices. The ancientJapanese strongly admired Chinese culture and enthusiastically received thisculture by sending envoys to the Sui and Tang dynasties. However, as Japanwas geographically distant from the Chinese mainland, direct contact with
Chinese dynasties was comparatively rare. They also culturally admired
Korea, and Korean immigrants to Japan played important roles in ancientJapanese history. But with regard to Korea, Japan felt not only admiration but
also a competitive spirit, which created a tendency to view Korea as a tributary state of Japan, as seen in the Chronicles of Japan. Within this context,
the practice of fictitiously linking putative apical ancestors to China or Korea
was unlikely to take root in Japan.

Conclusion

In this discussion I explored family names of foreign origin in premodern
Korea and Japan. I conclude with the following seven points.
• The formation of family names in Korea and Japan show great differences.
In Korea, family names came about with the introduction of Chinese
culture and Chinese characters, and Chinese-style family names wereadopted. While the Japanese were also influenced by Chinese culture andemployed Chinese characters, they assumed indigenous family names.
• In the process of adopting Chinese-style family names, ancient Korean rulers
linked putative apical ancestors with state foundation myths and formed
new surnames. This shows that Korean rulers did not perfunctorily imitate
Chinese surnames, but rather independently developed new ones.

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• Independent development can be seen among Korean elites as well. They
used their given names, tribal affiliations, myths, and legends to form new
surnames that were not mere imitations of those used in China.
• By the beginning of the Koryŏ period, the use of family names had disseminated throughout the ruling class, and in the early Koryŏ, Chinese-stylefamily names were adopted by the masses as well. Many Korean familynames did in fact historically originate from Chinese apical ancestors.
However, many clans also made up historical ties between China and theirputative apical ancestors because they were using family names found in
China. Korean Sinophilia no doubt encouraged this phenomenon.
• Despite numerous Korean clans that claim Chinese origins, the most populous clans today are those indigenous to Korea. Clans of foreign origin thatformed between the late Koryŏ and Chosŏn dynasties—in other words,
clans that definitely came from the outside—are rare, and their numbers arecomparatively few today. This shows that Koreans preferred indigenous
family names over foreign ones, and that indigenous family names were
widely propagated.
• Because ancient Japanese elites did not adopt Chinese-style surnames, andbecause they traced their origins from mythical gods, the Japanese likely
did not seek to link their putative apical ancestors with China in theprocess of forming family names. Hence, the clans of Chinese and Korean
origin that make up one-third of the 1,182 clans found in the Newly Edited
Register of Family Names are likely to be realistic reflections of historicalmigrations from abroad.
• Koreans adopted Chinese-style family names and traced putative apicalancestors to China. This practice was further encouraged by Korean
Sinophilia. In the case of Japan, however, Japanese clans lacked similaradmiration for Chinese or Korean culture and so did not trace their origins
to China and Korea.
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﻿A Comparison of the Korean and Japanese Approaches to Foreign Family Names 43

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Kim Chŏn-ho 김 정 호 . Hangukŭi kwihwa sŏngssi 한 국 의 귀 화 성 씨 (Foreign Family
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Kim Chŏn-yŏn 김정현 . Hŭnghanŭn sŏngssi, sarajin sŏngssi 흥하는 성씨 사라진 성씨(Prosperous Family Names and Declining Family Names in Korean History).
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Maenosono Ryōichi 前之園亮一. Kodai no sei 古代の姓 (Ancient Japanese Family
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Nihon seishi kakei sōran 日本姓氏家系総覧 (General Handbook of Japanese Family
Names and Genealogies). Tokyo: Shin Jinbutsu Ōraisha, 1991.
Ōta Akira 太 田 亮. Seishi to kakei 姓 氏 と 家 系 (Japanese Family Names andGenealogies). Tokyo: Sōgensha, 1941.
Saeki Arikiyo 佐伯有清. Shinsen shōjiroku no kenkyu 新撰姓氏録の研究 (A Study of
the Newly Edited Register of Family Names). Text and research volumes.
Tokyo: Yosikawa Kōbun Kan, 1962–1963.
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