AIC2023 – 15th Congress of the International Colour Association, November 28–December 2, 2023

THE UNIQUE COLOR WORLDS OF PAINTERS WITH COLORVISION DEFICIENCY
Tsukasa Muraya¹*, Yunoka Taniguchi², Yasuyo Ichihara3 and Shoji Sunaga4¹Chikushijogakuen University, Japan² School of Design, Kyushu University, Japan
3Kogakuin University, Japan
4
Faculty of Design, Kyushu University, Japan*Corresponding author: Tsukasa Muraya, t-muraya@chikushi-u.ac.jp

ABSTRACT
Background: In previous research about color vision deficiency in artists, color-deficientpainters were judged in terms of their painting ability through comparison with the color usageof painters with normal color vision. Researchers have focused on the color usage skills of colordeficient painters in a similar manner to “normal” painters, but have not explored whether colordeficient painters choose colors according to the “normal" color world or a desire to create works
in line with their own color worlds. Objectives: The purpose of the current study was to obtaininsight into how modern artists with color vision deficiency use colors. Methods: We conducted
in-depth interviews with three award-winning (national or international) professional Japanesepainters. We asked them questions related to their attitude toward their color vision and color
choice strategies, and qualitatively analyzed the interview responses. The three participants wereT. Harada (born in 1954), who mainly uses watercolors and is an internationally renowned creatorof picture books; J. Goto (born in 1968), a Japanese-style artist internationally renowned for
paintings of ethnic Asians and a creator of picture books; and Y. Kurosaka (born in 1991), whois entering the contemporary art field, mainly uses oil paints, and won one of the biggest nationalart competitions in 2019. Findings: Japanese society has perceived people with color vision
deficiencies as unsuitable to be artists because of their lack of color sense. The artists in this study
nevertheless made their color vision deficiencies public when they were aspiring to become
artists, because they wanted to improve society’s understanding of color vision deficiency andencourage children with such deficiencies who may want to be artists in the future. We foundthat all three painters felt that the use of colors was important to express their feelings andaesthetic sense, and they disliked choosing colors using a personal computer or a color-measuring
device merely to comply with normal color vision. At the same time, they were also keen toensure that their color usage was not strange to people with normal color vision and usedharmonious color combinations in their works for people with all types of color vision.
Conclusion: Each painter in this study has their own color use strategy. The strategies are not
only based on the “normal” color world but also on the painters’ color worlds. The painters areaiming to create original works as professional artists on the basis of their unique color vision.
Keywords: Color vision diversity, Color vision deficiency, Art, Inclusion, Art education

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INTRODUCTION
In previous research, color vision deficiency in artists was explored in two ways. The first
approach aimed to identify historically famous artists with color deficiency on the basis of their
unusual color usage. Their paintings were often nearly monochromatic, relying mainly onvariations in lightness. Some artists predominantly used two colors, typically blue and yellow, in
their works, and others intentionally created polychromatic paintings with high-contrast color
combinations. It was also suggested that color-deficient artists show little interest in coloring
their creations [1]. However, there is evidence that artists with color vision can use colors
normally through the application of several strategies, such that color blindness does not preclude
the possibility of achieving fame [2] [3]. These strategies included checking the color name on
the labels of color tubes, developing a regular order for arranging color pigments on the palette,and seeking assistance from individuals with normal color vision with whom they were in close
proximity during the creative process [1]. Both approaches evaluate color-deficient artists’ ability
through comparison with artists with normal color vision. There is evidence that color-deficientpainters obtain insight from their unique color worlds that promote originality [4]. However, thenature of this insight has not yet been explored in depth.
Few peer-reviewed papers on this topic have been published in Japan. In Japanese society, colordeficient people have been viewed as inferior. For example, color-deficient children may quickly
lose interest in art because of using the “wrong” colors, according to friends or teachers, when
making sketches or reproducing a famous picture in art class. Moreover, many art and design
departments of universities and design companies ask candidates to complete a color perception
test, and ophthalmologists published a poster in 2015 warning color-deficient children thatobtaining a job in fields requiring precise color distinguishment would be difficult [5].
To change this situation, the term “color vision variation” was introduced by the Genetics Societyof Japan in 2017 [6]. According to this term, color vision exists on a continuum rather than being
divisible into binary normal/abnormal categories. However, this notion has not been fully
assimilated by Japanese society; most people still believe that color deficiency prevents people
from being an artist or a designer. Nevertheless, there are several color-deficient professional
artists in Japan, although it is not clear if they use colors in the same manner as artists with normal
color vision by employing certain strategies or intend to create works according to their own
color worlds. It is also unclear if they obtain insight for their creations via their unique color
vison. This study aimed to determine whether modern artists with color vision deficiency areaffected by their limited color vision and how they apply strategies to deal with this. The goal
was to provide a basis for evaluating the works of these artists form the perspective of color
vision diversity.

METHODOLOGY
We conducted in-depth interviews with three award-winning (national or international) Japanese
professional painters (Table 1). Takehide Harada (born 1954) is a painter who combined
watercolors and pastels in his works. This internationally renowned creator of picture books has
won several major international picture book awards. Jin Goto (born 1968) is a Japanese-style
painter who uses natural mineral pigments and is known for his paintings of ethnic Asians. He
has also created picture books. Finally, Yu Kurosaka (born 1991) is entering the contemporary
art field and mainly uses oil paints. He won one of the biggest national art competitions in 2019.
We conducted semi-structured online interviews with Takehide Harada and Jin Goto; Yu
Kurosaka was interviewed in person. The main questions concerned how they selected andapplied colors, how they deal with their color vision deficiencies, the essence of their works, andhow they want those works to be evaluated. The research was conducted from December 3, 2022
to February 7, 2023. We analyzed the interview data using a qualitative method.

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Table 1 Basic details of the color-deficient artists participating in this study
Color vision
Name (year of birth)
Main painting materials
Awardstype
Deuteranopia
Grand prize, UNICEF theTakehide Harada
Watercolors, pastels,
Ezra Jack Keats(1954)
pencils, etc.
international picture bookAward, 1994
Deuteranomaly
The White Ravens2014,
Natural mineral pigments Internationale
Jin Goto (1968)(Japanese-style painting) Jugendbibliothek
MünchenDeuteranopia
Oil paints
Grand prize, Shell Art
Yu Kurosaka (1991)
Award 2019

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Overview of the artists’ works
Takehide Harada is known for sensitive use of pastel colors (Figure 1). He has published many
picture books and has abundant experience in the production of cover illustrations for books
authored by famous Japanese writers. He prefers to use watercolors even though pale colors are
difficult to distinguish for color-deficient people.
Goto’s works use vivid colors and a Japanese painting style (Figure 2), and the main motif is
Asian beauty. He has been to several Asian countries, meeting people and looking at scenerydirectly before trying to reproduce them. Red is a special color for Goto; indeed, red is loved inmany Asian countries, and there are many different types of red.
Kurosaka’s works are abstract, and some are representational paintings (Figure 3). The characterof this young painter’s work is changing. He won the grand prize of the Shell Art Award in 2019,
which is one of the biggest competitions for young artists in Japan. During the interview, he

Figure 1. Letters de Pacheral, by Takehide
Harada (watercolors and pencils, 7 × 5 cm(cover for a picture book published byAsahi Shimbun in 1999).

Figure 2. Deo Maiju －Chiisana megami (inJapanese)/Kumari － The living goddess(Nepal), by Jin Goto (natural mineral pigments,60.6 × 50 cm. (from the website of Jin Goto;
published in 2010).

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described his use of trustworthy colors [7], i.e., colors
perceived similarly between those with color vision
deficiencies and trichromats, such as blue and yellow.
However, his color choices have changed as his color
world has developed.
Color choices
All three painters said that color was one of the mostimportant elements of their works, such that they paid
considerable attention to it. However, they do not use
color measurement devices or rely heavily on color
names when choosing colors, and dislike using colors
merely because they are considered “correct” bytrichromats (e.g., red sun or green trees) if they feelthose colors are not in accordance with their feelings.
None of the painters aimed to use colors in the same way
as trichromat painters, owing to a desire for originality
as professional artists. This does not accord withprevious research on the color usage tendencies ofcolor-deficient artists. The artists in this study fought Figure 3. Between night and morning,against feelings of inferiority regarding their lack of by Yu Kurosaka (145.5 × 97 cm;
color sense, but subsequently established their own published on the idemitsu website instrategies to express their color worlds. Harada could 2019).
not distinguish among some pale colors used in hisworks. He concentrates when using colors and eschews the use of “correct” colors that are
unfamiliar to him for fear of losing the richness of his works. He also uses colors mixed
inadvertently on his pallet. Kurosaka uses the same strategy of applying inadvertently mixed
colors, but he masks the color names printed on tubes of paint and moved his atelier from Tokyoto a village rich in nature to escape from the color world of trichromats and trying to systematize
his own color world. Goto used the “okikae” skill in his works, i.e., he used colors to express
motifs in an idealized way, where this technique arose from the limited color variation of naturalminerals. In Japanese-style painting, adherence to real-world appearances is not required;painters can choose their own colors. Therefore, Goto could express his own color world
according to his firsthand impressions of Asian countries. He also doubted that there was amarked difference in color sense between himself and those with normal color vision viewing
his paintings, but he did not focus on this issue and sought to create original works as aprofessional painter.
Insights arising from color vison
Despite his love of drawing, Harada despaired about pursuing a career in art when he noticedsocial oppression of the color blind in his youth. He had been afraid of using color, even after
being awarded several notable prizes, given his bad experiences in relation to his color usage. Hecould not distinguish some colors in his works and could not be sure about how people perceived
his color usage. Therefore, he sometimes asked his family to appraise his color usage, especiallywhen using a new color, and the answers from his family were always to the effect of “notstrange.” This indicated that his color usage was harmonious and not discomforting fortrichromats. Harada believed that the actual color world must be more beautiful than his own
color world, but he knew he would never be able to perceive the former. This instilled a sense ofloss and fueled his desire to use idealized colors; his sense of loss and this desire in fact arosefrom his particular type of color vision.
Goto stated that he did not have many bad experiences regarding his color use because his color
vision deficiency was not severe. However, his teacher in art school said that he used redexcessively when drawing leaves. Although not traumatic, this experience prompted him to paymore attention to others’ perceptions of colors and to adjust color usage such that trichromats535

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viewing his work would not perceive it as strange. Goto remains unsure about how different hiscolor world is from those of others, and he also believes that originality is the most important
trait of the professional artist. Goto exploits his particular color vision as a means of achieving
originality, believing that color vision deficiency is actually a strength in this respect. He also
expressed the hope that his use of color would help children who love to express themselves
through painting to achieve the confidence needed to pursue a professional art career.
Kurosaka used to have an inferiority complex regarding his use of colors, but his complex
gradually dissipated after winning a major art competition in 2019. He revealed his color vision
deficiency to the public for the first time during interviews with mass media following his victory.
His interest in color use and color deficiency increased in line with his suspicion that his color
usage was strongly affected by the trichromat color system. Thus, he challenged himself to create
art works free from the influence of his school education. Kurosaka was unhappy that society
was based only on the trichromat color world, so he resolved to systematize his own color world
through his creations. He also wanted his audience to question whether they truly see the world
according to their own senses or merely as prescribed by society. To that end, some of his color
choices ware deigned to evoke a degree of discomfort in those viewing his works.
General discussion
All three artists interviewed in this study exploited their particular color vision when creatingworks of art. Harada experienced a sense of loss in relation to his inability to sense the actual
color world, which he believes is likely more beautiful than his own color world, and thus
purposed to express beauty through idealized motifs. Goto, meanwhile, aimed to convey hisimpressions of Asian countries according to his unique color sense and skills. He believes hiscolor vision enhances the originality of his works and therefore focuses on using colors according
to his own preferences. Finally, Kurosaka’s works encourages the viewer to consider society’s
influence on color perceptions by evoking a degree of discomfort.
Against this background, all three artists used strategies different from those of earlier colordeficient artists, who tried to adjust their color usage for compatibility with the color worlds oftrichromats. As such, they do not rely on color names or color-measuring devices. Harada andKurosaka even utilize colors inadvertently mixed on their pallets. All three artists aim to exploit
their own unique color worlds in their works, rather than conforming to “normal” color use. Theirharmonious use of colors can be both appealing and interesting for trichromats. After a periodcharacterized by feelings of inferiority or doubt about their own color vision, all three artists
embraced their color worlds as a means of achieving originality as artists. Moreover, theyencourage children hoping to pursue careers as artists to have confidence in their own color
worlds and continue to express their imagination and skills accordingly, rather than conforming
to trichromatic-based painting. Society may now be ready to embrace color vision diversity
because of the efforts of color-deficient artists.

CONCLUSION
The purpose of the current study was to gain insight into how modern color-deficient artists deal
with their limitations and deploy colors. All three artists interviewed use specific strategies toapply colors in their works, different from those documented in previous studies. They reported
being conscious of the color worlds of trichromats but did not aim to use colors in conformity
therewith. All of them stated that color is an important element of their works and only use colors
compatible with their feelings. Thus, they aim to use colors that, while not fully adherent to thecolor world of trichromats, are nonetheless still attractive to them. Recently, the idea of color
vision diversity has entered into the consciousness of Japanese society but the concept remains
difficult to understand; people tend to believe that everyone shares the same color world. Colordeficient artists have shown us that each color world has its own sense of harmony, and the worksof such artists can convey beauty in a unique manner.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP 21H04342. We thank Michael
Irvine, PhD, from Edanz (https://jp.edanz.com/ac) for editing a draft of this manuscript.

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