REPORT & RECOMMENDATIONSFORINITIAL DUDES-SNV-JSC JOINT ASSESSMENT
for Three Small Towns in Bhutan
Chukha district – Tsimasham, Tsimalakha and Gedu Towns(8-17 May 2011)

1ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The initial assessment of the three towns of Tsimasham, Tsimalakha and Gedu under
Chukha Dzongkhag was jointly carried out by Department of Urban Development andEngineering Services (DUDES), Netherlands Development Organisation (SNV) and Japan
Sanitation Consortium (JSC). This report represents the findings and recommendation of
the team, based on meeting with Dzongkhag and Municipal officials, institutions, private
individuals, site visits and observations. DUDES and SNV will use relevant components of
the report in the development of intervention in the recently signed framework agreement on
Sanitation in Small Towns.
The team would like to thank Mr. Rinchen Dorji, Director, DUDES for the guidance heprovided to the team and making available his staff time to for the full duration of theassessment in the person of Ms. Dechen Yangdon. The team would like to acknowledge all
the cooperation and support received from the Dzongkhag Administration of Chukha,
Municipal authorities of the three towns the team visited, and the City Corporation of
Puentsholing, School authority of Tsimalakha school and college authority of Gedu Collegeof Commerce and Business Studies.
A second assessment will take place in the second half of the year which will help in thedevelopment of interventions and operationalisation of the Sanitation in Small Towns
programme.

2

TABLE OF CONTENTSPAGE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

2

ACRONYMS

4

1. SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY

5

2. ACTIVITIES AND METHODS

5

3. DESCRIPTION OF FINDINGS

6

3.1

Hygienic usage and maintenance of toilets

6

3.2

Wastewater Management8

3.3

Septage Management

13

3.4

Drainage System

14

3.5

Solid Waste Management

14

4. RECOMMENDATIONS

16

4.1

Water Quality Monitoring

17

4.2

Toilet Improvement

17

4.3

Sanitation Management Improvement

18

4.4

Septic Tank Improvement

20

4.5

Financing Mechanism for Septage Management

21

4.6

Flood Control Measures

22

4.7

Improvement of Solid Waste Management

22

4.8

Sanitation and Hygiene Awareness-raising

23

4.9

Capacity Building

23

4.10

Institutional Framework

24

5. DISCUSSION
5.1
5.2

25
Options for the Protection of the Water Environment
Financing Mechanism for the Treatment of Grey Waterand Septic Tank Effluent

2225

6. NEXT STEPS FOR SANITATION IMPROVEMENT

25

7.

27

TASKS FOR ATTENTION

3

ACRONYMS
ADB: Asian Development Bank
BOD: Biochemical Oxygen Demand
DANIDA: Danish International Development Agency
Dasho Dzongda: Elected Dzongkhag Administrator
Dasho Dzungrab: Deputy Dzongkhag Administrator
DUDES: Department of Urban Development & Engineering Services
Dzongkhag: District
JSC: Japan Sanitation Consortium
MoH: Ministry of Health
MoWHS: Ministry of Works & Human Settlement
NEC: National Environment Commission
O&M: Operation & maintenance
RGoB: Royal Government of Bhutan
SNV: Netherlands Development Organisation
UISD: Urban Infrastructure Services Division
WASH : Water, sanitation and hygiene

41. SCOPE AND METHODOLOGYTeam Members:•

Ms. Dechen Yangden, Deputy Executive Engineer, UISD-DUDES•

Mr. Kencho Wangdi, Portfolio Coordinator, SNV; Ms. Gabrielle Halcrow, Senior
WASH Advisor, SNV; Mr. John Collett, Sanitation and Hygiene Specialist, SNV•

Mr. Muneharu Hamada, Sewage Works Expert, JSC; Mr. Pierre Flamand, Survey
Staff, JSC

Purpose: Undertake an initial joint sanitation assessment of the selected small towns andidentify potential ways to improve current sanitation conditions with a focus on equitable
health, social, environmental and economic outcomes.

2. ACTIVITIES AND METHODS
The sanitation situation in three towns of Chukha district – namely Tsimasham, Tsimalakha
and Gedu – has been assessed in various site visits, meetings and interviews. Morespecifically, the following activities were conducted:●

Meetings and consultations with Dasho Dzongda and Dasho Dzungrab of Chukha

district, Chukha district and municipal engineers, head of environmental division,building inspectors, and town planners (other cities, such as Phuentsholing andThimphu, were also visited and included meetings with representatives frominternational donor agencies in Thimphu, and the mayor and the City Corporation chief
urban planner of Phuentsholing).
●

Visits to households, including informal settlements and new development areas.

Visits to institutions: shops, restaurants, offices, a school and a college. Interview withcleaners, householders, shops, restaurant owners, and a private contractor.
●

Visits to a variety of sanitation facilities, ranging from sewerage (sewage treatment

plants) to on-site sanitation and drainage. Visits to solid waste collecting points andtreatment facilities for solid waste management (incinerator and landfill).
●

Review of documentation on sanitation edited by the Royal Government of Bhutan(including the Water and Sanitation Rules, the Code of Practice for Sanitation, theAnnual Health Bulletin 2010, and the Environmental Discharge Standard 2010), local
maps, and reports on projects developed by international donor agencies.
The information obtained during the assessment has been used to understand thestrengths the towns can build on, to identify current problems, to suggest ways of improving

5the situation, and to establish the future steps (including the linkage to the ongoing and next
ADB

urban

infrastructure

DUDES-SNV-JSC 2ndprogramandjoint planningfor

implementation,andjoint assessment mission planned for the second half of this year).

The goal is to propose different options for sanitation improvement for small towns, which
will include alternatives to conventional piped sewerage.

3. DESCRIPTION OF FINDINGSThe following findings originate from observations made in the field during the assessment
mission and from consultation of available documents and data on urban sanitation in
Bhutan. Even if a number of lessons can be extracted and used for the later
recommendations, these should be considered with caution until further assessment andthorough sanitation mapping are conducted, and additional data is assembled.

3.1 Hygienic usage and maintenance of toilets
Finding 1.

Access to toilet facilities and observed types

As highlighted by the MoH Annual Health Bulletin 2010 from RGoB – which reported 88.6%
latrine coverage in Chukha district, access to toilets observed during the field assessment
was generally quite good. At all visited households, business institutions and informal
settlements we found individual or shared toilets. At Gedu College of Commerce andBusiness Studies, seventeen boys and girls toilet areas comprising WCs, urinals andhandwashing places were provided for about a thousand students, which is a very adequate
ratio.
The observed types of toilet consisted of either a cistern flush system or apour-flush system with a tap inside the cubicle or with access to water nearby. Water wasoften stored in barrels in the toilet area even for facilities equipped with cistern flush. This isused probably as a mitigation measure for flushing, cleaning or handwashing purposes
when the piped-water supply is interrupted or when flushing mechanisms are notfunctioning.
Pedestal toilets and squat-down toilets are both quite common. The later type wasmade either of vitreous ceramic or cement mortar and mostly found in individual houses,
while the former type was seen in restaurants or public institutions, such as the college inGedu. In addition, it was positive to notice that most visited toilets in households or
institutions allowed privacy, with a door that can be locked, even in the informal settlement
visited in Gedu where home-made pour-flush latrines were constructed.
While access to private toilets was generally good, the situation of public toilets
was noticeably different. No public toilets were visited or found in the three assessed towns,

6and it was mentioned to our team that previous public toilets in Tsimasham proved difficult tomaintain and were closed down.
Figure 1: Observed types of toilet facilities in houses and public institutions

Finding 2.

Toilet conditions

Toilet conditions differed from one facility to another, depending on the utilization, location,
the target-users, the frequency of utilization, etc. Some of the visited toilets were kept clean,especially in households and in most of the restaurants. Toilet cleaning materials could
sometimes be found in the toilets such as a toilet brush and more rarely disinfectant,detergent or cleaning liquid.
Facilities in the visited school, college and hospital were reasonably clean but instate of serious disrepair, with many toilet fittings and equipment broken. This includes toilet
seats often missing or broken; broken and non-functioning cistern flushing mechanisms;
damaged or missing hand-washing taps - leaking or with no water supply; and issues withplumbing (connections missing, broken or leaking). These problems are potentially due tomaintenance issues, improper use, and low quality parts.
Soap was rarely available in toilet areas, as well as waste bins. There were no
specific provisions or bins for menstrual hygiene materials which sometimes resulted in
improper disposal inside the toilet cubicle (e.g. in broken or non-functioning toilet cisterns in
the college in Gedu ).
Figure 2: Example of toilet conditions observed in public institutions

7

3.2 Wastewater Management
Finding 3.

Situation of domestic wastewater discharge

The towns selected for this assessment are not – with the exception of a small area in Gedu
town – covered by piped sewerage systems. Most of the inspected households andinstitutions were connected to septic tanks, and for some households coupled with soak pits
(but rarely due to limited space inside the house plot boundary) or only connected to leachpits.
It was positive to discover that decentralized wastewater treatment systems arewidely spread and compulsory with the construction of new buildings. However, even if
wastewater effluent quality could not be assessed during this mission, septic tanks and soakpits’ treatment efficiency can be questioned, as sludge collection is not systematicallyconducted yet and septage management is not yet organized. Current conditions ultimately
lead to the discharge of accumulated sludge with the effluent, and/or the overflow of
untreated wastewater when septic tanks are overloaded (during the mission, it was
mentioned by municipal engineers that untreated wastewater from septic tanks was
sometimes illegally removed and dumped into open drains at night). This is especially true
for the shops in Tsimasham town, which sees many travelers stopping for a refreshment
and/or toilet break. Overload can also frequently occur when the tanks are made too small inorder to comply with the regulations for the minimum set-back distance of the septic tankfrom the plot boundary.
With the accumulation of sludge in septic tanks, malfunction caused by clogging
may occur and, for instance, prevent wastewater from being flushed away from the house,or clogging may occur inside the soak pit – if existing – when accumulated sludge is partiallydischarged with the effluent.
Finally, it has been mentioned in our discussion with the district authorities that
open defecation was not entirely eradicated.

Figure 3: Septic tank overflow

Figure 4: Improper wastewater discharge from toilet

A small sewage treatment plant was found in Gedu town, covering about 200

8households, the Gedu College of Commerce and Business Studies and the local hospital.
Although some parts of the infrastructure were aging and needed repair (cracks were visible
in the concrete structure of one of the oxidation ditches and the sludge dewatering machine
was out of order), the visited infrastructure showed good potential for efficient wastewater
treatment with good effluent quality. However, the system was not being used at its fullpotential as it was operated intermittently, which lowers treatment efficiency and the qualityof treated effluent.
Except for the area covered by the sewerage system in Gedu, all grey water fromhouses and/or institutions is discharged to open drains. This can potentially contribute to thepollution of the water environment. Furthermore, it was also observed that some buildings
were not connected to any wastewater treatment system or misconnected hence leading tountreated wastewater being discharged into open drains and water bodies downstream.
Finding 4.

Issues with the design and construction of septic tanks

In the three visited towns, individual septic tanks were widely used. The latest
standards/rules for construction require each new building to include a wastewater
treatment system (i.e. a septic tank, when connection to a sewer network is not available).
However, for this measure to be beneficial, treatment efficiency of septic tanks must be
assured by consistent design, adequate capacity, consistent construction quality and proper
maintenance. Some of the observed tanks varied in size, location inside the plot boundary,and vent pipe size varied widely from one septic tank to another.
Discussion with municipal staff showed that even when the design of the septictank for a new building is approved by the municipal engineer, the facility constructed cansometimes be different. Due to shortage of building inspectors, the lack of verification of
constructed facilities, and/or the weakness of enforcement in case of inappropriate
construction, can partly explain why septic tanks with inconsistent design and insufficient
capacity are still built. As mentioned earlier, the remaining space in a plot boundary after thehouse construction sometimes does not allow the implementation of a septic tank ofappropriate size.
The observed individual septic tanks were mostly located in the backyards ofhouses, sometimes in positions difficult for accessing and emptying by a vacuum/cesspool
truck.

9

Figure 5: Examples of septic tanks

Figure 6: Difficulty of access to septic tanks

Finding 5.

Figure 7: Issue with overload septic tanks andillegal dumping of untreated wastewater

The situation of temporary settlements

Temporary settlements were found at Tsimalakha town, mostly alongside the road on theway to the Chukha Hydropower Project area, with approximately 40 houses cum shops.
Typically these have a rudimentary or a pour-flush toilet attached to the rear of the house or
separated out-house in the backyard. It seemed that most toilet waste is piped somedistance away and discharged to the environment without treatment.
Other temporary settlements were observed in Gedu, near the Meritshem Junction
area. It consists of approximately 25 households that were formerly on the highway side.
Discussion with local residents showed that some of them lived there for 10-15 years or
more. Some are considered illegal (as they already own land elsewhere in the country) andhave had electricity disconnected. Most of the households have rudimentary piped-watersupply. Individual or shared home-made pour-flush latrines were connected to some kind ofground filtration system, but construction adequateness and treatment efficiency could not
be inspected or assessed.
In addition to the assessment of three towns in the Chukha district, our team also
visited one of the informal settlement of Phuentsholing city, located along the riverside. Thissettlement gathers about 10 to 15 households. The conditions found on site looked much10

poorer than the other sites visited in the Chukha district. Very rudimentary and probably
illegal piped-water supply could be seen but no toilets were observed on site. Discussions
with some local residents showed that open defecation in the river nearby was an usual
practice.
Figure 8: Informal settlements in Gedu

Finding 6.

Sewage treatment plant in Gedu town

The sewage treatment plant found in Gedu town was built in 1997 as part of the Tala
Hydropower Project infrastructure. Implemented to serve the residential colony, this systemcovers approximately 200 households, and includes the Gedu College of Commerce andBusiness Studies and the hospital of Gedu. This plant, using activated sludge process,features two oxidation ditches, a sedimentation tank, and a sludge dewatering machine.
This machine is installed inside an open-air steel frame building with roof and concrete floor,
which is designed for sludge drying process after dewatering operation. Operation andmaintenance is done by a caretaker and his wife, living in a house built on site. According to
the plan of the plant that our team was shown, there is a small room for a laboratory in the
caretaker’s quarters.
At the time of the visit, the dewatering machine was out of order and no schedule
was mentioned for repair. As indicated earlier, the rotor of the oxidation ditches was notoperated continuously nor the scraper bridge of the sedimentation tank. A discussion withthe caretaker’s wife indicated that the intermittent operation was not for energy saving
purpose. If the system would be operated constantly, the plant could offer better wastewater
treatment efficiency. However, better treatment quality would only be necessary if thepresent effluent quality fails to meet the RGoB standard for final effluent from Sewerage
Treatment Plants. If not met, the actual management could signify a lack of awareness inoperation and maintenance and/or, more importantly, in the sewage treatment process. In
that case, it would be unfortunate that the plant is not being used to its full potential due topoor operation.

11

Figure 9: Sewage treatment plant in Gedu

Figure 10: Sign of wear in one

Figure 11: Broken equipment (dewatering machine)of the oxidation ditches

Other sewerage systems were also observed at Phuentsholing and Thimphu city.
In Phuentsholing, the existing sewerage system was constructed between 1993
and 1996 under the assistance of DANIDA. It serves approximately 95% of the core area ofthe city, which represents approximately 15,000 to 20,000 persons. The system features astabilization pond, which includes anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds spread in fiveacres. A sludge drying bed was under construction at the time of the visit.
The municipal engineer that accompanied our team during the site visit expressed
concern over recent increase of BOD effluent, above final effluent discharge standard. An
important issue found in the field is that the site is open to public, who uses it as arecreational place and feeds the significant fish population. This practice is quite unfortunate,especially at the maturation pond, as it pollutes the treated wastewater before discharge tothe river nearby. The protection of the ponds liner can be a problem during this practice, as
people can damage them when they manipulate tools to bring the food to the fishes. Great
care is also needed during desludging operations.
Figure 12: Maturation pond at Phuentsholing Sewage Treatment Plant(the arrow points out the significant fish population)

12

Another sewage treatment system – the Eco-line – was visited in Thimphu. This
technology from Denmark was found and imported by a private contractor, who also
ensured O&M for more than a year. This is a good example of the possible involvement of
the private sector in sanitation. This system, covering the Ministers Enclave and the Army
Camp, has a 500 people capacity but only serves about 300 people. This plant features aseparate baffle tank, which receives wastewater and ensures that a regular flow is lifted by apump to the treatment unit. Wastewater treatment is then done through aerobic treatment
process (contact aeration/fixed-film process, and drum screening). An optional additional
process for effluent treatment is not installed and it was mentioned during the visit that
effluent is discharged without chemical addition for disinfection (although this is an important
step necessary to destruct the pathogens that cause disease).
Since the plant implementation in 2006, the main problem with maintenanceconcerned the pump in the baffle tank receiving wastewater, as plastic and other materials
pass through the intake grill and prevent it from functioning properly. Effluent quality ischecked by public authorities but the results are not known.

Figure 13: Eco-line Sewage Treatment Plant in Thimphu

3.3 Septage Management
Finding 7.

Septage management

Sludge collection is not conducted nor septage management organized in the threeassessed towns. No vacuum/cesspool truck was at their disposal at the time of the mission,
but a new cesspool truck has been ordered by the Chukha district and was expected by theend of May 2011. As a result, desludging operations will start for Tsimasham and Tsimalakha
towns and, as septage management has not been planned yet, emptying operations willprobably rely on an “on-call” service basis when building owners experience problems
associated with their septic tank. The start of regular emptying operations could be an
opportunity for introducing more severe measures against the before-mentioned illegal
dumping of untreated wastewater in open drains.

13

3.4 Drainage System
Finding 8.

Situation of the drainage system

The drainage system conveys stormwater and, in areas covered by septic tanks, all grey
water discharged from households, shops, restaurants and other institutions, as well as
black water from the few buildings that do not have any wastewater treatment system.
Some of the drains observed were blocked by garbage or broken by trucks parking
in unauthorized areas. Drain capacity or length in some of the visited areas seemed
insufficient. These problems combined together could lead to overflowing drains in the eventof heavy rainfall, and cause a serious public health risk especially during the monsoon
period.
The accumulation of garbage was also observed in the drains of some houses,
causing stagnant grey water.

Figure 14: Grey water discharged in house drain

Figure 15: House drains blocked by garbage

3.5 Solid Waste Management
Finding 9.

Solid waste collection

Good practice was observed in the Chukha district with the utilization of designated solid
waste collection points, with six already built or under construction. They consist of a raised
rectangular plinth with rectangular chain-link wire sided garbage container in which a
mixture of garbage is collected three times per week (Monday, Wednesday andSaturday).This collection system for solid waste is a positive initiative which needs to be
expanded.
Figure 16: Solid waste collection point

Figure 17: improper disposal of waste in house backyards

14

Other types of collection points for garbage disposal (e.g. bins) could hardly befound in towns, which may partly explain why littering or inadequate disposal of waste iscommon, especially in drains and on open land behind houses. This widespread practiceshows that health hazards are not associated with this careless practice, thus highlighting
the need for hygiene awareness activities and for establishing the habit of gathering
garbage and bringing it to designated collection points. Conscious of the problem, theChukha district authorities have recently initiated a collective cleaning operation organized
every Saturday in which shop-keepers are required to clean up the town. This is an excellent
example that can help to contribute to improving the current situation and changing people’s
behavior.
At the visited hospital in Gedu, medical waste was segregated (e.g. used needles
are disposed of in safety boxes), but appeared to be mixed again with other solid wastes
during collection and transport for disposal at the nearby Alikha incinerator.
Another form of collection was observed in the informal settlement in Gedu, where
solid waste was disposed and accumulated in a hole dug for this purpose. This practice canbecome a source of ground contamination, as wastewater infiltrates the soil after rainfall.
Figure 18: Example of solid waste disposal in informal settlement

Finding 10.

Solid waste disposal: Alikha incinerator in Gedu

Originally built as part of the Tala Hydropower Project infrastructure, the Alikha incinerator
treats the garbage gathered from the six collecting points of Gedu town. It is managed by
two operators and one supervisor. This facility has been recently out of use for six months
and a large accumulation of garbage was seen on the receiving ramp above the wastesorting bay. Organic waste is left on the ground and is not protected from rainwater nor
disposed. This is a potential source of ground contamination as wastewater infiltrates thesoil without treatment. Due to the accumulation of garbage below the receiving ramp, waste
segregation is not conducted there anymore, and the garbage collection truck dumps
garbage directly in front of the incinerator where some selective segregation is done, but
without any protective equipment. Cardboard is bundled up and plastic bottles are removedby the operators. Accumulated garbage inside the operating building causes unsanitaryconditions for workers, which are made worse by the massive presence of flies.
15

As for the infrastructure, the furnace chimney is deteriorated by corrosion and now
ends below the roof, which allows part of the smoke to circulate in the building, resulting in
obnoxious smell and hazardous respiratory conditions for the workers. The temperature of
combustion appeared to be quite low at the time of the visit, and staff refresher training willprobably be beneficial to enable the use of the Alikha incinerator to its full potential.

Figure 19: Alikha incinerator in Gedu Town

Figure 21: Corroded chimney

Finding 11.

Figure 20: Overloaded receiving ramp

Figure 22: Combustion chamber and working conditions

Water supply

The water supply network is old (built in 1980s at the time of the Chukha Hydropower
Project) and suffers from plumbing connection problems. This causes significant water
losses, and adds to the problem of water shortage. As a consequence, water is not supplied
continuously, which can be a problem for toilet flushing and cleaning. Empty water pipes canalso present a very high risk, with negative pressure drawing contamination into water pipes
through any leakage points and consequently making water unsafe to drink.

4. RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the above findings, the JSC team recommends the following issues to be given
special attention. Further assessment, collection of data, and consultation with MoWHS andthe district authorities will be necessary to determine an order of priority and establish adetailed program for sustainable sanitation improvement for the three targeted towns.

164.1 Water Quality Monitoring
Recommendation 1.

Regular data collection on water quality

To determine the impact on the environment, water bodies and ultimately public health ofpresent practices and future measures in sanitation, it is essential to monitor and gather
regular data on water quality. Water bodies – such as rivers, lakes – as well as discharged
effluent from wastewater treatment facilities should be targeted for water quality monitoringin line with the RGoB’s Discharge Standards, 2010, and samples should be analyzed by the
responsible authority using nationally approved criteria. This is currently the responsibility ofNEC. Water quality monitoring would enable the authorities to assess if actual standards for
wastewater/night soil/sludge management are adequate or if revision is needed to sustain
the preservation of a safe and healthy environment.
Criteria to consider:

Quality
Monitoring process with composite sample/single sample
Frequency according to areas/conditions/climate/seasons/facilities
Equipment e.g. automatic sampling machineQuantity
Flow meter, mass loading
How to select the sampling points
Number of monitoring points

Management
Laboratories and expert human resources for water quality analysis
Database collection and analysis system
Institutional and financing system
Regulating organization/professional body
How to improve the existing system and where to go from now on?

4.2 Toilet Improvement
Recommendation 2.

Revive and increase the number of public toilet facilities

If toilets are well spread in houses and public institutions, it is advisable to increase (orrevive in areas where decrepit toilets are no longer utilized) the number of public toilets intowns, especially in areas visited by many travelers along the south-north highway. This
would diminish the load on toilets of restaurants and shops and their associated septic tanks.

17

In addition, by increasing the access to toilets, this could contribute to the eradication ofopen defecation.
However, the increase or revival of public toilet facilities will imply the provision offunds from local communities, the municipalities and/or the Chukha district (to be decided).
A responsible body for cleaning, maintenance and the collection of a fee for toilet utilization(if applying) will also be essential to prevent these facilities from falling into disrepair andbecoming unusable.
Recommendation 3.

Improve toilet maintenance and equipment quality, and draw

public attention on the importance of caring more for public places
While toilets are generally in good condition at household level, the situation is notably
different in public institutions (i.e. in the visited school, college, hospital, and, in some cases,
restaurants), where toilet equipment and fittings were often found broken. Although theequipment quality can be blamed, proper usage is an area where much improvement could
be achieved through awareness-raising campaigns and public education.
As people are more likely to appreciate and use a clean and tidy toilet area, properand timely cleaning is vital. Equally important is having a dependable system in place that
ensures the regular maintenance of public facilities, and the timely repair of broken
equipment and fittings. Also it will be important to establish a financing system for public
toilet usage, especially in areas highly frequented by travelers.
Recommendation 4.

Increase hygienic use of toilets in households

If the wide dissemination of toilet is a positive finding, hygienic use of toilets is an area that
could be improved. All wastewater from toilets should be connected to a wastewater
treatment system (i.e. a septic tank, except for the sewered area in Gedu). Toilets should be
regularly cleaned and maintained to function properly. They should also include soap.

4.3 Sanitation Management Improvement
Recommendation 5.

Eradication of untreated wastewater discharge and system

upgrade for basic wastewater treatment facilities
For public health protection, all black water from toilets should be collected and treated in asafe and hygienic manner, and never discharged untreated. In addition, where water supply
is dependable, pit latrines should be upgraded to pour-flush toilets connected to a septictank with soak pit.

18

Recommendation 6.

Implementation of septage management

To improve wastewater treatment efficiency of septic tanks, and prevent untreatedwastewater from overflowing when tanks are overloaded, regular and systematic desludging
operations need to be implemented. Better septage management can be considered as animportant first step of sanitation improvement for small towns, with substantial impact on thetreatment efficiency of septic tanks. The organized system should be compulsory andeliminate any intervention from septic tank owners (avoid on-call service).
The frequency of emptying operations should be determined depending on the sizeof the septic tanks and the number of users (probably once or twice a year, or more often).
This should be preliminary assessed through sanitation mapping and consultation with the
public. As previously mentioned in the finding 7, a new cesspool truck has been ordered by
the Chukha district and was due to be delivered at the end of May. Depending on thecapacity of this truck, it may be necessary to increase the number of such vehicles fordesludging operations. The acquisition of more cesspool trucks would solve the problem ofoverflow from septic tanks with small capacity.
A financing mechanism should also be implemented to prevent users from paying
for each visit of the cesspool truck (thus ensuring regular desludging), and enable theinvolvement of the private sector. This would require the understanding of the public and,
therefore, the implementation of communication campaigns to explain why a financial
contribution is needed.
Recommendation 7.

Consideration for disposal sites and construction of sludge

treatment facilities
As sludge from septic tanks needs to be collected on a regular basis, it is essential toconsider and implement disposal/composting sites and treatment facilities. Different options
for collection, transport, treatment and disposal or recycle as compost are conceivable
depending on land availability, the acceptance of the local population (for example on thepossibility of using sludge compost), and the funds available (i.e. priority given for theconstruction of sludge treatment facilities). These options are:•Sludge can be treated through a sludge treatment plant (to be constructed). After
treatment and drying operation, dried sludge can be used for landfill, farming or
combusted for example at the Alikha incinerator in Gedu.

•

Sludge can also be dewatered and used as a fertilizer after compost. This would

necessitate the acquisition of dewatering machines, the construction of buildings with roof
and concrete floor, the provision of land, and the acceptance and needs from the local

19population to use sludge as a fertilizer. If not fully utilized, part of the dewatered sludge orcompost could be brought to the Alikha incinerator for disposal.
Consultation with the local population will need to be first carried out to determine
what would be the most suitable way to manage sludge and if compost sludge is adequate
for agriculture.
Recommendation 8.

Enhancement of operation and maintenance at the sewage

treatment plant in Gedu
From the monitoring of effluent’s quality, it is important to confirm whether Bhutan’s standard
for final effluent is met or not. If not, current practices for operation could be improved
through the provision of operation manuals, staff training and activities to raise awarenesson sewage treatment process and knowledge on operation and maintenance. Maintenancewill need to be addressed, as broken equipment and wearing infrastructure were observed.
A maintenance schedule and capacity building to address these issues may be required.
There is a possibility for revitalizing the plant and there is also space for slight
expansion which would allow increasing the number of sewer connections in town.
Recommendation 9.

Utilization of the Alikha incinerator (Gedu) for sludge disposal

An inquiry was made by the Chukha district authorities on the possibility of disposing sludge
in the Alhika incinerator in Gedu. This is possible but to allow effective combustion, sludge
needs to be mixed with other wastes and to be limited to a certain amount (to be assessed).

4.4 Septic Tank Improvement
Recommendation 10.

Standardize and regulate design

Septic tank design, which is submitted and checked by municipal engineers before theconstruction of new buildings, should be standardized (i.e. determine size according to
number users, number of compartments, possible emptying frequency, etc.) Furthermore,
the design and size of all septic tanks after construction should comply with what has been
approved by the municipal engineer.
At municipal level, precise inspection of built facilities and, if necessary, corrective
measures, such as reconstruction or penalty for insufficient capacity, should be strictly
enforced by building inspectors (this may require additional laws, regulations, and staff forbuilding inspection).
As a further step of sanitation improvement, future design of septic tanks for newbuildings should include the treatment of both black and grey water.

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Recommendation 11.

Ensure septic tanks’ durability and quality of waterproofing

The observed septic tanks were made of bricks, cement with mortar finish. From what waschecked on the plan of a house under construction, the amount of cement used for theseptic tank mortar finish (12 mm) was not thick enough to provide long lasting waterproofing.
As a first step of improvement, it is advisable to replace bricks by a complete reinforced
concrete structure.
Recommendation 12.

Enable visual inspection for operation and maintenance andeasy desludging operations
The actual design of septic tanks – with sealed manhole covers – does not allow visualmonitoring to assess sludge depth or conditions inside the tanks, nor easy desludging
operations. Even if for security purposes manhole covers should be locked, they should also
be maneuverable and not sealed.

4.5 Financing Mechanism for Septage Management
Recommendations 13.

Charge for sludge collection and treatment

To allow regular sludge collection and transport, a financing mechanism will need to be set
up. Such mechanism is to be discussed and decided between the central government, thedistrict authorities and the municipalities. Different systems can be considered depending onwhether sanitation will be paid by each household through a charge or financed through thetax collection system, and how much the government of Bhutan will subsidize for sanitation
improvement. What follows is only to consider as options.
As well as the sewer charge paid by the populations living in an area covered by
the sewerage system, a compulsory charge included in the water bill (as it is done in Manila,
Philippines) – which could be called ‘environmental charge’ – could be paid by all septic tankusers living in an area targeted for sludge collection and treatment. If water meters are notwidely used, another possibility would be to collect this charge through other existing local
taxes.
To facilitate this new charge collection, it will be important to communicate with the
public and makes everyone understand that, in order to promote good sanitation practices
that will enable a safe and healthy environment with ultimately high economic return,governments/districts/people need to invest in and pay for sanitation.
The collected charge is intended to cover sludge collection and transport to thetreatment facility or disposal/recycling site. The private sector could here be invited to play arole and conduct sludge collection and transport under the management of a body of21

professionals (for regulatory management) from the municipality. As mentioned earlier, it isrecommendable to construct one or more sludge treatment facilities and consider different
options after sludge treatment: disposal or recycle as compost (if acceptable for local
communities). As done in other countries, the funding for the acquisition and theconstruction of such facilities could be covered through local taxes or budget from thecentral government, as for the implementation of the sewerage system. Operation andmaintenance could be covered by local taxes.

4.6 Flood Control Measures
Recommendation 14.

Improvement of drainage system

To prevent public health risks from overflowing drains and sewers after heavy rainfall, theseshould be periodically cleaned to eliminate garbage. Further assessment will be needed todetermine where the system could be improved, including size and length expansion forcapacity increase.

4.7 Improvement of Solid Waste Management
Recommendation 15.

Behavior change for solid waste disposal

To establish safe and hygienic living conditions, the first step of improvement is to establish
a behavior of organized disposal (whatever the amount is), and eradicate the wide spread
habit of indiscriminate throwing away and littering in non-dedicated areas: backyard ofhouses, drains, etc. Hygiene promotion and communication campaigns with the public will
here play an important role to raise awareness on the health risks and other negative
consequences associated with current practices.
The potential of attracting the private sector for solid waste collection and transport,
and the business sustainability for small towns needs to be evaluated. It should also be
determined how the cost for the solid waste collection and disposal should be covered:individually – for instance through a tax included in the water bill – or through public tax.
Recommendation 16.

Increase

of

solid

waste

collection

pointsandsystemimprovement
To facilitate solid waste disposal, increasing the number of solid waste collection points anddisposal bins should be a priority, especially in popular/well frequented areas. For example
in similar locations in Japan, the distance between each collection point must not exceed 50
meters.
To prevent wastewater from contaminating the soil in the event of rainfall, and to
avoid the concentration of flies or other insects, solid waste collection points should include

22

a roof and walls. To simplify garbage emptying, transport, and provide waterproofness, acontainer could be used for disposal. This type of container and associated trucks could bepurchased abroad at a moderate price, for example through the acquisition of second-hand
items from other countries.
Recommendation 17.

Improvement and working conditions at Alikha incinerator, Gedu

It is firstly important to improve the working conditions and take strict safety measures forthe staff operating the incinerator. This includes the provision of facemasks, protective
clothing, gloves, boots, and measures such as pesticides to limit the presence of flies andother insects at the site.
These measures include a quick repair or replacement of the corroded chimney
stack. This would prevent the smoke from entering the operating area and improve
combustion efficiency. To improve working conditions inside the operating room, waste
segregation should also be done at its originally designed area: the sorting bay below thereceiving ramp.
Waste combustion can include organic waste, sludge, non recyclable paper, andplastic. Glass, plastic, paper (big size), cardboard, medical waste should be considered forsegregation.

4.8 Sanitation and Hygiene Awareness-raising
Recommendation 18.

Sanitation and hygiene awareness campaigns

Sanitation and hygiene awareness activities and campaigns need to be implemented to
improve people’s behavior, develop good sanitary habits, and enhance the willingness topay for sanitation. Related activities and messages could be diffused through television,
schools and other means that are able to reach the largest possible audience, including the
population living in informal settlements.
Together with these activities, it is important to develop communication with the
public with transparency on activities and accountability. To obtain general understanding,consensus and support for the implemented sanitation policy and associated investment,
projects, it is important to inform the public about where their money goes, what is done with
it and why.

4.9 Capacity Building
Recommendation 19.

Increase the number of trained professionals and technicalcapacity, including curriculum development
As part of the process of sanitation improvement, it is crucial to increase the number of23sanitation professionals, as well as knowledge and technical capacity. This involves a goodunderstanding of wastewater/sludge treatment processes and methods, and adequate
know-how for operation and maintenance of wastewater/sludge treatment facilities. The
more sanitation improvements made and greater wastewater treatment efficiencies reached,
the more expertise in operation and maintenance will be needed.
Increasing the number of sanitation professionals will also be an important task forthe coming years. This necessitates the development of a specific and detailed curriculumon sanitation, as well as the number of qualified and experienced teaching staff atuniversities/colleges.

4.10 Institutional Framework
Recommendation 20.

Legal, regulatory and institutional development

The legal and institutional system for sanitation in Bhutan was not fully assessed during thisfirst mission. Although more clarity in this matter is required, ideally, a sound institutionalframework for wastewater/night soil/sludge management is needed to maintain a healthyliving environment and conserve water environment. This includes the following:•

Establishment of a legal system to define the responsibility and duties of central
government department, district, municipalities, the private sector and individuals for
wastewater/night soil/sludge management.

•

Establishment of a legal system with regulations and standards for wastewater/night
soil/sludge management including the introduction of appropriate sanitaryequipment/wastewater treatment technologies and standards ofstructure/performance/O&M for the equipment/technologies (including regulation andenforcement in relation to the construction, sitting and designs of septic tanks.)•

Establishment of a legal system to regulate the stakeholders who intend to join
businesses related to wastewater/night soil/sludge management, in order to enable
participation of the private sector.

•

Establishment of a training system for capacity development dedicated to municipal
officers in charge of or related to wastewater/night soil/sludge management, to ensure
the effective application of laws, regulations and standards.

•

Specification of the role and implication of non-government organizations/community-based organizations for sanitation and hygiene awareness-raising activities

24and the mobilization of local communities.

5. DISCUSSION
5.1 Option for the Protection of the Water Environment
Discussion 1.

Collection and treatment of grey water and septic tank effluent

To target the preservation and protection of the water environment, ideally all grey water
should be collected for treatment, and all partially treated effluent from septic tanks should
receive further treatment to improve water quality before entering the environment. Even if
the three assessed towns for this mission might not yet be ready for this stage of sanitation
improvement, and that natural capacity (i.e. volume of water in water bodies, partial natural
treatment done through the distance and time between the discharge point and the water
body downstream) lowers the impact of grey water and effluent from septic tanks (to beevaluated with data on water quality of surrounding water bodies), this measure will need tobe adopted in the long term to prevent water bodies from being polluted. This could be done
through a small scale sewage treatment plant located downstream of the targeted small
towns, collecting the discharged grey water and septic tanks effluent from households.
Another option would be to change the design standard of septic tanks for future
constructions, and connect grey water for each household to this treatment facility, as wellas adding or reviving proper drain field or soak pit for ground filtration.
To estimate the level of improvement to be achieved and the appropriatetechnology, water quality needs to be monitored and compared to national water quality
standards.

5.2 Financing Mechanism for the Treatment of Grey Water and Septic Tank Effluent
Discussion 2.

Financing for a small scale sewage treatment plant

As well as for the sludge treatment facility, a financing mechanism will need to beconsidered in order to acquire and construct one or more additional facilities for thetreatment of grey water and septic tank effluent. The implementation of such facilities would
ideally be done under the support of the central government, while operation andmaintenance could be covered by the related districts and/or municipalities.
As for the technology required for the treatment facility, a small scale sewage
treatment unit, such as the Eco-line or the johkasou, would be appropriate for this purpose.

6. NEXT STEPS FOR SANITATION IMPROVEMENTThe RGoB Annual Health Bulletin 2010 published by the Ministry of Health showed thatwater and sanitation-related diseases are still widespread with for example, in 2009, more25

than 27,000 people suffering from dysentery and, with more than 65,000 cases of diarrhoea,
which ranked among the top ten diseases in the country. To evaluate the impact of water
quality and sanitation practices on public health at local level for Chukha district and thelevel of measures needed for sanitation improvement, further data on water quality will need
to be collected and analyzed. Nonetheless, at the observed stage of sanitation managementin Chukha district, two steps of improvement can be considered.
Step 1. Goal: A first step of improvement will be to target public health protection, thus
renderingharmlessparasites,

viruses,

etc.

from

feces,

anddeveloping

countermeasures against water and sanitation-related diseases. This will imply
ensuring that all black water is collected and safely treated, and that untreatedwastewater from toilets is not discharged directly to the environment. Sludge needs tobe regularly collected and treated in a hygienic manner to enable disposal and/or safe
recycle/reuse.
Technology: This will necessitate the acquisition of an adequate number ofvacuum/cesspool trucks for the collection and transport of sludge to one or moretreatment sites. The size and structure of septic tanks will have to be standardized, as
well as the treatment performance to render harmless parasites, viruses, etc.
Policy: A license system for sludge collection and transport businesses will need to
be organized. This district and/or municipal-regulated system will manage, ensure low
charges, and a stable and sound business. Sludge collection will need to be conducted
at regular intervals.
Step 2. Goal: A second step of improvement will target the preservation of the water
environment (water quality preservation, water reuse/recycling).
Household wastewater treatment facility: All wastewater (grey and black water) at
household level will need to be collected and treated.
Technology: All wastewaters will be treated through septic tanks and adequate
soak pits or drain fields for ground filtration, or collected through drains downstream
and further treated in an additional small scale wastewater treatment plant.
Aerobic treatment process should be preferred for all sewage wastewater
treatment plants to increase treatment efficiency. Sludge will be collected and treated indesignated sites, as described in step 1.
In the interests of public health and environmental protection it will be important forthe central government of Bhutan to prioritize water quality monitoring – with regular data26

not only from river basins but also from influent/effluent of wastewater treatment facilities,
including septic tanks – and to determine appropriate policy/laws/regulations/standards forthe protection of the water environment. The standards and level of improvement desired
will determine the technology and investment needed. Even if the management of sanitation
and wastewater facilities is devolved to districts/municipalities (to ensure that everything isdone according to the laws/regulations/standards established by central government with,
ideally, support – e.g. for district and/or municipal staff training – from government sanitation
professionals), the role of the responsible central government agencies is crucial for theoverall leadership and direction of sanitation and hygiene improvement.

7. TASKS FOR ATTENTION
The following tasks are highlighted for future attention. To the extent possible, the next joint
assessment mission scheduled for the second half of this year will begin to focus on these(order of priority to be agreed):•

Obtain data on water quality from water bodies/discharged effluent.

•

Organize (with staff from districts, municipalities, students following courses related tosanitation or community development) sanitation mapping in the three targeted towns
and identify what wastewater treatment systems are used and where the effluent goes.

•

Assess how to organize septage management, including the selection of sites fortreatment and the feasibility of involving the private sector.

•

Determine in collaboration with MoWHS and the Chukha district a list of priorities andprioritized areas in towns for sanitation improvement and prepare a Master Plan,
including sanitation targets and a schedule for implementation.

•

Understand in detail the actual legal and institutional structure for sanitation.

•

Check availability of funds and willingness to invest in sanitation.

27

Figure 23: SNV-JSC teams at MoWHS-DUDES

28