Towards a sustainable banana supply chain in Colombia
Rainforest Alliance Certification and economic, social and environment conditions on
small-scale banana plantations in Magdalena, Colombia

Beekman, G., M. Dekkers and T. Koster, 2019. Towards a sustainable banana supply chain in Colombia; Rainforest Alliance
Certification and economic, social and environment conditions on small-scale banana plantations in Magdalena, Colombia.
Wageningen, Wageningen Economic Research, Report 2019-019. 49 pp.; 16 fig.; 5 tab.; 20 ref.
This report can be downloaded for free at https://doi.org/10.18174/466678 or at www.wur.eu/economic-research (under
Wageningen Economic Research publications).
ISBN 978-94-6343-558-1
This report can be cited as: Towards a sustainable banana supply chain in Colombia, Wageningen Economic Research, Den Haag 2019
Keywords: Rainforest Alliance, certification, banana plantations, Colombia, wage workers© 2019 Wageningen Economic Research
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Photography: Yeferson Penaranda

2 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

Contents
Preface................................................................................................. 5
Acknowledgements ................................................................................ 6
Summary ............................................................................................. 7
1. Introduction .................................................................................... 13
2. Methods and data ............................................................................ 16
3. Socio-economic indicators ................................................................. 20
4. Environment and Agrochemicals ......................................................... 30
5. Production & yields ........................................................................... 34
6. Risks of selection effects and related potential bias ............................... 37
7. Conclusions and recommendations ..................................................... 40
References.......................................................................................... 44
Appendix 1

Indicator definition............................................................. 46

Appendix 2 – 5 Provided seperately ........................................................ 48

Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019|3

4 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

Preface
In recent years, public interest in the effects of sustainability certification isbanana plantations in Magdalena region, Colombia. This region is one of therising. Several studies have been published about sustainability certification in

major banana-producing regions in Colombia, with potential for further growth.

the coffee, tea, cocoa or banana sectors, showing the relationship between

We collected data on a large number of socio-economic and environment andcertification and socio-economic and environmental outcomes. These studies

agrochemicals indicators among plantation administrators and workers on

primarily focus on farm level changes in productivity and input use,

recently certified and non-certified plantations. Accordingly, a large number ofadjustments in cultivation practices, worker conditions, and ultimately on

RA criteria, as defined in the 2017 Rainforest Alliance Sustainable Agriculture

improvements in household welfare. In addition, studies documented

Standard are evaluated.

implications of certification for landscape level outcomes, including preservationof biodiversity and reduction of deforestation.

This study is based on cross-sectional data, comparing recently certified andnon-certified farms at only one point in time. Follow-up studies among theRainforest Alliance – UTZ (RA) is one of the largest sustainability certification

same sample of banana farms will therefore provide a more thorough insight inorganisations worldwide. The RA Theory of Change postulates that compliancethe direction of causality between certification status and outcome indicators.

to social and environmental standards, combined with training and technicalassistance, leads to better livelihoods for farmers and workers. The sustainablecrop production scope within the 2017 Rainforest Alliance Sustainable

Wageningen, March 2019

Agriculture Standard includes 4 principles: (1) effective planning andmanagement system, (2) biodiversity conservation, (3) natural resource
conservation, and (4) improved livelihoods and human wellbeing. Each of theseprinciples includes a number of RA critical criteria, to which certified plantations
need to comply. These include, for example, protection of forests and othernatural ecosystems, a guarantee of at least minimum wages with progression
toward living wages, protection of worker rights, and improved worker healthand safety.
This study was conducted by Wageningen Economic Research at the request of

Prof.dr.ir. J.G.A.J. (Jack) van der Vorst

Rainforest Alliance – UTZ. We assess the relationship between recent RA

General Director Social Sciences Group (SSG)

certification and socio-economic and environmental outcomes on small-scale

Wageningen University & Research

Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019|5

Acknowledgements
Undertaking this research project would not have been possible without
support from a number of key persons, from the earliest inception stage of thisproject until the finalisation of this report. We would first like to thank
Guillermo Llinás for his contribution to the preparation and organisation of the
fieldwork in Colombia, and for his valuable contributions to the finalisation of
the report. We are also grateful for the assistance of Mario Villamil, and for the
support from Yeferson Penaranda, who had the lead in the data collection
activities. We would also like to thank Fédes van Rijn and Ruerd Ruben for
their contribution to the project. Furthermore, we gratefully acknowledge
Matthew Bare, Supply Chain Monitoring & Evaluation Manager at Rainforest
Alliance, for his patience and support throughout the project. Finally, and mostimportantly, we would like to thank both the administrators and workers at
Rainforest Alliance certified and non-certified plantations. Their kindcooperation is the basis for this study.

6 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

Summary
Motivation

Research setup and methodology

Bananas are the most exported fresh fruit in the world, but its production isThis report presents the results from research among 202 workers on 13 newly

accompanied by environmental and socio-economic challenges.

certified and 16 non-certified banana plantations in the Magdalena region of

Wage workers on plantations and in processing facilities of tropical crops are

Colombia.

among the most vulnerable people in the global commodity trade. Voluntary

In the preparatory stage of the project, stakeholders in the banana sector ofsustainability standards and certification, however, can contribute to the

Magdalena were contacted. Following this, 13 plantations were selected byadoption of improved practices, potentially leading to improved labour

availability from all newly RA-certified plantations in the Magdalena region.

conditions and reduced pressure on the environment.

Larger plantations and plantations certified for more than 3 years did notparticipate. 16 non-certified plantations were selected from the same sub-Studies examining the impact of certification on banana and fruit plantations

region of Magdalena using a snowball (non-probabilistic) technique. Data wasare scarce. This study contributes to filling that gap.

then collected on various plantation-level variables through observation and

The Rainforest Alliance (RA), which manages and oversees a global certification

administration interviews. Workers within the plantations were then randomly

standard for sustainable agriculture, along with other stakeholders, seeks to

selected, stratified by contract type (temporary / permanent). Worker data

better understand the full impact of its certification on working conditions,

was collected through interviews. Data were collected between March and May

environmental conditions, resource use efficiency, and plantation productivity

2018 in Spanish, by a team of eight experienced, local enumerators guided byin its system. The objective of this study is to provide insight into thea team leader.

differences between socio-economic and environment and agrochemicals
indicators on RA certified and non-certified small-scale banana plantations in

Data are analysed using statistical t-tests and regression analyses.1 In

the Magdalena region in Colombia.

regression, the relationship between certification status and outcome indicators
is analysed for all workers together, as well as in interaction with the contract

The study area, the Magdalena region in Colombia, is an important banana

type of workers (permanent/temporary). The selected non-certified plantations

production region, with a combination of RA-certified and non-certified

are comparable to newly-certified plantations in most respects, but they differ

plantations.

in terms of size and trader-affiliation. Hence, eventual differences between

Bananas are the third most important export crop in Colombia, and a large

certified and non-certified plantations are potentially not attributable toshare of these bananas is certified. Magdalena is an important banana-certification alone, but also to plantation size and affiliation.

producing region in Colombia, especially focusing on high-quality export
market. Magdalena region contains a diversity of certified and non-certified
plantations. In January 2018, there was a total of 84 RA-certified plantations
comprising a total production area of 7,134.61 hectares, corresponding to 47%of the banana sector of Magdalena and La Guajira.
1

Full regression results are provided in Appendix 4.

Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019|7Socio-economic indicators

contract type. Workers with a permanent contract earn higher monthly wages.

Socio-economic indicators included in this study include wages, working hours,

Monthly wage for a 26 day working week is higher or at least close to themonetary and in-kind benefits, productivity, and the functioning of theofficial minimum wage. Overall, wages stayed more or less the same atgrievance system. Socio-economic data were collected via administration andcertified and non-certified farms in the past two years.

worker interviews.
Certification contributes to additional monetary benefits for plantation workers,
Results from analysis of administration data show that hourly wages are

but no statistically significant relation with in-kind benefits could be found.

significantly higher on certified than on non-certified plantations. However,Workers on newly certified plantations more often have access to monetary

wages reported by workers on certified and non-certified plantations are notbenefits than do workers on non-certified plantations, and differences are

significantly different.

statistically significant. This relationship is most pronounced for workers with a

According to plantation administrators, the average hourly wage on newly

permanent contract. Monetary benefits include 13th month benefits, paid

certified plantations is 4,287 pesos and 3,632 pesos on non-certified

holidays, leave, and schooling, family, and housing subsidies. These findings

plantations. However, although wages reported by workers are comparable toare reported by plantation administration and corroborated by workers. Somewages reported by farm administrators, according to workers, wages do not

but not all of these benefits are required by Colombian law. There are limited

signicantly differ between certified and non-certified plantations. Instead,differences for in-kind benefits between certified and non-certified plantations.

contract status is significantly correlated with wages. Workers with permanent

In-kind benefits include meals, transportation, health benefits, education, andcontracts earn higher wages than workers with temporary contracts.

child care. However, workers with a permanent contract receive more in-kindbenefits than temporary workers. Many in-kind benefits were reported byWorkers with permanent contracts spend more time on the jobs than workers

plantation administration but not corroborated by workers.

with temporary contracts.
Workers on certified plantations report they spend more time on their jobs on

Certification is related to a safer grievance claim system.

the plantation than do workers on non-certified plantations, which is related toWorkers at certified plantations more often perceive the grievance claim

contract status rather than certification: permanent workers report they work

system as safe. The same is true for workers with a permanent contract.

40 hours per week, whereas temporary workers report they work for only

Results indicate that the benefit of certification in relationship to a safe

27 hours per week. Both administrators and workers at certified and non-grievance system is equally large compared to the benefit of having acertified plantations state that working hours did not change in 2017.

permanent contract.

Assuming full time jobs, monthly wages at newly certified plantations are
significantly higher than wages at non-certified plantations, but the differencein wages is also related to contract status.
Monthly wages are calculated assuming that workers work 26 days per month.
Both according to administrators and workers, workers at certified plantations
earn higher monthly wages than workers at non-certified plantations: 870,262
vs 797,667 COP per month as reported by administration, and 816,421 vs
755,760 COP per month as reported by workers. These wages compare to781,000 COP as the monthly minimum wage in Colombia (264 USD). However,higher wages cannot be attributed to certification status alone, but also to

8 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

Environment and agrochemicals indicators

The presence of different types of natural vegetation zones is similar at

Environment and agrochemicals indicators in this study include aerial

certified and non-certified plantations, and similar integrated pest control

fumigation practices, restrictions and protection measures for workers andmethods are applied.

neighbours, existence of natural vegetation zones, integrated pest control, andBoth newly certified and non-certified farms were likely to contain conservation

plantation mapping. Environmental data were collected via administration andareas. Newly certified farms were more likely to have buffer zones on riverworker interviews.

banks than non-certified farms (92% vs 44%), but this result is not significant
in regression analysis. The extent of the buffer zones were extremely variable

Overall, pest management and aerial fumigation practices are similar at

across all plantations. Regarding integrated pest control, similar methods are

certified and non-certified plantations, but some management practices areapplied at both newly and non-certified (manually by machete or scythe and by

better organised at certified plantations than at non-certified ones.

chemicals).

All newly certified plantations carry out aerial fumigation and rely on a service
provider to do so. 64% of non-certified plantations also rely on such service

Production and yields

providers, and an additional 14% carry out aerial fumigation using their own
equipment. Plantation managers at certified plantations also have more

Newly certified plantations had higher banana yields than did non-certified

knowledge about restrictions related to aerial fumigation. At certified

plantations, but it is not clear how much can be attributed to RA certification

plantations, neighbours are notified about pest control through meetings andstatus.
Results from worker and administrative survey show that banana yields at
newly-certified plantations are higher than at non-certified plantations.
Workers and plantation administrators at newly certified plantations also more
often perceive that production increased in the last two years than workers andadministrators on non-certified plantations. Most likely, higher yields are not
the results of certification status alone, as more productive farms are probably
more motivated to apply for certification. Note that higher production may go
together with higher production costs. Indeed, managers at newly certified
plantations have more often perceived an increase in pest management costs
over the past two years.

loudspeaker warnings more often than at non-certified plantations.
Workers and managers at newly certified plantations know more about
restricted entry interval policies. Record keeping of applications of pest control
and pest incidences is done by the majority of both newly and non-certified
plantations.
The use of protective equipment is similar at certified and non-certified
plantations, but Restricted Entry Interval after pesticide application is slightly
longer at certified plantations.
Protective equipment usage is similar across all plantations, except for theNotes on methodology

usage of helmets which is more common by workers at newly certified

Potential selection bias in this study is quite high. Therefore, results cannot be

plantations. Furthermore, regression analyses shows that time interval for

attributed directly to certification status. Box S.1 outlines the four main

entry after pesticide application (restricted time interval) is longer at newly-

reasons for potential selection bias.

certified plantations. Administrators at newly-certified plantations also more
often mention an increase in REI in the last two years compared toadministrators at non-certified plantations.

Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019|9Box S.1

Risk of selection bias

1. Only a small number of banana plantations were interested inparticipating in the study. This implies some selection effect, as likely

Recommendations
Based on the results of this study, the following policy and research oriented
policy recommendations are presented:

only the more motivated or open planation administrators decided toparticipate in the study.
2. Only newly certified plantations participated in this study; longer-term
certified plantations did not. Most newly-certified farms received
certification in 2017. Hence, not all certification-related changes may
have fully evolved yet, some change may need more time.
3. All newly certified plantations are affiliated to the same trading
company. This means that it is impossible to distinguish betweenchanges caused by trader-specific policies and certification status.
Plantation size has been accounted for in all statistical regression
analyses.
4. Participating plantations are smaller than the average RA-certified

Policy recommendations
 Together with supply chain actors, Rainforest Alliance should look into
incentives to increase wages, since wages are close to the minimum wage,
and deemed insufficient to cover daily needs.
 Supply chain actors in collaboration with Rainforest Alliance should look forincentives to further strengthen the position of temporary workers on
certified plantations; Rainforest Alliance could together with actors in the banana supply chain
address understanding of and access to in-kind benefits; Rainforest Alliance could look into possibilities for feasible alternative pest
control methods, as replacement for aerial fumigation.

plantations in Magdalena region. Hence, the sample is not
representative for all RA certificated plantations in the region, but offers

Research recommendations

an overview of what occurs at the smallest plantations.

 To better understand causal relationships between certification on social,environmental, and production indicators in the banana sector, further
research is needed.

Conclusions
The main conclusions of this study are the following: Daily and monthly wages at RA certified plantations are slightly higher thanwages at non-certified plantations. However, this difference cannot be
attributed to certification alone, but is related to contract status too.
 RA certification is related to more monetary benefits for permanent
plantation workers. Certification could thus (indirectly) contribute to higher
wages.
 Certification is related to a safer grievance claim system.
 Certification is related to more safety precautions and active communication
regarding pest management.

10 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

 For a future impact study, the sample of certified and non-certified
plantations should be increased, and the sample should be more balanced interms of trader affiliation and size;
 To improve assessment of wages, it is recommended to select a larger
sample of workers, stratified on job type. This will allow the assessment of
how job types interact with contract status and salaries, and will be
conducive in making more precise estimates of monthly salaries; Implement a second wave of data collection to trace changes over time, andto confirm causal relationships between RA certification and outcome
indicators.

Introduction
12 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

1. Introduction
Bananas are the most exported fresh fruit in the world, but banana production

certification on plantation level is scarce (see Ruben, 2017). There are few

also comes with environmental and socio-economic challenges.

empirical studies that address impact of sustainability certification in tropical

For many Latin American and Caribbean countries, bananas constitute a largecommodities at the level of hired plantation workers (e.g., Ostertag 2014;

percentage of exports, and are therefore vital to their economies. Many

Krumbiegel et al. 2018).

households depend on income derived from banana production and bananas arealso an important source of nutrition and food security for many. However, due

Rainforest Alliance and stakeholders seek to better understand the full impact

to the enormous scale on which bananas are produced, the impact on theof its training and certification programme on working conditions,environment (soil, water, air, animals, humans, biodiversity) is great. Pests andenvironmental conditions, resource use efficiency, and farm productivity.

disease management methods with significant environmental and human health

The RA theory of change (ToC) postulates that compliance to social andimpacts are widely used (FAO, 2017). Production costs of bananas are rising,environmental standards, combined with training and technical assistance,

whereas downward pressure on retail prices persists. This puts pressure on

leads to better livelihoods for farmers and workers. This includes, among otherworkers’ wages and smallholders’ income (FAO, 2018a).

things, protection of forests and other natural ecosystems, a guarantee of atleast minimum wages with progression toward living wages, protection of

Wage workers on plantations and in facilities producing and processing tropical

worker rights, and improved worker health and safety.

crops are vulnerable.
According to the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO),

This study investigates plantation-level impact of Rainforest Alliancewageworkers make up 40% of the total agricultural work force and are often

sustainability certification on banana plantations in the Magdalena region inpart of the poorest of the poor (Hurst 2005; Mueller & Chan, 2015). Wage

Colombia.

workers also vulnerable because of agrochemical usage which comes with

Changes in adoption rates for various social and environmental good practices

environmental and human health risks (FAO, 2017). And although wage workin the banana sector have been evaluated in the 2015 and 2018 Rainforest

at plantations provide an important source of income for rural communities,

Alliance Impacts Report (Rainforest Alliance, 2016; 2018). The current study

many wage workers also suffer hunger (ILO, 2017). In addition, casual orcomplements these evaluations with an in-depth analysis of plantation-leveltemporary workers are often excluded from social services (ILO, 2017). The

practices. The objective of this study is to provide insight into the potential

challenges in the banana sector, combined with the vulnerability of the

impact of RA certification on socio-economic as well as environmental andwageworkers provide an opportunity for sustainability standards such as

agrochemicals indicators on small-scale banana plantations in Magdalena.

Rainforest Alliance to address key sustainability issues in the banana sector.
The central research question this study aims to answer is: Do certified andCertification and standards can contribute to the adoption of improved

non-certified plantations differ from each other in terms of social andpractices.

environmental characteristics, and can potential differences be attributed to RA

A recent systematic review on voluntary sustainability standards shows thatcertification, or other factors?

standards can lead to improved environmental and socio-economic practices(Petrokofsky and Jennings, 2018). However, rigorous evidence on impact ofWageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019| 13

Bananas are the third most important export crop in Colombia, and a large

hectares used for banana production. While some RA-certified banana

share of these bananas is certified.

plantations in Magdalena are also organic, the ones included in this study are

Bananas have an export value of over 700 million USD in 2013, constituting

not. Bananas in the region are shipped through the port of Santa Marta, which

11% of total global banana exports (FAO, 2018a). There are several

specialises in shipping refrigerated cargo, and through the port of Barranquillasustainability certification standards active in the banana industry, such as(Semana, 2017). The combination of RA-certified and non-certified banana

Global Gap, organic, Fairtrade and Rainforest Alliance. Colombia is one of the

producers makes this region an interesting area for this study.3

four biggest exporters of organic bananas (FAO, 2018b) and the second biggest
producer of Fairtrade bananas (van Rijn et al, 2016). As of late 2017, 22.1% of

Certified plantations in this study are certified to the Rainforest Allianceall bananas certified by Rainforest Alliance is produced in Colombia (Rainforest

Sustainable Agriculture Standard (2017). The standard addresses four main

Alliance, 2018).

outcome areas:
Effective planning and management system

Magdalena is a major banana-producing region in Colombia, focusing on the

Biodiversity conservation

high-quality export market.

Natural resource conservation

The Magdalena department is located on the northern coast of Colombia, with

Improved livelihoods and human wellbeing

extensive lowlands suitable for banana cultivation (average precipitation
between 1,000 and 1,500 mm2. Banana production levels have varied slightly

Under each outcome area, a set of “critical criteria” is formulated to which

over recent decades due to regional climatic and economic variability, but haveplantations must comply as a prerequisite to certification. After being certified,been cultivated in Magdalena for over a hundred years. According to the third

plantations enter RA’s continuous improvement system. This is a six-year

national agriculture census in 2014, there were 781 production entities inperiod during which plantations progress in terms of sustainability over time,

Magdalena, together cultivating 27% of the total area used for banana

moving from ‘good’ (level C) to ‘best’ (level A).4

production in Colombia (DANE, 2015). Furthermore, 42,000 people work
directly or indirectly in the banana sector (around 7.5% of the total work force

This report presents the results from the socio-economic survey of 202 workers

in the region), showing the importance of banana production for the economy

on 13 newly certified and 16 non-certified banana plantations in the Magdalenaof the Magdalena region (Semana, 2017).

region. Socio-economic and environmental data were collected between Marchand May 2018. In addition, at each plantation, a plantation level survey was

Magdalena boasts both certified and non-certified plantations, and there isconducted with plantation administrators.

potential for further expansion of certification.
The Magdalena region boasts a diversity of certified and non-certified

The report is structured as follows. Chapter 2 explains the methodology andplantations. In January 2018, there was a total of 84 RA-certified plantations inresearch design of the study, as well as general characteristics of the

Magdalena and neighbouring La Guajira, comprising a total production area ofplantations in the sample. Chapter 3 presents the relationship between

7,134.61 hectares. This corresponds to approximately 47% of the total banana

certification and socio-economic indicators and chapter 4 presents thesector of Magdalena and La Guajira. According to figures from the Magdalena

relationship between certification and environment and agrochemicals

and La Guajiro banana growers association (Asbama), the region produces

indicators. Finally, Chapter 5 concludes and provides recommendations.

organic bananas on 2720 hectares, which constitutes almost 20% of the total
2
3

Source: http://atlas.ideam.gov.co/visorAtlasClimatologico.html
Although the main banana producing region of Colombia is in Uraba, this research study
focuses on Magdalena because in Uraba, the vast majority of banana plantations is alreadyRainforest Alliance (RA) certified.

14 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

4

See www.rainforest-alliance.org/business/sas/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/03_rainforestalliance-sustainable-agriculture-standard_en.pdf

Methods and data
Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019| 15

2. Methods and data
Preparatory phase

Figure 2.1

Study area

Key stakeholders in the Colombian banana sector were contacted in the
preparatory phase of the project.
The research project consisted of a long preparatory phase, starting in May
2017. During this period, the main stakeholders in the Colombian banana
sector were contacted by the authors of the study (WUR research team),
together with Rainforest Alliance. These stakeholders included Colombianbanana producer associations (Augura, Asbama), and banana trading
companies (Banasan, Tecbaco, Banarica, Uniban, and Daboon group).
Small, newly certified plantations and independent non-certified plantations
were willing to be part of the study. Larger plantations and plantations
certified for more than 3 years were also contacted, but could not participate.
The newly certified plantations in the sample are independently owned but allaffiliated to the same trading company, one of the major ones in Colombia,
which started the process of RA certification in Magdalena in 2017. The
plantations affiliated to this trading company operate average production
plantations5 in Magdalena (to be discussed later in study limitations). Longtime certified plantations (including larger plantations) were contacted but
were not able to participate. Non-certified plantations had an identified area of
25 hectares each, relatively small compared to RA-certified plantations. These
non-certified plantations were selected through snowball sampling (seefollowing section).

5

Banana farms in this region vary from less than 5 ha to several hundred hectares and, in
this study, banana farm size varied from 1 to 38 hectares. For simplicity, however, thesefarms are all referred to as plantations.

16 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

Adapted from Shadowxfox, licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0.

Sample selection

Data were collected by a team of experienced, local enumerators, guided by ateam leader. The team was trained and supervised by two local field

The plantations were selected in Magdalena region, located in northerncoordinators. The team leader was responsible for establishing contacts with

Colombia.

plantation owners. The study was introduced as “an evaluation of the banana

Data were collected in two administrative zones in Magdalena: Zona Banarera

sector” conducted by Wageningen University and Research, without explicit

and the neighbouring Cienaga district. Both zones are located in the north ofmention of RA certification. Interviewees were also informed that all data

Magdalena. A total of 29 plantations were selected for the study (seewould be anonymized. The team leader conducted administrative surveys with

Figure 2.1). These included 13 newly certified plantations, affiliated to theone or more plantation administrators. Enumerators conducted worker

same trading company, and 16 non-certified plantations.

interviews with plantation workers. Interviews lasted about one hour and wereconducted in Spanish (see Appendix 4 for the worker survey tool and

The sample of plantations and workers was determined in a two-stage

Appendix 5 for the administrative survey tool).

procedure. In the first step, plantations were selected.
Plantations participating in the study were contacted by the research team

Data analysis methodwith no involvement from Rainforest Alliance. Newly certified plantations wereselected randomly from the list shared by the trading company. If plantation

Data were analysed using T-tests and regression analyses.

administrators chose not to participate, the plantation was replaced by

Data were analysed similarly for worker level variables (n=202) andanother plantation from the list. Non-certified plantations were selected using

plantation level variables (n=29). T-tests compare key characteristics

snowball sampling technique. Snowball sampling uses the network of

between newly RA certified and non-certified plantations. Regression analyses

respondents that are already part of the study. The research team asked(ordinary least squares, OLS) were also conducted using a list of plantation-

plantation managers of newly certified plantations that they interviewed

level and worker-level control variables. Control variables filter out some ofwhether they knew of similar non-certified plantations in the same area, andthe confounding effects from other characteristics that may influence theapproached these for the study. This approach of course involves the risk ofoutcome variables, including worker characteristics such as age, experience,

selection bias (only the most open and motivated plantation managers agree

and gender, plantation size (hectares) and number of workers. Summary

to participate). The potential impact of selection bias is reflected on in greater

statistics of all indicators used are reported in Appendix 2. Full regression

detail in the last part of this chapter.

results are reported in Appendix 3. Statistical significance of statistical tests isreported using the p-value. All worker-level regression analyses use

In the second step of the selection procedure, workers were selected.

plantation-level clustered standard errors.

The sample of workers was stratified by job type. On plantations with fewer
than 15 wageworkers, 5 workers were selected. On plantations with more

The relationship between certification status and outcome indicators isthan 15 wageworkers, 10 workers were selected. Wageworkers were selected

analysed for all workers together, as well as in interaction with the contract

randomly split out for the main job types: field workers, packers, and officetype contract workers have.

workers – of which at least one temporary worker (regardless of his or her

In Colombia, workers with permanent contracts have a very different position

function). This resulted in a sample of 202 workers – an average of 7 workers

compared to workers with temporary contracts. They have more job security

per plantation.

and access to monetary and in-kind benefits by law. For this reason, effect ofcertification is also analysed independently, and in relation with the type ofAt each plantation, an administration level survey was conducted with one orcontract workers have.

more plantation administrators, and a worker level survey was conducted withthe selected plantation workers.

Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019| 17Figure 2.2

Plantation characteristics

Number of workers per plantation (administrative survey, n=29)

Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals
Certified and non-certified plantations are comparable in many respects but
differ in terms of size.

35

Certified and non-certified plantations are compared in terms of a number of30

key characteristics. Table 2.1 presents results for worker level and plantationlevel characteristics. The last two columns in the table report statistical25

significance levels, evaluated using T-test and ordinary least squares

20

regression (OLS). Results show that certified and non-certified plantations are15

not different in terms of most characteristics. However, certified plantations
are larger than non-certified plantations (also see Figure 2.2 and 2.3).

10
50Table 2.1

Key plantation characteristics

not certified

Not

Newly

certifiedcertified

0.327

0.439

T-testRegression

ns

ns

newly certified

Worker level data
Proportion of workers with permanent
Female workers (proportion)

0.279

0.204

ns

*

Average age of workers (years)

36,077

37,959ns*

Education level (on scale 1-5)

2,553

2,469

ns

ns

Experience workers (months)

176,490

146,776ns

ns

Area cultivated with bananas (hectares) 5,546

24,683******

Total plantation area used for banana

0.903

0.974

ns

ns

11,75024,769***ns

Plantation level data

cultivation (proportion)
Total number of workers

Figure 2.3

Area in hectares dedicated to banana cultivation (administration

survey, n=29) Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals

contract

Note: ns indicates no significance; * indicates significance at the 10% level; ** indicates significance at the
5% level; *** indicates significance at the 1% level.

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
not certified

18 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

newly certified

Socio-economic
indicators
Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019| 19

3. Socio-economic indicators
Socio-economic indicators presented in this section relate to Rainforest Alliance

Figure 3.1

Sustainable Agriculture Standard, Principle 4: improved livelihoods and humann=29) Error bars indicate 95% confidence interval

Average hourly wage in Colombian pesos (administrative survey,

wellbeing. This section of the standard states that “all humans have equal
worth and should be treated well. By following the criteria in this principle, the

5,000

standard strives for protection of human and labour rights for farmworkers and

4,500

their families.” Criteria include payment of minimum wage, no avoidance of

4,000

benefits, living wage plans or support access to health care and basic

3,500

education, access to grievance mechanisms, freedom of association, and

3,000

occupational health and safety.

2,500
2,000

Hourly wages

1,500

3,632

4,287

1,000

Plantation level data show average wages at certified plantations are higher

500

than wages at non-certified plantations.

0

Wages were calculated using the reported number of hours and weeks per
6job. Average hourly wage, based on the plantation administrative survey, is

Not certified

Newly certified

significantly higher on newly certified plantations than at non-certified
plantations (difference is significant at the 1% level) (see Figure 3.1). The
average hourly wage on newly certified plantations is 4,287 Colombian pesos(COP)—equivalent to 1.45 USD per hour, and on non-certified plantations theaverage hourly wage is 3,632 COP (or 1.23 USD per hour).7 Plantation
administrators were also asked for the lowest wages paid. These do not differ
between certified and non-certified plantations.

6

See Appendix 1 for an elaborate description of how administration reported, and worker
reported wages were calculated.

20 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

71,000 COP is equivalent to 0.338 USD (XE currency converter, accessed on 23 August 2018).

Figure 3.2

Average hourly wage workers in Colombian pesos (worker survey,

n=199) Error bars indicate 95% confidence interval

Workers with permanent contracts earn higher wages than workers withtemporary contracts.
Since workers with permanent contracts have a different status than workers

5,000with a temporary contract, we also relate working hours and wages to contract
status. As noted in the descriptive statistics, permanent worker contracts are
more common on newly certified plantations (44% vs 33%), but the difference

4,000

is not statistically significant.
Reported hourly wages should be taken with some caution as many workers

3,000

are temporary workers who rotate between plantations. This makes it difficult
4,151

2,000

4,249

to capture the average amount of hours worked for a specific task or plantation
over a certain period. Worker level data show that contract status matters forwages. Table 3.1 shows that both in the high and low season, workers with

1,000

permanent contracts earn about 700 COP per hour more than workers withtemporary contracts. Differences in both high and low season are statistically0significant at 1% level.
Not certified

Newly certified

The difference in wages between permanent and temporary workers areslightly larger at newly certified plantations compared to non-certified
plantations. However, differences are small and not statistically significant in aregression analysis.

Wages reported by farm administrators are comparable to wages reported byworkers, but they do not differ between certified and non-certified plantations.
To compare workers' hourly wages with the wages as reported in theadministration data, hourly wages reported for high and low season are

Table 3.1

Hourly wages for permanent and temporal workers

Hourly wage

averaged. The average hourly wage is 4,249 COP and 4,151 COP for workers
at newly certified and non-certified plantations (see Figure 3.2), or 4,199 COP

Throughout the year

for the whole sample (n=199). The difference between certified and non-

All workers

certified plantations is not statistically significant, and neither is the difference

Temporary

Permanent

T-testcontract

contract

diff.

3945

4610

***

(n=123)(n=76)

Regression

ns

Newly certified

3940

4637

wages for both seasons). Average hourly wage according to workers is 4,396

subsample(n=54)(n=43)COP (1.49 USD) at newly certified plantations, and 4,311 COP (1.46 USD) at

Non-certified

3948

4575

non-certified plantations in the high season, and 4,094 vs. 4,045 COP in thesubsample(n=69)(n=33)

low season. The magnitude of the wages reported by workers is close to theNote: ns indicates no significance; * indicates significance at the 10% level; ** indicates significance at the 5%

wages as reported by administrators (difference is not statistically different).

level; *** indicates significance at the 1% level. Regression analysis only for full sample of ‘all workers’, not forin hourly wage in high versus low season (in the instances, workers reported
8

***

**

newly certified / non-certified subgroups.

8

The distinction between high season and low season refers more to peaks of production, thanto actual seasons. Because banana production varies throughout the year, wages can varythroughout the year. For this reason, in the worker survey, questions were posed separately
for a high and low season. In reality, banana production is not seasonal, but peaks ofproduction can be related to rain. This meant most workers could not identify a high and low
season and their answers were related more to peaks of production. This explains why
workers sometimes gave only one answer and why more workers reported their wages for the
low season (76% versus 61% for the high season).

Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019| 21

Working hours

Figure 3.3

Average hours per week all jobs (worker survey, n=201)

Error bars indicate 95% confidence interval
Workers on certified plantations report they spend more working hours on their45

jobs on the plantation than do workers on non-certified plantations.
so hours were summed to reach the average total working hours (seemethodology Appendix 1 for more detail). Figure 3.3 shows that workers on
non-certified and newly certified plantations spent 26.5 and 40.3 hours per
week on all jobs combined. Working hours in the high and low season are
similar. Note that these figures include temporary workers as well. In contrast
to workers with permanent contracts, workers with temporary contracts areoften hired for a single job. They move from one plantation to the next, andmay thus spend only a few days at a single plantation. On a weekly basis,
permanent workers spent 10 hours more on their main job and 14 hours moreon all jobs combined than temporary workers did.
Results from regression analysis show the difference in working hours on
certified and non-certified plantations indeed is related to whether a worker
has a permanent contract (significant at the 1% level). This suggests that
more work hours on newly certified farms may be due to higher likelihood ofworkers holding a permanent contract. Sex is also loosely related: female
workers work fewer hours than male workers (significant at the 5% level in thehigh season, and at the 10% level in the low season).
Both administrators and workers state that working hours did not change in2017. Eighty-five per cent of newly certified plantation administrators statedthat working hours did not change in 2017, just as non-certified plantation
administrators.

22 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

40

Hours per week

Workers reported time spent on the different jobs they have on the plantation,

35
30
25
20
15
10

40.3
26.5

39.5
26.5

5
0
Mean hours per weekhigh season
Not certified

Mean hours per week
low season
Newly certied

Monthly wage

Monthly wage for a 26 day working week is higher than the official minimum
wage.

Monthly wages are calculated assuming that workers work 26 days per month.

The results from administration and worker surveys confirm that monthly

Workers reported the wages they earn either by day, week, or month. To makewages are thus higher (in the high season) or at least close (in the low season)

monthly wages better comparable across permanent and temporal workers

to the official minimum wage of 781,242 COP per month.

(who often do not work full time on a single plantation), daily and weekly
wages were converted to monthly wages assuming full-time work weeks of
6 days (26 days per month).9 That is, these monthly wage calculations do notdepend on hours reported in the preceding section. Therefore, in reality,
monthly wages are lower for workers who work less than 26 days per month.

Figure 3.4

Monthly wage workers in Colombian pesos (admin survey, n=29)

Error bars indicate 95% confidence interval
1,000,000

Both according to administrators and workers, workers at certified plantations
earn higher monthly wages than workers at non-certified plantations. However,higher wages cannot be attributed to certification status alone, but also tocontract type.
Based on data from the administrative survey, average monthly wage is
870,262 COP (302.40 USD) for workers on newly certified plantation versus
797,667 COP (294.15 USD) for workers on non-certified plantation (seeFigure 3.4). This difference is statistically significant in a T-test at the 10%
level, and also significantly related to certification status in a regression
analysis (significant at the 5% level).
The figures are corroborated by data from the worker survey. According to

900,000
800,000
700,000
600,000
500,000
400,000

797,667

870,262

300,000
200,000
100,000
0
Not certified

Newly certified

workers themselves, average monthly wage throughout the year is 816,421
COP (275.95 USD) for workers on newly certified plantations versus 755,760
COP (255.45 USD) for workers on non-certified plantations (see Figure 3.5).
Workers on certified plantations earn slightly higher average monthly wages
than workers on non-certified plantations (according to T-test, the difference isstatistically significant at the 5% level in the high season, and at the 10% levelin the low season). However, differences are not statistically significant inregression analysis controlling for other variables. This indicates that the wage
difference cannot be attributed to certification status alone; contract status
matters too. Especially in the low season permanent workers receive a higher
monthly wage than do temporary workers, since permanent workers receive ahigher hourly wage (significant at the 10% level).

9

See Appendix 1 for detailed explanation on calculation of wages.

Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019| 23

Figure 3.5

Average monthly wage workers in Colombian pesos (worker

Figure 3.6

Frequency of changes in salaries (administration survey, n=29)

survey) Error bars indicate 95% confidence interval

1,000,000
900,000
800,000
700,000
600,000
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0

Newly certified

755,760

816,421

15%

8%

77%

Not certified 6%

0%

94%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Increased for all workers with at least 10%

Not certified

Newly certified

Change in wages
Overall, wages stayed more or less the same at certified and non-certified
farms in the past two years.
23% of administrators of newly certified plantations reported that wages
increased in 2017, whereas they stayed more or less the same on non-certified
plantations (see Figure 3.6). However, these differences cannot be attributed
to RA certification, and results are not statistically significant in a regression
analysis. This is consistent with results from the worker survey. Workers on
newly certified plantations more often mention they receive higher wages for

Increased for some workers with at least 10%
It stayed the same for most workers

Reported wages are similar to the national minimum wages, but are deemed
insufficient to cover all daily needs by more than half of all workers.
The minimum hourly wage in Colombia is 3,255 COP, based on a daily wage of
26,041 COP and monthly of 781,242 COP.10 The reported hourly wages forpermanent workers are well above this figure, while wages for temporary
workers are around the minimum wage. Nevertheless, 60% of workers on
newly certified plantations and 52% on non-certified plantations deemed theirwage insufficient for their daily needs. 53% of permanent workers stated theirwage is not sufficient to cover daily needs.

the same hours than workers on non-certified plantations (57% versus 38%),
whereas workers on non-certified plantations more often indicated to receive
the same wage for the same hours (20% versus 38%). Note that workers are
more likely than administration to report salary increases, but this may berelated to a yearly inflation correction, which administration would not perceive
as a significant increase.

10

Note that Colombia does not have a minimum hourly wage, but a minimum monthly wage. In
2018, this amounts to 781,242 COP per month. This excludes transport allowance

24 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019(88,211 COP per month). Here, the minimum monthly wage is converted to an hourly wage
by assuming a 40-hour work week (Ministerio del Trabajo, 2017).

Monetary and in-kind benefits

Regardless of the discrepancy in reporting between administrators andworkers, overall results show that workers at newly certified farms are more

Workers on newly certified plantations—especially those with permanent

likely to receive monetary benefits and in-kind transportation benefits.

contracts—are more likely to receive different types of monetary benefits than

However, as noted above, administration at newly certified plantations claim

workers on non-certified plantations.

high rates of in-kind benefits, which are not confirmed by workers.

According to plantation administrators, both permanent and temporary
workers on newly certified plantations are more likely to receive various

Most workers (more than 90%), in both newly certified and non-certified

monetary benefits than workers on non-certified plantations. Table 3.2 shows

plantations, reported they did not observe any changes in the in-kind benefits

an overview of all monetary benefits, and the answers of both plantation

they had access to in 2017.

management and workers, for permanent and temporary workers separately.
Administrators on all newly certified plantations state that all of their

There are three possible reasons for differences in reporting on benefits

permanent workers receive a 13th month wage, paid leave and holidays

between administrators and workers.

(compared to about 30% of non-certified plantations). Workers with temporary

The differences in reporting may be due to a combination of three reasons: (1)contracts are also more likely to receive benefits on newly-certified plantations

lack of knowledge among workers (also due to the presence of temporary

than on non-certified plantations.

workers, who may be less well informed than permanent ones). It is likely thatplantation administrators are better informed than workers; (2) to the

Like administrators, workers on newly certified plantations also reported

possibility that workers reported on actually used benefits, rather than having

receiving more monetary benefits on average than workers on non-certified

access to benefits, and (3) to an incentive to over-report on benefits among

plantations. Monetary benefits mentioned by workers include subsidies foradministrators, especially if they know these benefits should exist as part ofschooling, family and housing, as well as a 13th month and paid leave andthe certification.

holidays. Regression results show that certification does increase the access ofmonetary benefits for permanent workers, more significantly so than for
temporary workers.
According to plantation administrators, workers on newly certified plantations
more often receive different types of in-kind benefits, but results are notalways corroborated by workers.
Workers on certified plantations also report receiving slightly more in-kindbenefits (such as meals, schooling, and transportation), but this difference is
not statistically significant in regression analysis: the result disappears whencontrolling for worker and plantation-specific characteristics. Table 3.3 showsthat, overall, both plantation administrators and workers at newly certified
plantations report receiving more in-kind benefits compared to administrators
and workers on non-certified plantations, including transportation toplantations, basic schooling, some health benefits, interest-free loans andadvanced payment of salaries. Workers with permanent contracts more often
report receiving in-kind benefits than temporary workers.

Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019| 25

Table 3.2

Farmers receiving monetary benefits, according to administrative survey and worker survey
Administrative survey
Permanent workers

Worker survey

Temporary workers

Permanent workers

Temporary workers

not certified

newly certified

not certified

newly certified

not certified

newly certified

not certified

13th month wage

31%

100%

19%

77%

56%

70%

1%

16%

Paid holidays

31%

100%

0%

23%

29%

74%

0%

24%

Sick leave

25%

100%

6%

69%

41%

79%

0%

20%

Maternity leave

13%

46%

0%

8%

3%

12%

0%

4%

Schooling subsidy

19%

69%

6%

15%

3%

30%

0%

13%

Family subsidy

25%

85%

0%

15%

6%

37%

0%

4%

Housing subsidy

19%

62%

0%

8%

0%

2%

0%

0%

Other

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

6%

0%

0%

N (# observations)

16

13

16

13

34

43

70

55

Table 3.3

newly certified

Farmers receiving in-kind benefits, according to administrative survey and worker survey
Administrative survey
Permanent workers

Worker survey

Temporary workers

Permanent workers

Temporary workers

not certified

newly certified

not certified

newly certified

not certified

newly certified

not certified

newly certified

Complete breakfast

63%

85%

31%

62%

50%

35%

34%

24%

Complete breakfast for family

31%

15%

6%

0%

15%

0%

1%

0%

Other meals

19%

0%

6%

0%

29%

0%

14%

7%

Other meals for family

6%

8%

0%

8%

6%

2%

0%

0%

Transport between plantation and villages

31%

85%

6%

77%

32%

70%

0%

13%
0%

Other types of transport

0%

0%

0%

8%

6%

2%

0%

In-kind health benefits

13%

62%

0%

23%

21%

28%

0%

4%

Basic schooling

13%

62%

6%

8%

3%

16%

0%

4%

Professional education

6%

8%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

Child care

6%

8%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

Funeral assistance

6%

62%

0%

8%

0%

5%

0%

2%

Interest-free loans

25%

77%

0%

23%

9%

21%

0%

9%

Advance payments

13%

54%

6%

0%

3%

16%

0%

4%

N (# observations)

16

13

16

13

34

43

70

55

26 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

Worker rights and safety

workers on non-certified plantations who stated this. However, regression
results and T-tests indicated no statistically significant differences in theseBox 3.1

Definition grievance mechanism

figures for newly and non-certified plantations. Finally, workers on newly
certified plantations more often reported high “respect” from administration in

Grievance mechanisms are formal processes that can be used by workers

terms of payment and benefits (46% on newly certified vs 35% on non-to file claims about certain situations, business processes or events thatcertified), but the difference is not significant.

they feel negatively affected by. These could for example include claims of
instances of discrimination, abuse or unfair treatment.

In some banana growing regions in Colombia, including Uraba, workers unions
are common. In Uraba, almost all banana workers, no matter the plantation
they are affiliated with, belong to a workers union. In Magdalena, the workers

Certification is related to a stronger sense of protection in the grievance claim
system for workers.
According to plantation administrators, in 2017, workers on certified
plantations filed on average two more grievance claims than workers on noncertified plantations. This difference, however, is not statistically significant ina regression analysis. Newly certified plantations more often reported they
document and record grievance claims (69% compared to 38% on noncertified); they also review grievance claims more often (100% reviewed oncea month or once every three months compared to non-certified plantations
where 50% are reviewed once a month or once every three months and therest are reviewed less often. Yet, these differences are not found to besignificant after statistical testing.
Worker level data show that on newly certified plantations, 44% of workers
feel protected in the grievance process, versus 32% of workers at noncertified plantations. Regression results indicate that it is likely that RA
certification indeed contributed to the sense of protection. The same is true
for permanent workers at both certified and non-certified plantations.
Workers’ perceptions regarding rights to organise is similar between workers
on newly-certified and non-certified plantations, but workers organisations are
not present among plantations in the study region
Most workers described their rights to organise as “partially free” or“restricted”, and half said they were “partially informed” about their rights tounion is not very strong: only one of the workers in the sample reported beinga member of a workers organisation.
Newly certified plantations more often have a professional for occupational
health (OH) practices, but there is no statistically significant difference
between newly certified and non-certified plantations in how OH is practiced.
The administrative survey included questions on OH practices. Plantation
managers reported whether OH is practiced at the plantation and described
the profile of the officer/coordinator of OH. All newly certified plantations havean OH professional versus 19% of non-certified plantations. The profile ofthese OH professionals is described as having had education, experience andextensive training in OH and sanitation. OH practices are of the following:
identify risks, security trainings, security signs, and medical exams. At newly
certified plantations, managers more often mentioned these practices, but thedifference with non-certified plantations is not statistically significant.
Furthermore, managers were asked whether any changes in OH occurred in
the last two years. The frequencies of answers are provided in Figure 3.7.
Managers at newly certified plantations more often report changes. In
particular, new programmes and training is reported by 92% of newly certified
plantations while only 19% of non-certified ones reported this change. A Ttest suggests certified plantations more often have made this change in OH(significant at the 1% level). The differences, however, are not significant in aregression analysis.

organise. Results were similar between newly certified and non-certified
plantations. Furthermore, on newly certified plantations, 76% of workers
stated that workers who organise are treated “equally”, compared to 49% of

Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019| 27

Figure 3.7

Percentage of managers reporting changes in occupational

health practices in the last two years (administration survey, n=29)

New medical exams
New signs
New programs and training
Plan revised
New plan
0%

20%

Newly certified

28 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

40%

60%

Not certified

80%

100%

Environment andAgrochemicals
Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019| 29

4. Environment and Agrochemicals
Indicators in this section refer to certain additional elements of Principle 4

several main characteristics of plantations and workers are considered in(Improved livelihoods and worker wellbeing), Principle 3 (Natural resources

regression analysis.

conservation), and Principle 2 (Biodiversity conservation), of the RA standard.
Objectives and outcomes here include safe use of agrochemicals andsustainable farming practices, which include criteria on restrictions on aerial
fumigation, use of protective equipment, and various other safety measures.

Table 4.1

Areas where aerial fumigation is restricted

Indicators related to these topics are presented first. Then, related toCommunities

All houses

PublicAround aquaticand towns

roads

ecosystems

69%

85%

62%

69%

8%

44%

69%

63%

38%

0%

T-test

ns

ns

ns

*

ns

Regression

ns

ns

ns

ns

ns

biodiversity conservation and protection of natural ecosystems, criteria include
protection and management of buffer zones and natural ecosystems.

Newly certified

Other(N=13)

Pest control application and restrictions
All newly certified plantations carry out aerial fumigation and rely on a service
provider to do so. Administrators on newly certified plantations report moreinstances of areas where fumigation is restricted, but most differences are notstatistically significant.
All newly certified plantations perform aerial fumigation (for pest and disease

Not certified(N=16)

Note: ns indicates no significance; * indicates significance at the 10% level; ** indicates significance at the 5%
level; *** indicates significance at the 1% level.

control), versus 79% of non-certified plantations. The newly certified
plantations all contract an expert or an external service provider to conduct
spraying. Most non-certified plantations also contract a service provider for
aerial fumigation, and the remaining 21% conduct pest control on-sitemanually.
Plantation managers reported where aerial fumigation is restricted on theirplantation. Sixty-nine per cent of managers at non-certified plantations
described restricting aerial fumigation around communities, compared to 44%
of newly certified plantations, 85% around all houses and towns compared to69%, and about 62% of both types of plantations reported around public roads(see Table 4.1). In these cases, differences were not statistically significant.
69% of managers at non-certified plantations reported ‘Around aquatic
ecosystems’ versus 38% of managers at newly certified plantations. Thisdifference is significant in t-test, but no longer statistically significant when30 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

Agrochemical safety: Personal protective equipment and Restricted
Entry Intervals
Protective equipment usage is similar across all plantations, with the exceptionof workers at newly certified plantations being more likely to wear a helmet
and all of their personal protective equipment (PPE).
89% of workers use personal protective equipment (PPE) as a measure related
to the application of agrochemicals. This is similar at newly certified and noncertified plantations. Furthermore, workers reported whether they used masks,
helmets, boots and/or gloves. Workers at newly certified plantations wear ahelmet (47% versus 17% at non-certified plantations, significant at the 5%
level) significantly more often. There are no further differences in usage of
PPE. Overall, 77% of workers use a mask, 91% gloves and 48% use boots.
However, workers at newly certified plantations are more likely to wear all of
their equipment when they use it (16% versus 6%).

Workers were also asked how often they wear PPE when applying

indicate that they organise regular, scheduled meetings to inform people about

agrochemicals, and if they wear all equipment. Results show that workers at

upcoming pest control, whereas this method is not mentioned at non-certified

newly certified plantations do not use PPE more often than workers at non-plantations. 85% of newly certified plantations describe making othercertified plantations.

announcements to neighbours, compared to 18% on non-certified.

One consideration with the above results is that workers on newly certified andIn addition, announcements during meetings to staff and plantation workers

non-certified plantations perform different job tasks, and workers on newly

are more common at certified plantations (see Figure 4.1). At non-certified

certified farms might be more specialized, since these plantations are larger

plantations, communication about pest control is mostly done using labels or

and hold more workers (25 vs 12 per plantation). Hence, it is possible thatsigns to notify neighbours about the upcoming fumigation. Regression results

workers on newly certified plantations are more likely to be plant workers andindicate these differences are indeed related to certification status.

therefore not need as much PPE, whereas workers on non-certified plantations
are more likely to have various tasks, including activities with agrochemicals,
and therefore use PPE. However, this observation cannot be confirmed due tothe fact that few workers reported the content of their jobs in a consistentmanner.

Figure 4.1

Frequency of ways of notifying neighbours about pest control,

multiple responses possible (administrative survey, n=29)

Workers in certified and non-certified both report a Restricted Entry Interval of

85%
92%
77%
92%
92%

3.5 hours, but regression results show that the time interval is slightly longer
at newly-certified plantations.

Regular & scheduled
meetings

38%
Newly certified (n=13)

Workers and plantation management were asked about the knowledge ofRestricted Entry Interval policies (REI). REI is the time immediately after a

Announcements during
meetings/loud speakers
to neighbours
Announcements during
meetings/loud speakers
to staff
Multiple signs aroundthe entire perimeter ofplantation
Multiple signs onplantation & access tofarm
Signs on plantation

pesticide application when entry into the treated area is restricted, to protect
workers after pesticide application. The actual time interval mentioned by both
workers and managers is about 3.5 hours. There is no significant difference
between newly certified and non-certified plantations on the estimated interval

Not certified (n=16)

13%
38%
81%
50%
75%

based on simple T-test results. However, regression analysis shows that timeintervals are longer at newly-certified plantations.11 Administrators at newlycertified plantations also more often mention an increase in RIE in the last two
years compared to administrators at non-certified plantations (77 vs. 55%)

0%

50%

100%

(Figure 4.2).
At certified plantations, the policy of notifying staff and neighbours about pest

Figure 4.2 shows that administrators at newly-certified plantations also more

control is organised more actively than at non-certified plantations.

often mention an increase in number of warning signs used in the last two

Plantation managers were asked about the policy of notifying neighbours about

years compared to administrators at non-certified plantations (92 vs. 64%).

pest control. Thirty-eight per cent of administrators at certified plantations
11

A significant regression result while the difference in a simple T-test is not significant, can becaused by low statistical power of the T-test compared to regression analysis with control
variables—in combination with the small sample size. The significant result in the regression

could also be due to spurious effects. Therefore, the result should be interpreted with somecaution.

Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019| 31

Figure 4.2

Changes noticed in REI in last two years (administrative survey,

This study did not include trends over time in the extent of natural vegetation
zones. Without knowing these trends, it is not possible to estimate the effects

n=24)

of certification on natural vegetation zones.
At both newly and non-certified plantations, integrated pest control is largely

8%
77%

Newly certified

Other more restrictive
policies

62%
92%

Longer re-entry interval
More warnings & more
often

9%
55%

Not certified

More signs

91%
64%
0%

50%

100%

done manually by machete or scythe and by chemicals.
The majority of managers at both newly certified and non-certified plantations
indicated they used biological methods (85 and 64%), manual methods (85and 100%), and any other methods (62 and 50%). Among ‘other methods’,
less than 10% of both newly and non-certified plantations mention the usageof traps. Manual methods both for insect pests and weeds are the usage of ascythe and/or machete as mentioned by all non-certified plantations and by
77% of newly certified plantations.
Contrary to non-certified plantations, all newly certified plantations are
mapped.
44% of non-certified plantations are mapped, versus 100% of newly certified
ones, but this difference is not statistically significant in regression analysis.

Record keeping of applications of pest control and pest incidences is done by

Plantations with maps confirm the map became more detailed in the last two

the majority of both newly and non-certified plantations.

years. Newly certified plantations have a digital map more often (seeAround 80% of plantations keep records of the number of applications of pest

Figure 4.3).

control and around 75% of all plantations record pest incidences. There are no
statistical differences between newly certified and non-certified plantations.
Natural vegetation zones, integrated pest control methods andFigure 4.3

Frequency of plantations with plantation map (administrative

survey, n=29)

mapping
Existence of natural vegetation zones is similar at all plantations. Ground coveris also reported at 100%, on both certified and non-certified plantations.
Natural vegetation zones constitute conservation areas, fallow areas, buffer

Newly certified (n=13)

77%

23%

zones on the river banks and other buffer zones of natural vegetation.
Existence of natural vegetation zones is similar for newly certified and non-No mapcertified plantations. Newly certified plantation managers mention considerably

Paper map

smaller buffer zones at river banks (but this result does not hold in regression
analysis when controlling for worker and plantation characteristics).

Digital map
Not certified (n=16)

56%

38%

6%

Ground cover was reported as 100% of the production area on all plantations,with more than one species, by both newly certified and non-certified
plantation managers.

32 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

0%

50%

100%

Production & yields
Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019| 33

5. Production & yields
Improved worker conditions and farm practices, stimulated by certification,

Both workers and plantation administrators at newly certified plantations more

may in the longer run also contribute to higher yields (e.g., see Rainforest

often perceive that production increased in the last two years than workers

Alliance, 2015). This study does not allow to measure the impact of RA

and administrators on non-certified plantations.

certification on yields, due to the short period plantations in the sample have

When asked about their perception on changes in production in the last two

been certified. However, data on banana yields, production costs, andyears, 30% of newly certified plantation administrators report that production

perceived changes in production volume were collected among plantation

has increased, while no increase is reported by managers on non-certified

administrators as well as perceived changes in pest management costs. These

plantations (see Figure 5.1). Similar results are found based on the worker

are reported below.

survey. Regression results indicate these worker and plantation level
differences are indeed related to certification status of the plantations.

Banana yields at newly-certified plantations are higher than at non-certified
plantations.

Most likely, higher yields are not the results of certification status alone.

Accounting for the land size dedicated to banana production, yields

It is not likely that higher yields are (solely) a result of certification, given the(production of boxes per week per hectare) have been calculated. Regression

short period plantations in the sample have been certified. The result may

results show that certification status is correlated with yields: they are higher

rather indicate reverse causality. In other words, more productive plantation

at newly certified plantations than at non-certified ones (see Table 5.1).

owners may be more motivated to apply for certification, than less productive
ones. The yield increase may also be related to technical assistance andtraining received from the trader in recent years.

Table 5.1

Production variables at newly certified and non-certified

plantations (administrative survey, n=29)
Yield (boxes per% production with

Costs of production

week per ha)export quality

per crate

Newly

43

100

19,000certified

(1)

(0)

(1,000)

N

13

13

2

Non-certified

39

97

14,364

(2)

(3)

(742)

N

16

16

11

T-test**ns**

Regression

*

ns

ns

Note: Values are mean, with standard deviation in parentheses, followed by n. ns indicates no significance; *indicates significance at the 10% level; ** indicates significance at the 5% level; *** indicates significance atthe 1% level.

34 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

Figure 5.1

Figure 5.2

Change in banana production over past two years

Frequency of plantation managers which reported change inpest management costs for past two years (administrative survey, n=29)(administrative survey, n=29)

Newly certified

Newly certified

15%

Not certified

Not certified

18%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

more than 10% increase

1-10% increase

more or less equal

1-10% decrease

100%

0%

Increased > 10%

23%

54%

8%

82%

20%

40%

Increased 1-10%

60%

Similar80%

100%

Decreased 1-10%

more than 10% decrease

Higher production may go together with higher costs of production. Indeed,
managers at newly certified plantations more often perceive an increase inpest management costs during the past two years.
At newly certified plantations, 38% of administrators report an increase inpest management costs in the past 2 years, compared to 18% ofadministrators at non-certified plantations (see Figure 5.2). This is, however,
not attributable to certification status. Possibly, as yields at certificatedplantations increased, it is not surprising that pest management costs
increased as well—possibly due to technical assistance or training provided by
the trader.

Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019| 35

Risks of selection
effects and related
potential bias

36 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

6. Risks of selection effects and related potential bias
Potential selection bias in this study is quite high. Therefore, results cannot be
attributed directly to certification status. Readers should be aware of four

3. All newly certified plantations are affiliated to the same trading
company, and are larger than non-certified plantations.

study limitations with regards to selection effects and other potential forms of

The selected non-certified plantations are comparable to newly-certified

bias, which are helpful for interpreting the outcomes of this study.

plantations in most respects, but they differ in terms of size and affiliation.
Newly certified and non-certified plantations are comparable in terms of

1. Only a small number of banana plantations were interested inparticipating in the study.

geographic location, contract types, level of education of workers, months ofworker experience, and the proportion of total land used for banana

In the preparatory phase of this research project, it became apparent that key

cultivation. However, non-certified plantations are smaller than the sample ofstakeholder in the banana value chain, including producer organisations,newly certified plantations (see Table 2.1, Figure 2.1 and Figure 2.2). The

traders’ organisations, and traders themselves, were unwilling to become partaverage number of workers on certified plantations is 25, compared to 12 onof the study. Their cooperation was needed for random sample selection.

non-certified plantations. This is also reflected in the area dedicated to banana

However, none of these organisations – save one – were willing to share lists

production: 25 hectares on average on newly certified plantations; comparedof affiliated plantations.

to 5.5 hectares on non-certified ones.

Without formal support from traders’ organisations, it was not easy to findIn addition, all newly certified plantations are affiliated with the single trader

plantation owners willing to be part of the study. As a result, it is possible thatthat did share a list of affiliated plantations. This trader is one of the main

the plantation owners that participated in the study were more open thanplayers in the Colombian banana market, and started the process of

those who did not participate. The sample of plantations in this study is thus

certification in Magdalena region only recently—in 2017. The trader affiliation

not fully representative for all small plantations in Magdalena.

is fully correlated to certification status. Trader affiliation potentially affects
yields through technical assistance and training to the plantations, which then

2. Only newly certified plantations participated in this study; longer-

makes it difficult to isolate the effects of certification.

term certified plantations did not participate.
The research team received a list with newly-certified plantations from one of
the traders. Hence, only newly-certified plantations are part of this study. The

4. Participating plantations are smaller than the average Rainforest
Alliance certified plantations in Magdalena region.

implication is that the effects of certification may not yet be fully visible yet;

Finally, the newly certified plantations are all relatively small compared tosome changes need some time. On the other hand, as plantations are in theother RA-certified banana plantations in Magdalena. The plantations affiliatedmiddle of a transformation process, plantation owners, and perhaps evento this trading company operate an average area of 25 hectares each. In

workers, may be additionally aware of the implications of certification. This

comparison, the average banana production area for RA certified plantations

awareness may fade somewhat over time. Hence, effects of certification may

in the Magdalena region is about 80 hectares.

be subject to change over time. It is possible that yields will increase overtime, whereas awareness of worker rights and safety regulations may be at its

Hence, the results from this study may not be representative for RA

peak at the moment.

certification in Colombia, or even in the Magdalena region. It is possible that

Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019| 37effects of RA certification would be different on larger plantations, due to scaleeffects. The direction of these possible differences could be positive or
negative. However, the results of this study are indicative for the impact ofRainforest Alliance certification on small plantations.
In all analyses, plantation size is included as control variable, which filters out
some, but not all of the correlation between plantation size and outcome
indicators.

38 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

Conclusions andrecommendations
Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019| 39

7. Conclusions and recommendations
The aim of this study was to assess the effect of Rainforest Alliancea larger fraction of permanent workers than non-certified plantations (44certification on socio-economic and environment and agrochemicals indicators

versus 33%). However, this difference is not statistically significant.

on small-scale banana plantations in Colombia. To this end, this study

Nevertheless, these results indicate that certification status may relate tocompared newly certified RA plantations with non-certified plantations inhigher wages through the provision of permanent contracts. Wages reported

Magdalena, Colombia, in terms of selected socio-economic and environment

by administrators and workers are similar, and confirm that wages are welland agrochemicals indicators. Data were collected through structured

above or at least close to the official minimum wage in Colombia.

interviews with 29 plantation administrators and 202 workers. Based on theanalysis of the plantation and worker level survey data, and taking into

RA certification is related to more monetary benefits and in-kindaccount the methodological considerations, a number of conclusions can betransportation benefits (but not to other in-kind benefits), mostly so fordrawn, followed by a set of policy and research recommendations.

permanent plantation workers.
Contract type matters for monetary and in-kind benefits: permanent workers

Conclusions

have access to more monetary and in-kind benefits than temporary ones.
However, certification strengthens the access of permanent workers toSocio-economic indicatorsmonetary benefits, such as 13th month wage, and paid leave and holidays,

Assuming full time jobs, monthly wages at newly certified plantations are

and in-kind benefit of transportation. Hence, even though it cannot beslightly higher than wages at non-certified plantations, but the difference inconfirmed that hourly wages are higher on certified than on non-certified

wages cannot be attributed to certification status alone.

plantations, total monthly wages, including benefits, are likely to be

Monthly wages were calculated assuming that workers work 26 days perdifferent—especially for permanent workers. For example, inclusion of a 13thmonth. Both according to administrators and workers, workers at certified

month wage would account for a 10% higher yearly wage.

plantations earn higher monthly wages than workers at non-certified
plantations. However, higher wages cannot be attributed to certification status

It is possible that part of this difference is due to plantation size differences.

alone, but also to contract status. Workers with a permanent contract earn

Plantation owners of the smallest plantation may not be able to provide theseslightly higher hourly and thus monthly wages than workers with temporary

benefits to their few workers. However, it is likely that at least part of thecontracts. Note that, in reality, temporary workers even earn lower wages, asdifference can be attributed to RA certification, as these benefits are part ofthey work fewer hours than permanent workers. Overall, wages stayed more

the RA standard.

or less the same at certified and non-certified farms in the past two years.
RA certification is related to a more developed grievance systems, andMonthly wages were calculated assuming full-time work, but workers at

workers at certified plantations feel safer in the grievance claim system, whencertified plantations reported significantly more working hours per week thanthey make use of it.

workers at non-certified plantations. Regression analysis showed that thisAdministrators at newly certified plantations describe more documentationdifference is due to contract status of workers, rather than to certificationand more frequent review of grievance claims. Workers at certified plantations

status of the plantation. Data indicate that newly-certified plantations employ

also report they feel safer in the grievance claim system than workers at non-

40 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

certified plantations. It is likely that this is related to RA certification, as thepest control notification, it is likely that the difference in RIE is attributable togrievance system is explicitly part of the RA standard.

RA certification, as safety regulations are at the core of the RA standard.

Environment and agrochemicals indicators

Existence of natural vegetation zones and application of integrated pest

RA certification is related to more actively organised pest control notification.

control methods is similar at certified and non-certified plantations.

The study shows that there are no large differences in pest management

Natural vegetation is generally limited at banana plantations. In addition, RA-

practices at newly certified and non-certified plantations. Aerial fumigation iscertified farms are only required to meet minimal natural vegetation criteria.

widespread on both types of plantations. This is in line with findings from aWith respect to IPM, practices are likely to be similar at certified and non-recent study by Bellamy et al. (2016) among RA-certified plantations in Costa

certified farms, due to industry-wide pest control practices that are

Rica, which reports little difference in the application of pesticides between

recommended in the banana sector.

Rainforest Alliance certified banana plantations and non-certified plantations in
Costa Rica. Note that it is not fully clear to what extent trading companies are

Production indicators

involved in plantation management decisions including pest control, andNewly certified plantations had higher banana yields than did non-certified

whether the management of small plantations can decide about aerial

plantations, but it is not clear how much can be attributed to RA certification

fumigation. However, administrators at certified plantations in Magdalena arestatus.

more active in communicating warnings to plantation workers and neighbours

Improved worker conditions and farm practices, stimulated by certification,

than managers at non-certified plantations. It is likely that this result ismay, in the longer run, also contribute to higher yields. Results show that

attributable to RA certification, as safety regulations are at the core of the RAbanana productivity (production per hectare) is significantly higher at RA-

standard. Record keeping of applications of pest control and pest incidences iscertified plantations than at non-certified plantations. The relation between

done by the majority of both newly and non-certified plantations.

certification and productivity is in line with various studies about the impact ofRA certification in the coffee sector (e.g., see Haggar et al. (2012) on costs

Results cannot confirm that RA certification is related to more frequent use ofand benefits of sustainable coffee production in Nicaragua, and Hughell andprotective equipment, but RA certification is related to slightly longer

Newsom (2013) on impact of RA certification on coffee plantations in

Restricted Entry Interval after pesticide application.

Colombia. However, as far as we are aware, there is no published research

Results show that protective equipment usage is similar across all plantations,about the relationship between certification and yields in banana plantations.

with the exception workers at newly certified plantations are more likely towear a helmet and to wear all of their equipment. Workers at newly certified

Current yield differences are likely related to affiliation to the trader. Traders

plantations do not use PPE more often than workers at non-certified

provide technical assistance through their own agronomists, although theplantations. However, use of PPE is not disaggregated for job types, which —amount and quality of training provided varies. It is thus not possible to (fully)

ideally — should be done to get a better understanding of the use of relevant

attribute this result to RA certification. However, higher productivity may be

PPE at the right moments. For example, plant workers would need fewer

related to RA certification in the longer term.

protective measures than workers involved in application of pest control.
Results based on the worker survey show that the time interval of entry after
pesticide application is slightly longer at newly-certified plantations.
Administrators at certified plantations also observed a larger increase in RIE in
the past two years than administrators at non-certified plantations. Like for

Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019| 41

Recommendations

look for incentives to further strengthen the position of temporary workers on

The results of this study have led to a number of policy and research related

certified plantations, and to assess whether some temporary workers could

policy recommendations.

receive a permanent contract.

Policy recommendations

Together with supply chain actors, Rainforest Alliance could address access to

Together with supply chain actors, Rainforest Alliance should look into

in-kind benefits, as on both certified and non-certified plantations,

incentives to increase wages.

administrators and workers report differently on access to in-kind benefits.

Data show that wages on certified plantations are slightly higher than on non-

It was expected that RA certification would increase access to in-kind benefits.

certified plantations, especially when taking into account the higher number ofHowever, results from the surveys show that plantation owners systematicallymonthly working hours among permanent workers. Workers at certified

report more access to in-kind benefits than workers do. It is not clear whether

plantations, especially those workers with permanent contracts, also morethis is due to knowledge differences, or to the fact that workers may haveoften have access to monetary benefits. These could make a significant

access to in-kind benefits but do not use them, or to incentives to over orcontribution to annual incomes. However, reported wages are just above orunderreport access to benefits. This is something to investigate further.

close to the national minimum wages. And according to more than half of theHence, together with actors in the banana supply chain, Rainforest Allianceworkers, wages are deemed insufficient to cover all daily needs.

could address understanding of and access to in-kind benefits in training
sessions with workers and plantation managers.

Hence, it is recommended to look for plantation level incentives to increase
wages at certified plantations. Note that this second point is addressed in the

Together with supply chain actors, Rainforest Alliance could look into

2017 Rainforest Alliance standard, which had just come into effect at the timepossibilities for alternative pest control methods.

of the study. The standard includes the living wage concept as a means ofResults from this study indicate that all certified plantations use aerial

addressing worker wages.12

fumigation for pest control. This is a widespread practice in the banana
production sector. Safety regulations are strict, especially at RA-certified

Together with supply chain actors, Rainforest Alliance could address theplantations. However, aerial fumigation comes with high risks for the

position of temporary workers.

environment and human health. It is not fully clear to what extent trading

Workers with a temporary contract receive lower salaries and have access tocompanies are involved in plantation management decisions, including

monetary and in-kind benefits less often than workers with a permanent

decisions about pest control. Therefore, together plantation management andcontract. Ideally, certification would also provide incentives to plantation

trading companies, RA could investigate the possibility of introducing feasible

owners to further strengthen the position of temporary workers. Results

alternative pest control methods that could reduce aerial fumigation.

indicate that the fraction of permanent workers is larger on certified
plantations than on non-certified plantations, although the difference is not

Research recommendations

statistically different. As the majority of workers has a temporary contract,

To better understand causal relationships between certification on social,receiving lower wages and fewer benefits, the position of temporary workers

environmental, and production indicators in the banana sector, further

could be addressed. Together with supply chain actors, RA could address how

research is needed.

benefits related to certification interact with benefits that are part of national

To date, very little published research exists about causal relationshiplabour law, and how these relate to contract types. It is also recommended to

between certification and social, environmental, and production indicators.

12

Currently, a living wage benchmark is being calculated for the agriculture sector in the Urabaregion. This will be relevant for certification in the future (seehttps://www.globallivingwage.org/countries/colombia/).

42 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

Even though the current study cannot point out the direction of causality

Implement a second wave of data collection to trace changes over time, anddirectly, it provides a valuable contribution to existing literature. However, it

confirm causal relationships between RA certification and outcome indicators.

is a topic that needs to be examined further, using good comparison groups,

Carrying out a second wave of data collection in a few years would belarge samples, and multiple data collection rounds over time. The next threevaluable for two related reasons. First, a follow-up analysis of the same

research recommendations address these issues in more detail.

sample of plantations would allow Rainforest Alliance to track whether
differences between certified and non-certified plantations change over time.

Increase the sample of certified and non-certified plantations, and make sure

Possibly, some effects will increase over time, as the results of some changes

that the sample is balanced in terms of trader affiliation and size.

related to certification, may need time to become visible (and measurable). It

The design of the current study was not optimal for several reasons. All

is also possible that other differences become smaller, such as the costs ofcertified plantations are affiliated to the same trader, and certified and non-production.

certified plantations differed in terms of size.

Second, a follow-up study would allow for more reliable conclusions on theattribution of differences to RA certification. In other words, it would allow theThis has implications for this study, as it potentially confounds the findings.

research team to identify causal relationships with more confidence.

For a future study, it is important to increase the sample of plantations, andmake sure that plantation characteristics are orthogonal to certification status.
Increase the sample of workers, stratified by job types and contract status, as
this would allow for a more precise assessment of wages and help draw betterconclusions about the use of relevant personal protective equipment.
To improve the assessment of wages, it is recommended to select a larger
sample of workers, stratified not only on contract status but also on type ofjobs. This will allow the researchers to assess how job types interact with
contract status and salaries, and will be conducive in making more precise
estimates of monthly salaries.

Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019| 43

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Krumbiegel, K., M. Maertens, and M. Wollni. 2018. “The Role of Fairtrade

What is in a label? Rainforest Alliance certified banana production versus

Certification for Wages and Job Satisfaction of Plantation Workers.” World

non-certified conventional banana production. Global Ecology andDevelopment 102: 195-212.

Conservation 7, 39–48.
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Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019| 45

Appendix 1

Indicator definition

Wages

Worker data

To calculate hourly wages from the available survey data, some calculations

Workers reported either their daily (n=59), weekly (n=16) or monthly wage

and choices have been made. These are explained below.

(n=127), for up to 3 jobs or tasks. To calculate the worker level wages, thefollowing preparatory steps were undertaken for hourly wage:

Admin data
From the data from the administration survey, the lowest on-plantation wage
and the average on-plantation wage was calculated, for both the low and thehigh season. In the survey, wages could be reported per hour, per day, perweek or per month. From the answers given it is evident “per month” was not Second task hours without explanation and that created inconsistent results
were dropped; Wages for high and low season and tasks were adjusted to have the same
unit for each worker;
 In some cases, reported monthly wages were inconsistent with the total

always well understood, as respondents did not report the total amount of

number of hours reported in that month. In these cases, it was assumed thathours here but did indicate the length of time was 4 weeks, which is indeed

the average daily or weekly wage was reported, instead of the total monthly

almost a month.

wage.

Administrators reported their wages as monthly or daily, for up to five activities

Subsequently, average hourly wages were calculated for the 3 main jobs

at the plantation.

together.

Wages were calculated per hour and per month. To reach hourly wages, theSome of the amount of working hours reported by the farmers may have been

following steps were taken:

under- or overestimated. In addition, the working period for the wage paid (per

 Wages reported daily are divided by the average number of hours reported

hour, per week, per month or per job) is unreliable for some farmers. Hourly

per week Wages reported monthly are divided by 4.33 weeks per month and by the
number of hours reported per week

wages were excluded if they exceeded 9,765 pesos (which is three times theminimum wage). Consequently, 4 observations for the high season and 2
observations for the low season were excluded from the analysis.

 Hourly wages are calculated for each of the five activities and in the end
averaged.

To calculate the worker level monthly wages, the following was done: Daily wages were multiplied by 26 working days to get an estimate for the

To reach monthly wages, the following (similar) steps were taken Wages reported as daily are multiplied by 26 days per month Wages reported as daily that did not match with the reported hours, weremonthly wage (in Colombia workers usually work 6 out of 7 days per week);
 Weekly wages were multiplied by 4.33 weeks to get an estimate for themonthly wage.

excluded (n=29), which resulted in 103 observations for all activities left Wages reported as monthly were left as they were

In this way, the average monthly wage was calculated for both the high andlow season.

46 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

A comparison of these wages should be done with caution; keeping in mind that
62% of workers are actually part-time employed and therefore receive lessthan a minimum wage (per month). Also, when comparing monthly rates to thenational minimum wage, it must be remembered permanent workers receive
many benefits on top of their monthly wage, and a bare comparison may not be
precise.
Other indicators
Other indicators used in the analysis are constructed as indicated in the tablebelow:
Indicator

Description

banarea

Proportion of total plantation area cultivated total area used for banana
by bananas

Definition
production / total plantationarea

wtothrpm_highaverage hours/week high season for all jobs

total hours summed per week
all jobs high season

inkind_countmonben_countamount of in-kind benefits received out ofcounted amount of in-kind

14

benefits

amount of monetary benefits received out

counted amount of monetaryof 8benefits

Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019| 47

Appendix 2 - 5 Provided separately
Appendix 2

Statistical overview & regression results

Appendix 3

Regression results

Appendix 4

Administrative survey

Appendix 5

Worker survey

48 | Wageningen Economic Research Report 2019-019

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