156

International Workshop on “Importance of neighboring network towards disaster mitigation and sustainable development among Myanmar, Bangladesh, and Japan”
Date: December 23, 2015

Place: SEAMEO-CHAT, Yangon
Workshop Program
08:30 – 09:00

Registration

09:00 – 09:15
Opening speech by Director, SEAMEO-CHAD
09:15 – 09:30	Welcome speech by Dr. Kazuo Ando, Center for Southeast
Asian Studies (CSEAS), Kyoto University
09:30 – 10:00
Coffee Break
10:00 – 10:20	Aung Naing Oo, Department of Soil and Water Science, Yezin
Agricultural University“Nutrient Management for Rice Production in Myanmar”

10:20 – 10:40
Dr. Khin lay Swe (FREDA)	“Coastal Salinity in Ayeyarwady Region, Myanmar: Case Studyof the Salinity Impact on Rice Production in Pyapon Township, Ayeyarwady Region”
10:40 – 11:00
Taiichi Hayashi, CSEAS, Kyoto University
	“Meteorological Disasters in the coastal area of the Bay of
Bengal”
11:00 – 11:20
Myint Thida, Department of Geography, University of Yangon
	“Impacts of Natural Disaster on Economy of Rural Areas: A

case Study on Ahmar Sub-township of Phyapon Township,

Ayeyarwady Region”
11:20 – 11:40	Nyein Nyein Htwe, Department of Agronomy, Yezin Agricultural University,	“Impact of Flood on Agricultural Production in Seikphyu
11:40 – 12:00

Township, Magwe Region”
Kazuo Ando, CSEAS, Kyoto University

	“The importance of technological transfer of Traditional Tech-

nologies or Local Existing Technologies among the neighbor-

157

12:00 – 13:00

ing countries around Myanmar ”
LUNCH

13:00 – 13:20	Nandar Aye Chan, Department of Agricultural Economics,
Yezin Agricultural University
	“Study on Agricultural Labor Migration of Selected FarmHouseholds in Kyaukpadaung Township”
13:20 – 13:40

Yusuke Yamane, Faculty of Education, Tokoha University“Workshop for reducing severe wind damages in Bangladesh”
13:40 – 14:00
Dr.Lwin Lwin Naing (ECCDI)
	”SUSTAINING COMMUNITY AND FOREST DEVELOPMENT THROUGH COMMUNITY FOREST ENTERPRISE - A CASE STUDY IN SOUTHERN SHAN
STATE”
Yoshio Akamatsu, CSEAS, Kyoto University
	“Transition of man-made landscape and contemporary problems of mountain villages in Japan”
14:00 – 14:20	Dr. Mar Mar Win, Food Legumes Section, Department ofAgricultural Research, Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar.
“Adaptation of Yunnan Soybean in Hilly Region of Shan State”
14:20 – 14:40
Mu Mu Age, West Yangon Technological University,
	“Climate resilient and low carbon development research andactivities in Myanmar”
14:40 – 15:00
Closing Remark by Dr. Ando
BannerInternational Workshop on “Importance of neighboring network towards disastermitigation and sustainable development among Myanmar, Bangladesh, and Japan”

Sponsored by Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, SEAMEO,YAU, FREDAPractice-oriented Area Studies Series No.9

Paper Collection of Unknown Contemporary Issues for
Sustainable Environmental and Rural Development in
Myanmar: Highlighting Collaboration with
Bangladesh, Bhutan and Japan
Edited by
Kazuo Ando, Khin Lay Swe and Mamoru Kanzaki

Department of Practice-oriented Area Studies, Center for Southeast AsianStudies (CSEAS), Kyoto University
in collaboration with
SEAMEO Regional Centre for History and Tradition (SEAMEO-CHAT)
Yezin Agricultural University (YAU)
Postgraduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University

The Practice-oriented Area Studies aim at the alternative Area Studies to establish
the consciousness of “ZAICHI” (Locally existing) in the researchers’ mind and attitude by mutual enlightenment to collaborate with the local people conducting their“Practice” in their living areas. The Practice-oriented Area Studies Series are to publish the research outcome on the basis of these researchers’ consciousness.
Kazuo Ando
Coordinator, Practice-oriented Area Studies SeriesFirst Edition
March 2016
150 copies
Copyright@editors

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means – electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission fromthe editors. For information address Department of Practice-oriented Area Studies,
CSEAS, Kyoto University, 46 Yoshida-Shimoadachi- Cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 6068501, Japan (E-mail: ando@cseas.kyoto-u.ac.jp)

Published by Department of Practice-oriented Area Studies, Center forSoutheast Asian Studies (CSEAS), Kyoto University
in collaboration with SEAMEO Regional Centre for History and Tradition(SEAMEO-CHAT),Yezin Agricultural University (YAU), Postgraduate Schoolof Agriculture, Kyoto University
Edited in Collaboration with Lekhapora Editing
Printed by Tanaka Printing
Cover design by Lekhapora Editing
Cover photo: Traditional bullock cart in central Myanmar (Photo by Kazuo Ando,
December 20, 2015)

ISBN 978-4-906332-34-2

Practice-oriented Area Studies Series No.9

Paper Collection of Unknown Contemporary Issues for
Sustainable Environmental and Rural Development in
Myanmar: Highlighting Collaboration with
Bangladesh, Bhutan and Japan

Edited by
Kazuo Ando, Khin Lay Swe and Mamoru Kanzaki

Department of Practice-oriented Area Studies, Center for Southeast AsianStudies (CSEAS), Kyoto University
in collaboration with
SEAMEO Regional Centre for History and Tradition (SEAMEO-CHAT)
Yezin Agricultural University (YAU)
Postgraduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University

2

Dedicated to the memory of Professor Yoshikazu Takaya

3

Editors’ Note and Acknowledgement
This publication is the academic paper collection from the presentations at a series of
the workshops held between April, 2014 and Feburary, 2016, concerning sustainableagricultural and rural development as well as environmental resource management
in collaboration with the following programs;
1. Kyoto University Program: Promotion of International Collaboration on Bioresources Management in Myanmar (PICBiRMa)
2. Kyoto University SPIRITS Program: Mitigation Cyclone and Flood Damages
in Myanmar: Applying the Bangladesh’s Successful Experience
3. Kyoto University ISS HOGA Project: Action research on knowledge fromexperience and its practical use about disaster prevention and mitigation for
natural disaster in Bangladesh: Application of Sustainability Science to Area
Studies
4. Program of Collaborative Research on Transitional Justice and Inclusive Economic Development in Developing ASEAN Countries
5. KAKEN Challenging Exploratory Research Project: Study of a Site-Specific
Rural Development Model through Alternative ZAICHI (existing locally)
Cultural Formation
A series of the workshop has been planned in relation to the resent situation ofAgriculture and Rural Development in the developing countries such as Myanmar,
Bangladesh and Bhutan, which have rapidly changed because of the socio-cultural
impact of economic globalization, excessive modernization in agriculture, forestry,
fishery and rural development with paying less regard to the ecology and climatechange etc., occurring beyond the common sense in last two decades. The impact
has appeared as phenomenon of depopulation, abandoning farming, artificial salinity problem in agriculture and damage by natural disaster e.g. super cyclone, flood
earthquake etc. The papers related to Myanmar in this publication are commonly
not familiar to both people outside as well as inside the country because the facts
reported by the papers have been limitedly recognized by local people, even at thepresent. The other facts related to Bangladesh, Bhutan and Japan are also not familiar to the people outside each country. To realize sustainable environmental and ruraldevelopment in the future, the countries facing these problems are to exchange theirexperience possibly in order to find an alternative way for overcoming the problem.
Challenging this collaborated effort, the essential first step is to share the facts ineach country. A series of the workshops were held to meet this objective and makestrong network among the participants. The necessity of academic collaboration

4

among Myanmar, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Japan is also discussed in this publication.
We fondly hope that this publication is to meet interest of the people engaged in thearea studies on Myanmar in particular as well as the studies of environmental andrural development.
This editorial note was written during my field work in Bhutan from March 4 toMarch 15, 2016. In the early morning of March 15, when I was preparing my belongings for the departure from Paro international airport at 11:00, the shock news
reached me. Dr. Yosshikazu Takaya, professor emeritus of Kyoto University, suddenly passed away in the hotel during his field work in India on March 11, 2016. He
is a devoted teacher and a field worker of the area studies. He is really a pioneer toseek the area studies as a discipline. He completed Ph.D in geology of the postgraduate school of sciences of Kyoto University and started his career of a professional
scholar since the inception of Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University
in 1960s. I has been fully guided by him from my student time in the postgraduate
school of agriculture, Kyoto university to the present. The concept and methodology
of my area studies as a field worker must owe to Prof. Takaya. Personally, I would liketo dedicate this publication in memory to Professor Yoshikazu Takaya who is being
loved and respected by me as well as the students, teachers and scholars working in
the area studies, Kyoto University.
We are thankful to SEAMEO-CHAT, Yezin Agricultural University, Yangon University and Kyoto University as well as the belonging organizations of the workshop
participants, especially, the contributors of this publication for their kind cooperation. At the last but not least, we would like to acknowledge ISS, Kyoto University
for financial support, Mr. Rokib Uddin Ahmed, Rubi Enterprise for English proofreading and Ms. Yuki Onodera, LEKHAPORA for assistance to editorial work. The
papers would not have been published without their kind cooperation.
Each paper has been reviewed and revised according to the comments through each
workshop. However, the opinion and statement of the papers owe to responsibilityof the authors themselves and are not presented of the belonging organization of theauthors. Therefore, the editorial work is done only for minimum correction.
March 30, 2016.
Kazuo Ando, on behalf of editorial board

5

Members of Editorial Board:
Kazuo Ando	Associate Professor, Head of Practice-oriented Area Studies,
CSEAS, Kyoto University, Japan
Khin Lay Swe 	Executive Member, ECCDI (and FREDA (Forest Resource
Environment Development)) and Conservation Association,
ex Pro-Rector, YAU (Yezin Agricultural University), Myanmar
Mamoru Kanzaki	Professor, Postgraduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Japan6

Contents
Editor’s Note and Acknowledgement

Kazuo Ando………………………………………………………………………………3

Learning from CHAT toward overcoming the environmental anddevelopmental problems of global modernism

Kazuo Ando………………………………………………………………………………9

Coastal Salinity in Ayeyarwady Region, Myanmar: A case study ofthe salinity impact on rice production in Pyapon Township, Ayeyarwady Region

Khin Lay Swe and Kazuo Ando………………………………………………………… 15

Natural Hazards Induced Salt-affected Soils for Rice Production in
MyanmarSoe Soe Thein…………………………………………………………………………… 27

Nutrient Management for Rice Production in Myanmar

Aung Naing Oo, Theingi Khaung and Soe Soe Thein………………………………… 37

Impact of Flood on Agricultural Production in Seikphyu
Township, Magwe Region

Nyein Nyein Htwe, Mya Yadana Tun, Khin Oo………………………………………… 47

Sustaining Community and Forest Development throughCommunity Forest Enterprise - A Case Study in Southern ShanState

Lwin Lwin Naing……………………………………………………………………… 57

Rural Urban Migration in Ayeyarwady Region:
A Case Study of Ah Mar Sub-township, Phyapon District

Myint Thida…………………………………………………………………………… 65

7Study on Agricultural Labor Migration of Selected FarmHouseholds in Kyaukpadaung Township, Dry Zone, Myanmar

Nandar Aye Chan, Theingi Myint……………………………………………………… 75

Study on Postharvest Handling Practices of Cabbage and Cauliflower
in Selected Areas of Myanmar
T.T.Soe, T.D.Hnin, Y.Y. Soe, N.N. Htwe, K.T.D.Myint and T.O.Win………………… 91

Pharmaceutical Ethnobotany Survey of Anticancer Plant
Resources from The Hlawgar Wildlife Park, Yangon Region, Myanmar

Khin Thantsin, San San Aye, Khin Thandar Win………………………………………103

Soybean Crop Improvement in Hilly Region of Myanmar

Mar Mar Win, Myat Nwe Nwe and Tun Shwe…………………………………………111

Traditional Homestead Management in Floodplain Bangladesh

Keiko Yoshino……………………………………………………………………………119

Workshop on reduction of severe wind damages in Bangladesh

Yusuke Yamane…………………………………………………………………………131

Rural Development in Bhutan: A case study of Chokhortoe Village

Jigme Norbu……………………………………………………………………………135

Transition of Man-made Landscape and Contemporary
Problems of Mountainous villages in Japan

Yoshio Akamatsu………………………………………………………………………141

Potential and Necessity of Establishment of Strong Academic Collaboration among Myanmar, Bangladesh, Bhutan andJapan for Research and Higher Education

Kazuo Ando……………………………………………………………………………147

Workshop Program……………………………………………………………………154
Index (List of Key Words)……………………………………………………………158

9

Learning from CHAT toward overcoming the environmental
and developmental problems of global modernism
Kazuo Ando

Head (Associate Professor) Department of Practice-oriented Area Studies
Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University
E-mail:ando@cseas.kyoto-u.ac.jp
ABSTRACTThis paper was originally presented as Key Note Speech of the workshop
held at SEAMEO-CHAT on Dec. 23, 2016. The aim of the workshop is tohighlight the environmental related problems occurred with the over modernization by recent globalization in the world, particularly, to achieve therapid economic development. To improve this development problem, thealternative way of development by culture, history and tradition is to quicken the process besides the current globalization. The role of the SEAMEOCHAT gets more and more important to derive the sustainable agriculture
and rural development in Myanmar. This paper aims at explaining the necessity of the additional alternative development way by referring to therecent field observation in Myanmar and Bangladesh.
Key Words: Alternative Development, SEAMEO-CHAT, Salinity Problem, Global modernism

Acknowledgement
Good morning. Mengaraba. Ladies and Gentleman. Thank you for participating inthis workshop.
Special thanks to the SEAMEO-CHAT, YAU and CSEAS to support toorganize this workshop. This workshop can be held financially by the cooperationfrom the following projects such as Kyoto University Program “Promotion of International Collaboration on Bioresources Management in Myanmar (PICBiRMa)”(headed by Prof.Kanzaki) and “Mitigating Cyclone and Flood Damages in Myanmar: Applying the Bangladesh’s Successful Experiences” (headed by Ando).

10

Kazuo Ando

Photo1: Htein Kan Village,
Myanmar (Dec. 20, 2015)

Photo2: the village of Satkira Upozila,
Bangladesh ( Jan., 2012)

Photo3: Landscape of the polder in the village in Satkira Upozila,
Bangladesh. Staff of FREDA & ECCDI were seen ( Jan., 2012 ).

Two Similar Landscapes in Myanmar and Bangladesh
I would like to deliver my key note speech with the slides, which I am in possession just on Dec. 20, 2015 in Htein Kan Gyi village, Pwe Lone Kyan Village Tract,
Myithha Township, Kyaukse District, Mandalay Region and in one village of Satkira Upozila, Bangladesh on Jan 11-25, 2012.
The landscapes of both villages are very similar. Htein Kan Gyi Village isseriously affected by salt damage in Mandalay. The village of Satkira Upazila was attacked by the high tide of the cyclone Aira and its impact has continued even at thepresent. In both villages, the big trees in homestead are drying up and abandoned
rice fields have spread due to high sallity of soil.
QUESTION HAS RAISED: WHY HAVE THESE PROBLEMS OCCURRED?
In the village of Satkira, the high tide of Aira Cyclone invaded into inside of thepolder due to break of the embankment. In another hand, in the village of Htein
Kan Gyi, double irrigated rice cultivation begins and it has accumurated salinity inLearning from CHAT

11

Photo4: Kinda dam (Khin and Ando 2015)

the surface.
The polder with embankment is very useful for protecting life and propertyof the local people, but it is not essentially to cropping in the coastal area. Before
establishing the polder, the dominant cropping pattern of the village was traditional
single rice cropping or Transplanting Aman rice cultivation in rainy season, sometime following by rabi crops (Rahman 2015). It is believed that the Aman rice variety cultivated outside the polder at the present has strong salinity tolerance. The
landscape of this cropping pattern is shown in the photo 3. However, this cropping
pattern gets converted into prawn production area. Prawn is considered as “a cash
crop”. The polders may be much essential to this cropping systems, because the factof invasion of tide may illustrate that height and strength of embankment was notenough for protecting the high tide of the big cyclone such as Aira. It may be noticed
that tidal water easily flow out without being block of the broken embankment.
In the village of Htein Kan Gyi, the new big dam namely Kinda dam has
started to irrigate this area since 1990 (Photo 4). The villagers have also started
double irrigated rice cropping pattern since the same year. The methodology is 6
days continuation of irrigation and 3 days stop irrigation through network of thegravity irrigation cannels. After five years arround, the salinity problem has occuredin the village. Approximately, the villagers now abandoned the 30 % of the total
cultivated area of own cultivated area. The village head has informed us that there is
only 1000 acre of single monsoon rice cropping in the village and no summer rice
cropping. However, he also informed us that before Kinda dam irrigation the ancient
dam made by the King of Anawarata (1044-1077) had irrigated the rice fileds in12

Kazuo Ando

Photo5: Myatrao

Photo6: Myatrao

Photo7: Abandoned Rice Field in Htein Kan
Gyi Village. The White portion is salt.

the village only for a single monsoon rice crop. The irrigation method was different
from that of the present. The kinda dam system has good network of main and subirrigation and drainage canal sytems, but the ancient system is just to follow downfrom a plot to plot continuously.
The villages are well familiar to the danger level of salinity to rice cultivation,
which is that the weed local name Myatrao, family Cyperaceae similar to Schoenoplectus lineolatus (Franch. et Sav.) T. Koyama. This weed has appeared after three
years of continuous irrigation in the salinity filed. However, if the drainage would
be improved in the salinity filed, the weed of the filed has changed from Myatrao to
Myaka or the weed of family Poaceae. In the field of Myaka, the rice such as the variety of Manawtka can grow. However, it is considered that it is still risky. Therefore,
some villagers have already abandoned the rice field nearly 20 years ago and evensold out the fields.
In the villages of Hatiya island located in the costal area of Bangldesh, thevillagers know well improvement of the tide affected field to be suitable for ricecultivation by judging the weed species changed from Uri to Dubla. According toLearning from CHAT

Photo8: Uri gash in Hatiya Island

13

Photo9: Du Uri gash in Hatiya Island

this judgment, they have started the reclamation of rice field in the tidal area without construction of embankment, with salanity tolerant traditional variety namely
Rajazhail (meaning of King of rice).
These facts illustrated by the villagers are well indicating the alternative way
to overcome the environmental and developmental problems induced by the global
modernity of the technologies which the human being has believed to bring us tothe convenient world. In the field of rural development, it becomes, at the present,
common sense among the experts, scholars and some villagers facing the problems
that the way to overcome the problem is to think and find the alternative way basedon the traditional way. This alternative way has well location specific, cultural specificand surely historic specific. The science cannot sustain the development without
careful concern of the CHAT (cultural, history and tradition).
RESPONSIBILITY OF SEAMEO-CHAT
Why do we hold this workshop in the SEAMEO-CHAT? I would like to request
the SEAMEO-CHAT to take the challenging role of changing the paradigm ofdevelopment in strong collaboration with field oriented science such as agriculture,geography, meteorology etc. particularly of Yezin Agricultural University, Yangon
University, Yangon engineering University, NGOs like ECCDI and FREDA etc.
The Myanmar can find the Myanmar way of development to overcome the problems
surely created by the global modernism surrounding the countries with the rapid
economic development. The responsibility of the SEAMEO-CHAT is appreciable
for the contemporary Myanmar.
Thank you for your patient hearing. Chezetibare.

14

Kazuo Ando

REFERENCES
Khin Lay Swe and Kazuo Ando 2015 Inland Salinity Problems in Myanmar:
Case study in dry zone, Mandalay Region, presentation at The 25thAnnual
Meeting of the Japan Society of Tropical Ecology ( JASTE25) in Inamori
Foundation Memorial Hall, Kyoto Univ. 21 June 2015.
Rahman, Md.Rashedur 2015 Shrimp Based Rice Cropping System in the Coastal Area of Bangladesh: An Approach to Area Studies, Practice-oriented Area
Studies Series No.7, Rubi Enterprise and Lekhapora Editing, Dhaka:45-69.

15

Coastal Salinity in Ayeyarwady Region, Myanmar: A casestudy of the salinity impact on rice production in Pyapon
Township, Ayeyarwady Region
Khin Lay Swe1 and Kazuo Ando2

1. Forest Resource Environment Development and Conservation Association (FREDA), Yangon(khinlays2010@gmail.com)
2. Center for Southeast Asian Studies (CSEAS), Kyoto University, Japan (ando@cseas.kyoto-u.ac.jp)
ABSTRACT

Ayeyarwady Region has been experiencing salinity due to more frequency
and intensity of coastal flooding, particularly after the Cyclone Nargis in
2008. The salinity impact on rice production is expected to be exacerbatedby climate change and improper cropping system. Double rice cropping incoastal areas for consecutive years renders the soil more affected by salinity.
Main contributors to low rice yields are soil salinity and low input technology. Regarding with farmers’ concept on the constraints in rice production,
survey results show that rice productions of 95% of respondent households
were decreasing during the last three years while 85% were facing withsalinity problem. A high tide in October, 2014 severely damaged 27.5% of
respondents and 10% had zero harvest. As traditional adaptation strategies,
farmers practice early sowing, use of low inputs and multiple salt tolerantvarieties, and building embankments. These strategies are no longer effective under extreme climate variability these days and rice productionis unproductive. Nypa thatch making, fishery, home garden, Community
Forestry, livestock raising and are potential livelihood opportunities andneeded to be improved.
Key Words: salt affected soil, climate change, adaptation strategies, farmer’s
concept, Nypa thatch

INTRODUCTION
Myanmar stands as an agrarian country with its rich natural resources favorable for
agricultural production for centuries. However, crop production is constrained byvarious natural and anthropological influences these days; and salinity becomes a
detrimental problem to crop production. Due to its topographical nature, Myanmar
has a considerable extent of inland salinity in central Myanmar and coastal salinity in16Khin Lay Swe and Kazuo Ando

Map1: Amar Sub- Township in Ayeyarwady Region

coastal regions. A total of 0.6 m ha of saline-alkaline soils was recorded in Myanmar
in 2012 where Ayeyarwady Region had the largest area and highest average salinity(Source: SLRD, 2013). In 2009, salt affected areas were 56,027 ha out of total rice
sown area of 1,501,726 ha (3.7%) in this region (DOA, 2012). Saline water generally
intrudes into the southern part of the region, starting from late monsoon (November– December) while the salinity gradually decreases in upper part in monsoon season(May – October) since the rain water flows in the Ayeyarwady River. People in theseareas traditionally manage their livelihoods activities – farming, fishing, transportetc., in accordance with the tidal occurrence and salinity. Cyclone Nargis on 2-3
May, 2008 was the most devastating natural disaster in the history of Myanmar.
It severely swept Ayeyarwady and Yangon Regions with a death toll of 140, 000
people, about 800,000 people displaced, and village infrastructure largely destroyed.
PONJA (2008) noted that the storm surges seriously damaged 20 polders and 14
embankments in these regions –. The sections of embankments remain unrepaired so
far and salt water intrusion is posing a serious problem to rice production. The Cyclone Nargis affected the livelihoods to such a degree that many villagers appeared
to have lost their ability to self-recover on their own. Villages are currently seen in a
desperate economic situation not only attributed to the Nargis, but also other factors
influenced the path of recovery in subsequent years, such as storms, floods, droughts,
pest infestations, low farm gate price of paddy and other crops, and etc. Rice is aCoastal Salinity in Ayeyarwady Region, Myanmar:17

Map2: Soil Map of Ayeyarwady Region(Source: Land Use Division, MOAI, 2002)

sensitive plant to salinity, particularly in the early growth; an average seasonal salinity in excess of 1.9 dS/m reduces the yields (Lam 2014). Very few researches on theharmful effects of salinity on rice production have been conducted in Myanmar; thesurvey research, therefore, was carried out with the following objectives – To study
the salinity impact on rice production and farmers’ adaptation strategies and theirlivelihood opportunities in Pyapon Township, Ayeyarwady Region.
Methodology
In 2012 and 2015, field observation and surveys were conducted in five villages in
Ah Mar Sub-Township, Pyapon Township, namely, Auk Seik Kwin, Seik Ma village,
Oke Hpo, Tei Pin Seik, and War Kone villages. “Focus Group Discussions (FGD)”
was done in each study village. Secondary data were collected, mainly from Department of Agriculture (DOA) and General Affairs Department in Pyapon Township.
A total of 80 households (25% of the total HH) were interviewed in Oke Hpo village with semi-structured questionnaires. The information gathered were details ofsocio-economic situation, rice cultivation practices, strategies to fight against thesalinity problem and etc. Emphasis were given on the weather status, land use andcropping patterns, impact of salinity, and farmers’ concept on the constraints in riceproduction.

18

Khin Lay Swe and Kazuo Ando

Results and discussion
Study Site: As described in the Map 1, “Mangrove Forest Soils” are observed in the
coastal area. Mangrove Forest (Thionic Fluvisols) soils and Saline Swampy Meadow
Gley (Gley - Gleysol) soils occur in Ayeyarwady Delta (LUD, 2002). Pyapon Township is situated at N 15º15’ -16º25’ and E 90º30’ – 95º45’ with the area of 587.33
square miles, and average 14 feet above sea level. There exists a vast land of fertile
soil with optimum loam and pH value of 4.5 - 6.0, and the soil type is generallyclassified as clay soil, locally known as “Le-myay-pyar”. Fresh water, brackish waterand saline water intrusion areas in this township in 2011 was 49,845 ac, 28,245 ac
and 126,728 ac, respectively. Total salt affected rice area was recorded as 14,990 ac in2011 (Source: DOA, Pyapon Township). It was observed that water salinity is highduring dry season, high tide and the area near the sea. The salinity level of rivers
declines to its lowest level during the rainy season and it increases gradually towards
the sea during the dry season (Kogo 1993).
Land Use Type: The Ah Mar Sub-Township listed orchard land (home gardens)of 155 ac and Nypa lands of 38 ac (Table 1). Pasture lands were 2,167 ac for cattle
breeding. Forty-four percent (26,462 ac) of total rice lands were recorded as officiallyregistered while 56% (33,365 ac) were unregistered lands. The “Unregistered land”
means that the farmers who work on those lands have not been officially registered as “farm households” by the Settlement and Land Record Department. Under
the government’s mandate of “increased rice production throughout the country
in 1990s, Ayeyarwady delta was no exception. Rice fields were extended both inreserved and non-reserved mangrove forest areas, and many lands remained unregistered. Tei Pin Seik Village Tract (Oke Hpo, Tei Pin Seik and War Kone villages)
had the largest areas of total rice land (24,863 ac) of which 98% were unregistered(24,382 ac) in 2014.
Among the total registered rice area of 26,464 ac, 8.1% (2,184 ac) were salt
affected soils. In other words, 681 farmers (18.2 %) with official registered land had
the salt affected soils (Table 2). Even though the areas of unregistered lands aremuch larger than the registered, the salt affected rice areas have not yet recorded under this category. These areas are generally undeveloped and poorly accessible to thetowns. Moreover, due to the nearness to the sea and high salinity, rice yields are very
low; most rice fields have neither been registered nor recognized by the government.
A Super Syclone in 2014: Based on the FGD in all study villages, the impact of a“super cyclone” on rice production in 2014 and farmers’ coping strategies to salinity
problem were recorded. On 12 October, 2014 a severe cyclone “Hudhud” hit theOdisa Coast of India with winds of almost 200 km/h; under this effect, an extraor-

Coastal Salinity in Ayeyarwady Region, Myanmar:

19

Table1: Land use type by village tract in Ah Mar Sub-Township, Pyapon Township in 2014
Village Tract
Ah Mar Sub
Township
Boe Ba Kone
Nauk Mee
Seik MaTei Pin Seik
Ba Wa Thit
Myo Kone
Daw Nyein
Kyaung Kone
Day Da Lu

Rice area
Orchard Pasture(Registered)
(ac)
(ac)
(ac)

Others
(ac)

Nypa
(ac)

Rice area inforest (Unregis- Total (ac)tered) (ac)26,462

155

2167

620

38

33,36562,807

880
1266
1636
481
863
6712
3176
1717
9731

98
39
18

35
56
832
1244

170
9
441

13
14
11
-

3,752
154
553
24,382
4,524
-

4,645
1,590
2,345
24,863
5,443
6,712
4,008
1,767
11,434

Source: Pyapon Township DOA, 2014

Table2: Salt affected rice areas in Ah Mar Sub-Township, Pyapon Township in 2012
Sr.

Village tract

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Boe Ba Kone
Nauk Mee
Seik MaTei Pin Seik
Ba Wa Thit
Myo Kone
Daw Nyein
Kyaung Kone
Day Da Lu
Total

No. of farmers
Total rice area Total number of Salt affected areawith salt affected(Registered) (ac)farmers(ac)area (ac)
880
340
313
146
1266
239
279
28
1636
1176
496
188
481
312
181
47
863
501
327
185
6712
334
75
4
3176
232
178
23
1717
232
178
23
9731
368
120
37
26,462
3,734
2147
681

Source: DOA, Pharpon Township, 2014

8.1%

18.2%

dinarily high tide devastated a large part of the Ayeyarwady Region (Source: The
Global New Light of Myanmar” 13 October, 2014). This “Super tide” (named by
the villagers), which was much stronger than the normal ones, overflowed into thestudy villages and rice fields. It began from 9 –10 –11 October; inundation lasted
about a week. It is a common phenomenon in this region that ordinary high tides
occur in October – November, and considerable rains followed soon after each hightide. However, there was no or very few rains after this “Super tide” so that saltsbrought by the tide were not drained and washed away. As a consequence, it ruined
rice plants and severely damaged the production. Auk Seik Kwin village (Bawa Thit
Village Tract) was the worst affected in the Sub-township. Photo 1 taken in April,20(Source: DOA,
DOA, Pyapon
Pyapon Township,Township, 2015).
(Source:2015). No
No compensation,compensation,support
supportor
orcropcropinsurance
insurance

Khin Lay Swe and Kazuo Andosystem has not yet been available in Myanmar and farmers have to bear all the losses.
system has not yet been available in Myanmar and farmers have to bear all the losses.
As shown in Fig.1, post monsoon rains in 2014 were unevenly distributed. The rainfall
As shown in Fig.1, post monsoon rains in 2014 were unevenly distributed. The rainfallin October was the lowest value of 156 mm. Moreover, total rainy days was 125 daysin October was the lowest value of 156 mm. Moreover, total rainy days was 125 daysin 2014, fewer than the normal year. Few rainy days means that there will be longin 2014, fewer than the normal year. Few rainy days means that there will be long
breaks in monsoon rains which, in turn, cause an increased salinity in rivers andbreaks in monsoon rains which, in turn, cause an increased salinity in rivers andtributaries of coastal zone. These facts agree with the farmers’ complaint that there were
tributaries of coastal zone. These facts agree with the farmers’ complaint that there wereno rains in their villages soon after the “Super tide” in October, 2014; the salts were not
no rains in their villages soon after the “Super tide” in October, 2014; the salts were not
Photo1: Rice fields destroyed by 2014 Super tide (Auk Seik Kwin )dilutedand washed away, harmful effect to rice plants to death.
diluted and washed away, harmful effect to rice plants to death.
1000	
  
1000	
  
800	
  
800	
  
600	
  
600	
  
400	
  
400	
  
200	
  
200	
  
0	
  
Jan	
   Feb	
   Mar	   Apr	  May	
   Jun	   Jul	
   Aug	
   Sep	
   Oct	   Nov	
   Dec	
   0	
  
Jan	
   Feb	
   Mar	   Apr	  May	
   Jun	  Jul	
   Aug	
   Sep	
   Oct	   Nov	
   Dec	  Month	
  Rainfall	  mm	
  Rainfall	
  
mm	
  

Degree	  C/day	
  Degree	  C/day	
  

40	
  
40	
  
35	
  
35	
  
30	
  
30	
  
25	
  
25	
  
20	
  
20	
  
15	
  
10	
  
15	
  
10	
  5	
  
5	
  0	
  
0	
  

Month	
  Rainfall	
  mm	
  

Max	
  Temp	
  Min	
  Temp	  Rainy	  days	  Rainfall	
  mm	
  

Max	
  Temp	
  Min	
  Temp	  Rainy	  days	  Figure1: Weather Data of Pyapon Township in 2014
DOA,
Pyapon Township,
Fig. 1 Weather Data(Source:of Pyapon
Townshipin 2014 2015)(Source: DOA, Pyapon Township, 2015)

Fig. 1 Weather Data of Pyapon Township in 2014 (Source: DOA, Pyapon Township, 2015)

Farmers’ coping strategies to salinity: Early sowing
Farmers’
copingandstrategies
to ricesalinity:
Earlysowing2015 showsdebrisrubbles ofplantsafter thetide”in
Aukstress
Seik at rice plants’
Early thesowingis a traditional
adaptation
strategy
to “Super
avoid thesalinity
Kwin village. About 3,000 acres were damaged, and some 1,000 ac totally destroyed,
Early sowing is a traditional adaptation strategy to avoid the salinity stress at rice plants’amongearly
whichgrowth.
400 ac When
were registeredlands(Source:
PyaponTownship,the salinity
increases
inDOA,
tidal water
starting
in late2015).
monsoonNo compensation,or cropinsurancesystemhaswater
not yetbeen available
inearly growth.support
When thesalinity
increasesin tidalstarting
in late monsoon(November– December),theallrice
Myanmarand farmers
have to bear
theplants
losses.should reach at their maturity stage which can(November
December),rice
shouldreach distributed.
at their maturity
stage which can
As shown
in Fig.1,–postmonsoonthe
rains
in plants
2014 were
unevenly
The rainresist the stress more than the earlier stages. Early arrival of monsoon with enough rains
fall in October was the lowest value of 156 mm. Moreover, total rainy days was 125
resistthefewerstressthanmore thanthe earlier
stages.
Earlyofmonsoonwithdays inyear. Fewdays arrival
means
that
there will
be enough rains
is2014,required
to dilutethe
thenormal
salts depositedinrainy
the fields
in summer
months.
Farmers
long breaks in monsoon rains which, in turn, cause an increased salinity in rivers andis required to dilute the salts deposited in the fields in summer months. Farmers
tributaries
of coastalthat
zone.
agree
with thewell
farmers’complaintthatexperienced
riceTheseseedsfacts
cannotgerminate
and youngplantsdiethere
when there is nowere norains in their
sooncannot
after the“Super tide”
October,experienced
thatvillages
rice seeds
germinatewellinandyoung2014;
plantsthediesalts
when there is no
	
  

	
  

7	
  

7	
  

Coastal Salinity in Ayeyarwady Region, Myanmar:

21

were not diluted and washed away, harmful effect to rice plants to death.
Farmers’ Coping Strategies to Salinity: Early Sowing
Early sowing is a traditional adaptation strategy to avoid the salinity stress at rice
plants’ early growth. When the salinity increases in tidal water starting in late monsoon (November – December), the rice plants should reach their maturity stage
which can resist the stress more than the earlier stages. Early arrival of monsoon
with enough rains is required to dilute the salts deposited in the fields in summer
months. Farmers experienced that rice seeds cannot germinate well and young plants
die when there is no enough rain at the time sowing. In a good weather condition,
farmers usually grow rice as early as possible in monsoon season in Waso waxing daysof 3rd to 10th of Myanmar lunar calendar (Early June) and harvest not later thanNovember. Due to late monsoon rains in 2014, farmers broadcast rice seeds at theend of Waso and Wakaung (late July or August). When an extraordinarily high tideoccurred in early October, it corresponded with rice plants’ flowering stage, a very
vulnerable stage to salinity and flood, causing more loss.
Low Input Technology
Planting rice seeds without any tillage operation is common in many areas of study
villages. All farmers use broadcasting method to reduce the costs of uprooting andtransplanting seedlings, although they understand that transplanting method produce more yields. It was found that farmers, in general, fallow some of their ricelands since they do not have enough resources, such as money, labor, time etc. The
management practices are at a minimum – a small amount or no chemical fertilizers or pesticides are applied. Some farmers do one or two times of hand-weeding
while others do not perform at all. The farmers in the study villages are risk -adverse
farmers, using low inputs because of the high risk of crop failures by the frequent
occurrence of drought, storms and floods. As a result, yields are very low, and farmers
have to be satisfied with the harvest what are left in their fields.
Multiple Salt Tolerant Varieties
Use of multiple varieties is one of the coping strategies to avoid a total yield loss
under the environmental stresses. In general, farmers in the study villages use various
salt tolerant varieties ranging from two to four since they cannot estimate which one
will give a better yield in that particular year. They often test the new varieties introduced from other areas, expecting to obtain more suitable varieties in their specificlocation. Their selection is based on more yield potential and shorter duration anda good eating quality. All farmers traditionally use saline tolerant local rice varieties.
The most widely grown varieties are Annawar-bo, Let-yone-gyi, Nga-sein-gyi, A-chon,
Kun-ni and Kun-wah of local names. Some of them have been adopted for several

22

Khin Lay Swe and Kazuo Ando

Table3: Concepts on the constraints in rice production in Oke Hpo village
Sr.
1

Particular

Number of respondents

Major problem in rice
growing

High
Salinity

production
costs

2

Salinity in the rice fields

42 (52.5)

14 (17.5)

YesNo

68 (85)3More drought in last

Yes

No

66 (82.5)

14 (17.5)

YesNo

68 (85%)6 (7.5)

Rice damage by “Super

Yes

No

tide” in October, 2014

74 (92.5)

6 (7.5)three years
4

More floods /tides in last
three years

5

4

5

6

8 (10)

Rice damage severity by

Damage all“Super tide” in October,areas (Zero2014

harvest)Wish to abandon farming

Main support to improverice productivity

More than
50% affected

8 (10)

22 (27.5)

YesNo

8 (10)

72(90)

Embankments

Inputs48 (60)7(8.75)

Labor
shortage
20 (25)

Others/Weather,
etc.
4 (5)

No answer
4(5)No answer
0 (0)No answer
6(7.5)

Less than
50%

No

destroyed

damage44 (55)6 (7.5)Micro –
credits
25 (31.25)

Source: Personal survey by authors in April, 2015; the values in the parentheses are percentages of total
respondents.

Conclusion

decadesAlthoughand some
newly isintroduced
fromsaline areasof the country.
the region
known as therice somebowl ofotherthe country,
food security
is achallenging issue, the village economy remain depressed in study villages. Main
Embankments
Post monsoon
season,water
in andriversestuaries Farmers
and brackish
contributors
to lowfresh
rice yields
aredeclines
soil salinity
lowandinputitstechnology.
water gradually increases. Farmers build embankments or dikes (3 – 5 feet high andsalinity levels of rice fields has been increasing because of more occurrence
2-3 ft.believewide) thatto protect
their fields from sea water intrusion (Photo 2). However,resource poor farmers cannot afford to cover all their fields. To date, there has been11	
  a lack of support from the government and NGOsfor building embankments in the	
  study areas.

Coastal Salinity in Ayeyarwady Region, Myanmar:

23

Livelihood Opportunities
Apart from rice production, commercial production of Nypa thatch making is oneof the major household incomes. The business of collecting, weaving and tradingof Nypa fruticans (Da-ni) is more common in summer months after rice farming
activities (Photo 3). The plants of Hygrophyla spp., which locally called Pinle-hnan
or Mechaung-kunphat are formerly a kind weed in the fields. It has become a popular crop due to a good export demand to China since 2010. Many farmers growthem in vacant lands under the mangrove trees (Photo 4). Some cultivated it in rice
fields instead of rice. It gives a better profit than rice in some years, depending on
the price. Some farmers in study villages are engaged in Community Forest (CF)which started in early 2000s in the study area, supported by the Forest Department
and FREDA. War Kone village has successfully established CF of 140 ac with Forest User Groups (FUG) of 45 households (Photo 5). Non-timber Forest Products(NTFP) collected by some villagers are mostly fuel wood for local consumption(Photo 6) and Phoenix palm stems (Thin-baung) are used for fencing and construction. Moreover, some households are partly supported by small-scale backyard homegardens. Coconut palms and betel nuts are the most common fruit trees (Photo 7).
The products vary from home consumption to a sale at the market. Fishery products
play an important role as a source of income and nutrition of the study villages. Most
fishermen are daily wage laborers, catching fishes, crab and prawns in the streams
and small rivers. Mud crab culture is well thriving and becoming popular these days
with a good export market (Photo 8).
Concepts on the Constraints in Rice Production
Based on the household survey in Oke Pho village, the farmers’ concept on theconstraints in rice production were recorded (Table 3). The major problems asperceived by the respondent HH were – soil salinity (52.5%), high production cost
(17.5%), labor shortage (25%) and other factors (5%). Eighty five percent of HH
had salinity problem in their fields, while 10% had no salt affected fields, and 5%
could not give a clear answer. Concerning with weather condition in the last three
years, most farmers (82.5%) mentioned more drought years than before. Eighty five
percent of respondents agreed that there were more floods or tidal inundation during the rice growing season in the last three years. The “Super tide” in October, 2014
affected the 92.5% of HH while 10% had total yield losses. Despite of their poor
rice production, 90% HH did not wish to abandon farming. The main supports toimprove their livelihood the respondents wished to receive include: embankments(60%), inputs – quality seeds, fertilizers, etc. (8.75%), and micro - credits program(31.25%).

24

Khin Lay Swe and Kazuo Ando

Photo2: Embankments in
Auk Seik Kwin village

Photo3: Nypa businessin Te Pin Seik village

Photo4: Pinle-hnanin Te Pin Seik village

Photo5: CF and aqua-agroforestry
in Wakone village

Photo6: NTFP –fuel woods
in Seikma village

Photo7: Homestead garden
in Wakone village

Photo8: Crab culture in Oke Pho village

Coastal Salinity in Ayeyarwady Region, Myanmar:

25

CONCLUSION
Although the region is known as the rice bowl of the country, food security is achallenging issue, the village economy remain depressed in study villages. Main contributors to low rice yields are soil salinity and low input technology. Farmers believethat salinity levels of rice fields has been increasing because of more occurrence infrequency and intensity of tidal floods, seasonal sea water intrusion, sea level rise in
the face of climate change. As farmers’ traditional adaptation strategies are no longer
effective under more extreme climate variability these days. Since rice is susceptible
to salinity, rice productions in coastal zones are found to be unproductive and unsustainable. The intensive rice cultivation will enhance salinity and soil degradationin the “blackish water and saline water areas”. Fishery, Nypa thatch industry, homegardening, Community Forestry and livestock raising are potential livelihood opportunities which need to be improved. This study will provide some basic information to the policy makers for designing future rural development plans in the coastal
areas of Myanmar.
REFERENCES
DOA. 2012. Annual Report. Agricultural Extension Division, Department of Agriculture (DOA), Ministry of agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI).
Kogo, M. 1993. Final Report on Mangrove Reforestation Feasibility Study, Feasible
Study on Mangrove Reforestation. MYA/90/003, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Tokyo.
LUD (Land Use Division). 2002. Soil Types and Characteristics of Myanmar. Myanma
Agriculture Service (MAS), Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI),The Government of the Union of Myanmar. Yangon.
PONJA. 2008. Post-Nargis Joint Assessment (PONJA), UN, ASEAN, Governmentof the Union of Myanmar.
Lam, N. H, 2014. Improvement of Rice Cropping in Saline Soils in the North Central
Coastal Region of Vietnam. Ph.D Thesis. Kyoto University, Japan.
www.soils.kais.kyoto-u.ac.jp/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/2014Lamthesis.pdf

27

Natural Hazards Induced Salt-affected Soils for
Rice Production in Myanmar
Soe Soe Thein

Pro-rector, Yezin Agricultural University, Myanmar(Mail: soesoethein1@gmail.com)
ABSTRACT

Myanmar is exposed to natural hazards such as cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire, flood, landslide and storm surge. This paper emphasized on inland salinity problem due to drought in Central Dry Zone (CDZ) area andflood related seawater salt intrusion in Ayeyarwady Delta. To grow double
rice crop in brackish and salt water intrusion area of Ayeyarwady, selectionof short life varieties, irrigation according to the lunar calendar, balanced
fertilizer application are three main points essential for success rice growing
in this area. IR 84649-308-24-1-B, IR 10T-107, CSR36, and IR 846495305-6-1-B are, so far, promising salt tolerant rice varieties for inland salinity areas and coastal and delta areas. According to experimental results,
application of cow dung manure at the rate of 5 ton ha-1 was the best for
non-saline, slightly sodic soil (S2) of Pale Township, Sagaing Region, CDZ
and application of gypsum at the rate of 2 ton ha-1 was the appropriate
amendment for slightly saline, highly sodic soil (S3) of Shwebo township,
Sagaing Region, CDZ.
Key Words: natural hazards, salinity, sodic, lunar calendar, salt tolerant rice
varieties, amendments

INTRODUCTION
Agriculture plays the pivotal role in Myanmar, accounting to more than 22 percent
of GDP and employing 60 percent of labour force and the Government of Myanmar has also positioned agricultural development as one of seven key pillars supporting for sustained economic development. Since the advent of military government in 1962, Socialism has been launched and its consequent agricultural policies
including land nationalization and planned cultivation, Myanmar, the largest rice
exporter in world in the 1950s, has the record of considerably decline in the 1960s(Dawe, 2002). The political transition that started in 2011 and current government
via Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MoAI), has deployed the strengths of the

28

Soe Soe Thein

Central Dry Zone

Figure1: Map of Myanmar’s
agro-ecological Zones

Figure2: Map of the Central
Dry Zone

Figure3: Map of Ayeyarwady deltaNatural Hazards Induced Salt-affected Soils

29

country’s rice sector to enable not only food security but also rural development andoverall economic growth.
The country is divided into three major agro-ecological zones: (1) Central
Dry Zone, (2) Coastal Zone, and (3) Hilly Zone. The CDZ covers approximately
54, 390 square kilometers and it is 10% of the country’s total land area (Figure 1 and
2). High temperature with low rainfall accelerates drought making inland salinity
problem in some area.
The Ayeyarwady delta, (Figure 3), the rice bowl of Myanmar, covers 35,032
square kilometers (MoAI, 2014). Of the total 2.89 M ha of rice area in delta 22, 416
ha are salt-affected (Department of Agricultural Research unpublished data) due toseawater intrusion. Of the various problem soils in the world, saline and sodic soils
occupy the largest area approximately 323 M ha and 634 x 103 ha occurs in Myanmar as salt-affected soils (FAO, 1988).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Yetagon, one of Myanmar NGOs, Department of Research (DAR), and researchteam of Yezin Agricultural University (YAU) try to find salinity management practices in Myanmar. Their attempts to solve salinity problems and management practices are as follows:
Table1: Salinity Problem and Management Practice

MATERIALS AND METHODSFor classification of salt-affected soils and investigation of the effective reclamation methods in CDZ, two experiments were conducted to compare the saturated
hydraulic conductivity of problem soils before application (T1) and to determine
the saturated hydraulic conductivity of problem soils using amendments 5 (T2),
10 (T3), and 15 (T4) ton ha-1 cow dung manure according to Gupta et al. (1984)
and 2 (T5), 4 (T6), 6 (T7) ton ha-1 gypsum application rates according to Yadav(1973). Using seven treatments three different soils were assigned as Completely
Randomized Design with 4 replications, totally (7 x 4 x 3) eighty four experimental

of Ayeyarwady, selection of short life varieties, irrigation according to the lunar calendar,balanced fertilizer application are three main points essential for success rice growing in this area30

(Table 1, Figure 4, 5, and 6). They also pointed out that salt concentration of water is higher

Soe SoeTheinduring high tides than during low tides and irrigation should be done during low tides using
pumps.

Table2:
Selectionof short life rice varieties
Table 1. Selection of shortlife rice
varities
Monsoon rice

2nd crop

Life span

Life span

Yetagon90 DAS

Yetagon90 DAS

Sin Thwe Latt

135 DAS

Sticky rice

95-96 DASPaw San Yin

145-150 DAS

Pan Khan Shwe War

100-105 DASPa Khan Shwe War

100-105 DAS

Thee Htet Yin

110-115 DAS

Thee Htet Yin

110-115 DAS

Salinity tolerant ability of rice differs during growth stages and 1 DAS, 15 DAS and at flowering
stage, rice plants are very sensitive to salinity, however, rice plants are tolerant to salinity at 30
DAS and 45 DAS. Realizing on this point, farmers can adjust the time of sowing to critical sea
water intrusion period.

Figure 4. Irrigation based on Lunar Calendar
Figure 5. Lunar Calendar and safe time for irrigation
Figure4: Irrigation based on
Figure5: Lunar Calendar and safe time
Figure 4. Irrigation based on Lunar Calendar
Figure 5. Lunar Calendar and safe time for irrigation

Lunar based
Calendarfor irrigation
Figure
4. 4.
Irrigation
on Lunar
Calendar
Lunar5.
Calendarand safe time
irrigation
FigureIrrigation
based
on Lunar
Calendar Figure 5.Figure
Lunar
Calendarandforsafe
time for irrigation

Figure 6. Strategy for double cropping in salt
Figure 7. Salinity tolerance of paddy during
Figure 6. for
Strategy
for double
cropping in salt Figure7:
Figure 7. Salinity
toleranceof paddy
Figure6: Strategy
doublecropping
Salinity
tolerance
ofduring
paddy
intrusion area
growth
growthin salt intrusionintrusionarea area
duringgrowthFigure 6. Strategy for double cropping in salt
intrusion area

Figure 7. Salinity tolerance of paddy during
growthFigure 6. Strategy for double cropping in salt

Figure 7. Salinity tolerance of paddy during

intrusion area

growthFigure 8. Recommended
Methodduring the
Low during
Tide using
pumps
Figure 8.Irrigation
Recommended
Irrigation
Methodthe Low
Tide using pumps

Figure 8. Recommended Irrigation Method during the Low Tide using pumps

Figure8: Recommended Irrigation Method during the Low Tide using pumps

Figure 8. Recommended Irrigation Method during the Low Tide using pumps

application at basal and EPI, three times N application at 15 DAS, 30 DAS and EPI.
Department of Agricultural Research (DAR) has tested rice breeding lines under three levels of
EC and obtainedsome Hazards
promising rice
varieties(Figure 10, Table
NaturalInducedSalt-affected
Soils2 and313). Breeding lines were
tested on both station and on farm.

Figure9:
Balanced fertilizer application for rice
Figure 9. Balanced fertilizer application for rice
Yetagon NGO also suggested one time P fertilizer application at basal, two times split K

Figure 10.Figure10:
Breeding lines
under threelines
levelsunderof EC atthree
Research
Station,ofBreeding
levelsof Department
EC

application at basal and EPI, three times N application at 15 DAS, 30 DAS and EPI.

at Research Station,
Departmentof Agricultural
Agricultural
Research (DAR)
Research (DAR)

Department of Agricultural Research (DAR) has tested rice breeding lines under three levels of
EC and obtained some promising rice varieties (Figure 10, Table 2 and 3). Breeding lines were
tested on both station and on farm.

units. Three soil samples, S1 from WunDin Township, Mandalay Region, S2 from
Pale Township, Sagaing Region and S3 from Shwe Bo Township, Sagaing Region(Yin Mar Soe, 2014).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Yetagon NGO suggested that to grow double rice crop in brackish and salt water
intrusion area of Ayeyarwady, selection of short life varieties, irrigation according to
the lunar calendar, balanced fertilizer application are three main points essential for
success rice growing in this area (Table 2, Figures 4, 5, and 6). They also pointed outthat salt concentration of water is higher during high tides than during low tides andFigure 10. Breeding lines under three levels of EC at Research Station, Department ofirrigationAgricultural
shouldResearch
be doneduring low tides using pumps.
(DAR)
Salinity tolerant ability of rice differs during growth stages and 1 DAS, 15
DAS and at flowering stage, rice plants are very sensitive to salinity, however, rice
plants are tolerant to salinity at 30 DAS and 45 DAS. Realizing on this point, farmers can adjust the time of sowing to critical sea water intrusion period.
Yetagon NGO also suggested one time P fertilizer application at basal, twotimes split K application at basal and EPI, three times N application at 15 DAS, 30
DAS and EPI.
Department of Agricultural Research (DAR) has tested rice breeding lines
under three levels of EC and obtained some promising rice varieties (Figure 10,
Tables 3 and 4). Breeding lines were tested on both station and on farm.
A research team of Soil and Water Science Department, Yezin Agricultural
University conducted an experiment to classify the types of salt-affected using indicators of pH, ECe and SAR. According to FAO (1988), these indicators were used32

Soe Soe Thein

Table3: Average yield of tested rice varieties

Table4: Characters of promising rice varieties

Table 4. Classification of the collected soil samples as salt affected soils using pH, EC and SAR
data
pH(1:2)

Soil(soil :water)ECe(dS/m)

SAR

Remarks

S1

7.4

0.4

0.833034

S2

8.8

1.6

5.413073

Non-saline,Nonsodic
Non-Saline, sodic

Slightly
Table 4. Classification of the collected soil samples as salt affected soils using pH, EC and
SAR
Table5:Classificationofthecollected
soil
samplesassalt
affected
data
Table 4. Classification of the collected soil samples as salt affected soils using pH, EC and SAR

S3

8.3
3.7SAR data
soils
usingdata
pH, EC andSoil

pH(1:2)

Soil

S1 S1

pH(1:2)(soil :water)(soil :water)

16.78627ECe(dS/m)SAR

ECe(dS/m)

SAR

0.4

0.833034

7.47.4saline,Highly

Remarks

0.833034

0.4

sodic

Remarks

Non-saline,Non-

Non-saline,Nonsodic

sodic

Table 5. Some physicalS2
andS2 chemical
samples
8.88.8properties
1.6of the collected
5.413073 soil
Non-Saline,
sodic
1.6
5.413073
Non-Saline,
sodic
soil
type
S1

BD
PDS3 S3 Porosity
8.3
8.3(g/cm3) (g/cm3)
(%)
1.40
2.57
43.12

OM3.7
Sand16.78627
Silt
3.7
16.78627
(%)
(%)
(%)
1.60
56
19

Slightly Slightly

ClaypH
saline,Highly(%) sodic (1:5)
25
6.7

0.39

S2

Some
physicalandchemicalof thecollected
samples
Table 2.25
5.soilSomephysicaland chemical
properties
ofsoil
samples
1.50 Table6:
33.16
1.94
35the collected
36
9.2
BD
PD
Porosity
OM properties
Sand
Silt
Clay
pH29soil
AS

0.65

S3

soil
BD
PD
Porosity OM
Sand
Silt
Clay
pH
S1
1.40 30.39
2.57
43.12
56
19
0.39
2.25
1.60 1.60
58
9 25 (%)6.733 (1:5)
type (g/cm3) (g/cm3)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
S2
1.50
2.25
33.16
1.94
35
36
29
9.2
0.65
S1
1.40
2.57
43.12
1.60
56
19
25
6.7

0.34

0.39

S2

saline,Highly
sodic

Table 5. Some physical and chemical properties of the collected soil samples
type

1.57

(g/cm3) (g/cm3)

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

(1:5)

AS

9.0

AS

*BD= Bulk Density,S3PD=particle
Organic
AS=Aggregate
Stability
1.57
2.25Density,
30.39 OM=
1.60
58
9 Matter,
33
9.0
0.34
1.50

2.25

33.16

1.94

35

36

29

9.2

0.65

1.57

2.25

30.39

1.60

58

9

33

9.0

0.34

*BD= Bulk Density, PD=particle Density, OM= Organic Matter, AS=Aggregate Stability

S3

*BD=
Bulk
Density,
PD=particle
Density, OM=
Organic
Matter,
AS=Aggregate
Stability
Comparisonof saturated
hydraulic conductivity
for salt-affectedsoils before
applying
Comparison of saturated
hydraulicconductivity
forsalt-affectedsoils
beforeapplying

amendments

amendments

Comparison of saturated hydraulic conductivity for salt-affected soils before applying
amendments

	
  

	
  

Figure 11.Saturated hydraulic conductivity of S1 soil before applying amendments.

Figure 11.Saturated hydraulic conductivity of S1 soil before applying amendments.

Figure11: Saturated hydraulic conductivity of S1 soil before amendments	
  Figure 11.Saturated hydraulic conductivity of S1 soil before applying amendments.

Pr> 0.05 ns
Natural Hazards Induced Salt-affected Soils

33

Pr> 0.05 ns

Figure12: Saturated hydraulic conductivity of S2 sand S3 soil before amend-

Figure ments
12.Saturated hydraulic conductivity of S2 sand S3 soil before applying amendments.
Figure 12.Saturated hydraulic conductivity of S2 sand S3 soil before applying amendments.
Pr> 0.05 ns

Figure13: Effect of different amendments rates on saturated hydraulic conductivity of S1 soil

Figure 13. Effect of different amendments rates on saturated hydraulic conductivity of S1 soil.

Figure 13. Effect of different amendments rates on saturated hydraulic conductivity of S1 soil.

to determine the collected soil samples whether salt affected or not. Tables (5, 6)
showed the results and some physic chemical properties of soil samples.
Comparison of Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity for Salt-affected Soils before
Amendments
Figure 12 showed that no water can penetrate through soil S2 and S3 before soil
amendments based on hydraulic conductivity values of these soils. Dane et al (2005)
discussed that hydraulic conductivity was very much dependent on soil structure, i.e.,on the occurrence of aggregates and/or cracks.

34

Soe Soe Thein

Pr> 0.05 ns

Figure 14. Effect of different amendments rates on saturated hydraulic conductivity of S2 soil.
Figure 12 showed that no water can penetrate through soil S2 and S3 before applying soil
amendments based on hydraulic conductivity values of these soils. Dane et al (2005) discussed
that hydraulic conductivity was very much dependent on soil structure, i.e., on the occurrence of
aggregates and/or cracks.
Figure14. Effectof different
amendments
rates on saturated
hydraulicconductivity
of S2
soil.
Figure14:
Effectof different
amendments
rates onsaturatedhydraulicconHowever, Figure 13, 14 and 15 showed the effect of different amendments and their rates on
ductivityof S2 soil.
Figure12conductivity
showedthatvalues
no watercansoils.
penetrate through soil S2 and S3 before applying soil
hydraulicof threeamendments based on hydraulic conductivity values of these soils. Dane et al (2005) discussed
that hydraulic conductivity was very much dependent on soil structure, i.e., on the occurrence of
aggregates and/or cracks.
However, Figure 13, 14 and 15 showed the effect of different amendments and their rates on
hydraulic conductivity values of three soils.

Figure15: Effect of different amendments rates on saturated hydraulic conductivity S3 soil.

Figure 15.Effect of different amendments rates on saturated hydraulic conductivity S3 soil.

According to different amendments rates, there was no statistically significant differenceon saturated hydraulic conductivity of two soils (S1) and (S2). However, (S3) showed that there
Figure 15.Effect of different amendments rates on saturated hydraulic conductivity S3 soil.

However,
Figures
13, amendments
14 and 15rates,
showedthenoeffectof different
According
to different
there wasstatisticallysignificant amendments
difference
and theirrates hydraulicon hydraulicconductivity
threesoils.(S3) showed that there
on saturated
conductivityof two soilsvalues(S1) andof(S2).
However,
According to different amendments rates, there was no statistically significant
difference on saturated hydraulic conductivity of two soils (S1) and (S2). However,(S3) showed that there was a highly significant difference at 1% level due to application of different amendments rates. For S1and S2, T2 (10 ton cow dung ha-1)
amendment rate was well enough to improve soil physical properties based on costs.
For S3, there was no improvement in soil hydraulic conductivity till the addition of cow dung manure at the rate of 15 t ha-1. Although there was a highest
saturated hydraulic conductivity due to the application gypsum at the rate of 6 t
ha-1 gypsum (T7), application of gypsum at 4 t ha-1 gypsum (T6) and T5(2 t ha-1

Natural Hazards Induced Salt-affected Soils

35

gypsum) were not statistically different with T7. With the consideration of the economic point of view, application of T5 (2 t ha-1 gypsum) would be appropriate forfarmers.
Conclusion
Integrated approaches such as indigenous knowledge, salt-tolerant crop, leachingsalt, applying acid forming fertilizer or amaendments, improved cultivation practices
are essential for reclamation of salt-affected soil. Moreover, it is needed to classify
which type of salt-affected soil first and then the proper method should be applied.
REFERENCES
Dawe D., 2002. The Changing Structure of the World Market, Food Policy 27.
FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization), 1988. Salt-affected Soils and Their
Management, Soil Bulletin-39, Rome.
Gupta, R,K., Sigh, O.P. and Abrol, I.P. (1984). Determination of cation exchange
capacity and exchangeable sodium in alkali soils. Soil Sci., India.
MoAI (Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation), 2014. Myanmar Agriculture at a
Glance.
MoAI (Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation), 2015. Myanmar Agriculture in Brief.
81 pp.
MoAI (Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation), 2015. Myanmar Rice Sector Development Strategy. 93 pp.
Yadov, J.S.P. (1973). Annual report. All India coordinated project on water management and soil salinity research institute, Karnal, India.
Yin Mar Soe (2014). Comparison of saturated hydraulic conductivity on salt-affected soils and optimizing the effective reclamation methods. Journal of Agricultural Research, YAU. Vol: 1, Issue 1. P. 26-31.

37

Nutrient Management for Rice Production in Myanmar
Aung Naing Oo1, Theingi Khaung1 and Soe Soe Thein2

1. Lecturer, Department of Soil and Water Science, Yezin Agricultural University, NayPyiTaw, Myanmar Ph: 95+095197139, Email: ano1972@gmail.com
2. Pro-rector (Academic), Yezin Agricultural University, NayPyiTaw, Myanmar
ABSTRACT

Field experiment was conducted in order to investigate the effect of nutrient management on the productivity of high yielding rice (Yadanartoe)and hybrid rice (Palethwe-1) in the Department of Soil and Water Science,
Yezin Agricultural University during the dry season of 2015. Experiment
was laid out in a randomized complete block (RCB) design with four replications. Five fertilizer treatments T1: no fertilizer applied (no-F), T2: +(PK)fertilizers, T3: +(NK) fertilizers, T4: +(NP) fertilizers and T5: +(NPK) fertilizers were randomized. In both varieties, the application of NPK, NK,
and NP fertilizers significantly increased dry matter, plant height, numberof tillers per hill, number of panicles per hill, number of grains per panicle
and grain yield when compared to no fertilizer and PK fertilizers. The application of NPK treatment resulted in the highest grain yield, followedby the application of NK and NP fertilizers. The result also indicated that
there was no significant difference on mean grain yield recorded between
the treatments of without fertilizer and PK fertilizers application. It can beconcluded that nitrogen is the most limiting factors to increase the productivity of both varieties among the macronutrients.
Key Words: high yielding rice, hybrid rice, nutrient management, macronutrientsINTRODUCTION
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important crops of the world, grown inwide range of climatic zones, and the main source of nutrition to millions of people
around the world. Rice is also a staple food for Myanmar people and is an important
agricultural product for export. Yet by 2030, global rice production must be double to meet demand (FAO 2010), placing greater stress on already threatened land
and water resources. Total rice production will need to increase in order to feed an

38

Aung Naing Oo, Theingi Khaung and Soe Soe Thein

increasing population. Introduction of hybrid rice is an important step towards augmentation of rice yield. Hybrid rice yields about 15-20% more than the promisinghigh-yielding commercial varieties (Chaturvedi 2005). The hybrid cultivars are more
responsive to higher doses of nutrients (Yuan 1999) and thereby the yield potentiality is all high.
Generally, nitrogen (N) is one of the major elements required for plant growth
as the most yield limiting nutrient in lowland rice production because it is a constituent of numerous important compounds found in living cells, including amino acids,
proteins (enzymes), nucleic acids, and chlorophyll (Traore and Maranville 1999). It
was hypothesized that low yields were partly related to a change in the N supplying capacity of soil which results in low N concentration in the leaf canopy during
the grain filling period, early senescence of leaves, and low rates of photosynthesis(Kropff et al. 1993). With this hypothesis, grain protein content also appears tohave decreased. There are a large number of papers in fertilizer nitrogen rate which
reported that nitrogen could increase protein content and possibly grain yield ofrice, however, with the considerable variability rate. It is likely that yield would haveincreased further in most experiments if a higher rate of N-fertilizer was taken into
consideration. Thus, N affects all parameters contributing to yield. Leaf N concentration is closely related to leaf photosynthesis rate and crop biomass production.
N drives the demand for other macronutrients such as P and K (Dobermann andFairhurst 2000).
Phosphorus is important for flower production, anthesis, grain setting, strong
root and stem, and ripening of plant (Yoshida 1981). Phosphorus is very importantin early growth stages. It is mobile within the plant and promotes root development, tillering, early flowering, and ripening (especially where the temperature islow). Addition of mineral phosphorus fertilizer is required when the rice plant’s
root system is not yet fully developed and the native soil phosphorus supply is small(Dobermann and Fairhurst 2000). Rice plants that are deficient in P are stunted anddirty-dark green, and they have erect leaves, relatively few tillers, and decreased root
mass. Phosphorus is remobilized within the plant during later growth stages if sufficient P has been absorbed during early growth (Dobermann and Fairhurst 2000).
Potassium is the key component in the enzymes activities. While K does nothave a pronounced effect on tillering, it does affect the number of spikelets per panicle, percentage of filled grains, and grain weight. Potassium improves the rice plant’s
tolerance to adverse climatic conditions, lodging, insect pests, and diseases. Deficiency symptoms tend to occur in older leaves first, because K is very mobile within
the plant and is translocated to young leaves from old senescing leaves. Often, yield
response to K fertilizer is observed only when the supplies of other nutrients, especially N and P, are sufficient (Dobermann and Fairhurst 2000). Haefele et al. (2006)

Nutrient Management for Rice Production in Myanmar

39

found that in Northeast Thailand regions, there was no significant yield difference
between the control and the PK treatments indicated that P and K were rarely limiting yield without N application. But, if N was applied, application of P and K did
increase the average yields significantly.
An important constraint to rice yield is nutrient availability, and available nutrients are considered to be the most limiting nutrient to the rice yield in Myanmar.
In addition, balanced fertilization is very crucial in rice production. Therefore, theaim of this research was to investigate the effect of nutrient management on the
productivity of high yielding rice (Yadanartoe) and hybrid rice (Palethwe-1).
Materials and Methods
Experimental Site
Field experiment was carried out in the Department of Soil and Water Science,
Yezin Agricultural University, Myanmar at latitude of 19° 50´ N and longitude of
96° 15´ E, and at an elevation of 120 m above sea level during the dry season of 2015.
Experimental Design and Treatments
Experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block (RCB) design with four
replications under irrigated condition. The tested varieties were Yadanartoe (130days) and Palethwe-1 (120 days) which was one of the promising hybrid varieties
Table1: Fertilizer management practices for high yielding rice (Yadanartoe) in dry season, 2015

Treatment
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5

Description
No fertilizer applied (no-F)+(PK) fertilizers at the rate of 0-13-31 kg N-P-K ha-1+(NK) fertilizers at the rate of 85-0-31 kg N-P-K ha-1+(NP) fertilizers at the rate of 85-13-0 kg N-P-K ha-1+(NPK) fertilizers at the rate of 85-13-31 kg N-P-K ha-1

NPK used were urea, triple superphosphate and muriate of potash

Table2: Fertilizer management practices for hybrid rice (Palethwe-1) in dry season, 2015

Treatment
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5

Description

No fertilizer applied (no-F)+(PK) fertilizers at the rate of 0-25-63 kg N-P-K ha-1+(NK) fertilizers at the rate of 115-0-63 kg N-P-K ha-1+(NP) fertilizers at the rate of 115-25-0 kg N-P-K ha-1+(NPK) fertilizers at the rate of 115-25-63 kg N-P-K ha-1

NPK used were urea, triple superphosphate and muriate of potash40Aung Naing Oo, Theingi Khaung and Soe Soe Theinfor mass production.
For high yielding rice (Yadanartoe), Triple superphosphate (13 kg P ha-1) wasapplied as basal. Urea (20 kg N ha-1) and muriate of potash (10 kg K ha-1) wereapplied at 7 DAT (Day After Transplanting). Urea (45 kg N ha-1) and muriate ofpotash (11 kg K ha-1) were applied at 20 DAT (mid-tillering). Urea (20 kg N ha-1)
and muriate of potash (10 kg K ha-1) were applied at 45 DAT (panicle initiation) as
three split applications. For hybrid rice (Palethwe-1), Triple superphosphate (25 kg
P ha-1) was applied as basal. Urea (25 kg N ha-1) and muriate of potash (21 kg K ha-1)(panicleinitiation)
three(Daysplit applications.
For hybrid rice
(Palethwe-1),
superphosphate
were
appliedat 7 asDAT
After Transplanting).
Urea(65 kg NTripleha-1) andmuriate-1-1-1-1of(25potash(21) waskg Kha ) aswereappliedat kg
20 NDAT
Urea(21(25N-1ha)
kg P haappliedbasal.
Urea (25ha ) (mid-tillering).
and muriate of potash
kg kg
K ha
) were-1-1 DAT (panicle initiation) as
andmuriateofpotash
(21
kg
K
ha
)
were
appliedat45
applied at 7 DAT (Day After Transplanting). Urea (65 kg N ha ) and muriate of potash (21 kg K
three
split applied
applications.
ha-1) wereat 20 DAT (mid-tillering). Urea (25 kg N ha-1) and muriate of potash (21 kg Kha-1) were applied at 45 DAT (panicle initiation) as three split applications.

Data Collection
2.3
Data collection
An area of 1m ×1m sampling size was used for taking samples (number of tillers per
An area of 1m ×1m sampling size was used for taking samples (number of tillers per hill andhill and plant height) of each plot by two weeks interval started from 14 days after
plant height) of each plot at two weeks interval started from 14 days after transplanting.
In order totransplanting.
In order to estimate grain yield, the sampling area (4 m2) of eachplot
2
hand-harvested
and total
grain
estimate
grain yield, thearea weight(4 m ) ofofeach
washand-harvested
andsampling
total grain
eachplot
plotwaswasrecorded. Yield
compoweightwereof eachwas recorded.
Yield components
also recorded
as numberof hills
per m2,nents
alsoplotrecorded
as numberof hills perwere
m2, numberof tillers
per hill,numberof tillers
per hill,number ofpaniclesper hill,thousandnumberof totalgrains,ofnumberpaniclesper hill,thousandgrain
weight,numberofgrain
totalweight,
grains,numberof filled
grainsnumberunfilled
Thegrains.
numberof panicles
per hill
waswascountednumberandof filled
grainsofand
number grains.
of unfilled
The numberof panicles
per hillcountedfromselectedof harvested
areatotaled
and totaledthem.
Thenumberaverageof
from randomly
randomly selected
tentenhillshillsof harvested
area and
them. The
averagenumberof panicles
per hill Fromwas randomly
calculated.
Fromtenrandomly
panicles perhill was calculated.
selected
panicles of selected
harvested ten
area,panicles
the grains
ofwereharvestedarea,
thegrainswere
threshed
andbulked,andseparatedtheunfilledthreshed and bulked, and separated the unfilled grains from filled grains. And then, thegrainsfrom filled grains. And then, the number of filled grains and unfilled grains
number of filled grains and unfilled grains was counted and thousand grain weights was measured
was counted and thousand grain weights was measured by a digital balance.
by a digital balance.

Fertilizer Use Efficiency
2.4 Fertilizer use efficiency
Fertilizer use efficiency was calculated by using the following formulae (Fageria2009). Fertilizer use efficiency was calculated by using the following formulae (Fageria 2009).
Agronomic N use
efficiency=

Agronomic P use
efficiency=

Agronomic K use
efficiency=

2.5

grain yield with N application - grain yield without N application
N application
grain yield with P application - grain yield without P application
P application
grain yield with K application - grain yield without K application
K application

Data analysis
The data collected were analyzed statistically using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

techniques, and treatment means were compared by least significant difference (LSD) test at 5%

Nutrient Management for Rice Production in Myanmar

41

Data Analysis
The data collected were analyzed statistically using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) techniques, and treatment means were compared by least significant difference (LSD) test at 5% probability level. All statistical analyses were done by using
Statistix 8.0 software and Excel program (2010) by following up Gomez and Gomez(1984).
Results and Discussion
The plant height of Yadanartoe and Palethwe-1 measured from 14 days to 84 days
3.after
Results
and Discussion
transplanting
at two weeks interval is shown in Figure 1. It was observed that
The plantheightof Yadanartoeand Palethwe-1
fromincreased
14 days tountil
84 daysafterplant heightwassimilarat first 4 WAT,
thereaftermeasured
somewhat
8 WAT.
transplanting
at twointerval
is shown
Figure 1. It in
wasallobservedthat plantheightwas
After 8 WAT,
theweeks
growthwas notmuchinprogressed
treatments
in bothvarieties. The
increasedheightafter 4increased
WAT waspronounced
inthe
thegrowth
applicasimilar
at first
4 WAT,plant
thereaftersomewhat
until more
8 WAT.
After 8 WAT,
was
tion
of
NPK,
NK,
and
NP
fertilizers.
In
bothvarieties,themaximumplantheightnot much progressed in all treatments in both varieties. The increased plant height after 4 WAT was
was pronounced
found in NPK
treatmentofwhichwasandstatisticallysimilarthose the
of NK
and
more
in the application
NPK, NK,
NP fertilizers.
In bothtovarieties,
maximum
NP application treatments. Likewise the minimum plant height was observed in noplant height was found in NPK treatment which was statistically similar to those of NK and NP
fertilizer treatment. PK application plot was also statistically similar in plant height
application treatments. Likewise the minimum plant height was observed in no fertilizer treatment.
as no fertilizer treatment. It was probably attributed to the addition of N which
PK application plot was also statistically similar in plant height as no fertilizer treatment. It was
promotes the metabolic processes (Traore and Maranville 1999) and plant heightprobably attributed to the addition of N which promotes the metabolic processes (Traore andMaranville 1999) and plant height (Fageria and Baligar 2001).
Yadanatoe
no-F
+(NP)

140

Palethwe-1+(PK)+(NPK)

+(NK)

140

+(PK)
+(NPK)+(NK)

0

Weeks after transplanting

12 WAT0

10 WAT

20
8 WAT

20

6 WAT

40

4 WAT

40

12 WAT60

10 WAT

60

8 WAT

80

6 WAT

80

4 WAT

100

2 WAT

100

2 WAT

120

120

Plant height (cm)

no-F
+(NP)

Weeks after transplanting

Figure1 Meansonon
Yadanatoe
Figure1:
Meansnumber
numberofoftiller
tillerfor
forcontrol
controland
andfourfourdifferent
differentfertilizers
fertilizersapplication
application
Yadanatoe and Palethwe-1
and Palethwe-1
The total shoot dry weight at harvest time resulted from five different fertilizer applications
is shown in (Figure 2). In both varieties, data revealed that the application of NPK, NK, and NP

42Aung Naing Oo, Theingi Khaung and Soe Soe Thein-1) m-1)
Dry Dry
mattermatteryieldyield(g m(g

2000
2000

1626

1500

1626 1444

1500

1444

Yadanatoe

Palethwe-1

Yadanatoe

1958 1976
1957 1904
Palethwe-1

1949 1905

1958 1976

1949 1905

1508 1548

1957 1904

1508 1548

1000
1000
500
500
0
0

no-F

+(PK)

+(NK)

+(NP)

+(NPK)

no-F

+(PK)

+(NK)

+(NP)

+(NPK)

Treatments

Treatments
Figure 2 Dry matter yield for control and four different
fertilizers application on Yadanatoe andFigure2: Dry matter yield for control and four different fertilizers application on

Figure2 Palethwe-1
Dryandmatteryield for control and four different fertilizers application on Yadanatoe andYadanatoe
Palethwe-1

Palethwe-1
Table 3 Effect of nutrient management on yield and yield components of high yielding rice
Table
3 (Yadanartoe)
Effectand andyieldyieldcomponents
of highofyielding
rice
in dry management
season,2015 on yield
Table3:
Effectofofnutrient
nutrient
managementon yieldcomponents
high yielding

rice (Yadanartoe)
season,2015(Yadanartoe)inin drydry season,
Numberof 2015
Number of

Number of% of

Grain yield

Treatment

Numbertillers of

NumberPaniclesof

Numberspikeletsof% offilled

-1
Grain
yield
)
(kg haTreatment

tillersperhill

Paniclesper hill

spikeletsperpaniclefilledgrains(kg ha-1)(no-F)

per
hillb
6.67

per
6.33hillbperpanicle108.7bgrains87.94701 c(no-F)+(PK)

6.67
7.25 b

6.33
6.83 b108.7
121.0 b

87.9
90.7

4701
5611 cb

+(PK)
+(NK)

7.25
8.83 ba

6.83
8.25 ba

121.0
136.0 b
a

90.7
87.7

5611
7656 b
a

+(NK)
+(NP)

8.83 a8.25
8.50 a136.0
144.3 a

87.7
90.4

7656
7696 a+(NP)+(NPK)

8.83
9.08 a8.50
8.75 a144.3
141.0 a

90.4
89.4

7696
7715 a+(NPK)
F-test

9.08
* a

8.75
** a

141.0
** a

89.4
ns

7715
** a

F-test
C.V %

*
9.75

**
8.94

**
5.50

ns
2.19

**
7.17

C.V %in column followed9.75
8.94are not significantly
5.50 different
2.19
Valuesby the same letter
at 5% level 7.17(**)−
significantly
differentatP≤0.01,(*)−
significantly
differentatP≤0.05,ns −level
not significant
Values in column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 5%(**) − significantly different at P≤0.01, (*) − significantly different at P≤0.05, ns − not significant
Grain yield and yield components of high yielding rice (Yadanartoe) and hybrid rice
Grain asyieldand byyield
components
high yielding
rice (Yadanartoe)
and(Palethwe-1)
affected
different
fertilizerofapplications
are presentedin (Table 3)
andhybrid(Tablerice
4),(Palethwe-1)
as wasaffected
bythatdifferent
applications
are presented
in under(Tablethe
3) and(Table 4),
respectively.
It
foundmean fertilizer
grain yieldof both varieties
recordedapplication
of(Fageria
and Baligar
2001).
respectively.
It wasfounddry
thattreatments
mean grainyieldof bothtime
varieties
recordedundertheapplicationof ferNPK,
NK,totalandNP
fertilizers
wassignificantly
higherthan thatof nofivefertilizer
and PKThe
shootweightat
harvestresultedfromdifferent
NPK,
NK,
and
NP
fertilizers
treatments
wassignificantly
higher
than
that
of
no
fertilizer
andPK
treatments.
Among istheshown
five fertilizer
application
however, theapplicationof that
NPK thetilizer
applicationsin (Figure2). treatments,
In both varieties,
data
revealedtreatments.
Among
the
five
fertilizer
application
treatments,
however,theapplicationof
NPK dry
6
application of NPK, NK, and NP fertilizers significantly produced maximum
weight over the treatments of no fertilizer6 and PK application fertilizer application
at harvest.
Grain yield and yield components of high yielding rice (Yadanartoe) and hybrid rice (Palethwe-1) as affected by different fertilizer applications are presented

and NP fertilizers. The result also indicated that there was no significant difference on mean grain
yield recorded between the treatments of without fertilizer application and PK fertilizers application.
Pham et al. (2000) reported that adjusting amount of nitrogen application and indigenous nitrogen is

Nutrient
Management for Rice Production in Myanmar
a key factor to get higher yield of rice andsustainability.

43

Table4:
Effectof nutrient
management
and yield componentsof hybrid rice
Table
4 Effectof nutrient
managementon yield on
and yield
yield componentsof hybrid rice (Palethwe-1)(Palethwe-1)
in dryseason, 2015
in dry season,
2015

Treatment

Number of

Number of

Number of% of

Grain yieldtillers

Panicles

spikelets

filled(kg ha-1)

per hill

per hillper panicle

grains(no-F)

6.31 b

6.19 b131.3 b76.5

5704 b

+(PK)

6.56 b

6.56 b130.5 b78.7

6092 b

+(NK)

8.00 a7.81 a157.8 a79.7

8330 a+(NP)

7.88 a7.84 a157.3 a76.1

8198 a+(NPK)

8.81 a8.50 a162.3 a81.0

8382 aF-test

*

**

**

ns

**

C.V %

14.11

13.98

7.40

7.53

8.75

Values in column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 5% level(**) − significantly different at P≤0.01, (*) − significantly different at P≤0.05, ns − not significant
Regarding to yield components of both varieties, the application of NPK, NK, and NP
fertilizers treatments significantly produced number of tillers per hill, number of panicles per hill,in (Table
3) and (Table 4), respectively. We noticed that mean grain yield of both
number of spikelets per panicle and thousand grain weight more than the treatments of no fertilizer
varieties recorded under the application of NPK, NK, and NP fertilizers treatments
and NP fertilizers, but there was no significant difference in percentage of filled grains
wasapplication
significantly
higher than that of no fertilizer and PK treatments. Among the fiveamong the five different kind of fertilizer treatments. The plots without fertilizer application gave
fertilizer
application treatments, however, the application of NPK treatment resulted
low value of yield components. Nitrogen fertilizer promotes rice growth by increase in plant height,
in thehighest grain yield, which was followed by the yield of application of NK andnumber of tillers per hill, leaf size, number of spikelets per panicle, and filled grains percentage in
NP fertilizers. The result also indicated that there was no significant difference oneach panicle, and thus yields as shown in many reports (Nangju and De Datta 1970; Seetanum andmean grain yield recorded between the treatments of without fertilizer application
De Datta 1973; Patrick and Hoskins 1974; Fageria and Baligar 2001).
and PK fertilizers application. Pham et al. (2000) reported that adjusting amount ofAgronomic N use efficiency (ANUE) was defined as the ratio of grain yield with N
nitrogen application and indigenous nitrogen is a key factor to get higher yield of
application minus grain yield without N application to N application (Fageria 2009). The fertilizer
rice and sustainability.
use efficiency of Yadanatoe and Palethwe-1 is shown in (Figure 3). The efficiency of N fertilizer is
Regarding to yield components of both varieties, the application of NPK, NK,high, relatively P and K are very low. In both varieties, the ANUE value recorded in this study was
and NP fertilizers treatments
significantly produced a number of tillers per hill, ahigher than the 16 kg grain kg-1 N fertilizer reported by Haefele et al. (2006) for eight fertilizer
number of panicles per hill, number of spikelets per panicle and thousand grain
7
weight more than the treatments of no fertilizer
application and NP fertilizers, butthere was no significant difference in percentage of filled grains among the five different kind of fertilizer treatments. The plots without fertilizer application gave low
value of yield components. Nitrogen fertilizer promotes rice growth by increase inplant height, number of tillers per hill, leaf size, number of spikelets per panicle, andfilled grains percentage in each panicle, and thus yields as shown in many reports(Nangju and De Datta 1970; Seetanum and De Datta 1973; Patrick and Hoskins
1974; Fageria and Baligar 2001).
Agronomic N use efficiency (ANUE) was defined as the ratio of grain yieldwith N application minus grain yield without N application to N application (Fageria 2009). The fertilizer use efficiency of Yadanatoe and Palethwe-1 is shown intrialsin theThailand1995
to 1997. According to this result, it could be
44 carried
Aung out
Naing
Oo,Northeast
Theingi Khaung
andfrom
Soe Soe
Thein

Fertilizer Use Efficiency

suggested that the application of P and K fertilizer could be reduced in Yezin soil.
Yadanatoe

30

Palethwe-1

25
20
15
10
5
0

ANUE

APUE

AKUE

Figure3 Fertilizer
use useefficiency
of of
Yadanatoe
andandPalethwe-1(ANUE= Agronomic
NN
use
Figure3:
Fertilizer
efficiency
Yadanatoe
Palethwe-1(ANUE= Agronomic
use efficiency; APUE =Agronomic P use efficiency; AKUE = Agronomic K use efficiency)
efficiency; APUE =Agronomic P use efficiency; AKUE = Agronomic K use efficiency)
4. Conclusion
This study investigated the effect of nutrient management on the growth and yield of high(FigureThe efficiency
of Nrice
fertilizer
is high,
relatively
P and
K are indicatedvery low.thatIn
yielding
rice 3).
(Yadanartoe)and hybrid(Palethwe-1).
In bothvarieties,
the results
both varieties, the ANUE value recorded in this study was higher than the 16 kg
the application of NPK, NK, and NP fertilizers significantly increased total dry matter, plant height,
grain kg-1 N fertilizer reported by Haefele et al. (2006) for eight fertilizer trials carnumber of tillers per hill, number of panicles per hill, number of spikelets per panicle and grainried out in the Northeast Thailand from 1995 to 1997. From this result, it could beyield while compared to using no fertilizer and PK fertilizers. The results indicated the effect of N
suggested that the application of P and K fertilizer could be reduced in Yezin soil.
fertilizer could improve the growth and grain yield of rice for both varieties. Nitrogen would verify

to bea significant contributor to the growth, development and finally grain yield, as it is evident
Conclusion

investigatedtheKeffectnutrient
management
onyields
the growthand yield
fromThis
this study
study. Indigenous
P andsupplyofwould
be sufficientto achieveof both varieties
inhigharea.
yielding(Yadanartoe)
rice (Palethwe-1).
thisofstudy
Based riceon abovefindings, itandcan hybrid
be concluded
that nitrogen isIntheboth
mostvarieties,
limiting
thetoresults
thevarieties
applicationof NPK,
factorincreaseindicatedgrain yieldthatof bothat the study
site. NK, and NP fertilizers signifi-

cantly increased total dry matter, plant height, number of tillers per hill, number ofpanicles per hill, number of spikelets per panicle and grain yield while compared to
5. Acknowledgement
using no fertilizer and PK fertilizers. The results indicated the effect of N fertilizer
This study was supported from the research project of Yezin Agricultural University,
could
improve the growth and grain yield of rice for both varieties. Nitrogen would
NayPyiTaw,
verify toMyanmar.
be a significant contributor to the growth, development and finally grain
yield, as it is evident from this study. Indigenous P and K supply would be sufficientto achieve yields of both varieties in this study area. Based on above findings, it can
6. References
be concluded
nitrogenis themost limiting
factor
grain
yield
both
Chaturvedi,
I. 2005.that
Effectof nitrogen
fertilizers
on growth,yieldtoandincrease
quality ofhybridriceof(Oryzavarieties
at
the
study
site.
sativa). Journal of Central European Agriculture, 6: 611–618.
Acknowledgement

8

This study was supported from the research project of Yezin Agricultural University, NayPyiTaw, Myanmar.

Nutrient Management for Rice Production in Myanmar

45

REFERENCES
Chaturvedi, I. 2005. Effect of nitrogen fertilizers on growth, yield and quality ofhybrid rice (Oryza sativa). Journal of Central European Agriculture, 6: 611–618.
Dobermann, A. and T. Fairhurst. 2000. Rice: Nutrient disorders and nutrient management. Potash and Phosphate Institute (PPI), Potash and Phosphate Instituteof Canada (PPIC), and International Rice Research Institute (IRRI).
Fageria, N.K. 2009. The use of nutrients in crop plants. CRC press, Boca Raton, Florida.
Fageria, N.K. and V.C. Baligar. 2001. Lowland rice response to nitrogen fertilization.
Communication of Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 32(9, 10): 1405–1429.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2010. Rice market monitor volume 8-issue
no. 2. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Gomez, K.A. and A.A. Gomez. 1984. Statistical Procedures for Agricultural Research.
2nd edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Haefele, S.M., K. Naklang, D. Harnpichitvitaya, S. Jearakongman, E. Skulkhu, P.
Romyen, S. Phasopa, S. Tabtim, D. Suriya-arunroj, S. Khunthasuvon, D. Kraisorakul, P. Youngsuk, S.T. Amarante and L.J. Wade. 2006. Factors affecting
rice yield and fertilizer response in rainfed lowlands of northeast Thailand.
Field Crops Research 98:39–51.
Kropff, M.J., K.G. Cassman, H.H. Van Laar and S. Peng. 1993. Nitrogen and yieldpotential of irrigated rice. Plant Soil 155: 391–394.
Nangju, D. and S.K. De Datta. 1970. Effect of time of harvest and nitrogen level onyield and grain breakage in transplanted rice. Agronomy Journal 62: 468–474.
Patrick, R. M. and F.H. Hoskins. 1974. Protein and amino acid content of rice asaffected by application of nitrogen fertilizer. Cereal Chemistry 51: 84–95.
Pham, K., W. Seetanum and S.K. De Datta. 2000. Grain yield, milling quality, andseed viability of rice as influenced by time of nitrogen application and time of
harvest. Agronomy Journal 85: 390–394.
Seetanum, W. and S.K. De Datta. 1973. Grain yield, milling quality, and seed viability of rice as influenced by time of nitrogen application and time of harvest.
Agronomy Journal 65: 390–394.
Traore, A. and J.W. Maranville. 1999. Nitrate reductase activity and diverse grainsorghum genotypes and its relationship to nitrogen use efficiency. Agronomy
Journal 91: 863–869.
Yoshida, S. 1981. Fundamentals of rice crop science. International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines.
Yuan, L. 1999. Hybrid rice breeding for super high yield. Hybrid Rice 12(6): 1-6.

47

Impact of Flood on Agricultural Production in Seikphyu
Township, Magwe Region
Nyein Nyein Htwe1, Mya Yadana Tun2, Khin Oo3

1. Associate Professor and Professors, Yezin Agricultural University 2. Master Student
3. Retired Professor, Yezin Agricultural University
Corresponding email address: htwe1971@gmail.com
ABSTRACT

To investigate the loss of agricultural production of farmers after flood hit
in October 2011, the study was conducted by interviewing 120 respondents
from 10 villages at Seikphyu Township, Magway Region in July 2012. A
total of 120 respondents from 10 villages were interviewed with structuralinterview questionnaire. The study area was divided into three groups basedon their level of damage: Group I (seriously affected area), Group II (moderately affected area), and Group III (less affected area). In the study area,majority of the respondents mainly relied on upland farming and alluvial
land cultivation. Land holding size of Group I was significantly different
in upland and alluvial land cultivation before and after flood. Cropping
patterns of group I, and II were significantly changed after flood. Farm
implements, well and storehouse were significantly reduced compared withgroups I and II. Flood affected people received many farming assistanceprovided by government and many donor organizations. For all respondents, lack of investment and adaptable seeds were the most difficulties forthe affected people livelihood. The farmers needed the rehabilitation program to provide loan, adaptable seeds to climate change, improve agricultural technology, farm machinery and implements and availability of watersupply.
Key Words: flood, cropping patterns, agricultural production, Seikphyu
Township

INTRODUCTIONThe Union of Myanmar is exposed to multiple natural hazards including cyclone,earthquake, floods and fire due to climate change. Climate change had a significant impact on the country’s agriculture and livelihoods, especially in the Dry Zone.
The farming systems of the Dry Zone are a complex mixture of paddy cultivation,
non-rice crops (pulses, oilseeds, vegetable and others) and large and small livestock48

Nyein Nyein Htwe, Mya Yadana Tun, Khin Oo(MOAI 2011).
The impacts of climate change on agriculture and human well-being include:
1) the biological effects on crop yields; 2) the resulting impacts on outcomes including prices, production, and consumption; and 3) the impacts on per capita calorie
consumption and child malnutrition. The biophysical effects of climate change on
agriculture induce changes in production and prices, which play out through theeconomic system as farmers and other market participants adjust autonomously, altering crop mix, input use, production, food demand, food consumption, and trade(Nelson et al. 2009).
In Seikphyu Township, the total of 27 villages was severely hit by flood of
Yaw Stream in 19th and 20th October in 2011. The villages along Yaw Stream within
Magway Region were initially declared disaster zones. Seventy five percent of thehouses and buildings were destroyed and the flood killed some people, animals, anddestroyed many farm, households, and declined their economy (DOA 2012).Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess the impact of climate change on the
agricultural production in the study area.
Research Methodology
In this study, the primary data were collected from the selected 120 households withthe structured interview in ten villages from five village tracts during July 2012 in
Seikphyu Township.
(i) Primary data on cropping patterns of farmers’ before and after flood, assistance for agricultural livelihood for rural development after flood, andcultivated area, uncultivated area, net sown area, damage list of Yaw stream
flood and strong winds and aids for households affected by flooding.
(ii) The major sources of the secondary data were also taken from village elders and personnel from Department of Agriculture (DoA) in Seikphyu
Township.
The paired-sampled t-test was used to analyze the statistically differences ofcropping patterns of farmers’ economy before and after flood. The chi-square test
was used to analyze the losses of livelihood and rehabilitation program of the sample
respondents after flood.
Results and Discussion
The sample respondents were selected from different villages in Seikphyu Township to represent the population affected by flood. Based on flood damaged level,
the sample households were classified into three groups; seriously affected areas (65households in Group I), moderately affected areas (32 households in Group II) andless affected areas (23 households in Group III).

Impact of Flood on Agricultural Production

49

Table1: Different types of the sample respondents in the study area, 2012
Items

Sample respondents

Second priority (Group II)

32 (26.7)

First priority (Group I)

65 (54.2)

Third priority (Group III)23 (19.2)

Total

120 (100)
	
  
	
  

Table 2. Effectsof floodEffects
on landownershipin the study area,
2012
Table2:of flood ofonfarmers
landownershipof farmers
in the study area, 2012
Types oflands

LowlandUplandAlluvial
landGroup IIGroup I

% of the respondentsha% of the respondents

0<1
1.1-2.9
3-4.9
Mean
Range
0
<1
1.1-2.9
3-4.9
5-6.9
>7
Mean
Range

BeforeAfter32(49.2)
34(52.3)
27(41.5)
25 (38.5)5(7.7)
6 (9.2)1(1.5)
00.62
0.57
0.08 - 3.44 0.08 - 2.024(6.2)
8(12.3)25(38.5)23(35.4)
26(40.0)24 (36.9)6(9.2)
6 (9.2)3 (4.6)4 (6.2)
1 (1.5)01.72
1.62
0.08 - 8.11 0.08 - 6.88

2.419*

1(3.1)
2(6.3)
12(37.5)
12 (37.5)
15 (46.9)
14(43.8)4(12.5)4 (12.5)
1.69
1.63
0.41 - 4.05 0.41 - 4.05

0<1
1.1-2.9
Mean
Range

26(40.0)36(55.4)
34(52.3)
24 (36.9)5(7.7)
5(7.7) 3.411**
0.68
0.52
0.10 - 1.22 0.10 - 1.22

15(46.9)
18(56.3)
15 (46.9)
12(37.5)2 (6.3)2 (6.3)0.59
0.50
0.05 - 1.22 0.04 - 1.22

t-test1.760ns

BeforeAfter16(50.0)17(53.1)
13(40.6)
12 (37.5)
2 (6.3)2 (6.3)1(3.1)
1 (3.1)0.63
0.59
0.10 - 3.24 0.10 - 3.24

Group IIIt-test% of the respondents
BeforeAfter12(52.2)9(39.1)2(8.7)
0.57
0.20 1.62

t-test-12(52.2)9(39.1)2(8.7)
0.57
0.20 - 1.62

1.438ns2(8.7)
11 (47.8)
8 (34.8)2 (8.7)1.43
0.41 - 4.05

4(17.4)11 (47.8)
6 (26.1)
2 (8.7) 2.152*
1.26
0.20 4.05

1.791ns10(43.5)
12 (92.3)
1 (4.3)0.61
0.09 - 2.02

12(52.2)
10(43.5)
1 (4.3)
1.447ns
0.52
0.09 1.01-

Figures in the parentheses are percentage.
Note: ** = significantly different at 1% level, * = significantly different at 5% level, and ns =non- significant

Land Holding of the Sample Respondents Before and After Flood
The total number of land holding size owned by farmer groups is shown in Table 1.
There were three types of land such as lowland, upland and alluvial land. The mean
lowland holding size was significantly different (0.62 and 0.57 ha) before and after
flood in Group I. For upland farm, the mean upland holding size was 1.72 and 1.62
ha within the range of 0.08 - 8.11 and 0.08 - 6.88 ha before and after flood respectively. Therefore, upland holding size in Group I was significantly changed before
and after flood. The mean alluvial land holding size was 0.68 and 0.52 ha within therange of 0.1 – 1.22 ha before and after flood in the study area. In Group I, alluvial
land holding size was significantly different before and after flood.
It was found that possession of different types of farm land was similar in

50

Nyein Nyein Htwe, Mya Yadana Tun, Khin Oo

Table3: Cropping patterns of farmers in 12	
  respondents before and after flood, 2012

Table 3. Cropping patterns of farmers in respondents before and after flood, 2012

Items

Crops

Group IGroup IIGroup IIINo. of respondents

No. of respondents

No. of respondents

(%)

(%)

BeforeAfter12(18.

15 (23.0)

GG or Maize

4 (6.1)0

2.049*

Sunflower0

3 (4.6)-1.760Total respondents

19

15

GG-M/PP

14 (21.5)

6 (9.3)

2.997**

GG-fallow-Onion

18(27.8)

9 (13.8)

3.207**

4)

BeforeAfter

9 (28.1)

6 (18.7)

1 (3.1)1 (3.1)10

72.675*GG-PP/M/O-S

15 (46.9)

7 (21.8)

3.215**

ns

Onion- fallow- Betel/CH

4 (6.1)5(7.6 )

-1.000GG+PP+M/S/CT

16 (24.6)

12 (18.4)

2.049*

M+S/CT/SF

6 (9.3)3 (4.6)

1.760

GG+M+C/SF/T+CH

19 (29.1)

7 (10.8)

3.807**13	  

14 (43.9)9 (28.1)

2.396*ns

2 (6.2)

0

1.438

ns

M+SF/PP31 (47.7)4220

3.611**(30.8)

land
Chilli or Sesame

2 (3.0)3 (4.6)-1.000ns

44

23

11 (34.4)

9 (28.1)

5 (15.6)2 (6.2)

Onion- Betel + Chilli
Total respondents

33

23

Figures in the parentheses are percentage.
Note: * = Significantly different at 5% level and ns = non - significant

10 (43.4)

10 (43.4)

3 (13.0)

2 (8.7)1.000

3 (13.0)

4 (17.3)-1.0006 (26.0)

3 (13.0)

1.817ns

1 (4.3)1 (4.3)-5 (21.7)

3 (13.0)

1.447

1 (4.3)1 (4.3)-19

14

12 (52.1)

8 (34.6)-ns

7 (21.8)

Alluvial Onion- Betel

After

1.000ns

13 (40.7)

77

t-test

Beforens

1.791

Onion-Betel

Total respondents(%)

t-testns

1.760

Rice-Chickpea
LowlandUplandt-test

16

11

ns

ns

ns

1.438ns

1.791

ns

2.152*

Impact of Flood on Agricultural Production

51

Group I and Group II (Table 2). The mean lowland holding size of Group II was
0.63 and 0.59 ha within the range of 0.10 – 3.24 ha before and after flood. The mean
upland holding size was 1.69 and 1.63 ha within the range of 0.41 - 4.05 ha before
and after flood. The mean alluvial land holding size was 0.59 and 0.50 within therange of 0.05 – 1.22 ha before and after flood. Therefore, average land holding size ofdifferent types of land in Group II farmers were not significantly reduced before andafter flood. In Group III, The mean lowland holding size 0.57 ha was not changed
within the range of 0.20 – 1.62 ha before and after flood in the study area. The mean
upland holding size was 1.43 and 1.26 ha within the range of 0.41 - 4.05 ha before
and after flood. Therefore, Group III upland holding sizes were significantly reduced
after flood. The mean alluvial land owner were 0.61 and 0.52 ha within the range of
0.09 - 2.02 and 0.09 - 1.01 ha before and after flood. Significantly change in size ofownership of alluvial was not found in Group III due to impact of flood.
Impact of Flood on Types of Cultivated Crops and Patterns in the Study Area
There were various crops cultivated in three types of cropping patterns; mono cropping, double cropping and mix cropping patterns (Table 3). In group I, rice-chickpea
pattern in lowland was cultivated by 23% and 18.4% of the respondents before andafter flood respectively. Moreover, green gram or maize was cultivated by 6.1% of
farmers before flood whereas sunflower cultivation was done by 4.5% in place ofgreen gram or maize after flood. Significant impact of flood was found in cultivationof green gram or maize crops in lowland of Group I.
The upland types of cropping patterns were green gram - maize/pigeon pea,
green gram - onion, onion - betel/ chilli, green gram + pigeon pea, maize/sesame/cotton, maize + sesame/cotton/sunflower, and green gram + maize+ chickpea/sunflower/tomato + chilli. Green gram- maize or pigeon pea done by 21.4% of group1
was decreased to 9.3% after flood. Moreover, green gram- onion cultivation was
done by 27.8% whereas 13.8% of farmers could cultivate after flood respectively.
The mix cropping of green gram, maize, and chili with chickpea or sunflower or
tomato cultivation was done by 29.1% before flood and 10.8% of farmers after flood
respectively. These three types of cropping patterns with various crops were highly
significantly different before and after flood.
In alluvial land although onion-betel vine cultivation was done by 47.7% before flood, 30.8% of farmers continued this pattern. It was highly significantly different before and after flood.
In Group II farmers, rice followed by chickpea was cultivated by 28.1% before
flood but 18.7% of lowland owners were able to grow this pattern after flood. This
cropping pattern in lowland farm was not significantly different before and after
flood. Onion-betel vine cultivation was done by 40.7% and 21.8% of the respond-

52

Nyein Nyein Htwe, Mya Yadana Tun, Khin Oo

ents before and after flood. The mix cultivation of green gram + pigeon pea / maize/
onion + sesame and another mix cropping were dominant in upland. Before flood,over 40% of farmers could use these patterns but only about 20% continued to growafter flood. These three types of cropping patterns were significantly different before
and after flood.
In alluvial land, onion followed by betel vine cultivation was cultivated by 34.4
% and 28.1% before and after flood. The chili cultivation was done by 15.6 % before
flood and 6.3 % after flood. The cropping patterns in alluvial land were not significant before and after flood.
In Group III, the common pattern of rice followed by chickpea in lowland
was practiced by 43.1% of farmers before and after flood. In upland farm, cropping
patterns were the same with other groups such as onion followed by chili or betelvine cultivation, green gram + pigeon pea + maize/ sesame / cotton/ sunflower/ chili+ tomato. The cropping patterns of lowland and upland farm were not significant
different before and after flood.
In alluvial land, onion followed by betel vine cultivation and chili cultivation
was done by 52.1 % and 34.6% of farmers before and after flood respectively. This
type of cropping was significantly different before and after flood.
Impact of Flood on Farm Assets of the Sample Households
In the study area, most of the villages were located along the Yaw stream. Whenflooding in the study area, their implements were floated down along the stream. In
Group I and II households, the respondents who owned tractor was the same (6.2%)
before and after flood. The owners of farm assets such as sprayer (43.1 % to 35.4%),
water pump (72.3% to 61.5%), well (58.5% to 40%), storehouses (58.5% to 35.4%)
and threshing ground (12.3% to 10.8%) were significantly decreased after flood. Ingroup II household, the no. of heavy farm machines owners such as tractor (6.3%),
trailer (3.1%) and power tiller (3.1%) were the same before and after flood. Althoughfarm assets such as sprayer, water pump, storehouses and threshing ground werelost during flood, the loss of well was significantly increaseded after flood (43.8%
to 31.3%). In group III households, it was noticed that some farm assets (sprayer,water pump, well and storehouses) were lost, but not significantly reduced by flooding (Table 4).
Economic Analysis on Impacts of Flood on Onion Production
To evaluate the profitability and efficiency of resource use in onion production of thesample farmers in the study area, comparative gross margin analysis of the study area
before and after flood is conducted (Table 5).
As a consequence of low yield and low price of onion production, production

Impact of Flood on Agricultural Production

53

Table4: Effect of flood on farm 14	
  assets of the sample respondents

Table 4 Effect of flood on farm assets of the sample respondents
Group I
Items
BeforeAftert-test
BeforeTractor

4 (6.2)4 (6.2)-

Power tiller

Group IIGroup IIIAftert-test2 (6.3)2 (6.3)-1 (3.1)1 (3.1)-

BeforeAftert-testSprayer

28 (43.1)

23 (35.4)

2.309*

13 (40.6)

10 (31.3)

1.791ns

5 (21.7)

4 (17.4)

1.000ns

Water pump

47 (72.3)

40 (61.5)

2.779**

19 (59.4)

16 (50.0)

1.791ns

15 (65.2)

15 (65.2)-

Trailer

1 (1.5)

1 (1.5)-

1 (3.1)1 (3.1)-Well

38 (58.50

26 (40.0)

3.469**

14 (43.8)

10 (31.3)

2.104*

10 (43.5)

9 (39.1)

1.000ns

Storehouse

38 (58.5)

23 (35.4)

4.382**

15 (46.9)

12 (37.5)

1.791ns

10 (43.5)

7 (30.4)

1.817ns

Threshing ground

8 (12.3)

7 (10.8)

1.000ns

4 (12.5)

3 (9.4)1.000ns

1 (4.3)-1.000ns

Figures in the parentheses are percentage.
Note: ** significantly different at 1% level, * significantly different at 5% level, and ns non- significant

15	
  Table5: Comparative gross margin analysis of onion production
Table 5 Comparative gross margin analysis of onion production of all group farmers before and after floodof all group farmers before and after flood
Group INo

Description

.

Unit

Group IIGroup III

BeforeAfter

BeforeAfter

Before

After

flood

flood

flood

flood

flood

flood

1.

Average output (yield)

kg/ha5529.52356.25493.71734.84983

2722.5

2.

Average farm-gate priceKyats/kg

417.86

364

392.9

364

385

375

3.

Value of production (1x2)

Kyats/ha

2310556.9857656.82158474.7

631467.2

1918455

1020937.5

4.

Total material cost

Kyats/ha

111088.1

18336013911992528.6

161370124125

5.

Total labor cost

Kyats/ha

237578.6

344240279395.2

183757.1

3250302470006.

Total variable cost (TVC)(4+5)

Kyats/ha

348666.7

527600418514.2

276285.7

486400371125

7.

Gross margin per unit of land (3-6)

Kyats/ha1961890.2

330056.8

1739960.5

355181.5

1432055649812.5

8.

Gross margin per unit of capital (3/6)

Kyats/TVC

6.62

2.59

5.16

2.29

3.94

2.75

9.

Break-even yield (6/2)

kg/ha

834.4

1449.51065.2759

1263.4

989.7

10.

Break-even price(6/1)

Kyats/ha

63.06

223.9

76.2

159.3

97.6

136.3

	
  

54

First priority (Group I)
65 (54.2)
Table 1 Different types of the sample respondents in the study area, 2012
Second priority (Group
32respondents(26.7)
ItemsII)
SampleThird
priority(Group(GroupI)III)23 (54.2)(19.2)First priority
65

Nyein Nyein Htwe, Mya Yadana Tun, Khin Oo
Total
Second priority (Group II)

120
(100)
32 (26.7)

Third priority (Group III)23 (19.2)
Table 6 Agricultural
aids obtainedaids
by farmers
after
flood after flood
Table6:
Agricultural
receivedbyfarmers
Total
120 (100)% of the respondents
No. 6 Agricultural aids
Aidsobtained by farmers after flood
Table
Group IGroup IIGroup III
1.
No.
2.

Plough/harrow

1.
3.

Aids
farm implements

38.5 % of the 53.1
respondents 21.7
75.4 IGroup

62.5 IIGroup

56.5IIIGroup

Plough/harrow
Well

38.5
29.2

53.1
12.5

21.7
47.8

2.
4.

farm implements
Seeds

75.4
66.2

62.5
59.4

56.5
69.6

3.
5.

Well
Technology

29.2
4.6

12.5
15.6

47.8
4.3

4.

Seeds

66.2

59.4
47.87*

69.6

4.6

15.6

4.3

χ

2

Technology*=5.Significant
at 5 % level2χ47.87*
Table 7 Difficulties in farming faced by farmers after flood*= Significant at 5 % level% of the respondents
No.
Difficulty
Table 7 Difficulties
infarming in
faced
by farmers
after
flood after flood
Table7: Difficulties
farming
facedGroupby farmers
I
Group II Group III

1. Lack of investments (money) in farms
No.
Difficulty
2. Lack of water in farms

respondents 56.5
36.9 % of the50.0
Group27.7 IGroup
18.8 IIGroup
26.1III

1.
3.

Lack
of investments(money)in farms
To
prepareflooded fields
for cultivation

36.9
58.5

50.0
53.1

56.5
56.5

2.
4.

Lack ofof seeds
water forin farmsLacksowing

27.7
84.6

18.8
90.6

26.1
95.7

3.
5.

To preparetoflooded
fields for cultivation
Difficultytransport

58.5
7.7

53.1
3.1

56.5
-

4.
6.

Lack ofof electricity
seeds for sowing
Lackin village

84.6
10.8

90.6
3.1

95.7
8.7

5.
7.

Difficulty tofoodtransport
Insufficientfor households

7.7
18.5

3.1
9.3

13.0

6.
8.

Lack ofof implements
electricity in village
Lack

10.8
3.0

3.1
6.3

8.7
4.3

7.
9.

Insufficientfor households
Lackof otherfood
householdproperty

18.5
12.3

9.3
6.3

13.0
4.3

8.
10.

Lackcropof implements
Lowprices

3.0
72.3

6.3
59.4

4.3
86.9

Lack
other
householdpropertya)9.Group
I =of65,b) Group
II = 32,c) Group III = 23 12.3

6.3

4.3

10.

59.4

86.9

Low crop prices

72.3a) Group I = 65, b) Group II = 32, c) Group III = 23

value of group I was decreased 37.1% (from over 2 million kyats to over 800000
kyats) after flood. In group II & III production value decreased 29.3% and 53.2%
respectively. Although farmers were not able to use necessary inputs and labor forgetting high yields, input and labor cost were expensive after flood.
In a consequence of the lower value of production, gross margin per unit ofland in group I decreased from over 1900000 kyats to over 330000 kyats , that is
16.8% after flood. For group II it was much lower than before 20.4% (from over
1700000 kyats to over 350000 kyats) after flood. Gross margin per unit of land ingroup III were much lower 45.4% (from over 1 million kyats to over 60000 kyats)after flood is over.

Impact of Flood on Agricultural Production

55

Consequently, gross margin per unit of capital were decreased respectively
from 6.62 in group I, 5.16 in group II and 3.94 in group III before flood to 2.59,
2.29 and 2.75 after flood. The profit of onion production of farmers in all groups I
were dramatically reduced and their revenue could not cover the total variable cost of
production after flood. Therefore, the break-even yield and break-even price of onion
production were significantly increased for all groups after flood.
The break-even price showed that farmers must get a higher price for theironion production after flood just to cover their total variable costs. But break-evenyield were reduced after flood.
Agricultural Aids for Sample Respondents after Flood
The survey reported that many donor organizations such as Action Aid, Mae FarLuang foundation, PC-Myanmar, MNGO-CP, FAO, Ecodev MHDO provided
farm implements and quality seeds for sowing (Table 6). About 66.2% of group I,
59.4% of group II, and 69.6% of group III farmers received quality seeds for cultivation next season. Farm implements such as plough or harrow were received by
38.5% of the respondents in group I, 53.1% of the respondent group II, and 21.7%of the respondent group III farmers. The donor organizations such as Development
Committee of Towns and Cities, Manawphyu, Action Aid, and NLD party donatedwells to obtain sufficient water for cultivation. About 29.2% of group I, 12.5 of groupII, and 47.8% of group III of the respondents received wells to obtain sufficientwater for cultivation in water shortage season. Other farm implements were largely
received by 75.4% of group I, 62.5% group II, and 56.5% group III in the study area.
The χ2 value expressed that agricultural aids obtained by farmers were significantly
different among groups. Among the groups, group I largely obtained farm implements and seeds, Group II got the highest assistance for plough or harrow and seed
while group III were in possession of wells and seeds.
Difficulties in Farming of the Sample Respondents after Flood
The respondents were questioned regarding their difficulties in crop production andother difficulties after flood (Table 7). In the sample farmers, about 84.6% of groupI, 90.6% of group II, and 95.7% of group III of the sample respondents cited lack ofquality seeds for sowing as their worst problems. The respondents (72.3 % of groupI, 59.4% of group II and 86.9 % of group III) expressed lack of proper markets fortheir seasonal goods. In all groups, over 50% of the farmers faced the serious problemof flooding in their fields. Moreover, 36.9% of group I, 50% of group II, and 56.5%
of group III farmers stated lack of money to invest for cultivation in the next crop.
In the sample respondents, the most difficulties were lack of seed for re-sowing, low
price of their crops, to prepare flooded fields and lack of money by all group farmers

56

Nyein Nyein Htwe, Mya Yadana Tun, Khin Oo

after flood. Seeds and farm equipments were largely provided to all groups by thedonor agencies. Although group I lost many well but donors provided more wells togroup III.
Conclusion and Policy Implication
Flood simultaneously impacted on several sources of income, livelihood, properties
and lives. Cropping patterns, crop varieties and crop yields of the climate related
crop production were limited factors due to the impact of flood in the study area.
In practice, physical capital such as plows, seeds, farm implements and water supplied sources must be restored. The livelihood of farming people will be recoveredby providing good quality seeds and improved technology for crop production. The
local farmers will mainly need extension and financial services concerned with crop
production and rural development. The international donors and local government
especially MOAI should provide adequate amount of seeds, investment money andrequired farm implements according to the farmers’ needs in rehabilitation program.
REFERENCESDOA (Department of Agriculture). 2012. Official report. Ministry of Agriculture
and Irrigation, Myanmar.
MOAI (Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Myanmar). 2011. Myanmar Agriculture at a Glance, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar.
Nelson, G. C., M. W. Rosegrant, J. Koo, R. Robertson, T. Sulser, T. Zhu, C. Ringler,
S. Msangi, A. Palazzo, M. Batka, M. Magalhaes, R. Valmonte-Santos, M. Ewing, and D. Lee. 2009.Climate Change, Impact on Agriculture and Cost of
Adaptation. IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington). Food Policy Report. pp 1-4.

57

Sustaining Community and Forest Development throughCommunity Forest Enterprise - A Case Study in Southern
Shan State
Lwin Lwin Naing

Ecosystem Conservation and Community Development Initiative (ECCDI), Myanmar(lwinlwinnaing@gmail.com)
ABSTRACT

A market-led approach to community forest was piloted in Ywangan
Township in 2014 through FFF (Forest and Farm Facility) funded project:“Preparing for a community forest-based enterprise”. It involved 6 CFs(Community Forests) and successfully established in 6 village level Community Forest Products Producer Associations (CFPPAs) and a Townshiplevel CFPPA. Following the success of this project FFF funded the project:“Establishing and Strengthening CF Enterprises in Southern Shan State”
in 2015. It involved 36 CFs in 5 townships including Ywangan with beneficiaries numbering 3,789 households.
Key Words: community forest (CF), southern Shan State, forest and farm
facility (FFF)

INTRODUCTION
International experiences have shown that market-led approach to CF (Community
Forest) or CF-based enterprises can alleviate poverty, sustain forests and improvesocial justice.
With this end in view, the Ecosystem Conservation and Community Development Initiative (ECCDI) implemented a project entitled “Preparing for A Community Forest-based Enterprise” in Ywangan Township in 2014, and the follow-up
project “Establishing and Strengthening CF Enterprises in Southern Shan State” infive townships including Ywangan in 2015.The projects were financially supportedby the Forest and Farm Facility (FFF).
The first project had assessed the potential of six CFs/FUGs (Forest Users
Group) located in Ywangan Township for enterprise development, and assisted in
the formation of six individual CF enterprises and a Township level enterprise, while
the follow-up project strengthened the existing enterprises and formed State level
CF enterprise.

58

Lwin Lwin Naing

Photo1: Pway Hla Community Forest

Figure1: Map of Project Site

This paper briefly describes the achievements of the two FFF-funded projects
implemented by ECCDI.
Background
The First CF Enterprise
The FFF funded CF market-led project: “Preparing for A Community Forest-basedEnterprise” was implemented in Ywangan Township, Southern Shan State, in 2014.
In the past Ywangan Township was covered with dense forests. In the 1960’s
most of these dense forests were degraded and depleted as a result of overcutting andshifting cultivation. Consequently, local community experienced a severe water crisis
for decades. Agricultural activities were badly affected and even draught animals
such as buffaloes died. They also faced shortage of fuel wood which they used forcooking. Villagers had to go long distances to get water and fuelwood.
The people in this area then realized the importance of forest for their daily
lives. A head village monk called a meeting of the concerned villages to address the
problems they were facing. He encouraged some land owners to donate part of theirland to establish forest plantation for the village. The land owners agreed to donate
their land and the villagers agreed to contribute cash to buy tree seedlings and laborto establish village plantations.
In 2003, the six project villages obtained CF certificates for their forests fromthe Forest Department (FD). The restoration and sustainable management of theforests in this area is very important since it lies in the watershed of the Inlay Lake.
The FFF Project involved 6 CFs or 6 villages with 410 HHs.

Sustaining Community and Forest Development through Community Forest Enterprise59

The overall objective was to promote community forest enterprises, to reducepoverty and to sustain forests while specific objectives include• To assess the potential of market-led approach to CF;• To assist formation of an association or a cooperative of CFUGs to enhancetheir influence and capacity;• To strengthen business skills of the CFUG associations or cooperatives
through appropriate trainings; and• To assist CFUGs to strengthen their CFs legally and secure commercial
forest rights.
The project had found that the communities were very enthusiastic about the
CF and CF enterprises and the market surveys demonstrated potential to commercialize community forests.
The project had been able to form CF enterprises at all 6 CF villages and the
Ywangan Township CF enterprise and identified priority products that the market
demanded.
The Project conducted technical trainings to enable the communities to produce the products which the market needs and the business-related trainings to enable them to manage marketing and financial matters.
Technical Trainings during First Phase of Project
Informed of those project activities, other ten CFs in the township had expressed

Photo2: Training on Cultivationof Elephant Yam

Photo3: Training on Bamboo
Cultivation

Photo4: Training on Orchid Cultivation

Photo5: Training on Cultivationof Rattan

60

Lwin Lwin Naing

their interest to join the township enterprise. (They were included in the follow-up
project).
Structure of the Township Association
The Association has an Executive Committee with 9 members as follows: Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson, Secretary, Treasurer, Auditor and four members.
Each Village CFPPA is represented in the Township Executive Committee. The
Village CFPPAs have their own Executive Committees.
	
  

	
  

CFPPA Development inin
Southern
Shan State Shan State
CFPPA3.Development
Southern
Encouragedby the success of the pilot project, FFF continued its support to ECEncouraged by the success of the pilot project, FFF continued its support to ECCDI to strengthen
CDI to strengthen
the existing Ywangan CF enterprises and formes new CF enterthe existing Ywangan CF enterprises and form new CF enterprises in other townships, and create
prises in other townships, and create State level CF enterprise in the Southern Shan
State level CF enterprise in the Southern Shan State through a follow-up project “Establishing
State through a follow-up project “Establishing and Strengthening CF Enterprises
and Strengthening CF Enterprises in Southern Shan State”.
in Southern Shan State”.
The project
durationfromMarch toto November
2015(9 months).
The project
duration
was wasfrom
March
November
2015(9 months).
Overall Overall
objective:
To sustainably develop CFs and alleviate rural poverty throughobjective: To sustainably develop CFs and alleviate rural poverty through formation andformationand clustering of CF enterprises in the Southern Shan Stateclustering of CF enterprises in the Southern Shan State
Specific objectives:
Specific
objectives:• 
To scaleup Ywangan Township Community Forest Products Producer Association• To scale up Ywangan Township Community Forest Products Producer Association• To• establish
Southern Shan State Community Forest Products Producer
To establish Southern Shan State Community Forest Products Producer Association
Association
3.1. Structure of the project

Structure of the Project

The project includes 5 townships and 36 CF enterprises as shown in the following table andTable1: Basic Information of Community Forest (CF) Enterprisesdiagram.
SN

No. of CF

Location (township) No. of beneficiaries(FUG

member

HHs)

	
  

1

16

Ywangan

2,171

2

5

Pindaya

859

3

5

Kalaw

233

4

5

NyaungShwe

474

5

5

Pinlaung

52

Total

36

5 townships

3,789

6	
  

Sustaining Community and Forest Development through Community Forest Enterprise

61

Figure2: Project Organization Diagram

The project includes 5 townships and 36 CF enterprises as shown in the following
table and diagram.
Project Activities
Project activities include
Strengthening existing Ywangan Tsp CF enterprise
Enlarging CFs
Conducting market survey with identification of priority products
Providing appropriate trainings
Formation of CF enterprises in village, township and State levels
Trainings and Technical Assistance Provided by the Project
To strengthen the skills of the CFUG associations, both technical and businessoriented trainings were conducted after identifying the training needs.
• Training on Community Forest Management and Commercializing CF• Training on Production of Priority Product (Coffee)• Training on Production of Priority Product (Green Tea Leaves)• Training on production of bamboo and rattan value added products.
• Training on bookkeeping (for Ywangan CFUGs)• Training on market analysis and development (for Ywangan CFUGs)

62

Lwin Lwin Naing

Photo6: Rattan value-added product training,
Ya Gyi CF

P hoto7: Rattan value-added
products on sale at ECCDI annual meeting• Training on bookkeeping (for CFUGs in other 4 townships)• Training on market analysis and development (for CFUGs in other 4 townships)
Results of Trainings and Technical Assistance
Value-added rattan products
The local market surveys had shown the priority products for local consumption andexport. The first priority was the rattan-value-added products. Thus, the Ywangan
CFPPAs were linked to the Myanmar Rattan and Bamboo Exporting Association
which guaranteed to consume all the products that the Association could manage.
The Ywangan CF enterprises are being strengthened technically and havebeen trained to produce rattan value-added products such as trays, vases, under plate,placemats of all shapes and hats. ECCDI staged an exhibition of these products at
its 4th annual mass meeting held in the International Business Centre in Yangon on
8 Sept, 2015. Although the products were of better quality, they were sold at lower
prices than those in the markets in Yangon.
Planned Activities for Further Development
There are plenty of broom grass in CFs and on road sides. Brooms have a large local
market.
ECCDI has already organized for the villagers a TOT program on the making of brooms.
There is a number of CFs which have potential as tourist sites such as waterfalls in Ale-chaung and Kyaukguti CFs, blue lake in Tawkye CF, cultural sites in
Pwehla CFs.
ECCDI will assist the respective CF enterprises to promote ecotourism intheir CFs.

Sustaining Community and Forest Development through Community Forest Enterprise

Photo8: Broom grass in CF

Photo9: Brooms

Photo11: A blue lake near
Ywangan TownshipPhoto12: A waterfall

63

Photo10: Cultural site, Pwayhla

CONCLUSION
The achievements of the project are encouraging. The CFs are healthy and very well
protected and looked after by FUGs. FUGs are enthusiastic and active, even wishingto scale up their existing CFs. The local Shan State government is supportive of thecommunity forestry and its expansion. Forest Department (FD), Township Cooperative and Administrative authorities are cooperative. It is heartening to note that
36 CF enterprises have been appreciably formed as associations and a partnership
between FUGs and Myanmar Bamboo and Rattan Products Producers Association
made. Thus, the future for CF enterprise is merited bright. As a result, community
livelihood will be more pleasant and the forests enlarged in a better manner.
Acknowledgement

ECCDI acknowledges with thanks the FFF, FAO, for encouraging and funding the projects. The Organization is also grateful to the DG, FD for permission to organize theprojects with CFs and the State forest staff for cooperation and support.

REFERENCESECCDI. 2014. Proposal on “Establishing and Strengthening CF Enterprises in theSouthern Shan State” (December, 2014), ECCDI.
ECCDI. 2014. Business Plan for Ywangan Township CF based forest products Associa-

64

Lwin Lwin Naingtion, ECCDI.
ECCDI. 2014. Interim report on the project “Preparing for a Community Forestbased Enterprise”, ECCDI.
ECCDI. 2014. Long-term Development Plan for Community Forest Products Producers
Association, Yagyi Village, Ywangan Township, Shan State, ECCDI65

Rural Urban Migration in Ayeyarwady Region:
A Case Study of Ah Mar Sub-township, Phyapon District
Myint Thida

Associate Professor, Department of Geography, University of Yangon(myintthida2011@gmail.com)
ABSTRACTThe paper stresses on migration caused by ineffective rural economy on Ah
Mar Sub-township located in coastal area of Ayeyarwady Region. Objectives of the paper are to examine causes of migration in the area, to findout consequences of migration and to explore the means that can reduce
depopulation of the area. Migration especially permanent migration andchain migration were distinct. Rural economy, low health care, less education facilities are major push factors that influence the migration of thearea. Rural economic activities, such as agriculture, making thatch andfishing are ineffective and give low income. These economic activities areseasonal works and they do not get regular income. On the other hand,
major pull factors of urban area are higher and have regular income, better
environment and job opportunities. In order to get regular income, they
move to urban areas and abroad because most young adults remain joblessafter harvesting season. As a consequence, labour shortage problem andhigh labour cost become distinct and these, in turn, affect agriculture, major
economy of the area.
Key Words: push factors, rural economy, agriculture, making thatch, fishing, pull factors, impacts

INTRODUCTION
By increasing the demand for labour in urban areas, rural urban migration occurs(Roberts, 2001). Rural urban migration is a distinct phenomenon in Myanmar, likeother developing countries. Most young adults who live in rural areas move to urban
areas for better income and high living standard.
Ah Mar Sub-township is in Ayeyarwady Region known as Myanmar Granaryand major economic activity is agriculture. As the study area is located in coastal
area, and salt water intrusion that causes crop loss is a major problem. Although
agriculture is major economy, labour shortage gets known and labour cost increases
because of migration. Role of labour is important in agriculture because it is necessary to plant and harvest crops in time. Fishing and making thatch are also other66

Myint Thida

Figure1: Location of Ahmar subTownship in Ayeyarwady Region

Figure2: Village Tracts of Ahmar sub-Township in Ayeyarwady Region

economic activities of the area. But, these are also seasonal works and they give insufficient income to local people. Therefore, rural economy which provides low income
is a main cause that affects movement of people from rural areas to urban areas.
There are five types of movements, on the assumption that they represent possible patterns: rural-urban migration; seasonal movement; unskilled labor in searchof employment opportunities; the “brain drain” phenomenon, and the creation of
refugees (Choucri, N, 1978). In the area, rural-urban migration; seasonal movement
and unskilled labor in search of employment opportunities assume an alarming situation.
Second cause of migration is related to education. To get higher educational
opportunities, most local people let their children go to urban areas to have higher
educational opportunities. Most migrants are teenagers and move to attend higher
education class, such as high schools and universities. Movement connecting healthmatter is third reason for migration. Some local residents move to urban area with avies to getting good health care. In the area, medical centers are far apart and numberof medical stuffs is low. Rural health assistant plays important role in health care of
the area. But, migration related to economy of the area is distinct.
Migration reduces the use of young adult labour in agriculture because themajority of migrants are male (Maharjan, A., et al, 2013).Therefore, the area encounters labour shortage problem and labour cost increases in agriculture.
STUDY AREA
Ahmar Sub-township in Phyapon Township has 4 Wards and 9 Village Tracts. ItRural Urban Migration in Ayeyarwady Region

67

has an area of 2.8 sq.km (691 acres) and total population was 126899 of whichmale was 63865 and female 63034 in 2014. Major economic activities are agriculture, fishing and making thatch. More than 70 % of the population are engaged inagriculture and the rest in fishing and making thatch. Therefore, an overwhelming
majority of people are poor.
DATA AND METHODS
Primary data were collected through semi-structured interviews to get thoroughunderstanding on rural urban migration. Among 9 village tracts, 5 village tracts ofwhich people engaged in agriculture, fishing and making thatch were selected tocollect primary data to understand major driving force causing migration. Primarydata such as family income, jobs, education, health, migration etc. were mainly collected and socio-economic and demographic questions that affect migration werealso selected to illustrate causes, consequences and pattern of migration. Secondary
data were also applied.
Descriptive method and quantitative - qualitative mixed method are mainly
applied to this research.
RESULTS AND FINDINGSIn the study area, rural economy including agriculture, fishing and making thatch, isa key factor that mainly affects migration. Other factors affecting migration include
education, health issue, and etc.
Major economy of the area is agriculture and local people depend on agriculture. But, agriculture gives low income to the local people due to high loss caused bysalt water intrusion. Income from agriculture is insufficient for their cost of living,
they have no variable alternatives to get income for their survival and they are in thevicious debt cycle.
Household migration may be classified into two categories: Split migrationand family migration. Split migration occurs when the head of the household moves
from a rural to an urban area. Family migration occurs when the entire family moves
together at the same time to urban areas (McCatty, 2004). In the study area, one ormore family members move to other places for better income and split migrationarises.
According to interviews, 48 percent of the families have one or more migrants.
In the study area, jobs related migration is common. In the circumstances, 60 % of
the migrants are connected to job opportunities and they move to other place to gethigher income. Job related movement is distinct and young adults go to urban areaof Phyapon Township, Hlaingtharyar Township in Yangon Region and abroad to get
regular income and lead a better life. These migrants work as labors in textile indus-

68

Myint Thida

Figure3: Work Places of Migrants(Source: Interviews, 2015)

tries, construction work and trading activities and remit their salary to their parents.
Figure 3 shows working places of migrants moved from Ahmar Sub-township. Directional bias is distinctly found. Although the Phyapon Town is nearer than
Hlaingtharyar Township, most migrants move to Hlaingtharyar Township for job
opportunities.
In many countries, rural areas supply the manual labor needed in various industries. Rural laborers generally have little education and are relegated to low paying jobs (McCatty, 2004). Although education status of the person who moved tourban area to get regular and better income ranged from monastic education tograduate level, most migrants are of high school level.
Seventy percent of the family have desire to send their children to urban areas
to get better income and better education. 90 % of the family wants to abandon
farming but they do not have other alternative jobs for survival.
Push Factors
Economic, educational and health factors are push factors that affect the migrationof the area. Among them, ineffective rural economy is a major factor that forces the
local people to make a move.
Rural Economy
There is a strong link between low economic growth and migration. In the area, threemajor economic activities: agriculture especially paddy cultivation, fishing and making thatch are prominent in the area.

Rural Urban Migration in Ayeyarwady Region

69

Figure4: Education level of Migrants(Source: Interviews, 2015)

Agriculture
Agriculture is always associated with natural risks. The poor farmers, especially indeveloping countries are most vulnerable to these risks. In the study area, the majority of the poor are engaged in agriculture. Risk in agriculture is mainly related to salt
water intrusion.
Although paddy is a major crop in the area, paddy cultivated area decreased
due to crop loss caused by salt water intrusion. As salt water intrudes into the paddy
field when the ears of the paddy begin to appear and it causes grain loss in paddy
cultivation. According to questionnaire’s results, 88 percent of the farmers cultivate
paddy and 62 percent of the paddy cultivars said, they reduce their paddy cultivatedarea and left some paddy land as fallow land due to salt intrusion, crop loss and low
benefit.
The potential yield of rice varieties in Myanmar is about 6 tons per ha (120baskets per acre), but farmers in study area can only produce around 3.5 tons per ha(70 baskets per acre) (Than Htike Oo and Myo Myo, 2009). In the area, according
to interviews, actual average productivity of paddy is about 1 tons per ha (20 basket
per acre). It is mainly caused by salt water intrusion. Low agricultural productivity is
one of the factors that causing migration.
Land preparation for paddy cultivation is done in March, April and May.
Then, the land is ploughed in June and July. They collect the organic waste and bringthem to their fields. Then they fire paddy stalks and organic waste for the purpose ofincreasing fertility. When the monsoon sets in, plowing is done by using cows andbuffalo only. Farmers in the area do not use agricultural machinery because of lessinvestment. In August, paddy seeds are broadcast in the fields. They use only broadcasting method in paddy cultivation due to high labour cost caused by migration.

70

Myint Thida

Some farmers add fertilizers and pesticides into paddy field but most farmers cannot
afford to buy fertilizers and pesticides due to high price and they can not use input inpaddy cultivation. The ears of the paddy begin to appear in November. At that time,
rainfall decreases in November and salt water intrudes into the paddy field. Then
paddy plants become wilted and most paddy plants die. Therefore, yield is low andlow yield gives insufficient income which causes migration.
Fishing
As the study area is located near the streams, fishing is also found in the area. The
first contract is formally permitted by government and the second one is allowed by
the first contract. The first contract must pay about 10,000,000 Kyats (8,000$) to
the government to get permission on fishing in the whole area and second contract
about 2,500,000 Kyats (2000$) to the first contract for getting a permission to catch
fishes along the stream. The second contract has a permission to fish along a stream.
Under the second contract, there are many small contracts that are allowed by second contract for fishing at an area. The individual fisherman has to take permission
from these groups to fish in the stream allowed. According to interviews, fishes arecaught throughout the whole year but amount of fish-catch is higher in July andAugust. Although the amount of fish-catch is higher in the period, price falls due
to higher supply and local people get low income. Therefore, the young adults of thefishermen’s members move to other areas to get regular income. Average income ofa fisherman is about more than 3000 Kyats per day (>3$).
Making Thatch
As the study area is located near the coastal area, there are large areas of Nippa land.
Most farmers depend on the Nippa land on their economy by making thatch. Leavesof thatch are cut twice a year: November and April. The leaves cut in November are
known as summer leaves which are old and in April as the rainy season leaves which
are young. The rainy season leaves are not as much expensive as thatch cut in November due to young leaves.
In the area, two types of making thatch are found. Some families buy a packof raw material (Nippa leaves) of thatch roof and make them into thatch at home.
These families make thatches by using family members and they get average incomeof about 3000 Kyats (> 3$) per day.
Some persons go to the thatch depot and work as daily wage earners. According to interview, a man or woman can earn about 1500 Kyats (about 1$) per day
by working at depot. Thatches are sent to Yangon by boats. Making thatch is also aseasonal work and local people do not have regular income.
In Ahmar Sub-Township, labour wage is about 3000 Kyats /day (>2$ per day).

Rural Urban Migration in Ayeyarwady Region

71

Plate 1: Laid down the fishing net along thestreams (20.6.15)

Plate 2: fishing along the streams (20.6.15)

Plate 3 : Selection fish on the boat (20.6.15)

Plate 4 : Selection fish at depot (20.6.15)

But, people in the area do not have regular income. In agriculture, labour is needed
only in planting and harvesting period. Most works in agriculture is done by family
members. Making thatch is done twice per year; first time in December and January and second time in May and June. People do not income from making thatch inremaining months.
Pull Factors
Major pull factors of the urban area is regular income and other pull factors are
better living standard, higher job choice, greater recreational activities and better
environment. Most migrants move to Hlaingtharyar Township in Yangon Region.
Hlaingtharyar Township is located in North Yangon District and more than 600
factories are housed in this industrial zone. It attracts migrant workers from rural
areas. Hlaingtharyar is about 70 miles (112 kilometers) from Phyapon District andit takes about 4 hours only. It is also a pull factor that attracts migrants from Ahmar
Sub-township.

72

Myint Thida

Plate 5: Nippa plant along the streams(24.4.15)

Plate 6: Nippa leaves (Tebinseik Village)(24.4.15)

Plate 7 : Making thatch by family members(24.4.15)

Plate 8 : Transport to Yangon by boat (24.4.15)

Impacts of Migration
The ‘impact’ of migration depends on the numbers involved, the duration of absence,the effect of both absence and possible return (Lipton, 1980). In the study area,
most migrants do not usually return and impacts of migration are distinct in agriculture. According to interviews, permanent and chain migration is mainly found.
Some young adults moved to urban areas of Phyapon and Yangon and they got married. Then, they settle in these areas. Therefore, permanent migration is found. Somemoved to urban area, look for jobs for the relatives and their younger. After that,young adults lived in the study area moved to the places where the relatives and theelders live and chain migration occurs.
In Amar Sub-Township, according to interviews, most young adults moved
to other urban areas and the number of adults is low. Therefore, labour shortage
resulted in and labour cost is high. Average labour cost is 90000 Kyats or 100,000

Rural Urban Migration in Ayeyarwady Region

73

Figure5: Causes and impacts of migration

Kyats (70$ or 80$) per month and it is also difficult to get labour. Labour charges
have to be paid in advance before planting and harvesting time due to labour shortage. These problems affect agriculture because agricultural works such as planting,harvesting have to be done in time to prevent from untimely rain.
CONCLUSION
Ah Mar Sub-township is located in coastal area of Myanmar. Migration is distinct
in the area and economic, educational and health reasons play important role inmigration. Although there are 3 major reasons, economic reason is most important and is a major push factor. Ineffective rural economic activities are agriculture,
fishing and making thatch. These are seasonal work and local people engaged inagriculture encounter crop loss caused by salt water intrusion. Therefore, according
to interviews, one or more family member of the most families moves to urban area
for regular income. Some migrants got married in the urban areas and permanent
migration occurred. In the rural area, rural depopulation, labour shortage and highlabour cost become distinct. Much labour force is needed in agriculture to harvest
the crops in time because irregular and untimely rain causes crop loss which affects low yield and low return. It is necessary to build large embankment (Tar) toprotect salt water intrusion for the purpose of getting higher income and reducing
the number of migrants form the area. Moreover, it is necessary to open vocational
schools for the school dropouts in the area to keep labour force, to establish small
and medium scale enterprises in which job opportunities should be created for those
who complete vocational trainings and to protect the area from rural depopulation.

74

Myint Thida

REFERENCES
Choucri, N., 1978, Migration Processes among Developing Countries: The Middle East,
Center for International Studies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge.
Lipton, M., 1980, Migration from Rural Areas of Poor Countries: The Impact on
Rural Productivity and Income Distribution, World Development Vol. 8 pp.
l-24.
Maharjan, A., Siegfried, B., Knerr, B. , 2013, Migration for labour and its impact onfarm production in Nepal, Working Paper IV, Centre for the Study of Labourand Mobility, Kuleshwor, Kathmandu.
McCatty, M.,2004, The Process of Rural-Urban Migration in Developing Countries,
Department of Economics Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario.
Mendola, M., 2006, Rural out-migration and economic development at Origin:
What do we know?, University of Milano-Bicocca and Centro Studi L.
d’Agliano.,Sussex Migration Working Paper No 40.
Than Htike Oo and Myo Myo, 2009, Experts push for assistance to paddy farmers,
Myanmar’s first international weekly, Volume 23, No. 457.
Roberts, K.D., 2001, The determinants of job choice by rural labour migrants inShanghai, China Economic Review (2001) pp-15-39.

75

Study on Agricultural Labor Migration of Selected FarmHouseholds in Kyaukpadaung Township, Dry Zone, Myanmar
Nandar Aye Chan1, Theingi Myint2

1. Assistant Lecturer, Department of Agricultural Economics, Yezin Agricultural University(nandar.271@gmail.com)
2. Supervisor, Associate Professor, Department of Agricultural Economics, Yezin Agricultural
University, Corresponding author. (theingi.myint@gmail.com)
ABSTRACTThe study was made to examine agricultural labor migration in Kyaukpadaung township, dry zone area in October 2014. Data collection was
done on 59 migrant farm households from two sample villages throughhousehold survey and field observation. In the study area, about one fourthof household members were migrants who were mostly young and active
men. Common migration was internal (rural to urban out-migration) andabout one third of migration were international (cross-border migration).
The push factors of rural out-migration were mostly associated with declining opportunities in agriculture because of weed problem and bad weather
condition. The pull factors of out-migration to other places were better
economic and employment opportunities, high income and congenial living standard of new destination places. Regarding the household income,remittance was significantly high and it was about half of total households’
income. As the positive view of migration, the remittance was used mainly
for agricultural investment for their crop and livestock production. In the
study, migrant farm households can more invest in crop production such as
input used, hired labor in farming activities etc. Therefore, higher yield andprofit were earned by migrant farm households. Due to impact of migration, the original resident areas faced the labor shortage problem in farming
especially during the peak season. High labor cost, labor unavailability intime, unskilled female and child labor were observed in the agricultural
sector.
Key Words: migrant, labor, remittance, migration

INTRODUCTION
Migration is the movement of people from one location to another and widely associated with change of permanent place of residence. Rural out-migration andagricultural crop production are key livelihood strategies in many rural areas of

76

Nandar Aye Chan, Theingi Myint

agro-based developing countries nonetheless the relationship between migration,
agriculture and rural development has become an interesting argument in the studyof economic development. In developing countries, the major source of income, foodand employment opportunities are still provided from the agriculture sector (World
Bank, 2008). Small studies of migration in Myanmar, as a part of Qualitative Socialand Economic Monitoring (QSEM) revealed that migration is a common coping
strategy, with 26-30% of all households having a family member migrating, andoverall village population migration levels ranging from less than 2% in Shan Stateto over 10% in Mandalay Region. International, non-seasonal migration was thehighest in States bordering neighboring countries, whilst in the central and delta
areas, the migration was predominantly internal and seasonal (LIFT/World Bank,2014).
Myanmar’s total population is 51.41 million and 70 percent of the population
lives in rural areas (Ministry of Immigration and Population, 2014). Since agriculture is the major income source and employment in the rural areas, farm labor is amajor source of employment opportunity for the rural labor force. However, farming
activities are gradually unattractive for them because of unstable crop production,
inadequate credit, and adverse climate condition etc. Under such conditions, most of
the households commonly practice income diversification strategies, including labor
migration. Therefore, the rural out-migration within and between the countries is
one of the most important issues and it receives a particular consideration for alternative economic development.
The specific objectives of the study are –1. To describe the profile of migrants and migration patterns in the study area
2. To compare income composition of migrant and non-migrant farm households in the study area
3. To examine cost & return analysis in the cropping pattern of migrant andnon-migrant farm households
Methodology
Data Collection and Analysis
Primary data were collected from two sample villages – Inn Taw and Ywar Tan Shayin Kyaukpadaung township. By using the purposive sampling method and field observation, data were collected from 59 migrant and 58 non-migrant farm households
during October 2014. Descriptive statistics were applied to show the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of household heads and migrants, reasons of outmigration, contribution of remittances in crop production and income composition.

State and the Southeast of Myanmar, HELVETAS Swiss Intercooperation Myanmar.
Ministry of Immigration and Population. 2014. Myanmar Population and Housing Census.
Census report volume II.
Study on Agricultural Labor Migration of Selected Farm Households
World Bank. 2008. World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development: World

77

Bank.

Table1:
Demographic
characteristicof migrantnon-migranthousehold
heads
Table
1 Demographic
characteristicof migrant
andandnon-migranthousehold
heads
Item

Migrant farm HHH Non-migrant farm HHH Total HHH(N = 59)(N = 58)(N = 117)
12 (20.3%)
8 (13.8%) 20 (17.1%)
47 (79.7%)
50 (86.2%) 97 (82.9%)
59 (100%)
58 (100%) 117 (100%)t=0.936, sig= 0.315ns, df= 115
57
52
t=2.585, sig= 0.011**, df= 115

Female headed HH
Male headed HH
Total
t-testAverage age (Year)t-testEducational level
Illiterate
5 (8.5%)3 (5.2%)
Monastery
18 (30.5%)
11 (19.0%)
Primary
12 (20.3%)
14 (24.1%)
Secondary11(18.6%)
14 (24.1%)
High school
10 (16.9%)
15 (25.9%)
Graduated level
3 (5.1%)1(1.7%)
ns
t-testt=-1.274, sig=0.205 , df= 115** Significant at 5% probability and ns = non-significant

8 (6.8%)29 (24.8%)
26 (22.2%)25(21.4%)
25 (21.4%)
4 (3.4%)

Table 2 Demographic characteristics of migrant and non-migrant household members
Migrant farm HHM

Non-migrant farm HHM

Total HHM

Item
Results
and discussion(N = 264)(N = 201)(N = 465)
Female145132 (65.67%)(59.69%)Demographic
Characteristics
of(54.92%)
Sample Farm Households
in the277
Study
Area
119 (45.08%)
69 (34.33%)
188 (40.30%)a)MaleHousehold heads
Total
201 (100%)465area(100%)
The
demographic characteristics264
of(100%)sample farm households
in the study
are det-test
t=3.802, sig= 0.000***, df= 115
scribed in Table 1. The results of t-tests showed that male and female headed houseAge (Year)holds were not significantly different between migrant and non-migrant household>15
42 (15.91%)
50 (24.88%)
heads.
of (25.76%)
migrant farm household
heads and 86% of non15-24 It was found that 80% 68
46 (22.89%)
migrant
male while 20%of migrant farm household
25-45 farm household heads
104were(39.39%)67 (33.33%)
46-55and 14% of non-migrant 18(6.82%)(5.97%)
heads
farmhousehold heads12werefemale. Therefore, male
55+ households were traditionally
32 (12.12%)
26 (12.94%)
headeddominant in the
study area. The average ageof sample household heads was around 57 years in migrant farm households and 52
10
years in non-migrant farm households. According
to the t-test results, these averageages of H/H heads were significantly different at 5% level.
In the study area, the education levels of migrants’ household heads were foundin monastery (31%), primary (20%) and secondary (19%) respectively. And also, theeducation levels of non-migrant farm households’ heads were found in monastery(19%), primary (24%) and secondary (24%) respectively. There were no differences
between educational levels of migrant and non-migrant farm households’ heads inthe study area.

Primary
12 (20.3%)
14 (24.1%)
Secondary11(18.6%)
14 (24.1%)
High school
10 (16.9%)
15 (25.9%)
Graduatedlevel3(5.1%)
1(1.7%)78 Nandar Aye Chan, Theingi Myintt-testt=-1.274, sig=0.205ns, df= 115** Significant at 5% probability and ns = non-significant

26 (22.2%)25(21.4%)
25 (21.4%)
4 (3.4%)Table
2 Demographic
Table2:
Demographiccharacteristics
characteristicsof
ofmigrant
migrantand
andnon-migrantnon-migranthouseholdhouseholdmembers
members
Item
FemaleMale
Totalt-testAge (Year)
>15
15-24
25-45
46-55
55+

Migrant farm HHM Non-migrant farm HHM(N = 264)(N = 201)145 (54.92%)
132 (65.67%)
119 (45.08%)
69 (34.33%)
264 (100%)
201 (100%)t=3.802, sig= 0.000***, df= 115
42 (15.91%)
68 (25.76%)
104 (39.39%)
18 (6.82%)
32 (12.12%)

Total HHM
(N = 465)
277 (59.69%)
188 (40.30%)
465 (100%)50 (24.88%)
46 (22.89%)
67 (33.33%)
12 (5.97%)
26 (12.94%)

Educational level
Illiterate
18 (6.8%)
23 (11.4%)
41 (8.8%)
10
Monastery
23 (8.4%)
21 (10.4%)
44 (9.3%)
Primary65 (24.7%)
81 (40.3%)
146 (31.5%)
Secondary
58 (22.1%)
37 (18.4%)
95 (20.5%)
High school
57 (21.7%)
32 (15.9%)
89 (19.2%)
Graduated level43 (16.3%)
7 (3.5%)50 (10.8%)
t-testt= 0.484, sig= 0.000**, df= 115*** and ** significant at 1% and 5% probability levels respectively and ns = non-significant
Table 3 Family size and dependency ratio of migrant and non-migrant farm households
Migrant farm HH

Non-migrant farm HH

Totalb)Items
Household members (N = 59)(N = 58)
The
demographic
characteristics of sample farm household members in the study
Family
size
Mean
6
5
5 in
area
are shown in Table 2. The total numberof household members
was 264
Minimum222
migrant farm households and 201 in non-migrant farm households. The populaMaximum
10
7
10tion of female in migrant farm households (55%) and non-migrant farm households
t-testt=3.80, sig= 0.000***, df= 115(66%) were higher than male population in migrant farm households (45%) and
Dependency ratio
non-migrantfarm households 27(34%).
The results of t-tests
showed thatthe gender
0-19%(45.8%)
19 (32.8%)
46 (39.3%)
statuswerehighlysignificantly
different
betweenmigrant
andnon-migranthouse20-39%
17 (28.8%)
18 (31.0%)
35 (29.9%)
holdmembers at 1% level. Between
ages of 15-45, it was12observed
40-59%
11 (18.6%)(20.7%) that23middle-aged(19.7%)
60% & above
4 (6.8%)were higher than9non-migrant(15.5%)
13farm(11.1%)
members
in migrant farm households
houseAverage
ratio
21.1%
28.7%
24.9%
holds (172 > 113 members).
t-test-1. 943, sig= 0.055**, df= 115
According to the education t=levels,primary (25%), secondary (22%), high*** and ** significant at 1% and 5% probability levels respectively
school (22%) and graduate (16%) were found in migrant farm households whereas
primary
secondary(18%), highschool (16%)
and graduate(4%) were foundTable 4 (40%),
Socio-economic
characteristics
of migrants
in the sample
households
in non-migrantfarm households. The educationallevel
was significantTotal
at 5% level
Item
Male
Femalebetweenmigrant
andnon-migrantfarmhouseholds’
members.
Therefore,
it was obGender (No.)
71 (89.9%)8 (10.1%)
79 (100%)
served that the educational level of migrant farm households’ members were higher
Age (Years)
Age of migrants when
migrated (Years)

Mean

Minimum

Maximum

24

12

52

22

11

36

Primary
65 (24.7%)
81 (40.3%)
146 (31.5%)
Secondary
58 (22.1%)
37 (18.4%)
95 (20.5%)
High school
57 (21.7%)
32 (15.9%)
89 (19.2%)
Graduated level43(16.3%)
7(3.5%)(10.8%)
Study on Agricultural Labor Migration of Selected Farm 50
Households
t-testt= 0.484, sig= 0.000**, df= 115*** and ** significant at 1% and 5% probability levels respectively and ns = non-significant

79

Table3:and dependency
dependency ratio
ratio ofof migrantmigrant andand non-migrantnon-migrantfarm
farm households
households
Table 3 Family
Family size
size and
Items

Migrant farm HH(N = 59)

Non-migrant farm HH(N = 58)

Total

Family size
Mean
65
Minimum
2
2
Maximum
10
7t-testt=3.80, sig= 0.000***, df= 115
Dependency ratio
0-19%
27 (45.8%)
19 (32.8%)
20-39%
17 (28.8%)
18 (31.0%)
40-59%
11 (18.6%)
12 (20.7%)
60% & above
4 (6.8%)9 (15.5%)
Average ratio
21.1%
28.7%
t-testt= -1. 943, sig= 0.055**, df= 115*** and ** significant at 1% and 5% probability levels respectively

52
10

46 (39.3%)
35 (29.9%)23 (19.7%)
13 (11.1%)
24.9%

Table 4 Socio-economic characteristics of migrants in the sample households

thanItem
non-migrant farm households’ members
area.
Malein the study
FemaleGender (No.)

71 (89.9%)8 (10.1%)

Total
79 (100%)

Family Size and Dependency Ratio of Mean
Sample FarmHouseholds
in the Study
Minimum
Maximum
Area
Age (Years)
24
12
52
The family size and dependency ratio were compared between migrant and nonAge of migrants when
migrant farm households (Table 3). The average
22 family size
11 of migrant farm
36 housemigrated (Years)
holds
was 6 ranging from 2 to 10 and the average family size of non-migrant farm
Educationwas(Years)10
5
14 average
households
5 ranging from 2 to 7. According
to the t-test
results, theYearsof migration
familysize
was highly significantly different4.3at 1% level 0.5
among migrant 30
and nonmigrant
farmratehouseholds. In Myanmar
custom,independent
members who
Migration
25% (1/4 oftraditional
323 total population
migrant FHHs)
are lower than 14 years and above 65 years are considered as school-age-children andelder people respectively. When analyzing household members by age category, there
were 42 and 50 household members under
15 years in migrant and non-migrant
11
farm households. The working-aged household members have to take care for both
dependent groups although they are partially concerned in household livelihood activities. The average dependency ratios of migrant and non-migrant farm households
were 21% and 29% respectively. Therefore, number of dependents in non-migrantfarm households was higher than migrant farm households.
Profile of Migrants in Kyaukpadaung Township
The total number of migrants was 25% out of 323 populations in the 59 sample migrant farm households. Among them, 90% were male and 10% were female. The average age of migrants was 24 years old ranging from 12 to 52 years. The average age

20-39%17 (28.8%)
18 (31.0%)
40-59%
11 (18.6%)
12 (20.7%)
60% & above
4 (6.8%)9 (15.5%)
Average
ratio
21.1%
28.7%
80 Nandar Aye Chan, Theingi Myintt-testt= -1. 943, sig= 0.055**, df= 115*** and ** significant at 1% and 5% probability levels respectively

35 (29.9%)23 (19.7%)
13 (11.1%)
24.9%

Socio-economic
characteristics
of migrants
the sample
households
TableTable4:
4 Socio-economic
characteristics
of migrants
in the insamplehouseholds
Item

Male

FemaleTotal

71 (89.9%)8 (10.1%)

79 (100%)

Mean

Minimum

Maximum

24

12

52

22

11

36

Education (Years)

10

5

14

Years of migration

4.3

0.5

30

Gender (No.)
Age (Years)
Age of migrants when
migrated (Years)

Migration rate

25% (1/4 of 323 total population in migrant FHHs)

Table 5 RelationshipofRelationshipmigrants withheads
Table5:of household
migrants withhousehold heads
11

Relationship of migrants

Migrants (N=79)
No.

Percent

Son

61

77.2

Daughter8

10.1

Son-in-law

7

8.9

Household head2

2.5

Relative

1

1.3

Total

79

100

Table 6 Various reasons for out migration of sample migrant farm households
Percent
when theyReasons
started migration Percent
was 22 years. The oldest ageReasonsat the initial migration
was
To
seek
betterjob/
salary31
Few
job
opportunities
invillage
4
36 years and youngest was 11 years. In this case, most of these migrants were young
Insufficient
farmaverage
income education
11 was 10 years.
Familyfoodstudy
insecurity
male
and their
In thearea, the minimum4 yearofTomigration
was
6monthsandmaximum
was
30
years
with
an average of 4 years.
be better living standard
9
Family social problem
4
Regardingtherelationshipofmigrants
intheirhouseholds,
most
of
the
migrants
Low wages
8
Crop damaged due to climate
3(77%) were son (Tables 4 & 5).
Surplus labors in HH

7

To build a house2

For education purpose

6

Repayment for debt

1

Pull and Push Factors of Migration in the Study Area
To invest
for agriculture
6
Total
100 toThe
push factors
for migration wereinsufficient
farm income (11%) probably due
Smallfarm land(3%) by irregular4 rainfall and weed problem, and consequently theycrop
damagedgot low wages (8%) from agriculture. Some migrants reported that they were surplus
labors (7%) in their households because of small farm land holding (4%) and few job
opportunities(4%) in their village. Therefore, they were unemployed and looked forTable 7 Types of migration and patterns in the sample migrant farm households
job opportunities near urban area, Kyaukpadaung or migrating to other places and
Item

No.

Percent

Types of migration-

Rural to urban (internal migration)

52

66

-

Abroad (international migration)

27

34

Household
Son-in-law head
RelativeHousehold head
Total
Relative

2
7
1
2

2.5
8.9
1.3
2.5

Study on Agricultural Labor Migrationof Selected Farm Households
79
100
1
1.3

81

Total
79
100
Table 6 Various reasons for out migration of sample migrant farm households
Reasons
Percent
Reasons
Table6:
Variousreasonsoutmigrationof sample
migrant
farmhouseholds
households Percent
Table
6 Various
reasons
for forout
migrationof sample
migrantfarm
To seek better
job/ salary
31
Few job opportunities
4
Reasons
Percent
Reasons in village
Percent
Insufficientfarm
To seek better
job/income
salaryTo
be betterfarm
livingincome
standard
Insufficient

11
31
9
11

Familyinsecurityin village
Few jobfood
opportunities
Familyproblem
Family social
food insecurity

4
4
4
4

Low
To bewages
better living standard
Surpluslabors in HH
Low wages

89
78

Crop
damageddue to climate
Familysocial problemTobuild
a houseCropdamageddue to climate

3
4
2
3

For
education
Surpluslaborspurposein HH
To
for agriculture
Forinvest
education
purpose67
66

Repaymentfor debt
To build a house
Total
Repayment for debt

1
2
100
1

Small
farmforland
To invest
agriculture

46

Total

100

Small farm land

4

Table
7 Typesof migration
andpatterns
inin
thesampleTable7:Typesof migration
andpatterns
thesamplemigrantmigrantfarm
farmhouseholds
households
Item
No. farm households Percent
Table 7 Types of migration and patterns in the sample migrant
Types
Item of migration
No.
Percent- ofRural
to urban (internal migration)
Typesmigration-- Abroadmigration)
Rural to(international
urban (internalmigration)

52

66

27
52

34
66

Pattern- Abroad (international migration)- Permanent
Pattern

27
14

34
18

---

Temporary
Permanent
Seasonal
Temporary

43
14
22
43

54
18
28
54

-

Seasonal

22

28

neighboring countries to work as causal labors. Another factors influencing decision
12
for out-migration were family food insecurity(4%) and family social problem (4%).
Some rural households were in debt to pay back loan borrowed from money lenders
12
to invest in agricultural production (7%).
The main pull factors for the migrant location were high salary income andbetter job opportunities (31%) in the new destination places and for education purpose (6%) (Table 6).
Types of Migration and Patterns
In the study area, two types of migration were examined- rural to urban or internal migration (66%) and abroad or international migration (34%). The destination
places for internal migration were Yangon, Magway, Lashio and Muse townships. Asinternational migration, most of migrants went to Malaysia and Thailand.
According to the return time interval and their migration period, three pat-

82

Nandar Aye Chan, Theingi Myint

4.4
4.4
4.4
6.1
4.4
6.1
6.1
6.1

SourceSourceof of
migration
migration
information
information

From family members
From family members
From return migrants
From return migrants
From current migrate people
From current migrate people
From friends
From friends
Own decision to migrate
Own decision to migrate
From job hunting agents & companies
From job hunting agents & companies

15.6
15.6
18.2
18.2
8.9
8.9

0
0

Internal migration
Internal migration
Internationalmigration
International migration

10
10

40.0
40.0

26.7
27.3
26.7
27.3

20
30
%
20 of Migrants
30% of Migrants

40
40

42.4
42.4

50
50

SourceSourceof ofinitialinitialmigration
migration
cost
cost

Figure Figure1:
1 SourceSourceof migration
information
for sample
migrant
farm farmhouseholdsof migration
information
for sample
migrant
households
Figure 1 Source of migration information for sample migrant farm households
From parents
Loan borrowedFrom
fromparents
othersLoanborrowedfromothersLoanborrowedfromrelatives
Loan borrowed
from relatives
Sold otherproperty
Sold otherSold
property
land
Soldfriend
land
Loan borrowed from
Loan borrowed
fromsaving
friendFrom own
From own saving
No costNo cost

17.6%
17.6%
16.2%
16.2%

4.1%
4.1%
4.1%
4.1%
2.7%
2.7%
1.4%
1.4%
0
0

10
10

23.0%
23.0%
20
30
%
of
Migrants
20
30% of Migrants

31.1%
31.1%

40
40

50
50

%%
of of
RemittanceRemittance
sent
sent
byby
migrants
migrants

Figure2: Source of initial migration cost of migrants in the study area
Figure 2 Source of initial migration cost of migrants in the study area
Figure 2 Source of initial migration cost of migrants in the study area
60

45.8

terns of migration
were45.8
found in this study. Theyare (1) permanent migration (left
60
22.0
40
11.9
10.2
10.2
22.0
40
their native place
temporary
20 for good), (2)11.9
10.2 to the original place of
10.2migration (return200
residence sometimes),and (3) seasonal migration (take place only in a certain time of0
Monthly Once in 2 Once in 6 Once in a
No
MonthlyOncein 2 Oncein 6 18%
Once
No
the year). In this study,
it wasobservedthatofamigration
were permanent, 54%monthsmonthsyearinreceived
Time intervalmonthsmonthsyear
received
were temporary and 28% seasonal (Table
Time 7).
interval
Figure 3 Time interval of sending remittance by migrants
Figure 3 Time interval of sending remittance by migrants

RemittanceRemittanceutilization
utilization

Source of Information about the Migration
Among
79 migrants,
40% ofthe internal migrants got the information
Investment
in crop & livestock
production
32.6% on migration
Investment in crop & livestock
production
32.6%
Basic
food
need
32.6%
from friends. About one fourth (27%) of internal migrants worked
in other places
Basic
foodaffairs
need
32.6%
Social14.0%
by their own decision. Debt
Only
4%
of internal 7.3%
migrants
Socialaffairs
14.0% got information through their
repayments
Debtinrepayments
7.3%
family members working
new destination
place. For international migration, 42%
Education
5.6%
Education
5.6%
carethrough4.5%
of migrants decided to go Healthabroadjob seeking agents and companies. Some
Healthcare
4.5%
Saving2.8%
migrants (12%) decided to migrate
Saving
2.8% and looked for a job through returned
Other abroad
0.6%
0.6%
migrants and current migratedOther
peopleabroad010 (Figure20 1).
30
40
50
0

10

20% of Migrant30
FHH40% of Migrant FHH

50

Figure 4ofRemittanceutilized byCost
sample migrant farm households
SourceInitial Migration
Figure 4 Remittance utilized by sample migrant farm households
In case of initial migration cost which included travel cost and fee for agent, 33%
of migrant workers had to use the costs 14
of migrating with their parents’ money and14

Study on Agricultural Labor Migration of Selected Farm Households

83

Table
8 Typesof occupationof ofmigrants
Table8:Typesof occupation
migrantsininthe
thesample
samplemigrantmigrantfarm
farm households
households
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Types of occupation
Family Labor
Student
Car workshop
FarmerAgricultural wage labor
Causal labor
Dependent/ Unemployed
Worker in industry
Private company staff
Government staff
Livestock raising
Bus driver & assistant
Total

Before (%)
22.8
21.5
21.5
7.6
5.1
5.1
5.1
3.8
2.5
2.5
1.3
1.3
100

Types of occupation
Worker in industry
Causal labor
Bus driver &assistant
Government staff
Private company staff
Student
Grocery (Small shop)
Dependent/ Unemployed
Total

Current (%)
36.7
19.0
18.9
11.4
6.3
3.8
2.5
1.3
100

Table 9 Comparison of before and current monthly income earned by migrants
Item
Minimum cost was
Maximumownsaving. Most migrants (37%) reported Meanthat initial migration
coveredmigration(MMK/month)0
70,000byBeforeborrowing
money
from friends, relatives13,508
and others. Some migrants
(8%)
sold
the properties in which 4% of migrants sold land for migration cost. However, 23%
At present (MMK/month)
157,918
15,000400,000of migrant workers had no specific migration costs because their migrated area waswithin local area (Figure 2).
Table 10 Enterprise budget of sesame and pigeon pea production

Types of Occupation of Migrants BeforeMigrantand After
farmMigration
Non-migrant farm HH
Item
Unit
HH
(N=47)(N=43)
In case of occupation of migrants before migration, the highest percentage(23%)
worked in farm
activities
asfamilylabor
whereas22%
ofmigrants
workedin
Yield
Bsk/ac3.27
2.81theSesamecar workshop.
Another 22% MMK/bsk
of migrants were students
Price41,149before migration. Regarding
36,423
with agricultural work, farmers (8%), agricultural wage labor (5%), livestock raising
Yield
Bsk/ac
6.10
5.24
Pigeon(1%)
were found respectively. After migration, 37% of migrant worked as industrial
pea
Price
19,872as bus drivers and19,581
workers. Furthermore,
after MMK/bsk
migration migrants worked
assistant
Total
gross
benefit
MMK/ac
255,799
205,066(19%), causal labor (19%) and government employees (11%) respectively.
occupationof migrants
regarding the agriculturaland other sector,
TotalThe
variable
cost
MMK/ac207,512
195,44237%
ofNet
migrants
workedintheagricultural
sectorand63%ofmigrants
workedin other
benefit
MMK/ac48,2879,624
sectors before migration. After migration, there were no migrants who worked in the
Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR)
1.23
1.05
agricultural sector. All migrants were working in the non-agricultural sectors at thepresent condition (Table 8).
Remittance Received by Sample Migrant Farm Households
Among 59 sample migrant farm households, about 90% have received remittances
13

Source
Source
of in
of
c

84

Loan borrowed
fromsaving
friendFrom own
From own saving
No costNo cost

2.7%
1.4%
1.4%
0

Nandar Aye Chan, Theingi Myint 0

10
10

23.0%
23.0%
20
30
%
of
Migrants
20
30% of Migrants

40
40

50
50

%%
of Remittanceof Remittance
sent
by by
migrants
sent
migrants

Figure 2 Source of initial migration cost of migrants in the study area
Figure 2 Source of initial migration cost of migrants in the study area
60
60
40
40
20
20
0
0

45.8
45.8
11.9
11.9
MonthlyMonthly

10.2
10.2

22.0
22.0

10.2
10.2

Once in 2 Once in 6 Once in aOnce
in 2 Oncein 6 Oncemonthsmonthsyearin aTime intervalmonthsmonthsyear
Time interval

NoNo
received
received

Figure 3 Time intervalof sending
remittanceby migrants
Figure3:Time intervalof sending
remittance by migrants
Figure 3 Time interval of sending remittance by migrants
RemittanceRemittanceutilization
utilization

Investment in crop & livestock production
Investment in crop & livestock
Basicproduction
food needBasicfoodaffairsneedSocialSocialaffairs
Debt repayments
Debt repayments
Education
Education
Healthcare
Healthcare
SavingSaving
Other
Other

7.3%
7.3%
5.6%
5.6%
4.5%
4.5%
2.8%
2.8%
0.6%
0.6%
0
10
0
10

14.0%
14.0%

32.6%
32.6%
32.6%

20
30
40
FHH40
20% of Migrant30% of Migrant FHH

50
50

Figure4:utilized
Remittanceutilizedby sample
farm households
Figure 4 Remittanceby sample
migrant
farmmigranthouseholds
Figure 4 Remittance utilized by sample migrant farm households
14
14

from migrant family members. The remittance received by migrant farm households
was varied with different time interval. Among them, 46% of migrants sent monthly
money to their family. Various remittance receiving intervals were once a year (22%),
once per 2 months (12%) and 6 months interval (10%) respectively (Figure 3).
Remittance Utilized by Sample Migrant Farm households
The utilization of remittance by the receiving households was analyzed separately
in order to identify the allocation of remittance money in their households’ needs.
About one third of the migrant farm households (33%) utilized remittance money
to invest in crop and livestock production which included for buying inputs (11%),for buying farmland (7%) and for hired labor wage (13%). And then, 32% of migrantfarm households allocated remittance money for basic needs (food, clothing andshelter) of household subsistence. Another 14% of migrant farm households spentfor social affairs, 7% for debt repayments, 6% for education, 5% for health care and
3% for saving (Figure 4).
Impact of Migration on Households’ Income
Normally the current highest income was 400,000 MMK per month while the migrants got the highest income about 70,000 MMK per month before they migrated.
Some migrants did not have income before out-migration. The average monthly

9
10
11
12

Private company staff
2.5
Total
100
Government staff
2.5
Livestock raising
1.3
Study on Agricultural1.3
Labor Migration of Selected Farm Households 85
Bus driver & assistant
Total
100

Table9:Comparisonof before
currentmonthly
monthlyincome
incomeearned
earnedby
bymigrants
migrants
Table
9 Comparisonof before
andandcurrent
Item

Mean

Minimum

Maximum

Before migration (MMK/month)

13,508070,000

At present (MMK/month)

157,918

15,000400,000

Table 10 Enterprise budget of sesameand pigeon pea production Crop
Non-farm
activities
17%

Item
Sesame

Unit

Yield

Off-farm income
11%

Price
Migrant FHH
Yield
Pigeonpea

PriceTotal gross benefit

Migrant farm
HH (N=47)

Bsk/ac

3.27

MMK/bsk
Remittance

41,149Bsk/acNon-farm
MMK/bsk
activities
31% MMK/ac

6.10

43%

19,87226%

Non-migrant farm HH(N=43)

MMK/acOff-farm
Net benefit
MMK/acincome31%
Non-migrant
FHH
BenefitCost Ratio (BCR)

207,51248,287
1.23

36,423
5.24

Crop
32%

255,799

Total variable cost

2.81

Animalhusbandry
3%

19,581205,066

Animalhusbandry
6%

195,4429,624
1.05

Labor management
problem

Figure5: Income compositions of migrant and non-migrant households
Figure 5 Income compositions of migrant and non-migrant households
Unavailable in time

54%

Problem solving of labor
requirement

income before out migration was 13,508 MMK and current monthly income after
17%
High wages
migration was
157,918 MMK. The migrated
place had more income earning op13
14%
Difficulties in crop cultivation
portunity thannativearea
Not theiraffective
as family
labor(Table 9).
5%
The income
compositions
and non-migrant farm households were
Affect livestock farmingin migrant1%
described in Figure 5. In
study area, it10%
was observed that migrant farm houseNothe
problemholds earned their family income0 mainly
two maini.e.,50 remittance
10 from 20
30 sources,
40
60
and farm income while non-migrant farm households
earnedfamilyincomemainly% of Migrant farm households
from three sources, i.e., farm income, off-farm and non-farm income. In both migrant
and6non-migrantfarm problems
households,
farm income
obtainedfrom sale of crops
FigureLabor managementof sample
migrant farmhouseholds
such as sesame, pigeon pea, groundnut, green gram and cowpea. Some farm households earned the householdincome from non-farm activities which
are working in
Hire from other village
32%
industry and construction sites,
working in government
Ignore17% and private services, handiPay
more
money
to
hire
14%
craft and cottage.
Involvement of more family labor
12%
According to the observedof migrant farm households,
Social dealingincome composition
8%
Reduce farmland
annual income from remittance
was the2%largest amount and it took 43% of the total
Labor exchange
2%
incomes. Annual income from crop production
was 26% of the total income. Other
No problem
14%sources of income were 17% from non-farm activities, 11% from off-farm activi0

10

20

30

40

% of Migrant farm households

Figure 7 Problems solving of agricultural labor requirement in the crop production

50

86

Off-farm
incomeNandarAye Chan,Theingi
Myint
31%
Non-migrant
FHH

Animalhusbandry
6%

Labor management
problem

Figure 5 Income compositions of migrant and non-migrant households
Unavailable in time

54%
17%

High wages

14%

Difficulties in crop cultivation
Not affective as family labor

5%

Affect livestock farming

1%

No problem

10%
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

% of Migrant farm households

Problem solving of labor
requirement

Figure6: Labor management problems of sample migrant farm households
Figure 6 Labor management problems of sample migrant farm households
Hire from other village
IgnorePay more money to hire
Involvement of more family labor
Social dealing
Reduce farmland
Labor exchange
No problem

2%
2%
0

8%

17%
14%
12%

32%

14%
10

20
30
40
% of Migrant farm households

50

Figure7: Problems solving of agricultural labor requirement in the crop production
Figure 7 Problems solving of agricultural labor requirement in the crop production

ties and 3% from livestock rearing. Therefore, the migrants’ income was the highest in the total households’ income. In 15
income composition of non-migrant farmhouseholds, it was found that annual income from crop production (32%), off-farmincome (31%) and non-farm income (31%) were the highest in the total households’
income.
Impact of Migration on Agricultural Labor Problem and Crop Production
Generally, farming in Myanmar is small scale and labor intensive. Migrant farmhouseholds needed more agricultural laborer in farm activities to compensate theirmigrant family labor. Almost of sample households (90%) faced the problem in accessing hired labor. The reasons for this problem were difficult to get hired laborin time (54%), high wage in accessing hired labor (31%) and hired labors were notaffective as family labor (5%). Labor migration creates labor shortage in the crop
production which, in turn, high wages and decrease crop yields, are happened particularly during the peak season (Amina Maharjan & Theingi Myint, 2015). Therefore, these labor shortage problems affect crop cultivation, yield and also livestockTable 9 Comparison of before and current monthly income earned by migrants
Item

Mean

Minimum

Maximum

Before migration (MMK/month)

13,508070,000

At present (MMK/month)

157,918

15,000400,000

Study on Agricultural Labor Migration of Selected Farm Households

87

Table 10 Enterprisebudget of budget
sesameofandpigeonproduction
Table10: Enterprisesesameandpeapigeonpea production
Item

Unit

Migrant farm
HH (N=47)

Non-migrant farm HH(N=43)Yield

Bsk/ac

3.27

2.81

Price

MMK/bsk

41,14936,423Yield

Bsk/ac

6.10

5.24

Price

MMK/bsk

19,872

19,581

Total gross benefit

MMK/ac

255,799

205,066

Total variable cost

MMK/ac207,512

195,442

Net benefit

MMK/ac48,287

9,624

1.23

1.05

SesamePigeonpea

Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR)

farming (Figure 6).
According to the type of labor problem, migrant farm households are solved
13 solved the problem by hiring labor fromin various ways. Some migrant households
other distance village (32%). Other specific solutions were paying high wage to hirein time (14%), the rest family members including children, women and elder persons
worked in farm during peak season (12%) and taking advantage of close social dealing to get hired labor from same village and other villages (8%). In few cases, each 2%of migrant households used mutual labor exchange system with other households
and finally reduced farmland size to solve labor requirement problem (Figure 7).
As labor migration impacts on labor availability, it also impacts on wages andvalue. As seen in Kyaupadaung township, the labor shortage has increased the wages
in agriculture work compared with before migration condition. As can be seen in
the wages comparison, the hired labor daily wage increased from about 500 MMK
to 2000 MMK for male and about 300 MMK to 1500 MMK for female during offseason. The daily wage increased from about 800 MMK to 3000 MMK for male andabout 600 MMK to 1500 MMK (or) 2000 MMK for female during peak season in
the study area.
Enterprise Budget of Sesame and Pigeon Pea Production
Migrant farm households obtained higher yield of sesame (3.27 basket/ac) and pigeon (6.1 basket/ac) than non-migrant farm households (2.81 and 5.24 basket/ac).
And also, prices of sesame (41,149 MMK/basket) and pigeon pea (19,872 MMK/
basket) for migrant farm households were higher than sesame price (36,423 MMK/
basket) and pigeon pea price (19,581 MMK/basket) of non-migrant farm house-

88

Nandar Aye Chan, Theingi Myint

holds because they expended higher total variable cost and could produce quality
yield to get higher price.
Hence, migrant farm households received more profit (48,284 MMK/ac) thannon-migrant farm households (9,624 MMK/ac) by growing sesame and pigeon cropintercropping in the study area. The reason for receiving larger profit than non-migrant farm households was that the migrant farm households got higher yield thanthe other one. Although there was not much different in output price and total
variable costs among migrant and non-migrant groups, the gross benefit received bymigrant (255,799 MMK/ac) and non-migrant farm households (205,066 MMK/ac) was different. Return above variable cost (RAVC) for migrant and non-migrantfarm households were 48,287 MMK/ac and 9,624 MMK/ac respectively. Hence,
the benefit-cost ratios were 1.23 and 1.05 for migrant and non-migrant farm households, respectively (Table 10).
Conclusion and policy implication
In the study area of Kyaukpadaung township, about one fourth of household members were migrants who were mostly young and active men. Common migration
was internal rural to urban out migration and about one third of migration wereinternational cross-border migration. The push factors of rural out-migration in the
study area were mostly associated with declining opportunities in agriculture because of weed problem and bad weather condition. Moreover, low employment opportunities of non-farm sectors in original areas were also existed. The pull factorsof out-migration to other places were better economic and employment opportunities, high income and better living standard in new destination places. Regarding
the household income, remittance was significantly high and it was about half oftotal households’ income. As the positive view of migration, the remittance was usedmainly for agricultural investment for crop and livestock production. Due to impactof migration, the original resident areas faced the labor shortage problem in farming
especially during peak season. With the men migrating out, the bulk of the work
load and responsibilities fall upon women and children who were not adequately
ready for these new responsibilities. Problems of high labor cost, labor unavailability
in time, unskilled female and child labor were found in the agricultural sector. Therefore, there is a need for a socio-political framework in which women and children
can be empowered with the relevant skills and technologies to undertake this newrole more efficiently.
The policies should be targeted towards coping strategies of labor saving technologies, extension and education program emphasized on women, children and elder persons. Moreover, it should establish and promote agricultural based small andmedium enterprises (SMEs) in the rural areas to provide job opportunities for theStudy on Agricultural Labor Migration of Selected Farm Households

89

livelihoods of the rural community. In addition, educational and vocational institutions should be established to facilitate skill building of rural youths that will makethem employable in the agriculture based small and medium enterprises (SMEs).
REFERENCES
LIFT/World Bank. 2014. Qualitative Social and Economic Monitoring (QSEM) Summary of Round Four Report. World Bank& Myanmar Development ResearchCommissioned by the Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund
Maharjan, A. & Theingi Myint. 2015. Internal Labor Migration Study in the Dry
Zone, Shan State and the Southeast of Myanmar, HELVETAS Swiss Intercooperation Myanmar.
Ministry of Immigration and Population. 2014. Myanmar Population and Housing
Census. Census report volume II.
World Bank. 2008. World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development:
World Bank.

91

Study on Postharvest Handling Practices of Cabbage andCauliflower in Selected Areas of Myanmar
T.T.Soe1,a, T.D.Hnin1, Y.Y. Soe1, N.N. Htwe1, K.T.D.Myint1 and T.O.Win2

1. Yezin Agricultural University, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Myanmar
2. Cropping System Section, Department of Agricultural Research, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Myanmar (Corresponding author: thansoesoe@gmail.com)
ABSTRACTThe study was made to investigate the existing handling practices of cabbage and cauliflower in selected areas of Myanmar from December 2011
to May 2012. A total of 193 respondents from Aung Ban, Nay Pyi Taw
and Yangon were randomly selected and interviewed using structural questionnaires. Commodities are transported from growing area to wholesalemarkets by truck or else; whereas, brokers, collectors and off-takers areserved as middlemen among the producers, wholesalers and retailers; urban wholesalers sell to retailers in nearby markets and send to other markets. The middlemen collect the produce from the farm and bring it to thewholesale market using cow-driven carts in that area. It was observed thatcabbage and cauliflower without packaging materials were currently practiced during transportation using truck. Non-refrigerated vehicles generally are open-sided trucks with wire mesh frames. This type of transport is
inexpensive, convenient and it is usually used in developing countries. The
suitable and mostly used position during storage and transportation for
cabbage is upside down and side by side position for cauliflower. Packaging
of mesh bag, plastic bag and bamboo basket at the retailers were commonly
employed. The losses of cauliflower stakeholders could be higher than thatof cabbage stakeholders due to its inflorescence crop type and discolorationof the curd.
Key Words: handling practices, packaging materials, postharvest transportation and supply chain

INTRODUCTION
Myanmar has huge potential for production of various kinds of horticultural crops
and they are cultivated year round or seasonally in different parts of the country.
Leafy vegetables are rich source of essential nutrients such as vitamin A and folicacid (Aye, 2007). In Myanmar, cabbage and cauliflower are generally grown in win-

92

T.T.Soe, T.D.Hnin, Y.Y. Soe, N.N. Htwe,K.T.D.Myint and T.O.Win

N

▲
●

■
▲ Aung Ban● Nay Pyi Taw■ Yangon

Figure1: Study areas in Myanmar

ter season of Mandalay Region, however, they can be grown starting from August
until December in the Shan state. Harvested areas were 32,337 hectares for cabbage
and 26,609 hectares for cauliflower in 2011-2012. Production of cabbage and cauliflower was 471,235 MT and 333,780 MT, respectively (DAP 2012). Aung Ban areais the main production source and also high production area of cabbage and cauliflower in upper Myanmar. During November to February is on season of cabbage
and cauliflower that is the lowest price for them in the market.
Aung Ban areas produce a wide variety of vegetables while Tatkone areas specialize in growing many kinds of kitchen crops like chili, onion, cabbage and cauliflower. Postharvest handling is a set of operations undertaken from the time of harvest up to the time just before consumption or just before processing (Kanlayanarat
and Acedo 1997). Surveys have revealed that the improper handling practices, disease, pest and lack of facilities and technology result in heavy losses to the growers,
wholesalers and retailers (Damunupola 2011).Main causes of quality deteriorationand postharvest loss of vegetables are wilting, yellowing, mechanical injury and decay (Kitinoja and Kader 2002).
Efficient production and market channel is an important mean to raise theincome levels of growers and to promote the economic development of the stakeholders in the country. In Myanmar, the largest wholesale markets are ThiriMingalar market in Yangon and Aharrthukha market in Nay Pyi Taw. Both markets areworking round the clock and the busiest time is 12 p.m. (midnight) to 7 a.m. (earlymorning) with wholesalers and retailers from nearby areas. In Myanmar, posthar-Study on Postharvest Handling Practices of Cabbage and Cauliflower

93

Figure .1 Study areas in Myanmar

Table1:and
Samplemarkets
and number of respondents
Table 1. Sample markets
numberof respondents
TownshipMarketNo. of respondents (%)
Wholesaler

Nay Pyi Taw

YangonArharrathukha

Retailer

5 (33.33)

Yezin

5 (14.29)

Pa La Ka at YAU

5 (14.29)

Pyinmana

5 (14.29)

ThiriMingalar

10 (66.67)

Haymawon

5 (14.29)

Yandanar5(14.29)

Sanpya5 (14.29)

Thingankyun

5 (14.29)

Total

15(100.00)

35 (100.00)

Table 2.Number of respondents in selected areas
Township	
  Table2: Number of respondents in selected areas
No. of respondents

GrowerWholesaler

Retailer

Total

4	
  

Aung Ban

77

-

-

77

Nay Pyi Taw

66

5

15

86

Yangon

-

10

20

30

Total

143

15

35

193

RESULTS ANDDISCUSSION
vest handling practices such as harvesting,storage,cleaning; grading, packing and
Handling
Practices
and
Time
Lag
duringStoragein Cabbage andconducted
Cauliflower attransportation for cabbage and cauliflower are not systematicallyalong
Sitesbeen carried out to investigate
the supply chain. Therefore, the presentWholesaler
survey hadpracticesof cabbage
and cauliflower
at wholesalerbysites
pile up, spreadthe postharvestHandling
handling
practicesof cabbage
and cauliflower
thewerestakeholders
in
out
and
by
bamboobasket.
It
was
found
that
50%
of
the
cabbageandcauliflower
wholesalers
study areas.

mainly used spread out storage position in Yangon area. In Nay Pyi Taw area, 80% of cabbage

wholesalersand 60% of the cauliflower wholesalers mainly stored spread out storage position
RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
3). It canbe assumed that most of the wholesalers used spread out because there was no
Selection(Tableof Study
Areasneed
to paylabourand(Tatkone)material cost areas
and thento store.
Kanlayanarat
and Acedo(1997)
Aung Banand
NayforPyi
Tawareeasywell
known
as a major
vegetables
statedthat quality
produceTownship,
can be retarded
effectively Shanby proper
storageproduction
areas.
Aungdeterioration
Ban is inofKalaw
Southern
State.
It systems
is lobyrefrigerated
storage,coolstorage.
In
thisstudy,
storagelossesatwholesaler
werenocated at 20° 40´ N and 96° 38´ E coordinates. The growing areas of cabbage andsignificant
differences
betweenand Nay
Taw respectively
for both cabbage
cauliflower(data
cauliflower
in KalawTownship
areYangon
871 and
251Pyiacres,
inand
2010.
The mainnot shown). Mostof the wholesalers
used unsystematic
practicesand there during
were nomarket destinationof cabbage
and cauliflower
from handling
Aung Banis Yangoncooling facilities and no specialties for crop storage. It was found that most of the 80% of thewinter season.
and 40%the cauliflower
wholesalers
storedfor 1 atday19°(time
saleEincoordiYangon
Naycabbage
Pyi Taw
is theof capitalof Myanmar
andlocatedNlag)
andfor96°
area andarea
Nay PyiTaw areamany(Table kinds
4).
nates. Tatkone
producesof vegetables such as cabbage, cauliflower,

94

T.T.Soe, T.D.Hnin, Y.Y. Soe, N.N. Htwe,K.T.D.Myint and T.O.Win
Table 3. Handling practices of cabbage and cauliflower during storage at wholesaler sites

Table3:
Handling
practicesof cabbage
and andcauliflower
duringstorage
at wholesaler
sitessites
Table
3. Handlingpracticesof cabbage
cauliflower
duringstorage
at wholesaler
a
a

Item
Item

Wholesalers (%)
c Wholesalers (%)
Yangon c
Nay Pyi Taw
YangonNay Pyi Tawab
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Cabbagec
Cauliflowerdabc
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Cabbage
Cauliflowerd
Pile up
10
20
20
20
Pile up
10
20
20
20
Spread out
50
50
80
60
Spread out
50
50
80
60
By bamboo basket
40
30
20
By bamboo basket
40
30
20
Total
100
100
100
100
Total
100
100
100
100
(a) n = 10; (b) n = 10; (c) n =5; (d) n = 5(a) n = 10; (b) n = 10; (c) n =5; (d) n = 5bbTable 4. Time lag of cabbage and cauliflower at wholesaler sites
Table 4. Time
lagTimeof cabbage
cauliflower
at wholesaler
sites
Table4:lag of andcabbageand cauliflower
at wholesaler
sitesTime lag (days)
Wholesalers (%)
Time lag (days)
Wholesalers (%)
YangonNay Pyi Taw
Nay Pyi Taw
aYangonb
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Cabbage c
Cauliflower dabcCabbage
Cauliflower
Cabbage
Cauliflower d
1
80
80
40
40
1
80
80
40
40
2
20
20
20
20
2
20
20
20
20
3
20
20
3
20
20
4
20
20
4
20
20
Total
100
100
100
100
Total
100
100
100
100
(a) n = 10; (b) n = 10; (c) n =5; (d) n = 5(a) n = 10; (b) n = 10; (c) n =5; (d) n = 5chili, eggplant, radish and mustard. The growing areas of cabbage and cauliflower
in Tatkone Township are 302 and 289 acres, respectively in 2010. The main market
destination of cabbage and cauliflower from Tatkone is NayPyi Taw Aharathukha
market and other distant markets. Fresh commodities of both sites entered in Yangon city by truck. Data collections were conducted along through production sites
at Aung Ban and Nay Pyi Taw and wholesale and retail markets at Yangon and Nay
Plate 1. Storage practices of cabbage and cauliflower at wholesaler sites: Pyi Taw.
Yangonis thefocal pointof theandatexternal
trade
Plate
1. Storagepracticesof cabbage
andinternalcauliflower
wholesaler
sites:for- agricultural
produce fromstatesandregionsbybamboohighway
road, railway and waterway. Yan(a)otherpileup, (b)spreadout, (c)basket
(a)
pile
up,
(b)
spreadout,(c)bamboobasketgon Thiri Mingalar market is the wholesale market for fresh produces and it has
also terminal and transit of vegetable crops distributed to Yangon retail markets and6	  other distant markets.
6	
  
	
  
	
  

Data Collection
Questionnaires for different surveys were conducted at Aung Ban, Nay Pyi Taw andYangon markets by random sampling method to overview assessment on postharvest handling practices of cabbage and cauliflower by interviewing 50 and 27 cab-Study on Postharvest Handling Practices of Cabbage and Cauliflower

a

b

95

c

Plate1: Storage practices of cabbage and cauliflower at wholesaler sites:(a) pile up, (b) spread out, (c) bamboo basket

bage and cauliflower growers from 6 villages in Kalaw Southern Shan State and 41
and 25 cabbage and cauliflower growers from 4 villages in Nay Pyi Taw (Tatkone)during December 2011 to May 2012. The data were collected from stakeholders
with structural interview questionnaire. Distribution of cabbage and cauliflower retailers for 20 and 15 in Yangon and Nay Pyi Taw were interviewed to overview thepostharvest handling practices of grading, packing, temporary storage, loading system, transportation and storage during retailing.
Data Analysis
The Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 16.0 Software and Microsoft Excel Program were used for data analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Handling Practices and Time Lag during Storage in Cabbage and Cauliflower at
Wholesaler Sites
Handling practices of cabbage and cauliflower at wholesaler sites were piled up,
spread out and by bamboo basket. It was found that 50% of the cabbage and cauliflower wholesalers mainly used spread out storage position in Yangon area. In Nay
Pyi Taw area, 80% of cabbage wholesalers and 60% of the cauliflower wholesalers
mainly stored spread out storage position (Table 3). It can be assumed that mostof the wholesalers used spread out because there was no need to pay for labour andmaterial cost and then easy to store. Kanlayanarat and Acedo (1997) stated that
quality deterioration of produce can be retarded effectively by proper storage systems
by refrigerated storage, cool storage. In this study, storage losses at wholesaler wereno significant differences between Yangon and Nay Pyi Taw for both cabbage andcauliflower (data not shown). Most of the wholesalers used unsystematic handlingpractices and there were no cooling facilities and no specialties for crop storage. It

cauliflower retailers stored for 2 days (Table 6).Therefore, time lag of Yangon were one day
longer than that of Nay Pyi Taw. It can be assumed that Yangon is urban area and far away from
96 farm.
T.T.Soe, T.D.Hnin, Y.Y. Soe, N.N. Htwe,K.T.D.Myint and T.O.Win

Table5:
Handling
practicesof cabbage
cauliflower
duringstorageat retailer
sites
Table
5. Handlingpracticesof cabbage
andandcauliflower
duringstorageat retailer
sites
Item
Retailers (%)
YangonCabbagea

Nay Pyi Tawb

Cauliflower

Cabbagec

Cauliflowerd

Spread out

20.00

20.00

13.30

13.30

By bamboo basket

35.00

35.00

20.00

20.00

In the Plastic bag

20.00

20.00

66.70

66.70

Natural condition

10.00

10.00

-

-

Covered with wet

15.00

15.00

-

-

cloth
Total

100.00100.00100.00100.00(a) n = 20; (b) n = 20; (c) n =15; (d) n = 15

was found that most of the 80% of the cabbage and 40% of the cauliflower wholesal7	
  	
  ers stored for 1 day (time lag) for sale in Yangon area and Nay Pyi Taw area (Table 4).
Handling Practices and Time Lag during Storage for Cabbage and Cauliflower
at Retailer Sites
Handling practices during storage for cabbage and cauliflower at the retailer sites
were spread out, by bamboo basket, natural condition, in the plastic bag and covered
with wet cloth. Among them, bamboo baskets were mostly used because it is anindigenous packaging material for most vegetable crops in these days. Moreover, it
is easy to be available at cheaper cost. It was found that 35.00% of the retailers usedbamboo basket in storage for cabbage and cauliflower at Yangon area. In Nay Pyi
Taw area, most of the retailers (66.70%) used plastic bag for cabbage and cauliflower
in storage (Table 5). It can be assumed that there is no cooling facility (cool storage
room and refrigerators) in Myanmar. Therefore,the retailers still use conventional
storage practices.
In Yangon area, 55% of cabbage respondents stored for 3 days (time lag), however, 50.00% of cauliflower respondents stored for 2 days. In Nay Pyi Taw, 66.70%of the cabbage and cauliflower retailers stored for 2 days (Table 6).Therefore, time
lag of Yangon were one day longer than that of Nay Pyi Taw. It can be assumed that
Yangon is urban area and far away from farm.
Packaging Materials of Cabbage and Cauliflower at Retailer Sites
Packaging materials of cabbage and cauliflower at retailer sites were bamboo basket,
mesh bag, wadding bag and plastic bag. The packaging of cabbage and cauliflower

Study on Postharvest Handling Practices of Cabbage and Cauliflower

97

Table 6.Time lag of cabbage and cauliflower at retailer sites
Timeandlagcauliflowerof cabbage atandcauliflower
at retailer sites
Table
6.TimelagTable6:
of cabbage
retailersitesTime lag(days)
Retailers(%)
Table
6.Timelagofcabbageandcauliflower
atretailersitesTime lag (days)
Retailers (%)
YangonNay Pyi Taw
Time lag (days)
Retailers(%)
cPyi Taw
Cabbage a Yangon
Cauliflower b
CabbageNay
Cauliflower da Yangon
b
c
d
Nay
Pyi
Taw
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Cabbage
Cauliflower1
5.00 a5.00 b33.33 c33.33 dCabbage
Cauliflower
Cabbage
Cauliflower
12
5.00
5.00
33.33
33.33
20.00
50.00
66.70
66.70
12
5.00
5.00
33.33
33.33
20.00
50.00
66.70
66.70
3
55.00
45.00
23
20.00
50.00
66.70
66.70
55.00
45.00
-4
20.00
34
55.00
45.00
-20.00Total
100.00100.00100.00 100.00
4Total20.00
100.00100.00100.00 100.00
Total
100.00100.00100.00100.00(a) n = 20; (b) n = 20; (c) n =15; (d) n = 15(a) n = 20; (b) n = 20; (c) n =15; (d) n = 15
Table(a) 7.Packaging
n = 20; (b) n materials= 20; (c) nforcabbage=15; (d) n =and
15 cauliflower at retailer sites
Table
7.Packaging
materials
forcabbage
andcauliflower
at retailer
Packaging materials
Retailers(%) sites
Table7:
Packagingmaterials forcabbageandcauliflower
atretailer sites
Table 7.Packaging
materials forcabbage
andcauliflower
at retailer
sites
Packagingmaterials
Retailers(%) Nay
YangonPyi Taw
Packaging materials
Retailers(%) NayaYangonbc
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Cabbage Pyi Taw
Cauliflowerd
aYangon
b
c
d
Nay
Pyi
Taw
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Mesh bag
40.00
40.00 b 13.30
13.30 dac
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Meshbagbasket
40.00
40.00
13.30
13.30
Bamboo
25.00
25.00
26.70
26.70
Mesh
bag
40.00
40.00
13.30
13.30
Bamboobasket
25.00
25.00
26.70
26.70
Wadding bag
25.00
25.00
20.00
20.00
Bamboobasket
25.00
25.00
26.70
26.70
Wadding
bag
25.00
25.00
20.00
20.00
Plastic bag
10.00
10.00
40.00
40.00
Wadding
bag
25.00
25.00
20.00
20.00
Plastic
bag
10.00
10.00
40.00
40.00
Total
100.00100.00100.00100.00
Plastic
bag
10.00
10.00
40.00
40.00
Total
100.00100.00100.00(a) n = 20; (b) n = 20; (c) n =15;(d) n = 15 100.00
Total
100.00100.00100.00(a) n = 20; (b) n = 20; (c) n =15;(d) n = 15 100.00(a) n = 20; (b) n = 20; (c) n =15; (d) n = 15
Packaging Materials of Cabbage and Cauliflower at Retailer Sites
PackagingPackaging
Materialsmaterials
of Cabbage
and Cauliflower
at Retailer
Sites sites were bamboo basket,
of cabbage
and cauliflower
at retailer
PackagingPackaging
Materialsmaterials
of Cabbage
andCauliflower
at
RetailerSites sites were bamboo basket,
cabbagecauliflower
retailermesh bag, wadding bag and ofplastic
bag.andThe
packagingat of
cabbage and cauliflower from
Packagingmaterialsofcabbageandcauliflower
at ofretailersites werecauliflower
bamboo basket,
mesh
bag,
waddingbagandplasticbag.
Thepackagingcabbagewholesaler to retailer sites were 40% of the respondents by usingmeshandbag in Yangon from
area.
mesh
bag, towaddingbagandplasticbag.
Thepackagingofcabbageandcauliflower
fromwholesaler
retailer
sites
were
40%
of
the
respondents
by
using
mesh
bag
in
YangonPacking by plastic bag was currently used by 40% of cabbage and cauliflower retailers in area.
Naywholesalertoretailersites
were
40% usedof therespondents
by using
mesh bag inYangonin area.
Packingbyplasticbag
wascurrently
by40%
of
cabbageandcauliflower
retailers
Pyi Taw area (Table 7). It was agreed with the report of FAO (2011). It was reported Nay
that
Packingbyplasticbag7).
wasIt currently
usedwithby 40%of cabbage
and(2011).
cauliflower
retailersin NayPyi
Tawarea(Tablewasagreedthereport
of
FAO
It
was
reportedpackaging generally provides protection for the product, to reduce spoilage and losses andthat
toPyi
Taw area(Tableprovides
7). It wasagreed withtheproduct,
report ofFAO(2011).
It wasreportedthatpackaging
generally
protection
for
the
to
reducespoilageandlossesandtoenhance the value of produce. Plastic bags are the most widely accepted for vegetables in mostpackaging
generally
providesprotection
fortheproduct,
toreducespoilageandlossesandtoenhance the value of produce. Plastic bags are the most widely accepted for vegetables in mostin mosta enhance the value of produce.
b Plastic bags are the mostc widely accepted for vegetables
d
8	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  

Plate2: Packaging materials of cabbage and cauliflower at the retailer sites:(a) Mesh bag, (b) Bamboo basket, (c) Plastic bag, (d) Wadding bag

8	
  
8	
  

98

T.T.Soe, T.D.Hnin, Y.Y. Soe, N.N. Htwe,K.T.D.Myint and T.O.Win

a

b

d

e

c

Plate3: Storage practices of cabbage and cauliflower at retailer sites:(a) spread out, (b) by bamboo basket, (c) covered with wet cloth,(d) in the plastic bag, (e) natural condition

a

b

d

e

c

Plate4: Loading system of cabbage and cauliflower during transportation in Myanmar:(a) upside down, (b) side by side, (c) line up, (d) cabbage under the cauliflower, (e) with wrapper leaf

Study on Postharvest Handling Practices of Cabbage and Cauliflower

a

b

c

d

e

f

99

Plate5: Unsystematic loading of cabbage and cauliflower during transportation from wholesaler
to retailer sites

from wholesaler to retailer sites were 40% of the respondents by using mesh bag inYangon area. Packing by plastic bag was currently used by 40% of cabbage and cauliflower retailers in Nay Pyi Taw area (Table 7). It was agreed with the report of FAO(2011). It was reported that packaging generally provides protection for the product,
reduce spoilage and losses and enhance the value of produce. Plastic bags are widely
accepted for vegetables in most countries. It can be assumed that plastic were used
to reduce transpiration rate (water loss) that can prolong shelf life and maintain the
product quality.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONThe stakeholders of cabbage and cauliflower have deep knowledge on different storage positions of upside down, side-by-side, line up, pile up and with wrapper leaf forcabbage and cauliflower at temporary storage. Among them, the suitable and mostly
used position during storage and transportation for cabbage was upside down andside by side position for cauliflower. Cabbage and cauliflower without packaging
were commonly practiced for distant transportation and sale processes of cabbage
and cauliflower from the farm to the wholesalers. However, packaging materials ofmesh bag, wadding bag, plastic bag and bamboo basket were mostly employed byretailers.

100 T.T.Soe, T.D.Hnin, Y.Y. Soe, N.N. Htwe,K.T.D.Myint and T.O.Win

a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h

i

j

Plate6: Current supply chain system of cabbage and cauliflower
from grower site to reach consumer hand:(a) Production site (farm), (b) Unsystematic harvesting, (c)Spread out in the field, (d)Pile up in the open field, (e)Unsystematic transportation, (f ) Temporary storage at wholesaler, (g)Transportation from wholesaler to retailer, (h)Temporary storageby natural condition, (i) Temporary storage at retailer by bamboo
basket and (j) Selling to the consumer

Stacking of many layers of produce which results in high percentages of loss bymechanical damage and reduces produce quality. Therefore, handling practices andpackaging system should be systematically managed to reduce losses and to maintainthe quality of the produce. Cabbage and cauliflower produce from wholesale markets
were sold to small retail markets by various types of vehicles that may cause excessive weight loss and quality loss. Transporting produce in unrefrigerated trucks orunrefrigerated conditions may tailor the shelf life of produce and reduce nutritional
value that in turn leads to lower market value. Therefore, cooling truck,temporary
cold storage room and refrigerators are necessary for cabbage and cauliflower stake-

Study on Postharvest Handling Practices of Cabbage and Cauliflower 101

holders in Myanmar by the help of government or other organization.
During loading and unloading, systematic postharvest handling practices for
middlemen, retailers, transporters should be educated at wholesale depot. All of
infrastructures, such as processing equipment, packing houses, grading and sizing
machines should be provided to growers and wholesalers to reduce severe quality
losses. Famers association, Myanmar Vegetable Producers and Exporter Association(MFVPA), growers cluster should be cooperated with effective structural institutional organizations. The stakeholders of cabbage and cauliflower along the supply
chain should be trained on postharvest handling practices to reduce the losses. It issuggested that good agricultural practices (GAP) should be needed for the growers. Moreover, in Myanmar, systematic handling practices, harvesting and packaging
system will also be needed for all labor including (farm labor) along the supply chain.
REFERENCES
Aye, K. N. 2007. Postharvest Technologies for Fresh Leafy vegetables in Myanmar.
In: Acedo, A. L. and K. Weinberger (eds.) Postharvest Management of Leafy
Vegetables in Greater Mekong Sub-region Countries. Proceeding. Hanoi, Vietnam. 165: 28p.
DAP. 2011. Department of Agricultural Planning. Myanmar Agricultural at a glance,
Myanmar Agriculture in Brief. Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation.
DAP. 2012. Department of Agricultural Planning. Myanmar Agricultural at a glance,
Myanmar Agriculture in Brief. Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation.
Damunupola, J .W.2011. Postharvest technology of fruits and vegetables. M.Sc Thesis. Postgraduate Institute of Science, University of Peradeniya. India.
FAO. 2001. Food Balance Sheets. In: Economic and Social Development Department,
Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations, VialedelleTerme di
Caracalla, 00153rome, Italy, pp.14.
Kanlayanarat, S.1997. Introduction of postharvest technology of agricultural produce. In: Postharvest Handling System of Agricultural Products.A Training Manual. King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology, Thonburi, Bangkok. Thailand.
Kanlayanarat, S and A.L. Acedo.1997. Introduction of postharvest technology ofagricultural produce. In: Postharvest Handling System of Agricultural Products. A Training Manual.King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology, Thonburi,
Bangkok. Thailand.
Kitinoja, L. and A. A Kader. 2002. Small-scale postharvest handling practices. In:
Davis (ed.) A Manual for Horticultural Crops. 4th edition.University of California. Postharvest Horticulture Series 8E: 260p.

103

Pharmaceutical Ethnobotany Survey of Anticancer Plant
Resources from The Hlawgar Wildlife Park, Yangon Region,
MyanmarKhin Thantsin*, San San Aye, Khin Thandar Win

Department of Botany, University of Yangon, University Avenue, Kamayut Township, Yangon, 1104111044, MYANMAR (zin.khinzin@gmail.com)
ABSTRACT

Since prehistoric time, men have used natural resources especially fromplants for healthcare purpose. The information of therapeutic uses forcancer is very rare. The present work information is the result of pharmaceutical ethnobotany investigation on the Hlawgar Wildlife Park, Yangon
Region from June to October 2014. We studied the plant resource
therapeutically used materials especially for the treatment of cancer by
Thai and Myanmar traditional practitioners. Specimens were collected
together with two Thai traditional practitioners. Data were combined with
the interview of four traditional practitioners, two from Thailand and two
from Myanmar. A total 32 species, 23 families were recognized as record.
Those species were recommended for specific treatments of different organcancer by two Thai traditional practitioners, and some of them are used as
medicine by Myanmar traditional practitioners too. In the present researchmorphological identification was carried out using literatures. Furthermore, herbarium specimens were deposited in the Department of Botany
Herbarium, University of Yangon. Those species need to address more systematic and scientific methods. These data were useful for future pharmacological study, and also for estimation of the species which are in threatof exhaustion.
Key Words: anticancer resource, ethnobotany, Myanmar, traditional practitioners

INTRODUCTION
Human have relied on plant resource as food, shelter, clothes and healthcare for daily
life since prehistoric time. Mendonça-Filho [2006] stated plants are still used andhave considerable importance in international trade. Herbal medicine knowledge
and its efficacy was acquired by trial and error and handed over from one generation to another. However, the diffusion of herbal medicine knowledge is sometimes

104 Khin Thantsin, San San Aye, Khin Thandar Win

dangerous because there is improper communication.
Pharmaceutical ethnobotany experience for several years has verified to be a
precious channel in modern screening of pharmacology [Natural products isolation
2005:4]. Nowadays, the information of botanical resource from traditional practitioners has acquired considerable awareness in part of the scientific researchers. But
methods in informant selection need to be carefully created level. Myanmar andThailand have a long history of traditional remedies and learning of biological origin
for therapeutic used [Ashin Nagathein 1977; Bodeker 1997]. The information about
traditional therapeutic uses for cancer is very rare; it needs to address secure and reasonable quality control methods modified to pharmaceutical ethnobotany resource.
This is time to get utmost advantage from the experience of traditional practitioners to give sufficient health care service not only to countryside people but also
who believe to use herbal medicine. In the present study, the pharmaceutical information may be original, or rare uses in the treatment of cancer for particular organs
and that might be needed to be elucidated urgently. Hence, this paper was reported
as an ethnobotanical survey. The aims of this research are:
• To report locally anticancer resource utilized by Thai;• To assess the utilization of Myanmar habitat species;• To evaluate the common species used by Myanmar and Thai;• To predict how much medicinal anticancer resource stand in the protective
area;• To estimate the threaten species.
Materials and methods
Geographic and Forest Type Overview
The location of Yangon region is the eastern boundary of the Ayeyarwaddy Delta
area to the north-west of Andaman Sea, south of Bago Region and East of Ayeyarwaddy Region. The Hlawgar Wildlife Park is situated in the Yangon region that is
a protected area and was established in 1982 with the total area of 3.63 km2. The
Hlawgar Wildlife Park has plenty of water resource, such as lakes and streams andalso sloping area [Fig. 1]. Forest type is tropical wet evergreen forest and they form
high, dense, multilayered evergreen forests characterized by a vast number of tree
species. Even classified as wet evergreen forests there were patches of deciduous
forests, and wetland vegetation, and swamp forests species are grown well.
Ethnic Composition of Yangon Region
According to the Population and Housing Census of Myanmar [2014], compositionof the ethnic in Yangon Region is diverse, and major group is Burma the biggest ethnic group of Myanmar’s population; some are Karin, Mon, Yakhine, Shan, Chin andPharmaceutical Ethnobotany Survey of Anticancer Plant Resources 105

Figure1: Map of Yangon Region and the location of the Hlawgar Wildlife Park.
(Agriculture Atlas, Myanmar, 2002; Google map, 2014)

Kachin. Most of them are office staff, industry workers, and farmers. Myanmar is thedominant and official language. This research area, the lowland region of Ayeyarwaddy river delta is fertile. Products of this area are mainly rice, however currently
industrial zone are expanded.
ClimateYangon region belongs to Köppen’s tropical monsoon climatic zone and has long
rainy season from the mid of May to the mid of October. During this time we havea substantial amount of rainfall. Dry season is from the mid of October to the mid of
May but during the dry season there are some rainy days. Temperature is fluctuatedbecause of rainy days and average maximum temperature range from 29 to 37°C andaverage minimum temperature range from 17 to 25°C [Meteorology and Hydrology
Department, Yangon, 2014].
Data Collection
Informants having ethnobotanical and traditional remedy knowledge, especially professional herbal specialists were selected. Four traditional practitioners, twofrom Thailand and two from Myanmar were recruited to minimize the instabilityof knowledge level. Data were collected through unstructured and unlimited interviews. Informants from Thailand were contributed their herbal remedies knowledge
in the field which showed the plants to confirm. Identification of the medicinal
plant specimens collected from the study area was performed at the Herbarium of
the Department of Botany, University of Yangon by comparison with already identi-

106 Khin Thantsin, San San Aye, Khin Thandar Win

fied herbarium specimens and literatures [Hooker 1885; Lawrence 1969; Cronquist
1981; Kress et al. 2003]. The entry of each species included the name of family, Latin
binomial, author. Voucher specimens were enclosed at the Herbarium of The Department of Botany, University of Yangon.
Data collection chiefly based on the experiences of Thai traditional practitioners namely Mr. Boon Phyoung and Mrs. Vun Phong Phyoung [Chinmayi, Thailand]with addition of the knowledge of Myanmar traditional practitioners Mr. Than Sweand Mrs. Thin Thin Nwe [Yangon, Myanmar]. For some botanical specimens, interviews were taken and repeated for confirmation. Myanmar names, treatmentsof illness, plant parts used, general mode of preparation and administration wererecorded for each plant during the interviews.
RESULTS
Botanical Resource and Their Uses
The present research was concentrated on ethnobotanical reports by traditional practitioners from Thailand and Myanmar for their medical uses. Also, the medical usesof Thailand and Myanmar are different in most cases but related in some instances.
Thirty two species mentioned by professional traditional practitioners wererecorded. The recorded species were referred to by two Thai traditional practitioners
for the treatment of cancer of particular organs. Among them only 19 species wererecommended for medical uses by Myanmar traditional practitioners. A plant species mentioned by one or two practitioners was considered to be valuable. Reported
Botanical resource with their family names, scientific names, Myanmar names, condition and habit of species, part used and uses are shown in Table 1 comprising of
23 families.
Part Used for Botanical Origin and Preparation Mode
In Myanmar traditional remedies, stem, bark, root, rhizome and leaves are the majorparts utilized for medicinal uses and others including flower, fruits, and the wholeplant are only or miscellaneously used. But in the case of treatment of different
kinds of cancer, Thai herbal medicine practitioner used mainly bark, stem, root, andrhizome for the treatment of cancer (Fig. 2). Aerial parts are taken habitually, easy
to get and energetic organs of the plant; moreover primary metabolite and secondary metabolite are accumulated in these parts. Underground portions, i.e. roots andrhizomes also store energy and manufacture secondary metabolite.
Dosages for every treatment are subjected to the age, gender, physical appearance or fitness of the patient. Decoction (boiling with water for oral dose and sinkin alcohol for external application) and demulcent (mixing with ingredient such as
jaggery, butter, milk, glycerin, and honey) are the most familiar mode of preparation.

Pharmaceutical Ethnobotany Survey of Anticancer Plant Resources 107

Table1: List of Medicinal Plants mentioned by Thai Traditional Practitioners for treatment of Cancer

Table 1. List of Medicinal Plants that mentioned by Thai Traditional Practitioners for treatment of Cancer
Sr.
No.

Family and Scientific Name

1.

2.

3.
4.

Myanmar
Name

EnglishName

Part Use

Uses

Annonaceae
Miliusa velutina Hook. f. & Thomson
Uraria ptychocalyx Roxb.

Conditionand habitof species

Tha but Gyi
Tha but Nwe

Dom-sal

W (T)
W (Cl)

Apocynaceae
Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall.

Stem
Root,
Leaves

Nose cancer (Thai)
Prostrate gland cancer (Thai);
toothache (Myanmar)

Let Htoke Gyi

BitteroleanderW, G(T)

Bark

Wrightia arborea (Dennst.) Mabb.

Let Htoke lay

Queenwrightia

W (T)

Root

Intestine cancer (Thai);Anti-dysenteric, anti-inflammatory, uterine relevant,menstrual diseases, Antimicrobial (Myanmar)
Kidney failure and related diseases (Thai, Myanmar)

Wa U

Elephant
food yamW, G (H)RhizomeLiver cancer (Thai);Slim aid (Myanmar)

Mae Zali

WingedcassiaShower tree

W,G (T)

Bark,
Leaves, buds
FruitsLeaves, buds

Kidney failure (Thai) ,Tonic, insomnia (Myanmar)
Intestine cancer (Thai);
antiviral, skin diseases, carminative, arthritis,
Antimicrobial, diuretic, gastrointestinal disease(Myanmar)

Bark

Liver cancer (Thai)

AraceaeAmorphophallus campanulatus (Roxb.)
Blume ex Decne.
Caesalpiniaceae
Cassia siamea Lam.
Cassia fistula L.

Ngu

5.

Casuarinaceae
Casuarina equisetifolia Ferst.

6.

Celastraceae
Lophopetalun fimbriatum Wight.
Combretaceae
Terminalia chebula Retz.

Phan Gar

Terminalia bellerica Roxb.

Thit saint

7.

8.
9.

10.

11.
12.

Ebenaceae
Diospyros ehretioides Wall.
Euphorbiaceae
Bridelia retusa (L.) A. Juss.
Croton joufra Roxb.

Pin Lae Ka
Vwe

Seik Che
Thet Yin Kado

Fabaceae
Butea frondosa Roxb.

Pauk

Dalbergia cultrate Grah.

Yin Taik

Pterocarpus microcarpus Kurz.

Thit Pa daukHypericaceae
Cratoxylon neriifolium Kurz.
Hypoxidaceae
Curculigo orchioides GaenthW,G (T)

Yae Main

Aut Chin zar

W, G (T)

W (T)

Bark

Skin cancer, internal organ cencer (Thai)

Chebulic
myrobalanW, G(T)

Root, bark

W(T)

Root
Bark
FruitsLiver cancer, intestine cancer(Thai);diarrhea, dysentery, wound healing (Myanmar)
uterus cancer (Thai);asthma, cough, antimicrobial (Myanmar)
tonic, appetizer (Myanmar)

Persimmon

W (T)

Bark

intestine cancer (Thai)

Kowli

W (T)
W (T)

Bark
Bark

Lung cancer (Thai)
Intestine cancer (Thai);
Gastrointestinal diseases, anti-inflammatory for liver,lung, joints, ulcer, snake bite (oral dose) (Myanmar)

W (T)

Bark
FlowerBark
RootleavesIntestine cancer (Thai);anthelmintic, ulcer, Diuretic (external use) (Myanmar)
Lymphatic cancer (Thai);Hepatic disorder, diuretic, Itching, skin diseases(Myanmar)Internal organ cancer (Thai);kidney failure,
Toothache (Myanmar)

Bebya

Bebya

W (T)

Root, stem

Liver cancer, intestine cancer (Thai)

Myet Ga Mone

Curculigo,
Golden eye
grass

W (H)

Rhizome

Uterus cancer (Thai)

Flame offorestAmhri

W (T)W, G (T)Wood, bark

13.

Loganiaceae
Strychnos nux-blanda L.

Kha baung

Mimosaceae
Mimosa pudica L.

Strychnine
tree

W (T)

14.

Bark
Seeds

Liver cancer (Thai)
Diarrhea, dysentery, eye infection (Myanmar)

Hti Ka Yone

Mimosine

W (S)Whole plant

15.

Minispermaceae
Stephania verosa (Bl.) Spreng.
Moraceae
Ficus callosa L. f.
Streblus asper Lour.

Liver cancer, Heart disease (Thai);
Kidney stone, asthma, intestinal bleeding, antiinflammatory (Myanmar)

W (Cl)

Rhizome

Uterus cancer (Thai, Myanmar)

W (T)
W (T)

Bark
Root

Liver cancer (Thai)
Lung cancer, Liver cancer, intestine cancer (Thai)
Carminative, antimicrobial (Myanmar)

16.

17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.

Rubiaceae
Mitragyna rotundifolia (Roxb.) Kuntze
Randia dumetorum Lam.
Rutaceae
Zanthoxylum budrunga Wall.
Sapindaceae
Scheichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken
Schophylaceae
Scoparia dulcis L.

Taung Kyar
Kha Aung
Oat NeCountry fig
Toothbrushtree

Bin GaSay Than bayar

Emetic nut

W (T)
W (T)

Bark, stem
Stem

Lung cancer, intestine cancer (Thai)
All organs (Thai)

Ma Yar Ninjingbawng

W (T)FruitsLiver cancer, uterus cancer, skin cancer (Thai)

Gyoe

Ceylon oak

W (T)

Bark

Good blood circulation (Thai),W, G (H)

Whole plant

Lung cancer (Thai);asthma, toothache, antipyretic (Myanmar)

Say choSterculiaceae
Pterospermum semisagittatum Buch. Ham.
Tiliaceae
Berrya ammonilla Roxb.

Phet won

Verbenaceae
Tectona grandis L. f.

Kyun

Na gelMucukunda

Teak

W (T)

Stem

intestine cancer (Thai)

W (T)

Root
Leaves

Prostrate cancer (Thai);inhaler (Myanmar)

W, G (T)LeavesBark
Wood

Diabetes, all organ cancer (Thai),Diarrhea (Myanmar)
Anti-inflammatory (Myanmar)
Itching (Myanmar)

W: found only in wild; W, G: found both in wild and at home garden; T: Tree; S: Shrub; H: Herbs; Cl: Climber

108 Khin Thantsin, San San Aye, Khin Thandar Win

Figure2: The plant parts used of Thai and Myanmar traditional medicine

Preparation mode of drug for each plant is the most difficult section to report because this research just relies on the opinion of traditional practitioners.
Discussion and Conclusion
Botanical Resource Habitat and Current Status
The specimens reported in this study were collected at wild state; in the Hlawgar
Wildlife Park, although some of them can be seen in the home garden, namely Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall., Cassia siamea Lam., Cassia fistula L., Terminalia chebulaRetz., Casuarina equisetifolia Ferst., Pterocarpus microcarpus Kurz., Scoparia dulcis
L., Tectona grandis L. f. and Amorphophallus campanulatus (Roxb.) Blume ex Decne.
They have medicinal value and Myanmar people planted them in home garden. The
plants species can also find in home garden are 28% and only in wild are 72%. Myanmar practitioners still believe that medicinal plants from nature are more effectivein the treatment of diseases. Therefore, traditional practitioners collect material ofplants for medicines in the wild. Collecting from natural condition is a huge hazard
for the plants.
It is normal through changes in the location and biotic conditions that more
plants species were used in the earlier period than now. The present data are usefulto help the modern health care system and the production of synthesized drug. Furthermore, crisis on habitat disappearance or extinction of plant species and disappearance of the indigenous knowledge has led the exhaustion of the specific plantresources and their related information. Moreover, information on ethnopharmaceutical plant species is extinct because most of the traditional remedy practitioners
have passed away without correctly transferring their knowledge to the new generations especially in Myanmar.
In some plant species like Zanthoxylum budrunga Wall., Thai traditional prac-Pharmaceutical Ethnobotany Survey of Anticancer Plant Resources 109

titioners used for treatment of cancer and also described its antioxidant activity by
Islam et al. [2014]. However, Myanmar people did not use it as medicine. However,19 species had significant use such as Uraria ptychocalyx Roxb., Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall., Wrightia arborea (Dennst.) Mabb., Amorphophallus campanulatus(Roxb.) Blume ex Decne., Cassia siamea Lam., Cassia fistula L., Terminalia chebulaRetz., Terminalia bellerica Roxb., Croton joufra Roxb., Butea frondosa Roxb. Dalbergia
cultrate Grah., Pterocarpus microcarpus Kurz., Strychnos nux-blanda L., Mimosa pudica
L., Stephania verosa (Bl.) Spreng., Streblus asper Lour., Scoparia dulcis L., Berrya ammonilla Roxb. and Tectona grandis L. f.. because those species were mentioned byboth Thai and Myanmar traditional practitioners, but widespread use of plant parts
and target diseases were different. It might be cause of divergence of knowledge ofethnopharmacology due to a lack of properly transfer of their awareness to the next
generations. On the other hand, Thai practitioners and Myanmar practitioners wereagreed in the use of Wrightia arborea (Dennst.) Mabb. for the treatment of kidney
failure and related diseases, and also Stephania verosa (Bl.) Spreng. for the treatmentof uterus cancer.
Ethnobotanical Resource Trade and Hazard
Collection of plant genetic resources from the nature tend to lead to the reduction
in biodiversity found in all over the world. Extreme harvest of underground organs
and/or reproductive organs which are vital to the continued existence of the plants
often leads to the depletion of plant resources. In this study, among 32 species 26
are trees and need a long period to grow. It takes for some plant 3-4 years to reachthe flowering and fruiting stage, reducing their regeneration possibility. Nowadays,
Myanmar traditional practitioners intentionally grow medicinal plants at different
levels for their production of herbal medicine. But they were capable of growing
only a few species; others are still in the waiting list, and those other species are facing threats of extinction. Moreover, larger threats for bioresources were collection
from the nature for illegal trades in the vast amount. Even in the protective areasome medicinal plants were collected from the wild according to the market demand
especially for border trade. Hence, plant species noted in this study can be suitabletargets for future study.
Acknowledgements

Special thanks to Mr. Boon Phyoung and Mrs. Vun Phong Phyoung, Thai traditional
medicine practitioners not only for their hospitality and kindness but also for usage ofthe medicinal plants. The authors are thankful to U Than Swe and Daw Thin Thin Nwe,
Myanmar Traditional Practitioners who shared the knowledge of herbal medicine andapproached the different mode of preparation.

110 Khin Thantsin, San San Aye, Khin Thandar Win

REFERENCES
Anonymous, 2005. Natural Products Isolation. 2nd ed. (edited by Satyajit D. Sarker,
Zahid Latif, Alexander I. Gray). Humana Press, Totowa, New Jersey.
Ashin Nargathein, 1977. Pon Pya Say Abi Dan. Illustrated Pharmacopeia. Vol.IV. Myanmar Mingalar Press, Yangon. (Myanmar Languish)
Bodeker, C.G. 1997. Medicinal Plants and forest conservation and healthcare. Publishing Management Service, Information Division, FAO, Viale delle Terme di
Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy
Cronquist, A. 1981. An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants. Columbia University Press, New York.
Hooker, J. D. 1885. The Flora of British India. L. Reeve & Co. Ltd., London.
Kress, J.; DeFilipps, R. A.; Farr, E. R.; Yin Yin Kyi. 2003. Checklist of the trees, shrubs,
herbs and climbers of Myanmar: (revised from the original works by J.H. Lace, R.
Rodger, H.G. Hundley and U. Chit Ko Ko on the “List of trees, shrubs, herbs andprincipal climbers, etc. recorded from Burma). Department of Systematic Biology-Botany, National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.
Lawrence, G. H. M. 1969. Taxonomy of Vascular Plants. Xth Ed. The Macmillan com.,
New York.
Mendonça-Filho, R. R. 2006. Bioactive Phytocompounds: New Approaches in the Phytosciences, in Modern Phytomedicine: Turning Medicinal Plants into Drugs (eds
I. Ahmad, F. Aqil and M. Owais), Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA,
Weinheim, Germany
Islam, M. K., Biswas, N. N., Saha, S., Hossain, H., Jahan, I. A., Khan, T. A., Shilpi, J.
A. 2014. Antinociceptive and antioxidant activity of Zanthoxylum budrunga
Wall (Rutaceae) seeds. The Scientific World Journal 2014, 1-7.
The population and Housing census of Myanmar 2014 [online] http://countryoffice.unfpa.org/myanmar/census/

111

Soybean Crop Improvement in Hilly Region of Myanmar
Mar Mar Win1 , Myat Nwe Nwe2 and Tun Shwe3

1. Assistant Research Officer, Food Legumes Section, Department of Agricultural Research, Yezin,
Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar (mmwin17@gmail.com)
2. Research Officer, Food Legumes Section, Department of Agricultural Research
3. Director, Oilseed crops and Food Legumes Division, Department ofAgricultural Research
ABSTRACT

Sustainable increases in food crops production will increasingly require
integration of improved cultivars and cultural practices to economicallyachieve improvements in crop productivity and its stability. The major challenge is to produce more from each unit of land and sustain soil health on
the other. Crop diversification through leguminous crop of soybean (Glycine
max L.) is considered as one of the important options, which can help reverse the process of system degradation and can prove agronomic and ecological benefits simultaneously, while maintaining or enhancing the scaleof efficiency of production. Since soybean is the best and cheapest protein
source compared to animal protein, demand for soybean is tremendous forfood supply. Therefore, improvement of soybean for specific regions attaches much importances. To identify high yielding varieties ideally suited
to the environment and more acceptable for their end-use, yield trials withYunnan soybean varieties and a local check variety were carried out during
a five-year period (2009–2014) at hilly region in Shan State, Myanmar.
Effects of yield trials showed that Diancanga 2 and Dian 86-5 gave more
yielding and early maturity when compared to the local variety. Diancanga
2 showed greater seed yield advantage ranging from 33 - 45% over the local variety of Shan Sein in demonstration plot and stable yield at different
testing locations of Myanmar. From these results, it can be concluded that
Diancanga 2 was the high yielding variety for different hilly regions ofShan State. Therefore, with the introduction of Diancanga 2, the area undersoybean will also expand resulting in a betterment of soybean production.
Key Words: Diancanga 2, hilly region, varietal improvement, Yunnan soybean varieties

INTRODUCTION
Sustainable increases in food crops production will increasingly require integrationof improved cultivars and cultural practices to economically achieve improvements

rainy season (from May to mid June). It was mainly found in Shan State. (3) The remaining
soybean crop is grown in late rainy season (from September to October) mostly along theafter ,the
water
has
receded.
It wasfound in central dry zone and lower Myanmar.
112river
Marbanks
Mar Win
Myat
Nwe
Nwe
and Tun
Shwe
	
  
	
  

	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
Figure	  1. Share	
   of different	  regions	  of soybean	
  production
	  in	
   sown area	   (2014-2015)
	
  
in 	
  
Figure1: Share of different regions of soybean production in sown area (2014-2015) in Myanmar
Myanmarin crop productivity and its stability. The major challenge is to produce more fromeach unit of land and sustain soil health on the other. Crop diversification throughlegumes or pulses crop is considered as one of the important options, which can help
reverse the process of system degradation and can prove agronomic and ecologicalbenefits simultaneously, while maintaining or enhancing the scale of efficiency of
production. Hence, the rotation of cereal crops with legumes, or mixed or intercrops
with legumes is essential to keep well soil health and productivity. Soybean (Glycine
max L.) is one of the leguminous crops and has had a major impact on the agroecology and economy of hilly region’s agriculture in Myanmar. They contribute to verylargely crop diversity on farming systems of the region.
In Myanmar, soybean (locally known as Peboke) currently grows on 158,000
ha countrywide with the production of 238,000 MT and an average yield of 1.51Mt/
ha (MOAI, 2014). Majority of soybean is available in highlands of Shan State (52%)
viz., Southern Shan (22%), Northern Shan (21%), and Eastern Shan (9%) State(Figure 1). Soybean grows in three main seasons; (1) the first season crop grows in
irrigated areas (from mid December to mid January) after rice harvest. It grows inabundance in Northern Shan State, Eastern Shan State and Kachin State. (2) The
second season crop grows in the uplands during the early rainy season (from May to
mid June). It was mainly found in Shan State. (3) The remaining soybean crop grows
in late rainy season (from September to October) mostly along the river banks after
the water has receded. It is really a crop of central dry zone and lower Myanmar.
Soybean is now one of the potential crops among the food legume crops. Besides the high yield potential, soybean seed contains approximately 37-41% protein,

Soybean Crop Improvement in Hilly Region of Myanmar 113

18-21% oil, 30-40% carbohydrate, and 4-5% ash (Hulse, 1996). Its capacity forprotein and oil production makes it a significant contributor to human nutrition
and animal feed, and its characteristic symbiosis with root bacteroids makes it a very
important crop by research. Therefore, improvement of soybean for specific regions
is very essential. To maximize soybean productivity for specific regions, research programs mainly focus on varietal improvements of different ecosystems. There was also
excellent cooperation with the Institutes from Thailand, China and Korea throughthe introduction of breeding materials and conducts soybean research for the development and identification of suitable soybean cultivars adapted to different regions
and development in Myanmar. Therefore, a total of 10 varieties of soybean (5 varieties in 2009 and 5 varieties in 2010) were introduced from Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China. The study was made with the objective of identificationof high yielding varieties which was well adapted to hilly region of Shan State andmore acceptable for their end-use.
Materials and Methods
The research was carried out during a five-year period (2009–2014) at the experimental fields of Food Legumes Section, Yezin (19˚ 50´ N; 96˚ 16´ E; 100 m msl),
Aungban (20.67˚ 40´ N; 96.62˚ 38´ E; 1369 m msl), Taryaw (20˚ 37´ N; 96˚ 1´ E; 252m msl), Loikaw (19˚ 40´ N; 97˚ 12´ E; 872 m msl), and Kengtung (21˚ 18´ N; 99˚ 36´E; 828 m msl). The experimental materials involved 5 varieties in 2009 and 5 varieties in 2010. The tested varieties originated from Yunnan Academy of Agricultural
Sciences, China. In each experiment, the introduced soybean varieties were touched
upon with local standard check variety. Necessary cultural practices and plant protection measures were done whenever needed. At maturity, yield components andyield were determined. The experimental data of yield components and yield were
subjected to ANOVA.
Results and Discussion
Observation Trial
The observation trial was conducted with a simple design at Yezin during monsoon
and post-monsoon season, 2009. The introduced Yunnan soybean varieties werecompared to check variety. Effects of monsoon trial showed that highest yield wasrecorded by Dian 86-5 (2454 kg/ha), followed by Daunfeng (2300 kg/ha) and Diancanga 2 (1768 kg/ha). These varieties showed superiority over check variety Yezin 10(1677 kg/ha) (Table1). Results of post-monsoon season showed that highest yield
was recorded by Diancanga 2 (1677 kg/ha), followed by Dian 86-5 (1378 kg/ha).
These varieties expressed the superiority over check variety Yezin 6 (1262 kg/ha)(Table 1). The results of this study explained that maturity days were shorter in post-days were shorter in post-monsoon season compared with monsoon season. Moreover, the
pod numbers were observed more in post-monsoon season. This indicated that Yunnan
fromsubtropicalhighlandclimateproduced more pods during grown in post114soybean
Mar MarWin, Myat Nwe
Nwe andTun Shwemonsoon season of Yezin environment.

Table1:varieties at
at Yezin
Yezin during
duringmonsoon
monsoonand
andpostpost-monTable 1.Performance
Performanceof
of Yunnan
Yunnan soybean
soybean varieties
soon season,
2009 season, 2009
monsoonVariety
Diancanga 2
Zhongpin 661
Dian 86-5
Dian 86-4
Daunfeng
Check var.
Mean
SE

Days
to
maturity
77
87
87
83
83
77
82.3
1.8

Monsoon season
Pods
100perseed
plant wt. (g)
9
13.4
14
14.6
20
17.8
8
17.5
16
15.3
15
10.4
13.7
14.8
1.8
1.1

Yield
(kg/ha)
1768
1503
2454
1411
2300
1677
1852
175

Post-monsoon season
Days Pods
100Yield
to
per
seed
(kg/ha)maturity plant wt. (g)70 32.5
18.0
1677
73 30.3
14.8
872
71 30.5
20.4
1378
73 37.1
15.9
930
70 21.2
18.0
1187
70 33.3
14.3
1262
71 30.8
16.9
1218
0.6
2.2
0.9
121

Check var. Yezin 10 in monsoon season, Yezin 6 in post-monsonn season

Preliminary
yield trial ofof
Table2:
Performance
Yunnansoybeanvarieties
at Yezin
andandAungBanduringcoolcoolseason,Table 2.
Performance
Yunnansoybeanvarieties
at Yezin
AungBanduring2010 As season,2010 yield trial, field experiments were conducted at Food Legumes
a preliminary

Yezin
AungbanSection, Yezin and Aungban Agricultural
Research Farm during cool season,
2010. Results
Days
Pods
100Days Pods
100Variety
Yield
Yield
showed that highest yieldby Diancanga 2 (739 kg/ha)
to was recorded
perseed
to withpersuperiority
seed (14%)(kg/ha)(kg/ha)plant
wt.(Table(g) 2). At Aungban
maturityplant Researchwt. (g) Farm,over check varietymaturity
Yezin 6 (648kg/ha)
Agricultural
Diancanga 2
80
10
14.8
739
101
33
20.3
1096
highestyield
Diancanga
Zhongpin
661was recorded
72 by Yezin
7 6 (1121
13.2 kg/ha),457followed by92
29 2 (109619.0kg/ha).980
The
promising variety
Dianresults
86-5 showed that78Diancanga
6 2 variety
11.9 was 357
97 during
32 the cool
24.3season.797
Dian
86-4
72
5
13.5
340
95
25
20.3
According to this study, Yunnan soybean varieties were observed well performed at
Aungban731
Daunfeng
72
7
15.2
531
89
29
20.7
623
Research Farm because its location is at highland of Shan State.
Check var.
80
9
13.8
648
104
31
18.0
1121
Mean
76
7
13.7
512
96
30
20.4
891
SE
1.7
0.8
0.5
65.1
2.3
1.2
0.9
83.5
Check var. Yezin 6 at Yezin and Aungban

Advanced yieldtrialcompared to monsoon season. Moreover, the more pod numbers
monsoonseasonThe Yunnansoybean varieties
were sown
advancedthat
yieldYunnan
trial at Yezin
and from
were observedin post-monsoon
season.
This inindicatedsoybean
Aungban during
monsoonseason,produced
2011. In these
Yunnan grownsoybean invarieties
were
subtropicalhighlandclimatemoretrials,
pods10during
post-monsoon
comparedwith environment.
checks variety (Yezin 6) in randomized complete block design with 3
seasonof Yezin
replications.

Although there were significantly differences in yield components, noPreliminary
Yield Trialsignificant difference
was in yield. Results showed that highest yield was recorded by
AsDaunfeng
a preliminary
yield
trial,byfield
experiments
wereat conductedat Food
Legumes(900 kg/ha),followed
Diancanga
2 (835 kg/ha)
Yezin (Table 3).
At Aungban
Section,Yezin
and
AungbanAgricultural
Research
Farmduringcoolseason,Research Farm, Dian 86-4 (928 kg/ha), Daunfeng (863 kg/ha), and Zhongpin 661(863 kg/ha)2010.
Results
spoke ofthe highest
yieldas asrecordedmore
by Diancanga
2 (739were observed
as promisingvarieties
significantly
yield than Yezin
6 (549kg/ha)
kg/ha) withsuperiority(14%) over check variety Yezin 6 (648 kg/ha) (Table 2). At Aungban(Table 3). The results indicated that new Yunnan soybean varieties (YN-V1, YN-V2, YN-S9,
Agricultural Research Farm, highest yield was recorded by Yezin 6 (1121 kg/ha),
YN-S10, and YN-S11) were not performing well in Aungban environments.
followed by Diancanga 2 (1096 kg/ha). The results also added that Diancanga 2 variety was a promising variety during the cool season. By this study, Yunnan soybean
Regional yield trial

Regional yield trials of high yielding Yunnan soybean variety were conducted at
Yezin and Aungban Research Farm in monsoon season, 2012 and Taryaw and Kengtung
Research Farm in monsoon season, 2013. There were significantly differences in yield andhighest yield (1712 kg/ha), followed by Srisamrong 1 (1647 kg/ha) (Table 5). At Kengtung
Research Farm, Yezin 3 gave the highest
yield
(1494
kg/ha), followed
Dian 86-5(1364 115
Soybean
Crop
Improvementin Hillyby
Regionof Myanmar
kg/ha) (Table 5).

Table3:
Advanced
yield
trial
of of
Yunnansoybeanvarieties
at at
Yezin
and
AungbanTable 3.
Advanced
yield
trial
Yunnansoybeanvarieties
Yezin
and
Aungbanmonsoon season,
during 2011
monsoon season, 2011
Variety
Diancanga 2
Zhongpin 661
Dian 86-5
Dian 86-4
Daunfeng
YN-V1
YN-V2
YN-S9
YN-S11YN-S10Yezin 6 (ck)F testLSD(0.05)

Days
tomaturity
78
79
80
73
81
74
73
88
73
85
74
**
4.7

Yezin
Pods
100Yieldperseeds(kg/ha)plant
wt.(g)
17
20.2
835
19
18.3
609
30
15.7
710
12
18.6
473
19
18.9
900
16
13.1
548
11
17.1
722
12
23.8
639
12
18.6
573
10
20.3
399
17
14.3
731
**
**
ns
5.2
2.7
135.5

duringAungbanDays Pods 100Yieldtoper seeds(kg/ha)maturity plant wt.(g)
82
25
15.0
637
78
18
19.3
863
79
24
21.3
710
79
21
16.7
928
89
24
19.7
863

74
101
**
10.3

8
35
**
9.2

23.7
15.7
**
3.6

161
549
ns
299.1

Check var. Yezin 6 at Yezin and Aungban

According to Board et al. (1997) soybean yield is basically determined by seed size(grams perseed) andseed
number (number
per square
meter). Farm
Seed number
varieties
were100
observed
well
performed
at Aungban
Research
becauseisof its
determined
seed per pod(number)and pod number (number per square meter) and pod
locationis atbyhighlandof ShanState.
number can be influenced by pod per reproductive node (number), reproductive node number

Advanced
Yield
Trial
(number per
squaremeter), percent nodes becoming reproductive (percent) and node number
The
Yunnansoybeanvarieties
inthe
advanced
trial atinYezin
andAung(number per square meter).
In thiswere
study,sown
none ofcultivars yield
was superior
all grainyieldbanduring monsoon
In orthese
Yunnan soybean
varieties
components.
They wereseason,
varied 2011.
from one
few trials,
superior10components
on the one
side to werecomparedchecksvarietyin Hence,
randomized
block
designmedium orwith
inferior
componentson(Yezin
the other6)
side.
the levelcompleteof grain yield
was resultof with
3 replications.
Although there were significant differences in yield components, no
combinations of grain yield components and harvested plants per unit area (data not shown).
significant difference was in yield. Results showed that highest yield was recorded
Moreover, maturity days were varied depend on sowing date and altitude of tested area.
by Daunfeng (900 kg/ha), followed by Diancanga 2 (835 kg/ha) at Yezin (Table 3).
Results showed that maturity days of the tested variety were shorter in Yezin compared with
At Aungban Research Farm, Dian 86-4 (928 kg/ha), Daunfeng (863 kg/ha), andthe results of other tested locations. It was due to Yezin is at lower latitude and altitude.
Zhongpin 661(863 kg/ha) were observed as promising varieties as significantly more
yield than Yezin 6 (549 kg/ha) (Table 3). The results indicated that new Yunnansoybean varieties (YN-V1, YN-V2, YN-S9, YN-S10, and YN-S11) were not suiting
well in Aungban environments.
Regional Yield Trial
Regional yield trials of high yielding Yunnan soybean variety were made at Yezin
and Aungban Research Farm in monsoon season, 2012 and Taryaw and Kengtung
Research Farm in monsoon season, 2013. There were remarkable differences in yieldand yield components at Yezin and Aungban Research Farm. At Yezin, highest yield

116 Mar Mar Win , Myat Nwe Nwe and Tun Shwe

Table4:
soybean varieties
varieties during
during monsoon
monsoonTable 4.Regional
Regionalyield
yieldtrials
trialsofof Yunnan
Yunnan highhigh yielding
yielding soybean
season,2012
season,2012
Table 4. Regional yield trials of Yunnan high yielding soybean varieties during monsoon
Yezin
Pods
Yezin 100
Variety
Yield
per
seed
Pods
100
(kg/ha)Variety
Yield
plant
per wt.(g)seed(kg/ha)Daepung20
13.0
702
plant wt.(g)Diancanga 2
24
12.6
1284
Daepung
20
13.0
702
Dian
86-5
22
14.4
1486
Diancanga 2
24
12.6
1284
Zhongpin
16
14.6
848
Dian 86-5 661
22
14.4
1486
YN-V1
9
17.2
549
Zhongpin 661
16
14.6
848
YN-V2
19
16.4
1179
YN-V1
9
17.2
549
Check var.
31
14.3
912
YN-V2
19
16.4
1179
F test var.
**
**
**
Check
31
14.3
912
LSD
13.2
1.8
444
(0.05)
F test
**
**
**
Check
var. Yezin 6 at Yezin,
sein at Aungban
LSD(0.05)
4.9Shan13.2
1.8
444
season, 2012

Days
to
Days
maturity
to79
maturity
78
79
84
78
78
84
86
78
89
86
81
89
**
81
4.9
**

Days
to
Days
maturity
to87
maturity
107
87
105
107
89
105
94
89
103
94
97
103
**
97
3.3
**
3.3

Aungban
Pods
Aungban100 Yield
per
seed
Pods
100 (kg/ha)
Yield
plant
per wt.(g)seed(kg/ha)12
18.3
509
plant wt.(g)
19
22.3
775
12
18.3
509
14
24.3
743
19
22.3
775
17
20.3
670
14
24.3
743
14
25.0
743
17
20.3
670
15
11.7
105
14
25.0
743
22
23.7
686
15
11.7
105
**
*
22*
23.7
686
13.5*
2.6
363
**
*
13.5
2.6
363

Check var. Yezin 6 at Yezin, Shan sein at Aungban

Table 5. Regional yield trials of Yunnan high yielding soybean varieties during

monsoonseason,2013
Table5:yieldtrialsof Yunnanhigh highyieldingsoybeanvarieties
duringduring
monsoonTable 5.Regional
Regional
yield
trialsof Yunnanyieldingsoybeanvarieties
season, 2013
KengTungmonsoon season, 2013Taryaw
Pods
Taryaw 100Yield
per
seed
Pods
100(kg/ha)
Variety
Yield
plantwt.(g)
perseed
Dian 86-5
51
22.8 (kg/ha)
1550
plant
wt.(g)
Diancanga
74
17.3
1712
Dian
86-5 251
22.8
1550
Srisamrong21
41
20.2
1647
Diancanga
74
17.3
1712
Yezin 3
59
14.0
1413
Srisamrong
1
41
20.2
1647
Check 3var.
77
21.1
1510
Yezin
59
14.0
1413
F test var.
ns
**
ns
Check
92
77
21.1
1510
LSD
28.0
1.5
331
F
test(0.05)
ns
**
ns
Check
var. Shan war Lone Gyi at Taryaw,
LSD(0.05)
28.0 Shan sein
1.5at Kengtung
331
Variety

Days
to
Days
maturity
to97
maturity
101
97
101
101
88
101
92
88

Pods
Days toKengTung
Yield
per
Pods
maturity(kg/ha)Days to
Yield
pods
per
maturity
113
27 (kg/ha)
1364
pods
21
977
113
27
1364
108
25
1284
113
21
977
113
30
1494
108
25
1284
110
20
880
113
30
1494
ns
ns
110
20
880
11.7
573
ns
ns
11.7
573

Check var. Shan war Lone Gyi at Taryaw, Shan sein at Kengtung

Demonstration plot
Demonstrationplot
The demonstration
yield trials were conducted during the monsoon season, 2014. The
The
demonstration
yield
trialsconducted
thesoybean
monsoonseason,2014.
The
promisingvarieties
of YunnansoybeanDiancanga
2during
and
Dian
86-5
were
compared
withTable6:
Demonstration
yield
ofwereYunnanhighyielding
varieties
duringTable 6.
Demonstration
yieldtrials
trialsof
Yunnanhighyieldingsoybeanvarieties
duringmonsoonseason,2014
monsoonseason,2014
promisingvarieties
of YunnansoybeanDiancanga
2 and Dian
86-5 werecompared
withlocal variety
at different
locations.
Diancanga
2 was observed
as adaptablevarietywith good

Yield (kg/ha)
Stability
local
variety
at different
locations.
Diancanga
observed
as adaptable
with
yield
at Yezin,
Loikaw and
Aungbanlocations2 was(Figure2). Dian86-5 was variety
observed
as goodhighGenotypes
value
Yezin
Loikaw
Kengtung
Aungban
Mean
yield
at
Yezin,
Loikaw
and
Aungbanlocations(Figure
2).
Dian
86-5
was
observedasyielding variety at Loikaw. These results were in line with INTSOY Newsletter (1980) highthat
Diancanga 2
1671
3028
484
2834
2004
1.0
yielding
varietyatLoikaw.
These
results
were
in
line
with
INTSOY
Newsletter(1980)
that
indicatedin temperateprovide large
underDian 86-5the cultivars
1388developed
4037
565 zones can
2761
2188 yield 1.3
indicated
cultivars
incanprovide thanlarge
yield 0.6
under
Check var.theconditions
1155
2269
727 zones
2059
1553
experimental
indeveloped
the tropics
andtemperate
subtropics
and widely
adaptedexpected.
Mean
1405
3111and subtropics
592 and widely
2551
experimental
conditionsin the tropics
adapted than expected.
Ckeck var. Yezin 3 at Yezin and Shan Sein at Loikaw, Kengtung and Aungban

Conclusion
The results of these experiments revealed that the yields of soybean varieties were varied
significantly in different growing season of Yezin and Aungban environment and monsoon
season of Taryaw, Kengtung and Loikaw. Based on these results, it can be concluded that
Diancanga 2 was the most suitable variety with stable yield for different environments ofYezin and Aungban. Dian 86-5 was also promising variety for Kengtung and Loikaw

Soybean Crop Improvement in Hilly Region of Myanmar 117

Figure2: Pod filling stage of Diancanga 2

was recorded by Dian 86-5 (1486 kg/ha), followed by Diancanga 2 (1284 kg/ha).
At Aungban Research Farm, these varieties were marked as high yielding varieties
compared to local check variety (Table 4). At Taryaw and Kengtung Research Farm,no significant differences were observed in yield and yield components. At Taryaw,
Diancanga 2 gave the highest yield (1712 kg/ha), followed by Srisamrong 1 (1647
kg/ha) (Table 5). At Kengtung Research Farm, Yezin 3 gave the highest yield (1494
kg/ha), followed by Dian 86-5 (1364 kg/ha) (Table 5).
According to Board et al. (1997) soybean yield is basically determined by seedsize (grams per 100 seed) and seed number (number per square meter). Seed number
is determined by seed per pod (number) and pod number (number per square meter)and pod number can be influenced by pod per reproductive node (number), reproductive node number (number per square meter), percent nodes becoming reproductive (percent) and node number (number per square meter). In this study, noneof the cultivars was superior in all grain yield components. They varied from one or
few superior components on the one side to medium or inferior components on theother side. Hence, the level of grain yield was in fact combinations of grain yieldcomponents and harvested plants per unit area (data not shown). Moreover, maturity days were varied depending on sowing date and altitude of tested area. Results
showed that the maturity days of the tested variety were shorter in Yezin comparedto other tested locations. It was due to Yezin is at lower latitude and altitude.

118 Mar Mar Win , Myat Nwe Nwe and Tun Shwe

Demonstration Plot
The demonstration yield trials were conducted during the monsoon season, 2014.
The promising varieties of Yunnan soybean- Diancanga 2 and Dian 86-5 were compared to local variety at different locations. Diancanga 2 was observed as adaptablevariety with good yield at Yezin, Loikaw and Aungban locations (Figure 2). Dian
86-5 was taken into account as high yielding variety at Loikaw. These results werein line with INTSOY Newsletter (1980) that indicated the cultivars developed intemperate zones can provide large yield under experimental conditions in the tropics
and subtropics and widely adapted than expected.
Conclusion
The results of these experiments revealed that the yields of soybean varieties varied
significantly in different growing season of Yezin and Aungban environment andmonsoon season of Taryaw, Kengtung and Loikaw. By these results, it is concluded
that Diancanga 2 was the most suitable variety with stable yield for different environments of Yezin and Aungban. Dian 86-5 was also promising variety for Kengtung and Loikaw environments. These varieties had early maturity and had large
seed size of good grain quality. Therefore, with the introduction of Diancanga 2, thearea under soybean will also expand resulting in a high soybean production.
REFERENCES
Board, J. E., M. S. Kang, and B. G. Harville. 1997. Path analyses identify indirect
selection criteria for yield of late-planted soybean. Crop Sci. 37: 879-884.
Hulse, J.H. 1996. Soybeans: Biodiversity and nutritional quality. In: The 2nd International Soybean Processing and Utilization Conference. Ministry of Agriculture
and Cooperative, Bangkok, Thailand. 1-13.
INTSOY Newsletter (1980). INTSOY research highlight on history of soy in Southeast
Asia: Soybean genetic improvement program. No. 20. p. 1-2, Feb.
MOAI (Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation). 2014. Myanmar Agriculture at a
Glance. Department of Agricultural Planning, Ministry of Agriculture andIrrigation.

119

Traditional Homestead Managementin Floodplain Bangladesh
Keiko Yoshino

Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Tokyo University of Agriculture(Mail: yoshkk@gmail.com)
ABSTRACTThis paper discusses the traditional homestead management performed inrural floodplain Bangladesh. Homesteads provided the living base throughout the year protecting inhabitants from windows and flooding. Homesteads were constructed by double mounding, and continuous maintenance
was needed. By mounding soil, various plants and livestock could be kept.
Homestead was the man-made subsistence forest garden. In homesteads,
communal function such as mutual help existed based on non-monetaryactivities. The subsistence nature of homestead production enabled suchsocial networks, and women have been the important actors in homestead
management.
Key Words: Bangladesh, floodplain, homestead, subsistence, man-madeforest, women

INTRODUCTION
Bangladesh is located on the estuary of three huge international rivers; the Ganges,
the Brahumaputra, and the Meghuna. In the active floodplain where land is inundated under the water in rainy season, people raise the land to get secure place frominundation as homestead. Homestead in Bangladesh is called bari, or barir-bhiti.
Bari means “the place to live on”, and bhiti means “raised place”. The place where wasraised to live on is barir bhiti. In the raised homestead, various plants are grown, andvarious livestock is kept. Homestead used to be made up by tremendous manual labor, but these days, situation changed. The occurrence and the degree of floods havedecreased because of embankments construction and the change of water flow fromupper stream (the change of water use and also the change of climate). In addition,
machineries have come to be used for the construction of homesteads.

120 Keiko Yoshino

Plate1: Homestead from the sky (in 1994.7)(Plate by author)

Plate2: Homesteads like islands (in 1994.7)(Plate by author)

This paper focuses on the traditional homestead management in active floodplain in Bangladesh performed by the 1990’s, in which local people’s deep understanding of surrounding nature and devices to maintain their basic livelihood can berealized.
Research village and the basic structure of homestead
Dakshin Chamuria village (D village hereinafter) in Tangail district, located in theactive Jamuna floodplain is the research village (Figure 1). D village is inundated inrainy season, and to get safe homestead, mounding is needed.
Before around the end of twenty century since when the cycle of floods
changed and flooding became seldom, fields inundation used to start in June when
the rainy season set off, and in August, the water level reached the peak which ranges
one to three meter depth. Then the water level decreased gradually, and when the dry
season came in November, the flood disappeared. Homestead in D village had beenformulated on the point bars where the land is relatively high. Homesteads wereconstructed by raising the land. Basically homesteads were constructed by making
use of natural micro topography, and offered villagers with the place free from inundation in rainy season, and living base where people could walk freely.
D village is composed of four hamlets (para); north, middle, east and south
paras. In a para, there are several chaklas (cluster of homesteads adjoining one eachother) where one can move without any vehicles even in flooded season. One chakla
in the middlle para was selected as the sample chakla (Figure 2). The total numberof households increased from 538 in 1992 to 627 in 2006. In 1992, there were 206
households (khanas) (38% of total households) that had no farmland but there were
only 21households (4%) that did not own homestead.
Figure3 is the layout of sample chakla. The typical components of homestead
are, from the south to the north, “Kachar/dhar” (slope), palan (inner garden): ‘uthan’Traditional Homestead Management 121

Figure1: Location of D village(source by Yoshino, 2009)

Figure2: Distribution of homesteads in D
village in 1990

(Source: Topographical data from Ando et al. 1990)

Figure3: Layout of sample chakla in D village in 1992
(source by Yoshino, 2009)(middle yard), ‘jongol’ (backyard) and ‘doba’ (ditch). The position of each component
was decided by considering both protection from the north-west monsoon during
the winter season and the flow of floodwater also from the north-west.
Here were 19 households of four patrilineal groups in 1992 in Figure 3. Eachhousehold had distinct border of its homestead. As mentioned before, homestead israised several meters higher than fields, and the place from where the soil was dug

122 Keiko Yoshino

Figure4: Typical structure of homestead in D village(source by Yoshino, 2009)

Plate 3: slope (Kachar) covered Plate 4: Taro on the upper partwith climbing vegetables (in of kachar (in 1989.1)
1994.)

Plate 5: Inner part of homestead(in 1989.1)
Plate 6: Homestead is the place Plate 7: Various work is done infor livestock raising (in 1994.1) homestead (in 1988.12)

Plate 8: Coppice and ditch from Plate 9: Ditch. boat is sunk dur- Plate 10: Fishing in the pond
the north side (in 1993.2)
ing dry season (in 1993.2)(in1988.12)(Plates by author)

Traditional Homestead Management 123

becomes the hole, and water gathers there. This water ditch is called doba or pagar
distinguished by pukur that means ponds.
The slope from homestead to the fields (khet in Bengali) is called kachar or
dhar. Slope is sunny but inundation prone space, and used for winter vegetable (dryseason) growing. In winter season, slope used to be covered with climbing vegetables(Plate 3).
There is a small patch of cultivated land in-between slope and fields. This landis called palan, and used in different way (seedbeds and vegetable & spice growingetc.) from fields. Palan will be the part of homestead when it is expanded in the
future, and usually, the owner of the homestead owns the adjacent palan as well. Gardens in homestead are also called palan. Palan used to mean “garden” formerly, but
this word has expanded its meaning these days, and “the land around the homestead”
has come to be called palan. Homestead and palan were regarded as the territory
within where women could move by their own customarily.
Uthan (middle yard) is not only a place for daily living but for production,in particular, for growing vegetables fruit trees, and raising livestock such as cattle, goats, chicken, geese, and pigeons. Since it had not been thought of to be thegood manner for women to move outside freely, yard was the only place where adultwomen could move freely (Plates 5,6,7).
Jongol (coppice) in D village had danger to be inundated since it is lower
than yard. Coppice is covered with denser vegetation and maintained with less carethan other components. Coppice provided wood for timber and fuel, and also othermaterials such as fiber, oil, medicine and so forth (Plate 8). It was also the place forexcretion and storage of ash and fallen leaves as organic matter, too. Since homesteadin D village is constructed on the naked land, every plant in homestead is the resultof selection by the inhabitants although it seems like a weed.
Water reservoirs such as tank and ditches are used for fishing, bathing, andwashing clothes. Ditches used to be the place for the processing of jute, too. Fishculture in ponds attracted villagers because of its high profit.
To Have Own Homestead
When one constructed a new homestead, he needed to prepare the land both forhomestead and for digging soil for mounting. He had to prepare the expense forhiring digging labor, too. For the construction of new homestead, it was generally
thought that it costed two thousand taka (one taka was equivalent to about 3 yen in
June, 1994. The average wage of day laborer was 20 taka) per one decimal to manage
the expense for buying land and hiring the labor. Making new homestead meant theloss of cultivated land, on the other hand. Because of the importance of homestead124 Keiko Yoshino

Plate 11: homestead mounding Plate 12: mounded homestead Plate 13: recently, homestead canby soil digging expert group (in (in 1993)
be mounded by soil vacuumed
1993.12)from nearby river (in 2014.3)

P late 14: Newly constructed Plate 15: Started to live one Plate 16: Ten months after thehomestead. Banana seedlings are month after the construction. construction. Bananas madebeing planted (in1993.2)
Bananas are growing. (in 1993.3) clump. (in 1993.12)(Plates by author)

as the living space and such expense for the construction of new one, there arose
conflicts about the ownership of homestead frequently.
New settlements were made on such places as land near former homestead,higher land in the village, or road side for the convenient for transportation. Usually
several households lived on the same land, making a cluster. The cluster was not necessarily composed by relatives because new homestead was often made adjacently toexisting homestead for the security and the convenience of the daily life even if they
were not relatives. Each cluster has a name such as “master bari” (“master” means“school teacher”), “choker bari” (“choker” means “of the field”), characterizing the inhabitants or the location of each cluster.
To have own homestead is the primary condition to live in the village as amember, and villagers struggled for the acquisition of own homestead. When one
constructed homestead in floodplain, he had to be careful enough so as not to be
his homestead broken by flood flow. Thus when constructing new homestead, plants
were planted before moving to new homestead to fasten the soil. Forty three species
were observed to be planted at the time of construction of new homestead from interview to twenty newly constructed (within five years) homestead owners. Bananas
and jiga (Lannea coromandelica）were mostly planted at the construction of new
homestead, and both were planted before the move or at the time of move. Banana

Traditional Homestead Management 125

Plate 17: Clayey soil were be- Plate 18: Homestead border is Plate 19: Base of building is
ing dug from the base of ditch mounded prevent the flow of maintained regularly with care by
to maintain homestead floor. (in rain water from adjacent house- women. (in 2007.3)
2007.3)hold. (in 1993.5)(Plates by author)

grows first, and the early harvest could be expected. In addition, local variety withseeds is regarded to be tolerant with water inundation to some extent, and suitable
for soil fastening. Jiga can also survive under the water, and can be propagated easily by cutting and revives from the root. With such strength, jiga had been used asborder tree of homestead. Besides banana and jiga, important fruit trees like mango,
jackfruits, and useful plant like bamboos, and the plants for fastening the soil like
Saccharum spontaneum and Ipomoea fistulosa were planted.
Villagers make up their own small forests in homestead. New homestead ispoor in vegetation, but the soil is fertile. With fewer plants, it is sunny place, too.
Thus the vegetable planting before moving was thought to be preferable. Among
research households, pumpkin, potato, tomato, and egg plant were planted before
move. If one had time to move, it was preferable to wait for the soil to become firmby planting trees and growing vegetables one to two years before moving. In particular, taro and turmeric were said to grow well.
Homestead construction does not end at once. Homestead was damaged byflood water every year, and sometimes inundated. At the time of severe flood in 1988,
even homesteads that had existed since British period were inundated as shown infigure 5. After the flood was gone, inhabitants raised their homestead again. The
regular showers in rainy season also do harm the surface of homestead and earthenbuilding. The yard and the base of the buildings are regularly maintained by women.
When the surface soil was washed away and the sand came to stand out, inhabitant thought that the homestead was at the danger to be broken. It also meant thedecrease of soil fertility. To avoid the break down, villagers provided muddy soils
from the bottom of the ditch. Soil of the bottom of ditch is clayey, and has power
to fasten. Surface soil of homestead was gathered to the surrounding ditches, and itmeans regenerating the fertility.
To be able to expand the homestead, and to be able to get soil, neighboring126 Keiko Yoshino

Figure 5: Expansion and inundation of homestead by flood in 1988 in D village(source by Yoshino, 2009)

land was preferable to be owned by the inhabitant. Figure5 shows the owners, andit indicates that the homestead owners owned the neighboring land, too. In the adjacent garden (palan), women gathered cooking refuge, and gathered rubbish calledjhadu by sweeping homestead. Jhadu contains excrete of livestock and cooking rubbish, it is fertile.
Homestead as Production Base
Having been free from submersion by flood, homestead enabled plants to growthroughout the year, and it provided the only place for growing perennial plants andraising animals. Cattle, goats, chickens, geese, pigeons are kept in case households.
With regards to plantation, we found 126 species in homesteads in 1992.
Homestead was also the main growing place for vegetables as daily food material.
In homestead, various traditional vegetables called torkari, were grown by women.
Climbing species such as bottle gourd, pumpkin, and legumes like country beans,
cow pea, and sword beans were planted.
All the usage by the plants observed in homestead was summarized into 13
usages (food material, medicine for human beings, fodder or medicine for livestock,timber and tool material, fuel, earth retaining, fence, hide for fish, play and ornament, and so forth). In homesteads in D villages, one plant was used for 2.5 usages
on average. Perennial plants were used more diverse (2.8 usage on average) than annual plants (1.8 usage on average).
Picking up the plants that were used for multipurpose, six usages was mostTraditional Homestead Management 127

Figure 6: Homestead as production base(source by Yoshino, 2009)

diverse observed on local banana, five usages on jackfruits, marmelo, tamarind, shobribanana and Aphanamixis polystachya. four usages on mango, jujube, date sugar palm,
coconuts, Bengal persimmon, bottle gourd, Litsea monopetala, Phyllanthus reticulatus, and Barringtonia acutangula. Vegetables were used only for limited purpose, butbottle gourd was used for multipurpose. Those plants, except for shobri banana andcoconut, existed for generations in D village, and very common plants. Among such
multipurpose plants, there were plants which no commercial value was found arecontained. The usages of these plants were explored for generations to suffice theeveryday needs in the life rather than commercial purpose.
The richness in species in homestead was outstanding compared to the otherproduction area like fields (khet) and gardens (palan) (Figure 6). Homestead was
expected to serve as the comfortable place to live, and to be the supplier of daily
various needs why the production in homestead was so diverse. Homestead in D village is the artificial place made by the inhabitant, and only the place where perennial
plants can grow. With limited space, planted plants or plant that were not removed
are expected multiple roles from all the part of the plant.
The will of villagers to live on the floodplain and the wisdom and devices

128 Keiko Yoshino

fostered for generations formulated the present status of homestead plant utilization
which tried to make full use of all the parts of plants. The medicinal use typicallyshows inhabitants’ attitudes. To make full use of plants, to live with plants, this is thebasic and typical characteristics of the plant utilization in flood plain in Bangladesh.
Women’s Society Based on the Homestead
In Bangladesh, most women marry in the husband’s homestead. They used to stay inhomestead except for visiting father’s bari once or twice a year by1990’s. They visitedneighboring houses, but it was few to go farther. When some accident happened in
the village, they used to stand at the upper part in homestead to see what was happening. Just the resource poor households who could not manage their own resources by their own or purchasing, women went out from homestead to get food and fuelsources such as fallen cow dung, left over of rice straw, wild vegetables and so forth.
They also worked out for helping postharvest work to get by products as reward。
On the other hand, men stayed outside for many hours. In addition to farming
and other jobs, they gathered at tea stalls or groceries for conversation in the evening.
Marketing at the bazaar was also men’s work. Through conversation, they got new
information. Prayer in the Mosque, village gathering participation were also men’s
activities. Wives knew the topics in village/hamlet gathering through husbands,
neighbors and those who visited their homestead.
In the 1990’s, there were few households that owned TV, and at night, manyneighbors regardless the sex or age would gathered to the TV owner’s house andwould enjoy the dramas together. At the chilly night in winter season, the voices of
conversation would be heard around the cooking stove until late among neighboring
women and men who could not sleep well by the coldness.
It is generally said that women’s activity area expanded by the penetration ofmarket economy. Since around 1990, various NGOs started activities in D village
and offered various chances to go outside the village. But rural women’s activities
kept quite unchanged in general, and activities were still performed based on homestead.
Figure 6 shows the acquisition routes of plant resources and the sharing of use
of facilities of tube well and dhenki（threshing pedal）. There were four patrilinealgroups (A-D&P, E&F, J&K, L-N)
Tube wells and threshing pedals were privately owned, and not all possessed
although they were necessary to live in the village. Tube well sand threshing pedals were mostly used by women. You can see that tube well and threshing pedal
were commonly shared among neighbors. It was not the matter on which patrilinealgroup the household belongs to. Rather, the performance of each facility was prioritized, and there was no question for hiring.

Traditional Homestead Management 129

Figure 7: The routes of pant resource, and the communal use of homestead facilities(source by Yoshino, 2009)

With regards to the plant resource acquisition routes, the thickness of the linereflects the amount of move of the resources. Women got more ratios within chakla
than men. Those women who got resources from outside chakla was the widowed
woman, aged women and unmarried daughters, who were allowed relatively freemovement. As the suppliers of plant resources, Family E and Family L were themajor suppliers. Their homesteads were wider and the plant diversity was higher.
CONCLUSION
Homesteads provided the living base throughout the year protecting inhabitantsfrom windows and flooding. Especially for homesteads in floodplain, the preparedness for the floods was needed. Traditionally, homesteads were constructed bydouble mounding preparing for flood, and also continuous maintenance was needed
to avoid collapse. By mounding their living base, inhabitants could move without
any vehicles even in flooded period, and working space was also secured. Since freemovement of women was not thought of to be good manner, homesteads was thealmost only place for women’s daily activities.
By mounding soil, various plants, especially for perennial plants, could grow,and also various livestock could be kept. Homestead was the man-made subsistence130 Keiko Yoshino

forest garden based on deep understanding of nature by local people fostered generations of interaction. Women were the main care takers of homestead, and providers of daily necessities from homestead production.
Homesteads are comprised of non-relative families, Communal function suchas mutual help existed based on non-monetary activities. The subsistence nature ofhomestead production enabled such social networks.
REFERENCES
Ando K. Tanaka K., Keshav R, and Mukai S., 1990, Cropping Patterns in Lower
Bengal Delta, South East Asian Studies (28)3:286-301. (in Japanese)
Kaida Y. (ed), 2003, Action Research Study on Rural Development in Bangladesh,
The Commons, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Yoshino K., 2013, Homesteads and Indigenous Knowledge, Kyoto University Press,
Kyoto.(in Japanese)
Yoshino K., 2009. Homestead Plantation in Bangladesh, Kyoto University (dissertation, in Japanese).

131Workshop on reduction of severe wind damages in Bangladesh
Yusuke Yamane

Faculty of education, Tokoha University, Shizuoka, JAPAN(Mail:yamane@sz.tokoha-u.ac.jp)
ABSTRACTThis paper speaks of the outcome of workshop to minimise damage of severe local storm, such as tornado, in Bangladesh. The workshop was held
for local people in rural area in Bangladesh. The detailed of the workshop
enhances motivation for learning more about severe local storm with risk
reduction and perception. And, we noticed that it is necessary to include
visual material such as photograph and movie and practical exercise in the
program.
Key Words: severe local storm, workshop, damage reduction, Bangladesh

INTRODUCTION
Severe local storms, such as tornadoes, frequently occur in Bangladesh, and cause
damages almost every year. There are many severe local storms during the pre-monsoon season from March to May, peaking in April (Yamane et al., 2010a). Tornado
occurred in Mymensingh on 14 April 2004 and caused 66 deaths. Tornado occurredin Tangail on 13 May caused 700 deaths and 34105 injured.
Interview survey by local people was investigated to clarify actual situations ofdamages of severe local storms in Aug. 2009 and Aug. 2010.
We organized the workshop to enhance knowledge and skill of local people
for minimising damages of severe local storms. We attempt to promote knowledge,
skill and awareness of local people for disaster prevention through workshop in local area. This paper summarizes the results of questionnaires to participators in theworkshop.
Summary of the workshop conducted in the present
study
The place and date of workshop•
Kazir Shimla Government Primary School, Mymensingh, Bangladesh

132 Yusuke Yamane

23 August, 2015
Contents of the workshops•
Lecture on basic knowledge of severe local storms based on the results ofYamane et al. (2010a) and Yamane et al. (2013)•
Group discussion about proper behaviors when facing to severe local
storms in the following situations:» When you are in the present building» When you are in a vulnerable house common in rural areas in Bangladesh» When you are in a play ground•
Presentation of the summary of group discussion•
Information about participators» Number of participators:19 (Male:15 Female:4)» Job (Teacher:6 Agriculture:3 Business:3 Service:1 Journalist:1 Other:5)» Age (20-29:2 persons 30-39:2 persons 40-49:4 persons 50-59:5 persons 60-69:5 persons 70~:1 person)•

Result and discussion
The summaries of questionnaire are as follows:•
I want to know more about severe local storm and risk reduce skill.
•
This workshop is important and should be held regulary in other places
for involvement of more people.
•
I wanted to know more about technic to avoid damages of storms anddaily preparations.
Most of participators were satisfied with the workshop and could understandits utility. Almost all participators think this workshop should be held in the future.
While most of participators were interested in almost all contents of the workshop,
the number of participators who felt usefulness and importance counts a little.
Concluding remarks
It is necessary to come our program of workshop into great prominance in the future. This should be as follows:•
To suit the programs well and daily preparations to minimise damages.
•
To utilize more photographs and movies to grasp visually.
•
Use is made of practical exercises in workshop program.

Workshop on reduction of severe wind damages 133

REFERENCES
Y. Yamane, M. Kiguchi, T. Hayashi, A. M. Dewan and T. Terao, 2013: Characteristics of damages of severe local storms based on field surveys in Bangladesh,
Journal of Disaster Research, vol.8, No.6, 1052-1060.
Y. Yamane, T. Hayashi, A. M. Dewan and F. Akter, 2010: Severe local convective
storms in Bangladesh: Part 1. Climatology, Atmospheric Research, 95, 400-406.

135

Rural Development in Bhutan:
A case study of Chokhortoe Village
Jigme Norbu

Student, BA (Economics & Geography) Sherubtse College, Royal University of Bhutan(Mail: jigme999@gmail.com)
ABSTRACTA rural place in Bhutan provides space to more than 60% population of
Bhutan. Developing such area has a long term effect in mitigating some ofnational issues. This paper focuses on general scenario of rural developmentin Bhutan specifically concerning Chokhortoe village. Since there is no
study done specifically focusing on rural development in any rural area of
Bhutan, this paper is fully developed based on observation of the area over
the years. This study is done so as to provide platform to do comprehensive
and empirical study on the rural development. As for the objective of thestudy, it gives the general scenario of the Chokhortoe Village. Transitionin variables such as source of income and living standard are looked into tounderstand the developmental process. Potato and Corycep has provided
good source of income for people of Chokhortoe village. This has somehow saved the area from infecting with the issues of rural-urban migration
which is very interesting one. Upcoming development of very important
institution such as GNH Center is expected to further benefit the peopleof Chokhortoe in times of need.
Key Words: rural development, source of income, rural-urban migration,
future prospective

INTRODUCTION
With its more than 60% of population living in rural area, Bhutan has consideredpushing its priority in development of rural areas. The means of transportation is the
key factor to the development process the first constitutionally elected government
focused on connecting all the Gewogs with roads. Increased in accessibility has had
positive impact on the rural development in all the regions of Bhutan. Chokhortoe
a village in Bumthang Dzongkhag is one of the rural areas experiencing the influxof new development.

136 Jigme Norbu

Chokhortoe	
  Figure1: Geo view of proper chokhortoe village(Source: Google earth)

Bumthang one of the districts located centrally, have most of the dwellings
originated in the fertile plains along the river or streams. It is located on the southernslope of Himalayan ranges gives the impression of the snowy, misty tall and glistering peaks, lush forests, snaking rivers and limited human settlement scenario. The
spread of household were scattered in the valley of Chokhortoe with a distance ofa mile between households. The patrilineal and matrilineal inheritance system wasfollowed by the residents and there was increase of number of households aroundthe main settlement (Challis, n.d. & Costello, 1978). At that time the density of
population is very low where the tradition and culture had strong hold. The advancement in economic development increased the accessibility to the modern amenities
and the population density too (Chetri1, 2012).
There was a significant development in the chokhortoe village after 2008. Basic amenities such as road, electrification and telecommunication were introduced.
Therefore this paper does qualitative analysis on the development in terms of living
standards, challenges and future prospective of the Chokhortoe Village.
In order to find out the development level in the Chorkhortoe village, few
variables such as Source of income and living standard are evaluated based on observation.
Source of Income
Clustered settlements in Chokhortoe are generally located in the fertile land of valleys depending upon the agriculture activities. It allows the framers to cultivate varities of agriculture products. In early days most of the cultivation was done based on
subsistence farming. Farmers produce to consume constraining them from reliable
source of income. Later with the time of development different strategies were sort

Rural Development in Bhutan 137

Figure2: Farmers cultivating potato in Chokhortoe village(Source: Self-Captured)Figure3: Collection of Cordycep

to build solid source of income. Some of the primary source of income for the peopleof chorkhortoe are:Potato Cultivation
Potato is main cash crop cultivated by the villager towards the end of autumn system. This has made possible for the people to survive a whole year. Development oftechnology has also ease the farming activities and helped to increase its productivity
in double fold. The harvest was done and people sell that to earn enough income tosustain their families for a year. The harvest was mainly exported to India throughgovernment auction house.
CordycepToday the main source of income for the people of Chokhortoe is through collection

138 Jigme Norbu

of Cordycep. The legalization of its collection was done in 1998. Since then, people
fully depend their livelihood on collection of cordycep. It is regulated by government.
Living Standard
The living standard of the people of Chokhortoe was done by comparative study
considering the time period. The following vairables were studied based on observation.
Shelter
The first variable to study the living standard is shelter. The people at Chokhortoe
village have maintained the traditional design of buildings but the quality of materials were far better. The buildings were painted beautifully and the surroundings weremaintained very clean. The development in accessibility has brought in best modernmaterials to build reliable and clan shelter.
Cooking, Heating and Lighting
Cooking and lighting are also one of primary variables which determine the living standard of the people. In Chokhortoe village, there is a great transformationin case of source of energy for cooking and lighting. Previous the people fully rely
upon wood for all heating, cooking and lighting. Later the people started to using
solar panel gfor lighting which is being illegally imported from Tibet. With thedevelopment, rural electrification has been successfully completed. Electricity thenis used for heating, lighting and partially for cooking too. Majority use gasoline forthe purpose of cooking.
Challenges
Comparing other rural area in Bhutan Chokhortoe Village is not affected with many
problems. But the major challenge for people in the region is human-wildlife conflict. The wild boar and deer is still considered as major threat to the harvest of the
farmers in the village. The wild boar not only harms the crop cultivated in the fields
but also destroys the vegetables in the kitchen. However the government has plan tosecure the crops by electric fencing with the development.
Future Prospective
Chokhortoe has been blessed with variety medical herbs which have a high commercial value. Currently income in millions has been generated by residents of Chokhortoe through sale of Corpycep (ascomycete fungi) every year. Besides availabilityof abundant stock of cordycep in the mountains, discovery of new medicinal herb
every year of high commercial value makes the region prospective.

Rural Development in Bhutan 139

Figure4: Houses before (left) and current (Right)

Baeyul Dewaling Site (GNH center)	
  Figure5: Baeyul Dewaling site

(Source: Gross National Happiness)

Figure6: Wangchuk Centennial Park model(Source: WWF. Wangchuk Centennial Park)

Wangchuck Centennial was established on December 12, 2008 in honour of
the Wangchuck dynasty, founded in 1907. Establishment of the park office has attracted lots of tourist in the region. The ongoing construction of Park head office in
Nasephel is going to stimulate economic development in the region. In addition the
GNH Center is going to build Baeyul Dewaling, constituting colonnade center with
community and meditation center (Penjor, 2002 & Choden, 2012). It will attract
many people to learn and experience how to bring GNH values and practices fully
and thereby to serve one’s families, neighbors, and country at large with genuine purpose, compassion, joy, and effectiveness (BBS, 2007 & 2012). This is going to generate substantial revenue to the villagers of Chokhortoe in near future (BBS, 2012).
Conclusion
Summing up, rural development can be a crucial for the regional balance development in any country. It has very important role to play to mitigate rural-urban migration. There are so many rural places in Bhutan which faces serious issue of ruralurban migration abandoning the houses and field. Unlike others, Chokhortoe village

140 Jigme Norbu

as for now does not face the rural urban migration. It has seen increase in number ofhouses in the village every year.
Chokhortoe provides housing for a non-agrarian society, basic amenities have
moved in and some rural settlements have been turned into health and education institution and centers. The residents of Chokhotoe have gone through different stagesof transition in the way people earn for living. Fertile land with perennial flowing
water appears to be the suitable for harvest. Availability of variety of medicinal herb
and establishment of Baeyul Dewaling and Wangchuk Centennial Park made theregion a very prospective one. This transformation process has also added knowledge
on the cultural value of these historic sites. Every possible effort to prevent traditional assets from falling apart and preserve for coming generations can go along way
to keep rich tradition sustaining.
REFERENCES
Bhutan broadcasting Service (2007, December 17). Wangchuck Centennial Park inaugurated. Retrieved from http://www.bbs.com.bt/Wangchuck%20Centennial%20Park%20inaugurated.html
Bhutan broadcasting Service (2007, December 17). Construction of GNH centre delayed. http://www.bbs.bt/news/?p=18433
Challis, K., (n.d.) Settlement Morphology and Medieval Village Planning: A Case Studyat Laxton, Nottinghamshire. University of Birmingham, Birmingham
Chetri1, s., (2012, Julu 20). Bhutan’s GNH Center. The Bhutanese. Thimphu. Retreieved from http://www.thebhutanese.bt/bhutans-gnh-center/
Choden, S., (2012, May, 2). GNH Center Master Plan Changed, to be completed
next year. The Bhutanese. Thimphu. Retrieved from http://www.thebhutanese.
bt/gnh-center-master-plan-changed-to-be-completed-next-year/
Costello, V. F., (1978). The Morphology of Tehran: A Preliminary Study
Alexandrine Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23289157
Georgalli, M.C., (1991). The morphology of traditional dwellings within an insularcontext: Amorgos, Greece. Traditional Dwellings and Settlements Review, Vol.
2, No. 2 Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41757112 .
Gross National Happiness (2010). Retrieved from http://www.gnhbhutan.org/
World Wild Fund, (2011, March 23). Second nomads’ festival. Retrieved fromhttp://www.wwfbhutan.org/?199741/Second-Nomads-Festival

141

Transition of Man-made Landscape and Contemporary
Problems of Mountainous villages in Japan
Yoshio Akamatsu

Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University(akamatsu@cseas.kyoto-u.ac.jp)
ABSTRACTThis study speaks of the transition of rural landscapes with change of livelihoods based on two case studies in mountainous villages of Japan. It is said
that traditional rural landscape has been formed by long-term interaction
between human and nature, and these landscape are recognized as sourceof imagination and creativity. However, rural landscapes have drasticallychanged since the mid-twenty century with changing of people’s lifestyles.
Use of forests was concentrated on timber production to earn the money
and conifer plantations were spread out in the villages. At present, timber
production is facing serious depression and unmanaged plantations are increasing. Depopulation and aging of society also accelerate devastation ofrural landscape and new potential for revitalization and rural development
is limited with mono forest resources.
Key Words: rural landscape, transformation of livelihoods, conifer plantation

INTRODUCTION
The landscape surrounding rural village has been formed by long-term interaction
between human activities and nature. The landscape comprised of different kindsof environments, such as paddy fields, uplands, swidden fields, orchards, irrigation
ponds and channels, pristine forests and various succession stage of secondary forests. These complicated mosaic spatial structure caused by natural topography andhuman disturbances provides animals and plants with various different habitats andresult in existence of rich biodiversity and complex ecosystems in rural areas.
In Japan, residential area is usually surrounded by arable lands, secondary
forest comprised of deciduous broad-leaved trees, bamboo groves, grasslands andpristine forests. The tract of these secondary environments which were utilized bypeoples in supporting their lives is called satoyama and maintained by active and142 Yoshio Akamatsusustainable use of natural resources (GoJ, 2009). Secondary woodland consists ofmotley deciduous trees and shrubs are used for producing charcoals. Leaf litter iscollected especially from the woodland consist of Quercus acutissima, Q. serrata andQ. crispula for compost. Bamboo grove provides materials and food and grove itself
become an evacuation shelter of earthquake. Furthermore, rural landscape includes
satoyama have played important role on Japanese people in terms of deep emotional
attachment which calls for imagination and creativity (GoJ, 2009). However, rurallandscape and utilization of forest resources has changed with rural people’s lifestyles since the mid of twenty century.
Rural lifestyles and interrelationship between human and nature drasticallychanged especially during the period of high economic growth period from 1960s
to 1970s. Energy source for cooking and heating shifted from firewood and charcoal
to propane gas, electricity and petroleum oil. Use of chemical fertilizers instead ofcompost, pesticides and herbicides became popular and motive energy of agriculture
shifted from man and animal power to machines. To gain these convenient energy
sources and materials, Forest was commercialized on large scale and rural landscapes
have dramatically changed. This study aims at showing transition of rural landscapesand current situation and problems in mountainous village based on two case studies
in Japan.
STUDY AREA
Tsubayama village is located in Niyodogawa City, Kochi Prefecture and the population is 16 with 10 households in 2007. Tsubayama had attracted researchers by theirtraditional agricultural practice, swidden agriculture. Swidden agriculture had beenpracticed commonly in mountainous villages until the mid-twentieth century andTsubayama village was one of the last villages practicing swidden agriculture in Japan (Tanabe 2000). Sasari village is in Nantan City, Kyoto Prefecture and the population is 23 with 12 households in 2014. Two villages are surrounded by forests andmountains. Population of both villages show sharp drop after the mid of 1960s andidentified as genkai-shuraku now. Genkai-shuraku is defined as a community in which
the population of above sixty-five year old accounts for more than fifty percent of total population and facing difficulty to maintain cooperative community works suchas maintenance of community shrine, temple, irrigation channels, etc. The numberof communities identified as genkai-shuraku is 7,878 in 2006 and 10,091 in 2010 inJapan (MoIAC 2011).
Result and Discussion
Transition of Landscape in Tsubayama village
Residences of Tsubayama village are clustered on the mountainside and there isTransition of Man-made Landscape and Contemporary Problems of Mountainous villages 143

Figure1: Distribution of conifer plantation in 1960 and 2008
(land cover of conifer plantation in 1960 was refered to Fukui(1973))

no rice paddy. According to Fukui (1974), land use of the village is arranged in aconcentric pattern. Uplands and forests are arranged centrifugally from residential
area. Uplands surrounded residence is categorized into four types. Saenba is locatednearby residence and cultivated various vegetables through out the year. Maize, sorghum and other vegetables are cultivated in the upland located the outside of saenba,
called koyashi. Upland scattered in the fringe of the residential area is called imoji
and potato and wheat is cultivated without fertilizer. The forests for swidden agriculture, collection of firewood and leaf litter and producing charcoal extend outward.
Staple foods such as millets, buckwheat and beans were cultivated in swidden fields
and cropping pattern varied depending on topographical and micrometeorologicalconditions of the slopes (Fukui, 1974). In addition to food crops, oriental paperbush (Edgeworthia chrysantha) was also cultivated in the swidden as second year
crop. Oriental paperbush was started functioning on Kochi Prefecture in 1892 as acash crop and became an important income source for people living in mountainous
area. Oriental paperbush produce yellow flowers throughout the months of March
until April and the village was surrounded by beautiful scenery of fresh green leaves
and yellow flowers in the spring. However, cultivation of oriental paperbush faded
into the wallpaper because of depression and unstable market price since 1950s andtook a turning point with boom of conifer plantation. Timber of conifer trees, especially sugi (Cyptomeria japonica) and hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa), comes into great
prominance from ancient times in Japan. Demand and market price of timber was inrise year by year through postwar reconstruction and high economic growth period,

144 Yoshio Akamatsu

Photo1: Conifer trees planted in paddy fieldand people began to divert time and energy to plant conifer trees and expansion ofconifer plantation. The government policies also strongly emphasized the expansion of plantation. As a result, total 240 hectare of forests around the village wastransformed into conifer plantation from 1960 to 1970 in Tsubayama (Fukui 1974).
Increase of risk of burning vegetation with expansion of conifer plantation and job
opportunities, the size of swidden agriculture was shrunk year by year. According
to Tanabe (2000), the last swidden practiced in Tsubayama was in 1987. As villager
mentioned that conifer trees were planted in all available lands in the village, most of
secondary forests used for swidden and collection of natural resources were turned
into plantation and present village is covered with dark evergreen leaves of conifer
trees (Figure 1).
Transition of Landscape in Sasari village
Residences of Sasari are located at the foot of mountains and relatively scattered.
Kitchen garden is attached to homestead and main paddy fields readjusted in 1980s
are located in flat floors nearby residence. However, no small area of paddy fields isalso found along with rivers. Not only paddies but also bean was cultivated in theridge of paddy fields. Agricultural fields were fallowed in winter season due to heavy
snowfall. Swidden agriculture has not been practiced in Sasari, but forests surrounded the village provided daily essentials and job opportunities. Perennial herb, called
Kaya (Kaya is a Japanese generic term used to refer to Poaceae and Cyperaceae used
for roofing material or fodder) were collected annually from the place called kaya-ba
and stored in the attic for re-thatching or repairing the roof. The shrub, compriseof deciduous oak, acer and hornbeam, was called shiba-yama and played importantrole on agriculture. Coppicing stocks of these trees were cut by sickle and piled up inTransition of Man-made Landscape and Contemporary Problems of Mountainous villages 145

Photo2: Thatch roof farmer’s houses in Kita village

shiba-yama during autumn season. Dried stocks were carried down to home at theend of autumn and made compost mixed with cattle dung for distribute agricultural
fields in spring season. Almost all households raised two to three cattle for agriculture purpose or sale to buyers. Kaya-ba and shiba-yama were distributed behind ahouse and nearby agricultural fields, and girdle of trees around agricultural fields
took special care not to make a shadow over the fields. Most of forests around thevillage were community forests and managed based on community/village rules. For
example, village act for illegal logging of four useful species (Aesculus turbinate, Cercidiphyllum japonicum, Paulownia tomentosa and Morus bombycis) was implemented
in 1684 (Publication Committee of Chii Village History 1998). These community
forests were used by not only villager but also outsider including nomadic woodturners and charcoals and timbers were produced to export in Kyoto city.
In a high economic growth period (1960s-70s), timber production was commercialized on a large scale and many parts of community forests were turned into
conifer plantations. Paddy fields apart from residential area also transferred into conifer plantations (Photo 1). Thatched roof was regarded as a symbol of un-development and poor with modernization. Traditional roofs in the village were replacedwith tile or zinc roof and vegetation of some kaya-ba got changed from grasslands tosecondary forests. Shiba-yama also had less value with use of chemical fertilizer andreplaced with conifer plantation or turned into secondary forests.
Contemporary problems and changed rural landscape
Forestry in Japan is facing an alarming situation since 1980s due to increase of imported cheaper timber and materials and decrease of demands. Although matured
sugi trees over forty years old of stand age account for 68.6 percent in Tsubayama,

146 Yoshio Akamatsu

it has kept intact today because of money-losing forestry business. Unmanaged conifer plantations such as un-logging and pruning have also rise due to aging offorest workers and absence of the successor. Furthermore, progression of depopulation and aging of village population has accelerated devastation of rural landscapeincluding run-down empty houses and weed-covered abandoned fields. Kita village, located only 11 km apart from Sasari and traditional thatched roofing houses
and well-maintained rural landscape remained, has attracted many tourists fromurban and foreign countries today (Photo 2). The villager in Tsubayama mentionedthat if secondary or pristine forests had remained around the village, we could haveenjoyed the changing colors of autumn leaves and it might have attracted tourists
too. However, widespread mono vegetation and less cared landscape seem to limit
the new potential and opportunity to utilize rural resources along at the demand ofera. It is not appropriate to suggest keeping traditional lifestyle, but passing down
their knowledge and traditional way of life in rural villages might be important forreevaluate the living in rural village and getting hint of revitalization forward into
the future.
REFERENCES
GoJ., 2009, The Satoyama Initiative – A Vision for Sustainable Rural Societies in
Harmony with Nature, Ministry of Environment, Government of JapanMoIAC, 2011, Kaso-chiiki tou ni okeru syuuraku no joukyo ni kansuru genjohaaku-chosa(report on current situation of the villages facing depopulation problems),
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications
Fukui, K.., 1974, Yakihata no Mura (the village of swidden agriculture), asahi shinbun-sya.
Publication Committee of Chii Village History, 1998, Chii-son-shi (the history ofChii village),

147

Potential and Necessity of Establishment of Strong Academic
Collaboration among Myanmar, Bangladesh, Bhutan andJapan for Research and Higher Education
Kazuo Ando

Head, Department of Practice-orineted Area Studies, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto
University, Japan (E-mail:ando@cseas.kyoto-u.ac.jp)
ABSTRACTThis paper aims at discussing potential and necessity of establishment ofstrong academic collaboration among Myanmar, Bangladesh, Bhutan andJapan for research and higher education. Reason and purpose of learningand teaching in academism, advantage of Area studies as a discipline, real
understanding through field work, contemporary complicated problem in
Myanmar, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Japan, Advantage of linking among
Myanmar, Bhutan and Japan is discussed. In conclusion, practical way andhope of linking is illustrated.
Key Words: Myanmar, Bhutan, GNH, alternative development way of Myanmar, depopulation, abandoning farming, rural development

INTRODUCTION
This paper was originally presented as “How to apply action research for mutual
learning to research and higher education by inter-connection among Myanmar,
Bangladesh, Bhutan and Japan in the International Workshop on Environmental
Problem and Its Possible Mitigation for Sustainable Development, Date: 6, February,2016, Time:10:30-12:30, Place: Tonantei, Inamori Building 2F”. This workshop
has been collaboratively organized by the following research projects such as Kyoto
University SPIRITS Program: Mitigation Cyclone and Flood Damages in Myanmar: Applying the Bangladesh’s Successful Experience, ISS Hoga Project: Action
research on knowledge from experience and its practical use about disaster prevention and mitigation for natural disaster in Bangladesh: Application of Sustainability
Science to Area Studies, Program of Collaborative Research on Transitional Justiceand Inclusive Economic Development in Developing ASEAN Countries, and Challenging Exploratory Research Project of “Study of a Site-Specific Rural Development Model through Alternative Zaichi (existing locally) Cultural Formation” and148 Kazuo Ando

also we have conducted a series of workshops of the Kyoto University Program :Promotion of International Collaboration on Bioresources Management in Myanmar(PICBiRMa) headed by Professor Mamoru Kanzaki. In the Center for Southeast
Asian Studies, Kyoto University, the department of Practice-oriented Area Studies
has participated in these projects for implementation. A series of workshops of theseprojects were planned with the following background.
The socio-cultural impact of economic globalization and excessive modernization has induced rapid change in agriculture and life style without concerning inecology and climate change etc. in last two decades. It results in occurrance of the
problem such as depopulation, abandoning farming, artificial salinity damage in agriculture and damage by super cyclone, flood and earthquake etc. in Asian Countries.
The recent situation of agriculture and rural development of Myanmar, Bangladesh
and Bhutan is not an exception. In order to realize mitigation for sustainable development in agriculture and rural development in future, the countries facing these
problems are requested to exchange their experience for finding an alternative way
to overcome negative impact of globalization of excessive economic oriented developmental way.
The workshop held on Feb. 6, 2016 at the CSEAS has been planned to fulfill this aim in collaboration with the different projects, which the department ofpractice-oriented area studies, CSEAS, Kyoto University has participated in. On
the basis of my experience through participation in the projects, this paper is writtenwith purpose of conceptual discussion for potential and necessity of establishment ofstrong academic collaboration among Myanmar, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Japan forresearch and higher education, particularlly, between Myanmar and Bhutan containing an approah to the area studies.
Methodologies and Materials
Conceputal analysis on the author’s own experience in the field work in rural area of
Myanmar, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Japan since 1978 right up to now is adopted inthis paper. Author has continued to raise a question against authentic academism,
and is based on the views of the area studies as a discipline, of which author underwent a training since he was a graduate school student in CSEAS.
Result and Discussion
Why Are We Learning in Academics or Conducting Teaching and Research in
Academics?
The nesessity of learning may be to realize maintainance of better life. It can be
explained in another way that living better is to overcome a problem in life with aPotential and Necessity of Establishment of Strong Academic Collaboration 149

feeling of reality. I believe that a person cannot get a feeling of reality of living betterin life without co-existing feeling with other persons. Truth of Academics is to encourage a person to learn to take action for changing oneself to realize one’s “aim” toovercome a problem to be shared. Academics and Culture have emerge originally “adefiant attitude to authority” or “challenging common sense” against common sense
to make a problem not solved or changeable.
What is the Advantage of the Area Studies as a Discipline in CSEAS and Kyoto
University?
It is nowadays a common sense of the social science that “object” is to be set up
clearly as the natural science does. Area studies is usually considered in Japan as oneof the social science by approaching such an area to be learned or studied as man
makes an “area” as a society or a world with integrating the socio-culture and thephysical environment. Therefore, the area studies of CSEAS, Kyoto university has
strongly involved in the natural science such as agricultural science, medical science
etc. Therefore, the approach adopted in CSEAS has sought integration of liberalarts and science or integration of social and natural sciences since it was establishedin 1960s. However, it usually occurs among the scholar of the area studies who isengaged in conducting the field work at the site that a feeling of reality of his/herexisting at an “area” is automatically induced after continuation of staying at the site,with the result that the scholar as a field worker is sharing the problems faced by thepeople living in the site or an “area” as an “object”. It may be noticed that the areastudies, particularly initiated by CSEAS, Kyoto University, have started paying attention to an academic exercise by getting a feeling of reality as the natural science
does. The observation by own eye, listing of own ear, conversation by own mouse, andthinking by own idea at the site during the field work are essential and important
methdologies of perception.
Real Understanding through Field WorkThe real understanding against a “area” can be made only on the basis of a feeling ofreality against a “object” through each approach of liberal art and science. It is also
reasonable that a reality can be achieved only by understanding with a sixth sense
through sharing experience or practice. A reality of sharing existence insists that afield worker looks into the reality of an area or a society where a field worker stands
with people living in. A reality of sharing existence is, therefore, easily obtained by anaction or a practice including together living, observing, talking, listening, working
with local people at a site. A reality of sharing existence strongly promotes real understanding through feed-back by practicing and thinking. It pushes a field worker
toward challenging a problem perceived in an area or a society, at the time when local

150 Kazuo Andopeople or an “area” agaist a field worker has been changed its position from an object
to a subject as an equal partner to overcome a problem. A field worker oneself wouldchange one’s personality just like after regular mediation through Zen practice or
running in a daily life.
What Are the Complicated Problems Commonly Faced by Myanmar, Bhutan,
Bangladesh and Japan?
What kind of the problems does the globalization of free marketing economy giveus through living with economic development induced by simple economic development theory and happiness of materialism? In Myanmar, Bangladesh, Bhutan andJapan, it can be noticed by majority of people including the villagers discriminate
agricultural occupation or physical labor and Rural life of Society & Culture in comparison with urban society and livelihood willingly or without clear consciousness.
This conceptual value has been accelerated by rationalism and universalism
given by reductionism of science which is successful in disclosing inefficient productivity of agriculture and un-modernized life style, comparing to industrialized andcommercialized highly materialistic urban life. The modernized people usually haveless attention toward philosophy and essentialism to understand a life and a harmonious society. They prefer materialism and competition that they would confirm
victory of them against the other. It result in rapid growth of anti-concept against
happiness except economic development in the world. This global concept is spreading over Myanmar, Bangladesh and Bhutan at the present.
Advantage of Multi-learning among Myanmar and Bhutan in Particular
Myanmar and Bhutan are sharing the societies and cultures based on Buddhism indaily life and rich practice of traditional ways in lifestyle and agriculture. Apart fromthe world trend of development, Bhutan is trying to realize own development policy
by GNH (Gross National Happiness) instead of GNP (Gross National Product). In
case of Myanmar, it may be a problem in future to continue to follow the economic
globalization freely without making effort on building the original Myanmar way
development like Bhutan. Myanmar must make the most of her opportunity of thelast runner of the top runner in the “development race” in the world. The paradigmof development has already shifted from the rapid economic growth only humanbeing to the sustainable harmonious development with nature. Surely, Myanmar andBhutan are the top runner of the new paradigm of development, which is acceptedby all the world in principle. Human being cannot build the concrete future world
without this paradigm. The people challenging the problems of depopulation andabandoning farming in rural Japan are paying attention to the people of Bhutan and
Myanmar; How will both countries overcome the problem of making the peoplePotential and Necessity of Establishment of Strong Academic Collaboration 151

of rural Japan being suffering in accordance with the rapid economic growth? The
people, particularly, scholars of both the countries are expected to make joint effort
to challenge the problem, against which most of the world people are giving up thechallenge.
Advantage of Linkage among YAU, SEAMEO-CHAT of Myanmar, Sherubtse
College of Bhutan and Kyoto University of Japan
Field station activities have been done jointly in Myanmar and Japan since 2005
and 2008 respectively. Student exchange program and joint studies have been implemented in Bhutan and Japan since 2008. Furthermore, Myanmar has opened thedoor to the foreigners and as a result that the universities of Myanmar become autonomous from April, 2016. Daw Aung San Suu Kyi stayed in Myanmar for several
year with her husband, Dr.Michael Aris, most probably visited Sherubtse college
and the CSEAS, Kyoto University for ten months in mid of 1980s respectively. The
NLD is forming the new democratic government in Myanmar. The year 2016 issuitable occasion to review the problem occurring in rural Asia and build an alternative rural development policy on the basis of this reviewing. In order to achieve
this task, it is most useful to link Myanmar, Bhutan and Japan by connecting eachprogram running at the present between Kyoto University with the counterpart organizations in Myanmar and Bhutan. It may start immediately at present.
Conclusion
How to Develop the New Link and Let’s Start to Challenge the Common Sense
SEMEO-CHAT is a small government organization in Myanmar but is the International organization of ASEAN. The full name of SEAMEO-CHAT is Southeast
Asian Ministers of Education Organization Centre for History and Tradition. The
name SEAMEO-CHAT is well indicating that SEAMEO-CHAT is a suitableorganization to link up the three organizations under their institutional aim. The alternative development paradigm must be based on Culture, Tradition and Culture. It
can be proposed as conclusion of the paper that GNH concept and policy in Bhutan
is properly studied jointly by Myanmar people to establish the alternative development way ore Myanmar way of Development in collaboration with the counterpartsof Bhutan and Japan. Exchange of Students and Staff through PLA and PWS inrural areas under the field station programs is to be extended in Myanmar, Bhutan
and Japan so that advance of each countries is to learn to overcome the problem andgive wonderment to the world people having the common sense of unchangeable beliveness on economic development theory.

152 Kazuo Ando

REFERENCES
Kazuo Ando 2011 KEYNOTE SPEECH: Let us share experiences internationallyand learn each other for sustainable development, Integrated Study on Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development towards Research and Education in
Myanmar and Surrounding Countries, Practice-oirented Area Studies Series No.2,
YAU: 11-14.
Kazuo Ando 2013 Changing Traditional Cropping Systems in Rural Rakhaine:
Meaning of “Traditional” in Rural Development Study, Change of Rural Society and Local Agro-ecological Knowledge in Myanmar, Practice-oriented Area
Studies Series No.4, SEAMEO-CHAT: 19-32.

154International Workshop on “Environmental Problem and Its Possible
Mitigation for Sustainable Development”
In collaboration with the following projects.
1. Kyoto University SPIRITS Program: Mitigation Cyclone and Flood Damages in Myanmar: Applying the Bangladesh’s Successful Experience”
2. ISS Hoga Project: Action research on knowledge from experience and its practical use
about disaster prevention and mitigation for natural disaster in Bangladesh: Applicationof Sustainability Science to Area Studies
3. Program of Collaborative Research on Transitional Justice and Inclusive Economic
Development in Developing ASEAN Countries
4. Challenging Exploratory Research Project of “Study of a Site-Specific Rural Development Model through Alternative Zaichi (existing locally) Cultural Formation”

Date: Febuary 6, 2016
Time: 10:30-12:30
Place: Tonantei, Inamori Building 2F
Aim of the Workshop:
Recent Situation of Agriculture and Rural Development in the developing countries such as Myanmar, Bangladesh, Bhutan have changed much in accordance withthe socio-cultural impact of economic globalization, excessive modernization in
Agriculture with paying less regard to the ecology and climate change etc beyond
the common sense in last two decades, such as depopulation, abandoning farming,
artificial salinity problem in agriculture, super cyclone & flood etc. To realize mitigation for sustainable development in Agriculture and rural development in future,
the countries facing these problems are to exchange their experience possibly sothat the alternative ways for overcoming the problem can be considered. This small
workshop is planned to fulfill this aim by connecting the several different projects
implemented by the department of practice-oriented area studies, CSEAS, Kyoto
University.

155

Workshop Program
10:30-10:35
Opening remarks by Kazuo Ando (CSEAS)
10:35-10:55	Natural Hazards Induced Salt- affected Soils for Rice Produc-

10:55-11:15

tion in Myanmar
by Soe Soe Thein (Yezin Agricultural University, Myanmar)

The Characteristics and Role of Homestead in Bangladesh
by Keiko Yoshino (Tokyo University of Agriculture)
11:15-11:35	Rural Development in Bhutan: a Case Study of Chokhortoe
Villageby Jime Norbu (Sherubtse College, Bhutan)
11:35-11:55	How to apply action research for mutual learning to researchand higher education by inter-connection among Myanmar,
Bangladesh, Bhutan and Japanby Kazuo Ando (CSEAS)
11:55-12:25	General Discussion ( with reference of the PRA of Bhutan
Sherubtse College Team in Japan from Jan.26 to Feb.7, 2015)
	Comment by Haruo Uchida (CSEAS), Yoshio Akamatsu(CSEAS)
12:25-12:30
Concluding Remarks by Kazuo Ando (CSEAS)
12:30- 13:30
Lunch Gathering (Lunch Box)156

International Workshop on “Importance of neighboring network towards disaster mitigation and sustainable development among Myanmar, Bangladesh, and Japan”
Date: December 23, 2015

Place: SEAMEO-CHAT, Yangon
Workshop Program
08:30 – 09:00

Registration

09:00 – 09:15
Opening speech by Director, SEAMEO-CHAD
09:15 – 09:30	Welcome speech by Dr. Kazuo Ando, Center for Southeast
Asian Studies (CSEAS), Kyoto University
09:30 – 10:00
Coffee Break
10:00 – 10:20	Aung Naing Oo, Department of Soil and Water Science, Yezin
Agricultural University“Nutrient Management for Rice Production in Myanmar”

10:20 – 10:40
Dr. Khin lay Swe (FREDA)	“Coastal Salinity in Ayeyarwady Region, Myanmar: Case Studyof the Salinity Impact on Rice Production in Pyapon Township, Ayeyarwady Region”
10:40 – 11:00
Taiichi Hayashi, CSEAS, Kyoto University
	“Meteorological Disasters in the coastal area of the Bay of
Bengal”
11:00 – 11:20
Myint Thida, Department of Geography, University of Yangon
	“Impacts of Natural Disaster on Economy of Rural Areas: A

case Study on Ahmar Sub-township of Phyapon Township,

Ayeyarwady Region”
11:20 – 11:40	Nyein Nyein Htwe, Department of Agronomy, Yezin Agricultural University,	“Impact of Flood on Agricultural Production in Seikphyu
11:40 – 12:00

Township, Magwe Region”
Kazuo Ando, CSEAS, Kyoto University

	“The importance of technological transfer of Traditional Tech-

nologies or Local Existing Technologies among the neighbor-

157

12:00 – 13:00

ing countries around Myanmar ”
LUNCH

13:00 – 13:20	Nandar Aye Chan, Department of Agricultural Economics,
Yezin Agricultural University
	“Study on Agricultural Labor Migration of Selected FarmHouseholds in Kyaukpadaung Township”
13:20 – 13:40

Yusuke Yamane, Faculty of Education, Tokoha University“Workshop for reducing severe wind damages in Bangladesh”
13:40 – 14:00
Dr.Lwin Lwin Naing (ECCDI)
	”SUSTAINING COMMUNITY AND FOREST DEVELOPMENT THROUGH COMMUNITY FOREST ENTERPRISE - A CASE STUDY IN SOUTHERN SHAN
STATE”
Yoshio Akamatsu, CSEAS, Kyoto University
	“Transition of man-made landscape and contemporary problems of mountain villages in Japan”
14:00 – 14:20	Dr. Mar Mar Win, Food Legumes Section, Department ofAgricultural Research, Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar.
“Adaptation of Yunnan Soybean in Hilly Region of Shan State”
14:20 – 14:40
Mu Mu Age, West Yangon Technological University,
	“Climate resilient and low carbon development research andactivities in Myanmar”
14:40 – 15:00
Closing Remark by Dr. Ando
BannerInternational Workshop on “Importance of neighboring network towards disastermitigation and sustainable development among Myanmar, Bangladesh, and Japan”

Sponsored by Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, SEAMEO,YAU, FREDA

158

Index (List of Key Words)
Aabandoning farming
adaptation strategies
agricultural production
agriculture
alternative development
alternative development way of Myanmar
amendments
anticancer resource

B

Bangladesh
BhutanC

climate change
community forest (CF)conifer plantation
cropping patterns

Ddamage reduction
depopulation
Diancanga 2E

ethnobotanyF

farmer’s concept
fishing
flood			floodplain
forest and farm facility (FFF)

147
15
47
65
9
147
27
103

119, 131
147

15
61
141
47

131
147
111

103

15
65
47
119
57

159

future prospectiveG

global modernism
GNH			

H

handling practices
high yielding rice
hilly region
homesteadhybrid riceI

impacts

Llabor			lunar calendar

Mmacronutrientsmaking thatch
man-made forest
migrant
migration
MyanmarN

natural hazards
nutrient management
Nypa thatchPpackaging materials
postharvest transportation and supply chain

135

9
147

91
37, 57, 158
111
119
37

65

75
27

37
65
119
75
75
103, 147

27
37
15

91
91

160

pull factors
push factors

R

remittancerural development
rural economy
rural landscaperural-urban migration

Ssalinitysalinity problem
salt affected soil
salt tolerant rice varieties
SEAMEO-CHAT
Seikphyu Townshipsevere local storm
sodic			source of income
southern Shan StatesubsistenceT

traditional practitioners
transformation of livelihoodsVvarietal improvement

W

women
workshopY

Yunnan soybean varieties

65
65

75
135, 147
65
141
135

27
9
15
27
9
47
131
27
135
57
119

103
141

111

119
131

111

PRACTICE-ORIENTED AREA STUDIES SERIES
Muhammad Salim & Kazuo Ando
TRADITIONAL AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS OF BANGLADESH(Practice-oriented area studies series, no. 1)
Kazuo Ando & Khin Lay Swe
INTEGRATED STUDY ON SUSTAINABLE ARGICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT TOWARDS RESEARCH AND EDUCATION IN
MYANMAR AND SURROUNDING COUNTRIES(Practice-oriented area studies, no. 2)
Hiroyuki Tsunashima
AN ALTERNATIVE WAY OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT BY
THE KOYA PEOPLE IN ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA(Practice-oriented area studies series, no. 3)
Tun Aung Chain & Kazuo Ando, edited
CHANGE OF RURAL SOCIETY AND LOCAL AGRO-ECOLOGICALKNOWLEDGE IN MYANMAR(Practice-oriented area studies series, no. 4)
Haruhisa Asada
CLIMATE AND RICE CROPPING SYSTEMS IN THE BRAHMAPUTRA
BASIN: AN APPROACH TO AREA STUDIES ON
BANGLADESH AND ASSAM(Practice-oriented area studies series, no. 5)
Tomo Riba
SHIFTING CULTIVATION AND TRIBAL CULTURE OF TRIBES OFARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA(Practice-oriented area studies series, no. 6)
Md. Rashedur Rahman
SHRIMP BASED RICE CROPPING SYSTEM IN THE COASTALAREA OF BANGLADESH: AN APPROACH TO AREA STUDIES(Practice-oriented area studies series, no. 7)
Yoshio Akamatsu
CHANGES OF LIVELIHOOD AND ITS CONTEMPORARY
PROBLEMS IN MOUNTAINOUS VILLAGES OF EASTERN BHUTAN(Practice-oriented area studies series, no. 8)
The Practice-oriented Area Studies aim at the alternative Area Studies to establish the consciousness of “ZAICHI” (Locally existing) in the researchers’ mind and attitude by mutual enlightenment to collaborate with the local people conducting their “Practice” in their living areas. The
Practice-oriented Area Studies Series are to publish the research outcome on the basis of theseresearchers’ consciousness.
Coordinator, Practice-oriented Area Studies Series

Kazuo AndoISBN 978-4-906332-34-2