International Journal of Stress
Management
A Comprehensive Understanding of the Relationships
Between Passion for Work and Work–Family Conflict andthe Consequences for Psychological Distress
Nathalie Houlfort, Frederick L. Philippe, Sarah Bourdeau, and Caroline Leduc
Online First Publication, May 11, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/str0000068

CITATION
Houlfort, N., Philippe, F. L., Bourdeau, S., & Leduc, C. (2017, May 11). A Comprehensive
Understanding of the Relationships Between Passion for Work and Work–Family Conflict and theConsequences for Psychological Distress. International Journal of Stress Management.
Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/str0000068

International Journal of Stress Management
2017, Vol. 0, No. 999, 000© 2017 American Psychological Association
1072-5245/17/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/str0000068

A Comprehensive Understanding of the Relationships Between
Passion for Work and Work–Family Conflict and the Consequences
for Psychological Distress
Nathalie Houlfort, Frederick L. Philippe, Sarah Bourdeau, and Caroline Leduc

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This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Université du Québec à MontréalThis article explores the relationships between passion for work and work–family
conflicts (WFC). Using a multidimensional perspective of WFC, 2 studies (Study 1 ⫽91 civil servants; Study 2 ⫽ 679 teachers) tested a model in which passion for work
predicted psychological distress through 4 types of WFC. In Study 1, results revealed
that harmonious and obsessive passion for work negatively and positively predicted
psychological distress, respectively, and that these relationships were mediated bystrain-based work-to-family conflict (WIF). In Study 2, another potential mediator wasadded to our model, namely, work satisfaction. Results showed that harmonious
passion negatively predicted psychological distress through enhanced work satisfaction
and reduced strain-based WIF. Obsessive passion for work positively predicted psychological distress through enhanced strain-based WIF and strain-based family-to-work(FIW). Obsessive passion was positively related to all four types of WFC, whereas
harmonious passion seemed to protect workers from experiencing WFC. Important
contributions made to the passion and work–family conflict literatures are discussed.
Keywords: passion for work, work–family conflict, psychological distressWork is notorious for interfering with family
life: The surgeon who is called away from afamily gathering to perform quadruple bypass
surgery, or the professor who is not fully present at her son’s hockey game because she ispreoccupied by a statistical problem. At thesame time, however, family life can intrude in
one’s professional activities: The nurse who
misses a day of work to stay home and care forhis elderly parents, or the lawyer who cannot
concentrate on her work tasks because she wasup all night with her young infant. Hence,
work–family conflict (WFC) is bidirectional(Carlson, Kacmar, & Williams, 2000; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). Using a multidimensional approach to WFC, which takes into account both the direction (work-to-family
conflict [WIF] or family-to-work conflict[FIW]) and the nature (time-based or strainbased) of WFC can provide a more comprehensive understanding of workers’ experience juggling work and family demands.
WFC is perhaps inevitable for everyone, but
it appears that for workers who are characterized by passion for their work, WFC may constitute a way of life. For over a decade now, thedualistic model of passion (DMP; Vallerand etal., 2003; Vallerand & Houlfort, 2003) has
pointed to the existence of two types of passion,
namely, harmonious passion and obsessive passion. Both types of passion lead to distinct phenomenological experiences and outcomes. The
DMP proposes that nurturing an obsessive passion leads to conflict between the passionate
activity and other life spheres, whereas having aharmonious passion allows for better integration and thus less conflict. To date, three studies(Caudroit, Boiché, Stephan, Le Scanff, &Trouilloud, 2011; Thorgren, Wincent, & Sirén,
2013; Vallerand, Paquet, Philippe, & Charest,

Nathalie Houlfort, Frederick L. Philippe, Sarah Bourdeau, and Caroline Leduc, Department of Psychology, Université du Québec à Montréal.
This research was supported by grants from the CanadianSocial Sciences and Humanities Research Council and the
Québec’s Fonds de recherche du Québec en Société etculture.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Nathalie Houlfort, Department of Psychology,
Université du Québec à Montréal, C.P. 8888, Succursale
Centre Ville, Montréal, QC, H3C 3P8 Canada. E-mail:houlfort.nathalie@uqam.ca
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HOULFORT, PHILIPPE, BOURDEAU, AND LEDUC

2010) have investigated how passion for work
relates to WFC, confirming the positive relationship between obsessive passion and WFC. However, none of these studies used a multidimensional approach to WFC, which leaves us with anincomplete understanding of how passion forwork affects WFC, and how WFC mediates therelationship between passion and workers’ wellbeing. Such an in-depth investigation is necessary
to provide a complete portrayal of how passion forwork contributes to WFC or helps to prevent it.
The present studies aimed to expand previous
research on passion for work and WFC in threeways, namely, by (a) evaluating the relationshipbetween passion for work and WFC using a
multidimensional approach to WFC (direction
and nature of the conflict), (b) examining how
four types of WFC (time-based or strain-based
WIF or FIW) mediate the relationship between
passion for work and workers’ psychologicaldistress, and (c) assessing how age and genderaffect the hypothesized model. Hence, the present research extends previous empirical work on
passion and WFC (Caudroit et al., 2011; Thorgren et al., 2013; Vallerand et al., 2010), andprovides a more comprehensive understandingof how WFC is differentially experienced byworkers who have a harmonious passion versus
an obsessive passion for their work.
Passion for WorkThe DMP (Vallerand et al., 2003; Vallerand& Houlfort, 2003) defines passion as a strong
inclination toward an activity (e.g., work) thatthe person values and finds important, and inwhich he or she invests a significant amount oftime and energy. Passion is also self-defining, inthat passionate workers define themselves as
being teachers, nurses, or architects, and not
merely people who teach, provide medical care,or design houses. Passionate workers identify
with their job and endorse its meaning holistically.
Additionally, the DMP proposes the existence of two types of passion, namely, harmonious passion and obsessive passion. Harmonious passion is the result of a self-determinedinternalization process, that is, the person has
experienced no external or internal pressure tointernalize the activity; it has become part of hisor her self-concept freely and volitionally(Vallerand, 2015; Vallerand, Houlfort, & For-est, 2014). When harmonious passion is at play,work occupies a significant, but not overpowering, space in the person’s identity and is inharmony with other aspects of the person’s life.
In other words, with harmonious passion, theperson fully partakes in one’s work in a mindful(Brown & Ryan, 2003) and open way (Hodgins& Knee, 2002) that are conducive to flexible
persistence, adaptive self-processes, maintaining and generate resources, and positive outcomes. Consequently, workers with a harmonious passion are more likely to establish adaptive
boundaries between their work and other life
domains.
Conversely, obsessive passion results from acontrolled internalization process. Internal pressure (i.e., from the person him/herself) or external pressure (e.g., from his or her family or
environment) was placed upon the person tointernalize the activity within his or her selfconcept. As a result, aspects of the self (e.g.,
self-esteem) are contingent on the activity(Vallerand, 2015; Vallerand et al., 2014). People with an obsessive passion can thus findthemselves in the position of experiencing an
uncontrollable urge to engage in their work thatthey view as important and enjoyable. Consequently, they risk engaging in their work with arigid persistence, experiencing conflicts withother life activities, as well as negative affective, cognitive, and behavioral consequences
during and after work engagement (Vallerand etal., 2014). Hence, workers with an obsessive
passion are more likely to experience difficulties in establishing boundaries between theirwork and other important life spheres, as well as
expending more resources trying to maintainthese boundaries.
The distinction between harmonious passion
and obsessive passion is critical because they
have been found to have different relationshippatterns with important consequences (for a review, see Vallerand et al., 2014). For instance,
harmonious passion is positively related to psychological well-being (Carbonneau, Vallerand,
Fernet, & Guay, 2008; Houlfort, Philippe,
Vallerand, & Ménard, 2014; Philippe, Vallerand, & Lavigne, 2009), psychological adjustment to retirement (Houlfort et al., 2015), job
satisfaction (Vallerand & Houlfort, 2003; Vallerand et al., 2010), optimal commitment toward
organizational changes (Houlfort, Rinfret, &Duchesne, 2008), high-quality interpersonal re-This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
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PASSION AND WORK–FAMILY CONFLICT

lationships at work (Philippe, Vallerand, Houlfort, Lavigne, & Donahue, 2010), and flow
(Forest, Mageau, Sarrazin, & Morin, 2011).
Harmonious passion is also positively related tojob creativity (Liu, Chen, & Yao, 2011). Conversely, obsessive passion is positively related
to rumination (i.e., cannot stop thinking about
the passionate activity) when the person is prevented from engaging in the passionate activity(Ratelle, Vallerand, Mageau, Rousseau, &Provencher, 2004), ill-advised persistent behavior (Rip, Fortin, & Vallerand, 2006), and negative emotions during task engagement (Vallerand et al., 2003). Obsessive passion isnegatively related or unrelated to indices ofpsychological well-being (Rousseau & Vallerand, 2003, 2008; Vallerand & Houlfort, 2003).
These studies suggest that harmonious passion for work is related to positive outcomes,
whereas obsessive passion is related to morenegative outcomes. This pattern of results has
been found in different domains: work, sports,
education, and personal relationships (for a review, see Vallerand, 2015). However, one important organizational issue that has yet to generate much research in the passion literature is
WFC.
Work–Family Conflict
WFC originates from competing demands
between personal and professional roles(Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). Several theories
have contributed to a better understanding of
WFC. According to the conservation of resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll, 2002), individuals possess a limited amount of resources andenergy. When resources are invested in one
role, fewer are available for other roles. When
resources are loss or threatened, a stress reaction occurs and individuals will try to protect orrecover the loss by investing more of their resources (e.g., time, knowledge, money) into therole that is under threat (Grandey & Cropanzano, 1999). COR theory further suggests that
individuals differ in the amount of resources
they possess (Hobfoll, 2011). Hence, those with“greater resources are less vulnerable to resources loss and more capable of orchestrating
resource gain” (Hobfoll, 2011, p. 117). Hence,
workers with more resources should be lesslikely to experience WFC, and experience less3

distress if one role ever interferes with anotherrole.
Boundary theory (Ashforth, Kreiner, & Fugate, 2000; Nippert-Eng, 1996) stipulates thatjuggling work and other life spheres requires
setting boundaries or “fences” between our multiple life domains. These boundaries can be
more or less flexible and permeable, allowing
individuals to manage the relationships between
work and other activities as they see fit. Hence,some workers will prefer to separate their professional life from their personal life: using
separate agendas, never bringing work at home,
not dealing with personal issues at work, and soforth (Nippert-Eng, 1996). Alternatively, someworkers will prefer to integrate both spheres:taking personal calls at work, working from
home, participating in social activities organized by one’s organizations, and so forth (Nippert-Eng, 1996). When individuals’ preferences
for either segmenting or integrating one’s roles
and activities are respected, well-being is expected.
Additional research suggests that WFC cantake different forms and directions (Carlson etal., 2000; Duxbury, Higgins, & Mills, 1992;
Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985; Netemeyer, Boles,& McMurrian, 1996), and that taking these aspects into account is necessary to provide acomprehensive understanding of WFC. In addition to the direction of WFC (WIF or FIW),
WFC can also take different forms, that is, it canbe time-based, strain-based, or behavior-based(Carlson et al., 2000; Greenhaus & Beutell,1985). Time-based conflict occurs when time
invested in one role prevents the person fromfully participating in another role (e.g., having
to work overtime might preclude the worker
from attending a family diner). When the strain
experienced in one role thwarts engagement inanother role, strain-based conflict arises. For
instance, when a mass layoff is announced in acompany, workers may be so preoccupied about
whether or not they will keep their job that they
have a hard time being present and fully involved in their family activities. Behavior-based
conflict occurs when behaviors performed in
one role are at odds with what is expected inanother role (i.e., being firm and directive with
one’s employees are behaviors that may be contrary to those expected from a loving partner).
This multidimensional view of WFC adds depth
and complexity to the concept, which was once

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4

HOULFORT, PHILIPPE, BOURDEAU, AND LEDUC

perceived simply as work interfering with family life. For the purpose of our research program, we chose to focus on time-based andstrain-based WIF and FIW, as these are themost frequently measured and studied conflict
dimensions (Carlson et al., 2000).
The negative consequences of WFC are important both for the individual and the organization. Meta-analyses have shown that WFC is
positively related to absenteeism and burnout,
as well as to decreases in job satisfaction andlife satisfaction (Allen, Herst, Bruck, & Sutton,
2000; Byron, 2005; Ernst Kossek & Ozeki,1998). Grant-Vallone and Donaldson (2001)
found that WFC is a longitudinal negative predictor (6-month interval) of workers’ wellbeing. Higher levels of WFC are associatedwith a higher prevalence of mood, anxiety, andsubstance dependence disorders (Frone, 2000).
Increased turnover intention is also associatedwith higher levels of WFC (Haar, 2004), particularly with WIF (Greenhaus, Parasuraman, &Collins, 2001).
Although many studies have examined thedifferential impact of WIF and FIW on workers’
well-being, few have actually looked at the possible distinctive associations between timebased and strain-based WIF or FIW and workers’ psychological outcomes. Carlson et al.
(2000) found that strain-based WIF and FIW
negatively predicted family satisfaction and life
satisfaction. Strain-based FIW negatively predicted job satisfaction. Other researchers who
have focused on time-based or strain-based conflict (Greenhaus, Parasuraman, Granrose, Rabinowitz, & Beutell, 1989; Higgins, Duxbury, &Irving, 1992; Loerch, Russell, & Rush, 1989;
O’Driscoll, Ilgen, & Hildreth, 1992) have obtained similar results. Because the correlates oftime-based and strain-based WFC are somewhat different, it appears important to distinguish between these forms of conflict in order togain a more in-depth understanding of WFC.
Previous Research on Passion and
Work–Family Conflict
Ever since the introduction of the DMP(Vallerand et al., 2003), it has been suggested
that obsessive passion, but not harmonious passion, leads to conflict with other, nonpassionate
activities. It appears that the rigid commitment
to work activities that characterizes obsessive

passion for work may lead to WFC. Leaving
one’s professional goals unchanged when they
are interfering with one’s family goals and notchanging work schedules or plans to accommodate one’s spouse or children appear to generate
conflict between the professional and family
spheres. The negative affect related to obsessive
passion for work also appears to contribute to
WFC through a negative spillover effect. Indeed, the affect experienced in one domain can
spill over into other domains (Grzywacz &Marks, 2000; Hammer, Kossek, Yragui, Bodner, & Hanson, 2009). According to Cropleyand Purvis (2003), ruminative thoughts fromone domain are a form of cognitive spilloverthat can intrude in activities in other domains,potentially leading to WFC. Because obsessive
passion is related to rumination about the passionate activity (Ratelle et al., 2004), workers
who harbor such a passion for work could experience strain-based WFC as a result of negative spillover.
Vallerand et al.’s (2003) theoretical work on
passion also points to the possibility that obsessive passion for work is positively related to
FIW. In other words, because of the rigid commitment toward work and ruminative thoughts
about work, family activities can be perceived
as requiring time and energy that passionate
workers would rather spend on professional activities. Assessing both WIF and FIW would
make it possible to test whether obsessive passion is, in fact, positively related to both WIF
and FIW.
Vallerand and his colleagues (2010) were thefirst to examine how passion is related to WFC.
They investigated the relationship between passion for work and burnout, using WFC andwork satisfaction as mediators. Of particularinterest, in their longitudinal study (Study 2),
harmonious and obsessive passion, respectively, were negatively and positively related to
WFC over time. WFC was positively related toburnout, whereas work satisfaction was negatively related to burnout. WFC was found to
significantly mediate the relationship between
obsessive passion and burnout, but did not significantly mediate the relationship between harmonious passion and burnout. In the latter case,work satisfaction acted as a significant mediator. These results show that obsessive andharmonious passion for work relate differently to WFC and highlight the processThis document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
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PASSION AND WORK–FAMILY CONFLICT

through which passion for work can preventor lead to burnout. However, Vallerand et al.
used a unidirectional measure of WFC (workas an intrusion in the workers’ personal life),
without considering the opposite dimensionof WFC (i.e., FIW) or the various forms ofWFC (time-based or strain-based). In light of
the recent literature on WFC, such a measurelimits the scope and understanding of thepassion–WFC relationship.
Although Caudroit et al. (2011) used a scalethat assessed both time-based and strain-based
WIF (Grandey, Cordeiro, & Crouter, 2005), answers were summed and a mean score was used.
Nonetheless, with a sample of elementary
school teachers, their findings show that harmonious and obsessive passion, respectively, negatively and positively predicted WIF. The relationship between obsessive passion and WIF
was partially mediated by work time.
Finally, Thorgren and colleagues (2013) usedthe concepts of off-task thoughts at work andon-task thoughts off work to examine the relationship between passion and WFC. The former
refers to “engaging in cognitions unrelated to atask when one is at work” (p. 474), whereas thelatter refers to “engaging in strategies, selfinstructions, and coping related to a work task
when one is not at work” (p. 474). Their findings suggested that harmonious passion positively predicted off-task thoughts at work,whereas obsessive passion negatively predicted
off-task thoughts at work and positively predicted on-task-thoughts off work. In other5

words, the thoughts of individuals with an obsessive passion for work are almost exclusively
directed toward their passionate activity (i.e.,work), whether they are in their working environment or at home with their families. Having
an obsessive passion can also preclude the onset
of non-work-related thoughts when working.
Hence, obsessive passion could be negatively
related to strain-based FIW but positively related to strain-based WIF. Additionally, it appears that harmonious passion allows for the
intrusion of non-work-related thoughts whileworking. This could mean that harmonious passion is positively related to strain-based FIW.
Present Research
The aims of the present studies were threefold:(a) to evaluate the relationship between passion
for work and WFC, using a multidimensional
approach to WFC (direction and nature of theconflict); (b) to examine how four types of WFC(time-based and strain-based WIF and FIW) andwork satisfaction (Study 2) mediate the relationship between passion for work and workers’ psychological distress; and (c) to assess how age andgender affect the hypothesized model.
In relation to these objectives, a hypothesizedmodel in which passion for work is related toworkers’ psychological distress through timebased or strain-based WIF or FIW was tested (seeFigure 1).
Our use of a multidimensional measure of
WFC contributes significantly to past research on

Figure 1. Hypothesized model. WIF ⫽ work-to-family; FIW ⫽ family-to-work. Full arrow ⫽ anticipated positive relationships; Dotted arrow ⫽ anticipated negative relationships;
Dotted box ⫽ Variable included in Study 2 only.

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HOULFORT, PHILIPPE, BOURDEAU, AND LEDUC

passion for work and WFC. By differentiating
between time-based and strain-based WIF and
FIW, we aimed to provide a more fine-grained
analysis of how passion for work relates to WFC
and contributes to workers’ psychological distress.

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Study 1The purpose of the first study was to test the
proposed model using a cross-sectional design
with civil servants. It was posited that harmonious passion for work would be negatively
related to all types of WFC, whereas obsessive
passion for work would be positively related to
all types of WFC. All four types of WFC were
expected to be positively related to psychological distress and to mediate the passion forwork/psychological-distress relationship.
MethodParticipants and procedure. Participants
were 91 francophone Canadian federal civil servants in management positions (30% responserate). Sixty women and 27 men (four unspecified), aged between 23 and 56 years (M ⫽ 32.31
years, SD ⫽ 6.51 years), completed an online
questionnaire. Participants were members of aprofessional network and received an electronic
invitation from their network to participate in astudy that aimed to assess their emotional experiences at work. The study was presented
with the researcher’s contact information, andinterested members could follow a hyperlink to
the questionnaire. Participants had been civil
servants for an average of 6.04 years (SD ⫽5.13 years). All participants signed an electronic
consent form.
Measures.
Passion for work. The Passion for Work
Scale (Vallerand & Houlfort, 2003) used in thisstudy was an adapted version of the Passion
Scale (Vallerand et al., 2003). It was composedof two six-item subscales: Harmonious Passion(e.g., “The new things I discover within theconfines of my work allow me to appreciate iteven more.”) and Obsessive Passion (e.g., “Ihave a hard time controlling my need to do mywork”). Workers responded to each item using a
Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (do not agree
at all) to 7 (very strongly agree). This scale(both English and French versions) has systematically demonstrated support for the twofactor structure through confirmatory factor
analysis and high internal consistency (seeMarsh et al., 2013). Alpha coefficients for all
scales in this study were above .80 and can befound in Table 1.
Work–family conflict. A French version of
the scale developed by Carlson et al. (2000) wasused. A back-translation procedure was used totranslate the scale (Vallerand, 1989) in which
one researcher translated the items in Frenchand a second bilingual researcher did a backtranslation of these items to the original language. Minor discrepancies were discussed andsettled. For the purposes of this study, four
dimensions were assessed: time-based FIW(three items; e.g., “The time I spend with myfamily often causes me not to spend time inactivities at work that could be helpful to mycareer”), strain-based FIW (three items; e.g.,“Because I am often stressed from family re-Table 1Means, Standard Deviations, Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficients, and Correlations for Psychological Distress,
Passion, and Work–Family Conflict: Study 1
Variables

Mean

SD

Alpha

1

2

3

4

5

6

Psychological distress (1)Harmonious passion (2)Obsessive passion (3)Time-based WIF (4)Time-based FIW (5)Strain-based WIF (6)Strain-based FIW (7)

1.79
4.89
1.93
2.05
1.88
2.39
1.88

.55
1.00
.89
1.01
.82
.93
.78

.90
.85
.84
.92
.83
.84
.95

—
⫺.31ⴱⴱ
.23ⴱ
.19
.10
.46ⴱⴱ
.27ⴱⴱ

—
⫺.01
⫺.29ⴱⴱ
⫺.08⫺.39ⴱⴱ
⫺.26ⴱ

—
.36ⴱⴱ
.17
.40ⴱⴱ
.07

—
.55ⴱⴱ
.47ⴱⴱ
.22ⴱ

—
.23ⴱ
.56ⴱⴱ

—
.40ⴱⴱ

Note. n ⫽ 91. WIF ⫽ work-to-family; FIW ⫽ family-to-work.
ⴱp ⬍ .05. ⴱⴱ p ⬍ .01.

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PASSION AND WORK–FAMILY CONFLICT

sponsibilities, I have a hard time concentrating
on my work”), time-based WIF (three items;e.g., “My work keeps me from my family activities more than I would like”), and strainbased WIF (three items; e.g., “When I get homefrom work I am often too frazzled to participate
in family activities/responsibilities”). Workers
were asked to rate each item on a scale from 1(totally disagree) to 5 (totally agree).
Psychological distress index. The French
version (Préville, Boyer, Potvin, Perrault, &Légaré, 1992) Anxiety and Depression subscales from Ilfeld’s (1976) Psychiatric Symptoms Index were used to create a psychologicaldistress index. All the questionnaire items began as follows: “Over the last week, how often. . .” The Anxiety subscale was made up of three
items (e.g., “. . . did you feel stressed or underpressure?”), and the Depression subscale wascomposed of six items (e.g., “. . . did you feeldesperate when thinking about the future?”).
Answers were rated on a scale from 1 (never) to
4 (often).
Results and Discussion
Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, and correlations for all the variables in Study 1. As hypothesized, harmonious passion was negatively
correlated with both types of strain-based WFC.
However, harmonious passion was negatively
correlated with time-based WIF but not with
time-based FIW. Obsessive passion was positively correlated with all types of WFC, but notsignificantly with time-based or strain-based FIW.
Harmonious passion and obsessive passion weresignificantly negatively and positively associatedwith psychological distress, respectively.
To test the hypothesized model, we conducted apath analysis using AMOS (Arbuckle, 2012). The
hypothesized model comprised two exogenous
variables (harmonious and obsessive passion atwork) and five endogenous variables (time-based
and strain-based WIF, time-based and strainbased FIW, and psychological distress). The
model included indirect paths from harmonious
and obsessive passion for work to psychologicaldistress through the four types of WFC. Covariances were allowed between all four types ofWFC. The model was tested using maximum likelihood estimation with robust standard errors.

7

After investigating the initial model,1 to provide
a more parsimonious model, the nonsignificant
paths were removed. The subsequent model provided an excellent fit to the data, ␹2(11) ⫽ 14.92,
p ⫽ .19, comparative fit index (CFI) ⫽ .976,
Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) ⫽ .954, root meansquare error of approximation (RMSEA) ⫽ .06,
and standardized root mean square residual(SRMR) ⫽ .039. Results are summarized in Figure 2. Results show that harmonious passion forwork negatively predicted time-based and strainbased WIF and strain-based FIW, whereas obsessive passion positively predicted time-based andstrain-based WIF. Only strain-based WIF positively predicted psychological distress. In addition, harmonious and obsessive passion for work
positively and negatively predicted psychologicaldistress, respectively, through strain-based WIF.
We used bootstrapping to determine whether
strain-based WIF mediated the paths between(harmonious and obsessive) passion for work andpsychological distress. Bias-corrected bootstrap
95% confidence intervals were computed from
5,000 bootstrap samples (Preacher & Hayes,2008). Results indicated significant indirect relationships between harmonious 95% CI [⫺.290,⫺.065] and obsessive 95% CI [.033, .224] passion
and psychological distress through strain-based
WIF.
Results from Study 1 confirm that harmonious
and obsessive passion for work have distinctive
associations with WFC. Indeed, harmonious passion for work appears to prevent both types of
WIF and strain-based FIW, whereas obsessive
passion for work contributes to both types of WIF.
Interestingly, only strain-based WIF predicted
workers’ psychological distress and acted as asignificant mediator between passion for work andpsychological distress, suggesting that time-based
WFC, as well as WFC that derives from family
intrusions in the work domain, are not as challenging as (strain-based) work intrusions in family life.
These findings also point to the importance oftaking into account the multidimensionality of
WFC in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the distinctive experience of har1
Because of our small sample size, the nonsignificant
paths were deleted from the original model to increase its
parsimony and obtain a more realistic evaluation of the fit
indices.

8

HOULFORT, PHILIPPE, BOURDEAU, AND LEDUC

Work-family
time-based

**

.-.26

.21*

Harmonious
passion.47**-.39**

.3
0*
*

.44**

**

Psychologicaldistress

.40

.50**

Obsessive
passion.26**

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Work-familystrain-based

Family-workstrain-based

Figure 2. Path analysis for passion, types of WFC, and psychological distress. ⴱ p ⬍ .05.
ⴱⴱp ⬍ .01.

monious and obsessive workers when it comes towork–life balance.
Study 2
Results from Study 1 provided partial support
for the proposed model. However, one important
limitation of this study was the small number ofparticipants. The purpose of Study 2 was to provide a second test of our model, using a larger
sample. In addition, we wished to test for genderand age variance, as these variables have previously been shown to affect WFC (e.g., Byron,
2005; Ernst Kossek & Ozeki, 1998; MacEwen &Barling, 1994; Martins, Eddleston, & Veiga,
2002).
Also, an additional mediator was added toour model: work satisfaction. In Vallerand etal.’s (2010) study, work satisfaction, as well as
WFC, mediated the relationship between passion for work and burnout, thereby confirmingthat work satisfaction is a mechanism to consider when accounting for the differential consequences of harmonious and obsessive passion
on workers’ psychological well-being. We thus
hypothesized that harmonious and obsessive

passion for work would be positively and negatively related to work satisfaction, respectively. We also hypothesized that work satisfaction would mediate the relationship between
harmonious passion and workers’ psychologicaldistress.
Lastly, we wished to enlarge the applicability of
our results by looking at the passion/WFC/
psychological-distress relationships among another category of workers, namely, teachers, who
represent one of the professional groups most affected by psychological distress (Schonfeld,
1990).
MethodParticipants and procedure. Participants
were 679 francophone teachers— elementary,high school, and adult education teachers—in
the province of Quebec, representing a 33%
response rate of our population. The teachers’
mean age was 40.98 years (SD ⫽ 9.77 years)(ranging between 23 and 66 years); 533 were
women and 146 were men. Tenure ranged fromless than one year to 43 years, and average
tenure was 14.16 years (SD ⫽ 8.48 years).

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PASSION AND WORK–FAMILY CONFLICTWith the collaboration of the teachers’
unions, the teachers received an invitation letterand a questionnaire through their schools’ internal mail system. The letter described thestudy and provided the researcher’s contact information. All participants signed an informed
consent form. The teachers returned the completed questionnaires directly to the researcher
in prestamped envelopes. As an incentive, threeprizes of 100$CAN (138$ US) were drawn
among participants.
Measures.
Passion for work, work–family conflict, andpsychological distress index. The scales usedin Study 1 were used again in Study 2 to assess
the teachers’ passion for work, WFC, and psychological distress.
Work satisfaction. We used the Frenchvalidated version of the Work Domain Satisfaction Scale (Bérubé, Donia, Gagné, Houlfort, &Lvina, 2016) to assess participants’ work satisfaction. A sample item was “The conditions inwhich I do my work are excellent.” Items werescored on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1(do not agree at all) to 7 (very strongly agree).
Results and Discussion
Means, standard deviations, Cronbach’s alphacoefficients, and correlations for the variables inStudy 2 are provided in Table 2. Harmonious
passion was negatively and significantly related
to all four types of WFC and to psychologicaldistress, whereas obsessive passion was positively and significantly related to all four typesof WFC and psychological distress. Harmonious passion, but not obsessive passion, was9positively and significantly associated withwork satisfaction. All types of WFC were positively and significantly related to the teachers’
self-reported psychological distress, and work
satisfaction was negatively and significantly related to this variable.
A structural equation model, conducted in
LISREL 8 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 2003) withmaximum likelihood as the method of estimation, was used to assess whether WFC and work
satisfaction mediated the relationship between
passion and psychological distress. Observed
variables were computed using random item
parceling for each construct (Bandalos, 2002),
except for the different types of WFC, whichwere each measured using three items. Covariances were drawn between all four types of
WFC and between the types of WFC and work
satisfaction. Paths were drawn from the two
types of passion to all types of WFC and towork satisfaction. In addition, all these latter
variables were modeled to predict psychological distress. Direct paths from passion to psychological distress were also included to test formediation.
Testing this model (see Figure 3) revealed
adequate fit indices, ␹2(df ⫽ 181) ⫽ 597.66,
p ⬍ .001, normed chi square ⫽ 3.30, nonnormed fit index ⫽ .97, CFI ⫽ .98, RMSEA ⫽.058 [.053, .064], goodness-of-fit index ⫽ .93,
SRMR ⫽ .058. In addition, all factor loadings
were significant and adequately high. Results
revealed that harmonious passion was negatively and significantly associated with all typesof WFC, except for a nonsignificant negative
association with strain-based FIW (␦ ⫽ ⫺.08,

Table 2Means, Standard Deviations, Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficients, and Correlations for Psychological Distress,
Passion, and Work-Family Conflict: Study 2
Variables

Mean

SD

Alpha

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Psychological distress (1)Harmonious passion (2)Obsessive passion (3)Time-based WIF (4)Time-based FIW (5)Strain-based WIF (6)Strain-based FIW (7)Work satisfaction (8)

1.94
4.95
2.23
2.78
2.41
3.21
1.93
4.37

.63
1.05
1.02
1.12
.92
1.11
.83
1.22

.88
.87
.78
.89
.73
.89
.90
.86

—
⫺.45ⴱⴱ
.12ⴱⴱ
.35ⴱⴱ
.20ⴱⴱ
.57ⴱⴱ
.20ⴱⴱ
⫺.51ⴱⴱ

—⫺.04⫺.32ⴱⴱ
⫺.11ⴱⴱ
⫺.43ⴱⴱ
⫺.11ⴱⴱ
.62ⴱⴱ

—
.40ⴱⴱ
.15ⴱⴱ
.23ⴱⴱ
.12ⴱⴱ
.03

—
.46ⴱⴱ
.60ⴱⴱ
.20ⴱⴱ
⫺.32ⴱⴱ

—
.43ⴱⴱ
.49ⴱⴱ
⫺.13ⴱⴱ

—.27ⴱⴱ
⫺.45ⴱⴱ

—⫺.06

Note. n ⫽ 679. WIF ⫽ work-to-family; FIW ⫽ family-to-work.
ⴱp ⬍ .05. ⴱⴱ p ⬍ .01.

10

HOULFORT, PHILIPPE, BOURDEAU, AND LEDUC

WIFt2

WIFt3

9
.8

.8

.86

WIFt1

3

WIF
time-based

hp2

WIFs3

Anxiety

ws1

.90

0*

**

-.31**

6*

*

**

Work
satisfaction

Psychologicaldistress

.1

2*

.2

.51

.50

ws2

.91

-.1

**

Depression

.82

.71

.85

WIF
strainbased-.47**

Harmonious
passion

.8
4

.87

WIFs2
WIFs1

.84

*

1*

-.3

.83

.86

hp3

.69

FIWt1

.73

**

FIWt2

.59

op2

.77

op1

FIW
time-based

.26**

.13

.48

.75

Obsessive
passion

.79

FIWt3

op3
FIW
strainbased

.8
FIWs1

.94

.8
3

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hp1

FIWs2

3
FIWs3

Figure 3. Structural equation model for passion, types of WFC, work satisfaction, andpsychological distress. Nonsignificant paths and all covariances are not shown for the sake ofclarity. WIF ⫽ work-to-family; FIW ⫽ family-to-work. ⴱ p ⬍ .05. ⴱⴱ p ⬍ .01.

p ⬎ .05). Obsessive passion was positively andsignificantly associated with all four types ofWFC. Moreover, harmonious passion wasstrongly and positively associated with work
satisfaction, whereas obsessive passion was notcorrelated with this variable. Lastly, the twostrain-based types of WFC and work satisfaction, respectively, were positively and negatively associated with psychological distress,
whereas the two time-based types of WFC wereunrelated to psychological distress.
Mediation analyses using bias-correctedbootstrap 95% confidence intervals based on

5,000 bootstrap samples (Preacher & Hayes,2008) revealed that the relationship between
harmonious passion and psychological distress
was significantly mediated by strain-based WIF
95% CI [–.167, –.090] and work satisfaction
95% CI [–.165, ⫺.073]. The relationship between obsessive passion and psychological distress was significantly mediated by strain-based
WIF 95% CI [.042, .095] and strain-based FIW
95% CI [.001, .019].
We tested an alternative model examining
whether work satisfaction could be considered
to be a consequence of the different types ofThis document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
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PASSION AND WORK–FAMILY CONFLICT

WFC, as suggested by Ford, Heinen, and Langkamer (2007) and Ernst Kossek and Ozeki(1998). Results of this model revealed fit indices that were acceptable, but less adequate, thanthose of our original model. In addition, themodification indices showed that paths should
be drawn (freely estimated) from the WFC variables to psychological distress. Finally, the AIC
criterion for our original model, AICo ⫽ 741.
66, was lower than that for this alternativemodel, AICA ⫽ 821.88, thus indicating that theoriginal model was preferable.
Model invariance was tested across gender.
Results showed adequate and similar fit indicesfor both the male and female models. The result
for the fully unconstrained models examinedconcomitantly was ␹2(362) ⫽ 810.47. All parameters of the male model were then fully
constrained to equal those of the female model.
The result for this fully constrained model was
␹2(434) ⫽ 920.59, thus rejecting the null hypothesis of invariance across gender, ⌬␹2(72) ⫽110.12, p ⬍ .05. Specific invariance tests for themeasurement errors, variances, factor loadings,
and path coefficients showed that there were
only two significant differences across genderand that they pertained to the path coefficients.
The path from harmonious passion to psychological distress was significantly different between the two groups, ⌬␹2(1) ⫽ 6.64, p ⬍ .05,
as this direct effect remained significant formales, ␦ ⫽ ⫺.29, p ⬍ .05, but not for females,␦ ⫽ ⫺.02, ns. The second significant difference
pertained to the path from strain-based WIF to
psychological distress, ⌬␹2(1) ⫽ 12.48, p ⬍.05, which proved to be much stronger for females, ␦ ⫽ .60, p ⬍ .01, than for males, ␦ ⫽ .14,
p ⬍ .05. Taken together, these differences imply that the indirect effects of the harmonious
passion ¡ strain-based WIF ¡ psychologicaldistress and obsessive passion ¡ strain-based
WIF ¡ psychological distress mediations werestronger for females than for males (ts ⬎ 3.83,
ps ⬍ .01).
Model invariance was also tested as a function of age. The sample was divided into twogroups in order to assess the difference between
younger teachers (under 40 years of age) andolder teachers (40 years of age and older). Results showed adequate and similar fit indices forboth the younger and older participant samples.
The result for the unconstrained models examined concomitantly was ␹2(362) ⫽ 795.76. All

11parameters of the younger sample model werethen fully constrained to equal those of the older
sample model. The result for this fully constrained model was ␹2(434) ⫽ 894.18, thus
rejecting the null hypothesis of invariance between younger and older teachers, ⌬␹2(72) ⫽98,42, p ⬍ .05. Measurement errors of the observed variables and variances of the observed
and latent variables were then allowed to vary
freely across the two age groups. The result forthis model, ␹2(393) ⫽ 837.39, did not differ
significantly from the fully unconstrainedmodel, ⌬␹2(31) ⫽ 41.63, ns, thus implying invariance between the two age groups for all
factor loadings and path coefficients in ourmodel.
General Discussion
The present studies aimed to broaden our
understanding of the association between passion for work, WFC, and workers’ psychological distress by expanding previous research on
passion for work and WFC in three ways,
namely, by (a) evaluating the relationship between passion for work and WFC, using a multidimensional approach to WFC (direction andnature of the conflict); (b) examining how fourtypes of WFC (time-based and strain-based
WIF and FIW) mediate the relationship between passion for work and workers’ psychological distress; and (c) assessing how age andgender affect the hypothesized model.
Results suggest that having harmonious passion for work protects workers against WFC,
whereas obsessive passion facilitates such conflict. Interestingly, the results show that passion
for work relates differently to time-based andstrain-based WIF and FIW as a function of thetype of passion. In Studies 1 and 2, harmonious
passion for work negatively predicted bothtime-based and strain-based WIF. In Study 1,
although harmonious passion negatively predicted strain-based FIW, but not time-based
FIW, the opposite was true in Study 2. Moreover, Study 1 revealed that obsessive passion
positively predicted both types of WIF, but neither time-based nor strain-based FIW. In Study
2, obsessive passion positively predicted all
four types of WFC. Disparities between the twostudies may be due to several factors. First, thecivil servants sample is younger (M ⫽ 32.31
years) than the teachers sample (M ⫽ 40.98

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12

HOULFORT, PHILIPPE, BOURDEAU, AND LEDUC

years). Therefore, family responsibilities may
be more challenging among our teachers sample, and they may be more likely to experiencefamily work conflicts when they have an obsessive passion for their work. Other factors that
could be taken into account in future research
are the type of work and work design. Althoughmore research is needed to understand thesedifferences, this set of findings highlights that
passion for work matters in terms of how workers experience conflict between their professional lives and family lives, and that using a
multidimensional conceptualization of WFC
provides a deeper understanding of this experience.
In light of COR theory, these results suggestthat workers with a harmonious passion havemore resources to manage work–life balanceissues and are less vulnerable to resource loss
than workers with an obsessive passion. This
interpretation is in line with previous researchon passion. Having a harmonious passion results in a flexible and mindful (Brown, Ryan, &Creswell, 2007) investment in one’s work allowing individuals to keenly engage in otheractivities, such as sports, family activities andgatherings, and so forth (Vallerand, 2015). This
involvement in other life spheres permits theopportunity to revive and recharge one’s cognitive, affective, and behavioral repertoire (Houlfort et al., 2015), thus developing and building
resources to face adversity and perhaps better
manage work–life balance issues. In the present
studies, harmonious passion was negatively related to three types of WFC. Thus, workers withharmonious passion did not perceive an overinvestment—whether in terms of time or cognitive and emotional energy—in their work, orthat the strain experienced (Study 1) or time
invested (Study 2) in their family lives interfered with their jobs. It was as if harmonious
passion protected these workers from experiencing WFC, perhaps because such passion allows for resources building and gathering.
Results obtained with Carlson et al.’s (2000)
WFC scale suggest that workers with an obsessive passion reported that the time invested intheir jobs prevented them from participating—as much as they would like—in their family lives. Similarly, the cognitive and emotionalenergy devoted to their work precluded investment and participation in family activities. Because of their overinvolvement in their work,

their inability to separate themselves from their
passion and the rigid persistence they demonstrate, workers with an obsessive passion are
more likely to be limited in terms of resources(Vallerand, 2015) and experience WFC. Their
passion seems to preclude the opportunity tobuild and gather important resources that areneeded to manage work–life balance issues inan efficient manner. Future research is needed
to investigate these propositions and specifically assess how COR theory’s principles tie inwith the DMP.
This pattern of results converges with previous research showing that obsessive passion
leads to rigid and almost exclusive engagementin the passionate activity (e.g., Vallerand et al.,2003). Such commitment to an activity is boundto generate conflict with other life spheres. Interestingly, workers with obsessive passion also
reported that their family lives interfered with
their jobs. Indeed, in Study 2, obsessive passion
predicted both time-based and strain-based
FIW. This relationship has never previously
been assessed and provides a unique understanding of how workers with obsessive passion
experience WFC. Based on their answers toitems from Carlson et al.’s (2000) scale, theseworkers seemed to perceive that their family
lives prevented them from investing in theirwork and attaining important professional andcareer goals. At the same time, they acknowledged that their work precluded a deeper investment in their family lives. Hence, workers withthis type of passion appeared to be torn between
their work and family lives.
According to boundary theory (Ashforth etal., 2000; Nippert-Eng, 1996), passionate workers would express a preference for integrating
their professional and personal life. However,results from the present studies suggest thatworkers with a harmonious passion are more
successful at integrating their different life
spheres. In light of the DMP (Vallerand, 2015;
Vallerand et al., 2003), this could be attributed
to the autonomous internalization process of thepassionate activity within the person’s identitythat characterizes harmonious passion (Vallerand et al., 2003, 2014). This type of internalization emanates from the intrinsic and integrative
tendencies of the self (Deci & Ryan, 2000;
Ryan & Deci, 2003). With such internalization,
personal endorsement and a sense of volition inpursuing the activity are experienced. In other

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PASSION AND WORK–FAMILY CONFLICT

words, workers with a harmonious passion feel
free and are more flexible in the way they integrate their different life spheres, whereas workers with an obsessive passion are more likely toexperience pressure while trying to integrate
their various life spheres. Although research isneeded to investigate how boundary theory canbe linked with the DMP, and contribute to further explain passionate workers’ experience
with WFC, we think that this is a promisingavenue to explore.
Amazingly, previous studies have repeatedly
shown that harmonious and obsessive workers
put the same number of hours into their jobs
(e.g., Forest et al., 2011). Thus, it appears thattime-based WIF resides in workers’ perception
rather than in the objective measure of the number of hours invested in their work. Future research should further investigate this finding,perhaps by closely monitoring passionate workers’ time investment at work and at home (e.g.,gathering factual data, peers’ or spouse’s reports).
Findings also showed that not all types of
WFC were related to psychological distress.
Indeed, the results suggest that only strainbased WFC—WIF in Study 1 and WIF and FIW
in Study 2—were associated with the workers’
psychological distress. These studies significantly expand previous research on passion forwork (i.e., Caudroit et al., 2011; Thorgren et al.,2013; Vallerand et al., 2010). Moreover, themediating role of WFC in the relationship between passion for work and psychological distress differed according to the type of passion atplay. Indeed, in Study 2, harmonious and obsessive passion for work affected psychologicaldistress through their respective influence on
strain-based WIF. However, strain-based FIWexperienced by workers with obsessive passion
also significantly contributed to their psychological distress. Thus, the cognitive energy expended, preoccupation with work, and inability
to let go associated with WFC are more likely to
explain the psychological distress experienced
than a lack of time.
Another interesting finding is that harmonious passion for work positively predicted work
satisfaction, which, in turn, negatively predicted
psychological distress, thus suggesting that both
pathways were involved in protecting workers’
from psychological distress. Ernst Kossek andOzeki (1998) suggested that WFC leads to13lower work satisfaction. Similarly, Ford et al.
(2007) confirmed Frone, Russell, and Cooper’s (1992) model, in which WIF and FIW
led to lower family satisfaction and job satisfaction, respectively. However, the results ofStudy 2 (like those obtained by Vallerand etal., 2010) suggest a different relationship.
Work satisfaction—along with WFC—was
found to be a mediating variable between
harmonious passion for work and psychological distress. The alternative model in which
work satisfaction acted as a mediator between
WFC and psychological distress offered
fewer satisfying fit indices. Future researchshould further investigate the role of work
satisfaction in the relationship between WFC
and workers’ psychological distress using
prospective designs. This set of findings provides
a novel and original standpoint for understanding
the role of WFC in the passion/psychologicaldistress relationship, and significantly contributes
to the passion and WFC literature.
Gender Differences
A final contribution of this set of results is thegender differences found in our model. First, a
direct negative path between harmonious passion and psychological distress was found formen, and full mediation was obtained for
women (harmonious passion ¡ WFC and work
satisfaction ¡ psychological distress). Second,
compared with men, it appears that women are
more affected by strain-based WIF. Indeed, thepath between strain-based WIF and psychological distress was found to be significantly stronger for women than for men. Cinamon and Rich
(2002) proposed that family is more central tothe identity of women. Thus, an intrusion in thefamily domain, as when WIF occurs, would
create more distress for women. However, italso implies that for men, the relationship between harmonious passion and psychologicaldistress may be mediated by a factor that was
not accounted for in our set of studies. Futurestudies are needed to clarify this issue.
Practical Implications and Limitations
Results from these studies suggest that passion for work can actually protect workers fromexperiencing WFC and, in turn, psychologicaldistress. However, not all passions are the same.
Hence, organizations should facilitate the devel-

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14

HOULFORT, PHILIPPE, BOURDEAU, AND LEDUC

opment of a harmonious passion for work
among their employees, while avoiding the development of an obsessive passion. Simple
means can be established to encourage the development of harmonious passion: using andpromoting workers signature strengths, providing an autonomy-supportive management style,increasing workers’ emotional intelligence atwork, and so forth (see Vallerand et al., 2014,
for a review). Overall findings advise for a
flexible and mindful investment in one’s professional life, enabling passionate individuals toparticipate and get involved in other, nonpassionate activities. This is possible with a harmonious passion.
In addition, the findings strongly suggest thatin regard to WFC, strain-based conflicts areprimarily responsible for workers’ psychological distress. Hence, limiting this type of conflict,in which workers feel exhausted and depleted
from their engagement in one role (either workor family), could help prevent the appearance ofsymptoms of psychological distress. Not thatmaintaining time conflicts should be encouraged, but the first step in helping workers preserve their psychological well-being should beto reduce strain-based conflicts.
Some limitations of the present studies need
to be considered. First, both studies were crosssectional and used a correlational design; therefore, causality cannot be inferred. Future research using experimental designs is needed tostrongly establish the role of passion for work in
the chain of events leading to workers’ psychological distress. Prospective designs are alsoneeded to ascertain the long-term effects ofpassion for work on WFC and psychologicaldistress. Second, both studies relied solely on
self-reported data. Future research should attempt to replicate the present findings based on
the assessment of WFC and psychological distress from an informant (e.g., spouse or friends).
Conclusion
Passionate workers invest a significant
amount of time and energy in their jobs. Suchan investment could eventually lead to conflictwith other activities, including, in particular,
their family lives, which, in turn, could lead to
psychological distress. It is harder to envisionthat a person’s passion could actually protect
them from WFC. The present results suggestthat the reality lies somewhere in between—obsessive passion leads to WFC, whereas harmonious passion appears to protect workers
from such conflict. The findings also reveal
different pathways to psychological distress depending on the type of passion. For harmonious
passion, protection from psychological distressresults from enhanced work satisfaction anddecreased strain-based WIF. For obsessive passion, psychological distress results from enhanced strain-based WIF and FIW. These findings confirm the importance of using a
multidimensional conceptualization of WFC inorder to gain a more comprehensive understanding of how individuals who are passionate about
their work experience WFC and how this experience contributes to their psychological distress.

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Received March 4, 2015
Revision received February 22, 2017
Accepted April 3, 2017 䡲