J Gambl Stud (2007) 23:275–283
DOI 10.1007/s10899-006-9038-0
ORIGINAL PAPER

Prevalence Rates of Gambling Problems in Montreal,
Canada: A Look at Old Adults and the Role of PassionFrédérick Philippe Æ Robert J. VallerandPublished online: 13 March 2007
 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2007

Abstract The purpose of the present research was to determine the prevalence rateof gambling problems in senior citizens (55 years and older). A community-dwellingsample composed of 810 old adults living in the greater Montreal area in theProvince of Quebec completed the Revised South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGSR). Results revealed that the 12-month prevalence rate was 1.2% for pathologicalgambling and 1.6% for at-risk gambling. Although, these rates are comparable tothose reported elsewhere in Canada and in the US for senior citizens, the at-risk
gambling rate was significantly higher than the current one for the general population of the overall Province of Quebec. Finally, a smaller portion of participants also
completed two key items from the Gambling Passion Scale (GPS). Results revealed
that obsessive passion was higher for pathological gamblers than for at-risk and nonproblematic gamblers, while harmonious passion was lower for pathological gamblers than for at-risk and non-problematic gamblers.
Keywords Gambling Problems Æ Prevalence rate Æ Old adults Æ
Obsessive Passion Æ Harmonious Passion
The last decade has seen a widespread expansion of legalized gambling acrossCanada and the US. Gambling facilities are now widely available in bars, restaurants, and lounges. One concern relative to this expansion is the growing numberof pathological gamblers (Levens, Dyer, Zubritsky, Knott, & Oslin, 2005). Most
authors agree that the prevalence of pathological gambling is linked to the
Preparation of this article was facilitated through grants from the Social Sciences and Humanities
Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) and the Fond Québécois de la Recherche en Sciences
Humaines (FQRSC). We would like to thank Mrs. Daniel Dubeau and Pierre Provencher, and
Ms. Nicole Beaulieu for their support in the present research.
F. Philippe Æ R. J. Vallerand (&)
Laboratoire de Recherche sur le Comportement Social, Département de Psychologie,
Université du Québec à Montréal, Station ‘‘Centre-ville’’, P.O. Box 8888, Montreal (Quebec),
CanadaH3C 3P8
e-mail: vallerand.robert_j@uqam.ca

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availability of gambling activities (Campbell & Lester, 1999; Ladouceur, Jacques,
Ferland, & Giroux, 1999). Much research examined the impact of the gambling
expansion in the general adult (e.g. Welte, Barnes, Wieczorke, Tidwell, & Parker,
2004) and adolescent population (e.g. Langhinrichsen-Rohling, Rohde, Seeley, &Rohling, 2004) on pathological gambling. More recently, elderly individuals havebeen targeted as a possible at-risk population.
Early reports underlined the fact that elderly individuals are involved more thanever in gambling activities, as their gambling participation increased by 45% from1975 to 1997 (NORC, 1999). Today, gambling is one of the most frequently reported
social activities by older adults (McNeilly & Burke, 2001). As gambling participation
increases, the rate of pathological gambling in old adults might also increase, thus
making them an at-risk population group (NORC, 1999).
Recent epidemiological studies estimate that pathological gambling affects
between 1 and 2% of adults of all ages in the United States (Welte, Barnes,
Wieczorke, Tidwell, & Parker, 2001; Welte, Barnes, Wieczorke, Tidwell, & Parker,
2002), Canada (Cox, Yu, Afifi, & Ladouceur, 2005; Shaffer, Hall, & Vander Bilt,
1999), and Europe (Beconia, 1996). Pathological gambling also concerns 0.8% of the
population in the Province of Quebec in Canada (Ladouceur, Jacques, Chevalier,Sévigny, & Hamel, 2005). However, little empirical evidence exists concerning thecurrent prevalence rates of old adults (Wiebe & Cox, 2005). Moreover, those thatexist are not consistent. For instance, some research has shown that old age isassociated with lower rates of pathological gambling compared to middle age (e.g.
NORC, 1999; Shaffer, Hall, & Vander Bilt, 1997; Wiebe & Cox, 2005), while otherstudies reported higher prevalence rates of pathological gamblers in elderly individuals (e.g. Erickson, Molina, Ladd, Pietrzak, & Petry, 2005; Levens et al., 2005;
McNeilly & Burke, 2000).
Such confusion in pathological gambling prevalence rates might be due to multiple issues. An important one deals with the variation in population representation,
as samples recruited in gambling facilities may differ in significant fashion from
community-dwelling samples (McNeilly & Burke, 2000). Indeed, old adults surveyed
in gambling facilities are more likely to play, and to some extent, display pathological gambling problems than those surveyed at home. It might thus be necessary
to recruit community-dwelling participants when assessing gambling prevalence in agiven population.
Finally, little is known about the psychological correlates of older problematic
gamblers (Erickson et al., 2005). Gambling is often seen as an activity associatedwith negative consequences, such as familial disruption (Thompson, Gazel, &Rickman, 1996), substance abuse (Wallish, 1993; Welte et al., 2004), anxiety anddepression (Sommers, 1988), and suicide (Petry & Kiluk, 2002). However, recent
studies have linked gambling with positive outcomes (Korn & Shaffer, 1999),
especially in the elderly, as these activities might permit playful times, social integration, and connection with others (Hope & Havir, 2002; Vander Bilt, Dodge,
Pandav, Shaffer, & Ganguli, 2004). Taking these two opposite viewpoints into account, one needs to identify the factors that explain why one person would develop a
positive rapport with gambling, while another would develop pathological gamblingproblems.
One psychological construct that seems promising in discriminating problematicfrom non-problematic gamblers is the concept of passion (Rousseau, Vallerand,
Ratelle, Mageau, & Provencher, 2002; Vallerand et al., 2003). Passion is defined as a

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strong inclination toward an activity that one likes, finds important, and in which one
invests time and energy (Vallerand et al., 2003; Vallerand & Houlfort, 2003). This
theoretical approach posits that there are two types of passion for gambling, aharmonious one and an obsessive one. Harmonious passion reflects an autonomousinternalization of the gambling activity in the person’s identity. An autonomousinternalization occurs when individuals have freely accepted the activity as important for them without any contingencies attached to it. The activity is thus in concordance with their self-integrity. The activity remains under their control.
Harmonious passion has been linked to adaptive outcomes during engagement in theactivity for adults (Mageau, Vallerand, Rousseau, Ratelle, & Provencher, 2005;
Vallerand et al., 2003) and the elderly (Rousseau & Vallerand, 2003). Harmonious
passion has also been found to be positively associated with adaptive psychologicalresources and well-being over time (Vallerand, Rousseau, Grouzet, Dumais, &Grenier, in press; Vallerand et al., in press; Vallerand et al., 2003, Study 2). On theother hand, obsessive passion reflects a controlled internalization of the activity thatcreates an internal pressure to gamble. Such internalization originates from intra
and/or interpersonal pressure either because certain contingencies are attached tothe activity such as feelings of social acceptance or self-esteem, or because the senseof excitement derived from activity engagement becomes uncontrollable. Obsessive
passion is associated with negative outcomes during the activity for adults (Mageau
et al., 2005; Vallerand et al., 2003) and the elderly (Rousseau & Vallerand, 2003),
and has been found to lead to a decrease in well-being over time (Vallerand, et al., inpress; Vallerand et al., in press; Vallerand et al., 2003, Study 2).
Recent research has shown that the concept of passion is applicable to gambling.
Following the development of the Gambling Passion Scale (Rousseau et al., 2002),
research has shown that obsessive passion was associated with higher amounts ofmoney gambled in general (Rousseau et al., 2002) and with gambling dependencerelated consequences such as anxiety, guilt, and rumination after playing and when
prevented from gambling (Ratelle, Vallerand, Mageau, Rousseau, & Provencher,2004), while harmonious passion was associated with positive affective outcomes(Mageau et al., 2005). In addition, obsessive passion is positively associated withgambling problems, as measured by the South Oaks Gambling Screen (Ratelle et al.,2004), while harmonious passion is not. Finally, the concept of obsessive passion has
been found to characterize gamblers with problems so severe that they had to ask to
be self-excluded from casinos (Vallerand et al., 2003, Study 4). Passion for gambling
would thus appear to represent a useful concept in order to predict pathologicalgambling.

The Present ResearchThis study had two main objectives. The first objective was to assess the prevalenceof problem gambling in older adults living in community-dwelling houses in the
Greater Montreal area in the Province of Quebec. In line with a recent study
conducted in Canada in a community-dwelling (Wiebe & Cox, 2005), it was
hypothesized that older adults should not present a higher pathological or at-risk
prevalence rate than the general adult population. The second objective was toevaluate gambling problems as a function of the concept of passion. According topast research on passion and gambling (Mageau et al., 2005; Ratelle et al., 2004;

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Rousseau et al., 2002; Vallerand et al., 2003, Study 4), obsessive passion should bepositively associated with pathological gambling while harmonious passion should be
negatively associated with it. Also in line with previous research (Rousseau et al.,2002) that demonstrated that passion can discriminate heavy gamblers from recreational gamblers, obsessive passion should be higher for pathological gamblers thanfor both non-problematic and at-risk gamblers. Conversely, harmonious passion
should be higher for non-problematic gamblers and at-risk gamblers than forpathological gamblers.

MethodParticipants and Procedure
A stratified cluster design across the greater Montreal area in the Province ofQuebec was used to obtain a representative sample of Montreal residents in 2001.
The sample was stratified in randomly selected neighborhoods. Streets in eachneighborhood were also randomly chosen. Over 7000 households were visited by 21
interviewers. Following a door-to-door procedure, participants were first asked
about their age group. If they were 55 and higher, they were invited to fill out thequestionnaire described below. If they were not of that age group, they were asked if
someone living at home was 55 years of age or over. If no one was of that age group,
they were thanked and the interviewer moved on to another randomly selectedhousehold. A total of 810 persons (458 females and 335 males, 17 gender missingdata) who were at least 55 years old and who accepted to complete the questionnaire
participated in the present study. Their mean age was 66.10 years (SD = 8.34).
Measures
The South Oaks Gambling Screen Revised. The Revised South Oaks Gambling
Screen (SOGS-R: Lesieur & Blume, 1993) is a 21-item scale, completed on a yes orno basis. It assesses the level of problem gambling by requesting information about
12-month prevalence gambling behavior. A score of 0–2 yields a non-gamblingproblem level, a score of 3–4 an at-risk gambling problem level, while a score of 5and higher is considered a pathological gambling level. The SOGS has been widely
validated (e.g., Ladouceur et al., 2000; Lesieur & Blume, 1987; Stinchfield, 2002).
The Cronbach alpha of the SOGS-R in the present study was .78.
The Gambling Passion Scale. Two key items from The Gambling Passion Scale(GPS; Rousseau et al., 2002) were used in order to assess participants’ passion forgambling. These items were completed by a small subset of participants (n = 142).
The GPS is composed of two subscales; the obsessive subscale and the harmonious
subscale. This original scale has been shown to be reliable, valid, and free of social
desirability concerns (Rousseau et al., 2002). In the present study, participants wereasked to write down their favorite gambling game and to indicate their degree ofagreement with the two key items from the GPS. The harmonious passion item was‘‘This gambling game is in harmony with the other activities in my life’’ while ‘‘I havealmost an obsessive feeling for this gambling game’’ was the obsessive passion item.
Only one item of each subscale was used in order to keep the questionnaire as short
as possible, as respondents were elderly people who also had to complete the SOGS-R.

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Each key item had been selected on the basis of top loading on each factor of theoriginal factorial analysis (Rousseau et al., 2002). In another sample (n = 107) withthe full GPS, the obsessive passion item correlated at .83 (p < .01) with the fullobsessive passion subscale, while the harmonious passion item correlated at .65(p < .01) with the full harmonious passion subscale. The two items were responded
on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Do not agree at all) to 7 (Completely
agree).

Results
Out of 810 respondents, 385 had gambled at least once during the past 12 months. Of
these 385 individuals, 10 scored five and higher on the SOGS-R and were consideredpathological gamblers. Thus, the current 12-month prevalence rate of pathologicalgambling problems in the Greater Montreal area for people aged 55 years andhigher was 1.2%. Finally, a total of 13 participants scored three or four and wereconsidered at-risk gamblers (1.6%). Table 1 reports the frequency and percentage ofgambling problems according to each group as identified by the SOGS-R. Category
membership on the SOGS-R did not differ as a function of sex, age, level of education, or socioeconomic status (all ps > .05).
A partial correlation was computed between obsessive passion and the SOGS-R
level (continuous score), controlling for harmonious passion. Results revealed apositive correlation (rp = .49, p < .01) between the two. A partial correlation was
also computed between harmonious passion and the SOGS-R level, this time controlling for obsessive passion. Results revealed a negative correlation (rp = –.24,
p < .01). These results suggest that obsessive and harmonious passions for gambling
are respectively positively and negatively associated with gambling problems.
A 2 (Passion: obsessive passion, harmonious passion) · 3 (SOGS-R: non-problematic, at-risk, and pathological gamblers) analysis of variance with repeatedmeasures on the passion variable was computed in order to assess the relation
between the two types of passion and the types of gambling problem categories
based on the SOGS-R. As expected, results revealed no significant main effect for
passion (F = 1.26, ns) or for the SOGS-R (F = 1.37, p > .05) but a significant
interaction effect (F = 13.66, p < .01). Simple effects analyses showed that pathological gamblers had significantly higher scores on obsessive passion (M = 5.17)
compared to gamblers without problems (M = 1.79), t(2, 142) = –5.64, p < .01 andat-risk gamblers (M = 2.25), t(2, 142) = –3.77, p < .01. Gamblers without problems
and at-risk gamblers did not differ significantly between themselves with respect toobsessive passion (t[2, 142] < 1, ns). In addition, harmonious passion was found to be

Table 1 Twelve-month prevalence rates for elderly individuals in the greater montreal area

Non-gamblers
Gamblers without problems
At-risk gamblers
Pathological gamblers

Frequency

%

425
362
13
10

52.5
44.7
1.6
1.2

Note: n = 810

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Fig. 1 Obsessive andHarmonious Passion as afunction of the three gambling
categories based on the
SOGS-R: n = 142. Note: The
two types of passion werescored on a 7-point scale

J Gambl Stud (2007) 23:275–283

Obsessive Passion

Harmonious Passion

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Non-Problematic
Gamblers

At-RiskGamblers

PathologicalGamblers

Gambling Groups (Based on the SOGS-R)

marginally lower for pathological gamblers (M = 2.50) compared to both gamblers
without problems (M = 3.95) t(2, 142) = 1.75, p < .10) and at-risk gamblers(M = 4.13) t(2, 142) = 2.23, p = .10. Gamblers without problems and at-risk gamblers did not differ significantly with respect to harmonious passion (t[2, 142] < 1,ns). Of additional interest, pathological gamblers scored higher on obsessive passion(M = 5.17) than on harmonious passion (2.50). However, as can be seen in Fig. 1, acomplete reversal occurred for gamblers without problems (M = 1.79 versus 3.95)
and at-risk gamblers (M = 2.25 versus 4.13) where harmonious was higher thanobsessive passion.

Discussion
The first purpose of the present study was to identify the prevalence rate ofgambling problems among community-dwelling old adults of the Greater Montreal
area. It is the first study to do so. The present findings lead to a number of
implications. First, prevalence rates of 1.6 and 1.2% were found for at-risk andpathological gamblers, respectively. Wiebe and Cox (2005) reported the exact
same rates for at-risk gamblers and pathological gamblers with their sample ofolder adults in Manitoba, Canada (n = 1,000). Furthermore, these two prevalence
rates in our sample were not significantly different from those of a communitydwelling sample of old adults recruited in a Midwest metropolitan area in the US(at-risk: 1.3%, v2 [1, 1034] = 0.09, ns; pathological: 2.7%, v2 [1, 1034] = 2.40,
p < .12; McNeilly & Burke, 2000). The prevalence rates of at-risk and pathologicalgamblers in older adults living in community-dwelling in Montreal, Quebec, is thus
comparable to the ones found with older adults in Manitoba, Canada, and in a
Midwest area in the US.

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Some researchers have suggested that old adults are more at-risk of developing
gambling problems (e.g. NORC, 1999; Shaffer et al., 1997). The present findings
provide some tentative support for this analysis. Although, the current pathological gambling prevalence rate in older adults was not significantly different(v2 [1, 9638] = 1.65, ns) from that of the general population of the entire Provinceof Quebec (0.8%: Ladouceur et al., 2005), the fact that the at-risk prevalence ratein the present study (1.6%) was significantly higher than the one previously
reported in the overall population (0.9%: Ladouceur et al., 2005, v2 [1,9638] = 3.96, p = .05) suggests that the pathological problem prevalence rate inold adults may go up in the years to come. Future research using longitudinal
designs will be needed in order to test this hypothesis.
A second major implication from the present findings pertains to the concept of
passion. First, results revealed that an obsessive passion for gambling was positively
correlated to the number of symptomatic behaviors relative to pathological gambling, while harmonious passion was negatively correlated to it. These findings are inline with past research on the role of passion in gambling where obsessive passion
has been found to predict pathological gambling, while harmonious passion was not
associated with it (Ratelle et al., 2004; Vallerand et al., 2003, Study 4) and has evenbeen found to predict positive affective and cognitive outcomes (Mageau et al.,2005). Second, the present research suggests that the concept of passion might help
articulate a classification criterion, which can serve to distinguish between recreational and pathological gamblers. The present results revealed that the categories of
non-problematic gamblers and at-risk gamblers present a similar pattern, that is amoderate level of harmonious passion and a low level of obsessive passion (SeeFig. 1). However, a complete reversal occurs for pathological gamblers who report ahigh level of obsessive passion but a low level of harmonious passion. Such a pattern
has also been obtained in a previous study comparing regular casino players to selfexcluded casino players (Vallerand et al., 2003, Study 4). The relative scores ofharmonious and obsessive passion may thus be used to distinguish pathological fromrecreational gamblers. Future research on the potential use of the relative scores of
the two types of passion as a screening device is thus encouraged.
Some limitations of the present research need to be underscored. First, thepresent research used a sample of participants recruited from the Greater Montreal
area. Prevalence rates for elderly individuals might be different elsewhere in theProvince of Quebec. Thus, future research should examine the pathological and atrisk gambling prevalence rates for the entire Province of Quebec. A second limitation is that a population of community-dwelling participants might be different
from a population residing in senior centers or in long-term care centers, as the latterare more likely to be suffering from sickness, loss of physical autonomy, and loneliness. These might represent risk factors in developing gambling problems (Erickson
et al., 2005). As a growing number of elderly individuals leave their home to live in
long-term care centers, it might prove important to survey these individuals in future
research. Finally, passion for gambling was assessed with only two key items. Even
though their respective correlations with the full Gambling Passion Scale are high,using a limited number of items to measure a concept might lead to measurement
error. Future research is thus encouraged to replicate the present findings.
Despite these limitations, the present study offers preliminary information
regarding the prevalence rates of pathological and at-risk gambling in old adults
living in the greater Montreal area in the Province of Quebec. Furthermore, the use

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of the concept of passion for gambling seems to be useful in distinguishing individuals with gambling problems from those without problems. Future research on
this issue would thus appear promising.

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