IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 6 – Issue 1 – Spring 2018

Foreign Language Proficiency as an Asset for Japanese Graduates
Raimond Selke
Goethe-Institut Indonesien, Jakarta
Tomoki Sekiguchi
Graduate School of Management, Kyoto University
Ashlyn Moehle
Graduate School of Language and Culture, Osaka University
Abdelrahman Elsharqawy
Graduate School of Language and Culture, Osaka University
Philip Streich
Graduate School of Human Science, Osaka University

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Abstract
The present study discusses the findings from a survey of BA students in their 3rd year or
higher, as well as MA degree program students, regarding their perception of Western
corporate culture and internationalisation in relation to their foreign language major. The
students surveyed (n=445) belong to one of 24 different foreign language programs. Besides
demographics, the respondents were asked to state their level of agreement or disagreement
concerning different scenarios they might expect to encounter during their first full-time
position in a corporate firm. Data analyses were conducted with SPSS. A sample of students
in non- foreign language majors was used as a control group (n=112). Significant findings
are discussed within the theoretical framework of Stakeholder Theory in Education. Foreign
language students have a higher perception and understanding of internationalisation than
non-foreign language students. A statistical analysis of internationalisation among foreign
language students showed the highest correlation for the following factors: Evaluation ofEnglish for Career, Status of Foreign Language, and Business Interest. The findings have apractical implication for human resource managers, as they indicate which type of students
have the highest theoretical potential to help a firm striving for greater internationalisation.
One limitation of this study is that survey respondents are affiliated with only one university.
A future tracer study could test the model to see whether students with the highest level ofagreement to internationalisation really are involved after graduation in theinternationalisation process of the firms they are affiliated with.
Keywords: human resource management, western corporate culture, internationalisation,
stakeholder theory in education, status of foreign language

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Introduction
Internationalisation has reached the attention of Japanese stakeholders such as politicians,
human resource (HR) managers of multinational corporations [MNCs], as well as smallerorganisations, university administrators, students, and consumers. Internationalisation
concerns an organisation’s internal and external measurements to conduct business and trade.
Stakeholder groups affect each other in terms of opportunities and actions regarding
internationalisation. For example, a weak economy renders negative repercussions forsociety, manifesting as growing hardships for constituents, for example increasingly fragile
infrastructure. Similarly, in an underperforming education sector, underachieving graduates
failing to conform to market demands inflict negative consequences upon society. Suchnegative factors are currently compounded by a rapidly aging Japanese society, a low birthrate, a shrinking domestic market, increasing competition from foreign markets, andresistance to integration and migration (Sekiguchi, Froese, & Iguchi, 2016).
To provide a sustainable economic framework, bureaucrats are dependent on the performanceof the industrial sector and educational institutions (Lilles & Rõigas, 2017). Within
education, universities secure more funds via government or industry grants in a flourishingeconomic environment. In return, universities can provide better education, teaching, andresearch outputs. HR managers subsequently rely on graduates with a high potential tocontribute to their organisations’ internationalisation and increased profitability.
Embracing English language proficiency in human resource management (HRM) often
becomes synonymous with internationalisation. However, graduates must achieve proficiency
before they enter the job market. In Japan, learning techniques, teaching methods, andeducational outcomes remain varied, and English language proficiency is below theinternational average. For example, a report shows Japan ranking 40th from 46 countries inmean total scores for listening and reading (2015 Report on Test Takers Worldwide. The
TOEIC Listening and Reading Test, 2017). Japan remains a monolingual country, principally
due to the homogeneous nature of society. However, some companies (e.g., Rakuten, Nippon
Sheet Glass, Nissan) have promoted “Englishization” to make English the corporate
language. This is longstanding accepted practice for many foreign MNCs supporting a crucial
internationalisation strategy and contributing to a “modern” corporate culture. The rationale
for this change, in particular for MNCs, relates to the need for a more competitive businessmodel to address ongoing concerns (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1989; Sekiguchi et al., 2016). For
this research purpose we, therefore, consider besides internationalisation also Western
corporate culture as an important depending variable. MNCs have conducted significant
research into internationalisation, although a gap remains between perceptions of current
students concerning internationalisation and expectations of organisations seeking theirtalents. Investigation is required to understand how FL majors may make significant
contributions to internationalisation goals.
Academics have also addressed the need for internationalisation in the university
environment (Arimoto, Cummings, Huang, & Shin, 2015). In this respect, internationalisation
has other implications, depending upon whether it is applied to individual fields of study or toa university-wide curriculum and administrative structure. In the case of foreign language(FL) programs, the primary goals consist of improving language proficiency whilst
developing cultural intelligence (CQ). The success of such programs in executing the latter
impacts upon the level of internationalisation. However, the strong focus of previous researchis upon scholars and academics, whilst largely neglecting students as stakeholders. By

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Volume 6 – Issue 1 – Spring 2018considering students and identifying which factors are correlated with a positive perception ofinternationalisation, this study aims to fill the practical gap for HR managers. Thereby,
educational solutions can contribute significantly to the debate upon Japaneseinternationalisation strategies and FL proficiency.
This paper addresses the following research questions:
1. What are the perceptions of FL students regarding Western corporate culture andinternationalisation in comparison with their peers in non-FL majors?
2. What effect do features of FL major students and programs (study abroad experience,the status of the language, personal interest in the FL, future outlook, and perceptionof utility) have on the scores for Western corporate culture and internationalisation?
Literature Review
The research review focuses on internationalisation and its chosen predictors, career choice,
FL education, and Stakeholder Theory in education.
Internationalisation and its Chosen Predictors
Arimoto et al. (2015) detailed the changing Japanese academic profession. Various authors
considered the phenomenon of “change” due to demographic factors, and a realignment of
stakeholder relationships. These discussions concern a 1992 survey, repeated in 2007.1 Huang(2015) points out that by 2007 more than 70% of faculty members in both national andprivate universities rejected the necessity for a fresh impetus to internationalise their
university curriculums. Within the changing university environment, institutions have moved
from catering exclusively to society’s higher echelons to achieving universal provision ofhigher education, stimulated by a shrinking population. Superfluous capacity ensures thatapplicants achieving the minimum entrance requirement can find a place. This will impact
upon teaching quality due to varying levels of student readiness to embark upon higher
education programs. Private universities and those in rural areas must cope with these issues
sooner than National Universities and institutions with a prestigious reputation. Arimoto et al.
(2015) conclude that internationalisation of Japanese university research and educationrelated activities has improved since 2000. However, awareness of internationalisation overthe same time period has not kept pace. Arimoto et al. (2015) suggest there may be negative
associations among Japanese university educators regarding internationalisation.
Academics also emphasise the need for change in the Japanese economy and point to thepressure many firms face from globalisation (Lippert & Kenichi, 2015; Lippert, 2016; Yamao& Sekiguchi, 2015). Such research provides a comprehensive overview of companies’
internationalisation strategies and resulting issues concerning staff demotivation. For Lippert
and Kenichi (2015), hesitation paired with resistance to change is traceable to the Kaishacompany mind-set rooted in a high-context culture with unwritten rules. It therefore becomesa barrier to successfully adapting to internationalisation. Today, the Kaisha-mind-set, which
helped Japanese growth during the 1960s and 1970s is, for Lippert (2016), often no longer
appropriate. According to Lippert and Kenichi (2015), hesitation over sending employees
abroad stems from inadequate FL proficiency and consequent low CQ.
1

The First International Survey of the Academic Profession in 1992, sponsored by the Carnegie Foundation for
the Advancement of Teaching in the United States and including 14 countries. Arimoto along with Futau
conducted a similar survey in 2007.

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To fill the practical and academic gap and consider why many firms still follow traditionalroutes by relying upon the local market, Yamao and Sekiguchi (2015) measured the impact
on “change” and “progress” with English as an organisation’s internationalisation language.
Whilst the authors assume that English-speaking employees have the potential to support
internationalisation, their findings illustrated difficulties for non-Anglophonic countries, inparticular Japan, in switching to English. Such development can change the power
relationship within an organisation by severely affecting the authoritative hierarchy and,
consequently, the Kaisha-mind-set. HRM practitioners and academics see this as one of the
major barriers to effective Japanese internationalisation. Building on insights provided by thisresearch, the question is raised: how can CQ skills and assets of FL graduates contribute tosolve such dilemmas?
Career ChoiceRegarding the age factor, Humburg (2017), like Lee and Ohtake (2014), investigates career
choice using the BIG 5 characteristics. He argued that assessing behavioural characteristics of
14 year-olds permits comparison with the subsequent choice of subject studied, as personality
has yet to be influenced by pursuing a particular field of study, for example through either
peer pressure or stricter adherence to stereotypes. Therefore age, as an influencing factor thatshapes undergraduates’ perceptions of corporate culture and internationalisation, is
considered as they advance in the curriculum and age is included as a control variable.
Schaar, Selke, Ang, & Ogasa (2015) investigated career choice, and a tracer study examined
career paths of FL graduates in a Malaysian-German BA program. The survey questioned
curriculum improvement and established that graduates sought additional courses with “reallife” relevance (e.g., business aspects). The possibility exists to conceptually develop thestudy by including “business as personal interest in language” as an indicator for career
success, or at this stage, as a marker for greater aptitude for internationalisation. The tracer
study also revealed that lifelong learning and in particular further studies in Master or MBA,which are providing additional international flair and knowledge for the learners, have apositive impact on income and career development.
Foreign Language Education
In the English Education Reform Plan Corresponding to Globalization (MEXT, 2013),
Japanese policy makers outlined steps for improving English as a FL education program in
the public school system. This was a galvanized response to globalisation and indicatespolicy makers’ underlying assumption that English and FL proficiency contribute toeconomic development. Japan remaining a monolingual society questions past measures
aimed at improving English proficiency, such as the Japan Exchange and Teaching program.
The English Education Reform Plan is not immune to criticism (e.g., Kobayashi, 2013),
discussion of low English proficiency relating to Japanese economic performance from 1970
to 2012. A key organisational concern is that Japanese graduates are becoming less inclined
to work overseas. Many Japanese companies seek foreign talent that can help them cope with
globalisation challenges. However, Japanese graduate FL skills are not readily utilised andare not viewed as an asset. This approach, which ignores FL skills as a career enhancer andincludes a male gender bias for managerial promotion, is ultimately detrimental. Female
employees with high FL proficiency experience find difficulty in achieving appropriate peer

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Volume 6 – Issue 1 – Spring 2018recognition, (Kobayashi, 2013). Therefore, Kobayashi’s paper is highly relevant to theresearch project as female students achieve higher FL grades.2
Scholars have called for analyses of English education within a broader framework of policy,
politics and ideology (Kobayashi, 2013; Morizumi, 2016). To establish a balance between
progressive and conservative thinking among policy makers, Morizumi (2016) notes that
improving English proficiency is paired with the affirmation of Japanese identity in English
education. However, for Kobayashi (2013), recent efforts in expanding English education are
too late. Such Japanese academic opinions concerning language education highlights the
problematic Japanese mind-set regarding English.
The literature also indicates mounting pressure upon previously important foreign languages
in Japan. Schöningh (2015) discussed the shift in language policy and interest in Japan forGerman, traditionally the second most-studied FL in terms of numbers after English. Other
studies support this pessimistic analysis and demand a modernized curriculum, (whichcorresponds with students’ aspirations in Schaar’s et al. (2015) findings). For example,
Chinese has become more prominent, and some companies established special training
programs within their headquarters (Nakamura, 2016). Therefore, it is relevant to include FL
status within this study, and to raise the question: does a role remain for shrinking foreign
languages in the changing Japanese university environment?
Stakeholder Theory in Education
Stakeholder Theory has received, since its introduction by Freeman in 1984, more attention(Freeman, 1984; Freeman, Harrison, & Wicks, 2010). One of the main misunderstandings
with this theory is often its mixing up with corporate social responsibility due to its aversive
concept against shareholders' wealth maximization. The theory explains that anorganisation’s success and survivability depends upon its capability to satisfy both its
economic and non-economic objectives. Therefore, the concept is applicable in the university
performance context. A university which does not serve the needs of society fails to succeed
in its reason for being in business. Upon implementation of the National University
Incorporation Law in 2004, Japanese national universities, which were formerly government
controlled, became “national university corporations”. A primary legislative goal was tomake universities more responsive to society’s needs in an increasingly competitive andglobalised age. Understandably, stakeholder management plays a crucial role in the operationof higher education institutions, as multiple stakeholder groups and their attendant aspirations
require close monitoring, plus inclusion in decision making processes (e.g., curriculum
design, evaluation, and internationalisation). The extent to which implementation of
stakeholder management has been successful remains underexplored. Woolgar (2007)
investigated university-industry linkages after the 2004 law. He measured how industry
generated income varied depending upon university staff competency. One finding was that
universities often failed to provide graduates with industry required skills, despite this being a
legislative driving rationale. The phenomenon of changing expectations within higher
education, and sometimes the failure of institutions to meet such expectations, is not peculiar
to Japan. In many countries, universities previously under government control are facing
mounting pressure due to a growing awareness of stakeholder management and expectationsof greater commitment to people and society (Mampaey & Huisman, 2015). Murasawa’s
2

Tollefson (2016) discusses the language policy direction for Japan in another direction, i.e. foreign workers in
the care and health sectors. It could be investigated how Japanese foreign language graduates benefit from thepresence of such foreign language speakers, (e.g., Tagalog and Bahasa Indonesia) in internalinternationalization.

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Volume 6 – Issue 1 – Spring 2018(2015) analysis of academic professions reaches similar conclusions concerning stakeholder
responsibility. With decreased governmental oversight, universities attempt to accomplish
effective staff evaluation, partially by setting individual Key Performance Indices. Hammond(2016) suggests that pressure on higher education staff is rooted in the effort to remaininternationally competitive in response to economic globalisation, which is linked back to
Stakeholder Theory. For Murasawa (2015), the absence of significant results is not surprisingwhen analysing the impact of evaluation on research input, such as grants, and output, such as
publications and patents, and on teaching orientation. The incorporation of national
universities and its consequences for university management exhibits parallels to tensions
between eastern and western work culture in some Japanese companies. For example, agebased remuneration may be favoured over western pay-by-merit, and perceived as a better
incentive. Similarly, notions of responsibility in Japanese firms often differ from western
standards (Takahashi, 2004; Todeschini, 2011). These findings relate to the present research,as they indicate further risk of conflict within internationalisation.
Western corporate culture
Organisational corporate culture serves to maintain integrity within company subsidiaries. In
a 1968 study, repeated in 1972, Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G., & Minkov (2010) explore
differences in national cultures and consequent divergent views upon management in 72
countries within one MNC (IBM). Such differences are predicated upon deeply-rooted values
and traditions of respective cultures. Managers’ and employees’ values shape their
expectations of how companies should be managed and how relationships between individual
members should be defined. Fukuyama, (1996) and Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner(2012) further developed cultural diversity by demonstrating that Japanese HRM practices
are fundamentally different to those of companies originating or operating in North Americanand European cultures (Kopp, 1994). For example, they claim that organisations with rigid
hierarchies survive best under stable conditions. In turbulent times, as Japan is currently
experiencing, organisations with flat hierarchies cope more effectively. They believe that
failure to address causes of counterproductive trends before their effects appear can prove
detrimental to organisations and their entrenched cultures. Western corporate culture isfundamentally different from that in Japan. Based upon required HRM practice change
illustrated above, acceptance of Western corporate culture was measured as an indicator of
students’ potential to support internationalisation. However, the feasibility of alternative
approaches is acknowledged, for example measuring willingness to adopt Chinese corporate
culture, with its heavy governmental and political influence as an indicator of potential tocontribute to internationalisation.
Internationalisation
No common definition of internationalisation exists. Dülfer and Jöstingmeier (2008) define it
as the process of export, licensing or overseas direct investment. Perlitz (2004) considers
internationalisation as a phenomenon encompassing various aspects of commercial enterprisesuch as products, customers, and employees. Within Japanese HRM, both internal andexternal internationalisation are demarcated. Yoshihara (2005) describes internalinternationalisation as foreign employee involvement in headquarters decision making.
Alternatively, external internationalisation concerns all aspects of MNCs operating overseas,
which is achieved through either localisation, such as employing host country nationals tomanage Japanese MNC subsidiaries, or globalisation, providing fair and equal promotional
opportunities regardless of nationality. Both strategies achieve greater internationalisation byeither increasing local responsiveness or promoting global integration (Bartlett & Ghoshal,1989). In this study the term is used to refer to both internal and external internationalisation.

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Status of a foreign language
Languages are normally grouped by measuring either the number of native speakers or the
economic strength of the countries where they are spoken. Linguists divide languages into
broad categories: “growing” and “shrinking” or “big” and “small” (Ammon, 2015; Swann de,2001). In this study, languages are categorised as either “growing” or “shrinking” according
to the number of current native speakers. Growing languages include English, Arabic,
Chinese, Spanish, Bahasa Indonesia, Hindi, and Farsi, and shrinking languages include
German, French, and Danish.
Based upon impediments discussed above, raised issues, previous findings, and gaps in the
research, the following hypotheses are developed:
H1a: Japanese FL major students are more likely to accept Western corporate culture thantheir peers in non-FL majors.
H1b: Japanese FL major students are more likely to accept tasks and efforts related tointernationalisation than their peers in non-FL majors.
H2a: Factors related to features of the FL (overseas study experience, language status,
personal interest in FL, future outlook, and perception of utility) have a positive correlation
with scores of readiness for Western corporate culture.
H2b: Factors related to features of the FL (overseas study experience, language status,
personal interest in FL, future outlook, and perception of utility) have a positive correlation
with scores of readiness for internationalisation.

Figure 1: Theoretical Framework
Independent Variables (IV): (1) personal interest in FL major, (2) overseas study, (3) future outlook, and (4)perception of the utility of English/FL
Control Variables (CV): (1) Gender, (2) Age
Dependent Variables (DV): (1) Western corporate culture, (2) Internationalisation

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Methodology
The selected target population were undergraduate students from Osaka University in the 3rd,
4th, or higher years (as well as several MA students). The sampling was made from all
students by individual approach in public places like the library, canteen, waiting lounge andby asking co-academics to distribute the questionnaire before or after class. The School of
Foreign Studies at Minō campus (headed by the Graduate School of Language and Culture)offers BA programmes in 24 FLs to approximately 3,000 students.3 Osaka University Schoolof Foreign Studies offers the most comprehensive Japanese FL programme after Tokyo
University of Foreign Studies.
To understand attitudes towards Western corporate culture and internationalisation, apreviously tested questionnaire was adopted and modified for use in the Japanese context.
Herstatt et al. (2007) developed a tool to measure the potential for international marketing insmall and medium sized German companies. Their questionnaires target managers andemployees. Part 1 issues were chosen to measure the socio-cultural gap within companies.
The questions in the original questionnaire described typical scenarios within the concept ofWestern corporate culture such as directness of addressing issues to superiors. As Japanese
adoption of Western corporate culture presents a potential conflict due to clashes withJapanese traditional management styles on several fronts, many of the topics used wereapplicable to the research questions. Responses to Part 2 are important indicators regarding
internationalisation. The questions in the original questionnaire were very similar and meant
to measure the capability of a firm to adopt to international assignments. Both were amended
and extended, and the 1 to 5 point Likert Scale was extended to 9 points to permit greater
variance. Responses were translated from German into Japanese and back by two separate
individuals. The anonymous questionnaire was in three parts: (I) demographics, including
respondents’ expectations of FL future requirements (Q1–Q9); (II) items regarding Western
corporate culture (Q10.1–Q10.7) internationalisation (Q11.1–Q11.11); (III) general items
regarding job seeking strategies (Q12–Q21). The questionnaire included a concluding
qualitative statement which respondents were to complete, “I study my foreign language
major because . . .” Respondents could also provide their contact detail for consideration as
participants in a further research focus group. The same procedure was applied in the non-FL
major control group questionnaire.
In the first stage of analyses we gathered demographic data, followed by a comparison offoreign language versus non-foreign language students’ perception towards Western
corporate culture (Model 1, Table 2) and internationalisation (Model 2, Table 2). In thesecond analyses we than compared FL students’ perception towards Western corporate
culture and internationalisation according to the status of the FL (Table 3). The variables ofinterest were: overseas study, business interest, status of FL, English for career, gender, andage. Finally we conducted a qualitative analysis and did a frequency count on field of interestin the studied FL (Table 4) to support our possible findings and recommendations.

3

FLs offered are English, Arabic, Bahasa Indonesia, Farsi, Urdu, Swahili, Hindi, Chinese Mandarin, Burmese,
German, French, Spanish, Hungarian, Italian, Portuguese, Danish, Swedish, Russian, Korean, Thai, Vietnamese,
Mongolian, Tagalog, and Turkish.

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Data Analyses
Data were collected at Minō and Toyonaka campuses of Osaka University in July 2016 withassistance from Japanese and foreign academic staff, plus supporting students who received
compensation. The response rate was over 90% both for FL major respondents (n=445) andthe control group of non-FL major respondents (n=112).
Table 1: Foreign Language Major, (+) growing (-) shrinking, responses for all 24 FL majors
in total number and percentage (n=557), with control group of non-FL majors (n=112)

Frequency
English (+)
51
Arabic (+)
14
Bahasa Indonesia (+) 15
Farsi (+)
22
Urdu (+)
14
Swahili (+)
9
Hindi (+)
16
Chinese (+)
20
Burmese (-)
27
German (-)
42
French (-)
6
Spanish (+)
32
Hungarian (-)
10
Italian (-)
22
Portuguese (+)
3Danish (-)
10
Swedish (-)
15
Russian (-)
17
Korean (-)
12
Thai (-)
11
Vietnamese (-)
18
Mongolian (-)
18
Tagalog (-)
19
Turkish (-)
22Non- FL Major
112
Total
557

Percent
9.2
2.5
2.7
3.9
2.5
1.6
2.9
3.6
4.8
7.5
1.1
5.7
1.8
3.9
.5
1.8
2.7
3.1
2.2
2.0
3.2
3.2
3.4
3.9
20.1
100.0

Valid Percent
9.2
2.5
2.7
3.9
2.5
1.6
2.9
3.6
4.8
7.5
1.1
5.7
1.8
3.9
.5
1.8
2.7
3.1
2.2
2.0
3.2
3.2
3.4
3.9
20.1
100.0

Cumulative
Percent
11.7
14.4
18.3
20.8
22.4
25.3
28.9
33.8
41.3
42.4
48.1
49.9
53.9
54.4
56.2
58.9
61.9
64.1
66.1
69.3
72.5
75.9
79.9
100.0

Cronbach’s Alpha (CA) tests for datasets dealing with Western corporate culture (Q10.1 10.7) and internationalisation (Q11.1 - Q11.11) were .790 and .847, respectively. One item
targeting internationalisation, Q11.9, was removed as it was negatively correlated or nearzero with other Q11 components; this improved CA to .888.

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Test of Hypotheses 1a and 1b
Testing Hypotheses 1a and 1b, t-tests was performed on the means for Western corporate
culture and internationalisation for FL majors and non-FL majors, shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Means Comparison between FL Majors and Non-FL majors
Model 1 (Q10)
Model 2 (Q11)
Major
N
Mean (S.D.)
N
Mean (S.D.)
FL majors
442
41.97 (7.96)
441
60.79 (12.79)
Non-majors
112
41.76 (8.37)
104
50.88 (13.82)
t-scores.241
7.00****p<0.10; **p<0.05; ***p<0.01
For comparison of means of perception of Western corporate culture, there is no significant
statistical difference between FL majors and non-FL majors. FL majors do not score on
average significantly higher on issues in Q10 (Western corporate culture) and the t-test (.241)
fails to reject the null hypothesis. However, the mean for FL majors is almost ten points
higher for Q11 (internationalisation), and the difference is statistically significant (t=7.00).
With regard to Q11, Q11.2 was not distributed to non-majors (in addition to Q11.9) as it
pertained exclusively to language utilisation. This test confirms support for Hypothesis 1b;
Japanese FL major students are more likely to accept tasks and efforts related tointernationalisation than their peers in non-FL majors. However, the test does not support
Hypothesis 1a; Japanese FL major students are more likely to accept Western corporate
culture than their peers in non-FL majors.
Test of Hypotheses 2a and 2b
To test Hypotheses 2a and 2b, an OLS regression was performed for FL major students using
the dependent variables Q10 (Western corporate culture) and Q11 (internationalisation), plus
independent variables Overseas Study, Business Interest, Status of FL, and Utility of English
for Career. As control variables, Age and Gender were used as in Table 3.
Table 3: OLS Regression of Q10 & Q11 on the Independent Variables
Model 1 (Q10)
Model 2 (Q11)
Independent Variables
Unstandardized/Standardized Coeff. (St Error)
Overseas Study
2.972 / .107 (1.21)**-.013 / -.001 (.82)
Business Interest
6.596 / .231 (1.17)***2.805 / .161 (.79)***Status of FL-2.597 / -.094 (1.12)**-1.558 / -.092 (.76)**
English for Career
4.254 / .392 (.44)***1.475 / .223 (.30)***Gender-2.811 / -.099 (1.16)**-1.803 / -.105 (.78)**
1.916 / .170 (.49)***Age
1.556 / .227 (.33)***
Constant
31.66 (3.08)
32.565 (4.58)
32.76***
F
13.72***
Pearson's R
.400
.559
R Squared.160.313
Adjusted R Squared
.148
.303
*p<0.10; **p<0.05; ***p<0.01

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The regression models in Table 3 indicate convincing results. Test of Hypothesis 2a isrepresented by Model 1, the regression of acceptance of Western Corporate Culture (Q10)
into independent variables. The model is statistically significant (F=13.72) with a strong
positive correlation of .400. All independent variables are statistically significant at least at
the 5% level except for Overseas Study, a dichotomous variable (0=no, 1=yes). The
coefficients for Business Interest and Utility of English for Career (the perception that
English is important for career development) are both positive, which indicates that the more
highly held beliefs resulted in higher acceptance of Western Corporate Culture. Status of
Foreign Language (coded as 1=shrinking, 2=growing) has a negative coefficient, which
results in those studying shrinking languages scoring higher on acceptance of Western
Corporate Culture.
Of the two demographic variables, Age and Gender (coded as 1=male, 2=female), Ageperforms as expected, with older students more readily accepting Western Corporate Culture.
For Gender, coding orientation and the negative coefficient indicates that male respondents
more readily accept Western Corporate Culture.
For Model 2, Hypothesis 2b was tested with a regression of acceptance of Internationalisationon the same independent variables. The model is also statistically significant (F=32.76) witha strong, positive correlation of .559. Unlike Model 1, Overseas Study is statisticallysignificant, and all independent variables are statistically significant at least at the 5% level.
The coefficients for Business Interest and Utility of English for Career are both positive,
which indicates that respondents with higher scores will also do so on acceptance of Western
Corporate Culture. Status of Foreign Language has a negative coefficient, signifying thatstudents studying shrinking languages score higher on Internationalisation. The demographic
variables have matching sign coefficients to Model 1, leading to corresponding
interpretations for Model 2: male students score higher on acceptance of Internationalisation,
as do older students.
The last analysis was regarding interest in the studied language. The qualitative results weretwice re-coded and show that fields of interest are generally more focused on utilization of
FL skills in the business world outside academia (Table 4).

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Table 4: Q20 “I study my foreign language because . . .”Re-code 1
Key words
Counted numbers
personal interest
70
intercultural interest
68
career38
communication25
degree22knowledge
21
opportunities
14
geopolitics
14
business
9
language
9
linguistic2
art/culture3

Re-code 2
Key words
Counted numbers
culture99
personal interest
89
career79
knowledge
40
language40
communication
23
education
22
study and research
20business
17
linguistics
7
history
7
international relations
4
literature3
job hunting
3
work
2
arts
2
politics, economy
2music, graduation,
1 eachgrammar, UN, hobby,
travel, translation,
globalisation, fun

Discussion of Findings
Responses have been provided to the two questions formulated in the literature review: (1)how can the CQ skills and assets of FL graduates contribute to internationalisation?; (2) does
a role remain for shrinking foreign languages in the changing Japanese university
environment? Research findings associated with questions and hypotheses are detailed below.
The Importance of the Studied Subject (RQ1)
The analyses (Table 2) indicate significant difference in the perception and understanding ofinternationalisation between two groups of respondents, i.e. FL majors (n=445) and non-FL
majors (n=112). As indicated above, internationalisation is often considered synonymouswith English biased foreign language proficiency in relatively monolingual Japan. The
findings illustrate the relationship between FL proficiency and the potential to support anorganisation in achieving internationalisation, (H1b was supported). These findings suggestthat organisations may benefit from language and CQ assets offered by FL graduates. The
successful comparison of the two student groups makes the discussion of other findings
meaningful. Contrary to expectations, the results for perception of Western corporate culture
were not significant and thus H1a was not supported.
The unequivocal consensus that English is key to future careers supports the current researchdebate surrounding Japanese university English language education from the perspective of
ELF and global business education (Terauchi & Araki, 2016).

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Features of Foreign Languages (RQ2)
The regression models for Western Corporate Culture and Internationalisation are significant(Table 3). Only a minor difference between the two with respect to overseas study. The initial
objective was to test whether the changing status of FL has an impact on either of thesevariables. It was established that students of shrinking languages score higher on acceptanceof Western Corporate Culture and Internationalisation (H2a and H2b). Students of growing
languages may consider it less important to exhibit flexibility, as many are from “privileged”
languages and principally focus on their studied language. Shrinking language learners may
inherit a more flexible and pragmatic approach to challenging circumstances due to either ashrinking population or an increasing dominance of English.
Respondents may also consider the economic strength of the locations in which their FL isspoken when responding to questions concerning their potential future career. Countries suchas Germany and Italy, with a higher GDP than all Arabic countries, offer improved financial
security and a stable economy in which students can rely on a fare market with law and order.
Students having completed study abroad time in those Western countries may have a better
positive opinion. In addition, potentially improved trade with richer countries may induce a
superficial sense of security and make internationalisation less attractive. Further toNakamura’s (2016) description of Chinese and Russian FL training programs in Japanesecompanies, it can be added that FL speakers possess the requisite CQ in addition to linguistic
proficiency.
Students ranking business of significant interest within the FL curriculum also have higher
age and overseas study experience, (control variables), and therefore greater acceptance ofinternationalisation. Future implications suggest that increased emphasis should be placed on
business-related courses within FL curricula. If appropriate, the established English forSpecial Purposes approach could be modified for other FLs. In Japan, Western European
languages, such as German or French, were held in high esteem, and their status only
declined over the last 15 years as English, Chinese and Korean gained popularity. The focus
upon learning German, for example, is under mounting pressure both from competing
languages and students’ subliminal disinclination to study traditional and less admiredsubjects (e.g., literature and linguistics) (Table 4). In considering keywords extracted fromthe questionnaire qualitative question, it becomes apparent that career and personal interest
are among the main drivers motivating students’ choice of foreign language major. In posthoc e-mail discussion with respondents who had expressed interest in participating in a focus
group, the meaning of their statements was queried, although only two responses werereceived.
The former Head of the Tokyo, Goethe-Institut Language Section requested consideration to
reinvigorate the attractiveness that initially drew students to these languages, (Schöningh,2015). However, FLs such as Chinese and Spanish may simply adjust their curriculums due
to a weaker focus on one particular field because of the relatively short time during whichthese languages have experienced growing interest. This has resulted in a less developed
network of subject experts and less powerful organisations that favour traditional language
teaching, such as the grammar translation method which remains common in Japan.
Overseas study features of the foreign language programs and significantly impacts upon
acceptance scores for internationalisation. Understandably, Japanese students who havestudied abroad have gained greater exposure to environments away from home. However,Japan is experiencing a reverse trend whereby less able students are willing to study overseas,

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which has a consequent negative impact upon the internationalisation of Japanese companies.
As Kobayashi (2013) and Lippert and Kenichi (2015) indicate, Japanese corporations hire
more foreign graduates and experts as their Japanese counterparts are less amenable to accept
burdensome foreign assignments. There is a consequent future risk that fewer ambitious andforeign trained Japanese graduates will be available to support organisations’internationalisation processes.
Recommendations and Implications
From the findings and literature review we can see that in theory Japanese foreign language
students have a good understanding of internationalisation and possess a high potential to
give firms aiming for expanding business abroad more strength. The Japanese economy
needs such fresh spirit to maintain competiveness. In a broader context, university boards ofother Asian countries can learn from this paper that it is advisable to increase andstrengthening international exchange programs. The findings deliver new arguments tonegotiate for more funds and scholarship initiatives for students willing to study abroad.
Another aspect of general application is the future strategy should become the possible
inauguration of new foreign language programs versus maintaining those of erroneous, less,or shrinking importance. Internationalisation is still probably best learnt in fully developed
market economies with less constraints by political or religious turmoil. Hence, countries like
Denmark, Germany or France are still valid players in the global economy.
Regarding the academic gap, issues concerning changes in university operational processes
are mentioned above (Mampaey & Huisman, 2015). As Japanese universities are now
compelled to focus on key stakeholders needs, including students and labour markets, thefindings can assist decision makers to improve their university’s role society by updating FL
curricula to meet society’s changing needs.
Limitations
Samples consisted of respondents from a single university, and respondents’ answers are selfproclaimed. Another possible limitation concerns social pressure respondents felt to ratecertain items as important or to appear open to internationalisation. For example, due topervasive rhetoric within government policy, university mission statements espousecommitment to such ideals. In addition, respondents may have grouped the FL statusaccording the economic strength of the locations rather than the number of native speakers.
Conducting a similar survey, including additional universities with foreign language majors
in order to achieve a larger sample, is an option that would test and validate the model. Most
importantly, a tracer study of FL graduates should reveal if the model is consistent with thereality of Japanese professional life.
Acknowledgment
This research was supported by a Research Grant (Kakenhi 16K02960). We owe sincere
appreciation for fruitful comments to all unknown reviewers.

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Corresponding author: Raimond Selke
Contact email: raimond.selke@goethe.de(Author’s note: The corresponding author worked previously as Associate Professor at theGraduate School of Language and Culture, Osaka University, Japan.)120