Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

NEA/CRPPH/R(2018)1/PROV
Unclassified

English - Or. English
21 March 2018

NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCYCOMMITTEE ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION AND PUBLIC HEALTHNEA International Workshop on Post-Accident Food Safety Science – Summary
reportHeld in Fukushima on 8-10 November 2016
Hosted by Cabinet Office of JapanFor any information about this document, please contact Edward Lazo (edward.lazo@oecd.org)

JT03428824

This document, as well as any data and map included herein, are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to thedelimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.

2 │ NEA/CRPPH/R(2018)1/PROVORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENTThe OECD is a unique forum where the governments of 35 democracies work together to address the economic,
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NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCYThe OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) was established on 1 February 1958. Current NEA membership consistsof 33 countries: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France,
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Foreword
Following the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) accident in March 2011,
considerable public concern arose regarding the management of food in and from Japan.
These concerns were raised in Japan, as well as in surrounding countries.
Unfortunately, it was quickly realised that the existing frameworks for
decision-making with regard to food imports seemed inadequate for addressing thechallenges presented by this unprecedented event.
The areas affected by the accident are agricultural, producing many food products,
including rice, vegetables, beef, persimmons, and peaches. In addition, the area isan important region for fisheries in Japan. The food products of the region have been very
well-regarded both in Japan and abroad. However, some of the people living in affectedareas remain concerned for their health and for their future livelihood.
In the aftermath of the accident, populations living outside the directly affected areas
were also concerned about consuming food products from Fukushima prefecture. In
Tokyo, which is located approximately 240 km south of Fukushima prefecture, someshops entirely ceased to carry certain food items simply because the best examples werecommonly from the Fukushima region. Many of Japan’s trading partners, which wereconcerned about importing food thought to be contaminated, showed similar reactions.
These concerns posed difficulties for farmers and fishermen with their activities, even forsome of them needed to abandon food products reluctantly. Besides they caused acomplex, multi-layered problem with local, national and international implications, for
which
there
were
no
broad,
internationally-agreed
approaches.
This stands as an important lesson to be absorbed from the accident and highlights a needfor international focus.
To secure distribution of safe agricultural and livestock products, good agricultural
practices to produce safe food and feed including reduction measures of radionuclides
from farmland have been implemented in Japan. The regulation limits have been set
consistent with the approach stipulated in the international standards/guidelines, i.e.
Codex guidelines. Food monitoring/inspection has also been conducted for an enormous
number of samples every year. These measures have been combined to assure that foodentering the domestic and international markets meets stringent Japanese food standards.
Many national institutions and international organisations have focused on these issues
since the accident. This workshop discussed the science supporting food safety standards,
the science of managing contamination levels in food products to meet food safety
standards, and the local, national and international organisational aspects to take into
consideration to ensure food safety. It should be noted that radiological protection
decisions, while informed by science, rather than being based on science, are generally
driven by social value considerations. This workshop discussed scientific aspects only.

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Table of contents
Foreword ................................................................................................................................................ 3
List of abbreviations and acronyms ..................................................................................................... 6
Public and policy overview ................................................................................................................... 7
Executive Summary .............................................................................................................................. 8
1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 10
2. Agricultural Circumstances in Japan ............................................................................................ 122.1. Site Visit ..................................................................................................................................... 122.2. The Current Radiological Circumstances in Fukushima Prefecture ........................................... 14
2.3. Criteria for Allowable Food Consumption ................................................................................. 19
2.4. Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 20
3. Local Japanese Approaches to Post-Accident Agriculture.......................................................... 21
3.1. Monitoring .................................................................................................................................. 21
3.2. Establishment of Consumer Trust Relationship in Food ............................................................ 23
3.3. Work of the Soma Agricultural High School and Collaboration with the Community .............. 24
3.4. Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 24
4. Post-Accident Agricultural Science and International Standards .............................................. 25
4.1. International Standards ............................................................................................................... 25
4.2. NEA Framework for Post-accident Food-Management ............................................................. 26
4.3. State-of-the-Art Science.............................................................................................................. 27
4.4. Fisheries Management: ............................................................................................................... 33
4.5. State-of-the-art Measurement and Assessment for Marketing of Foodstuffs ............................. 34
4.6. Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 37
5. International Post-Accident Food-Management Experience ...................................................... 38
5.1. Experience from the UK ............................................................................................................. 38
5.2. Experience from Norway ............................................................................................................ 40
5.3. Experience from Belarus............................................................................................................. 42
5.4. Japanese Experience from Fukushima Prefecture ...................................................................... 43
6. Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................... 53
References ............................................................................................................................................ 55

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TablesTable 1. Provisional Regulation Values for Radionuclide Levels in Food and Water (Bq/kg) ............ 19
Table 2. Derived Cs-137+Cs-134 Concentrations Resulting in Individual Exposures of 1 mSv/a ...... 20
Table 3. Cs-134 and Cs-137 limits in food and water ........................................................................... 20
Table 4. Food sampling results .............................................................................................................. 22
Table 5. Caesium concentrations in food .............................................................................................. 22
Table 6. Inspection of brown-rice bags ................................................................................................. 22
Table 7. Estimated transfer or dose reduction factor and socio-economic consequences for different crop
selection approaches aimed as countermeasures to limit transfer to food chain ........................... 31
Table 8. Detection characteristics.......................................................................................................... 35
Table 9. Marinelli Beaker Characteristics ............................................................................................. 36
Table 10. 1986 Measured Maximum Cs-137 Levels in Norway........................................................... 41
Table 11. Evolution of Norwegian regulatory limits (Bq/kg) ............................................................... 42

FiguresFigure 1. Locations of visited measurement laboratories ...................................................................... 12
Figure 2. Distribution map of radiation dose rate (at 1 m high from the ground) of the east Japan,
approximately 53 months after the accident (September-November 2015) .................................. 14
Figure 3. Map showing seawater sampling points ................................................................................ 15
Figure 4. The time course of I-131, Cs-134 and Cs-137 concentrations in surface waters obtained at T-1(within 2 km area from the NPP) .................................................................................................. 16
Figure 5. The time course of Cs-134 and Cs-137 concentrations in the sediments obtained at T-1 (within
2 km area from the NPP) ............................................................................................................... 16
Figure 6. The time course of I-131, Cs-134 and Cs-137 concentrations in surface waters obtained at T-3(within 2-20 km area from the NPP) ............................................................................................. 17
Figure 7. The time course of Cs-134 and Cs-137 concentrations in sediments obtained at T-3 (within 220 km area from the NPP) ............................................................................................................. 17
Figure 8. The time course of Cs-134 and Cs-137 concentrations in the surface, middle and bottom waters
obtained at M-C3 (within 20-100 km area from the NPP) ............................................................ 18
Figure 9. The time course of Cs-134 and Cs-137 concentrations in sediments obtained at M-C1 (within
20-100 km area from the NPP) ...................................................................................................... 18
Figure 10. . ICRP Human Alimentary Tract Model .............................................................................. 28
Figure 12. ICRP Draft Biokinetic Model for Systemic Caesium .......................................................... 29
Figure 13. Voxel Phantoms used for Dose Estimation .......................................................................... 30
Figure 13. Chernobyl-contaminated areas of the UK ............................................................................ 38
Figure 14. Chernobyl Fallout in Norway in 1986 (Cs-137, Bq/m2) ..................................................... 40
Figure 15. 1986 Chernobyl contamination in Belarus ........................................................................... 42
Figure 16. Evolution of PermissibleCs-137 Level in Belarus, Bq/kg ................................................... 43
Figure 17. Milk production exceeding Cs-137regulatory level of 100 Bq/lin 2001-2015, tons............ 43
Figure 18. Scraping surface soil, Iitate village ...................................................................................... 44
Figure 19. Decontamination soil can be found throughout Fukushima prefecture ............................... 45
Figure 20. The effectiveness of potassium fertiliser.............................................................................. 45
Figure 29. Sources of fruit contamination ............................................................................................. 47
Figure 210. Sources of fruit orchard soil contamination ....................................................................... 47
Figure 211. Distribution rate by depth (2015) ....................................................................................... 48
Figure 24. Change in the average migration distance ........................................................................... 48
Figure 25. Caesium Assessment in cattle .............................................................................................. 50
Figure 26. Process for measuring radioactivity in marine fishery products .......................................... 51
Figure 27. Caesium concentration trends in marine fishery products ................................................... 52

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List of abbreviations and acronyms
To be completed
CRPPH

Committee on Radiological Protection and Public Health

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

IAEA

International Atomic Energy Agency

ICRP

International Commission on Radiological Protection

M&R

Mark and Release

MDA

Minimum Detectable Activity

NEA

Nuclear Energy Agency

NPP

Nuclear Power Plant

NRPA

Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority

SOP

Standard Operating Procedure

SRC

Short Rotation CoppiceTEPCO

Tokyo Electric Power Company

WHO

World Health Organization

WTO

World Trade Organization

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Public and policy overview
The NEA International Workshop on Post-Accident Food Safety Science was requestedof the Committee on Radiological Protection and Public Health (CRPPH), a standing
committee of Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA), by the Japanese government so that theworld’s best post-accident food safety science could be presented by international
experts, and to show the work being done in Japan to assure that only high-quality food
below governmental consumption standards is allowed on domestic and international
markets. State-of-the-art scientific approaches were presented for assessing radiation
exposure from eating food containing caesium-137 and other radioactive substances, andfor measuring radioactivity levels in rice, fruit, vegetables and livestock. The approaches
being
taken
in
Japan
were
seen
as
using
both
state-of-the-art science and international post-Chernobyl lessons to produce food products
well below governmental consumption standards.
However, a continuing lack of trust in food products from Fukushima prefecture wasstrongly emphasized. This suggests the need for a coordinated communications strategy,
involving farmers, fishermen, distributors, consumers, experts including university, theFukushima prefecture government and the Japanese central government to bringstakeholders in closer contact with the efforts being made and the results being achieved.
Independent, international validation, and inviting co-expertise, for example by NGOs,
couldbeconsideredastrust
building
approaches.
Further support of prefecture and municipal projects by central governmental expertise
could also be considered.
Further research into such areas as transfer of radionuclides to food products,
countermeasures for protection of rice and fruits that are more approaching “normal”
farming practices and long-term impact on marine fish and marine products, could be
addressed and communicated.

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Executive Summary
On request of the Japanese government, the NEA’s Committee on RadiologicalProtection and Public Health (CRPPH) organised an international workshop on postaccident food safety science. The workshop objectives were to present thestate-of-the-art scientific aspects of post-accident food safety, including: radionuclidetransfer to foodstuffs and dose modelling; agricultural management to reduce foodcontamination and measurement techniques. The workshop also addressed the status andremaining challenges to local, national and international management of
post-accident food safety, and discussed approaches for addressing remaining challenges.
It should be noted that protection decisions while informed by science, rather than being
based on science, and are generally driven by social value considerations. This workshop
discussed scientific aspects only. It should also be noted that workshop discussions of
post-accident food safety did not address the judgemental, rather than scientific, questionof whether or not food is “safe”.
Just prior to the workshop the Japanese government organised a visit to several foodassessment facilities where the measurements for marketing were performed for marine
fishery
products,
meat
products,
rice
and
dried
persimmons.
The state-of-the-art nature of equipment and processes was exhibited to foreign
participants in the workshop, guided by Japanese State Minister of the Environment, andof the Cabinet Office, Mr Tadahiko Ito.
The workshop’s first and second sessions presented an overview of the agricultural
circumstances in Japan, and local Japanese approaches to post-accident agriculture,
respectively. Immediately after the accident, the Government of Japan, namely, theMinistry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW), and Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry
and Fisheries (MAFF), developed measures and implemented them to ensure sufficient
supply of safe food and feed to the Japanese population. Such measures included
sampling plans and methods, provisional regulation values, and those for prevention andreduction of radionuclide contamination at agricultural production sites. MHLW
established the provisional regulation values on 17 March 2011 for radiocaesium andradioiodine,
and
later
the
standard
limitsforradiocaesium(on a basis of the contamination rate of 50% and covering other radionuclides) on
1 April 2012 to replace the provisional regulation values. Based on the standard limits,
distribution of the food is restricted when violation is found in this food in various
locations of a city, town, village. MAFF took measures for reduction of the radionuclide
contamination of foods and feeds by regulating materials (feeds, wood logs, fertilisers,etc.) used for production of foods and feeds, and decontamination of crops and farm soils.
Topsoil removal and deep ploughing have been effective, as has the use of potassium
fertiliser for rice and other farming. Fruit tree management has involved such techniques
as the removal of bark, and the use of removable grass sod around the base of fruit trees
to take away caesium in the first few centimetres of soil. For tea plants the trimming ofouter leaves was particularly successful just after the accident. Livestock management has

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NEA/CRPPH/R(2018)1/PROV│9involved clean feed, and in situ pre-slaughter measurement of animals. Voluntary andgovernmental fishing restrictions and rapid dilution of radionuclides in ocean water andsediments have contributed significantly to the management of marine fishery products.
Presentations of efforts to prevent caesium uptake by food products (e.g. rice, fruit,
vegetables, livestock, marine fishery products), of efforts to monitor food products
entering the market, and of efforts to demonstrate to consumers the quality of foodproducts from Fukushima prefecture showed how radiologically successfully foodproducts are being managed. However, presentations also showed the level of publicconcern remaining, suggesting that more effective approaches to addressing consumer
concerns will be needed to regain consumer confidence.
Associated with the question of consumer confidence, the workshop addressedinternational standards and post-accident agricultural science. Codex Alimentarius
provides internationally agreed importation standards for food products, developed on a
generic basis. These usefully provide a generic, international framework forpost-accident food trade. The NEA proposed a more holistic, accident-specificframework, including an international-expert validation process, to help build national
and international confidence in domestic approaches. In this context, the latest thinking
on internal dose calculation and on radiological, spectroscopic assessment were
presented.
Presentations of relevant international experience addressed post-Chernobyl managementof sheep in the UK, reindeer in Norway and crops in Belarus.
The approaches taken in Japan to address these issues showed that these lessons werebeing used and adapted to Japanese cultural and accident-specific circumstances.
This was seen to well-embrace state-of-the-art scientific approaches.
In conclusion, the workshop presented a broad picture of the post-accident
food-management situation in Japan, of the approaches being taken to address challenges,
and of how these have effectively used post-Chernobyl experience and state-of-the-art
science. The importance of cultural heritage and social values in the post-accident
management of such socially important aspects as food products was demonstrated, andshould be more directly addressed in recovery planning.
The continuing lack of trust in food products from Fukushima prefecture was strongly
emphasised. This suggests the need for a coordinated communications strategy, involving
farmers, fishermen, distributors, consumers, experts including university, the Fukushima
prefecture government and the Japanese central government. Aspects that could beconsidered could be such things as taking independent, international validation into
account, and inviting co-expertise measurements by, for example NGOs, could beconsidered as trust building approaches. Further support of prefecture and municipal
projects by central governmental expertise could also be considered.
Further research into such areas as transfer of radionuclides to food products,
countermeasures for rice and fruits that are more approaching “normal” farming
practices, and long-term impact on marine fish and marine product, could be addressedand communicated.

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1. Introduction

In May 2015 the Japanese government met with the Director General of the OECD
Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA), Mr William D. Magwood, IV, and among the subjects
discussed, agriculture in Fukushima prefecture was presented as being key topost-accident recovery efforts. To further assist in Fukushima recovery activities,
the NEA was asked to develop and organise a workshop on the state-of-the-art scienceand practice in post-accident food safety. The Director General agreed with theimportance of effective food-management, and agreed to organise the workshop throughthe expertise of the NEA’s Committee on Radiological Protection and Public Health(CRPPH).
Through discussions with members of the CRPPH Bureau and the Cabinet Office of theJapanese government, it was agreed that the workshop objectives should be:

to present the state-of-the-art scientific aspects of post-accident food safety,
including:‒ Radionuclide transfer to foodstuffs and dose modelling,‒ Agricultural management to reduce food contamination, and‒ Measurement techniques.
to present the status and remaining challenges to local, national and international
management of post-accident food safety;
to discuss approaches for addressing remaining challenges.

To achieve this, the workshop was organised into 5 sessions (see Annex I, Workshop
programme):
Session 1:

The food-management situation in Japan after the Fukushima Daiichi
NPP accident

Session 2:

Local approaches to the production and distribution of food from affectedareas

Session 3:

State-of-the-art post-accident food safety science

Session 4:

Examples of national regulatory and management approaches to postaccident food safety

Session 5:

Workshop summary

Presentations in Session 1 set the scene, providing an overview of the prevailingradiological circumstances post-accident for agricultural, livestock, and marine
environments, and of the Japanese government’s extensive efforts to address food safetyissues.
Presentations in Session 2 addressed approaches taken by the Fukushima prefecture
government, municipal governments, and specific examples of approaches of local
initiatives taken by farmers, cattle ranchers, and fishermen to assure the marketabilityof their products. For example, 100% of cattle are measured to assure that
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all
beef
reaching
markets
meetstandards.
Session 3 presented the state-of-the-art science associated with food safety.
Session 4 presented the regulatory guidance and current practice for the management offood production and marketing in countries affected by the Chernobyl accident currently
provided or in development at relevant international organisations.
The relevance and importance of the workshop to the Japanese central government, to the
Fukushima prefecture government, and to the international community was demonstrated
by the level of participation in the workshop opening welcome.
The international community was represented by an opening welcome by
Dr Daniel Iracane, the NEA Deputy Director General. The Japanese government andFukushima prefecture government were then represented by welcomes fromMr Tadahiko Ito, State Minister of the Environment and State Minister of the Cabinet
Office; Mr Toshiyuki Hata, Vice Governor of Fukushima Prefecture;
Mr Mamoru Fukuyama, former Parliamentary Secretary of the Cabinet Office;
Mr Shinji Inoue, former State Minister of the Cabinet Office; and Ms Masako Mori,
Diet member.
Welcoming participants, officials noted that while many people are still evacuated, andsome areas remain closed to return, extensive decontamination efforts have significantly
reduced ambient dose rates, and radionuclide management science has assured that
virtually all food products proposed for marketing meet very stringent national criteria.
However, it was also expressed that the image of food produced in Fukushima prefecture,
which before the accident had been one of very high quality, has been significantly
tarnished since the accident. Much trust in the quality of food products from Fukushima
prefecture has suffered, in spite of the extensive efforts undertaken by farmers, fishermen,
distributors, and prefecture and central government technical experts. As a result, allwelcoming officials were anxious to hear the views of international experts, and to learn
how to best produce high quality food products and to hopefully regain the trust of
domestic and international customers.
The workshop was web-casted, and all presentations and the web-cast are available on the
NEA website: www.oecd-nea.org/rp/workshops/foodsafety2016/.

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2. Agricultural Circumstances in Japan

2.1. Site Visit
The day prior to the workshop opening, Minister Ito invited the workshop’s international
participants to visit several inspection installations involved in measuring Fukushima
prefecture food products to verify compliance with Japanese criteria for domestic orinternational markets. Visits were arranged to four radiological measurement facilities
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Locations of visited measurement laboratories

2.1.1. Onahama Fish Market, Iwaki City (Onahama)This facility is run by the fisherman’s cooperative, and measures marine fishery productscaught around Iwaki City that are brought to the Onahama Fish Market for checking
before marketing toward consuming areas. Onahama Fish Market is one of only a few
remaining local whole sale markets in Fukushima prefecture that is currently producing
andhandling
marinefishery
products
oftrial
fishing.
As the voluntary suspension has been imposed in the radius around 20 km of the
Fukushima Daiichi NPP, trial fishing is conducted outside of 20 km from the Fukushima

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Daiichi NPP. Water and sediment samples show only background levels of radionuclide
contamination in the area beyond a 10 km radius from the Fukushima Daiichi NPP. To
ensure the safety of marine fishery products, the Fukushima prefecture government
conducts monitoring, including within the 20 km of the Fukushima Daiichi NPP. For
reassurance of consumers, the screening test is operated by the staff of the fisherman’scooperative that have been trained in radioactive survey equipment using state-of-the-art
equipment and procedures (every marine fishery products landing, more than one sample
per fish species). The framework of shipment of marine fishery products is establishedthat the products are checked and confirmed to be satisfied below the self-imposed
standard limit that is more stringent than national limit.

2.1.2. Fukushima Agricultural Technology Centre, Koriyama City
This Agricultural Technology Centre, run by Fukushima prefecture, added radiologicalquality assessment following the accident. Prefecture measurement of meat products was
the focus of discussions, although this facility also examines foods for non-radiologicalcriteria. Again, state-of-the-art detectors, software and procedures have been installedsince the accident. This facility measures 100% of the meat products produced in
Fukushima prefecture, but products processed outside Fukushima prefecture aremeasured at the meat-processing inspection facility of that prefecture.

2.1.3. JA Fukushima Mirai Sugitadangouchi Warehouse, Nihonmatsu City
This facility is one of the approximately 175 in Fukushima prefecture that measures 30 kg
bags of brown rice for Prefecture measurement, such that 100% of the 10 to 12 million
bags of brown rice produced in Fukushima prefecture are all measured.
In 2015 no bags of brown rice exceeded the national criteria of 100 Bq/kg.
The equipment and procedures used to measure each bag are state-of-the-art.

2.1.4. Date Fruits Agricultural Cooperative Association, Koori Town
This facility is a cooperative association of fruit farmers for the shipment of various fruit
products, including dried persimmons. Eight trays, with two to ten dried persimmons
each, are packaged and are placed in a carton which is subjected to radiological detector
inspection. The eight trays are inspected simultaneously to verify that each tray satisfies
the regulated value. The equipment and procedures used to measure each bag are state-ofthe-art, and 100% of dried persimmons produced and shipped in the area are measured.
The visits to these four facilities showed that enormous efforts have been made since theaccident to assure that all food produced in Fukushima prefecture that is intended fordomestic
andinternational
marketsmeetsrigorous
national
criteria.
All food products produced in Fukushima prefecture are assessed, and for the products
discussed (e.g. marine fishery products, beef, rice, persimmons) radionuclide
management processes have resulted in extremely low to non-existent volumes of
products exceeding criteria. Labelling of rice and dried persimmons indicates radiologicalmeasurement.
These measurement laboratories were established rapidly after the accident by Fukushima
prefecture and by farmer/fisherman cooperative associations. State-of-the-art equipment
and procedures have been established through cooperation with equipment
manufacturers. Prefecture government inspection of cooperative association inspection
laboratories assures the quality of results. Initial technical support from governmental
experts could have been useful for the establishment of these laboratories.
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2.2. The Current Radiological Circumstances in Fukushima Prefecture
The radiological circumstances in Fukushima prefecture have been extensively andperiodically monitored since the accident in 2011. This has included governmental
measurements of ambient dose rates and soil contamination levels across Fukushima
prefecture, as well as of seawater and sediments out to 100 km from the Fukushima
Daiichi NPP. Measurements, taken by hand-held instruments, drones, car-mounted
instruments, and helicopter-mounted instruments, and sampling from vessels, show thatCs-137 concentrations in seawater (see Figure 4, 6 and 8) and sediment (see Figure 5, 7
and 9) are declining, as are ambient dose rates.
Figure 2. Distribution map of radiation dose rate (at 1 m high from the ground) of the east
Japan, approximately 53 months after the accident (September-November 2015)
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Figure 3. Map showing seawater sampling points

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Figure 4. The time course of I-131, Cs-134 and Cs-137 concentrations in surface waters
obtained at T-1 (within 2 km area from the NPP)
Type the subtitle here. If you do not need a subtitle, please delete this line.

Figure 5. The time course of Cs-134 and Cs-137 concentrations in the sediments obtained at
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Figure 6. The time course of I-131, Cs-134 and Cs-137 concentrations in surface waters
obtained at T-3 (within 2-20 km area from the NPP)

Figure 7. The time course of Cs-134 and Cs-137 concentrations in sediments obtained at T-3(within 2-20 km area from the NPP)NEA INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP ON POST-ACCIDENT FOOD SAFETY SCIENCE – SUMMARY REPORT
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Figure 8. The time course of Cs-134 and Cs-137 concentrations in the surface, middle andbottom waters obtained at M-C3 (within 20-100 km area from the NPP)

Figure 9. The time course of Cs-134 and Cs-137 concentrations in sediments obtained at MC1 (within 20-100 km area from the NPP)NEA INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP ON POST-ACCIDENT FOOD SAFETY SCIENCE – SUMMARY REPORT
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2.3. Criteria for Allowable Food Consumption
These data are framed by the radiological protection criteria established by the Japanese
government’s Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW). Prior to the accident
there was only a guideline by the Nuclear Safety Commission (NSC) for discussions onwhether or not it is necessary to take measures to restrict food and drink contaminatedwith radioactive material. However, as a high concentration of radioactive material was
detected in vegetation on 15 March 2011 in Fukushima Prefecture, MHLW adopted thisguideline by the NSC on 17 March 2011, as provisional regulation values to be used in
the case of a nuclear emergency for restrictions on food and drink.
Table 1. Provisional Regulation Values for Radionuclide Levels in Food and Water (Bq/kg)

Water
Milk
Vegetables
Grain
Meat, Eggs, Fish, etc.
Baby Food
Note:
a:
b:
c:
*
**

I-131*

Cs137, Cs134**

Ua

Pub

Am-241

Cmc

300
300
2000

200
200
500
500
500

20
20
100
100
100
20

1
1
10
10
10
1

1
1
10
10
10
1

1
1
10
10
10
1

Any uranium nuclide
Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240, Pu-242
Cm-242, Cm-243, Cm-244
50 mSv/a of thyroid equivalent annual dose for radioactive iodine
5 mSv/a of effective annual dose for radioactive caesium from food and water with 1 mSv/a fromeach food group.

As the radiological circumstances became more clear, these criteria became lowered.
On 1 April 2012, criteria were established based on exposure from both contaminateddrinking water and contaminated food, such that individual’s internal doses would notexceed 1 mSv/a. The overall dose criteria was divided into 0.1 mSv/a from water, and
0.9 mSv/a from food. Because Cs-137+Cs-134 dominated ground contamination, this was
taken as the reference radionuclide, noting that other radionuclides measured in theenvironment (e.g. Sr-90, Pu, Ru-106) represented no more than 12% of an individual’s
exposure even taking the most conservative assumptions.
In order to establish new operational criteria, in Bq/kg, using the above assumptions,calculations were made for the age groups shown in Table 2.

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Table 2. Derived Cs-137+Cs-134 Concentrations Resulting
in Individual Exposures of 1 mSv/a
Age Category

IntakeDerived concentration(Bq/kg)

under 1
1-6

Average
Male
FemaleMale
FemaleMale
FemaleMale
FemaleFemale

460
310
320
190
210
120
150
130
160
160
120

7-12
13-18
19 and older
pregnant
Minimum

These assessments were calculated using the effective dose coefficients and the amountof food intake for each age group, assuming that half of the food distribution has
radionuclide concentrations at the limit value. Based on these calculations the Cs-134 andCs-137 limits were selected in April 2012, as shown in Table 3, so as no age or genderwould exceed 1 mSv/a.
Table 3. Cs-134 and Cs-137 limits in food and water
Food Group
Drinking Water
Infant Food
Milk
General Food

Limit (Bq/kg)
10
50
50
100

2.4. Summary
In the almost six years since the accident, the concentration of radionuclides in the soil
and ocean near the Fukushima Daiichi NPP has decreased by factors of from 10 to 100,with significant variation depending on location. Ambient dose rates on land have also
decreased.

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3. Local Japanese Approaches to Post-Accident Agriculture

Agriculture, forestry and fisheries in Japan, and specifically in Fukushima prefecture,
have a deep-rooted history and unique quality of products. In particular, rice and sake,persimmons, apples, Asian pears, peaches, and marine fishery products from Fukushima
prefecture have traditionally been valued in Japan for their high quality. The accident thus
cast its shadow over a large piece of the prefecture’s culture and economic livelihood,requiring extensive efforts by residents to learn about radiation and contamination, toperform detailed radiological surveys, to develop and/or learn techniques to prevent or
limit uptake of radiocaesium by agricultural products, and to adapt their behaviour as
needed. Farmers also made effort to adapt their production to cope with contamination of
their field, such as decontamination of soils, change of agricultural way of production,and restriction of land use.
After the accident, following the detection of radioactive material in the environment,
arrangements were made for controlling food and drinking water. Because of this, theguidelines for monitoring were quickly established, and monitoring of food was
implemented by local governments or municipalities in 17 prefectures (Aomori, Iwate,
Akita, Miyagi, Yamagata, Fukushima, Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gunma, Chiba, Saitama, Tokyo,
Kanagawa, Niigata, Yamanashi, Nagano, Shizuoka).

3.1. Monitoring
The monitoring plan has evolved over time, and addresses virtually 100% of foodproducts before they can be put on the market for sale. Monitoring of meat and fish
involves shredding, weighing, radiological measurement, and analysis of results from
representative samples, using germanium semiconductor detectors (Fukushima
prefecture) or scintillator (Onahama Fishery Market) detectors with homogenised samples
in a standard inspection approach. Monitoring of fruits and vegetables involves anapproach of shredding, weighing and radiological measurement, using germanium
semiconductor detectors, of samples (e.g. apples, peaches, vegetables, etc.). Additionally,in the case of dried persimmons, products in distribution container are monitored in an
approach of weighing and radiological measurement, using scintillator. Calibration
sources, in the appropriate geometry, have been specially developed for instrument
quality assurance. Apart from the local government, producers in the organisation involve
significantly monitoring of products.
Any products found to exceed the above-mentioned limits are disposed of, however since
the accident very few products have exceeded limits. For food from all affected
prefectures, in 2011 approximately 0.88% of measured samples exceed limits, while in2015 this had been reduced by a factor of 10 to 0.09%. Reduction in Fukushima
prefecture was even more significant, going from 3.41% in 2011 to 0.08% in 2015.

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Model calculations suggested that exposures from food meeting government standards
would result in exposures of from 0.6 to 1.5 µSv/a from Cs-137. Tables 4, 5 and 6 show
an overview of sampling and its results.
Table 4. Food sampling results
Year
*2

*1

Test samples Total
Available for cultivation/feed management
Difficult for cultivation/feed management
Others (Processed food, etc.)

Note:
*1:
*2:
*3:
*4:

*3

*4

2011
93,121

2012

2013

2014

2015

212,927

248,111

233,608

260,538

83,520190,431

222,690

207,511

237,845

6,489

20,482

23,56524,642

21,236

3,112

2,014

1,856

1,455

1,457

Prefectural product pre-shipment inspection samples
Including March 2011
Vegetables/tubers/fruits/seeds, rice, grains, legumes, cereals, meat, eggs, fresh milk, tea (ready for
consumption), fungi (cultivated), sansai (wild vegetables, cultivated), etc.
Mushrooms (wild), sansai (wild), wild meat and fowl, marine fishery products, honey

Table 5. Caesium concentrations in foodCaesium
concentration infoods （Bq/kg）
Less than 25
25～50
50～75
75～100More than 100

Note:
* 1:
* 2:
* 3:

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

79,073（96.2%）
1,289（1.6%）
696（0.8%）
339（0.4%）
830（1.0%）

184,431（98.5%）
1,242（0.7%）
631（0.3%）
500（0.3%）
399（0.2%）

217,770（98.9%）
1,328（0.6%）
509（0.2%）
446（0.2%）
87（0.04%）

204,970（99.8%）
380（0.2%）
37（0.02%）
9（0.004%）5（0.002%）

235,881（99.8%）
325（0.1%）
34（0.01%）
12（0.01%）
5（0.002%）Upper row: detected samples, lower row: detected samples rate for inspected samples
Excluding fresh milk and tea, for which standard values differ from general foodstuffs
Only Fukushima prefecture (2014: 2 samples, 2015: 4 samples), Miyagi prefecture (2014: 3
samples), and Iwate prefecture (2015: 1 sample) found samples over 100 since 2014

Table 6. Inspection of brown-rice bags

Rice-bag Inspection(Fukushima andMiyagi Prefectures)

2015
2014
2013
2012

Test samples(Thousands)
10,47011,01011,04010,370# Bags Exceeding Standard

Percentage Exceeding Standard

0
2
28
84

0
0.000020.00030.0008

Note: Un-milled rice (brown rice) is shipped in 30 kg bags, each of which is measured

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3.2. Establishment of Consumer Trust Relationship in FoodTo achieve these results, farmers have learned, and extensively implemented, caesiummanagement strategies appropriate for their circumstances. These have included suchthings as removing topsoil and deep ploughing of fields; the controlled use of potassium
fertiliser in rice paddies; high pressure washing and scraping of surface bark on fruit
trees; deep pruning of leaves and branches on tea trees; use of simple greenhouses, safe
logs and decontamination of logs for mushrooms support; and feed and grazing land
management for livestock. Farmers have worked together and with distributors to learn
these techniques, and to widely disseminate information and guidance.
In spite of these extensive and effective efforts, difficulties remain.
Current prices for Fukushima prefecture food products are less than levels seen before theearthquake
comparedwiththecurrent
averagepriceinJapan.
Discrimination of products from Fukushima prefecture persists, and with inspections ofcontamination focused on Fukushima prefecture there remain rumours despite huge
efforts and good results (~ no sample > limits). These issues represent a problem ofsocietal acceptance, and the perception of consumers and distributors.
This suggests that information regarding management efforts and measurement results are
not effectively visible or understood. Reflective of experience from the International
Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) Dialogue meetings, consumer concerns
need to be effectively addressed.
A large part of the scientific knowledge needed to effectively address the complex
radiological issues caused by the accident was provided and independently gathered by
farmers and farm co-operative organisations, with formal advice and support fromgovernmental food and agriculture experts through local government.
Local government experts provided food and agricultural advice and support. Prefecture
food testing and measurement laboratories, not equipped before the accident with theradiological assessment equipment and expertise needed following the accident, were
faced with developing an appropriate level of knowledge to understand what was needed
and how best to accomplish such tasks. At the same time, post-accident lack of trust inradiological protection experts from the central government or from TEPCO meant thatthe sources of necessary knowledge were somewhat limited. In this context, nongovernmental and consumer organisations, and local-government experts were trusted
and as such these served as primary sources of experience for farmers and consumers.
Consumerorganisations
like
Co-Op
worked to provide its members with information on safety and food, and to assist its
members to share their personal experiences. Such efforts helped to build consumer trustin the food products from Fukushima prefecture that were marketed by Co-Op. Consumer
trust was built through such efforts as providing advice and education; monitoring
focusedoncustomerrequirements(forexamplemeal
monitoring);and spreading the word to other prefectures in Japan (countrywide network).
Taken as a whole, these local programmes seem to be helping to ease the anxiety within
local communities. Efforts by the farming community (e.g. farmers,
co-operative farmer organisations, co-operative consumer organisations, etc.)
to implement monitoring programmes, food product labelling, and consumer information
efforts seem to have been effective at rebuilding trust and reducing anxiety on a local but
growing scale based on customer response. Oversight of quality assurance by the
Fukushima prefecture government has also contributed, as has the involvement of foreign

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experts from international organisations (e.g. International Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA), NEA, etc.). But international experts can only help to advise affected
populations, who need to learn about radiation to supplement their “local expertise” so as
to be able to rebuild their livelihoods in the aftermath of the accident. Community spirit,
re-establishing trust, and moving forward with resilience were to key elements that thefarming community felt were needed to efficiently proceed.

3.3. Work of the Soma Agricultural High School and Collaboration with theCommunity
A very positive aspect of the meeting was the invitation by Mr Tadahiko Ito, State
Minister of the Environment, State Minister of the Cabinet Office, of 20 students from theSoma Agricultural High School to present their view of the future of farming in the
Prefecture. While it is unusual to have the views of students presented at international
workshops,
young
high
schoolstudents
represent
thefuture.
They are doing an enormous amount of community outreach, demonstrating theirunderstanding of the practical yet complex issues they are facing as future farmers. Theirefforts include:










cultivating loyalty and love for the local area, while fostering career awareness.
Students meet with local businesses;
promoting agriculture and their school's curriculum to elementary and middle
school students;
sharing their energy with local residents and reaffirming the merits of agriculture;creating the world's largest seed art;
striving to be an agricultural high school open to the community;
developing Agriculture Club activities jointly with the community;
working to restore agriculture and farmland value through the Rapeseed Blossom
Project;
participating in the Japanese Rose Conservation, and Minamisoma
Happy/Recovery Planting Organization;
extending efforts from regional collaboration to extra-regional communication.

During the workshop break following their presentation, Minister Ito held a short meetingwith the students, the NEA and the foreign experts participating in the workshop. It was
proposed that the students write a short paper on their vision of the future that could be
published as an NEA/CRPPH document. Minister Ito very much appreciated thissuggestion, and the student’s professor agreed that they would consider this. The NEA is
working with the Cabinet Office to provide guidance for the students, and to see if further
interactions with them can be developed to support their vision.

3.4. Summary
Presentations of efforts to prevent caesium uptake by food products(e.g. fruit, vegetables, livestock, marine fishery products), of efforts to monitor foodproducts entering the market, and of efforts to demonstrate to consumers the quality offood products from Fukushima prefecture showed how radiologically successfully foodproducts are being managed. However, presentations also showed the levelof public concern remaining, suggesting that more effective approaches to addressing
consumer concerns will be needed to regain consumer confidence.

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4. Post-Accident Agricultural Science and International Standards

One of the issues raised by the Fukushima Daiichi NPP accident concerned the
management of food and food trade. The workshop addressed this issue throughpresentations of international standards and requirements, and of the science that
underpins them.

4.1. International Standards
At the time of the Fukushima Daiichi NPP accident, and now, the most widely used foodstandard is Codex Alimentarius or "Food Code", which was established by the Food andAgriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World HealthOrganization (WHO) in 1963 to develop harmonized international food standards, which
protect consumer health and promote fair practices in food trade. The Codex standards
ensure that food is safe and can be traded. The 188 Codex members have negotiatedscience-informed recommendations in all areas related to food safety
and quality: food hygiene; maximum limits for food additives; residues of pesticides andveterinary drugs; and maximum limits and codes for the prevention of chemical andmicrobiological contamination. Radiological criteria for food being imported are also partof the Codex standards, and are based on the assumption that eating imported,
contaminated food should not cause more than 1 mSv/a of dose to any individual. Thesestandards were developed with the first year following an emergency in mind, but are also
applicable on a longer-term basis.
To transform this into operational criteria, in Bq/kg, Codex assumes that 10% of the foodeaten by an individual is contaminated at the maximum permitted level.
Using these assumptions, and informed by the best available science assisted byindependent international risk assessment bodies (e.g. using the ICRP model of thehuman alimentary tract) or ad-hoc consultations organised by FAO and WHO, maximum
permitted levels of all relevant radionuclides have been calculated, and a formula for
calculating permitted levels when food is contaminated with more than one radionuclide
has been provided.
The Codex standards are used as trade criteria for food because theWorld Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary measures(SPS Agreement) states that: “to harmonize sanitary and phytosanitary measures on as
wide a basis as possible, Members shall base their sanitary or phytosanitary measures oninternational
standards,
guidelinesorrecommendations.”
The Agreement names the joint FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius as the relevant standardsetting organization for food safety, such that the Codex standards are used as limit values
fortheacceptance,
or
not,
of
food
being
imported.
While being recommendations for voluntary application by members, Codex standards
serve in many cases as a basis for national legislation.

NEA INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP ON POST-ACCIDENT FOOD SAFETY SCIENCE – SUMMARY REPORT
Unclassified26 │ NEA/CRPPH/R(2018)1/PROVThe reference made to Codex food safety standards in the WTO SPS Agreement meansthat Codex has far reaching implications for resolving trade disputes. WTO members thatwish to apply stricter food safety measures than those set by Codex may be required tojustify these measures scientifically.
The International Basic Safety Standards (IBSS) also refers to the Codex standards.
Requirement 51, Exposure due to radionuclides in commodities, states:
The regulatory body or other relevant authority shall establish specific reference levels
for exposure due to radionuclides in commodities such as construction material, food,feed and drinking water, each of which shall typically be expressed as, or based on, anannual effective dose to the representative person generally that does not exceed a valueof about 1 mSv.
The regulatory body or other relevant authority shall consider the guideline levels forradionuclides in food traded internationally that could contain radioactive substances as aresult of a nuclear or radiological emergency, which have been published by the Joint
FAO of the United Nations/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission. The regulatory bodyor other relevant authority shall consider the guideline levels for radionuclides containedin drinking water that have been published by WHO.
Thus at the time of the Fukushima Daiichi NPP accident, the only international guidance
available referred to food being traded internationally, and recommended, for example,
that concentrations of Cs-137 should not exceed 1 000 Bq/kg. As noted previously, theJapanese government initially recommended a provisional regulation value of 500 Bq/kg,
and in 2012 updated this to 100 Bq/kg (with respect to radioactive caesium, 500 Bq/kg
was set for vegetables, crops, meat, eggs, fish, and other food products, but in 2012, 100
Bq/kg was applied to common food products).
At the time of the Fukushima Daiichi NPP accident the NEA, as a member of the InterAgency Committee on Radiological and Nuclear Emergencies (IACRNE), surveyedgovernment emergency response organisations for, among other things, theirrecommendations regarding incoming food from Japan. Responses indicated a variety of
approaches, generally adopting or referencing, in some fashion, the Japanese standard
while also referring to Codex and/or national standards. This confusion highlighted theneed for a broad framework offering a coherent approach to post-accident foodmanagement.

4.2. NEA Framework for Post-accident Food-Management
Noting that existing international guidance is based on generic assumptions, addresses
only some food-management aspects, and provides a single criterion to address all
situations, the NEA developed and is sharing a post-accident food-management
framework. The NEA framework is based on the assumptions that accidents are rare andare unique, affected food products will be accident specific, there will be a limited
number of export food products from any affected area, and consumption and export
criteria are a matter of national choice and will evolve with the situation circumstances.
Thus, in case of an accident, an early protective measure will be that food consumption inand distribution from areas modelled to be affected will be banned or restricted rapidly inthe case of a declared emergency. Food exports also will rapidly be banned or restricted.
Consumption and distribution of food from affected areas will be resumed only after the

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accident is under control, affected areas have been radiologically characterised, national
criteria have been established, and a measurement process has been established.
National criteria will be developed to protect the most exposed group – those living in theaffected area. National criteria should be based on pre-determined risk assessments, butwill need to be refined to address actual prevailing circumstances, that is, what foodproducts are affected and what radionuclides have been released. Refinement of predetermined criteria can take place during the time that the accident is being brought undercontrol and affected areas are being characterised.
For affected food, consumption criteria will be developed in Bq/kg, will be selected basedon an assumed annual food consumption (kg/a), and will be selected to assure that eating
affected food will not cause a radiation exposure over a specified level (mSv/a). The
value selected will be so that the population consuming the largest amount of affected
food, those living in affected areas, does not exceed the specified exposure. It should be
noted that a value of 1 mSv/a has been widely used as a mid- to long-term goal as a foodconsumption criterion. However, this may not be practical in the early post-accident
period because of such things as lack of replacement food availability, initially highcontamination levels, etc. In any case, it is recommended that Codex values should be theceiling level for national affected food criteria.
Using the above-mentioned circumstances and assumptions, the NEA framework is
aimed at having a single set of criteria for the local, national and international
management of food from post-accident affected areas, developed by the accident country
to protect the most exposed group. Criteria will be based on protecting those living in
affected areas. It will be socially, politically and perhaps ethically difficult for a country
to use different criteria for those living in the affected area and those living in unaffectedareas. Similarly, criteria for national consumption will most likely be used as export
criteria. The accident country will use Codex Alimentarius levels as a ceiling for national
consumption criteria, and as such importing countries should use the accident country’s
export criteria as their import criteria.
National criteria may evolve with time as the prevailing circumstances evolve.
Criteria should aim, over time, to keep all internal exposures from contaminated food at
1 mSv/a or less, such that exposure from food consumption in affected zones will be lessthan 1 mSv/a; in unaffected zones in the accident country will be much less than 1 mSv/a(because the fraction of food from affected areas will be smaller than that in affected
zones); and for importing countries exposure from food consumption from affected zones
will be very much less than 1 mSv/a (again, because the fraction of food from affectedareas will be very small).
If the accident leads to cross-border contamination, cooperation and coordination will beneeded to assure complementary criteria are agreed. Acceptance of the criteria, bothnationally and internationally will depend on consumer and governmental trust.

4.3. State-of-the-Art Science
As discussed, this workshop presented the state-of-the-art in post-accident
food-management science. The aspects that were summarised included dose estimationfrom food ingestion, contaminated agricultural-land reclamation, fisheries management,
and measurement.

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4.3.1. Internal Dose Estimation
A key aspect of this is the modelling of the internal dose caused by the consumption ofcontaminated foods. ICRP has developed, and continuously updated, biokinetic models
and transfer factors for this purpose. Figures 10 and 11 show the current human
alimentary tract model and the systemic biokinetic dose model recommended by ICRP
for calculation of internal dose from caesium.
Figure 10. . ICRP Human Alimentary Tract Model

Source: ICRP (2010) Publication 100

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Figure 111. ICRP Draft Biokinetic Model for Systemic Caesium

Note: to be published in Publication 137.

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Unclassified30 │ NEA/CRPPH/R(2018)1/PROVWith these models describing the time-dependent concentrations of ingested
radionuclides in various bodily compartments, doses within each body tissue, caused by
nuclear transformations in these compartments can be calculated. For this, modern
computer modelling has allowed the development of much more realistic voxel phantoms
for the calculation of absorbed fractions for electrons and γ radiation as shown in Figure
12. These are based on medical images of actual subjects and adjusted to the dimensions
and organ masses of the male and female reference adults defined in ICRP Publication
89. Adult voxel phantoms have been issued as ICRP Publication 110.
Figure 112. Voxel Phantoms used for Dose Estimation

Source: ICRP (2010) Publication 110

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4.3.2. Phytomanagement of Contaminated Land
Particularly since the Chernobyl accident, agricultural science has focused efforts
on managing agricultural lands contaminated by radionuclides. Selecting the mostappropriate approach implies a complex series of considerations, including:









requirements and classifications as to what contamination levels require
remediation;effectiveness of technology options;constraints on implementation for each technology;
wastes generated in remediation, waste management options and their availability;
doses received during implementation;technology side-effects;
cost/benefit considerations;stakeholder opinion.

As an example, crop selection can be an effective choice for limiting the transfer ofradionuclides from the soil into food products. Table 7 illustrates at a very general level
the reduction in transfer to food products, or effectively in resulting dose to the public,
and a qualitative estimate of the socio-economic impact for the Chernobyl affected areas(Alexakhin RM et al., 1993).
Several plant-based countermeasures were applied in the Chernobyl affected area:
selecting other varieties of the same crop (dose reduction factor: up to 2-4), other but
comparable crops (up to 2-3), green vegetables to cereals (up to 5), cereals to edible
industrial crops, e.g. oil seeds, sugar beet (>10), cereals to non-food industrial crops,
e.g. flax, energy crops (10-100). Penrose (2016) evaluated cultivar substitution as a
remediation strategy. For Brassica oleracae, hybrid ryegrass, Lolium perenne and L.
multiflorum higher variation in concentration ratios than presented above were found forradiocaesium (up to: 35, 14, 13, 2-fold) and strontium (up to 23, 4.4, 2.5, 2.9-fold).
This may be due to the larger numbers of cultivars in these experiments (number ranged
from 29 to 189). In Japan, Ohmori et al. (2013) revealed a 10-fold difference inradiocaesium-uptake for 58 rice cultivars.
Table 7. Estimated transfer or dose reduction factor and socio-economic consequences fordifferent crop selection approaches aimed as countermeasures to limit transfer to food chain
ChangeReduction factor

Social and economic consequences

Other varieties of same crop
Other but comparable crop
Green vegetables to cereals
Cereals to edible industrial crops, e.g. oil seeds, sugar beet
Cereals to non-edible industrial crops, e.g. flax
Radical improvement of meadows and pastures
Arable or cattle system to forestry

Up to 2-4
Up to 2-3
Up to factor 5> Factor 10
Factor 10 - 100
Factor 2-10>> Factor 100

Very low
Low
High
Low
Low High
Low
Extremely high

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Ukraine and Belarus, but also Japan, with significant parts of their territory affected by
the respective nuclear accidents may develop alternative land-uses like establishing nonfood-crops (biofuel, fibre crops) on these contaminated lands.
When evaluating or advocating an alternative crop, the principle questions to be asked
are:
1. What is the fate of the radionuclide in the cultivation system and conversion
routes and what is the expected radionuclide concentration in the end-products?
2. How does the radionuclide behave during the biomass processing?
3. What is the dose acquired during biomass cultivation and processing?
4. How well are the crops adapted to the climate and soil conditions prevailing in thecontaminated area?
5. What are the conclusions with regard to economic feasibility for the production
and use of these alternative crops?
6. What are the perspectives for these various alternative crops as alternative land
use for large contaminated surfaces?
Vandenhove (2013) summarised previous work which concluded that energy production
from willow short rotation coppice (SRC) is a potentially ecologically and economicallysustainable option but both aspects need to be evaluated thoroughly for the prevailingconditions. Cultivation and conversion is of no major radiological concern and end
products are nominally free of contamination. The same conclusions hold for liquidbiofuel except that the actual cost for liquid biofuel is significantly higher than that offossil fuel. The production of rapeseed and processing to edible rapeseed oil are profitable
technologies and are practiced in e.g. Belarus and Japan but not on contaminated land.
Socio-political perception of the end products from contaminated land affects system
feasibility. No information was found on the application at the industrial-level of biofuel
production and conversion technology on contaminated land in the Chernobyl affected
territories. The potential for revitalisation of rural economics in Japan through theenhancement of local rapeseed production and conversion to edible oil was positively
evaluated. Fibre crops can also be valuable alternative land use-crops.
Fibre crops like hemp, flax, ramie can be used for example for rope, paper, isolationmaterial. However the public may be concerned of using end products with potentialtraces of radioactivity if the crops where grown on contaminated land. In the end,
countermeasures must be sustainable and need to lead to profitable or self-sufficient
production of produce with low radionuclide contamination. For example, low-uptake
crop selection can be optimised by selecting the proper crop species for very low uptake
and high yields. To illustrate this point, note that there is a 35-fold variation in transfer
factor among 70 Brassica species. For other circumstances, food crops can be usedalternatively. This can include using food crops instead as animal fodder as it may be
more likely to be psychologically acceptable to give contaminated fodder to animals thanto give contaminated food to people. In general, while alternative land uses are potential
approaches to revitalise contaminated agricultural land, they require holistic study.
If contamination and/or climactic circumstances are such that alternative land uses do notpresent optimal choices, non-soil (direct) based phytomanagement approaches(green houses – soil or aquaculture) are high-potential new venues for contaminated landreuse. It should be further highlighted that phytoextraction or phytodecontamination
methods, the removal of a contaminant from a substrate through the action of plants, isoften presented as a feasible and ecological way to clean up amongst others contaminated
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soils but is far from an effective remediation option. Also for radiocaesium contaminatedland, far less than 1 % (rather 0.01 - 0.1 %) is removed on an annual basis. This indicatesthat it is difficult to remove radiocaesium from contaminated soil by means ofphytoremediation. Additionally, the annual decrease in soil radiocaesium concentrations
by physical decay is less than 3 %. Further, phytoextraction involves costs at different
stages in the process with limited return on investment (land preparation, crop
maintenance, waste treatment, etc.). Contaminated biomass needs to be harvested,transported and treated and this scheme of action will have to be repeated on a yearlybasis for several years.
Thus overall phytodecontamination is not meeting the option assessment approach
discussed above.
In the end, countermeasures must be sustainable and need to lead to profitable or selfsufficient production of produce with low radionuclide contamination.
Post-accident recovery is a technically intensive issue involving scientific and societal
uncertainties, differing risk perceptions, asymmetrically perceived risks and benefits,disagreement among experts and societal trust issues. The Chernobyl accident showedthat acceptability of countermeasures, ethical and environmental considerations,requirements for public communication, spatial variation and the contrasting needs ofpeople in urban, rural and industrial environments are important factors apart fromradiological and feasibility criteria. The experience in Fukushima prefecture has
confirmed this. The aftermath of both accidents highlighted the benefits of involving
stakeholders in recovery activities, from consultation and dialogue to remediation actions.
For both Chernobyl and Fukushima prefecture consumption, processing and distributionof produce from affected areas declined after the accident due to the negative image
associated with it, causing reduced revenues from agriculture and business, decline incertain types of production and closure of agricultural and industrial facilities.
Overall feasibility of countermeasures is affected by the perception of the end-users
related to the existence of the (faintest) presence of radionuclides in the end products
even if not intended for human consumption (e.g. biofuel, fibre).

4.4. Fisheries Management:
The post-accident management of fresh-water and ocean fisheries is important from thepublic health, social and economic standpoints, and as such is an important aspect tomaintain at a state-of-the-art level. In this regard, in 2007 the UK Environment Agency
produced a report on “Best practice techniques for environmental radiologicalmonitoring”, to study, among other things, state-of-the-art in fisheries management.
This report included: reviewing the literature on guidance and standards on sample
collection protocols and radiological monitoring of the environment; identifying bestpractice techniques for individual environmental media and monitoring tasks; andpreparing guidance notes to implement these techniques. Critical evaluation of theliterature revealed that: the majority of references were quite generic; although they
provide important background, the references did not offer sufficient detail nor provide
scientific validation (for example, by experimental evidence) to enable step-by-step
instruction to be cited in the style of a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP);
and protocols were not necessarily developed or described for the specific objectives
required.

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Unclassified34 │ NEA/CRPPH/R(2018)1/PROVAs a result of this work, it was determined that the objectives of environmental
radiological monitoring have a strong influence on approaches to management. For
example, to determine critical group dose, it is essential to identify the group of people
who consume the most marine fisheries products (e.g. quantity and type), generally using
habits surveys. To identify environmental indicators, it is important to establish which
species are the most prolific, and for this good radionuclides adsorption rates can be used
as tools. To establish a radiological baseline, it is necessary to identify representative
areas unaffected by the accident in order to determine existing “contamination” levels sothat the magnitude of increases from incidents can be determined. And for identifying the
distribution of the source term, it will be necessary to map radionuclide concentrations indifferent marine species in time and space (including model predictions).
As such, best practice is more a set of capabilities rather than a specific process.
Best-practice is having the fundamental capability (methods instruments, tools, resources,
skills, supporting knowledge, etc.) securely in place and fully operational.
Best-practice is the ability to adapt (sometimes very quickly) existing fundamental
capability to suit the specific requirements of the accident/incident scenario.
There is no such single best-practice that covers all eventualities in the event (response
phase) as a singularly unique approach. Thus to achieve best practice, capability andresponsiveness aspects should include infrastructure and routinely used methods and
SOPs, specialist staff of various disciplines with expertise to adapt methods quickly,
specialised instruments and in situ dose assessment for review and planning purposes,
knowledge of radiological assessment and population habits to continuously optimise
methods (limits of detection, counting times, sample size, etc.) based on available
information from the incident, and financial resources.
In order to be ready to address fisheries management aspects in case of an emergency
situations, several aspects are essential. A radio-analytical laboratory(s) infrastructure(s)and/or network, that is sustainable and robust, will be needed to analyse a large volume ofsamples for a large variety of radionuclides, including gamma, beta and alpha emitters.
It may be necessary to include laboratories in other countries in “national analyticallaboratory networks”. These facilities and their staffs will need to have a proven trackrecord of on-going, large-scale routine monitoring (year-on-year), with well-establishedand reliable procedures/supporting instrumentation for the determination of a large
variety of environmental radionuclides. Network capabilities should be capable ofrecovery support, again in terms of mobile monitoring, enhanced scale of monitoring(laboratory capacity and throughput), expanded by experienced staff to adapt routinely
used methods (and interpret data) to specific requirements of the incident(recovery phase). Adding to these aspects, it’s also essential for establishment of aparticipatory process to manage the situation involving fishermen, consumers, experts,
regulators, and local government in order to share the information on monitoring and to
take adequate decisions regarding the fish market.

4.5. State-of-the-art Measurement and Assessment for Marketing of Foodstuffs
As noted in the NEA post-accident food-management framework, accident countries will
establish criteria below-which food and water consumption will be authorised.
Depending on the nature of the accident, a specific radionuclide vector, and a specific setof food products will need to be measured and judged against established criteria. Thiscan be very challenging.

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As mentioned earlier, Codex Alimentarius, issued by FAO/WHO, is a set of harmonised
international food standards that protect consumer health and promote fair practices infood trade (see http://www.fao.org/fao-who-codexalimentarius/en/). In addition,international standards issued by ISO/IEC address detection and detectors, with standards
ranging from general management systems, good laboratory practice, calibration, andspecific methods for different monitoring regimes.
Many countries routinely monitor foodstuffs arising from radioactive releases from
nuclear sites, and overseas spread of contamination. However, this generally involves
only monitoring a small number of samples, with no issues with throughput and counting
times. Emergency situations resulting in large-area agricultural contamination present
large numbers of samples, and a large variety of radionuclides. As such, normal
operational food product monitoring is not directly comparable to that needed for a postaccident situation.
In the UK there are four specialist laboratories working together, with a rigorous quality
assurance programme, undertaking sample assessments using gamma spectrometry(cost-effective, used for most samples), and radiochemical methods ( and  detection,very sensitive but only used on nuclides not detectable Gamma spectrometry).
This has been used for the annual review of measurements carried out independently of
operators. The direct monitoring of areas for Chernobyl fallout ceased in 2014, andcontrols on imports of food and feed from Japan continued in 2014, but found none
exceeding the maximum permissible activities.
The objective of food product measurement is to assure that any radionuclide
concentration present is less than that specified in national criteria.
To accomplish this reliably and efficiently, state-of-the-art detector systems and sample
preparation processes are needed.

4.5.1. Gamma Spectroscopy AssayBest practice for food-product assay generally involves the use of gamma-ray
spectrometry, which for sensitivity reasons often employs NaI(Tl) detectors, and typicallycounts samples in 1L Marinelli beakers, metal food cans, drinks cans or plastic
containers. The Table 8 below gives an example of counting capabilities for small,manually
operateddetectors
typicallyusedinlaboratory
settings.
Manually-operated detectors, that is, where samples are placed and the detector isoperated manually, are generally used for small quantity, relatively unique case samples.
Table 8. Detection characteristics

Source: Canberra Product sheet available at
http://www.canberra.com/products/radiochemistry_lab/pdf/FoodScreen-SS-C39444.pdf.
Last accessed 12 October 2016.

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Unclassified36 │ NEA/CRPPH/R(2018)1/PROVFor more standardised large-quantity sample assessment, automatic counting systems areused, generally involving again Marinelli beakers. Note that the size of the detector is atleast partially dictated by the size of the sample container, in order to maintain standard
geometry and calibration for which such automatic devices are designed.
Minimum Detectable Activity (MDA) is a function of counting time, detector type andsize, and sample container geometry (see Table 9).
Table 9. Marinelli Beaker Characteristics
Container
4 L Marinelli beaker
1 L Marinelli beaker
1 L Marinelli beaker

137Cs MDA
Bqkg-1 (Bql-1)
0.3
0.5
20

Count Time
(Seconds)~150
10 000250

Samples per Hour
~ 20
<1
15

Source: Canberra Product sheet available at
http://www.canberra.com/products/radiochemistry_lab/pdf/FoodScreen-SS-C39444.pdf. Last accessed 12
October 2016.

Another area that tends to have a “case-specific” nature is the monitoring of“unprocessed” food products, such as bulk containers of whole fruit or vegetables, boxesof dried fruit, bags of whole rice, etc. In general such products present a particular“standard” package geometry for which a particular detector system and geometry will beneeded. Again, given a large number of samples to assess, e.g. 100% of regional
production, scintillation detectors will generally be the most applicable, in terms ofcounting efficiency and count time. Scintillation detectors, for example theCanberra Cronos-4, will be needed, having system features including automatic weighing,calculation of specific activity, alarms for contaminated packages, etc.
Self-shielding for low energy radiation will need to be taken into account for systemcalibration. Then, given a MDA of ~100 Bq/kg, an operational system can be designed tomeasure, for example, a 35 kg sack of rice at 100 Bq/kg with a counting time of
approximately 1 second. This would be necessary for efficiently measuring very large
quantities of standard food product containers.
In terms of management of affected agricultural land, in situ land-area monitoring isneeded. For initial, large-scale characterisation, car-based measurement of surface andsubsurface contamination can be used. Again, NaI(Tl) scintillation detectors are well
adapted to this type of measurement, and can be designed to achieve detection in soils(e.g. at 100-200 mm of sand) at levels of 200- 400 Bq/kg. Off-road measurements, overagricultural lands for example, can now be achieved using drones.
These can afford rapid determination of contaminated land/crops, 3-D mapping, andmetre scale resolution.
Individual monitoring is the ultimate test of success of the programme of food-productmanagement. Whole body counting will typically use a 2 x NaI(Tl) detector system, withwhich a 2 minute scan (i.e. ~ 20 people per hour) will have a detection limit of around200-300 Bq for Cs-134 and Cs-137 respectively (background dependent).
Using ICRP effective dose coefficients, this would equate to a Committed Effective Doseof ~ 40 Sv (with assumptions).
In terms of livestock monitoring, experience, particularly from post-Chernobyl effects onreindeer in Norway, suggests that measurements should be designed to identify thoseanimals at concentrations low enough to be slaughtered. Such live animal monitoring is

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very case-specific, and needs situation specific detector and process development.
Generally again scintillation detectors will be used.

4.6. Summary
Post-accident food-management strategies, derived from previous experience andongoing research, seem to be able to effectively produce food well under even stringent
consumption criteria. Modern radiation detection equipment is capable of quickly andaccurately assessing radionuclide concentrations in food. Although existing international
guidance was not viewed as being fully comprehensive at the time of the Fukushima
Daiichi NPP accident, the NEA framework seems to provide a holistic approach topost-accident food-management, using Codex and fitting with existing international
guidance.

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5. International Post-Accident Food-Management Experience

Although the Fukushima Daiichi NPP accident is, like every accident, unique in nature,practical and regulatory experience with the management of food products in the wake of
the Chernobyl accident is of great relevance for the management of food produced inaffected areas of Fukushima prefecture. In particular, experience in the UK with the
management of sheep, in Norway with the management of reindeer, and in Belarus withthe management of crops is extensive and relevant, and has been effectively adapted andapplied in Fukushima prefecture.

5.1. Experience from the UK
The Chernobyl accident in 1986 left large areas of upland pastures of the UK
contaminated with Cs-137 (see Figure 13).
Figure 13. Chernobyl-contaminated areas of the UK

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As a result, restrictions were put in place in defined geographic areas which prohibitedthe slaughter of sheep within the area or the movement of sheep out of the area if
Cs-137 > 1 000 Bq/kg. In order for sheep farming to continue in the restricted areas, amanagement scheme known as Mark and Release (M&R) was introduced in 1986.
Under this scheme each sheep had to be live monitored before being sold or slaughtered.
Each sheep was monitored 3 times (3 x 10s count). If the average of the 3 counts was
below 1 000 Bq/kg of Cs-137 (at 97.5th% confidence level), the sheep was released forsale/slaughter. If assessed above 1 000 Bq/kg, the sheep was marked and prevented fromgoing to slaughter for a minimum of 3 months.
Typical farming practices in the uplands of the UK, involves fattening of lambs on
improved upland pasture or lowland pastures for at least one month before slaughter.
This practice is known to significantly reduce radiocaesium concentrations in sheep dueto the lower levels of radiocaesium in the pastures. In 1996 a review of all the possible
strategies for managing the Chernobyl restricted areas was carried out. The then current
practice of using improved land for fattening and clean grazing followed by M&R
monitoring was compared against five alternatives, including housing and clean feed,administration of AFCF (Prussian Blue), and monitoring at the market place.
However, none of the alternative strategies were applicable on a large scale, and so the
M&R scheme was retained.
Despite no change in policy and approach, the release of whole farms from restrictions
was made possible through annual derestriction surveys which were carried out for
22 years.
These are full flock surveys, conducted during the summer months when contaminationlevels are at their highest and when lambs have been just brought from the uplandpastures. No sheep within the flock could have levels above the 1 000 Bq/kg limit for
2 consecutive years. This cautious approach ensured that it was extremely unlikely thatany sheep exceeding the 1 000 Bq/kg limit would enter the food chain. However, it wasrecognised that monitoring was resource intensive, and gives the impression of a stepchange in risk at the 1 000 Bq/kg limit. De-restriction monitoring continued until 2009.
It was recognised that the 1 000 Bq/kg limit did not consider ingestion dose to consumers,
did not account for the distribution of contamination within a flock, or acknowledge thefact that consumers do not (in general) eat from a single sheep; actual intake would becloser to mean levels in sheep, not the extremes. In 2012, a probabilistic risk assessment(PRA) was carried out to establish more realistic doses to consumers. A survey of sheepon restricted farms was undertaken when levels of Cs-137 in sheep peak (late spring/earlysummer, and within 24-48 h of sheep being gathered from uplands).
The survey established a probability distribution considering two categories of variability:
radiocaesium concentration within a flock; and consumer characteristics(age, consumption rates, purchasing habits). Based on this survey, doses to the more
highly exposed individuals (i.e. Representative Person) were estimated.
The Representative Person was defined as an adult frequent buyer who sources all theirmeat from the monitored farm and who consumes a high level of sheep meat per year (i.e.
20 kg, 95.0th percentile) at the 97.5th percentile of the radiocaesium distribution in their
sheep meat intake. Doses to infants and children never exceed those to adults (because
consumption rates and dose coefficients were lower in all cases). The representative
person (consuming 20 kg/a at just below 1 000 Bq/kg) could receive a theoretical dose of
up to 0.26 mSv/a, using the most conservative assumptions. The probability is < 5% that
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Unclassified40 │ NEA/CRPPH/R(2018)1/PROVa person drawn at random from the population will receive a higher dose. Results fromthe PRA using monitoring data from the restricted farms indicates a range of doses to therepresentative person from <0.05 to 0.21mSv/a, with a mean of <0.09 mSv/a. Even whenmore extreme consumption habits were considered, all doses were less than mSv/a, andall were less than the dose of 0.26 mSv/a that could result from eating lamb just below theregulatory limit of 1 000 Bq/kg. As a result of this work, it was seen that: the majority ofsheep in the Chernobyl-restricted areas contained Cs-137 well below 1 000 Bq/kg; thelevel of risk with restrictions removed would be less than that tolerated by the 1000 Bq/kg controls that were implemented in 1986. Thus removing restrictions would notincrease risk. As a result of this, the UK Food Standards Agency removed all Chernobyl
restrictions in UK on 1 June 2012.

5.2. Experience from Norway
A somewhat similar situation occurred in Norway as a result of the Chernobyl accident.
Chernobyl fallout significantly contaminated the mountain-pastures used by reindeer anddomestic animals (see Figure 14), resulting in reindeer meat and other foods in generalbeing well in excess of Codex values (see Table 10).
Figure 14. Chernobyl Fallout in Norway in 1986 (Cs-137, Bq/m2)

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Table 10. 1986 Measured Maximum Cs-137 Levels in Norway
Product

Cs-137 Levels

Goat’s milk
Cow’s milk
Freshwater fish
Lamb meat
ReindeerMushrooms

2890 Bq/kg
1160 Bq/kg
30 000 Bq/kg
40 000 Bq/kg
150 000 Bq/kg
1-2 MBq/kg

The Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority (NRPA) initially established limits,
in May 1986, of 1 000 Bq/kg for I-131 and 300 Bq/kg for Cs-137. In June 1986 thesewere modified to be, for total caesium (Cs-134+137), 600 Bq/kg for basic foodstuffs and
370 Bq/kg for milk and infant food. The public dose target was <5 mSv/a the first year,and <1 mSv the following years.
However, it was quickly seen that a level of 600 Bq/kg for total caesium in reindeer meat
would mean a complete liquidation of reindeer herding in Norway, which would lead tothe extinction of the Sami culture. To save the Sami culture and reindeer herding as anindustry, the permissible level was raised to 6000 Bq/kg in November 1986.
This was based on the assumption that the Norwegian general public consumes little
reindeer meat (~0.5 kg/a), and on a judgement that the value of preserving theSami culture outweighs any general public exposure considerations. This said, thedecision making process involved extensive dialogue with Sami people in their district,consultations with the industry and the reindeer herders’ associations, and consideration
by radiation protection and health experts.
Optimisation was part of the decision. Live monitoring of reindeer was implemented
during 1987/88, with measurement results being a basis for the decision on slaughter.
Change in slaughter time and clean feeding for some animals were also instigated, andadvice was given to reduce levels to below 600 Bq/kg of Cs-134+137 for reindeer
consumed in the Sami households. Whole body counting was organised at regularintervals, during which experts dialogued with Sami to help them to establish appropriate
dietary vigilance. A dedicated brochure was distributed in Sami language on cooking
procedures to reduce caesium in food; consumption frequency based on radiocaesium
content (not more than 80 000 Bq/a per person; not more than 40 000 Bq/a for
pregnant/nursing women, children); and a description of health risks. In response to
evolving circumstances in the 30 years since the Chernobyl accident, Norwegian
regulatory limits on caesium in foods have also evolved (see Table 11).

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Table 11. Evolution of Norwegian regulatory limits (Bq/kg)

5.3. Experience from Belarus
Belarus was the country the most extensively affected by the Chernobyl accident, andmany of the affected territories were agricultural. Figure 15 shows the extent of the areas
affected.
Figure 15. 1986 Chernobyl contamination in Belarus

Protective measures, both regulatory and practical, were implemented in Belarus.
Radiological examinations of contaminated areas, settlements, farmlands and forests wereconducted. Radiological control/monitoring of radionuclide concentrations in foods andfeeds, raw materials, animal forages, and environmental objects were implemented.
Information-sharing and awareness-raising activities on radiation safety among
population of the affected areas played an important role in supporting public health, as
did the development and practical implementation of the most effective protective
measures in agriculture and forest management. These measures included: soil treatment(ploughing up tillage, deep tillage); lime treatment; application of organic, phosphate, andpotassium fertilisers; optimization of nitrogen fertilization rates; selection of crops withthe lowest uptakes; root (radical) improvement; surface (simplified) improvement; andselection of grass mixtures. These measures helped to assure that produced foods and raw
materials met regulatory standards (see Figures 16, 17).

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Figure 16. Evolution of PermissibleCs-137 Level in Belarus, Bq/kg

Figure 17. Milk production exceeding Cs-137regulatory level of 100 Bq/lin 2001-2015, tons

Achieving such results required extensive dialogue and education. Training programs
were developed for professionals in healthcare and education on the basics ofradio-ecological culture, and how to spread it among members of the population.
Outreach and awareness-raising work with the residents of the affected areas was
progressively organised on the basics of radio-ecological knowledge and skills.
And teaching students at local schools about the basics of radioecology and how tomeasure radionuclide concentrations in foods and feeds, forest gifts and soil, and ambient
gamma radiation doses provided a good basis for community understanding of theirradiological circumstances and risks. These activities are still in place after 30 years.

5.4. Japanese Experience from Fukushima Prefecture
It was quickly evident that caesium contamination on agricultural soils would find its way
into food products unless action was taken. Technological development of measures forthe removal and reduction of radioactive material in food products began quickly, withNEA INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP ON POST-ACCIDENT FOOD SAFETY SCIENCE – SUMMARY REPORT
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research resting on seven pillars set according to the advice of experts: identification of
the distribution status of radioactive material in farmland soil within the prefecture;development of a simplified measurement method for radioactive materials(soil/animals); identification of the amount of absorption of radioactive materials invarious crops; development of technology for the removal/reduction of radioactive
material; development of technology for the control of absorption of radioactive material;
development of technology for the removal of radioactive material during processing ofagricultural products; and development of technology for the reduction of radiation
exposure in agricultural jobs.
A central approach has been the removal of top soil using bulldozers and backhoes (seeFigure 18). This has effectively reduced the amount of radioactive caesium in the soil,
and the working time was short. Approximately 5cm of the surface soil was scraped off.
Decrease in radioactive caesium in the soil could be confirmed for all land categories. A
prime downside of this effective work has the mounting piles of contaminated soil wastebags, awaiting decision on final disposition (see Figure 19).
Figure 18. Scraping surface soil, Iitate village

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Figure 19. Decontamination soil can be found throughout Fukushima prefecture

In addition to the removal of top soil, the use of potassium fertiliser has been very
effective. Much investigation has been undertaken to identify the “optimised” approach interms of finding the best chemical form, the smallest amount to avoid environmental
effects, the lowest cost, etc. For this, many experiments were performed, such as: tocompare the absorption control effect of potassium chloride and potassium silicate; tocompare the absorption control effect of potassium chloride by fertilising period; toexamine the effect of zeolite application on the quantity of exchangeable potassium insoil and radioactive caesium concentration in brown rice; to examine the effect ofmanaging rice straw on the amount of exchangeable potassium in soil; and to study ofabsorption of dissolved and suspended radioactive caesium in rice field water.
Using these results, significant reductions of caesium concentration in food products wereobtained.
Figure 20. The effectiveness of potassium fertiliser

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5.4.1. Rice
These reductions have been achieved due to these significant research projects, and muchfarming has resumed as a result. Three ongoing research programmes are of particularinterest. One involves the development of technology for countermeasures for radioactive
material in order to resume farming (2015-2017), including the development of energysaving farming technologies on decontaminated farmland, the development oftechnologies to prevent the flow of radioactive material into farmland, and theclarification of the radioactive caesium absorption control mechanism. Another isfocusing on radioactive material measurement (ongoing since 2012). The third is anexperimental study on the resumption and revitalization of farmland under the evacuation
order (ongoing since 2013). Through these and previous research projects, the mostsignificant technologies introduced have been:






identifying and using the appropriate amount of applied potassium fertiliser;use of absorption control materials such as zeolite;
reverse tilling, deep tilling, and topsoil removal (with soil addition) for farmland
decontamination;
prevention of cross-contamination and secondary contamination of crops;
prevention of radioactive exposure in farming activities.

5.4.2. Fruit Trees
Research and experimentation was also needed for contaminated fruit trees.
One of the representative fruits of Fukushima prefecture are peaches, Japanese pears,
apples, and sweet cherries. Sprouting dates for these fruit trees are, respectively,
28 March, 8 April, 31 March, and 31 March, all immediately following the accident.
Among fruit trees in the year of contamination, there was a difference in radiocaesium
concentration of approx. 10 fold between deciduous fruit trees which were contaminatedbefore leafing, and evergreen fruit trees which had contaminated leaves. Study showedthat contamination of fruit came from direct fallout on the tree canopy, migration fromleaves and bark into the tree and its fruit, and from contamination in the tree’s root soil,
including contamination from rainwater runoff to soil under the tree.

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Figure 221. Sources of fruit contamination

Figure 222. Sources of fruit orchard soil contamination

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Caesium migration in orchard soils was also studied, suggesting that the strongly clay
soils in Fukushima prefecture will tend to bind caesium in the first few centimetres,
facilitating protective action choices (See Figures 23, 24).

Kogyoku (KO*)
Mishimafuji (MO*)
Akatsuki (AO*)
Koori peach orchard (HO*)
Watari apple orchard (FO*)

137

Cs distribution rate (%)

Figure 223. Distribution rate by depth (2015)

Figure 23. Distribution rate by depth (2015)

Depth(cm)please delete this line.
Type the subtitle here. If you do not needa subtitle,
Note:*For the survey fields for radioactive Cs vertical distribution in soil, five fields with different soil textures
were selected in April 2011.

Figure 24. Change in the average migration distance

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Overall, orchard caesium management approaches have been effective at keeping fruit
produced in Fukushima prefecture well below regulatory levels. Research has revealed
much useful information to contribute to this success. In the deciduous fruit trees
contaminated while dormant, radiocaesium migrated to the tree via sections above
ground. By the third year, radiocaesium concentration in the fruit was reduced to one
tenth of the initial year. By the fifth year, reduction to one tenth of the initial year wasobserved in evergreen Yuzu trees which had contaminated leaves. A difference inconcentration in the horizontal distribution of radiocaesium in the soil of approximately
2-5 times was observed. In the vertical distribution of radiocaesium in the soil, a moresignificant downward migration was observed in the third year of pollution, compared tothe initial year. By the fifth year, the difference between fields became more noticeable.
Radiocaesium in the soil tended move to downward more easily in soil with much finesand and organic substances. Removal of radiocaesium in soil by stripping undergrowth
grass was confirmed to have a higher effect in soil with less downward migration.
Removal effect of radiocaesium in soil by stripping the undergrowth grass was higher
with perennial graminaceous pasture grass and leguminous pasture grass.
Cultivating perennial graminaceous pasture grass and leguminous pasture grass is aneffective soil management method for prevention and as a decontamination
countermeasure for radiation pollution of the soil.

5.4.3. Livestock
A research supported practical approach was taken for the management of milk and meatproduction (See Figure 25). Experimentation developed an understanding of how caesium
intake concentrations transferred to caesium concentrations in milk, with and withoutcaesium binder (Prussian blue) use. Experimentation also developed a system, similar tothat used for reindeer in Norway, to assess caesium concentrations in beef cattle before
slaughter. It should be noted that in practice in Japan after the accident Prussian blue was
not widely used.

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Figure 25. Caesium Assessment in cattle

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5.4.4. Marine Fishery Products
A study on the effects of radiation on marine fishery products and the marine
environment was launched in April 2011 to reveal the effects of radioactive
contamination and provide data to support the revival of the fishery industry (see Figure26). The study also aims to provide accurate and scientific information to the general
population to promote a better understanding of the safety of marine fishery products.
Inspections include water, sediment and marine fishery product collection andradiological assessment. Approximately 200 saltwater fish samples are analysed per
week, with 38,010 samples, including 184 kinds of marine fishery products, having been
analysed as of August 2016.
Figure 26. Process for measuring radioactivity in marine fishery products

Sampling suggests that caesium concentrations in water and sediment are sufficiently
diluted that they reach background levels within a few kilometres of the Fukushima
Daiichi NPP. This has translated into a generally reducing trend in caesium
concentrations in marine fishery products (See Figure 27).

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Figure 27. Caesium concentration trends in marine fishery products

Source: Monitoring inspection results from Fukushima Prefecture Government (Apr. 2011 - May 2016).

This in turn has led to the removal of fishing and marketing restrictions on various marine
fishery products. This has included: sand eel fry restrictions lifted in June 2012;
pacific cod restrictions lifted in January 2015; flounder restrictions lifted in June 2016;
and flat-head flounder restrictions lifted in October 2013.
These sampling and assessment programmes show that the effects of radiation on marine
fishery products have been small, and there is virtually no detectable radiation at present.
Even low levels of radiation have only been measured in a limited number of fish species,
suggesting that the marine environment is returning to the state it was in prior to theaccident. As such, marine fishery product restrictions will likely be lifted in the future.
Monitoring will, however, be maintained for some time. Test operation has been resumed
for some fish species, and has been broadened through watching the status.
As of June 2012, test operation began for 3 kinds of octopus and offshore snails, and as of
September 2016 the number of target species for test operation has expanded to 92. At thesame time, shipment restrictions have fallen from 44 species to 16.

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6. Conclusions

The workshop presented a broad picture: of post-accident food-management approaches
used following the Chernobyl accident; of the radiological situation in Fukushima
prefecture and in the ocean near the Fukushima Daiichi NPP; of relevant state-of-the-art
post-accident food-management science, of existing and evolving international standards
for post-accident food-management; and of actions taken by farmers, fishermen,
distributors and Prefecture government research institutes to assure the future of farming
and fishing in Fukushima prefecture. The pre-workshop site visits, and the workshop
presentations clearly demonstrated the quality of the efforts being undertaken, and theireffectiveness at producing food products well below governmental consumption
standards.
Key aspects worth noting are:








Many of the techniques used in Japan following the Fukushima Daiichi NPP
accident are similar those used in UK, Norway and Belarus due to the Chernobyl
accident, such as ploughing, potassium fertilizing, and restrictions on slaughter.
This shows the value of sharing recovery management lessons, in spite of thediffering nature of each accident.
Some techniques used in Japan were unique to the Fukushima Daiichi NPP
accident and to Japanese culture, such as topsoil removal, washing and scraping
fruit trees. This shows the importance of prevailing circumstances, in the broad
sense, in driving the prioritisation of objectives.
Extensive monitoring programs were initiated in all countries after the Chernobyl
and Fukushima Daiichi NPP accident, respectively, including of soil,
food products, live animals, and people. The extent of monitoring of people ismuch more pronounced in Japan following the Fukushima Daiichi NPP accident
than after the Chernobyl accident, due to developing devices for monitoring
adapted to the specific situation, again most likely due to prevailingcircumstances, most notably social and economic circumstances.
Food standards are necessary, but they are practiced in different ways in different
countries.
‒ In Belarus, standards reviewed 5 times, becoming more stringent every
time. Might decrease further.
‒ In Norway, standards raised for reindeer meat to preserve theSami culture. Decreased after 8 years and might decrease further.
‒ In UK, 1 000 Bq/kg for sheep kept unchanged until the restrictions were
removed in 2012.
‒ In Japan, with respect to Cs-134 + Cs-137 in common foods lowered to
100 Bq/kg in 2012. Many farmers and food distribution organisations
practice a voluntary standard of 50 Bq/kg.

Many of these lessons demonstrate the importance of cultural heritage and social values
in the post-accident management of such socially important aspects as food products.
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Aspects such as traditional land use and family farming, the personal value of farming,
hunting and fishing, the value of regional produce, the importance of food in social
events, and the sharing of food with friends and family – e.g. “sansei”, show that taking
affected stakeholders' cultural views and local knowledge into account will be essential
parts of any post-accident recovery management programmes.
Many of the presentations of the situation in Japan strongly emphasised the continuinglack of trust in food products from Fukushima prefecture. In spite of the excellent work
being done, and the excellent results being achieved, there is not, in Japan,
an appreciation or understanding of this reality. Negative bias against the food products
that, pre-accident were prized for their quality, remains high. This suggests that, aspects
such as taking independent, international validation into account, and inviting coexpertise measurements by, for example NGOs, could be considered as trust building
approaches. Further support of prefecture and municipal projects by central governmental
expertise could be considered.
All of these challenges to trust in Fukushima food products could be supported by acoordinated communications strategy, involving farmers, fishermen, distributors,
consumers, experts including university, the Fukushima prefecture government and theJapanese central government. Also it could be supported by the involvement of consumer
and development of practical radiological protection culture notably at school.
Further research into such areas as transfer of radionuclides to food products,
countermeasures for rice and fruits that are more approaching “normal” farming
practices, and long-term impact on marine fish and marine product should be considered
and communicated.

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References
TO BE COMPLETED
Alexakhin, R.M., Frissel, M.J., Shulte, E.H., Prister, B.S., Vetrov, V.A., Wilkins, B.T. (1993), “Change
in land use and crop selection”, in Sci Tot Environ 137: 169-172.
Environment Agency (2007), Best practice techniques for environmental radiological monitoring.
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/290971/scho0407bmnl-e-e.pdf
FAO and WHO (2016), Risk Communication Applied to Food Safety: Handbook
http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5863e.pdf
International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) (2002), “Basic Anatomical andPhysiological Data for Use in Radiological Protection Reference Values”, ICRP Publication 89.
International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) (2010) “Adult Reference Computational
Phantoms”, ICRP Publication 110.
Nuclear Energy Agency (1995), Chernobyl Ten Years on Radiological and Health Impact.
An Assessment by the NEA Committee on Radiation Protection and Public Health.
Ohmori, Y., Tanaka N., and Fujiwara T. (2013), “Cesium Accumulation in Paddy Field Rice Grown inFukushima from 2011 to 2013:Cultivars and Fertilization”, in T.M. Nakanishi, K. Tanoi (eds.),
Agricultural Implications of the Fukushima Nuclear Accident.
Penrose, B. (2016), Cultivar substitution as a remediation strategy in radiocaesium and radiostrontium
contaminated areas, PhD thesis, University of Nottingham.
http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/31207/
Vandenhove, H. ( 2013), “Phytoremediation options for radioactively contaminated sites evaluated”, inAnnals Nucl. Energy 62: 596–606.
Yoshihiro, O., Nobuhiro, T., Toru, F. (2016), “Cesium Accumulation in Paddy Field Rice Grown inFukushima from 2011 to 2013: Cultivars and Fertilization”, in: Tomoko, M.N., Keitaro,
Agricultural Implications of the Fukushima Nuclear Accident: 33-43.

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Annex I – Workshop programme
DAY 1
8 NOVEMBER 2016
Welcome and Opening Remarks

09:00

Dr Daniel Iracane, NEA Deputy Director General
Mr Tadahiko Ito, State Minister of the Environment, State Minister of the Cabinet Office
Mr Mamoru Fukuyama, former Parliamentary Secretary of the Cabinet Office
Mr Shinji Inoue, former State Minister of the Cabinet Office
Ms Masako Mori, Diet member
Mr Toshiyuki Hata, Vice Governor of Fukushima Prefecture
Workshop Overview and Objectives

09:25

The Workshop Chair and Co-Chair will provide a short overview of the intent, content
and output of the workshop.
Workshop Chair: Mike Boyd, CRPPH Chair, US EPA
Workshop Co-Chair: Toshimitsu Homma, CRPPH Bureau, JAEA
Session 1: The Food-Management Situation in Japan after the Fukushima
Daiichi NPP Accident

09:40

09:45

Presentations in this session will set the scene, providing an overview of the prevailingradiological circumstances post-accident for agricultural, livestock, and marine
environments, and of the Japanese government’s extensive efforts to address foodsafety issues.
The Session Chair and Vice-Chair will briefly present an overview of the intent andcontent of the session.

Chair: Thierry Schneider, CEPN, France
Vice-Chair: Hirofumi Tsukada, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University,
Japan
1.1
Radiological Release Caused by the Accident, and Status of Contaminated
Areas
Presenter: Shinji Oikawa, NRA, Japan

10:15

1.2

Marine Contamination Status Caused by the Accident

Presenter: Shinji Oikawa, NRA, Japan

10:45

BREAK

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Measures and Current Situation of Radionuclides in Food

Presenter: Jin Aoki, Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW), Japan
1.4

11:35

Agricultural Measures for Reducing Radionuclide Contamination ofAgricultural Products

Presenter: Masahiro Fujii, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF), Japan
1.5
11:55

Implementation Status and Results of Food Inspections (Pre-Shipping andduring Circulation)

Presenter: Yoko Okabe, Fukushima Prefecture, Japan
12:15

1.6

Impact of the Nuclear Accident on Rural Agriculture and 5 Year Summary

Presenter: Ryota Koyama, Fukushima University, Japan
Discussion: The Session Chair and Vice-Chair will moderate discussion withparticipants and questions to speakers

12:35
13:00

LUNCH
Session 2: Local Approaches to the Production and Distribution of Food from
Affected Areas

14:00

Presentations in this session will address approaches taken by the Prefecture
government, municipal governments, and specific examples of approaches of local
initiatives taken by farmers, cattle ranchers, and fishermen to assure the marketability of
their products.
The Session Chairs and Vice-Chair will briefly present an overview of the content andintent of the session.
Special guests for this session will include students from Fukushima Agricultural HighSchool, who will present their vision of the future of agriculture in Fukushima Prefecture.
Chairs: Daniel Iracane, NEA
Rob Theelen, Food and Product Safety Authority (NVWA), The Netherlands
Vice-Chair: Naoya Sekiya, the University of Tokyo, Japan

14:05
14:35

2.1

Work of the Agricultural High School and Collaboration with the Community

Presenter: Fukushima Prefectural Soma Agricultural High School, Japan
2.2
Assessing Radioactively Contaminated Farmland and Regeneration of Safe
Agricultural Produce
Presenter: Toshihiko Ito, J-RAP Inc., Japan

14:55

2.3

Practical Aspects of Anpo-kaki Farming in Fukushima Prefecture

Presenter: Seiichi Kazumata, JA Fukushima Mirai, Japan
2.4

The Reality of the Fishing Industry in Fukushima Prefecture

15:15

Presenter: Nobuyuki Hatta, Fukushima Prefectural Federation of Fisheries Co-operative
Associations, Japan

15:35

BREAK

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16:05
16:25
16:45

2.5

Producing Safe Fukushima Cattle

Presenter: Osamu Yuasa, Fukushima Beef Promotion Association, Japan
2.6

Management of Distribution of Food from Fukushima Prefecture

Presenter: Shunkichi Nonaka, Co-op Fukushima, Japan
2.7

Promoting Fukushima Products: Consumers’ View

Presenter: Chie Sato, FCO-OP consumers' cooperative, Japan

17:05
18:00

Discussion: The Session Chair and Vice-Chair will moderate discussion withparticipants and questions to speakers
END OF DAY 1

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DAY 2
9 NOVEMBER 2016
Session 3: State-of-the-art Post-Accident Food Safety Science
09:00

This session will present the state-of-the-art science associated with food safety
The Session Chair and Vice-Chair will briefly present an overview of the content
and intent of the session.
Chair:
Anne Nisbet, Public Health England (PHE), United Kingdom
Vice-Chair: Michiaki Kai, Oita University of Nursing and Health Sciences, Japan
3.1

09:05

Codex Alimentarius: Criteria for the Import of Food from ContaminatedAgricultural Land

Presenter: Rob Theelen, Food and Product Safety Authority (NVWA), Netherlands
3.2
09:25

Challenges in Implementing the Current International Standards Relating
to Food and Drinking Water Applicable in Existing Exposure Situations

Presenter: Igor Gusev, IAEA
09:45

3.3

NEA Framework for the Management of Post-accident Contaminated Food

Presenter: Ted Lazo, NEA
3.4

10:05

State-of-the-art Modelling and Measurement of Internal Dose fromContaminated Food

Presenter: Dietmar Noßke, Member of ICRP Committee 2, Germany
10:25
10:45

BREAK
3.5

Presenter: Hildegarde Vandenhove, SCK-CEN, Belgium
3.6

11:05

Best-Practice Management of Measurements of Radionuclides in Fishery
Products

Presenter:
3.7

11:25

Phytomanagement of contaminated land: science, technology and context

Kinson Leonard, Centre for Environment Fisheries & Aquaculture
Science (CEFAS), United Kingdom

State-of-the-art Measurement and Assessment for Marketing of Foodstuffs
Produced on Contaminated Agricultural Land

Presenter: Christopher Perks, University of Cumbria, United Kingdom
11:45
12:15

Discussion: The Session Chair and Vice-Chair will moderate discussion
with participants and questions to speakers
LUNCH

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Session 4: Examples of National Regulatory andApproaches to Post-Accident Food Safety

13:15

Management

This session will present the regulatory guidance and current practice for the
management of food production and marketing in countries affected by the
Chernobyl accident currently provided or in development at relevant internationalorganisations
The Session Chair and Vice-Chair will briefly present an overview of the content
and intent of the session.
Chair: Dietmar Noßke, Member of ICRP Committee 2, Germany
Vice-Chair: Michiaki Kai, Oita University of Nursing and Health Sciences, Japan

13:20

4.1

Regulatory and Practical Approach for Management of Sheep in the UK

Presenter: Anne Nisbet, Public Health England (PHE), United Kingdom
13:40

4.2

Regulatory and Practical Approach for Management of Reindeer in
NorwayPresenter: Astrid Liland, Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority (NRPA),
Norway14:00

4.3

Regulatory and Practical Approach for Management of Food in Belarus

Presenter: Andrei Mostovenko, Research Institute of Radiology (RIR), Belarus
14:30
15:00

BREAK
4.4

Mechanism and Measures for Contaminated Rice

Presenter: Yoshimitsu Arai, Fukushima Agricultural Technology Centre, Japan
4.5

15:20

Mechanisms of Radioactive Material Absorption and Measures for Fruit
Trees

Presenter: Mamoru Sato, Fukushima Agricultural Technology Centre, Japan
15:40

4.6

Presenter: Youichi Kokubun, Fukushima Agricultural Technology Centre, Japan
4.7

16:00

16:20
17:30

Mechanism and Measures of Radiation Absorption in Livestock
A Study on the Effects of Radioactivity on Marine Products in Fukushima
Prefecture

Presenter: Yoshiharu Nemoto, Fukushima Prefectural Fisheries Experimental
Station, Japan
Discussion: The Session Chair and Vice-Chair will moderate discussion withparticipants and questions to speakers
END OF DAY 2

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DAY 3
10 NOVEMBER 2016
Session 5:
09:30

Workshop Summary

This final session will provide summaries of the key points from each session.
The Workshop Chair and Co-Chair will briefly present an overview of the content
and intent of the session.
Workshop Chair: Mike Boyd, CRPPH Chair, US EPA
Workshop Co-Chair: Toshimitsu Homma, CRPPH Bureau, JAEA

09:35

5.1

Summary of Session 1: The Food-Management Situation in Japan after the
Fukushima Daiichi NPP Accident
Presenter: Jean Francois Lecomte, IRSN, France
5.2

09:50

Summary of Session 2: Local Approaches to the Production andDistribution of Food from Affected Areas

Presenter: Christopher Perks, University of Cumbria, United Kingdom
10:05

5.3

Presenter: Ted Lazo, NEA
5.4

10:20

Summary of Session 3: State-of-the-art Post-Accident Food Safety Science
Summary of Session 4: Examples of National Regulatory and Management
Approaches to Post-Accident Food Safety

Presenter: Astrid Liland, NRPA, Norway
10:35
11:00
11:30
12:30
13:30
15:00

Discussion: The Workshop Chair and Co-Chair will moderate discussion
with participants and questions to speakers
Closing of the Workshop
Press conference - Meeting Room 401 on the 4th Floor

Public meeting - Multipurpose Hall - 4th Floor

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