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Connected Anytime: Telecommunications andActivity-Travel Behavior from Asian
Perspectives
Nobuaki Ohmori, The University of Tokyo

Synthesis report
Session W2 Social Networks and Telecommunications
The Expanding Sphere of Travel Behaviour
Research
11th International Conference on Travel Behaviour Research
Kyoto, 16-20, August 2006

Connected Anytime: Telecommunications and Activity-Travel
Behavior from Asian Perspectives
Nobuaki OHMORI
Department of Urban Engineering
The University of Tokyo
Japan
Phone: +81-3-5841-6232
Fax:+81-3-5841-8527
E-mail: nobuaki@ut.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract
In the past decade, our daily lives and activity-travel patterns have dramatically been changedby the prevalence of Information and Communications Technologies (ICT), such as theInternet and mobile phones. Virtual mobility and accessibility to cyberspace enable people toengage in a variety of activities, at anytime and anywhere. This report introduces the current
situation of ICT and progress of research on telecommunications and travel in Asia, mainly inJapan. I discuss some research topics towards future travel behavior research.

Keywords
Social networks, Telecommunications, Mobile communications, Activity-travel pattern

Preferred Citation
Ohmori, N. (2006) Connected anytime: telecommunications and activity-travel behavior from
Asian perspectives, paper presented at the 11th International Conference on Travel Behaviour
Research, Kyoto, August 2006.

1. Introduction
In the past decade, rapid development and diffusion of information and communications
technologies (ICT), such as mobile phones and the Internet, have provided people with a lotof activity opportunities for communications in cyberspace. The use of ICT affects individual
activity-travel behavior, and our lifestyles and activity-patterns have dramatically changed. In
particular, mobile communications, which are not tied to a specific place or time, have madepeople’s decisions about activity scheduling more flexible. Interactions between
telecommunications and travel are considered to be classified into four types: substitution,complementarity, modification and neutrality (Salomon, 1985).
This ICT penetration can be considered one of the biggest changes in people’s lifestyles since
motorization. A lot of new concepts have been proposed to better understand humanactivity-travel behavior in this ICT era. One of the most important concepts could be virtual
mobility and virtual accessibility (Golob, 2001; Kenyon et al., 2002). As Golob (2001)
suggested, the three space-time constraints proposed by Hägerstrand (1970), the capability
constraint, the coupling constraint and the authority constraint, can be adapted to the modern
world of ICT. Automobiles have enhanced physical accessibility, whereas ICT have enhanced
virtual accessibility. Travel is considered a demand, derived from participating in activities in
the real space. Likewise, telecommunications is also considered a demand, derived fromparticipating in activities in cyberspace. To better understand human travel behavior in thisICT era, we have to explicitly consider relationships between activities, travel andtelecommunications.
On the other hand, some researchers argue the positive utility of traveling itself (Mokhtarian,P. and I. Salomon, 2001; Redmond, L. and P. Mokhtarian, 2001). They discuss three elementsof travel utility: the activities conducted at the destination, activities that can be conducted
while traveling and the activity of traveling itself. Of these, the second element will probably
become greater due to increasing opportunities for conducting activities in cyberspace by ICT
while traveling. Not only mobile phones equipped with a variety of functions but also
miniaturized digital devices, such as portable computers and music players, contribute toproviding activity opportunities in real space while traveling.
This report introduces the current situation of ICT and social networks in Japan and Asian
countries, and briefly reviews progress of research on travel and telecommunications in Japan.
I discuss some research topics towards future travel behavior research. Social networks andtelecommunications research also relates to “group behavior”. In another workshop in thisIATBR conference, Fujiwara and Zhang (2006) reviews research progress of group behavior
analysis in Japan.

2. Social Networks and Telecommunications in Japan andAsian Countries
In Japan, the number of Internet users is 79 million and its penetration rate to the population is62% at the end of 2004 (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, Japan, 2005). The
other Asian countries of relatively higher penetration rates of the Internet in 2004 are South
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Korea (66%), Hong Kong (50%), Taiwan (54%) and Singapore (56%) (see International
Telecommunications Union). The number of subscriptions to mobile phones is 95 million(including 4.6 million Personal Handy-phone System (PHS) subscription) and its penetration
rate to the population is 74% at the end of 2005. The penetration rates of mobile phones inother Asian countries in 2005 are 79% in South Korea, 123% in Hong Kong, 97% in Taiwan
and 101% in Singapore (see International Telecommunications Union). Japan has also been
by far the largest provider of Internet connection services via mobile phones. About 87% of
the total number of subscribers to mobile phones are mobile Internet subscribers (including
i-mode, EZweb and Vodafone Live! services), which is fairly high in comparison with othermajor countries and regions. Now the Japanese government promotes “ubiquitous” networks
that are characterized by the realization of easy “person-to-person” plus “person-to-goods”
and “goods-to-goods” communications (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications,Japan, 2005).

2.1. Telecommunications in Japan
This section reviews a short history of mobile communications in Japan from pagers tomobile phones, and introduces social networks in cyberspace. Modes and services of mobile
communications have rapidly changed especially in this decade. A pager service started in1968 and spread in the second half of the 1980s. When people call the number of a pager, thepager vibrates or rings the bell. It also can send a series of numerical figures from thetelephone to the pager. It became explosively widespread in the mid 1990s, especially among
high-school girls. They sent a message as a series of numbers like a corded message, forexample, “0906,” which is pronounced in Japanese “O-KU-RE-RU,” means “I will be late”,
and “14106,” which is pronounced “A-I-SHI-TE-RU,” means “I love you”. Later, people
became to be able to send messages in Japanese characters to the pagers. In 1996, the numberof subscriptions to pagers was highest, about 10 million. On the other hand, cellular phoneservices started in 1987 and PHS in 1995. They have rapidly diffused until now. PHS isregarded a simple and low-cost mobile phone system and was spread especially among young
people in the late 1990s. PHS has spread also in other Asian countries such as China, Taiwan,
Thailand and Vietnam. Today 95% of mobile phone users use the cellular phone (popularly
called “KEITAI” in Japan).
More and more functions other than voice call and e-mails have been equipped with mobile
phones, such as camera, application software (e.g. games), 2D bar-cord reader, video player,music player, video phone, GPS, navigation, PC website viewer, TV receiver, electronic
wallet, FM radio receiver, etc. Recently, “E-moji” that represents a variety of feelings by avariety of face symbols and “Gyaru-moji” that is a kind of play or diversion can be sent by
mobile phones. They are popularly used especially among young girls. One of thecharacteristics is that teens have created new trend and culture of the use of mobile phones.
At present, three carriers, “NTT DoCoMo”, “KDDI” and “Vodafone” provide mobile phoneservices in Japan. Another new three carriers will start to provide mobile phone services thisyear. The “number portability” system, which has already introduced in other countries, will
be introduced also this year. Mobile phone users can continue to use the same phone number,
if they change mobile phone carriers. This is expected to stimulate more competition among
mobile phone carriers.

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As for the Internet, social networks created by bulletin board system (BBS), Weblog (Blog)and social networking services (SNS) play an important role. “2 channel” is the most famous
BBS in Japan. In the past several years, Blog and SNS have rapidly been popular also inJapan. Blog is regarded private diaries open to the public, whereas participating in a SNS
group needs an invitation from a member. There are more than 50 Blog services and morethan 20 SNS services in Japan. In March 2006, the numbers of Blog and SNS users are 8.68
million and 7.16 million, respectively (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications,Japan, 2006). In September 2005, the numbers of them were 4.73 million and 3.99 million,
respectively. The number of users has been rapidly increasing. “Mixi” is the most popular
SNS in Japan and it has more than 5 million people as members.

2.2. Characteristics of the Use of Telecommunications in Japan
In this section, I briefly discuss some important characteristics of the use of
telecommunications in Japan. The first one is Japanese characters. In the countries where
people use only one type of character, such as the Roman alphabet, it will be easy to write
sentences on mobile phones. However, in the countries, for example Japan, where people use
more than one type of characters, they have to change a type of characters into others.
Basically, Japanese characters consist of 5 vowels and 10 consonants. For example, usually inJapan, when inputting words and sentences on mobile phones for writing e-mails, we change“Hiragana” characters into “Katakana” or “Kanji” characters by pushing a translation button
several times. Usually mobile phones in Japan have a function of learning words usedfrequently by an individual user. For example, when a character is input, candidates for words
appear based on the learning function and one of them can be selected. It saves time requiredfor inputting sentences. In Korean mobile phones, people input a character by combining twoor three parts of vowels and consonants. Different original inputting methods are developed
and used in other Asian countries. This difference of how to input messages might affect thetime required for inputting the same amount of information between countries. In other words,
it might affect a level of virtual mobility.
The use of mobile phones is restricted by space-time and authority constraints, only within“digital boxes” (Dijst, 2004). Using mobile phones (both voice call and e-mails) while driving
vehicles and motorcycles has been prohibited by the Japanese law since November 2004. A
study reported that, from an observation survey, about 5% of drivers were using mobile
phones while driving before the enforcement (Yamada et al., 2004). Talking with mobile
phones inside public transport is basically prohibited. Other authority constraints restrict theuse of mobile phones, for example, in a hospital, airplane, priority zone inside train cars, etc.
However, compared with other countries, more people engage in some activities using avariety of functions of the mobile phones while traveling in Japan. A marketing company
conducted a survey for NTT DoCoMo mobile phone users in October 2005, asking what
activities they are doing while traveling by train (see IT media news). It shows many people
use mobile phones in a train. Main activities were sleeping (66.2%), surfing i-mode sites(59.5%), seeing advertisements (58.4%) and e-mailing by mobile phones (51.9%) for males,and sleeping (71.3%), e-mailing by mobile phones (70.3%), talking with accompanied
persons (67.2%), seeing advertisements (64.2%) and surfing i-mode sites (58.1%) for females.
People use mobile phones not only inside the train but also while waiting for a train or bus at
stations. The most dominant purpose of telecommunications by mobile phones is “making an
appointment and communications for meeting with people” (Institute of Socio-Information3

and Communication Studies, The University of Tokyo, 2001). Meeting appointment andwaiting behavior have also dramatically changed (Ohmori et al., 2006).
Another major characteristic is the prevalence of mobile phones equipped with a GPS.
Positioning technologies installed in mobile phones are used for convenience, safety andsecurity matters. For convenience, mobile phones with a GPS can provide route navigation
systems for persons and information on shops around the person. For safety and security,
mobile phones with GPS prevent kids from crime and helps searching for elderly people withdementia symptoms. GPS mobile phones can be used for activity-travel diary surveys (Itsubo
and Hato, 2006; Ohmori et al., 2006b).

2.3. Comparisons with Other Asian Countries
In this section, I discuss past research in the literature that compared Japan and other Asian
countries. Yoshii (2005) compared the use of mobile phones and their social impacts among
Japan, South Korea and Taiwan. In Japan, mobile phones are used for communications withclose friends. In particular, mobile e-mails are used more frequently than voice calls. One of
the reasons is that Japanese people tend to consider the partners’ current situation and refrainfrom interrupting their activities even if they are very close friends, which is characteristic of
the Japanese culture. On the other hand, in South Korea, voice calls are dominant use ofmobile phones among members of a group of family and close friends, called “Oori”(sometimes translated “We-ness”) (Kim, 2006). In the South Korean culture, there should not
be reserve among people at anytime. This promotes voice calls rather than e-mails. There isalso a difference in using mobile phones in public space. Japanese people care about the eyesof the public very much. However, South Korean people take into account the minimum
consideration for the relative strangers called “Nam”. South Korean people consider that
replying e-mails as soon as possible is etiquette when receiving e-mails from friends. In
Taiwan, mobile e-mails and mobile Internet are rarely used. One of the reasons is that the
number of characters used in daily life is very large and inputting sentences needs much effort.
Another reason is that frequent voice call is allowed in Taiwanese culture. Compared withJapan, since family has a more important position, voice communications by mobile phones
among family members are frequently conducted. The use of mobile phones strengthensconnection and relationships of members in social networks, of daily and close friends inJapan, “Oori” in Korea and family in Taiwan.
Oya and Kondo (2005) compared the use of mobile phones of university students between
Japan and China. In China, mobile phones are very expensive commodities. For getting
mobile phones, it costs as much as the first monthly salary that Chinese people get soon after
graduating from universities. In China, people can use only Short Message Service (SMS)
between mobile phones (no e-mails to any e-mail addresses). SMS is used more frequently
than voice calls. However, the frequency of sending SMS in China is less than that of mobile
e-mails in Japan. The main purposes of using SMS are chatting and meeting appointment,
which is similar to Japan. On the other hand, the main purposes of voice calls are urgent
business and meeting appointment in China, which is similar to Japan. SMS and voice calls
are differently used depending on the communications purposes. People can also use
graphical characters in SMS in China. They also use abbreviated sentences for the purpose ofsaving the number of characters, for example, “U,” which means “you”, “IC,” which means “Isee”, and “39,” which means “thank you”.
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3. Progress of Research on Social Networks andTelecommunications in Japan
3.1. Transportation and Travel Behavior Research
The Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies (EASTS) is an academic institute in Asia
established in 1994. A conference is held every two years and a lot of researchers in Asia
participate in the conference and exchange information. In Japan, there are some academic
institutes associated with transportation planning and travel behavior research, such as theInfrastructure Planning Committee in Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE), Japan Societyof Traffic Engineers (JSTE), the City Planning Institute of Japan (CPIJ), International
Association of Traffic and Safety Sciences (IATSS), etc. In this section, I briefly introduce theprogress of research on telecommunications and travel in Japan.
In Japan, since more than 20 years ago, interactions between telecommunications and travel
have been discussed. IATSS 633 Project Team (1982) investigated the relationships between
substitution and complementarity function of traffic and communications, which is one of theearliest research projects in Japan. The project conducted a questionnaire survey andinvestigated the possibility of substitution and complementarity function for businessactivities.
Telecommuting and teleworking, which can substitute commute travel, have been expected tosolve urban problems. In the 1980s, the Japanese government powerfully promoted
teleworking. However, after the collapse of the “bubble economy”, teleworking was not
introduced in earnest. About 10% of workers do teleworking (more than 8 hours per week) in2005 (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, 2006). A lot of research on impacts oftelecommuting and teleworking on workers and urban systems have been conducted. Mitomo
and Jitsuzumi (1999) estimated the impact of telecommuting on mass transit congestion inTokyo. Sato and Ota (2000) showed that the prevalence of telecommuting promoted
suburbanization and mitigated congestion in city centers from the analysis using urban
economics models. On the other hand, since Japan has rapidly been facing the aged society(19.5% of the population are 65 years and over in 2005 census), keeping the work force is oneof the important policy issues. From this view, teleworking, without long commute, provides
the elderly and handicapped persons with working opportunities. Kanbara and Mihoshi (1999)
examined the possibilities of handicapped persons’ teleworking. In 1999, an academic
institute of Japan Telework Society (J@TS) was established and has promoted research on
telework.
Communication media choice of office workers has been researched. Takita et al. (1995)
found that the different type of information to convey affected communication media choice;face-to-face contacts, telephone, FAX, TV conference system, etc. Doi et al. (1998) conducteda diary survey of business communications for office workers and found that the timerequired for meeting and travel time affected choice between face-to-face contacts andtelecommunications. Baba (1998) conducted an office communications survey and revealed
the existence of substitutive effects among different telecommunications devices. Baba (2000)
investigated relationships between face-to-face contacts and accompanied communications.
He found that e-mails were mostly used for sending documents in advance the face-to-facemeeting. Arai and Nakamura (1996) examined spatial information flows for business5

activities using the contact analysis method. When the Internet and e-mails were gradually
spread among office workers, possibilities of substitution of these new media were researchinterest also in Japan. As for the analysis in national level, Tsukai and Okumura (1999)
investigated relationships inter-prefectural business trips and telephone call flows by
developing gravity models, considering cross price elasticity between the two modes.
Taniguchi et al. (2000) investigated how the distribution patterns of urban activities havechanged, to evaluate regional equalization by improvement of transportation andcommunications infrastructure.
One of the impacts of the Internet and mobile phones on daily lives is consumer behavior.
However, research on the effects of ICT on consumer behavior and shopping travel does notseem to have made much progress in transportation research field in Japan. Taniguchi et al.
(2003) observed shopping behavior in real space and cyberspace, and found both substitution
and complementarity effects between them. Oya (2003) revealed that some people became tospend more money for communications by mobile phones and less money for othercommodities after starting to use mobile phones. Oya (2006) discusses that consumer
behavior for amusement, recreational and entertainment activities not only in daytime but also
in night time has changed.
Especially for these five years, some researchers have been much interested in research on theimpact of the Internet and mobile phones on travel behavior from activity-based approach(e.g., Ohmori et al., 2001; Nishii et al., 2003, 2005; Senbil and Kitamura, 2003a, 2003b,
2003c). Some research investigated the effects of the use of telecommunications on activity
scheduling and travel behavior using information from activity and telecommunications diarysurveys. Nishii et al. (2004) analyzed the effects of telecommunications on joint activities
within household members. Sasaki et al. (2003) analyzed complicated relationships between
activities, travel and telecommunications by applying data mining methods. Niwa and Ohmori(2003) and Ohmori (2005) observed young couples’ communications behavior. Ohmori et al.
(2006) investigated the meeting appointment and waiting behavior of young people withmobile communications.
New concepts and frameworks, to better understand relationships between activities, travel
and telecommunications, have been proposed. Kondo (2003) proposed a concept of three“Tsu”: “Koutsu,” which means “travel” or “transportation”, “Ryutsu,” which means“distribution,” and “Tsushin,” which means “telecommunications”. He suggested that the“mobile market” consists of the three “Tsu” infrastructures that connect any two regions.
Nishii (2006a, 2006b) proposes a new framework of “transportation and communications
systems analysis” that extends Manheim’s transportation systems analysis to include ICT
system. He also argues the importance of interdisciplinary approach with geography,
consumer behavior and urban sociology to better understand the impact of mobile
communications on our lifestyles.

3.2. Other Important Progress
Two large-scale national time use surveys have been conducted in Japan. Since 1960, NHK
Broadcasting Culture Research Institute (1996, 2002) has conducted a national time use
survey every 5 years, where the numbers of sample are 10 to 100 thousands people all overJapan. In the year 2000 survey, “the Internet” and “e-mail” was newly added to the category6

of activities. Since 1976, Survey on Time Use and Leisure Activities has been conducted formore than 200 thousands people every 5 years by Statistics Bureau in Ministry of Internal
Affairs and Communications. In the year 2001 survey, “the Internet use” and “e-mail” were
explicitly added to the survey category. These are very useful time series data to know the
impacts of ICT on our daily time use.
In the field of sociology, social impacts of ICT are main research concerns. Institute ofSocio-Information and Communication Studies, The University of Tokyo (2001) conducteddiary-type information use surveys for more than 2,000 people in Japan. The research groupconducted the survey in 1995, 2000 and 2005. The book published in 2001 contains thecurrent situation of the use of ICT, comparison between 1995 and 2000, and specific topics
such as digital divide, information literacy, simultaneous activities, communications habit, etc.
In the book, Hashimoto (2001) discusses digital divide. He argues that activity opportunities
provided by the Internet helps the elderly, handicapped persons, people living suburban areasand child-rearing women. However, they use the Internet less. Digital divide is enhancing
inequality and social exclusion problems. Suzuki (2001) argued the difficulty of measuring
information literacy and discussed the gap of the information literacy. From the international
comparative analysis, he found that the similar trend existed that male and younger people
had high literacy and educational background affected the literacy in Japan, US, Italy, etc.
Nakamura (2001) investigated mobile e-mail communications and discussed that full-time
intimate community was strengthened by mobile e-mails rather than mobile voice-calls. The
result in the 2005 survey is to be published. Their research interests are mainly in social
impacts and psychological aspects. Then they do not seem to explicitly consider concrete
geographical locations where activities and communications are engaged in urban space.
However, their research gives transportation researchers very fruitful information for better
understanding human communications behavior.
The Advanced Institute of Wearable Environmental Information Networks (WIN) establishedin 2000 has promoted research on wearable computers. One of the attempts is thedevelopment of services of “Wearable Information Networks” to wirelessly monitor plants,
animals, humans and artifacts on which the miniaturized terminals are attached. Through thefusion between micro-machine, micro-sensor, and network technologies, they aim to
positively contribute to the development of human health and wealth, as well as thereservation of the natural environment. The wearable computers can provide people withmuch more activity opportunities at anytime and anywhere.

4. Discussion about Future Research
Lastly, I would like to discuss some research topics for future travel behavior from Asian
perspectives. As described in the previous section, the disutility of traveling could be reducedby the increasing activity opportunities while traveling by ICT. Activity alternatives while
traveling depend on different travel modes. There is a possibility that public transport
becomes more attractive mode than driving a car, if travelers can engage in activities more
comfortably not only during in-vehicle time but also during waiting and transferring time.
Recently, especially in Tokyo, more people tend to prefer to live in the downtown areas near
their working places. On the other hand, some people enjoy long commuting by high-grade
trains, engaging in a variety of activities while traveling. Activity diary surveys could be
extended to include activities while traveling. There is another possibility of directly
7observing activities while traveling in a train and bus (Sakuma et al., 2005).
It is important to explicitly consider “digital divide”. As described before, people with lower
physical mobility tend to have lower virtual mobility, because most of them are the elderly
people without car availability or living suburban areas where the level of service of bothpublic transport and telecommunications infrastructures is relatively low. This could promotesocial exclusion problems. Recently, for example, air ticket booked via the Internet is cheaper
than conventional booking methods, people who have no Internet access have disadvantages.
In some cases, people with some characteristics can not communicate with each other and can
not be a member of a social network. For example, a blind person cannot communicate with adeaf person without a help of a person who can use sign languages. New applications andterminologies regarding ICT appear one after another. ICT users have to understand what the
new applications are and how they work. Most of the new words used in ICT and major
language used in the websites over the world are English. This could cause lower levels ofaccessibility to activity opportunities in cyberspace for Asian people. As Kenyon (2002)
suggests, virtual mobility should contribute to solve social exclusion problems. It is importantto provide every people with opportunities for participating in activities both in real space andcyber space equally.
As described in this report, also in Japan, ICT have had a big impact on human daily lives andactivity-travel patterns, and research on telecommunications and travel has made a progress.
ICT will continue to change social networks and human communications behavior. As a result,human activity-travel behaviour will also continue to change. I believe that research on social
networks and telecommunications is one of the most important and interesting topics in travel
behavior research. I hope that more transportation researchers have interest in this theme.

Acknowledgement
The author is grateful to the members of the “mobile marketing research group”: Prof.
Katsunao Kondo, Prof. Ryuichi Kitamura, Prof. Kazuo Nishii, Prof. Zhang Junyi, Prof.
Kuniaki Sasaki, Mr. Masaki Oya and Prof. Noboru Harata for their valuable comments. I also
thank Prof. Yoshiaki Hashimoto and Dr. Kim In Bae for providing me with useful informationin the field of sociology and Dr. Sangho Choo for useful discussions.

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