Toward a formal markup standard
for etymological data
Sean Crist, Ph.D., Swarthmore College
scrist1@swarthmore.edu
LSA Annual Meeting, January 2005
Many lexical markup schemes ignore etymological information. This isoften a perfectly reasonable design choice. For many applications (text-tospeech, part of speech tagging, machine translation, etc), this kind of
information is of no obvious use.
The specialist in historical linguistics, however, might have considerable usefor online etymological data.
Sample application 1:
Joe wants to know the relative chronology of X and Y, which aresound changes in the prehistory of Old English. He writes a program
to project the entire reconstructed vocabulary of Proto-Germanic
downstream through the Old English sound changes, excluding those
forms for which there is no Old English reflex. The program does thistwice, once for each ordering of X and Y. The program outputs words
for which the two orderings make different predictions.
Sample application 2:
Joe wants to find the mistakes in an etymological dictionary. One
kind of mistake is that pairs of words are wrongly claimed to becognate. Joe writes a program to project an attested word upstream
through the known sound changes, producing a set of possible forms
in the proto-language which would have surfaced as the observed
form. If two words are claimed to be cognate, and if the intersectionof the respective two sets of possible proto-forms is empty, then the
program outputs the pair as a likely error.
Applications of this kind are not a new idea. Smith (1969) implements a setof string substitutions (in SNOBOL4, on a CDC 6400) to project Proto-IndoEuropean forms into modern Russian for the purpose of testing hypotheses
regarding the relative chronology of sound changes, etc. Other applications

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are discussed e.g. in Campanile and Zampolli (1973), Stubbs (1985), Loweand Mazaudon (1994), Covington (1996).
This paper is not about any particular application. Rather, it discusses how
etymological data can be structured in machine-readable form which is
general enough for use in a broad range of applications, including the two
representative cases described above.
Most general-purpose markup schemes for dictionary data treat etymological
data as a field of unstructured prose, perhaps delimited as an <etym> field(see appendix for an extensive review). This is a perfectly adequate strategy
in a dictionary intended for human consumption (the electronic equivalent ofan ordinary desk dictionary), where no special processing of the
etymological data is expected beyond lookup and presentation. Such cases,
however, are not the topic of this paper.
The model described here is etymology-centric. The structure of the entry
directly embodies specific etymological relationships between words(cognation, inheritance, and borrowing). A skeletal entry obligatorily
includes one or more these etymological relationships. Other information
about words (gloss, morphological class, etc.) is of secondary importanceand can be omitted or included at the user’s option without affecting theoverall structure of the entry.

The basic mathematical relationships(See, e.g., Trask, p. 205, Hock, p. 380)
A language Li is an ancestor of a language Lj iff Lj developed from Li overtime through an unbroken chain of first language acquisition.
Examples: Old English is an ancestor of Modern English. Latin is anancestor of French. Proto-Celtic is an ancestor of Old Irish.
The ancestor relationship is transitive. If Old English is an ancestor of
Middle English, and Middle English is an ancestor of Modern
English, then Old English is an ancestor of Modern English.
Two languages Lj and Lk (Lj ≠ Lk) are related iff they share an ancestor.

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Example: Old English is related to Gothic because the two languages
share an ancestor, Proto-Germanic.
The relatedness relationship is also transitive, because every language
has a single line of descent.
A word Wj (in Lj) is a reflex of a word Wi (in Li) if it has been transmitted
over time from Li to Lj through an unbroken sequence of first language
acquisition.
Example: The word shall is the Modern English reflex of the Old
English word sceal.
An alternative wording is that Lj inherits Wj from Li.
The relationship “is an etymon of” is the converse relationship. Wi isan etymon of Wj iff Wj is a reflex of Wi.
The earlier form Wi can be either attested or reconstructed. (The sameis true for Wj, for that matter. *wiraz “man” is the Proto-Germanicreflex of Proto-Indo-European *wiros, even if this is a somewhat
atypical use of the terminology)
The reflex relationship does not include borrowing. English herb is
not a reflex of Latin herba, because Latin is not an ancestor ofEnglish. English has not inherited a single word from Latin!
The words Wj (in Lj) and Wk (in Lk) are cognate iff:
•Lj and Lk are related, and•Wj is the reflex in Lj of a word Wi (in Li), and•Wk is the reflex in Lk of the word Wi
Example: English day and Gothic dags are cognate because they are
the reflexes within the respective languages of Proto-Germanic*dagaz.
Abuse of the term cognate is common. For example, there are papers
describing the use of “cognates” such as generation/génération or
error/erreur to automatically align bilingual texts. But these aren’t
3cognates at all; they are loans. Cognate does not mean “similar insound and meaning” or “somehow connected in etymology”. It is atechnical term whose use entails a very specific claim about the typeof etymological connection.
Word Wj (in Lj) is a borrowing (or loan) from Li iff Wi (in Li) has been
adopted into the vocabulary of Lj, and Li is not an ancestor of Lj.
Example: English succotash is a loan from Narragansett msiquatash.
English skirt is a loan from Old Norse skyrta.

Discussion
Beyond these basic relationships, what are some of the other special
considerations for etymological data?
Etymologies are a kind of analysis, and are not observations. Knowledgechanges over time. This has at least two consequences.
First, some etymological claims are more certain than others. In asynchronic lexicon (particularly one of a modern language), there is usuallyno reason to indicate a level of confidence; the claim that German singt is aform of the verb singen is utterly uncontroversial and has been accepted asfact by all for many years. Etymological claims, by contrast, are subject tocontroversy; probably no two experts agree on every claim. From early
work in computational historical linguistics (Campanile and Zampolli,1973), there have been attempts to encode confidence levels.
Certainty or uncertainty can be a property of an entire etymology. It canalso be a property of a portion of an etymology: often, some sub-parts of an
etymology are more certain than others. Authorities might differ as to theparts of an etymology which they accept or reject, and to what degree. As
far as I am aware, the proposal below is the first to adopt a specific model
addressing this issue. (Amsler and Tompa 1998 do include a <cert> element
to bracket words such as Prob. which indicate a level of confidence within aprose etymology, but there is not a clearly defined model of the scope forsuch qualifiers. In the model of Campanile and Zampolli 1973, a confidence4

level has a clearly defined scope: it applies to exactly one claim of cognation
between exactly two words, where one such claim is encoded per punchcard. Neither system defines a system of inheritance or scope for confidence
levels across multiple claims.)
Second, it might initially seem like an attractive and obvious move tostructure cognate sets around reconstructions. This would be similar to thestrategy in synchronic dictionaries of using the citation form of a word as arigid designator for the entire lexical item (perhaps appending an integer todisambiguate homonyms); the inflected forms are organized as dependentsof the citation form. We might naively adopt a parallel structure between
etyma and reflexes:
A false parallelism:
Citation form:walk

Reconstruction:*dagazwalk walks walked walking
Inflected forms

dags dagr tac dæg
Attested forms

However, reconstructions change over time. The PIE word which was once
reconstructed as *patḗr or *pәtḗr “father” is now standardly reconstructed as*ph2tḗr (but many older references containing the earlier reconstruction are
still in use). Further, at any point in time, two competent historical linguists
might have differing views which lead to differing reconstructions. Thisvariation is the norm, not the exception. For this reason, it would be unwise
to use a reconstruction as the rigid designator for a cognate set. Further, it
would be desirable for a markup scheme to allow multiple versions of areconstruction to be simultaneously included (both *pәtḗr and *ph2tḗr, forexample), with information on the authority for each. Also, in some cases,
an author might want to indicate that words are cognate but omit the implied
etymon.
Cognation among substrings
The cognate relationship can apply between entire words, but it can also
apply between substrings of words. For example, the were- in Modern
English werewolf is cognate with Latin vir “man”. It’s not entirely accurate5to say that werewolf is cognate with vir; vir is cognate with only a substringof werewolf.
Compounding and derivational morphology make this a common situation.
A markup scheme should provide a way to morphologically decompose
words and discuss the etymology of each separately.
A complication is that morphemes are not always linearly contiguous. For
example, concatenation followed by metathesis can result in a situation
where the segments comprising the reflex of one morpheme are no longer acontiguous substring:
PIE
Proto-Greek
Classical Greek*kom + *-yós (cf. Latin cum, co(n)-)*κοµjóς (*mj > *nj; *nj > *jn)κοινóς “common, shared in common”

A similar problem can happen when two segments are fused into one. These
cases can be handled by doing the decomposition on an etymon where themorphemes are still contiguous, which is the solution I adopt below.
However, it does not address the more general problem of non-contiguous
morphemes such as circumfixation or templatic morphology. I do not see an
immediate solution to the problem and am open for suggestions.
Qualifications
Some claims of cognation require qualification. For example, a pair ofwords might derive from different morphological forms of the same root in
the parent language. Or, a set of words might be obviously cognate, but oneof the words might contain an unexplained anomaly. A markup scheme
might define a standard battery of qualifications of this kind (and I am open
to suggestions on what a standard list should contain, beyond the two cases
just given).
There might also be provision for qualifications which are specific to aparticular language family. For example, in Proto-Indo-European, there is acommon ablauting pattern where a stem can occur in e-grade, o-grade, or
zero-grade (e.g. *sengwh-, *songwh-, *sn*gwh- “to chant”, which are the
etyma of English sing sang sung). It is common for one ablaut grade tosurvive in one branch of IE, and another ablaut grade of the same word
elsewhere. Qualifiers indicating these specific ablaut grades would be use of6

to the Indo-Europeanist, but would obviously be of no use to specialists inother language families. Since it would be impossible to anticipate all of thequalifiers which would be needed for every language family, the set should
be extensible.
It is probably also desirable to allow the nature of the etymologicalconnection to be partially or fully unspecified. There might be a relationshipbetween two words whose semantics are “these words are in some kind of
etymological relationship whose nature is not specified.”

Designing a markup
Like Ide et. al. (2000), I discuss an abstract mathematical model for entries,
hierarchical in form, which is not committed to any particular concrete
markup scheme. Any context-free markup will do, but my own choice ofwould be XML (Bray et. al. 2004), because of its general flexibility and theavailability of tools. For legibility, I will use an indented form to illustrate
the mathematical model rather than XML.
A basic cognate set
cognate-set
word
form: houndlanguage: Modern English
word
form: Hundlanguage: Modern German
word
form: hunds
language: Gothic
word
form: hundr
language: Old Icelandic
etymonform: hundazattested: nolanguage: Proto-Germanic

Note that the etymon node (and its descendants form, attested, andlanguage) is optional. If it were omitted, then the claim is merely that the7four attested words are cognate. This claim of cognation implies that there
is an earlier form in some parent language from which the listed forms are
inherited, but the form of that word and/or the identity of the parent
language can be left unstated.
No privileged frames of reference
A body of etymological claims can be seen as a network of connections ofvarious types between lexical items, often between lexical items in multiple
languages. Under the present proposal, one can enter this network at any
point. There are no privileged frames of reference.
The following three examples encode precisely the same claims, but they doso from different vantage points. A program’s internal representation of the
etymological relationships would be the same regardless of which example it
was given as input.
1. (From the vantage point of Modern English) Modern English stone
is a reflex of Old English stān, which is a reflex of Proto-Germanic*stainaz:
word
form: stonelanguage: Modern English
etymon
word
form:
stān
language: Old English
etymonword
form: stainaz
language: Proto-Germanic
attested: no8

2. (From the vantage point of Old English) Old English stān is an
etymon of Modern English stone, and is also a reflex of ProtoGermanic *stainaz:
word
form:
stān
language: Old English
reflexword
form: stonelanguage: Modern English
etymonword
form: stainaz
language: Proto-Germanic
attested: no

3. (From the vantage point of Proto-Germanic) Proto-Germanic*stainaz is an etymon of Old English stān, which is an etymon ofModern English stone:
word
form: stainaz
language: Proto-Germanic
attested: noreflex
word
form:
stān
language: Old English
reflexword
form: stonelanguage: Modern English

Inheritance of attributes
Ide et. al. (2000) define a formal model for dictionary entries. Their model
is hierarchical, and permits attributes to be associated with nodes in the tree.
A child node implicitly inherits all of the attributes of its parent. However, achild node can explicitly overwrite the parent’s value for an attribute. In
such a case, the new value (not the old value) propogates to all descendantsof that node. I adopt this property into the model I propose here.
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Example: the Germanic verb meaning “to grip” is a strong verb (class I) in
all of the early Germanic languages, as it was in Proto-Germanic. However,it changed to a weak verb in Modern English (grip/gripped, notgrip/*grope/*grippen). In the following example, the “morphologicalclass” property of the “cognate-set” node is inherited by all of thedescendants of this node. Thus, the Gothic, Old Icelandic, Old HighGerman, and Old English words are all implicitly specified by inheritance asstrong verbs of class I; the Proto-Germanic etymon inherits this attribute as
well. However, the “word” node for the Modern English word overwrites
the “morphological-class” property of its parent.
cognate-set
morphological-class: strong verb, class I
etymonform: grīpanã
language: Proto-Germanic
attested: noword
form: greipan
language: Gothic
word
form: grīpa
language: Old Icelandic
word
form: grīfan
form: crīfan
language: Old High German
word
form: grīpan
language: Old English
reflexword
form: grip
language: Modern English
morphological-class: weak verb

If the word node for the Modern English word had further descendants,
then those nodes would inherit the weak verb attribute.
Inheritance of claims of confidence
Example: Everybody accepts that Old English cēn “torch” is cognate with
Old High German kēn “torch”. Everybody accepts that Russian sosná
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“pine” is cognate with Polish sosna “pine”. Hirt (1931, cited in Ringe 1984)
claims that the Germanic grouping is cognate with the Slavic grouping, but
Ringe (1984) rejects this claim (and rightly so; PIE *ḱ can come out as /s/ in
Slavic, but its reflex in Germanic is *h by Grimm’s Law). Ringe (1984)
actually doesn’t mention the Polish cognate for the Russian word, but for thesake of the example, let’s pretend that he mentions it and accepts it as
cognate with the Russian:cognate-set
accepted-by: Ringe 1984
word
form: cēnlanguage: Old English
gloss: torch
word
form: kēnlanguage: Old High German
gloss: torch
is-cognate-with
accepted-by: Hirt 1931
rejected-by: Ringe 1984
cognate-set
accepted-by: Ringe 1984
word
form: sosná
language: Russian
gloss: pine
word
form: sosna
language: Polishgloss: pine

The “is-cognate-with” node overwrites the confidence attribute of its parent.
The inner “cognate-set”, in turn, overwrites the confidence attribute of its
parent. Thus, we capture that the Germanic cognate set and the Slavic
cognate set are individually secure, but that the claim of cognation between
the two sets is not secure.
Handling morphological decomposition
The following example encodes the claim that the were- of English werewolf
is cognate with Latin vir.

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word
form: werewolf
language: Modern English
morphological-decomposition:
morpheme-1
form: werecomment: cranberry morpheme
is-cognate-withword
form: virlanguage: Latin
gloss: manmorpheme-2
form: wolf

A case where metathesis has applied
word:
form: κοινóςlanguage: Classical Greek, Attic dialect
gloss: common, shared in common
etymonform: κοµjóς
language: Proto-Greek
attested: nomorphological-decomposition:
morpheme-1
form: κοµis-cognate-withword
form: co(n)language: Latin
attested: yesmorpheme-2
form: jóςThis paper has sketched the broad outlines of a formal markup of
etymological data. Obviously, many details have not been filled in, such as
an exhaustive enumeration of the standard qualifiers and attributes, or the
specification of default values for node attributes. Comments and criticisms
are requested.

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Appendix: Survey of the treatment of etymological data inexisting markup systems
With regard to etymology, lexical markup schemes can be divided forconvenience into three types:
Type I. Markup schemes which make no provision for etymological
dataType II. Markup schemes where etymological data is delimited assuch, but is treated as unstructured prose
Type III. Markup schemes where the mathematical relationships
recognized in historical/comparative linguistics are somehow
embodied in the markup system in (semi-)machine-readable
form

Type I markups
Type I schemes are common and are probably the majority type. Studying
these schemes does not reveal anything about the kinds of things thatsomeone might want to mark up within an etymology, so I will not cite
specific examples or consider this type further.

Type II markups
The TEI Guidelines
There are several markup schemes which allow etymological data to betreated as unstructured prose. Perhaps the best known is the TEI scheme(Sperberg-McQueen and Burnard, 2002), which is intended to accommodate
a broad range of texts, of which print dictionaries are only one type. The
TEI scheme was originally defined in SGML but has been adjusted toconform with XML.
The TEI standard includes an <etym> tag. The TEI documentation defines
this tag as follows:
The element <etym> marks a block of etymological information.
Etymologies may contain highly structured lists of words in an orderindicating their descent from each other, but also include related13

words and forms outside the direct line of descent, for comparison.
Not infrequently, etymologies include commentary of various sorts,
and can grow into short (or long!) essays with prose-like structure.
This variation in structure makes it impracticable to define tags which
capture the entire intellectual structure of the etymology or record theprecise interrelation of all the words mentioned. It is, however,feasible to mark some of the more obvious phrase-level elements
frequently found in etymologies, using tags defined in the core tag set
or elsewhere in this chapter. (p. 299)
Obviously, there is a difference in philosophy between the TEI Guidelines
and the present paper with regard to etymologies, motivated by differing
goals. It may well be true, as the above paragraph states, that there will
never be a markup scheme capable of encoding every scrap of etymologicalinformation in machine-readable form. But this is surely just as true ofsynchronic lexical data; every synchronic markup scheme leaves a residue of
information which must be swept into comment fields as prose, or omitted.
Lexical data is multifarious, but there is enough regularity in lexical data forthere to have been considerable success in deploying machine-readable
lexicons.
The TEI definition for <etym> goes on to list sample TEI tags which may beof use within a prose etymology:<lang> The name of any language mentioned in the prose<date> A date in any form, with attributes to indicate the calendar
system, a standardized form of the date, and the degree ofcertainty of the date (which can have “any appropriate value”
such as ca., approx, after, before)<mentioned> “marks words or phrases mentioned, not used”<gloss> Defines some other word or phrase<pron> Pronunciation<usg> Usage information<lbl> A label such as “abbreviation for”, “contraction of”, “literally”,
etc.
Of these tags, only <etym> and <lang> are not declared in other sections of
the TEI specification.
The text gives the following example of the use of the <etym> tag:14

neume \’n(y)üm\ n [F, fr. ML pneuma, neuma fr. Gk pneuma breath— more at pneumatic] any of various symbols used in the notation ofGregorian chant...
<entry><!-- ... --><etym><lang>F</lang> fr. <lang>ML</lang><mentioned>pneuma</mentioned><mentioned>neuma</mentioned> fr. <lang>Gk.</lang><mentioned>pneuma</mentioned><gloss>breath</gloss><xr type=“etym”>more at <ptr target=“pneumatic”/></xr></etym><!-- ... --></entry>

Zhang (1995)
Zhang (1995) discusses dictionary entries as tree structures which lendthemselves to markup in SGML. Zhang includes an <etym> tag, but thecontents of this element are not explicitly defined. Within a sample entry,
the following use occurs:<etym> ... <lg> lat. </lg> ... </etym>
The <lg> element can also occur within other elements such as <form> and<sense>. Although etymologies are not otherwise specifically discussed, it
appears that Zhang is assuming a model like that of the TEI Guidelines
where etymologies are treated as a kind of prose.
Bell and Bird (2000)
Bell and Bird discuss some of the variation in dictionary entry structure, andseek to define a “general purpose data model for lexical entries”. Under themodel they adopt, an entry is primarily divided between head and body.
The body can contain one or more of five types of element, of which Aux is
one type:

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Aux contains the various types of miscellaneous information which
may be included in an entry. This includes such things as etymology,
obsolescence, cross-references, register, informant identity, and soforth. Some, such as obsolete, are marked by a binary attribute;others, such as Etymology, will need to allow prose within, and hence
are sub-elements of Aux.
Thus, a prose model for etymological data is assumed.
Ide, Kilgarriff, and Romary (2000)
Ide et. al. (2000) criticize the general approach to formalizing dictionary
structure of which the TEI Guidelines are an instance. Schemes such as TEI
are informed both by study of variation in the structure in existing printed
dictionaries, and by the requirements of a particular markup format such as
SGML. Ide et. al. argue that a markup scheme should be an instance of aclearly defined mathematical model of dictionary entry structure.
Ide et. al. therefore define a model in which the elements of a dictionary
entry are hierarchically organized, with an explicit model of attributeinheritance. A child node automatically inherits the attributes of its parent(for example, two numbered definitions might each inherit the same
headword and pronunciation from their parent node). However, a childnode can overwrite the parent’s value for an attribute. They provide thefollowing example:
gendarme (...) n.m. (XV°; gendarmes; de gens, et arme) ... II. (1790)
Mod. Militaire appartenent à...
Within the tree structure for this entry, the first etymology field (XV°;
gendarmes; de gens, et arme) is an feature of a node near the top of the tree.
The numbered definitions (I, II, etc.) are daughters of this node, and thus
inherit the etymology feature from the parent. However, definition II
contains its own etymology feature, namely (1790). This feature overwrites
the etymology value of the parent for this particular node. Any lower nodes
beneath this node inherit the new value, not the old value.
While Ide et. al. assume what is essentially a prose model for etymologicalinformation, there is an interesting system of attribute inheritance whichallows etymological data (among other attributes) to be explicitly structured
16

in interesting ways for which most markup schemes make no provision. I
have adopted this property of their model into my proposal.

Type III markups
The markup schemes which I label as “Type III” are those which make someprovision for the formal encoding of etymological relationships between
words.
Campanile and Zampolli (1973)
Campanile and Zampolli develop an etymological encoding scheme for theirstudy of the lexicon of Old Cornish. The authors perform a number ofstatistical analyses over the data from an etymological dictionary of Old
Cornish which has been encoded on punch cards. The columns on the cards
are as follows:A) a non-Cornish word, and the language to which the word belongsB) a Cornish word in some kind of relationship with the word in aC) the type of relationship between a and b; and whether the
relationship is affirmed, denied, or uncertainD) a binary field which indicates whether the Old Cornish word is anominal compound (which Campanile and Zampolli claim to be
the only kind of compound in Old Cornish)E) a breakdown of the elements in a nominal compound, if D is true
(otherwise field E is empty, presumably)F) the page number of the dictionary from which the information wastaken
The values for column C are:
1 = The relationship between the two words is etymologically certain.
2 = The relationship between the two words is etymologically very
probable
3 = The relationship between the two words is etymologically probable
4 = The relationship between the two words is etymologically doubtful
5 = The relationship between the two words is etymologically not very
probable
6 = The relationship between the two words is etymologically improbable177 = The relationship between the two words is etymologically nonexistent
8 = The Cornish word was borrowed from item A
80 = The Cornish word is a calque1 on item A
82 = The nature of the relationship between A and B is undetermined andcould be either of cognation or borrowing
9 = A and B are cognate (“co-radical”), but A is in a Celtic language
0 = B is not Cornish, but is a Cymric word which has “crept” into the Old
Cornish glosses.
An obvious modern criticism of this encoding is that the data are shoehorned
into an overly rigid columnar form which would not scale to more generalapplications. However, given the extreme limitations of the technology, it
was certainly defensible to sacrifice generality in favor of compactness,
encoding one claim per punch card. The resulting schema is quirky, but
unlike all of the “Type II” markup schemes, it is obviously designed aroundthe particular considerations of historical/comparative linguistic study.
Many of the kinds of information are ones which we might want to include
in a modern markup scheme in a more general form:•Distinction between cognate, loan, and calque•Degree of certainty•Morphological decomposition•Bibliographic information
The Oxford English Dictionary
It appears that the OED uses an <ET> field to delimit etymologies (Blake
1992; Amsler and Tompa 1998).
Stubbs (1985) states that the following items are to be delimited within the
OED description of a loan:•source of loan (presumably meaning both an indication of the donor
language, and the form of the word in the lexicon of the donor
language)
1

A calque, or loan translation, is a special kind of borrowing where the morphemes of aforeign word are individually translated into native morphemes. An example is Latincom+passio, a calque on earlier Greek sym+pathia (both meaning “with” + “suffering”).
18•date of first citation•author of first citation•part of speech•“subject label” (Stubbs does not explain this term, but it probablyrefers to the domain in which the word is used, such as Geology orMusic)
Stubbs describes various queries which might be run over these data. For
example, one might extract the dates and donor languages for all of the loan
words into English from Native American languages. From the names of thedonor languages, inferences could be made about the geographical area
where the loans occurred. The historical patterns of impact of Native
American languages in time and geography could thus be deduced.
Coward and Grimes (1995)
Coward and Grimes document the Multi-Dictionary Formatter, a software
package intended to aid in the creation of printed dictionaries. Their data
format develops on earlier work; it provides a number of tags related toetymologies:\et Delimits a reconstructed etymon of the headword. Coward andGrimes stipulate that this field should be used only for previously
published reconstructions. They recommend that that the \nt (generalnotes) or \ec (etymology comment) fields should be used to “posit
your own guess at a reconstruction,” and caution the user: “There is awhole science to the principles and procedures of comparative andhistorical linguistics, and simply trying to work from what looks
obvious can quickly get one mired in muck.”\eg Gloss of an etymon found in \et\es The bibliographic source for the etymon in \et\ec Comment on the etymon in \et.
\bw “Borrowed words”. This contains the name of the donor
language, such as Arabic, and can optionally contain the form of theword in the donor language. In one example, this field contains the19string “Arabic via Malay fi:bahasa” (where “fi:” indicates italic font,thus mixing semantic and presentation markup).
The format of the dictionary entries is a single column where each row
begins with a field label such as \bw, and where a value associated with thatlabel follows. Some field labels can occur more than once in an entry, but innone of the sample entries do etymology-related fields occur more than onceeach.
Amsler and Tompa 1998
Amsler and Tompa survey the state of disarray among markups in existingmonolingual English dictionaries, and propose an SGML-based markup
standard for this specific purpose. The authors describe in some detail the
problems in determining the structure of etymology fields:“Thirdly, there is the problem of our own shortcomings inunderstanding the structure of a dictionary’s entry, when the
documentation of that structure is so sparse. In our work to date, thisproblem was apparent when designing the encoding for etymologies.
In spite of well-written prefatory material in the several dictionaries ...
and extensive reference books about lexicography and computational
linguistics ..., we were unable to uncover a definitive description of
the structure within a typical etymology (e.g., the meaning ofpunctuation symbols and the scope of language names). The solution
we adopted is to include tags for etymons (the word forms, withlanguage as an attribute), etymological units (eu, the equivalent of alexical entry, including form, pronunciation, meaning, and so forth)and etymological segments (es, branches of a hypothetical universal
etymology tree, including information about the relationships rel
among the components). We must wait for other experts to help us
determine whether or not this organization is adequate for the
standard.”
Amsler and Tompa propose the following elements:<E> encloses the entire etymological section of a dictionary entry<epart> etymology of one variant form of the entry

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<es> etymological segment<eu> etymon unit
<etymon> a word, morpheme, or phrase cited in an etymology
attribute: lang the name of a language<rel> relation name (e.g. fr[om], etc.)<cert> degree of certainty (e.g. prob., ?)<basis> basis for the etymologist’s belief (e.g. “by folk etymology”,“assumed”, “according to”)
The following sample etymology for the word apple is provided:<E><es><etymon lang=ME>appel</etymon>
</es>
<es>
<rel>fr.</rel><etymon lang=OE>&aelig;ppel</etymon>
</es>
<es>
<rel>akin to</rel><eu><etymon lang=OHG>apful</etymon><deftext>apple</deftext>
</eu>
<eu>
<etymon lang=OSlav>abl&breve;ko</etymon>
</eu>
</es>
</E>
This markup can be seen as a sort of middle ground between the fully prose,
human-readable etymologies of Type II markups, and a markup intended toput etymological information into machine readable form. The units here
are specific to etymologies, unlike the elements which can occur within the21

TEI <etym> element. On the other hand, it would be fairly difficult for a
program to recover the fact that the Middle English word is a reflex of the
Old English word, or that the English words at all three stages are cognatewith the Old High German and Old Slavic words. A program would
probably have to use various error-prone heuristics to extract thisinformation.
Good and Sprouse (2000)
The Comparative Bantu Online Dictionary (CBOLD) is a complex databaseon multiple Bantu languages. As a starting point, the team digitized existing
print dictionaries and word lists, and marked up these texts according to the
TEI Guidelines. The team added a few tags to the standard set toaccomodate the particular needs of their project.
The team prepared a standardized list of standardized Bantu reconstructions.
The <etym> field of an entry from a digitized dictionary can contain an <xr>
element (a standard TEI element referring the reader to some other locationin the same text or another text). The team use <xr> to create a pointer froma dictionary entry to an item in the standardized list of reconstructions.
Thus, Good and Sprouse’s model is essentially a directed graph. An
etymological claim is an arc of a particular type between two lexical items.
From a practical standpoint, this model is convenient to implement,
especially in the case where one is using digitized synchronic dictionaries asa starting point.
Since the model is non-hierarchical, I do not see an obvious way toimplement a model of implicit attribute inheritance. It is certainly possible
to associate e.g. a level of confidence attribute with an arc, but this would
presumably need to be redundantly specified on each arc.
Jacobson and Michailovsky (2002)
Leaving aside details, the model of Jacobson and Michailovsky with regard
to etymology is fundamentally the same as that of Good and Sprouse: an
etymological claim is encoded as an arc of a particular type between entries
in a lexicon.

22Jacobson and Michailovsky’s lexical markup scheme is XML-based, andincludes some specific provisions for use by field linguists. Jacobson andMichailovsky borrow some of their tags from the large set in the TEI
Guidelines, but note that TEI’s provisions for dictionary markup are madewith print dictionaries in mind. Some of the conceptual structure alsoborrows from the heritage going back to the 1980s which Coward andGrimes (1995) develop on.
Like Good and Sprouse, Jacobson and Michailovsky allow lexical entries tocontain links to other objects, either inside the same document (<ptr>) or
outside it (<xptr>). These elements can contain an attribute field indicating
the type of pointer, and one of the permitted types is cfetym, an“etymological reference,” perhaps to another entry in the same dictionary.
Following is an example:<ptr type=“cfetym” target=“tumma_2”/>
This is a reference to the verb meaning “to be mature,” found within thesame dictionary.
Since the headwords in most dictionaries typically represent a single stage inthe history of a language, it could be argued that the connection in thisparticular case is one of synchronic derivation rather than historicaletymology. This is not a criticism; the general model of Jacobson andMichailovsky could readily be used for claims which are unambiguously
etymological.

23

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1988), pp. 61-80.
Bell, John and Steven Bird. 2000. A Preliminary Study of the Structure of
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Blake, G. Elizabeth, Tim Bray, and Frank Wm. Tompa. 1992. Shortening
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Bray, Tim, Jean Paoli, C. M. Sperberg-McQueen, Eve Maler, François
Yergeau. 2004 Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.0, Third
Edition. http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml/
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Covington, Michael A. 1996. Alignment of Multiple Languages for
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Good, Jeff and Ronald Sprouse. 2000. SGML markup of dictionaries withspecial reference to comparative and etymological data. Paper
presented at the workshop on Web-Based Language Documentation
and Description 12-15 December 2000, Philadelphia, USA.
Hock, Hans H. 1991. Principles of Historical Linguistics, second edition.
Mouton de Gruyter.

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Ide, Nancy, Adam Kilgarriff, and Laurent Romary. 2000. A Formal Modelof Dictionary Structure and Content.
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Canary Islands, Spain, 26-27 May 2002.
Lowe, John. B and Martine Mazaudon. 1994. The Reconstruction Engine:
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