M I G R AT I O N R E S E A R C H S E R I E S

N° 60

Migrants and the
COVID-19 pandemic:
An initial analysis
Lorenzo GuadagnoInternational Organization for Migration

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Migrants and the
COVID-19 pandemic:
An initial analysis
Lorenzo GuadagnoInternational Organization for Migration

Introduction
COVID-19 has emerged in a world tightly connected by local and international population
movements, with more people moving for work, education and family reasons, tourism andsurvival than ever in the past (Skeldon, 2018). Intense population movements, in particular of
tourists and business workers, have been a key driver of the global spread of the outbreak(Hodcroft et al., 2020 and 2018). The pandemic cannot as such be attributed to migration(Banulescu-Bogdan et al., 2020).
At the same time, the presence and movements of migrants1 are fundamental demographic, social,
cultural and economic dynamics shaping the local contexts that the pandemic is affecting. For
societies and communities all around the world, accounting (or not) for migrants in COVID-19
response and recovery efforts will affect the crisis’ trajectories. Inclusive public health efforts willbe crucial to effectively contain and mitigate the outbreak, reduce the overall number of people
affected, and shorten the emergency situation (Berger et al., 2020). Mitigating the economic,
social and psychological impacts of the outbreak (as well as relevant response measures) on allaffected persons will allow for swifter recovery.
This paper analyzes the specific ways migrants have been affected by the pandemic and presents
a diversity of measures adopted in migrants’ host and home countries to prevent, mitigate andaddress its negative impacts. By doing so, it aims to provide insights for more inclusive andeffective COVID-19 policies and operations.

MIGRATION RESEARCH SERIES | NO. 60

The paper first looks at migrants’ presence in selected countries and locations that have beenheavily affected by the pandemic in its initial stages. It then provides an analysis of the conditions
that make different migrant groups specifically vulnerable to the health and socioeconomic
impacts of the outbreak, highlighting examples of migrant-inclusive interventions rolled out
by governmental and non-governmental actors. This includes exploring the specific challenges
migrants have encountered because of restricted international mobility linked with COVID-19
prevention and mitigation efforts, and of mounting xenophobia in communities all around theworld. The paper then looks at how migrants’ individual suffering is translating in systemic effects
for host and home communities in order to draw conclusions on the effective inclusion of
migrants in COVID-19 response and recovery.

2

The paper provides an analysis of initial, and rapidly evolving, trends and patterns, relying on
anecdotal evidence from different countries and an expanding body of not fully reliable nor
comparable data. As such, it does not provide any definitive, comprehensive, or context-specificrecommendation. As the pandemic expands into new areas with different migration profiles,
as new response and recovery measures are rolled out, and as longer-term, secondary impacts
emerge, different risks and resources will be more or less relevant for migrants, and different
measures will become available to their origin and receiving societies. Further, complementary
analysis will be warranted over time – noting however that experiences and practices from past
emergencies, both health and non-health-related (MICIC Initiative, 2016), can help direct andinform theoretical and practical efforts to successfully include migrants in COVID-19 response
and recovery.

1

The term “migrant” includes, for instance, migrant workers and members of their families, students, displaced persons, refugees
and asylum seekers, irrespective of their status (IOM, 2019b).

Migrants’ presence in COVID-19 hotspots
Following the movement of people along busy commercial and touristic routes, COVID-19 has
initially affected China’s neighbouring countries, the United States and Europe. While the outbreakhas since spread from these areas into other regions and back into East Asia, these patterns
have resulted in many of the world’s wealthiest and best-connected countries bearing the bruntof the early health impacts of the pandemic. Geographic position, relative level of wealth andinternational connections also make these countries attractive destinations for migrant workers,
international students, asylum seekers and refugees. As a consequence, migrants represent a
substantial share of their population (IOM, 2019a), as shown by table 1. Moreover, the areas
worst affected within many of these countries, such as the Lombardy region in Italy, New York,
Madrid and Paris metropolitan areas respectively in the United States, Spain and France, and
the Geneva/Vaud area in Switzerland, are all hubs of international economic and commercial
networks, and political and cultural life and have a higher-than-average migrant presence.
Table 1: Number of deaths by COVID-19 and international migrant stock in 10 countries particularly
affected by coronavirus, as at 13 April 2020
Country
United States of America

deaths by
COVID-19

population

deaths/1 000
peopleStock ofinternationalmigrants

23 068329 064 917

0.07

50 661 149% ofinternationalmigrants
15.4

Italy

20 46560 550 075

0.34

6 273 722

10.4

Spain

17 62846 736 776

0.38

6 104 203

13.1

France14 96765 129 728

0.23

8 334 875

12.8

United Kingdom

11 32967 530 172

0.17

9 552 110

14.1

Iran (Islamic Republic of)

4 585

82 913 906

0.06

2 682 214

3.2

Belgium

3 903

11 539 328

0.34

1 981 919

17.2

Germany

3 043

83 517 045

0.04

13 132 146

15.7

Netherlands

2 823

17 097 130

0.17

2 282 791

13.4

Switzerland

1 138

8 591 365

0.13

2 572 029

29.9

Sources: CSSE, 2020 (accessed 13 April 2020), UN DESA 2019a, 2019b.

Migrants and the COVID-19 pandemic: An initial analysis

The high proportion of migrants in these countries underscores the specific need for inclusion of
migrants in COVID-19 response and recovery efforts. Societies that fail to appropriately ensure
health care, assistance and access to essential rights to such large population groups will be lessable to effectively contain the outbreak, and will likely see a higher overall number of people
affected, and a longer-lasting emergency situation. Insufficient inclusion of migrant workers inotherwise successful early containment efforts, for instance, has led to fears of a second wave of
infection in Singapore. Over 200 of the total 287 people newly affected throughout the country
on 9 April were migrants living in the city’s dormitories. The spike led to renewed closures,quarantines, and mobility restrictions (Ng, 2020; Beech, 2020). Similarly, societies that cannot
mitigate the economic, social and psychological impacts of the outbreak and related response
measures on all communities will be less able to recover effectively and will likely face heavier
direct and indirect long-term consequences.

3

Migrants’ vulnerability to COVID-19:
Challenges and responses
As in many other crises, migrants may be particularly vulnerable to the direct and indirect impactsof COVID-19. Their ability to avoid the infection, receive adequate health care and cope withthe economic, social and psychological impacts of the pandemic can be affected by a variety offactors, including: their living and working conditions, lack of consideration of their cultural andlinguistic diversity in service provision, xenophobia, their limited local knowledge and networks,
and their access to rights and level of inclusion in host communities, often related to theirmigration status (Liem et al., 2020 and table 2).
Table 2: Overview of migrants’ vulnerability to COVID-19
Recurring conditions of vulnerability

Increased likelihood of:Limited awareness of recommended prevention measures, including due tolinguistic barriers
Inability to respect social distancing in crowded, multigenerational homes
Reliance on public transportation
Continued exposure in close contact professions
Limited access to key hygiene items
Limited personal protective equipment in the workplace

Contracting COVID-19

Lack of entitlement to health care and deprioritization in service provision
Lack of access to facilities in underserved locations
Limited awareness of options or right to receive health care
Language barriers hindering communication with providers
Unwillingness to come forward for assistance due to fear of arrest and/or
stigmatization

Not accessing appropriate carePre-existing pulmonary/respiratory issues due to travel and living conditions
Physical weathering
Inability to access timely assistanceShowing severe symptoms

Restrained living and outside space during lockdowns
Isolation and inability to communicate
Obstacles to proper burial of deceased ones
Anxiety linked with being stranded, potentially arrested or victim of
xenophobic acts

Suffering psychosocial impacts

Discontinued provision of basic assistance and integration services
Loss of precarious, unprotected job
No inclusion in COVID-19 income support schemes, housing provision
programmes or rental subsidies/exemptions
Inability to maintain regular migration status

Livelihood and income insecurity

MIGRATION RESEARCH SERIES | NO. 60

Source: Author’s own elaboration.

4

These challenges, and related conditions of vulnerability, are shared with many citizens. Internallydisplaced persons in camps and non-camp settings, slum dwellers and homeless persons may
also have limited ability to respect social distancing and hygiene practices (Sanderson, 2020;
Sobecki, 2020). All gig economy and workers in the informal economy may face sudden income
loss (Kinyanjui, 2020). People from poorer, marginalized communities will generally have limitedaccess to health care. Evidence is indeed showing that socioeconomic conditions affect COVID-19
impacts for both migrants and citizens: members of ethnic minorities have been found to be
overrepresented among the people who have been infected and hospitalized and who died fromCOVID-19, as well as those with insufficient food and financial security (Devakumar et al., 2020;
ICNARC, 2020; Mays and Newman, 2020).

Migrants’ specific patterns of vulnerability often lie at the intersection of class, race and status:
migrants are overrepresented in low-income and discriminated minorities, and encounter uniquesets of challenges linked with their lack of entitlement to health care, exclusion from welfare
programmes, and fear of stigmatization and/or arrest and deportation. While the lack of properly
disaggregated data makes it difficult to quantify the specific impacts they suffer, some evidence of
migrants being disproportionately affected has been recorded in certain locations (Bivand Erdal
et al., 2020), and can be extrapolated for other contexts (see text box 1).
Text box 1: Local prevalence of COVID-19 and migrant presence in New York City
Income inequality and marginalization affect local patterns of COVID-19 prevalence. While positive
cases have been recorded throughout New York City, most confirmed cases were in areas with thelowest median incomes, despite the limited local availability of testing. This is likely due to structural
factors linked to living and working conditions preventing people from applying basic prevention andmitigation measures. Migrants are over-represented in many of these neighbourhoods: all but twoof the 20 areas with the most confirmed cases in New York host over 30 per cent of foreign-born
residents (above the city-wide average of 24%), with the top two (ZIP codes 11368 and 11373) homerespectively to 60 and 67 per cent.
Sources: Buchanan et al., 2020; New York City Department of Health, 2020; US Census Bureau, 2018.

The following sections provide more details on key conditions compounding migrants’ vulnerability
to the impacts of COVID-19, focusing in particular on risk factors linked with their limitedaccess to health care, living environments and economic insecurity, and examples of measures
adopted to support more inclusive response efforts. The paper then looks at immigration issues,
border closures and lockdowns, and mounting xenophobia as key elements exacerbating existing
challenges.

Access to health services

Migrants and the COVID-19 pandemic: An initial analysis

In many countries, migrants, especially when in an irregular situation or on short-term visas,
do not enjoy equal access to health care as citizens, and might not be covered for COVID-19
treatment (Collins, 2020; KFF, 2020; Vearey et al., 2019). Even where they are entitled to relevant
services, language barriers, limited knowledge of the host context or prioritization of citizens
may result in insufficient access to health care. Migrants are less likely to have access to generalpractitioners, and therefore tend to have limited access to preventive care and instead rely on
hospitals (University of Maryland School of Medicine, 2017), which is both more difficult andriskier as emergency services are saturated with COVID-19 patients. Furthermore, irregularmigrants may fear being reported to the immigration authorities and deported if they seek
assistance, which may reduce their willingness to come forward for screening, testing, contact
tracing or treatment (D’Ignoti, 2020; Jordan, 2020).
Lack of awareness of locally recommended prevention measures, overreliance on informal
communication channels, or adherence to culture-specific customs and practices can resultin migrants adopting behaviours that put them and their communities at increased risk oftransmission (Arfaat, 2020). In conjunction with increased likelihood to be affected by respiratory
diseases linked with their travel or living conditions, these factors make some migrants highly
vulnerable to the direct health impacts of COVID-19 (Holguin et al., 2017).
Furthermore, national and local authorities do often not have a precise picture of the number anddistribution of migrants in their jurisdiction. This hinders their inclusion in public health efforts
and makes it challenging to gather precise information on affected individuals, as well as monitor
and trace the course of the outbreak (see text box 2). More effective tracing programmes,
instead, rely on close surveillance of the whole population (Won Sonn, 2020).

5

Text box 2: Obstacles to tracing migrants in Malaysia
A milestone for the spread of COVID-19 in the Kuala Lumpur area was a religious gathering between
27 February and 1 March where hundreds of people were infected. The event was attended by 14,000
people, including thousands regular and irregular migrants from all over South-East Asia. Lack ofknowledge on these communities and inability to effectively communicate with them slowed down
the Government’s contact tracing efforts. Lack of trust in a system that requires doctors to report
undocumented patients, migrants hesitated to come forward despite repeated calls and even after theGovernment repelled relevant regulations.
Sources: Reuters, 2020a; Chan, 2020.

Ensuring that all groups of migrants, regardless of their status, have access to health care is anecessary condition for effective responses to the COVID-19 outbreak (WHO Europe, 2020).
Many countries were either providing universal health coverage before the start of the pandemicor have removed obstacles hindering migrants’ access to COVID-19 testing and treatment sincethen (Ontario, Ministry of Health, 2020; Samuels, 2020). This includes offering language andculture-appropriate, affordable options (including through telehealth), and account for migrants’specific needs (such as the need to communicate with distant relatives) in the provision of relevant
services (ANSA, 2020a). This also requires making screening and testing capacity, and health-careprovision, available in marginal areas, for instance by setting up mobile medical facilities in key
workplaces or neighbourhoods (New York state, Governor A.M. Cuomo, 2020).
Many actors have supported these approaches through outreach efforts that convey translated,easy-to-understand information on recommended practices, and entitlements and options toreceive services (IOM, 2020a; Wallis, 2020). Information is conveyed more effectively throughformal and informal channels migrants routinely use, in key locations in communities and along
migration routes, and by individuals and organizations migrants know and trust (Reuters, 2020a;
Al-Arshani, 2020). Circulation of official information on informal channels is also essential forcountering misinformation (Arfaat, 2020).

MIGRATION RESEARCH SERIES | NO. 60

Addressing trust barriers is a precondition for successfully including migrants in screening, contact
tracing, and health-care provision efforts. Establishing firewalls between health-care provisionand immigration enforcement can reduce migrants’ fears to be arrested and deported if theycome forward for assistance (Van Durme, 2017). This is particularly important at a time when
individual data on people’s health and mobility is being shared among diverse institutions fordisease monitoring and control. As migrants are often more willing to turn towards (often nongovernmental) providers they know and trust, ensuring continuity of services of relevant facilities,
through adequate regulations, staffing, and resourcing, can encourage them to look for timely
assistance (MSF, 2020; Healthserve, 2020).

6

Living conditions
In countries all over the world, migrants may live in overcrowded environments without adequate
access to water and hygiene products, where respecting social distancing and other basic prevention
practices, such as self-isolating in case of illness, is difficult. Formal and informal displacement sites(see text box 3), transit sites, and reception centres may present the most acute challenges,
but workers’ quarters in industrial and rural areas, and the low-income, underserved locations
migrants often share with other marginalized groups of citizens show similar issues (Kluge et al.,2020; Dost, 2020). In the absence of systematic screening and tracing, the risk of a rapid spreadof the disease is especially heightened in and around these sites. While potentially effective tocontain the risk of infection, site closures or the lockdown and relocation of residents have attimes worsened migrants’ living conditions or abruptly restricted their ability to move, including
their possibilities to access food, basic services and income (MEE, 2020; Pattisson, 2020; Tondo,
2020; Spinney, 2020).

Text box 3: Displaced persons and COVID-19
In the face of COVID-19, persons displaced internally and across borders are particularly at risk. Many
who live in camps in Europe, Turkey or Mexico face the concrete possibility of an outbreak from highly
affected areas, which would lead to a rapid spread of the infection in crammed facilities with limited
hygiene and health-care services. Most of the world’s 25.9 million refugees and 41.3 million internallydisplaced persons, however, are in countries that are only starting to be affected by the pandemic (suchas Jordan, Lebanon or Bangladesh), and that might have very limited capacity for health-care provision
due to protracted crises (such as the Syrian Arab Republic, Yemen and Libya). Persons who have been
forced to leave their homes by the earthquake in Croatia and Cyclone Harold in the Pacific will faceheightened health risks and compounded economic impacts throughout their displacement.
Sources: McAuliffe and Bauloz, 2020; IOM, 2020b; UNHCR, 2020a.

In parallel, through re-prioritization of funding and response capacities, reduced movement
and level of access of key personnel, disruption of supply chains, and local limitations to publicgatherings, COVID-19 has affected the delivery of services and assistance upon which many
migrants rely for survival and well-being. Humanitarian service delivery in camp settings has
become increasingly difficult (Bhuiyan, 2020; IOM, 2020b; Welsh, 2020), while many integration
programmes have been interrupted (Wallis, 2020) and civil society-managed dormitories
and community kitchens closed (Win, 2020). Lockdowns and closure of businesses have alsotranslated in obstacles to using public spaces, community centres and private business, uponwhich migrants often rely for basic services (e.g. communications) and psychological well-being(Kelly et al., 2020). In this context, removing barriers preventing migrants’ access to long-distancecommunications options can help reduce their isolation, improve their access to information andmitigate the psychosocial impacts they suffer as a consequence of the crisis (HRW, 2020).
To compound the above, there is a risk that migrants will be overlooked in COVID-19-response
programmes aiming to support people’s access to space for isolation and decent housing andliving conditions – such as temporary accommodation in hotels or other facilities, rental subsidies
or exemptions (Taylor, 2020). These obstacles are of particular concern because migrants, asother minority citizens, are more likely to live in multigenerational households, where infectionof particularly fragile, older individuals, is more likely (Cohn and Passel, 2018).

Migrants and the COVID-19 pandemic: An initial analysis

Available responses to these challenges require including migrants in temporary housing
programmes and improving living conditions and access to services in highly risky locations, suchas transit sites, reception centres, labour camps and other underserved urban and rural locations.
Decongestion and redistribution of migrants in appropriate sites (IOM, 2020c, Pascual, 2020),
provision of protective equipment, hygiene and sanitary items, presence of medical personnel,
strengthened surveillance activities and setting up isolation facilities can help reduce risks (IOM,
2020d; IFRC et al., 2020; Carabott, 2020; ANSA, 2020a).

Work and working conditions
Exposure and vulnerability to COVID-19 are also shaped by people’s work and working conditions.
Migrants make up a disproportionate share of the workforce in sectors that have remained active
throughout the crisis, such as agriculture, construction work, logistics and deliveries, personalcare and health-care provision, garbage collection and cleaning services (see e.g. OECD, n.d.).
Inability to work remotely, limited access to private transportation, physical proximity with coworkers and customers and lack of adequate protective equipment and hygiene options makethese occupations particularly risky (Gelatt, 2020).

7

In addition, migrants are often also over-represented in some of the industries hardest hit by thecrisis, such as food services, non-essential retail or domestic work – or in the most precarious
positions in any sector (e.g. in the gig economy, see also text box 4). These unprotected, undeclared
positions will represent a substantial share of the millions of people COVID-19 has pushed andwill push towards underemployment and unemployment – a group in which migrant workers
are overrepresented (ILO, 2020; US Department of Labor). Loss or reduction of employment
reflects on abrupt income loss, which, for lower-income households who have limited access tosavings, translates in reduced consumption of essential items and products (Perez-Amurao, 2020;
Crawford et al., 2020).

Text box 4: Migrant domestic workers and COVID-19
COVID-19 and related lockdowns have posed a specific set of challenges to migrant domestic workers.
For some, workload has increased and free Sundays have been denied as the whole family is staying
at home and is demanding more constant assistance. Others have been let go by employers confinedat home, refusing contact with outsiders and/or have tested positive to COVID-19. Other domestic
workers have reported being abused by employers sending them for errands without adequate
protective equipment, or withholding salaries and documents.
Sources: Jordan and Dickerson, 2020; IOM-CREST, 2020.

At the same time, migrants are more likely to be excluded from welfare systems protecting workers
who lose their jobs and incomes due to lockdown-related closure and failure of businesses, layoffs
and reduction in working hours – often despite their disproportionate contribution to welfare
systems (Vargas-Silva, 2019). They are often not entitled to guaranteed income, unemployment
benefits, food vouchers, paid sick leave or even days off. Similarly, they might be excluded fromrelief and support packages governments are and will be rolling out in response to COVID-19
or deprioritized from assistance when resources are limited (Gelatt, 2020; Doherty et al., 2020;
Polchi, 2020).

MIGRATION RESEARCH SERIES | NO. 60

Migrants already working in exploitative conditions before the pandemic may have limited
options to look for other jobs, limited ability to move internally or across borders, and limited
savings available to cope with hardship (McCormack et al., 2015; Gavlak, 2020). In countries inwhich migration status is tied to a person’s employer and job, workplace closure can also resultin irregularity. Similarly, migrants who need to pay to renew their permits might not be able to
do so if their income is reduced. Irregularity, in turn, further reduces entitlements to assistanceand the availability of options for well-being, while it increases risks related and not related to
COVID-19 (Nyein, 2020).

8

Due to these constraints, migrants might be forced to work despite growing health risks, andsometimes despite showing COVID-19 symptoms, or might be trapped in host locations without
access to income, opportunities, and support (Quinley, 2020). Reducing these conditions ofvulnerability requires ensuring access to safe working conditions, including adequate protective
equipment, for all essential workers (IOM-CREST, n.d.). All migrants should also be granted
access to COVID-19-related welfare programmes (e.g. unemployment insurance, housing
assistance, food vouchers, rental subsidies). In the absence of nation-wide policies in this sense,
local authorities can support assistance systems that include all local residents, regardless ofstatus and nationality (Hopkins, 2020; Council of Europe, Intercultural Cities, 2020). Ensuring that
relevant civil society actors can continue to provide basic services will be key to preserving theiraccess to food, shelter and administrative support to apply for assistance (Informed Immigrant,
2020; NICE, 2020). Similarly, ensuring continued, affordable access to legal representation canhelp migrants be better protected against abuse and exploitation and more able to navigate
immigration matters. While migrants’ local and translocal networks provide some options

for self-reliance and solidarity (Bauloz et al., 2019), in the context of generalized struggle andimpoverishment might end up eroding longer-term well-being prospects.

The impact of borders closure
Almost all countries have responded to the spread of COVID-19 closing borders and tightening
immigration regimes (IOM, 2020e and f). As options for cross-border movements dwindle,
incoming migrants and travellers are pushed back or quarantined at borders and forced to stay
in informal, overcrowded and underserved transit sites, where they face threats to their health,dignity and survival (Yayboke, 2020). Border closures have made it virtually impossible for incoming
asylum seekers to apply for international protection (Banulescu-Bogdanet al., 2020; Ahmed
et al., 2020). International refugee resettlement operations have largely come to a halt due toincreasing travel restrictions (IOM, 2020g), despite some limited initiatives for the resettlement/
relocation of unaccompanied minors (MacGregor, 2020). Refusal of relevant countries to granta safe port to rescue vessels, and quarantines imposed to both migrants rescued at sea and theships’ crews of rescue vessels has further hindered rescue missions in the Central Mediterranean,
increasing the risks migrants face in what was already the most dangerous crossing in the world(D’Ignoti, 2020; Le Monde and AFP, 2020).
People due to travel abroad, or already in transit through a third country when travel bans
were adopted, have found themselves unable to reach their destination – as was the case forover 25,000 Filipino outbound workers (Perez-Amurao, 2020). These disruptions might have far
reaching consequences for migrants and families who have borrowed money to pay recruiters
and travel agents, only to find themselves unable to start a job and repay their debt. Moregenerally, closed borders might push an increased number of people towards informal, morerisky migration channels (Yayboke, 2020).
Conversely, thousands of migrants and travellers worldwide have been stranded in countries thatclosed their borders. Prolonged travel bans might result in many of them having to overstay theirvisa (Bernal, 2020). Migrants who were on home leave or travelling out of their host country(including for visa renewal) when the bans came into place might be unable to return to their job,
their studies, their homes and families (Charles, 2020).

Migrants and the COVID-19 pandemic: An initial analysis

All over the world, lockdowns and border closure have sparked the return of migrants who havelost support and networks, employment options and ultimately the possibility of dignified livingin places of destination due to the pandemic (see text box 5). Such movements create significant
health risks both in migrants’ home countries and communities and in locations in host andtransit countries through which they travel (Chia and Poh, 2020).
Few countries have managed to avoid the complete limitation of internal and international
movements by investing in testing, contact tracing and isolation measures (Normile, 2020). Selfquarantine systems for incoming migrants, and quarantine facilities which comply with basic
standards and protection principles, can in any case help avoiding border closure and guarantee
the application of the non-refoulement principle (UNHCR, 2020b).

9

Text box 5: COVID-19 and migrants’ returns
Tens of thousands Lao, Vietnamese and Myanmar workers left Thailand when the Thai Government
closed the country’s borders. They crowded at bus stations and border posts, envisioning to crossborders irregularly and overwhelming the management capacity of authorities on both sides.
Over 115,000 Afghans have returned from the Islamic Republic of Iran between 8 and 21 March alone,despite borders being officially closed. Returnees, coming from one of the world’s countries worst
affected by COVID-19, completely overwhelmed the Afghan system’s ability to provide screening andhealth services at borders and in Herat, already the country’s worst-affected city.
Faced with increasing health risks and deteriorating conditions in their host countries, hundreds ofRohingyas and Venezuelans have been irregularly crossing borders back into respectively the Rakhine
state and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, despite continued potential for abuses and violenceback home, and potential for COVID-19 infection.
Sources: Bangkok Post, 2020; Kit, 2020; Faizi and Zucchino 2020; Parkin Daniels and Phillips, 2020.

COVID-19-related travel restrictions and lockdowns also pose unique logistical, administrativeand economic hurdles to operations to repatriate migrants to their home countries. Individuals
in hard-to-reach locations and with limited consular presence are finding it extremely difficult
to reach exit points and find onward transportation (Mzezewa, 2020; IOM, 2020h). Migrants
have also found themselves stranded following the establishment of travel bans in their homecountries. In fact, as of 9 April 2020, out of the almost 200 countries and territories imposing
travel restriction for incoming passengers, only 97 provided exceptions for their own nationals
abroad (IOM, 2020i).
In addition to setting up systems for repatriation of nationals abroad, including throughcollaborations with like-minded countries, home countries can also prepare for the return of
migrants by setting up protocols for screening and testing at entry points and self-quarantining,quarantine facilities, personnel and equipment (The Jakarta Post, 2020). Home countries mightalso need to set up programmes both to assist the families of migrants affected by COVID-19
while abroad and support the reintegration of returnees.

MIGRATION RESEARCH SERIES | NO. 60

Risks stemming from immigration policies and their enforcement

10

In some countries, migrants are still being requested to comply with administrative requirements
for status determination, visa application and renewal. However, respecting procedures andschedules becomes challenging as offices and service providers close or limit their working
hours, and movements are restricted. Office closures and appointment rescheduling translate
into delayed procedures and prolonged uncertainty, and risks stays in detention and reception
centres. Arrests, including due to violation of curfews and social distancing measures, or not
wearing masks, lead to more migrants being detained and increase the risk of losing their regular
status (Jones Jr., 2020). In a context of potentially increasing irregularity due to border closure andvisa overstaying, immigration enforcement might hinder efforts to control the outbreak throughincreased social contacts for migrants and government personnel and reduced willingness of
migrants to come forward for assistance – especially in countries where there are no firewalls
between health and immigration authorities, and arrest at health-care facilities is possible (Gomez,
2020; Chishti and Pierce, 2020).
Many countries have however granted flexibility on immigration requirements (e.g. automaticor simplified procedures for visa renewal or conversion, waiving fees) to prevent widespread
irregularity following loss of employment and border closure (Collins, 2020; United Kingdom
Home Office, 2020; French government, 2020). Suspending or scaling down immigration

enforcement activities can encourage migrants to come forward for health care and otherassistance. This can also be achieved through local-level initiatives, including the application andextension of sanctuary city approaches to the management of the pandemic (Hudson, 2020).
Ultimately, granting migrants regular status can drastically improve their access to health care andsocial security (see text box 6).

Text box 6: Regularizing migrants in response to COVID-19
Portugal has temporarily regularized all migrants, including asylum seekers, who had applied for aresidence permit before the declaration of the state of emergency on 18 March. This temporary
regularization aims to ensure migrants’ rights, including access to health care and social security. In
Italy, the Government, unions and migrant rights associations have been discussing a regularization
programme for irregular migrant workers.
Sources: Gorjão Henriques, 2020; Casadio, 2020; Reuters, 2020b.

In addition, some countries are still deporting or voluntarily returning migrants, in spite of explicit
opposition of several countries of origin (Ernst, 2020; Carretero, 2020) and the increasing numberof travel restrictions hindering them (see text box 7). Due to the trajectories of the spread of thepandemic, this creates an additional risk of further spreading the disease in contexts that have so
far been only marginally affected (Abbott, 2020).

Text box 7: Immigration detention and deportations of irregular migrants amid the pandemic
Some countries have halted deportation processes of irregular migrants given the impossibility tologistically and physically proceed due to the many travel restrictions passed by countries all over theworld. As irregular migrants are often detained until these deportations, several countries, including
Belgium, Spain, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, have decided to release some of thesemigrants. Indeed, under international human rights law, their deprivation of liberty pending deportationis permitted “as long as deportation proceedings are in progress or as long as a real and tangible
prospect of removal exists” (IOM, 2016, p. 4). In addition to helping prevent outbreaks in immigration
detention facilities, these releases echo diverse calls made by United Nations agencies for States toadopt alternatives to detention for irregular migrants during the pandemic.
Sources: Council of Europe, Commissioner for Human Rights, 2020; IOM, 2016; OHCHR and WHO, 2020; OHCHR et al., 2020.

Since its early stages, the outbreak has triggered countless episodes of xenophobia (Bauomy,2020), directed towards internal migrants in China, Asian migrants in countries all over theworld, and progressively towards European migrants and foreigners in general, including in China
itself (Kuo and Davidson, 2020) and in areas only marginally affected by COVID-19 (York, 2020).
Scapegoating and stigmatization are in fact recurrent reactions in the aftermath of emergencies
of all kinds, including disasters, acts of terrorism, and past pandemics and epidemics (such as the1918 flu and the 2009 H1N1 influenza outbreak; see White, 2020; IOM, 2020j).
Widespread hate speech and increased risk of abuses, assaults and harassment are likely tofurther reduce migrants’ willingness to come forward for screening, testing and health care.
As highlighted by the World Health Organization, “stigma can [d]rive people to hide the illness
to avoid discrimination[;] [p]revent people from seeking health care immediately[;] [d]iscouragethem from adopting healthy behaviours” (WHO, 2020, p. 2).

Migrants and the COVID-19 pandemic: An initial analysis

Stigmatization, xenophobia and discrimination

11More generally, the pandemic has been weaponized to spread anti-migrant narratives and call forincreased immigration control and reduction of migrants’ rights (Banulescu-Bogdan et al., 2020;
ISD, 2020). In many countries, xenophobic stances have largely mirrored pre-existing patterns of
discrimination, often targeting migrants coming from areas with limited or no risk of COVID-19
infection or long-term residents (D’Ignoti, 2020).
Migrants returning home from countries more heavily affected by the pandemic have faced
fears and discrimination in their home communities, leading, on occasion, to confrontations andviolence (Kindzeka, 2020; Jha, 2020). Returns towards less prepared and well-resourced contexts,
especially if irregular and in the absence of testing capacity and adequate guidelines and facilities
for quarantine, pose significant health risks for migrants’ home communities (Nachemson, 2020;
Pokhrel and Awale, 2020).
Efforts to counter xenophobia include adherence to key lexicon and practices (CDC, 2020;
UNICEF; 2020), sharing information on the rationale and implications of migrant-inclusive
response measures with the general public, giving visibility to migrants’ role engagement in their
host societies’ response efforts (ANSA, 2020b, Antonelli, 2020) or citizens’ demands for inclusive
response measures (see text box 8). Information and support systems should be made available
to migrants to report any act of discrimination or abuse they may have suffered, and perpetrators
should be prosecuted accordingly.

Text box 8: WHO’s examples and tips to counter stigmatizing attitudes• Spreading the facts: Stigma can be heightened by insufficient knowledge about how the newcoronavirus disease (COVID-19) is transmitted and treated, and how to prevent infection.
• Engaging social influencers such as religious leaders on prompting reflection about people
who are stigmatized and how to support them, or respected celebrities to amplify messages that
reduce stigma.
• Amplify the voices, stories and images of local people who have experienced COVID-19 andhave recovered or who have supported a loved one through recovery to emphasise that mostpeople do recover from COVID-19.
• Make sure you portray different ethnic groups. Materials should show diverse communities
that are being affected, and show communities working together to prevent the spread of
COVID-19.
• Balanced reporting. Media reporting should be balanced and contextualised, disseminating
evidence-based information and helping combat rumour and misinformation that could lead tostigmatisation.
• Link up. There are a number of initiatives to address stigma and stereotyping. It is key to link up
to these activities to create a movement and positive environment that shows care and empathy
for all.

MIGRATION RESEARCH SERIES | NO. 60

Excerpt from WHO, 2020, p. 2.

12

Conclusion
As countries all over the world are still largely at the early or acute stage of the outbreak,evidence of migrants’ specific patterns of vulnerability and of effective measures that can help
address them is far from comprehensive. We might see refuges and asylum seekers in low income
countries increasingly affected by the outbreak, the perception of migrants as spreaders might
gain traction and be instrumentalized as the patterns of first and second waves of infections
evolve, border closures and restrictions to international movements might endure, or being liftedin different manners, reshaping global mobility patterns for months and years.
However, this initial analysis allows to identify challenges and approaches that largely align withlessons learned in past crises in which migrants have been affected alongside citizens (MICIC
Initiative, 2016; Majidi et al., 2019). Past and current experience shows that crisis response
measures cannot effectively include migrants unless they proactively address underlying
conditions of vulnerability linked with migratory status and immigration policies, migrants’ socioeconomic situation, and xenophobia. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, this means
coupling provisions to minimize transmission and expand health-care coverage with inclusive
welfare systems, intercultural communications and, crucially, reform of immigration regimes. Suchan approach will be even more important once the acute phase of the crisis will be over, andcountries will be moving into a recovery phase that looks still largely undetermined, but that could
be characterized by an unprecedented disruption of established patterns of movements. In thiscontext, finding long-term solutions to migrants’ social, economic and political marginalization
will be key for societies and communities to leverage all available capacities to bounce back, andto avoid the re-creation of the risk conditions that transformed COVID-19 in a disaster.
At the same time, more than perhaps any crisis in the past, COVID-19 makes a clear casefor the need to adopt migrant-inclusive risk management approaches. Excluding migrants fromCOVID-19 awareness and prevention activities, screening and testing, and adequate treatment
and follow-up undermines the effectiveness of relevant public health efforts. Failing to understandand reduce the direct and indirect impacts migrants are, and will be, suffering, threatens the wellbeing, stability and security of communities and societies all over the world (Congress of theUnited States, 2020).

Migrants and the COVID-19 pandemic: An initial analysis

In many countries affected by COVID-19, presence of migrants is essential for services that are
key to the pandemic response, as well as longer-term recovery and development. This includes
medical research and health-care provision, agricultural production, logistics and deliveries,
personal care of the elderly and other individuals in need of assistance, as well as strategic
infrastructural projects (Gelatt, 2020; Corrado, 2018; Bier, 2020). In many countries, migrants
have even been among the frontline workers who have been infected or have died becauseof COVID-19 (Siddique, 2020). By threatening migrants’ permanence and living conditions inreceiving countries, COVID-19 is posing systemic risks that governments, employers andservice providers need to manage. Solutions proposed or adopted, including simplified entry
and processing of visa applications (Bonnett, 2020; Kucharczyk and Pazura, 2020), fast-track
recognition of foreign education and qualifications (Alkousaa and Carrel, 2020; Batalova and Fix,
2020), dialogue with and engagement of (irregular) migrant representatives, economic incentives
to motivate citizens and other migrants to work specific jobs (24 heures, 2020; Davies, 2020),
also serve as a reminder of the economic, social and political marginalization migrants have been
enduring before the outbreak. Perduring obstacles to their regularization, and initiatives to lower
their pay and further worsen their living conditions are now being met by widespread criticism
within societies all around the world (Ordoñez, 2020).

13

The impacts individual migrants will suffer will be a key determinant of broader demographic,social and economic trends. Migrants’ inability to send back remittances due to interrupted jobs
and lost salaries will heavily affect the well-being of households and communities of origin, as
well as the development outlook of their whole societies (Li Ng and Serrano, 2020). Limited
ability to access services and opportunities in their destinations will shape migrants’ movements
out of COVID-19 affected areas and thereby the future patterns of the outbreak. Returns andimmobility of migrants, in areas with limited alternatives for onward mobility in the short andmedium term, might lead to increased social and environmental pressures and potential intracommunal tensions.

MIGRATION RESEARCH SERIES | NO. 60

Many countries have responded to COVID-19 with increased closure, tighter immigration
regulations and further marginalization of migrants. The centrality of migrants in the social, culturaland economic fabric of our globalized world, instead, suggests that only inclusive approaches
help protect and promote everybody’s rights, health and well-being, can allow communities andsocieties to respond more effectively to this crisis, and reduce the risk of future ones.

14

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Also available online at
http://publications.iom.int/

Lorenzo Guadagno manages IOM’s capacity-building programme on Migrants
in Countries in Crisis, which supports governments and other actors develop
and implement measures that reduce migrants’ vulnerability to disasters,
conflicts and other crises. He has worked and published on various issues
related to human mobility, disaster risk reduction, climate change adaptationand the environment. He holds a PhD in sociology from the University ofSannio, Italy, with a thesis addressing disaster vulnerability, reconstruction andrecovery in Southern Italy after the 1980 Irpinia earthquake.

International Organization for Migration
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