Comparison on Monetary and Nonmonetary Benefits Brought about by
Studying for an Undergraduate or
Graduate Degree in Japan and Abroad!
22nd Japan Association for International Student Education!
Annual Conference 2017 !
August 19, 2017 at Toyo University!

Yukiko Shimmi, Ph.D., Hiotsubashi University!
This study is a part of JSPS Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research, Scientific Research (A), Research
Project Number 25245078, Principal Investigator: Prof. Masahiro Yokota, Meiji University.!
!

!

This presentation is based on Shimmi, Y. & Akiba, H. (2016). Monetary and non-monetary benefits
brought about by study abroad for a degree: a comparative study between study for a degree in Japanand abroad. Japan International Education Society, 22, 83-104.!

1!

The Dataset: !
Large-scale Retrospective Online Survey:!
Survey period and respondents
People with SA experience!
Period: January-May, 2015!
Number of respondents: 4,489!
People without SA experience!
Period: August-September, 2015!
Number of respondents: 1,298!
!
Selection Criteria
People with SA experience!
At minimum, lived primarily in Japan during elementary and junior high school;studied abroad for three months or more after graduation from a Japanese
senior high school !
The aim of study abroad was to learn a language, obtain a degree, or earn
academic credits!

People without SA experience!
No experiences of studying or living abroad for longer than three months, did notlive overseas as a child !
Had not acquired foreign language proficiency, did not use a foreign language athome, had not studied at an international school in Japan prior to entering aJapanese university!
Graduated from a Japanese university!
Working for a company located in Japan, housewife or unemployed!
2!

Objective!
•This study examined the monetary and nonmonetary benefits brought about by studying
abroad for an undergraduate or a graduate degree
by comparing the people with such experienceswith graduates of undergraduate and graduate
programs (non-study abroad groups) at universities
in Japan.!

3!

Research Questions!
•(1) How much degree people who experienced to
study for an undergraduate or a graduate degree
abroad perceive the monetary and non-monetary
benefits brought about by studying abroad (bycomparing with people without studying abroad
experiences)?!

•(2) How different are the monetary and nonmonetary benefits brought about by studyingabroad for undergraduate or graduate degrees?!
4!

Survey Questions!
Type of benefits

Online survey question itemsl Annual income

Monetary benefits（3 items）

Nonmonetarybenefits（11 items）

Careerrelated
aspects（7 items）

Non-careerrelated
aspects（4 items）

l Study abroad experience helped to increase annual incomel Satisfaction with annual incomel Study abroad experience helped to plan careerl Study abroad experience helped to find the current jobl Study abroad experience was positively recognized when job-huntingl Foreign language competency acquired through study abroad
experience was positively recognized when job-huntingl Knowledge and skills acquired through study abroad experience waspositively recognized when job-huntingl Communication experience with foreign people gained through study
abroad experience was positively recognized when job-huntingl Satisfaction with current jobl Satisfaction with study abroad experiencel Satisfaction with private life other than professional lifel Satisfaction with friendshipl Satisfaction with life5!

Respondents’ Profiles!

6!

Respondent Groups:!
Four Modes!
People with study
abroad experience!
(SA Group) (*1)

People without
study abroadexperience!
(Non-SA Group)(*2)

Academic level andtype

Length of study abroad

Number ofresponses

Undergraduate
degree abroad(blue)

Longer than 3 years

416

Masters/Doctorate
degree abroad(green)

Longer than 1 year

353

Undergraduate
degree in Japan
(red)

-710

Masters/Doctorate
degree in Japan(orange)-528*1: Classified by the type of institution which they responded was their most important study abroad destination!
*2: Classified by the highest level of institution they attended!
7!

Respondent Groups:
Gender and Age!
GenderSAGroup

Non-SAGroup

AgeMaleFemale

20’s oryounger

30’s

40’s

50’s orolder

Undergraduate
degree abroad

52.4%

47.6%

9.6%

34.9%

42.1%

13.5%

Masters/Doctorate
degree abroad

58.9%

41.1%

6.2%

28.3%

37.7%

27.8%

Undergraduate
degree in Japan

47.0%

53.0%

13.4%

32.0%

34.4%

20.3%

Masters/Doctorate
degree in Japan

54.5%

45.5%

15.7%

37.3%

34.5%

12.5%

8!

Respondent Group: Field of Study(Masters/Doctoral Degree)!
Academic Fields
Science &Technologies

Humanities andSocial SciencesSA Group

15.6%

84.4%

Non-SA Group

39.4%

60.6%

9!

SA Group Profiles: !
Study Abroad Destination!
UnitedStates

UnitedKingdom

Australia

CanadaGermany

FranceChina

Undergraduate
degree abroad

78.1.%

6.0%

2.2%

4.1%

1.9%

0.5%

2.9%

Masters/
Doctorate
degree abroad

57.2%

21.5%

4.5%

2.5%

2.8%

2.3%

0.8%

10!

SA Group Profiles: !
Period of Studying Abroad!

Undergraduate
degree abroad

Masters/Doctorate
degree abroad

3-4 years

4-5 years

5 years or longer

41.1%

36.3%

22.6%

1-2 years

2-3 years

3 years or longer

36.0%

32.0%

32.0%
11!

SA Group Profiles: Others!
•Age when started to study abroad• Undergraduate!
• 20’s or younger: 93.8% (18-21 years old:66.1%)!
• Masters/Docotorate!
• 23-29 years old: 62.6%!
• 30’s: 29.5%!

•

Study abroad by privately funded• Undergraduate: 95.9%!
• Masters/Doctorate: 72.8%!
12!

Analysis!
•

Compared the difference among four different study modes!
•Average annual income: 8 categories !
• 0-2 million yen!
• 2-4 million yen!
• 4-6 million yen!
• 6-8 million yen!
• 8-10 million yen!
• 10-15 million yen!
• 15-20 million yen!
• 20 million yen or more!

•

Monetary and non-monetary benefits: 4 point Likert scale• 4 = strongly agree!
• 3 = tend to agree!
• 2 = relatively disagree!
• 1 = strongly disagree!

•Comparing the weighted-averages, calculating income gap coefficients, andconducting one-way ANOVA of four groups!
13!

Results!

14!

Monetary Benefits!

15!

Monetary Benefits of Study Abroad Experiences:!
Average Annual Income of Four Groups!
50.0%
SA Group:
Undergraduate degree
abroad!

40.0%

5.470 M yen!
30.0%

SA Group: Masters/
Doctorate degree abroad!

7.929 M yen!
20.0%
Non-SA Group:Undergraduate degree inJapan!

10.0%

4.491 M yen!
0.0%

0-2
millionyen!

2-4
millionyen!

4-6
millionyen!

6-8
millionyen!

8-10
millionyen!

10-15
millionyen!

15-20 20 million
million yen oryen!
more!

Non-SA Group: Masters/
Doctorate degree inJapan!

5.530 M yen!

*The answers of “housewives or unemployed” are not included in the study abroad groups. Theanswers of those who “did not want to answer” are not included in the non-study abroad groups.!

16!

Average Annual Income by
Gender!
Income gap
coefficients:
Undergradua
te degree(1) / (2)Income gap
coefficients:
Masters/
Doctorate
degree(3) / (4)Income gap
coefficients:
Academiclevel(3) / (1)5.530 M
yen!

1.22!

1.43!

1.45!

9.546 Myen!

6.697 M
yen!

1.12!

1.43!

1.48!

5.621 Myen!

4.106 M
yen!

1.33!

1.37!

1.28!

Undergra
duate
degreeabroad(1)

Undergraduate
degree inJapan (2)Masters/
Doctorate
degreeabroad (3)Total

5.470 Myen!

4.491 Myen!

7.929 Myen!

Male

6.450 Myen!

5.757 Myen!

Female4.391 Myen!

3.307 Myen!

Masters/
Doctorate
degree inJapan (4)*The answers of “housewives or unemployed” are not included in the study abroad groups. !
The answers of those who “did not want to answer” are not included in the non-study abroad groups.!

17!

Average Annual Income by Age!
Masters/
Doctorate
degree inJapan (4)Income gap
coefficients:
Undergradua
te degree(1) / (2)Income gap
coefficients:
Masters/Doctorate
degree(3) / (4)Income gap
coefficients:
Academiclevel(3) / (1)7.929 Myen!

5.530 M
yen!

1.22!

1.43!

1.45!

6.083 Myen!

9.939 Myen!

8.060 M
yen!

1.07!

1.23!

1.52!

5.640 Myen!

4.708 Myen!

8.259 Myen!

6.546 M
yen!

1.20!

1.26!

1.46!

30’s

5.397 Myen!

3.893 Myen!

6.429 Myen!

4.676 M
yen!

1.39!

1.38!

1.19!

20’s oryounger

3.500 Myen!

2.908 Myen!

3.727 Myen!

3.507 M
yen!

1.20!

1.06!

1.07!

Undergraduatedegree
abroad(1)Undergraduate
degree inJapan (2)Masters/
Doctorate
degreeabroad(3)Total

5.470 Myen!

4.491 Myen!

50’s orolder

6.536 M
yen!

40’s

*The answers of “housewives or unemployed” are not included in the study abroad groups. !
The answers of those who “did not want to answer” are not included in the non-study abroad groups.!

18!

Percentages of Those Who Are Working forForeign Company or at a Managerial Position!
Working for a foreigncompany

Managerial positionUndergraduate degree
abroad

24.6%!

32.5%!

Undergraduate degree inJapan

2.1%!

17.2%!

Masters/Doctorate degree
abroad

22.4%!

41.1%!

Masters/Doctorate degreein Japan

2.1%!

18.6%!

*1) The answers of “housewives or unemployed” are not included in the study abroad groups. !
*2) The answers of those who “did not want to answer” are not included in the non-study abroad groups. !
*3) Answers were selected from “Executives,” “Managers,” “General workers,” “Part-time workers/ contract workers,” !
and “Others.” Percentages of “Managerial position” are the total of “Executives” and “Managers”.!
19!

Current Type of Job!
OfficeWorkerSales

Undergraduate
degree abroad

35.5%!

Undergraduate
degree in Japan

Technician

Researcher

Professional

Others

14.5%!

8.1%!

2.5%!

24.6%!

14.7%!

47.0%!

18.2%!

18.4%!

1.9%!

10.6%!

3.9%!

Masters/Doctorate
degree abroad

19.0%!

11.2%!

5.7%!

25.3%!

28.4%!

10.3%!

Masters/Doctorate
degree in Japan

28.1%!

6.3%!

35.0%!

14.8%!

14.4%!

1.3%!

*The answers of “housewives or unemployed” are not included in the study abroad groups.!
The answers of those who “did not want to answer” are not included in the non-study abroad groups.!

20!

Average Income by Academic Fields:!
Graduate Level!
Science &Technologies
abroad (1)Science &Technologies
in Japan (2)Humanities &Social Sciences
abroad (3)Humanities &Social Sciencesin Japan(4)7.222 Myen!

5.776 Myen!

8.057 Myen!

5.146 Myen!

Income gap
coefficient:
Science &Technologies(1) / (2)Income gap
coefficient:
Humanities &Social Sciences(3) / (4)

1.25!

1.57!

*The answers of “housewives or unemployed” are not included in the study abroad groups.!
The answers of those who “did not want to answer” are not included in the non-study abroad groups.!

21!

Self-evaluation of Monetary benefits:!
Results of One-way ANOVA!
Undergradu
ate degree
abroad (1)Masters or
doctoraldegreeabroad (2)Undergradua
te degree inJapan (3)Masters or
doctoraldegree inJapan (4)

M!

M!

M!

M!

SD!

SD!

SD!

F value

Multiplecomparison

SD!
2>1>4>3

Study abroad
experience
helped toincrease annual
incomeSatisfaction withannual income

2.48!

2.08!

1.01!

0.89!

2.76!

2.44!

1.03!

0.91!

2.00!

2.03!

0.80!

0.78!

2.27!

2.17!

0.90!

0.88!

60.98***!

19.42***!

2>1
2>3
2>4
4>3

*1) F value: ***p <.001, **p <.01, *p <.05 !
*2) The type of Post Hoc Test was Games-Howell (p <.05). The differences are shown by the inequality sign.!
*4) Multiplicity issues in the analysis were not considered.!
22!

Non-monetary
Benefits!

23!

Non-monetary benefits of study abroad experiences: !
Results of One-way ANOVA!
Undergraduatedegree
abroad (1)M!
SD!

Masters ordoctoral
degreeabroad (2)M!
SD!

Undergradu
ate degreein Japan (3)SD!

Masters or
doctoraldegree inJapan (4)
M!
SD!

M!

F value!

Multiple
Comparison!

Study abroad experience helped to plan
career

3.24!

0.85!

3.47!

0.72!

2.23!

0.82!

2.66!

0.90!

230.74***!

2>1>4>3

Study abroad experience helped to findcurrent job

3.06!

0.99!

3.38!

0.86!

2.28!

0.90!

2.74!

0.99!

127.68***!

2>1>4>3

Study abroad experience was positively
recognized in job-hunting

2.91!

0.96!

3.14!

0.89!

2.32!

0.83!

2.48!

0.92!

86.29***!

2>1>4>3

Foreign language competency acquired
through study abroad experience waspositively recognized when job-hunting
Knowledge and skills acquired throughstudy abroad experience was positivelyrecognized when job-hunting
Communication experience with foreign
people gained through study abroad
experience was positively recognized when
job-hunting
Satisfaction with current job

2.95!

0.97!

3.08!

0.88!

1.54!

0.61!

1.63!

0.70!

554.29***!

2, 1 > 4, 32.79!

0.97!

3.11!

0.86!

2.15!

0.80!

2.51!

0.94!

104.91***!

2>1>4>3

2.84!

0.98!

3.00!

0.89!

1.52!

0.61!

1.59!

0.65!

510.12***!

2, 1 > 4, 3

2.56!

0.95!

2.84!

0.85!

2.41!

0.81!

2.48!

0.82!

21.18***!

2>1
2>3
2>4
1>3

Satisfaction with study abroad experience

3.17!

0.82!

3.23!

0.77!

2.57!

0.80!

2.83!

0.80!

76.66***!

2, 1 > 4 > 3

Satisfaction with private life other thanprofessional life

2.85!

0.81!

2.97!

0.80!

2.63!

0.76!

2.74!

0.82!

15.72***!

2>3
2>4
1>3

Satisfaction with friendship

2.87!

0.79!

3.00!

0.75!

2.56!

0.71!

2.66!

0.78!

33.56***!

2, 1 > 4, 3Satisfaction with life

2.78!

0.81!

2.98!

0.81!

2.50!

0.76!

2.57!

0.78!

34.68***!

2 > 1 > 4, 3

*1) F value: ***p <.001, **p <.01, *p <.05!
*2) The type of Post Hoc Test was Games-Howell (p <.05). The differences are shown by the inequality sign.!
*3) Multiplicity issues in the analysis were not considered.!

24!

Summary andDiscussion!

25!

Impact of study abroad forincreasing one’s income!	 

•The average annual income of respondents who studied for agraduate degree abroad was higher than that of those who graduatedfrom graduate schools in Japan.!

•

The average income of respondents who studied abroad for anundergraduate degree was also higher than that of those whoobtained a bachelor’s degree in Japan. !

•The self-perceptions of income-related aspects were significantly
more positive among respondents who studied abroad for a graduate
degree than among any other group. !

=> Study abroad experiences seemed to be helpful for increasing
one’s income26!

Monetary Benefits: An issue for those who
studying abroad for undergraduate degree!
•Satisfaction with the current income was the same for two undergraduategroups, though the average income was high for those who studied abroad.!
=> Those who studied abroad for an undergraduate degree might be more
ambitious about their expectations for their income!
=> Those who studied abroad for an undergraduate degree might feeldissatisfied with the traditional Japanese working culture of promotion byseniority, which does not necessarily take one’s ability and skills into accountwhen deciding the salary!
=> The cost of studying abroad for undergraduate degree (1.6 - 4.4 times higher
than that of studying in Japan) might have also affected the results.!
=> This is a similar result with previous studies in the West (Janson,Schomburg & Teichler, 2009; Schmidt & Pardo, 2012) that indicated study
abroad experience is not necessarily helpful for enhancing monetary benefits.!
27!

Non-monetary Benefits!	 

•The self-perceptions of non-monetary benefits weresignificantly more favorable among respondents in the
study abroad groups, at both the undergraduate andgraduate levels, than among those in the non-study
abroad groups. !
•Non-monetary career-related benefits: !
study abroad experience was helpful for career planningand job-hunting!

•Non-monetary non-career-related benefits:!
satisfaction for private life, friendships and life in general!
28!

Comparison of the Undergraduate
and Graduate Levels (SA Groups)!
• Graduate Level• Seems to be more beneficial in both monetary and non-monetary aspects than undergraduate level!
• => Gaining knowledge and skills in professional fields throughgraduate study might be helpful in finding a professional job that
requires those knowledge and skills, which consequently mightenhance their annual income (monetary benefits).!

29!

Benefits of Studying Abroad by theAcademic Level and Other Profiles!
• High monetary benefits• Graduate level, 40’s or more, Social sciences and humanities(including MBA)!
• High non-monetary benefits• Graduate level: professional and other general skills andknowledge are highly evaluated by employers; high selfevaluated satisfaction with their study abroad experiences andtheir lives in general including their private lives!
• Undergraduate Level (at least same level as the graduatelevel): Foreign language skills and communication experienceswith foreign people are highly evaluated by employers; highself-evaluated satisfaction with their own study abroad
experiences and their friendships!
30!

Model of Benefit of Study Abroad for Undergraduate
and Graduate Degrees and Study in Japan!

31!

Future Direction!
•This study indicated that, when comparing programs at the sameacademic level, studying for a degree abroad is more beneficial, inboth monetary and non-monetary aspects, than studying for a degree
solely at a domestic university.!

•Limitations:• The need to consider academic grades or other profiles before studyingabroad!
• Possibility that those who had positive study abroad experiences were
the persons who answered the questionnaire!
• Possibility that people who studied abroad had already had high skills
and ability before studying abroad!
• The need to consider the cost of studying abroad!
• SES and family income might influence the opportunities for studying
abroad!
• The need to include other data (academic fields, time period for studying
abroad, destination country etc.) in the analysis!
32!