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Enhancing decisions anddecision-making processes
through the application ofemotional intelligence skills
James D. Hess
Department of Family Medicine,
Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences,
Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA, andArnold C. Bacigalupo
Voyageur One, LaGrange, Illinois, USA
Abstract
Purpose – Little research has been contributed to how the behaviors associated with emotional
intelligence may be practically applied to enhance both individual and group decision-making. The
purpose of this paper is to identify practical approaches to the application of emotional intelligence tothe decision-making process. These practical approaches are designed to instruct and aid decision
makers in the utilization of emotional intelligence skills to improve decision-making.
Design/methodology/approach – Goleman’s and Boyatzis et al.’s four essential elements ofemotional intelligence and their associated 20 behavioral competencies are utilized to develop amethodology for the practical application of emotional intelligence skills to decision-making. A seriesof questions and observations are outlined to assist decision makers in the improvement of emotional
intelligence awareness, as well as the utilization of emotional intelligence skills to enhance
decision-making processes.
Findings – Organizations and individuals may benefit from the development and utilization of
behaviors attributed to emotional intelligence. The practical application of emotional intelligence skills
can enhance individual and group decisions and outcomes.
Originality/value – The practical application of emotional intelligence skills becomes a strategy forthe development of the individual’s and organization’s ability to assess the impact and consequencesof decisions, while simultaneously improving the quality and effectiveness of the decision-making
process.
Keywords Decision making, Emotional intelligence
Paper type General review

Introduction
Milkman et al. (2008) noted in the knowledge-based economy, a knowledge worker’s
primary deliverable is a good decision. The ability of organizations, corporations andentities to contemplate, evaluate and implement quality decisions is dependent upon amultitude of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. While the management of extrinsic
variables may be more difficult to control, the identification and management ofManagement Decision
human variables such as emotion and logic are pivotal in the effort to increase theVol. 49 No. 5, 2011
quality of decisions and decision-making processes. Researchers have recently focused
pp. 710-721
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited attention on the impact of some of the human emotion variables on decision making.
0025-1747
Hilary and Hui (2008) found that both individuals and organizations exhibiting a high
DOI 10.1108/00251741111130805

degree of religiosity display lower levels of risk exposure in decision making. Similarly,
Fernando and Jackson (2006) noted that in the individuals studied, outcomes of difficult
decisions, both good and bad, were in some way attributable to a religious, spiritual orvalue characteristic.
One of the most fascinating dichotomies in contemporary thought surrounding
decision-making is the apparent conflict between the roles of emotion and rationality.
Stanovich and West (2000) divided cognitive functions between those that were faster,effortless, implicit and emotional as compared to those that were slower, conscious,
explicit and logical. The authors believed better decisions could be derived by shifting
decision-makers from intuitive and emotional thinking to logical and rational thinking.
Moreover, the authors concluded replacing intuition with more intensive datacollection and analytical processes enabled the decision-maker to construct linear
models to produce relevant predictors. The suggestion here is that human beings will
make better decisions if we transform our cognitive functions to resemble those of anemotion-free microprocessor.
There is an alternate research process proceeding in artificial intelligence to inject
learned emotions into microprocessor driven decision-making. IBM is developing a
cognitive computing processor to emulate the patterns of human thinking (Bai, 2008).
Additionally, the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory has developed an artificiallyintelligent machine that has defined elements of sensory and emotional systems(Velasquez, 1998). The computerized platform is capable of modeling six different
emotions for decision-making: anger, fear, distress/sadness, joy/happiness, disgust andsurprise. Velasquez’s premise based upon previous work (Damasio, 1994) is that
intuition and emotions play crucial roles in the ability to make smart, rational
decisions.
Thus the ironic dichotomy of current thought is that some researchers believe
human beings will make better decisions when emotions are removed, and the mind isbent to perform more like a data-analyzing machine. Concomitantly, some researchers
contend data-analyzing machines will make better decisions when they are capable ofutilizing intuition and emotions. So who is right? We believe both are fundamentallycorrect. Further we have concluded that consistent with Simon’s (1967, 1971) notionthat emotion and rationality are inextricably linked, emotional intelligence can serve as
the necessary bridge between the two. Moreover, the behaviors most often identified
with emotional intelligence may be learned and applied in a practical manner toimprove the overall quality of decisions and decision-making processes.

Purpose of paper
Emotional intelligence has been the subject of a significant amount of literature overthe past two decades, ranging from debate over whether emotional intelligence isinnate or learned, to the categorization of specific behaviors that define emotional
intelligence. However, little has been contributed to how the behaviors associated withemotional intelligence may be practically applied to enhance both individual and groupdecision-making. The purpose of this paper is to review relevant emotional intelligence
literature and to identify practical approaches to the application of emotional
intelligence skills to the decision-making process.

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Relevant emotional intelligence research
The definition of emotional intelligence and the context in which the term should be
used has been a matter of debate in the literature over a number of years (Mayer et al.,2008). Thorndike (1920) first coined the term “social intelligence” to describe the skills
utilized in understanding and managing people. Later in 1940 Wechsler (Bar-On, 2006)
noted the influence of other factors on intelligent behavior and posited that models ofintelligence could not be complete until those factors were more fully understood. The
term “emotional intelligence” was first used in the USA in a doctoral dissertation
studying the acknowledgement and effects of emotion (Payne, 1983). This work was
followed by an emotional intelligence model described by Salovey and Mayer (1990),
articulating emotions could enhance rationality and that individuals would be better
served to work with, rather than against, their emotions. Bradberry and Greaves (2003)
noted emotional intelligence skills, when considered cumulatively, were vital in
representing mental and behavioral functions of individuals beyond their native
intelligence.
The bulk of the literature in emotional intelligence may be encapsulated in thedescription of three models: ability model; trait model; and mixed model. The ability
model as described by Salovey and Grewal (2005) posited that individuals have variedabilities to process and react to emotional circumstances and as a result develop
adaptive behaviors to deal with social situations. The trait model proposed by Petrides
et al. (2007) was based upon the premise emotional intelligence represents a cluster ofself-perceptions operating at the lower levels of personality. This focus on behavioral
dispositions relied heavily on self-measurement and as such was more resistant toscientific calibration (Petrides et al., 2007). The mixed model was best characterized by
Goleman’s (1995) description of emotional intelligence as a wide array of competencies
and skills driving leadership performance. Goleman’s model was based on the premise
emotional competencies are not innate traits, but rather learned skills that may be
developed and improved.
In a follow-up study Goleman (1998) noted the very best corporate leaders, while
diverse in their leadership styles, share in common the characteristics ofself-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skill. These skills
according to Goleman allow superb leaders to understand their own as well as others’
emotional makeup well enough to move people to accomplish institutional objectives.
Goleman’s (1995) original work on emotional intelligence described the following
essential elements or abilities: knowing one’s emotions; managing emotions;motivating oneself; recognizing emotions in others; and handling relationships.
Goleman’s theory of emotional intelligence and its characteristic behaviors has beenfurther refined to include both individual and organizational behaviors and outcomes.
The more fully developed emotional intelligence model as described by Goleman (2001)
and Boyatzis et al. (2000) refined the original five elements into four dimensions andfurther subdivided these characteristics into 20 behavioral competencies as outlined inTable I.
The domain of emotional intelligence has benefited from more recent literature in
the leadership and group dynamics disciplines. Taylor et al. (2008) noted both aspiringand established leaders in the organizations they studied agreed the behaviors
associated with emotional intelligence were characteristics of effective leaders andcritical to the future success of aspiring leaders. The authors noted an additional

function in established leaders described as organizational altruism or more
specifically defined as an understanding of the institution and dedication to theinstitution’s success. Wang and Haung (2009) found that emotional intelligence andgroup cohesiveness were positively associated with transformational leadership. In
detailing the relevance and efficacy of emotional intelligence, Antonakis et al. (2009)concluded relationship approaches to leadership were inherently emotional, making
emotional intelligence an integral part of the leadership process. Similarly, Dasboroughand Ashkanasy (2002) argued leader/member exchange relationship quality wasenhanced through emotional intelligence of leaders, and Zhou and George (2003)
concluded emotional intelligence can enhance leadership within team settings.
Addressing the role of emotional intelligence in decision-making processes, Sevdalis
et al. (2007) noted that although empirical research has emphasized the relevance ofemotions in decision-making processes, individual differences in the perception andexperience of emotion have been largely overlooked. The authors concluded whenpeople make decisions, they often think about the emotions the outcomes are likely totrigger. Further, Sevdalis et al. (2007) outlined decision-makers:.
anticipate their emotions before a decision materializes;.
experience them when they receive the outcomes of their decision; and.
recall them from memory when they contemplate past decisions (good or poor).

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Mellers et al. (1999) concluded emotions people expect to experience or haveexperienced as a result of their decisions are important determinants of their current
and future behavior. Winter and Kuiper (1997) noted individuals differ in systematicways in how they experience emotions, how they differentiate among emotions andhow much emotional information they can process.
The literature also suggests a differentiation in the effectiveness of emotional
intelligence between individual and group tasks. Jordan and Troth (2004) found thatwhile no link between emotional intelligence and performance existed at the individuallevel when the task being performed was purely cognitive in nature, the same task
transferred to a team setting introduced an emotional element requiring emotional
intelligence skills. More specifically the authors concluded a team’s overall level of
emotional intelligence and the ability of team members to deal with their own emotions
impacted performance. Druskat and Wolff (2001) and Jordan et al. (2002) noted that
Self awarenessSocial awarenessSelf-management

Relationship management

Emotional selfawarenessAccurate selfassessment

EmpathyService orientation
Organizationalawareness
Empathy

Self control
Trustworthiness
Conscientiousness
Adaptability
Achievement
drive
Initiative

Developing others
Influence
Communication
Conflict management
Leadership
Change catalyst
Building bonds andteamwork
Collaboration

Source: Goleman (2001); Boyatzis et al. (2000)

Table I.
Dimensions of emotional
intelligence andassociated behavioral
competencies

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teams comprised of members with higher levels of emotional intelligence will performbetter on tasks than teams comprised of members exhibiting lower levels of emotional
intelligence.
Applying emotional intelligence skills to decision-making
While much of the literature has focused on the theoretical aspects of emotional
intelligence, a significant gap exists in the practical application of these skills todecision-making. If one believes emotional intelligence adds value to the individual
and/or group decision-making process, the question arises how can it be practicallyapplied to achieve that desired result? Decision makers are often faced with problems
that cannot be easily solved and in some cases have negative impacts on someconstituency even when they have been declared solved. Thus the consideration of theeffect of decisions on others should be an important element of the decision-making
process. While determining “who” will be affected by decisions may be a more
pragmatic function requiring rationality and logic, determining “how” the decision will
be interpreted and its subsequent effect on others requires the skills associated withemotional intelligence.
The practical application of the ability model described by Salovey and Grewal(2005) necessitates the exercise of the following skills: perceiving emotions; using
emotions; understanding emotions; and managing emotions. In the decision-making
process, the acknowledgment of individual emotions is critical in determining not only
the motivations behind decisions but also the impact of those decisions on others.
Decision makers who understand the emotions of others may utilize that perceptivity
to head off potential negative outcomes by addressing those emotional issues inadvance of the decision (Huy, 1999). Likewise, decision makers who perceive andunderstand their own emotions will be much more effective in managing thoseemotions in the decision-making process. In keeping with the four elements described
by Goleman (2001) and Boyatzis et al. (2000), the emotional intelligence skills indecision making may be categorized as those more related to the individual,
self-awareness and self-management, and those more attributable to the individual’s
relationship and interaction with others, social awareness and relationshipmanagement.
Self-awareness and self-management . . . evaluating the role andmotivations of the decision maker
Self-awareness and its representative competencies of accurate self-assessment andself-confidence (Table I) enable emotionally intelligent decision-makers to determine
their appropriate role in the decision-making process (Goleman, 2001; Boyatzis et al.,2000). Specifically, these skills enable decision makers to determine if they have therequisite orientation to a problem and have enough self-confidence to assess their own
decision-making skills in comparison to others. Accordingly, these emotional
intelligence skills create a decision path to determine who is the most appropriate
person or group to make the best decision in any given circumstance. Without
emotional intelligence, decision makers fail the first and most important decision,
which is “who is the best decision-maker for this decision?”
Self-management and its behavioral components of self-control, trustworthiness,
conscientiousness, adaptability, achievement drive and initiative (Table I) are equallyimportant emotional intelligence skills for decision-makers (Goleman, 2001; Boyatzis
et al., 2000). Lerner and Shonk (2010) documented the effects of residual anger on
decision-making, noting that decision-makers who were held accountable for theirdecisions were better at managing the effects of their anger. Controlling the impulse to
make every decision individually can sometimes fly in the face of the need to show
initiative and achievement (Bazerman and Malhorta, 2006). Additionally, in order for
decision makers to gain moral authority on an issue, they must first be viewed astrustworthy by those affected by a decision. Trust is earned over time through aprocess of openness and honesty in both communications and relationships.
Decision-makers can utilize self-management skills to establish a consistent recordof achievement and emotional control, while simultaneously earning trust from bothinternal and external constituents.
In settings where the speed at which technical issues can be resolved or new
products, applications or solutions can be made available is highly valued, thetemptation is to avoid decision-making processes that occupy valuable time. However,
the emotionally intelligent manager will evaluate the consequences of losing trust
among workers and teams when speed wins out over participation (Bazerman andMalhorta, 2006). Suppressing the need for personal achievement and relying on
adaptability, the emotionally intelligent manager will assess the best decision-making
process for each circumstance and be conscientious in engaging the appropriate
individuals and groups. Time spent on developing the right decision-making process
will pay large dividends in both the quality of solutions, as well as the level of
acceptance and trust gained.
Application of self-awareness and self-management skills
Applying the skills of self-awareness and self-management to decision-making
situations is a process that can be learned. The following questions and observations
can serve as a practical guide for individuals and organizational leaders indecision-making circumstances:.
Are decision makers aware of their decision-making skills and styles? Is there atendency to reach first for the emotional elements of a decision circumstance, orconversely, to reach for the rational analysis components? Emotionally intelligent
decision makers will make an honest self-assessment of skills and styles, noting
the differences in their behaviors and abilities as compared to others.
.
Would others describe decision makers as inclusive or exclusive indecision-making processes? The leadership and decision-making styles as
described by Vroom and Yetton (1973) are useful here. The authors described arange of behaviors beginning with the pure autocratic style, to partial inclusionand pure delegation. While decision makers may view themselves as moredemocratic or participatory, the more critical aspect is the perception of others.
While it may not be appropriate to be inclusive in every decision, the emotional
intelligence function suggests it is important to communicate to others when andwhy inclusive or exclusive methodologies are utilized.
.
Are decision makers confident in their decision-making skills? Tsai and Young(2009) concluded that fear makes individuals second-guess themselves andabandon support for efforts that have gone even slightly off track. Emotionally

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intelligent decision makers must exude confidence in their decision-making style.
Being self aware also implies acknowledging one’s weaknesses and having theconfidence to recognize the strengths of others in decision-making. Self
awareness also includes the skill of recognizing the impact of one’s styles andbehaviors on others.
Are decision makers merely focused on their own interests or are they truly
interested in achieving the best decision results? Emotionally intelligent decision
makers are characterized by their ability to suppress their own desires andinterests for the common good.
Are decision makers overly focused on the desire for a speedy result? Bazerman
and Malhorta (2006) noted that time pressures often lead decision makers to bad
judgments. Patience is pivotal in achieving the desired decision outcome.
How can a decision-making process be utilized to build trust, not only fordecision makers, but also among all the appropriate constituents? Mayer andCaruso (2002) noted that leaders high in emotional intelligence will build realsocial fabric within an organization, as well as between the organization andthose it serves. Interpreted in the decision making environment, this social fabricis best described as furthering and honoring the culture of the organization.
Accordingly, emotionally intelligent decisions are those that are grounded in theculture of the organization.
Are decision makers willing to adapt to new decision-making processes rather
than relying upon the entrenched processes of the past? When the need for a newdecision-making process arises, those who can self manage and correct course
will earn the trust of those involved in the process. The honest acknowledgementof a need to break with the practices of the past is critical to building self
confidence, as well as developing the relationships necessary to affect a positive
decision result (Huy, 1999).
Are decision makers willing to quickly admit to and correct misjudgments? The
ability to openly admit to mistakes is important to both self-management andrelationship management. Mistakes make emotionally intelligent human beingsstronger and give them the opportunity to truly connect with others in honesty
and humility.
Are decision makers willing to appropriately delegate decision-making
authority? Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958) developed a continuum of control
and decision-making shared between leaders and followers. At all points on theircontinuum both the leader and the followers have some control. The amount ofcontrol each party has depends on the amount that the followers are able toassume. The leader begins with most of the control over decision-making andgradually passes this over to the followers, as they develop their capability,commitment and maturity.
Are decision makers willing to accept the consequences of having delegated or
shared the decision-making authority? When decision-making is delegated andthings go wrong, the true test of emotional intelligence arises. The emotional
intelligence skill applied here is for both the person delegating the decision andthe decision maker to acknowledge and learn from the mistake. Additionally,emotionally intelligent decision makers share credit for good decisions andaccept responsibility for bad decisions even though they may not have agreed
with the decision.
Social awareness and relationship management . . . assessing and managing
the decision-making environment
The emotional intelligence skill of social awareness and its core competencies of
empathy, service orientation and organizational awareness (Table I) enabledecision-makers to judge the impact of not only their decisions but also the mannerin which those decisions are made (Goleman, 2001; Boyatzis et al., 2000). The best
decisions are those that can be understood and accepted by the individuals mostaffected by the decision. Whether they are individuals or groups, decision-makers whopractice the value of empathy can foresee the impact of their decisions before
implementation (Goleman, 2001). Likewise, exhibiting a servant philosophy can
improve the quality of decisions. For example, if decision makers view those affectedby decisions as customers who may be retained or lost, they may be more likely toconsider the outcomes and consequences of decisions (Miller, 2009). Accordingly,
decisions considered in the context of service outcomes, as well as customer
satisfaction and retention, are more likely to be understood and more easily defended
within the organization. Finally, being aware of the organization’s culture will enabledecision-makers to make more rational judgments in decisions, as well as the processes
by which the decisions are made.
As noted previously in Table I, the emotional intelligence skill of relationshipmanagement includes the behavioral competencies of developing others, influence,
communications, conflict management, leadership, change catalyst, building bonds
and teamwork (Goleman, 2001; Boyatzis et al., 2000). The enhancement ofdecision-making processes is dependent upon the ability to effectively communicate
desired outcomes, influence stakeholders and manage conflict. In both individual andgroup decision-making processes, the ability to manage relationships is pivotal tosuccess. Even the best of decisions can have negative results if not properly
communicated, including the proper articulation of decision-making processes.
While most would like to believe the decision to affect change is most often arrived
at through a rational, logical process that is not always the case. Indeed theimplementation of many desired changes is fraught with potential conflict, regardlessof the original intent of the change. The ability to manage that conflict is central to boththe process and outcome of decisions, requiring decision-makers to exercise emotional
skills while simultaneously attempting to steer necessary changes.
Application of social awareness and relationship management skills
In assessing and developing social awareness and relationship management skills,
decision makers might consider the following questions and practical observations toenhance decision-making:.
What individuals, groups or constituents will be most affected by the decision?
Social awareness implies decision makers have adequately contemplated theimpact and consequences of a decision before it is made. This emotional
intelligence skill requires decision makers to play out scenarios of decisions todetermine both their short and long-term consequences and effects (Huy, 1999).

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How should those impacted by the decision be involved in the decision-making
process? Those impacted by a decision will perceive the change more positively
if they are involved in the decision-making process. This involvement may range
from active participation in the contemplation of decision options to commenting
before a decision is finalized.
What decision-making processes are most appropriate given the culture of theorganization? Being socially aware requires decision makers to assess the cultureof the organization to determine appropriate actions. For example, if the cultureof the organization is team oriented and participatory in nature, it would be
important to design decision-making processes consistent with that culture.
How will the decision and decision-making process be viewed in retrospect?
Emotionally intelligent decision-making requires looking forward and backward
simultaneously. Viewing actions from a historical perspective enables decision
makers to assess the impact of current decisions through the eyes of constituents.
Reliving past decisions through the lens of their impact also assists emotionallyintelligent decision makers in playing out the future of current contemplated
actions.
Are decisions viewed as a means of developing or furthering relationships withthose with whom decision makers work? Relationships are based upon
communication and trust, and emotionally intelligent individuals view every
decision-making circumstance as an opportunity to develop or improve therelationship with others.
How do decision makers communicate with others engaged in thedecision-making process? This aspect of relationship management requires a
regular and consistent method of communication that reinforces the role of each
person in the decision-making process. When a decision has been delegated itremains critical to support that delegation in all communications.
What are the decision maker’s attributes in managing conflict? Emotional
intelligence is exhibited in conflict settings by seeking first to understand theposition and feelings of the other person (Mayer and Caruso, 2002). Thus incircumstances of conflict, emotionally intelligent decision makers listen morethan they speak and seek opportunities to learn the opinions of others. Being
direct about conflicting views is important to demonstrate honesty, andexhibiting compassion in moments of tension develops the trust necessary tofoster long-term relationships. Additionally, the emotionally intelligent response
in moments of conflict requires an examination of one’s own emotions. It is only
possible to exhibit self-control if one understands the origins of experienced
emotions. Emotionally intelligent decision makers manage volatility by
expressing compassion while exhibiting and furthering the culture of theorganization in the decision-making process (Huy, 1999).

Conclusions
Every individual and organization shares the goal of enhancing the quality ofdecision-making, and the application of emotional intelligence skills can assist in theattainment of that goal. Decision makers who are self-aware and can accurately andhonestly assess their strengths in comparison to others in the organization have theadvantage of leveraging the attributes of others in the decision-making process. The
ability to assess the potential emotional outcomes and reactions of decisions canempower decision makers to predict the sentiment of those affected by decisions,
thereby increasing the probability of a more positive decision outcome. The process ofbuilding and maintaining relationships is inherently human and requires an emotional
perspective and while time consuming, will generate better decision outcomes.
Additionally, decisions worth making often generate conflict, and the ability to manage
that conflict involves an emotional intelligence skill that can determine the ultimate
success of the decision-making process. Finally, the practical application of emotional
intelligence skills and behaviors can enhance not only the outcome of a decision but
also the processes associated with decision-making.
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Further reading
AkerJordet, K. and Severinsson, E. (2007), “Emotional intelligence: a review of the literature withspecific focus on empirical and epistemological perspectives”, Journal of Clinical Nursing,Vol. 16 No. 8, pp. 1405-16.
Blattner, J. and Bacigalupo, A. (2007), “Using emotional intelligence to develop executive
leadership and team and organizational development”, Consulting Psychology Journal:
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Hurley, J. (2008), “The necessity, barriers and ways forward to meet user-based needs foremotionally intelligent nurses”, Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, Vol. 15
No. 5, pp. 379-85.
McCallin, A. and Bamford, A. (2007), “Interdisciplinary teamwork: is the influence of emotional
intelligence fully appreciated?”, Journal of Nursing Management, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 386-91.
Mayer, J.D., Salovey, P. and Caruso, D.R. (2000), “Competing models of emotional intelligence”,
in Sternberg, R. (Ed.), Handbook of Emotional Intelligence, Cambridge University Press,
New York, NY.
Stichler, J.F. (2006), “Emotional intelligence: a critical leadership quality for the nurse executive”,
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About the authors
James D. Hess is Chief Operating Officer and Vice President for Healthcare Administration,
Associate Professor of Family Medicine, SNB Professor of Healthcare Administration and a
Riata Fellow in Entrepreneurship at Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences in
Tulsa, Oklahoma. James D. Hess is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
jim.hess@okstate.edu
Arnold C. Bacigalupo is President and CEO of Voyageur One, a privately held consulting firm
providing organizational development and strategic planning services to companies of all sizes
across the USA. Dr Bacigalupo also serves on the faculty of institutions in the Chicago, Illinois
area.

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