SOCIAL COHESION, GLOBAL GOVERNANCE
AND THE FUTURE OF POLITICS

Improving Future Ocean
Governance – Governance of
Global Goods in an Age of
Global Shifts
1

Ulf Sverdrup (Norwegian Institute of International
Affairs (NUPI))
Alf Håkon Hoel (University of Tromsø)
Hideaki Shiroyama (University of Tokyo)
Michelle Voyer (Australian National Centre for Ocean
Resources and Security, University of Woollongong)
Elana Wilson Rowe (NUPI)
Wrenn Yennie-Lindgren (NUPI)
Submitted on March 15, 2019
Revised on March 31, 2019
1 The authors would like to acknowledge and thank the members of TF6, led by theJapanese Institute of International Affairs (JIIA), for their helpful suggestions and feedback
during the T20 meetings and at the 2019 Global Solutions Summit in Berlin.

Social Cohesion, Global Governanceand the Future of Politics

Abstract
Japan’s G20 presidency in 2019 will take the lead in promoting
environmentally sustainable economic growth and the UN Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs). As a gathering of coastal states, under Japan’spresidency the G20 will specifically work to reduce marine plastic
pollution and support marine biodiversity. This policy paper highlights
how oceans are governed spaces and points to the key role of the oceans inrealizing the SDGs. We argue that the G20 can and should play an importantrole in addressing major governance gaps in ensuring the sustainable
management of oceans.
Recognizing that there are increased geopolitical tensions, and that we doindeed already have comprehensive multi-level governance systems inplace to handle many aspects of the growing ‘blue economy’ and avoiding
the tragedy of the commons, the G20 should primarily stress the need forfull and effective implementation of existing instruments and measures at
the national, regional and global levels and increased consistency acrosslevels of governance. This would effectively address many of the challenges
and make use of the opportunities of the oceans.
However, the rapidly moving horizon of technological development andinsufficient progress in mitigating global climate change represent new
governance challenges that require renewed effort and innovative thinking
for a sustainable future for the oceans.
This policy paper provides recommendations as to how G20 states can:-consolidate their own capacity and assist non-G20 states in taking
responsibility for strengthening marine science and implementationof existing regulatory frameworks,-exercise innovative global and regional leadership to address
emerging opportunities and associated governance challenges and-facilitate the meaningful involvement of the private sector and the
public in ensuring a collective governance order around oceans.

2Social Cohesion, Global Governanceand the Future of Politics
Challenge
Pressing Ocean Issues
The ocean covers 70% of the earth’s surface. Goods and services from theworld’s oceans generate USD 2.5 trillion each year. At present, 10-12% of thelivelihoods of the world’s population rely on existing ocean industries, likefisheries and maritime transportation. 2 This percentage is likely to increase
with technological advances, services and products. Oceans, therefore, will playa crucial role in achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), suchas reducing hunger (SDG 2). Oceans are also the object of a dedicated SDG
focused on the need for protection and sustainable use of marine ecosystems(SDG 14).
Our economic systems have negative effects on the environment and theworld’s oceans are facing several threats. Global climate change – and thecarbon dioxide emissions that are the primary driver of this change – is by far
the biggest. The impacts of climate change are already being seen in the world’s
oceans. The bleaching and death of the Great Barrier Reef off of the Australiancoast demonstrate the consequences of ocean acidification and a warming
ocean. Altered water temperatures also affect the distribution of fish stocks inthe oceans. Moreover, a changing climate drives the melting of the ice sheets inGreenland and Antarctica which will in turn bring about a rise in global sea
levels, threatening the life and livelihood of small island states, coastal cities
and communities.
The world’s oceans are a vital source of food and home to a large percentage ofthe earth’s biodiversity. However, one third of the world´s fish stocks areoverexploited. 3 Illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing is a main
driver of this problem. Shipowners engaged in fisheries crime often flag theirvessels with ‘flags of convenience’ in states not having the capacity or will to
enforce jurisdiction over the vessel. 4 Despite improvements in fisheries
management, use of fisheries resources remains inefficient, with one third of
2 High Level Panel for a Sustainable Economy, “About the Ocean”,

https://oceanpanel.org/about-ocean.html
3 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, 2018
4 Nordic Council of Ministers (2017) “Chasing Red Herrings: Flags of Convenience, Secrecy
and the Impact on Fisheries” http://norden.divaportal.org/smash/get/diva2:1253427/FULLTEXT01.pdf
3Social Cohesion, Global Governanceand the Future of Politics
landings wasted before reaching consumers.5 Furthermore, a major threat tolife in the ocean is pollution and marine debris, including plastics andmicroplastics. A recent study estimated that by 2018 8300 million metric tonsof plastics had been produced. Of this, 6300 metric tons had already become
waste, with 79% accumulated in landfills or the natural environment.6
At the same time, rapid technology development brings new opportunities andnovel challenges for ensuring sustainable oceans. New uses of ocean resources,
such as by marine biotechnology, deep seabed mining and ocean based
renewable energy, will also produce new technical, ecological and governancechallenges. These challenges will require the ability to adapt quickly to newknowledge as it becomes available. Even our capacity for producing knowledge
about the oceans needs to be considered. New technologies will enablecountries to better monitor oceans and fishing, detect the smuggling of people,
drugs and weapons, as well as improve search and rescue at sea. Drone
technology and unmanned underwater vehicles, and advances in datacollection, processing and visualization will enable humanity to enter into andgain knowledge about ocean spaces that have so far only been left to fantasy.
We can imagine that in a not so distant future we will have much better
information for the management of space, land and marine resources, and thiscan provide us with great opportunities. At the same time, uneven access tosuch important information could exacerbate existing global inequalities, thecompetitiveness of playing fields for business, and national security dilemmas.

A Strong Governance Baseline
The issues of oceans governance require a networked perspective. The 1982
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is the constitutionof the oceans, covering the use and conservation of marine resources andjurisdictional and navigational rights, based on a premise that “the problems ofocean space are closely interrelated and need to be considered as a whole.”7
5 FAO (2018) State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture”.

http://www.fao.org/3/i9540en/I9540EN.pdf
6 Geyer, Roland, Jenna R. Jambeck and Kara Lavendar Law (2017) ”Production, use, and fateof all plastics ever made,” Science Advances 3(7): 1-5.
http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/7/e1700782
7 UNCLOS (1982) “Preamble”
http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/preamble.htm
4Social Cohesion, Global Governanceand the Future of Politics
The foundation for comprehensive marine governance therefore exists.
Current implementing agreements are the 1994 Agreement on the Deep Seabed
Provisions of UNCLOS and the 1995 UN Fish Stocks Agreement. An additional
UNCLOS implementing agreement for biodiversity conservation and use,
including marine genetic resources, beyond national jurisdiction (BBNJ) iscurrently under negotiation.
UNCLOS provides a framework for coastal states’ sovereign rights over thenatural resources in 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zones (EEZs).8 EEZs
account for approximately one-third of total ocean space, with the remaining
ocean being ‘high seas’ beyond national jurisdiction. The high seas are also agoverned space, with UNCLOS specifying rights and obligations for states.
A number of international organizations address governance in specific sectors.
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) focuses on regulation to ensure
the safety, security and environmental performance of the shipping sector. Its2020 sulphur cap regulation, for example, is likely to have significant impacts
on markets and the environment The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
develops global norms pertaining to fisheries. These are implemented bycoastal states in the EEZs and by Regional Fisheries Management
Organizations, of which about 20 currently exist, in the high seas. For example,
the North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC) manages fisheries in thehigh seas in the North East Atlantic. Also, the North Pacific FisheriesCommission (NPFC) was established to manage the fisheries in the high seas in
the North Pacific area. More ad-hoc coalitions, such as the High-Level Panel on
Sustainable Ocean Economy, 9 are also a resource in advancing global ocean
governance issues. Promoting coherence and coordination between various
agencies and governance networks is essential in strengthening governanceoverall.
Regional bodies and groupings also play an important role as provided for by
UNCLOS. The Arctic Ocean, for example, is criss-crossed by governanceinitiatives of varying degrees of legal formality. The eight-country Arctic
Council has established itself as the preeminent forum for transboundary
circumpolar environmental and social issues. Three legally binding agreements
addressing regional governance challenges of today and the future have been
8 On the continental shelf, coastal states have sovereign rights over natural resources also

beyond the EEZs.
9 High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy, http://oceanpanel.org
5Social Cohesion, Global Governanceand the Future of Politics
negotiated, facilitating coordination between the Arctic states (search andrescue, oil spill response, scientific cooperation). This demonstrates thatagreements can be reached, even when there are significant geopoliticaltensions. Also, leadership by the five Arctic coastal states (Canada, Kingdom ofDenmark (Greenland), Norway, Russia, and the USA) led to an agreement about
preventing unregulated fishing in the high seas in the Central Arctic Ocean.
These Arctic policy milestones are facilitated by a conversation with regional
scientific organizations such as the International Council for the Exploration of
the Sea, who produce and consolidate scientific knowledge about
environmental status of the region.
The private sector is also actively promoting new global and regional
initiatives. These include efforts under the UN Global Compact for the Oceans
and its action platform for sustainable ocean business10, with an emphasis oncompliance with national and international norms, consideration of ocean
health and expansion of the use of the ocean in a sustainable manner. Private
foundations are currently involved in work on marine protected areas in the
Pacific and elsewhere. The annual ‘Our Ocean’ conference and other private
sector initiatives are emerging as important global meeting places for
information exchange and governance innovation.11

Governance Challenges and Opportunities
An overarching challenge to global ocean governance is that of transforming
short-term economic interests into longer-term actions that promote theresponsible management of national as well as transboundary resources andthe marine environment. This challenge is evident in many ocean economy
sectors, most acutely demonstrated by the insufficient progress in mitigating
global climate change. Thus, while some aspects of ocean governance canproceed even in the absence of decisive global action on climate change
mitigation, climate change remains a key driver of negative change.
Zooming in on ocean-specific governance challenges there are two main issuesof concern. The first relates to governance gaps, including missing or weak
instruments to address specific existing problems. One such area is that of
10 United Nations Global Impact, “Action Platform for Sustainable Business”

https://www.unglobalcompact.org/take-action/action-platforms/ocean
11 Our Ocean Conference Website Oslo 2019, https://ourocean2019.no6

Social Cohesion, Global Governanceand the Future of Politics
plastics pollution, another is that of marine genetic resources in areas beyond
national jurisdiction. In both cases, there are processes under way to negotiate
instruments addressing these issues. With regards to plastics, the UN General
Assembly as well as the UN Environment Assembly (UNEA) are addressing
options for governance responses, and the World Bank has initiated an effort
to assist developing countries to manage their plastic waste. The key challenge
is to stop plastics entering the ocean in the first place.
There are also potential governance gaps relating to new technologies and theiremerging applications. New technologies, as discussed above, present newopportunities for increasing information about and value-creation from theworld’s oceans. However, these technologies also present challenges. Firstly,
information is rarely innocent. Most of these technologies and data gathering
mechanisms can also serve to benefit commercial interests and the creationmonopolies or, to some extent, be weaponized and serve national security
objectives. Both national security concerns and private sector actors are
driving these ocean-relevant technological developments (i.e. drone andunmanned underwater vessel technologies). Secondly, as more information isgathered and processed, issues arise about ownership, access, costs anddistribution of information and data. New technology and innovation
opportunities raise fresh questions of access and equity between developed
and developing countries in the high seas in particular. What should be thenorms and regulations addressing transparency, ownership, and equity in datacollection, processing and visualization?
A second source of governance gaps exists in the absence of full accession tointernational agreements and improper or incomplete implementation of them.
The former is sometimes a problem, as in the case of China – the biggest global
fishing nation – not acceding to the 1995 UN Fish Stocks Agreement. Incomplete
or absent implementation can be the result of the prioritization of short-term
national or business interests as well as capacity-related challenges for somestates. For example, in combatting IUU fisheries and fisheries crime, there are
a number of initiatives that, if effectively implemented, would address thechallenge. Options range from implementing mandatory unique vessel
identifiers, as has been proposed by a private sector coalition, through greater
sharing of tracking and tax data across national boundaries, to increasing

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Social Cohesion, Global Governanceand the Future of Politics
developing countries capacity to exercise their existing commitments as part offlag state jurisdiction.12
The challenges of gaps and implementation are part of a broader task for statesand international governmental organizations with mandates in this respect.
Also NGOs, businesses, and the private sector have roles to play in ensuring thatdevelopments in multilateral settings, from the World Trade Organization’s
discussions on fisheries subsidies to innovative governance work in creative
coalitions like the High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy,
contribute to maintain and develop a collective global order around oceans. To
do so requires harnessing the resources and knowledge of many. For example,
in 2018 the 1 trillion USD Norwegian Government Pension Fund, formulated
and published a document spelling out their expectations to companies
regarding sustainable oceans. Progress can also flow from the contributions ofNGOs in the independent monitoring of activities.
It is important that this collective, multi-actor order is meaningful so that thegrowth in ocean interest that we are witnessing translates into tangible
changes. Ultimately, they should aim for good results for the oceans and thecommunities and people that depend on them, and not just ‘blue washing’ thatcreates the false appearance of adherence to norms and regulation.

Proposal
Recommendations for Improved GovernanceIn the following section we spell out recommendations that we consider
realistic, effective, and consistent with the priorities of the Japanese presidencyof the G20.
First and foremost, G20 states must recognize that our oceans are at risk, and themost significant risk to ocean health is climate change. Sustainable ocean
governance therefore requires immediate and drastic action to reduce andultimately eliminate anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate
climate change and ocean acidification. In addition, the role of the oceans insequestering carbon should be recognised and supported, in particular through12 Nordic Council of Ministers, 20178

Social Cohesion, Global Governanceand the Future of Politics
the protection, rehabilitation and regeneration of natural carbon storage banks(blue carbon) such as mangroves, seagrass and seaweed.
More specifically to the ocean-based challenges addressed in this document,
G20 states should:• Take responsibility for the implementation of multi-level existing
regulatory frameworks in their own ocean jurisdictions and seek
ongoing improvements for effective and rigorous implementation andcompliance for vessels under their flag.
• Strengthen G20 national capacity and assist non-G20 countries inbuilding the necessary capacity to implement regulatory frameworks
and find ways of using ocean resources to achieve the SDGs. Suchmeasures should include:
a. building the science capacity to collect and analyze
information, provide scientific advice for management andmonitor marine ecosystems, including the capacity to monitor,
prognosticate and adapt to the impacts of anthropogenic
climate changeb. establishing the national legal frameworks that guideconservation and the use of oceans, including, whereappropriate, systems for rights-based/communities-based
management of resourcesc. supporting mechanisms for the enforcement of regulations, forexample by coast guard operations at sea as well as onshore
activities
d. harnessing the potential of the regional level for scientificcooperation, management of fisheries, and the protection of
the marine environment, including by sharing best practices
and lessons from successful regional cooperation, e.g. theInternational Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) in
the North Atlantic and the North Pacific Marine Science
Organization (PICES).
• Encourage accession to UNCLOS and its subsidiary agreements (e.g. the1995 Fish Stocks Agreement) and encourage compatibility between
different initiatives to ensure a meaningful coordination and collective
order for ocean governance, across multilateral and multilevel settings,
9Social Cohesion, Global Governanceand the Future of Politics
including existing and new regional structures/mechanisms within andbeyond G20 states.
• Exercise leadership in global governance and institutions with the aim ofpursuing multiple SDGs, including by initiating novel and transparent
mechanisms for meeting emerging ocean governance issues, with rapid
progress through creative coalitions, such as the High Level Panel for a
Sustainable Ocean Economy.
• Recognize that multilateral cooperation and organizations andtransparent, evidence-based policymaking strengthen the capacity ofrealizing national interest, such as in the efforts to reduce and ultimately
stop the flow of plastics into the world’s oceans, as also highlighted in
the Science 20 (S20) Japan 2019 report by the National Academies of
Sciences of the G20 countries.13• Establish an expert group to examine the opportunities and challenges

linked to the new technologies for collecting, processing, analyzing andaccessing data related to oceans. This would entail bringing together

actors from the leading edge of innovation in the satellite anddrone/subsea technologies technology/data processing fields (in bothprivate and public sectors), ocean governance experts and technology
governance scholars. The aim would be to map out the potentially
positive and negative consequences of these rapid technologicaldevelopments and to discuss governance solutions. This expert group
could possibly be linked to the High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean
Economy.
• Encourage consistency with G20 and OECD Guidelines for Multinational
Enterprises, which specify how companies should take into account thebroader environmental and social consequences of business operations,
including ocean issues.

13 Science 20 (S20) Japan 2019 “Threats to Coastal and Marine Ecosystems, andConservation of the Ocean Environment – with Special Attention to Climate Change andMarine Plastic Waste”, March. http://www.scj.go.jp/ja/info/kohyo/pdf/kohyo-24s20jp2019-1.pdf
10Social Cohesion, Global Governanceand the Future of Politics• Work with and support the UN Global Compact for the Oceans in
identifying commercial and economic opportunities and in ensuringthat investors and companies integrate ocean sustainability into theirstrategies, policies and commitments by:a) Assessing and being transparent about theirdependence and impact on ocean sustainability,b) integrating ocean risks into their risk-management,c) sharing, where practicable, relevant scientific data to
support ocean researchd) promoting a normative set of principles andexpectations for sustainable ocean activities.
• Empower citizens to support ocean health by making it possible toidentify products that are consistent with principles of sustainableocean governance, for instance encourage the further spreading of
initiatives such as the Canadian Ocean Wise14 or the US Seafood
Watch15, making it easier for consumers to make more sustainableseafood choices.

References
1. High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy, “About the Ocean”,
https://oceanpanel.org/about-ocean.html
2. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (2018) “State of World
Fisheries and Aquaculture”. http://www.fao.org/3/i9540en/I9540EN.pdf
3. Nordic Council of Ministers (2017) “Chasing Red Herrings: Flags of Convenience,
Secrecy and the Impact on Fisheries” http://norden.divaportal.org/smash/get/diva2:1253427/FULLTEXT01.pdf
4. Geyer, Roland, Jenna R. Jambeck and Kara Lavendar Law (2017) ”Production, use, andfate of all plastics ever made,” Science Advances 3(7): 1-5.
http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/7/e1700782
5. UNCLOS (1982) “Preamble”
http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/preamble.htm
6. High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy, http://oceanpanel.org
7. United Nations Global Impact, “Action Platform for Sustainable Business”
https://www.unglobalcompact.org/take-action/action-platforms/ocean
8. Our Ocean Conference Website Oslo 2019, https://ourocean2019.no
14 Ocean Wise, http://seafood.ocean.org

15 Seafood Watch Monterey Bay Aquarium, https://www.seafoodwatch.org

11Social Cohesion, Global Governanceand the Future of Politics
9. Science 20 (S20) Japan 2019 “Threats to Coastal and Marine Ecosystems, andConservation of the Ocean Environment – with Special Attention to Climate Change andMarine Plastic Waste”, March. http://www.scj.go.jp/ja/info/kohyo/pdf/kohyo-24s20jp2019-1.pdf
10. Ocean Wise Website http://seafood.ocean.org
11. Seafood Watch Monterey Bay Aquarium, https://www.seafoodwatch.org

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