IPSJ SIG Technical Report

Survey Study on Factors in Civil Defense
Participation
Sergio De León Aguilar1,a)Yuki Matsuda1,2,b)

Keiichi Yasumoto1,c)Abstract: Civil Defense activities are state lead campaigns aimed to improve preparedness against natural
or man-made disasters within communities. Traditionally, written guidelines targeting the general public are
created with easy to understand language and graphical instructions. Regardless, as noted by a survey madeduring this research, many people do not actually read and follow those instructions; or even know about
their existence. In this survey study, we explore the factors that aﬀect the eﬀectiveness of Civil Defense
preparedness guidelines. For this, we applied a questionnaire to the general public in two events related todisaster prevention activities in the city of Ikoma, Nara Prefecture of Japan; obtaining 95 data points fromthe local population and foreigners residing in the area. We have found that most of the population does notread or follow disaster preparedness guidelines. A statistical signiﬁcant diﬀerence in the respondents over 50
years old, shows that they are perceiving such guidelines’ advise more diﬃcult to follow than respondents
in their 30’s. Derived from the results, we propose a new approach to improve guidelines’ eﬀectiveness andreach, leveraging commonplace smartphones.

1.

Introduction

Civil Defense programs are government initiatives whose
purpose is to increase the readiness of the citizens in acertain community against natural or man-made disasters.
Around all of Japan, Civil Defense programs actively try toreach and inform the local and visiting population on preparedness for typhoons, ﬁres or earthquakes [1], [2], [3], [4].
Traditionally, printed and mass media is used to communicate preparedness knowledge and enable people to divert
from danger during these unavoidable events. These documents are then presented in a diverse collection of formats
like pamphlets, books, or ads found in public spaces, television or the Internet. For earthquake preparedness, recommendations can be found compiled in preparedness guidelines. In which, with the intention to reduce injury andproperty damage, the population is informed regarding actions that can be taken before, during and after an earthquake has occurred.
In particular, preparedness guidelines focus on the actions
the general public can take upon their environment. They
are meant to reduce injuries and damage to their belongingsor properties. A clear correlation has been proven before, between the media and activities produced on these programsand the increase on the levels of preparedness in the population [5], [6]. Regardless, it has been observed that even
1
2
a)
b)
c)

Nara Institute of Science and Technology
JST PRESTO
de leon aguilar.sergio.dm9@is.naist.jp
yukimat@is.naist.jp
yasumoto@is.naist.jp© 1992 Information Processing Society of Japan

if such knowledge can be substantially transmitted throughsuch means, the eﬀective level of preparedness in the citizen
houses is not necessary substantially increased [7]. Xiao et
al. revealed such levels of preparedness relevant [8]; observing that business engaging in preparedness activities against
hurricanes, is able to substantially reduce damage on theirproperties and assets. Preparedness activities found in these
documents can take diverse forms, such as: ﬁxing furniture
to a wall; preparation of emergency rations; moving valuables to a higher ground level; clearance of emergency exit
ways or acquisition of useful knowledge for safety procedures
during and after the disaster.
Knowledge refers to a piece of information or understanding about a certain topic that has been acquired by oneof many means. Knowledge transfer in organizational theory refers to the practical discussion regarding the problems
arising when knowledge is shared between diﬀerent entities.
In this context, von Hippel [9] introduces the term “sticky
information,” to refer to technical knowledge that is hard totransfer to a diﬀerent organizational unit.
These concepts are widely used to understand organizational problems in getting competitive or business advantage. Notwithstanding, we identify disaster preparedness
communication as an analogue of these organizational processes. In this comparison, an organization (the government) requires a transfer of technical knowledge — procedures, techniques, reference information — to a diﬀerent
unit (citizens) who is expected to reproduce eﬀectively thesame attitudes and actions.
In this study, understanding that disaster preparedness

1

IPSJ SIG Technical Report

guidelines are the carrier of a knowledge transfer process
and that it will be aﬀected by knowledge stickiness, we set
ourselves to understand the impact of their shortcomings
and their relevance when the public tries to implement theiradvice. Towards this goal, we have deﬁned the following
questions:Q1. Do people read disaster preparedness guidelines?
Q2. How hard to follow do people ﬁnd them?
Q3. How open people are to alternative media for theseguidelines?
In this survey study, we will ﬁrst describe how the questionnaire was designed, the environment in which it was applied and the nature of the population that answered. Thenwe will discuss the results and our interpretations. Finally,
we present a proposal of a new approach to assess the barriers disaster preparedness guidelines are facing using ubiquitous Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)
available to the same population these government programs
aim to reach.

2.

MethodWe prepared a short questionnaire of 8 questions, composed of 7 multiple answer questions and 1 open question.
We ﬁrst present participants with the intention of thequestionnaire: to learn about the weak and strong pointsof government disaster preparedness guidelines. Then threequestions would follow probing participants’ demographics.
The second section would explain brieﬂy what a disaster preparedness guideline is and introduce a couple of examples ofrecommendations that can be found written in them. In thissection three yes/no questions would explore whether participants were aware of their existence, have read their contents or have followed their recommendations. A question
inquiring the perceived diﬃculty of the instructions would
follow after. In this question, participants were able to express their perceived diﬃculty in a 5 leveled Likert scale,from “Very Easy” to “Very Diﬃcult.” Finally, we presented
an open question where participants could freely suggest alternative media to present disaster preparedness guidelines;
and that in their opinion, could improve the reach of them.
We collected data from the public from two Disaster Prevention Events in Ikoma City, Nara Prefecture of Japan(Nov. 6th & 14th, 2021). In the ﬁrst event, the public
was taught practical skills for disaster scenarios. Every participant at the end of the event was given a questionnaire
as part of the event materials. The public in this event
was composed of adults from the general public and foreign
graduate students from the University where the event was
being held. The second event was an exposition of Disaster
Prevention countermeasures, technology and goods. This
event was held in an open plaza near the main station ofa city, where common citizens were approached and asked
for their participation in the survey as shown in Fig.1. University customized stationary was given to people after they

© 1992 Information Processing Society of Japan

Fig. 1: Survey study at the event, Nov. 14th, 2021
L` AMbiBimi2 Q7 a+B2M+2 M/ h2+?MQHQ;vX l#B[mBiQmb *QKTmiBM; avbi2Kb G#Q`iQ`v

R

.Bbbi2` S`2T`2/M2bb :mB/2HBM2b lb;2q2 BM l#B[mBiQmb *QKTmiBM; avbi2Kb G#Q`iQ`v rMi iQ FMQr #Qmi ?Qr +QKKQM Bb 7Q` T2QTH2 iQ KF2 mb2
Q7 i?2 .Bbbi2` S`2T`2/M2bb :mB/2HBM2b i?i :Qp2`MK2Mib mbmHHv /Bbi`B#mi2 iQ i?2B` +BiBx2MbX
SH2b2 ?2HT mb iQ 7Q`K  +H2` T2`bT2+iBp2 Q7 i?2 /pMi;2b M/ /Bb/pMi;2b Q7 +m``2Mi S`2T`2/M2bb +KTB;Mb
/Bbi`B#mi2/ iQ i?2 +BiBx2MbX
RX ;2 `M;2,
 Ry@R8 R8@ky ky@jy 62KH2

 JH2

 Pi?2` HQM2

 qBi? 6KBHv

kX :2M/2`,

 jy@9yjX AM vQm` ?Qmb2- vQm HBp2,

 8y@ey Pp2` ey

 .Q MQi rMi iQ /Bb+HQb2

 _QQK Ki2b.Bbbi2` S`2T`2/M2bb :mB/2HBM2b.Bbbi2` S`2T`2/M2bb :mB/2HBM2b `2 2bv@iQ@`2/ /Q+mK2Mib i?i +QHH2+i ;2M2`H /pB+2 #Qmi ?Qr iQ T`2T`27Q`  Lim`H Q` KM@K/2 .Bbbi2`bX h?2b2 /Q+mK2Mib 2tTHBM 7Q` 2tKTH2, ?Qr iQ +?2+F 7Q` ;b H2Fb 7i2`
i?2 1`i?[mF2 Q` r?2`2 iQ b22F `27m;2 /m`BM;  hvT?QQMX
9X >p2 vQm b22M  .Bbbi2` S`2T`2/M2bb:mB/2HBM2 #27Q`2\
 u2b

 LQ

 u2b

 LQ

 u2b

 LQ

8X >p2 vQm `2/ #27Q`2  .Bbbi2` S`2T`2/M2bb:mB/2HBM2\

eX >p2 vQm i`B2/ iQ 7QHHQr i?2B` /pB+2\

dX >Qr ?`/ Bi rb iQ 7QHHQr i?2B` `2+QKK2M/iBQMb\
UK`F QM2 Q7 i?2 8 #Qt2bVo2`v 1bvěěěěo2`v ?`/3X J2MiBQM /Bz2`2Mi K2/B i?i /Q vQm i?BMF rQmH/ BMpBi2 KQ`2 T2QTH2 iQ 7QHHQr i?2b2 FBM/
Q7 :mB/2HBM2b U2X;X pB/2Qb- pB/2Q ;K2b- TTbV

Fig. 2: Questionnaire (English)
participated in the University’s booth activities. In both
events the questionnaire was available in both Japanese andEnglish as shown in Fig.2 and there was no monetary compensation for the participants.
The open question inquiring about suggestions for alternative media for disaster preparedness guidelines frequently
required a brief explanation from the questioner. After thebrief explanation and a couple of examples, people usuallywould gladly describe their ideas to the questioner and write
them down.
We acknowledge a mistake in the age range deﬁnition not
making the ranges exclusive, producing an overlap in the age
ranges (e.g., 10-15, 15-20, 20-30). We consider it negligible
since the impact of the overlap on the conclusions derived
from the data was small. No participant commented on thisoverlap either. Thus, we infer that overlapping age data
points were zero or minimal.

IPSJ SIG Technical Report26
26
62% (16) 62% (16)26
26
62% (16) 69% (18)23
57% (13)23
61% (14)20

17
53% (9)Read
Guidelines
No
Yes
10

Amount of People

Amount of People20

38% (10) 38% (10) 43% (10)1741% (7)
Followed
Guidelines
No
Yes
10

59% (10) 38% (10)39% (9)31% (8)47% (8)

2

2
1

1

0

0
Blank

15−20

20−30

30−40

50−60

+60

Blank

Age Range

15−20

20−30

30−40

50−60

+60

Age Range(a) People that have read guidelines(b) People that have followed guidelines

Fig. 3: People that have Read and Followed Guidelines discriminated by Age Ranges

60

61
61% (37)

60

40

Read
Guidelines30
53% (16)No
Yes

39% (24)
20

Amount of People

Amount of People40

61
66% (40)

Followed
Advice3050% (15)

No
Yes

20

34% (21)50% (15)

47% (14)

2

2

0

2

2

Share House

Blank

0
With Family

Alone

Share House

Blank

Living Conditions(a) People that have read guidelines

With Family

Alone

Living Conditions(b) People that have followed guidelines

Fig. 4: People that have Read and Followed Guidelines discriminated by Living Conditions

3.

Analysis & Results

The collected data points consist of 95 answered questionnaires. Nationality was not inquired in the survey, nonetheless 23 questionnaires in English were answered. It is important to mention that foreign students proﬁcient in Japanesemight have answered the questionnaire in Japanese. Also, it
is relevant to mention that there was no participation frompeople in the range of 10 to 15 years old; and there was only
one data point from a person in the range of 15 to 20 years
old. No people in the range from 40 to 50 years old gavesuggestions for alternative media in the open question. One
person who knew and has read disaster prevention guidelines
did not answered whether he had followed their advice, thus
this case was considered as a “No.”© 1992 Information Processing Society of Japan

3.1 Q1. Eﬀectiveness of Civil Defense Activities
For Q1, “Do people read disaster prevention guidelines?”
more than half of the participants (58%) have never readthese kinds of guidelines. This trend seems consistent acrossthe age range of the collected data as seen from Fig.3(a). In
general, people usually do not read preparedness guidelines.
From the perspective of whether people follow them or not,a similar trend is seen in Fig.3(b).
When we divide by the living conditions of the participants, we can observe in Fig.4 that people living with otherfamily members are similarly prone not to read them nor
follow them. Nevertheless, those living alone do not usually
read or follow them either.

3

IPSJ SIG Technical Report

16
6%(B)
15

14
7%(15s)20-30

44%(20s)

30-40
621%(20s)

43%(30s)812%(B)

15−20
20−30

25%(30s)

25%(20s)
5

Blank

9
22%(20s)

30−40

11%(30s)

50−60

33%(50s)+60

Amount of People

Amount of People

Age
10

4

50-60

+60

38%(30s)
14%(50s)

12%(50s)14%(+60)

12%(+60)

2

3

2

4
50%(50s)15-20

33%(+60)
12%(50s)

Blank

50%(+60)

12%(+60)
0

0
1

4

1

5

2

3

4

5

Apparent Diﬃculty

Apparent Difficulty(a) Overall Apparent Diﬃculty(b) Apparent Diﬃculty by Age

Fig. 5: Diﬃculty perceived by Common Citizenry
36% (12)15−20

1253% (9)
Blank

20−30

8

20−30

10

21% (7)20−30
618% (6)
Blank

6

Age

30−40

18% (6)
20−30

20−30

Blank
15−20
20−30

30−40

30−40
50−60

50−60

Amount of People

Amount of People

8

Age
Blank

30−40

20−30
30−40

4

50−60
+60

+60

4

50−60
30−40

2

+60
+60

50−60

2

30−40

6% (2)
50−60

50−60

+60

0

12% (2)30−40

12% (2)
30−40

+60

50−60

12% (2)20−30

12% (2)
50−60

+60

50−60

+60

3

4

5

0
1

2

3

4

5

Apparent Difficulty(a) Those who followed guidelines

1

2

Apparent Difficulty(b) Those who did not followed guidelines

Fig. 6: Diﬃculty perceived, partitioned between those who did or did not followed guidelines
3.2

Q2. Perceived Diﬃculty of Disaster Prevention Guidelines
For Q2, “How hard to follow do people ﬁnd them?” from
Fig.5(a) we can conclude that in general, disaster preparedness guidelines are perceived having a medium to medium
low diﬃculty.
In Fig.5(b), a diﬀerence in diﬃculty perceived can be appreciated from the groups of 20 to 30, 30 to 40 and those
respondents over 50 years old. Considering the low numberof samples of 40 to 50 and over 60 years old (N: 10 each), andtheir overlapping responses, to execute a statistical analysis, we combined their data points into one group: ”over 50
years old”. The single data point of the range 15 to 20, was
not included in the analysis.
Due to the nature of the collected data and its low numberof samples, we used a non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis rank-© 1992 Information Processing Society of Japan

Table 1: P-values of Mann-Whitney U test between eachage range perceived diﬃculty distribution
20’s & 30’s
20’s & +50’s
30’s & +50’s

p-value
0.199
0.175
0.046*

sum test and observed a signiﬁcant diﬀerence between themeans of the aforementioned age ranges (H: 7.02, DF: 2,
χc 2 @0.05: 5.991, p: 0.03).
As a result, a pairwise Mann-Whitney U test with a Benjamini & Hochberg p-value adjustment, reveals a signiﬁcantdiﬀerence between the samples of people in their 30’s andthose above 50 years old as seen in Table 1. Concluding that
seniors seem to have more trouble following them than theyounger population.
When we divide this data between the people that did or

IPSJ SIG Technical Reporttv
event 4.7%

a @m
video 23.5%

message 5.9%

games 7.1%

app 17.6%

sns 16.5%

trad 17.6%

app(a) Suggested media Overall

Suggestion

trad

sns

sns

video

video

8

ads

6

email

games

app

trad

video

event

manga
trad

messagemessage

sns
trad
video

trad

message

tv

email

games

sns

app

tv

sns

event
games
manga

ads

tv

video

tv

video

event

app

2

event

games

4

app
games
messageAmount of suggestions

app

+60

Blank

0
15−20

20−30

30−40

50−60

Age Range(b) Suggested media by Age

Fig. 7: Media suggested by the public, with potential to involve more people in disaster preparedness activities
did not follow disaster prevention guidelines, we can see aclear distinction. Even having data points becoming moresparse, we can observe in Fig.6(a) that people following theguidelines tend to perceive such guidelines as medium to low
diﬃcult. From Fig.6(b), where people not following guidelines are represented, we can observe a clear predisposition
to classify them as having a medium diﬃculty. From the reduced variance on this group we may infer a certain unwillingness to oﬀer a nuanced critique over disaster prevention
guidelines diﬃculty.

© 1992 Information Processing Society of Japan

3.3 Q3. Openness to Alternative MediaWe regarded Q3, “How open people are to alternative media for these guidelines?” as a question to be answered in amore indirect manner. To probe the openness of the participants to alternative media, we asked them for suggestions.
Through the ﬁnal open question we explored the opinion ofpeople and their willingness to talk about alternative media.
If requested, it was clariﬁed to them, to write down examples of media that could be more eﬀective in reaching people
and make them participate in preparedness activities.
The suggestions from the aforementioned open question
were normalized. We created a category for each distinct

5

IPSJ SIG Technical Reportsuggestion: ads, application, email, events, games, comics,
messages, social media, traditional media (school education,
written pamphlets), television and videos. Then we tagged
every answer with as many categorization tags that can describe the essence of the suggestion. Every instance of eachtag was considered a data point.
Popular suggestions as seen in Fig.7(a) were videos, applications, social networks and traditional media. When divided by age as seen in Fig.7(b), seniors seem more comfortable with informative videos and traditional media, butmodern ICT’s were also suggested by people in the 50’s
range and above 60. On the other hand, the proportionof ICT’s against more traditional media was greater in people below 50, with a clear preference for media present insmartphones. Informative videos were uniformly suggested
in all age ranges.

4.

Discussion and Future Work

4.1 Discussion
Through the information produced by this study, we havefound the general population does not seem very aware ofdisaster preparedness guidelines, or have actually read them.
This trend is observed through all surveyed ages and all living conditions, whether they cohabit with other people orlive alone. It can be assumed that a considerable amount of
the population have not applied disaster preparedness recommendations on their houses, and there is a room of improvement in these civil defense programs.
We have found that regardless of the eﬀort into disaster preparedness guidelines to make them accessible to thegeneral public, they are aﬄicted with a rather low penetration in the population. The public regards them as being
medium low diﬃcult, with seniors ﬁnding them harder tofollow than younger people. Particularly, people that do
not have followed them in the past, perceive them as being more diﬃcult than those who have followed them. We
can assume that regardless of not perceiving them with highdiﬃculty, the experienced diﬃculty is not negligible.
It is worth to mention, as M.L. Edward explored [10], that
there are many factors (e.g., family income, children present
in the family core) that aﬀect the rate of people participating in preparedness activities. M.L. Edward further observes
that people with family might participate more in preparedness activities. This might contrast with our ﬁndings; however, he mentions this gradient is observed when small children are found in the family core. Our ﬁndings showing no
signiﬁcant diﬀerence in preparedness activities participation
between people living alone or with family might be related
to the absence of small children in such co-living families.
Nevertheless, we consider of importance to assess the eﬀectiveness of one of the most common and easiest to distributemedia: written guidelines.
Some limitations of this study is the small sample sizethat do not allow us to generalize the signiﬁcant diﬀerencein the perceived diﬃculty of disaster preparedness guidelines
when comparing population of diﬀerent generations. Also,© 1992 Information Processing Society of Japan

this study only sampled the population of one city of Japanthat might reﬂect only the eﬀectiveness of local Civic Defense activities.
4.2 Future Work and Proposal
In light of this information, we conclude that addressing
knowledge transfer roadblocks described in organizational
theory could improve the eﬀectiveness of disaster preparedness civil activities. Extensive studies have been done about
the barriers that hinder knowledge transfer; and how modern media or Information and Communication Technologies(ICT) improve the eﬀectiveness of such transfer of knowledge in organizations [11], [12], [13].
ICT is being used in the classroom to improve learning;
even in sometimes considered low engaging subjects such as
History [14], [15]. Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality(VR) have actually begun to ﬁnd their application in factories in the manufacturing and maintenance sector. Obermair
et al. have found that AR applications guiding users in procedures can achieve lower occurrence of procedure mistakes
and target misidentiﬁcations [13].
Understanding the latter and having each year smartphones more capable of performing advanced data processing such as AR and running Machine Learning models, wewill propose a computational system that will follow thissurvey study work.
We will build an AR based Guideline application leveraging smartphones as a distribution medium, since they arewidely available and their operation is familiar to the generalpublic. On this system, responsible entities will upload unitsof recommendations for certain Targets of Interest (ToI).
Such units will represent a task to be performed on an entity by the user. The aforementioned entity is designated asTarget of Interest, since its nature can range from a physical object (a refrigerator to be secured with breaks) to apiece of information to be procured (identify gas valves).
Then machine learning object recognition technology willbe leveraged for identifying each ToI. AR commercial frameworks will be used to map them in the real environment anda user interface with gamiﬁcation elements will be built toeﬀortlessly guide the user to the desired action.

5.

Conclusion

In order to shed light on the eﬀectiveness of disaster preparedness guidelines used in Civic Defense activities, andthe public perceived factors that inﬂuence their advice adoption; we conducted a survey of the general public of the cityof Ikoma in Nara Prefecture, Japan. From the data collected we can conclude that the majority of the public does
not seem to read or follow the advise found in disaster preparedness guidelines. This trend is revealed on all surveyed
age ranges independent of their living conditions. We apply
a further analysis of the diﬃculty perceived by diﬀerent age
groups, in following the recommendation of said guidelines.
We have observed a statistical signiﬁcant diﬀerence between
the diﬃcult perceived by respondents over 50 years old andIPSJ SIG Technical Report

those in their 30’s. Respondents regard video, application,social media and traditional mediums as eﬀective platforms
that could increase the public participation in preparedness
activities. Considering these observations, we propose an
AR based guideline application that could leverage the public familiarity with smartphones and their image processing
power to provide easier to follow disaster preparedness advice.
Acknowledgments This study was supported in partby JSPS KAKENHI under Grant No. JP19H01139 and JST
PRESTO under Grant No. JPMJPR2039.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]
[10]
[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]
[15]

大阪府府庁. 防災・減災ポータルサイト. https://www.pref.
osaka.lg.jp/kikikanri/bousaiportal_hp/, 2022. [Online;
accessed 28 January 2022].
Tokyo Metropolitan Government.
東 京 防 災.
https://www.bousai.metro.tokyo.lg.jp/1002147/index.html,
2019. [Online; accessed 28 January 2022].
北海道総務部危機対策局危機対策課防災グループ. 北海道防災情報. http://kyouiku.bousai-hokkaido.jp/wordpress/,
2011. [Online; accessed 1 February 2022].
福岡県総務部防災危機管理局. 災害に備える. https://www.
bousai.pref.fukuoka.jp/sonae/, 2021. [Online; accessed 1
February 2022].
Ali Ardalan, Hani Mowaﬁ, Hossein Malekafzali Ardakani,
Farid Abolhasanai, Ali-Mohammad Zanganeh, Hossein
Saﬁzadeh, Sirous Salari, and Vahid Zonoobi. Eﬀectivenessof a primary health care program on urban and rural community disaster preparedness, islamic republic of iran: Acommunity intervention trial. Disaster Medicine and Public
Health Preparedness, Vol. 7, No. 5, p. 481–490, 2013.
Eva (Evalyna) A. Bogdan, Ashley M. Roszko, Mary A.
Beckie, and Adam Conway. We’re ready! eﬀectiveness ofcommunity disaster preparedness workshops across diﬀerent
community groups in alberta, canada. International Journalof Disaster Risk Reduction, Vol. 55, p. 102060, 2021.
Wignyo Adiyoso and Hidehiko Kanegae.
Eﬀectivenessof disaster-based school program on students earthquakepreparedness. Journal of Disaster Research, Vol. 8, pp. 1009–
1017, 10 2013.
Yu Xiao and Walter Peacock. Do hazard mitigation and preparedness reduce physical damage to businesses in disasters:
The critical role of business disaster planning. Natural Hazards Review, 12 2014.
von Hippel Eric. ”sticky information and the locus of problem solving: Implications for innovation. Management Science, Vol. 40, pp. 429–439, 4 1994.
M.L. Edwards. Social location and self-protective behavior:
Implications for earthquake preparedness. Vol. 11, pp. 293–
303, 01 1993.
Margaret Sheng, Shen-Yao Chang, Thompson Teo, and YuhFeng Lin. Knowledge barriers, knowledge transfer, and innovation competitive advantage in healthcare settings. Management Decision, Vol. 51, , 03 2013.
Nirit Gavish, Teresa Gutierrez, Sabine Webel, Jorge
Rodrı́guez, Matteo Peveri, and Franco Tecchia. Evaluating
virtual reality and augmented reality training for industrial
maintenance and assembly tasks. Interactive Learning Environments, Vol. 23, pp. 1–21, 12 2013.
F. Obermair, J. Althaler, U. Seiler, P. Zeilinger, A. Lechner,
L. Pfaﬀeneder, M. Richter, and Josef Wolfartsberger. Maintenance with augmented reality remote support in comparison to paper-based instructions: Experiment and analysis.
pp. 942–947, 04 2020.
Stéphane Lévesque. Why can t you just tell us? : Learning
Canadian History with the Virtual Historian, pp. 43–65. 01
2014.
Bahri, Humaedi, Rizal, Mahfud M. Gamar, Misnah, andAndi Dewi Riang Tati. Utilization of ICT-based learning
media in local history learning. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, Vol. 1764, No. 1, p. 012079, feb 2021.

© 1992 Information Processing Society of Japan

7