By

Abdulrashid Garba, PhD,
CCN; LPCN; FCASSON.

Professor of Educational Guidance and Counselling,
Department of Education, Bayero University,
Kano – NIGERIA.
Visiting Professor,
Center for the Study of International Cooperation in Education,
CICE,
Hiroshima University
6/21/20131

1.1 Objectives
 The paper attempts an exploration of:‐ the emergence and development of Guidance andCounselling (G & C)
‐ through comparisons of 3 distinct nations:‐ United States (U.S.), Japan and Nigeria
 The main objectives therefore are:explore by way of comparison the history of theemergence and development of G & C in the U.S.,
Japan, and Nigeria.
‐ ‐ Draw lesson(s) for possible multilateral adaptation‐

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1.2 Clarifications of Terms
 Guidance: an umbrella term
‐ for all helping services, geared towards resolving concerns‐ To achieve educational, vocational, personal and social
goals/objectives‐ Explicit directions given by an informed, trained person
 Counselling: a subset of the general term Guidance‐ the core of all guidance services‐ one‐to‐one helping relationship between two or more people‐ It’s for normal people with normal life problems
There are certain misconceptions
There are three main approaches:
Cognitive, affective and behavioural
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2.1 Status of G & C world Over It is inherent in every society, culture, civilization
The practice is as old as man
Initially the responsibility of parents, family, community
elders, traditional specialists
 Formalized by individuals, govt., associations
 initially integrated into teachers work in school

setting‐ Gradually, an independent specialty

6/21/20134 Internationally recognized as a helping service‐ in scope and practice A number of significant research evidences tosupport the benefits of counselling in:‐ educational, economic, social and political development‐ Petron et al, (2006); Mureithi, (2008); Lambert et al,(1996); Garba, (2003); Kawamura et al, (2005)

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2.2 Scope of Practice In educational setting: educational, vocational,
personal and social concentration areas Through a number of services
Counselling, appraisal, information, referral, placement, In other settings: clinical, industrial, rehab centersand Homes, etc.
 In many human endevours: marital, family, career,
old age, relationships, etc.

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2.3 Professional status:
 achieved in many countries via the following key
areas:‐ Relative long period of training/education‐ Period of practical experience during training‐ Services (and products) essential to the wellbeing ofmembers of the society‐ Availability of ethical standards/ code of practice‐ Association of practitioners /adherents‐ Coordinating agency

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3.1 It’s all about globalization‐ Cultural borrowing‐ Not on the basis of (dis)parity‐ To succeed: hard decisions about educational
practices are necessary‐ Which requires support services (ss) such as G & C‐ For G & C to give the required ss it needs to be global‐ To be global there must be international multilateralism,
cultural borr0wing and cross cultural comparison

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3.2 U.S. considered as the home base of formal
counselling‐ Home of major concepts, propositions, approaches,
tests, inventories and theories‐ Emphasis on individuals as opposed to the group‐ With a zeal to export and transform‐ With particular penchant for‐ human rights, individual liberty, democracy

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3.3 Japan as a culturally and linguisticallyhomogenous country‐ With a history of close to 150 years of organized,
structured education system‐ Legacy of traditional education‐ originally independent in educational thoughts, practices,
ideas, policies and reforms‐

Though modernization was late comparatively‐ but was able to catch up and surpass‐

History of educational adaptation‐ Ministry of education established in 1871 along Americanmodel‐ and administration of schools along French Model
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3.4 Nigeria: a 3rd world‐ An early 20th century colony of Britain‐ became an independent nation in 1960

Great ethnic, linguistic, and religious diversity‐ History of long military interruption in governance‐‐ now with relatively enduring civilian democracy‐

Vibrant basic and higher education‐ with very low literacy rate of 66.6% (improving)Vibrant counsellor education programmes‐ A great zeal to borrow from success stories of great
nations‐

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4.1 Benefits of traversing the past History is fascinating:‐ It allows us to look at the past
‐ with passion (and compassion),‐

To understand the present relative to others‐ Look at yourself through others‐

To determine and shape the future‐ With informed decisions and precision

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4.2 Exploration as a Concept‐
Only the beginning is known‐‐

No specific end in mind

To traverse, scrutinize, examine by way of‐ Setting the context‐ Stating the main ideas, and the mission‐ End result/benefits of the exploration will be continuous Tomorrow’s educational, social and economic

growth/development‐ Belongs to those who domesticate G & C today
That is the rationale of exploration

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4.3 Dimensions of Comparison
Emergence:◦ action and actors (activities, agents or agencies thatmarked the beginning)◦ factors (the main inspirations and motives) and◦ outcome (responses from government/individuals)

Development:◦ Policies (reforms, legislations and collaborations)◦ events (professional activities) and◦ Issues (challenges, concerns, problems)

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5.1 Emergence Action and actors: (Activities, agents or agencies thatmarked the beginning)‐ Earliest notion of professional counseling in response
to societal pressures was Vocophy of L. S. Richards. (1881)‐ Jesse B. Davis: In the late 1890s, Principal, introduced
one period/week : vocational and moral guidance‐ Frank Parsons: the Boston Vocational Bureau, 1908
‐ A book, Choosing a Career was also published

Development of approaches,
psychological/intelligence test/inventories‐ Over 100 years of using counsellors in schools‐

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 Factors: (the main inspirations and motives)

Social and educational personal reform initiatives‐ Curriculum interests‐‐ Infusing personal, social and moral lessons into curriculum‐

Desire to address a looming social problem‐ Especially ‘unemployment’ among youth‐

Desire to advance knowledge

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 Outcomes: (responses from govt. and individuals)

Parliament: enabling laws were enacted‐ Government’s recognition‐ Associations sprang up‐ Individual embarked upon the development ofapproaches, intelligence/psychologicaltests/inventories, in the 1930s‐‐ Williamson’s Directive approach (counsellor‐centered)‐ Rogers’ Non‐directive approach (client‐cengtered)

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5.2 Development
 Policies; (reforms, legislations, collaborations)‐ Smith Hugh's Act of 1917 and George Reed’s act of1919‐ gave financial backing to vocational education and guidance
activities‐

National Defense Education Act of 1958
‐ Provided for the training of school counsellors‐

Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965
‐ Increased the funding profile for training‐

Continuous reform to meet challenges‐ Development of national model of school counselling
programme by ASCA – formally approved in 2001
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 Events: (professional activities)‐

National Guidance Association (NGA) formed in1913‐ Merged with some other associations to form America’s
Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA) in 1952
‐ Changed name, scope and mandate in 1983 to American
Association of Counselling and Development‐ Adopted the present name, American Counselling
Association (ACA) in 1992‐

Each State has a chapter

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 Issues: (challenges, concerns, problems)‐

Challenges started in the 70s‐ Counselling as a profession was threatened‐ Counsellors as professionals were endangered‐ Legitimacy of budgetary expenditure was questioned

In the 70s: problem of role identity which began toerode the positive effects of school counselling‐ In the 90s: challenges of relevance to the rapidlychanging society‐

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5.3 Major areas of strength Individual (philanthropic) concern and involvement
 Powerful/relevant legislations
 Strong/active unionization
 Sound funding profile Separation of counselling psychology from other areasof applied psychology and social work
 Separate training programmes and employment
opportunities for different types of counsellors
 Test development initiatives
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6.1 Emergence Action and actors: (activities, agents or agencies thatmarked the beginning)‐ The seed was sown in the late C19th (Meiji restoration
period):‐ With emphasis on modernization‐ Vocational and industrial education recognized and included
into the formal structure of education‐ Apprentice and Vocational schools were established‐Post‐1945 overturn/upturn of the value system gave way
for reforms‐ The reform gave way for the inclusion of G & C in school
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‐

Education reform of 1947 set the impetus‐ extended compulsory education to the level of lower secondary‐ Included the development of G & C system for all students

Kyoto Counselling Center established mid 1950s‐ Prior to the 3rd education reform of the 1980s teachers
and nurses provided counselling services‐‐ Even with the revised system teachers still shouldered
counselling responsibilities‐ Now “school counsellors” are gradually taking over fromteachers

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 Factors: (the main inspirations and motives)

The post‐war education reform gave way formodernization/westernization‐ Rising concern for modernization, industrializationand overall development‐‐ Only possible through development of education‐ Education needed support services to succeed

Concern for some noticeable problems among
pupils such as absenteeism, bullying, violence‐ Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology and the prefecture boards of education‐

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 Outcomes: A (responses from govt. and individuals)

Mainly official concern from Govt.
‐ Central control‐ Professionalism‐ Associations‐

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6.2 Development
 Policies; (reforms, legislations, collaborations)‐ Integration of clinical/counselling psychology into
the daily work of teachers‐ Now many schools have specialists‐ Clinical Psychology‐

Implementation of school counsellor pilot projectin 1995‐ Clinical psychologists to address the school related
violence‐

The 2002 active collaboration with the U.S. in career
counselling (still active?)
6/21/201326

 Events: (professional activities)‐

Formation of Associations‐ Japanese Psychological Association (JPA) in 1927
‐ School Educ Counseling and Guidance Association, 1965
‐ Japanese Association of Counselling Science in 1967
‐ Japanese Association of Educational Psychology in 1959
‐ Japanese Society for Micro‐counselling, early 80s‐ Japanese Association Clinical Psychology in 1982
‐ Japanese Union of Psychological Associations (JUPA) in 1999‐

Establishment of Japanese Certification Board forClinical Psychologists in 1988
‐ First nation‐wide attempt to place clinical psychologists inschools
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 Issues: (challenges, concerns, problems)‐

Ambiguous overlaps exist‐ Clinical; counselling; psychotherapy‐ Not yet recognized as a distinct specialty within psychology

Yet to begin postgraduate studies in Guidance andCounselling‐ School counselling still part‐time work‐

‐ Only in Junior High with focus only on students‐ Parents, teachers, community, other stakegholders?
‐

There are still reported cases of disturbing influences‐ Family disruptions, bullying & aggression, truancy & drop‐out(Iwasaki, 2005; Koboyashi, 1999; Choy, 1999)
6/21/201328

Deterioration in social skills and moral
consciousness (MEXT, 2004)‐ Need for prevention of juvenile delinquency and‐‐ Regulation of information and social media (MEXT, 2008)

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6.3 Major Areas of Strength Vibrant legacy of traditional education system Homogeneity: Cultural and linguistic uniformity
 Govt. concern: Early and continuous reform
initiatives
 Strong unionization
 International linkages and collaboration

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7.1 Emergence Actions and actors: (activities, agents or agencies
that marked the beginning)‐ The 1959 activities of some Irish Reverend Sisters‐ Career guidance for final year female students‐ Formation of consultative committee, ICC an NCC

Appointment of G & C coordinator in 1963
‐ Use of counselling for rehabilitation after the war‐

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 Factors: (the main inspirations and motives)

Concern for final year female secondary school
students‐ The need to prevent a social problem‐ The need to advance knowledge‐ Return of individuals with specialization in G & Cfrom abroad‐

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 Outcome: (responses from govt. and individuals)

Community support‐ Initially a private affair‐ Govt. support and involvement‐

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7.2 Development
 Policies; (reforms, legislations, collaborations)‐ ‐ 1977: Introduction of national policy on education‐ Provisions for G & C in schools‐ Revised 1982; 2004‐

Instructions to all IHLs to set up students’ support
service‐ Counselling center

Postgraduate programmes in many Universities‐ Scholarship for 2nd degree in G & C‐

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 Events: (professional activities)‐

Formation of Counselling Association of Nigeria,
CASSON, in 1977
‐ Still vibrant, responsible for licensure‐

Annual/delegate national/international conferences

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 Issues: (challenges, concerns, problems)‐

Lack of recognition by school administrators‐ For a reason‐

The percentage of schools with a counsellors is very
negligible‐ Largely due to non implementation of NPE‐

No professional involvement in theassessment/accreditation of counselling
outfits/programmes in school

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7.3 Major Areas of Strength‐ Having a spiritual beginning‐ Community participation and involvement‐ Govt. intervention‐ Early policy provision‐ Distinction and separation between clinical andcounselling psychology and psychotherapy‐ Active Association

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 As a result of the brief explorations the following

lessons can be derived:‐ That international comparisons can be highly
rewarding‐ Learning and borrowing from or sharing of experiences

That clinical and counselling psychology are all areasof applied psychology‐ That both have their similarities and differences withpsychotherapy‐ That practice in all the three areas in school and non‐school setting needs to be legally regulated‐

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‐

That modern societies are highly reformist‐ Education reform must therefore be routine‐

That the drivers for reform are usually demands
from strong, organized interests‐ the world is interested in counselling psychology in school‐That the development of all aspects of psychologicalprofessional practices in and outside the school
system is largely the functions of professional
associations

6/21/201339‐

That the U. S.:‐ Places emphasis on all aspects of applied psychology andpsychotherapy‐ Backed up all professional activities with enabling laws‐

That Japan:‐ Places emphasis on especially clinical psychology in schools‐ Presence of counselling psychology in other human endevour‐

That Nigeria:‐ Places emphasis on counselling psychology and school
counselling‐ Presence of clinical and counselling psychology in other humanendevour

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 G & C remains the most important school support

service with numerous benefits to;students, parents, teachers, the society Let us recognize it, embrace it and use it to address

wastage of human resource and build a humanperson useful to self and to society

THANK YOU FOR
LISTENING
6/21/2013

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Choy, J. (1999). Japan’s educational system heads for reform. National Association of Japan‐American
Society, 46
Garba, A. (2003). Techniques for effective counselling and guidance of drug dependents, in (A. Garba (ed).
Youth and drug abuse in Nigeria: Strategies for counselling, management and control. Kano:
MatasaIwasaki, M. (2005). Mental health and counselling in Japan: A path toward societal transformation.
Journal of Mental Health Counslling, 27, 129 – 141
Koboyashi, F. (1999). Bullying in Japanese Schools. ERIC Document Reproduction Service, No. ED
434755
Kamawura, S., Musashi, Y. & Kasuya, T. (2005). Teachers’ awareness and evaluation of schools with andwithout school counsellors. Japanese Journal of Counselling Science, I 38, 12 – 21
Lambert, M. J. & Cattani‐Thompson, K. (1996). Current findings regarding the effectiveness of counselling:
Implications for practice. Journal of Counselling and Development, 74(6), 601 ‐609
MEXT (2004). Development of education in Japan: National report of JapanMEXT (2008). Development of education in Japan: National report of Japan
Mureithi, L. (2008). Effectiveness of guidance and counselling in alleviation of psychological, social andeconomic problems experienced by HIV/AIDS affected orphans: A case of AIDS orphans in Nakuru
municipality, Kenya. Research report submittd to Graduate School, Egerton College for the award of Masterof Education degree in guidance and counselling
Petron, S., Cooper, P., Murray, L. & Davidson, L. L. (2006). Intenational Journal of Assessment of
Mental Health. I 22(4); 443 – 53
Schmidt, J. J. (2008). Counselling in schools: comprehensive programmes of responsive services forall students (5th ed.), Boston: Pearson
Studer, J. R. (2008). The school counsellor as an emerging professional in the Japanese education system, inInternational Education, 37(2), 30 ‐ 42
6/21/201342

Counselling Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy:
Meanings, Similarities and Differences
1.0 Counselling Psychology
Counseling psychology, sometimes referred to as Guidance and Counselling or SchoolCounselling, is a learning-oriented process, carried on in a simple, one to one social environment,
in which a counselor, professionally competent in relevant psychological skills and knowledge,seeks to assist the client by methods appropriate to the latter's needs and within the context of thetotal personnel program, to learn more about himself, to learn how to put such understanding into
effect in relation to more clearly perceived, realistically defined goals to the end that the client
may become a happier and more productive member of his society. In lay terms counseling canbe described as a face to face relationship, having goals to help a client to learn or acquire newskills which will enable them to cope and adjust to life situations. The focus is to help a person
reach maximum fulfillment or potential, and to become fully functioning as a person. Counselingpsychology facilitates personal and interpersonal functioning across the life span with a focus onemotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational
concerns. Counseling psychology is unique in its attention both to normal developmental issues
and to problems associated with physical, emotional, and mental disorders.
Objectives of counseling psychology include helping individuals toward overcoming obstacles totheir personal growth, wherever these may be encountered, and toward achieving optimum
development of their personal resources. Counseling provides clarity and a positive andconstructive venue for the individual to sensibly examine the motives which determine the drive,
content, and even the form of human conduct.
2.0 Clinical Psychology
Clinical psychology is a branch of psychology devoted to understanding mental health problems
in individuals and developing effective treatments for the full spectrum of mental, emotional, andbehavioral disorders one may experience; depression, anxiety disorders, interpersonal difficulties,
and psychotic disorders are but a few. Clinical psychologists are service providers, many ofwhom work in clinical settings while others choose academic careers or careers in consulting. As
a group, clinical psychologists are skilled in clinical practice as well as research on clinicalproblems and clinical interventions. The emphasis in Clinical Psychology is on psychosis; - amental illness characterized by changes in personality and distorted sense of objective reality.
For example, schizophrenia, delusion, etc.
3.0 Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy is the process in which a therapist assists the client in re-organizing his or her
personality. The therapist also helps the client integrate insights into everyday behavior.
Psychotherapy tends to last for a while. Sessions range from two to five years. Psychotherapy ismore of a comprehensive re-education of the client. The intensity and length of therapy depends
on how well the client can deal with all of the new found information. It could take quite sometime for the client to be able to live with these feelings which originated in past experiences
which are usually hurtful ones. A -psychotherapists also needs time to modify all existing
defenses. The setting of treatment also differs between counseling and psychotherapy. The goalof psychotherapy is self-actualization, a stage where a person who appreciates himself andothers as persons rather than things. The emphasis in psychotherapy is on neurosis; - a1

functional mental disorder involving distress whereby behavior is not outside socially acceptablenorms. For example phobia, depression, acute anxiety, etc.
4.0 Counselling and Clinical Psychology
Traditionally, the main difference between counseling and clinical psychology is theirperspective and training. Counseling psychologist focuses more on the psychologically healthy
individual where clinical focuses on individuals with serious mental illness (e.g. schizophrenia).
Counseling psychologists are considered to be the generalists, they are trained in a wide varietyof basic therapeutic skills.
Clinical Psychologists devote the bulk of their day to psychotherapy, teaching, research, andsupervision. They tend to work with more seriously disturbed populations and are more likely
trained in projective assessment. Counseling psychologists work with healthier, less pathologicalpopulations and conduct more career and vocational assessment. However, clinical psychologists
more frequently favored the behavioral and psychoanalytic persuasions, and counselingpsychologists the client-centered and humanistic traditions.
Counselling Psychology and Psychotherapy
While counseling and psychotherapy have several different elements in each, there are someareas where the two overlap. A fine line distinguishes the two topics and one must look hard to
see this line.
A counseling session usually takes place in a non-medical setting such as an office.
Psychotherapy is the term used more in a medical setting such as a clinic or hospital. Another
difference between counseling and psychotherapy has to do with transference. The counselor
develops a close personal relationship with the client, but he does not encourage or allow strongtransference feelings as does the psychotherapist. The counselor tends to find this transference
as interfering with his or her counseling effectiveness. A psychotherapist might feel that thistransference is helpful and the client may be able to see what he is trying to do with the therapist
relationship. A counselor may look at transference as manifestations in an incomplete growing
up process, where the psychotherapist interprets these transference feelings as an unconscious
nature of feelings.
While there are clear differences between the counseling approach and psychotherapy, there aresome similarities between the two. Let us remember that both are similar in the sense that eachclient brings with them the assets, skills, strengths and possibilities needed with them to therapy.
Secondly, counseling and psychotherapy are similar in the way that they both use an eclectic
approach. The counselors and therapists do not have only one technique, they borrow from alldifferent techniques. The nature of the relationship which is considered basic in counseling andpsychotherapy are identical. The process of counseling cannot be distinguished from the processof psychotherapy. Third of all he feels that the methods or techniques are identical. Another areaof similarity between counseling and psychotherapy are the elements which build a person's
personality. Each of these processes deal with attitudes, feelings, interests, goals, self-esteem andrelated behaviors are all which are affected through counseling and psychotherapy.
One of the major distinctions between counseling and psychotherapy is the focus. In counseling,
the counselor focuses on the here and now, reality situations. During psychotherapy, the2therapist is looking into the unconscious or past. A psychotherapist is looking for a connection of
past to unresolved problems which are now present in the real world. Counseling andpsychotherapy also differentiate when it comes to the level of adjustment or maladjustment of
the client. Counseling holds an emphasis on normal. One could classify normal as those without
neurotic or psychotic problems but those who have become victims of pressures from outsideenvironment.
While Counseling focusses on problem solving psychotherapy is more analytical. In counseling aclient may have a situation where they do not have any idea how to handle it. Here the therapist
would determine the cause of ones behavior from the results of that behavior. Length oftreatment also differs between counseling and psychotherapy. Counseling is shorter in duration
than psychotherapy. The time spent in counseling is determined by goals set by the client and thecounselor. Once these goals are met the client should then be able to go back on their own.
Garba, A.
October 4, 20123