Signs andSymbols
Their Design and Meaning

iiKHin11•«•°W LIBRARY

Signs and Symbols

Adrian Frutiger

Signs and Symbols
Their Design and Meaning
Translated by Andrew Bluhm

SHE

VAN NOSTRAND REINHOLD
New York

REF.

P99
F73

Copyright © 1989 Weiss Verlag GmbH, Dreieich, West Germany

1989

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 89-5714

ISBN 0-442-23918-1

89045143EB

All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyrighthereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,taping, or information storage and retrieval systems - without written

permission of the publisher.
Printed in West Germany

Published in the U.S.A. by
Van Nostrand Reinhold

115 Fifth Avenue

New York, New York 10003
Nelson Canada

1120 Birchmount Road
Scarborough, Ontario M1K 5G4, Canada

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1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Frutiger, Adrian,

1928-

Signs and Symbols. Their Design and Meaning / Adrian Frutiger:
translated by Andrew Bluhmp.

cm.

Bibliography: p.

ISBN 0-442-23918-1
1. Signs and symbols. I. Title.
P99.F78 1989
302.23-dc20

89-5714
CIP

Contents

Part 1: Sign Recognition, Sign Formation
Introduction: Three Themes
1.

Disorder-order

2.

Remembering a figure
Light and shadow - black and white

3.

The Elements of a Sign
1.
The dot
2.
The lineb

The imaginary line
The line in itselfcHorizontal and verticala3.

d The oblique line
e The curve
Relations between lines
a The manual movements ofdrawing linesb Alignment and rhythm
c

4.

III.

The morphology of signsaThe "geography" of perceptionbSymmetry and asymmetry

17
18
21

23
23
23
23

24
25
26
27
28
28
30
30
31
31
31

c

Morphological Table 1
d Morphological Table 2

33
38

Sign topology

40

The Basic Signs
The square
1.
2.
The triangle
3.
The circle
4.
The arrow
The cross5.

43

Joining Signs Together

53

5.
II.

Proximity

17

1.

2.

Relations between signs of
the same form
Relations between signs ofdifferent forms

43
44
45
48

53
57
59

4.

The expression of the inner area
Relations between closed andopen signs

60

5.

Experiment with two fork signs

61

3.

6.

The "complete" sign62

a Morphological Table 3:
abstract signsb Morphological Table 4:62

object signs
7.

Between diagram and figure

8.

Puzzle signs

64
66
67

IV.

The Sign in Ornaments

69

V.

Signs of Dualism

73

VI.

The Solid
From line to solid area
1.

77

2.

a Thickness of the lines
b The swelling and shrinking of lines
c The tape shape
The white sign on a black

backgrounda From outline to negative
b Varying brightness of aninterior shape

Indications ofform
The chessboard pattern
c

3.

VII.

The Simulation of Volume
1.

Superimposed layers

2.

Plaiting

3.

4.

"Suggestive" white
Perspective

5.

The shadow
a The illuminated object
b

VIII.

Thrown shadows6.

Unusual volume

7.

Optical illusions

The Diversity of Appearance
1.
Drawing and materiala The tools
b The stroke endingc The right tool for the right material
2.
The value of interior and intermediary
space
3.

The imagea Black-whiteb Colorsc Halftones
d Structures

77
78
79
81
82
82

84
84
85
87
87
89
90
91
92
92
93
94
95

97

97
97
98
100
100
102
102
102
103
103

Picture quality

103

a Schematic or "dimensional"
illustration

Naturalistic illustrationc Artistic or "contemplative"
b

it

104
104

illustration

105

a visual synthesis

106

Part 2: Speech-Fixing Signs
I.

II.

From Thought to Picture
1.

Prototypes

2.

Speech and gesture

Speech Fixing
1.

Two ways of script developmenta Scripts "remaining" pictorialb "Alphabetical" scripts

III.

2.

A common origin?

3.

Inherited archetypes?

4.
5.

From pictogram to ideogram
Determinatives

6.

From ideogram to phonogram

The Graphic Wealth of Pictograms
1.
From Sumerian pictograms to3.

cuneiform
Egyptian hieroglyphics
Cretan scripts

4.

Hethitic pictographic script from Syria

5.

Pictographic script from theIndus Valley
Pictographic script of Easter Island

2.

6.
7.
8.

9.

Runic script
Chinese scripts
a Wisdom of the I-chingb Chinese pictographic script
c Chinese writing and architecture
Pre-Columbian .American scripts
a Aztec pictographic scriptb

IV.

Maya pictographic script

The World's .Alphabets
1.

Invention and spread of letters2.

A summary of the world's script
groups

111
111
111

113

113
114
114
115
115
115
117
118
119
119
123
125
127
129
130
131
133
133
136
139
139
140
141

143
143

146

V.

The ABC of the Western World
1.

2.

Early development
Capitals and small letters
a The transition from capitals to
b

VI.

151
151

153

small letters

153

Toward a theory of reduced hand
movements

155

Development of Form throughWriting and Printing Techniques

159

Black stroke formationa Calligraphy
_

159
159

1.

Horizontal pen positions

Oblique pen positions
Steep pen positionsb

Pen positioning in othercEngraving and printing

linguistic sectors

2.

Interior white spacea Architecture and script
b
3.

VII.

Space

On the family likenesses of letters

Manipulated Letterforms
1.

Purely proportional variations
a WidthWeightSloped The extended palette of typefaces
Deviations from the basic forms
a Ornamental lettersb "Antiques"c "Figurative" alphabetsd Letterforms of the future
b
c

2.

163
164
166
166
168
170
175
175
175
177
178
179
182
182
183
183
183

Environmental "inscription." Digital displays.
Experiments in extreme simplification.
Automatic reading. Boundaries of legibility.

e3.

Type image and type picture

Monogramsa Abbreviations become acronyms
b

VIII.

From ligature to ornament

Text Type and Its Legibility
1

.

2.

190
192
192
192
197

Type as a worldwide medium ofcommunication
Type forms and legibility
a The reading process
Steps in reading motivationc Formal synthesis of the alphabet

b

197
198
198
199
200

IX.

Numerical Signs
1.

2.

3.

Numbering with letters
Origin and evolution of arabic

205

numeralsa The ingenious idea of the zerob Origins and development ofform

206
206
207
209
209
209
211
211

Some analytical commentsa Speech and numbers

Number-writing movementsc Division into basic elements
d The future of numeral forms
b

X.

205

Punctuation Signs

213

1.

Word space2.

The punctuation marks

213
214
214
216
217
217
218

a Sentence-structuring signs
Expression signsc Reference signs

b

3.

4.

The ampersand
Currency and other signs

Part 3: Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

Introduction

Nonalphabetical signs

New signs for science
Pictorial signs for industry

Directional signs

A surfeit of pictures?
I.

221
222
223
223

Back to pictograms ?

224
225

From Illustration to Symbol

227

2.

The picture
The diagram3.

a Stages of schematizationb Computer aids to schematization
The ground plan

1.

4.
5.

II.

221

The allegory
The images of superstition

The Symbol
1.
What is symbolic?
2.
From symbol picture to symbol sign
3.
Ambiguous use of the word "symbol"

227
229
229
230
231
233
233
235
235
236
237

^
III.

The Graphic Wealth of Figurative
Symbols
1.

How pictures become symbol signs
a The process of stylizationb Simplification through material

and toolsc

Gigantic symbol signs

2.

Fauna symbols

3.

a From multiplicity to simplicity
Bird figuresb Of life and death
The serpent symbolc Other fauna symbols
Archetypes of the subconscious
Plant symbols

4.

The human form as symbol

239

240
240
242
244
246

246
248
252
256
257

a The complete figure of thehuman bodyParts of the human body
Objects, landscapes, elements of nature
The symbol of the center
b
5.

6.

IV.

Abstract Symbols

3.

Space and its center
The cross sign and its ornamentation
Signs symbolizing movement

4.

Plaiting, interweaving, knotting

5.

Sun signs
The stars
The symbol in ornamentation
Geometry and symbol

1.

2.

6.
7.

8.

Signs of Pseudoscience and Magic

V.

1.

2.
3.

4.

VI

.

VII.

The elements
The signs of astrology
The signs of alchemy
Cabalistic and magical signs, talismans

Signature Signs

257
259
263
266

269
269
274
276
277
280
282
285
287
291

293
296
298
302
305

1.

Stonemasons' signs

2.

Monograms

307
311

Signs of Community

315

1.

House marks

2.

Japanese family arms

3.

On heraldry
Community signs of the present day

315
318
318
322

4.

Mil. Trademarks
1.

Marking in the pasta From marking to the mark:cattle branding as an example
b Traders' marks
Artisans' and manufacturers'
niarksd Structural signs
W'atertnarks
Industrial signs of the present day

325
325

325
326

c

2.

IX.

Technical and Scientific Signs
1.

2.

X.

Technical pictography
Signs of modern sciences

Signal Signs
1.

Orientationa Meaning and interpretation of
traffic signsb

Shape of the panel

c

Color

d The driver's reaction to the signal
2.

Pictograms

3.

4.

Signal signs in printed form
Emotional aspects of route finding

5.

b Pictographic systems for events
Operating signalsaOrientation in public buildings

327
328
330

339
339
341
345
345

345
346
346
347
347
349
352
352
353
354

Towarc a Synthesis

357

Epilogu e359

Bibliogi raphy

360

*^

Part 1Sign Recognition,
Sign Formation

Words or speech, written or spoken, do not appear to play any partat all in the mechanism of

my thought processes. The basic psychic

elements of thought are certain signs and more or less clear
pictures, which can be reproduced and combined "to order."ALBERT EINSTEIN

Introduction: Three Themes

1. Disorder-order"In the beginning," says the Book of Genesis, "theearth was without form and void." For twentieth century humans it is difficult to imagine a void, a chaos,because they have learned that a kind of order appears
to prevail in both the infinitely small and the infinitely large. The understanding that there is no element ofchance around or in us, but that all things, both mind
and matter, follow an ordered pattern, supports the argument that even the simplest blot or scribble cannot
exist by pure chance or without significance, but rather that the viewer does not clearly recognize the causes,
origins, and occasion of such a "drawing."
These basic considerations by way of introduction
will make it easier to recognize and judge the origin,meaning, and statement of given signs in the course ofthis study.

On a given empty space - in this case illustrated
by a square defined by lines, which symbolizes theconcept of "emptiness" (1) - we try to scatter sixteen
dots in a random, accidental manner. The illustrationshows how difficult it is to place the sixteen elements in such a way that they are situated as though(2)by chance, without relation to one another, without
evoking a certain structure, a picture, a geometric or
figurative representation.
In contrast to this scattering,itisvery easy toand form a number of figures (3) orarrangements (4) with the same sixteen dots.
From the recognition of this fact we draw theparadoxical conclusion that the production of an ordered form is easier than the making of a disorder, aconceive

nonform.

17

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

• •

•

•

•

•
•

•

Sign Recognition. Sign Formation

The reason can be found in the fact that, in our subconscious, we have grown up with the incision andstamp of primary figures, pictures, and schemata,which constantly influence our field of vision and ourworld of imagination.
It may even be that certain archetypical forms are
inherited, and therefore present from the beginning,
even in the mind of an unborn child. This is a point on
which scientists are not agreed.

2.

Remembering a figure

We will preface all considerations of sign production by
a very simple test of pure memory. As the object of theexercise we choose dice, with the six images that musthave created a pictorial impression in the mind of every
reader. The intensity of the impression of the figureshown (5) and the strength of feeling that it releases willvary from one person to another, depending on theirexperience in encountering the signs: superficially as
children or deeply as gamblers.

r

•
f

•
•

•

•!

•

•

• • •

•

•

•
C.

•

•
J

L

•

• • •
J

There are six figures (6) that are familiar to thedice player, who need neither "decode" nor countthem. Recognition is spontaneous because they
conform to a known pattern, a learned and experienced scheme of thought. A simple displacement of
the dots to unaccustomed positions causes involuntary frustration to the viewer.

18

Introduction: Three Themes

The displaced dot of the figure one (7) immediately creates uneasiness. The feeling of the idea of "center"(security, stasis) is anchored in the feeling of symmetry.
All symmetrical arrangements are closer to the structure of our body and therefore more accessible, easierto understand, in contrast with asymmetry, whichneeds rather to be grasped by the mind. The displaced
dot also raises the doubt as to whether it is not perhaps
one half of the familiar figure two.
An alienating figure two (8) is far removed from thecustomary diagonal arrangement, which divides theface of the dice into two equal parts. Here the dots arenot "fixed" but suspended. The association with eyes
in a face is not to be ruled out.

The next figure (9) is not disturbing as a representation of three, although it is quite different from thetraditional linear arrangement of the three dots on

—

t

•

^

2

7

•

^

8

J

9
r"

•

•

•
#

10
f

..)
•

•

J
11

ries for the practiced dice player.
In the next figure (10) the archetypal sign of the

f" •
• • •
•

rectangle is not found very disturbing as a representation of four, since the usual form is recognized, only
It

L

,

be recognized. It can therefore be assumed that aJ

12should benoted here, however, that from the quantity of four
upward, the units normally have to be counted in order
to

J

k.

rence of an archetypal sign, the triangle, which naturally calls forth completely unaccustomed memo-

standing on one corner.

•

•

v^

dice. What appears important to us here is the occur-in this case

^

c •

•

• •

•
#

<^__

J

13

figurative

arrangement of the dots, like the rectan•

gle, comes to the aid of instant recognition.

The second example of a disordered figure four (1 1)should clarify this point. One glance is no longer enough for recognition of the number (the eyes moveback and forth).
The next figure (12) is difficult to make out as five.
The reaction to "vertical" and "horizontal" is muchquicker than to "diagonal." The first, instant impression is always of a cross.
In a completely

new arrangement of five (13) the"horizontal-vertical" styleiseven more in evidence

and it can also be seen that this figure comes into
19

•
•

1

••J
14

Sign Recognition, Sign Formation
*

— "^
• • •

archetypal sign of the letter T.

• •

^

)

,

15
r

,„

>

•
i

•

The same applies to the next arrangement of dots
(14), where the letter L emerges very clearly. Irritation
is increased by the asymmetry. Counting the dots,

falls into<>•

conflict with the viewer's deep-seated concept of the

"J

one

confusion between the quantities five andsix, in thatthe lower left dot is counted twice, oncerow and once in the horizontal. The
dice image of five is disturbed in many ways in thisexample and the player will not recall it.

in the vertical

16
>

r.
•

I*

•

• •

17

•
•

\-_
18

•

•
•

•
>

Another arrangement offive (15) is also difficult torecognize. The comparison with the figure six (themost important, the winner) is so close that a sense offrustration overcomes all reasoning. Three examplesof changes to the six (16, 17, 18) clearly show that the
fixed memory picture can be wiped out by meansof relatively small displacements.
In the first example of six the triangle form is welland in the second example (17) disturbance is caused by marked asymmetry and theemergence of a triangular dot area. In the third example (18) an invisible line joins up the dots to make acircle. Counting is necessary in each case, though it
is perhaps made somewhat easier in the final exam-

to the fore (16),ple through the indication of a hexagon.

The arrangement of dots on the dice is peculiarly
like the coding of computer tape (19). A code is nothing other than a figure that the machine must recognize by comparing it with a programmed matrix thatit has "learned. " The process of recognition in human beings takes place in exactly the same way.

19

20

Introduction: Three Themes

3. Light andshadow - black and white

We live in an age when there are many ways of converting what is thought into visible form. Throughout
this book we are concerned only with a two-dimensio-X

nal expression in the conventional sense of graphic

drawing and communication, simply by placing onecolored ink on white paper. All other means of communication (audio-visual, cinematic, etc.) have been
deliberately excluded. The object of the exercise is
to concentrate on the essence of pure drawing and tolimit ourselves to that.

The white surface"empty,"of thepaper

an inactive surface,isdespitestructures that are present. With thetaken to be
the
first

X

visibleappear-ance of a dot, a line, the empty surface is activated. A
part, if only a small part, of the surface is thereby
covered. With this procedure, the emptiness be-comes white, or light, providing a contrast to theappearance of black. Light is recognizable only incomparison with shadow. The actual procedure in
drawing or writing is basically not the addition of
black but the removal of light. The sculptor's work also
consists essentially of taking something away fromthe block of stone and in this manner forming it: thefinal sculpture is what remains of the material (20).
Seen in this way, signs acquire a completely different value with regard to their capacity to communicate. All thecomments that follow are supported bythis duality of "light and shadow," "black and white."

20

21

I.

The Elements of a Sign

1.

The dot(German punkt) is, scientificallyspeaking, an abstract concept, which indicates with
precise certainty the locality of a junction, a meaning, an intersection, etc. We speak of crossing points,
meeting points, and also sore points, points of friction, and so on. In graphic terms the dot or point is a

The

dot,

or pointmaterialized area, recognizable by the human eye. It
isthe smallest graphic unit, as it were the "atom" ofevery pictorial expression.

A dot seldom appears as an individual element but
generally takes its meaning from a relationship withanother sign, such as the dot on the i, which gives thevertical line the meaning of a vowel (1); or the geometric dot in the middle of a circle, which thereby comesto symbolize the expression of "center" (2).
By lining up dots to form an area we create a graphic
screen {raster) or tint. The dots are no longer regarded as isolated "atoms" but as a gray effect or the basisof the reproduction technique for halftone printing (3).

2.

The linea The imaginary line

The viewer draws an imaginary line from one dot toanother. In ancient times, humans drew imaginarylines between stars as they gazed at the sky and thepictures thus formed from the constellations madethe signs of the zodiac.

23ooSign Recognition, Sign Formation

Dots arranged in a straight line at constant intervals are recognized as a line on which one is invited
to write (4).

From the examples of dice patterns we have seen.••••.

that the arrangement of three dots can evoke the ideaof a triangle and that the formation of a hexagon ofdots produces the idea of circular movement (5).

With a greater effort of the imagination one can also
see a pair of crossed triangles, making the Jewish
symbol of the six-pointed Star of David (6).
•From these observations we conclude that the eye••

draws a line to represent the shortest distance between two points and is able to visualize
crossovers onlv on further consideration.
at firstb

The line in itself

The prototype "line" is conceived from the start as astraight line.

simulates a

We take it that a juxtaposition of dots
line, inviting

completion.

On this basis

we could say that every linear expression consists
Such is the case, for example, when a pencil, of which the point forms a dot
when touching the paper, produces a straight line
through the movement of the drawing hand.
This is an abstract idea, since the drawing of a
of a dot set into motion.

means taking thoughtwith regard to the anatomy of the hand and arm.
The spontaneous drawing of a line is conditioned bystraight line without a ruler

the nature of the shoulder, elbow, and wrist joints andnaturally leads to a curvilinear movement (7). Notehere that the drawing of a vertical line does not follow the same laws of motion as the drawing of ahorizontal. The force of gravity will always assist thehuman hand to draw a vertical line with more certainty than a horizontal, which for many reasons is
undefmable. We think first of the image of unevenland (hills, mountains), then of the comparison of
the mainland with the endlessness of the universe,

24

/.

The Elements of a Sign

and not least perhaps of the deeply rooted realization that the earth is round and that therefore astraight horizontal line has no theoretical existence.
Stonemasons, bricklayers, and architects know for
certain that the only fixed straight line is provided byplumb line, from which all other dimensional
measurements can be derived and established (8).

thec Horizontal and vertical

Humans have always moved on the horizontal plane.
For this reason their optical capacity is mainly directed laterally, to take in the principal danger zones. As
a result of age-old inherited exertions we find that

our

field

of vision

is

**

'

9

much more extensive in thehorizontal dimension than in the vertical (9).

We also know that, by comparison, the field of visionand birds makes no differentiation between
horizontal and vertical, since their movements andperceptions of danger are not only on the horizontal
level but take in all directions in the air or water (10).
of fishFrom theseobservationsit10

clearly follows thatthe optical behavior of humankind is severely restricted. The estimation of a horizontal measurement bears

no relation to that of a vertical. For example, we find a
300-meter tower to be enormously high, although 300
metres along the street is seen as a trifling distance (1 1).

30C

Human movement is almost exclusively horizontal, so we appreciate the horizontal quite differently

ln/v\lfrom the vertical. The horizontal is a concrete dimension
which can be dominated, controlled, and paced out.
The earth appears flat and the theoretical horizontal
is an existing concept. In contrast, everything that/a//son this earth follows a vertical movement and is therefore something that happens, without active humanparticipation (e.g., lightning, rain, sunbeams), rather
than is (12).
It is necessary to emphasize here the extent towhich horizontal and vertical movements can produce
quite different subconscious reactions.

25

ii

Sign Recognition, Sign Formation

Humans like to compare themselves with the vertical, the active element on a given plane and the symbolof living existence, which grows upward (13).

The horizontal is given: the vertical has to be made.

Humans are accustomed to comparing their activity
with passivity, and in the same sense a vertical exists
only by comparison with a given horizontal.

learning to write,

When

we place the letters on preprint-

ed horizontal lines (14).

14d The oblique line
In contrast to the certainty and precision with whicha vertical is recognized, we find a certain questionable air of uncertainty about the oblique. An oblique position cannot be grasped with certainty, except perhaps
in the case of the 45° angle, which can be judged by eyewith a certain precision as the position halfway be-

tween horizontal and vertical (15).
The position of clock hands can be taken as an

15

example, in connection with the division of the hoursof the day. The most important position is given to:v-:

the vertical, since the sun's position is at the zenith

towards which it rises and from which it
sets. In telling the time we can appreciate how sensitive the eye is to the constantly changing angle between
the clock hands, even on dials without numbers, where
the marking of the vertical and horizontal positions
nevertheless remains indispensable (16).
The following points need to be made: an obliqueline is always judged in relation to the nearest horizontal or vertical. The more an oblique line approaches
or departs from one or the other of these (i.e., deviates from the ideal angle of 45°), the more its expression changes. The closer it approaches to the horizontal, the stronger is the impression of lifting (17), while
a closer approach to the vertical strengthens theimpression of falling (18).
Our custom of reading from left to right influences
our judgment of an oblique line. One which runs fromat midday,

16

17

18

19

20

26

/.

lower

left

to

The Elements of a Sign

upper right gives the impression of"climbing" (19); the reverse, from upper left to lower
right, indicates a "departure" (20).

e

The curve
21

The vault of the sky and the terrestrial globe are theorigins of the concept of the circle in the life of hu-

mans, who are aware of the vault and pass theirlives within the circle (21).

This feeling of the circle

leads to a concept of eternity: sun and stars "turn" overhumankind, who have always observed them. Whenhumans look at the sky, from whatever point, they

Oi

GO

22

always find themselves to be in the center of a circle.
Their proper place is always central and the humanconstellation is unavoidably egocentric. Wherever
they go, humans take their center with them. It is forthis reason that a circular curve gives the viewer aquite different feeling from the strict straight line.
In graphic expression there are two basically differ-ent kinds of curved lines, one derived from precise

geometry (22) and the other the result of a spontaneous movement of the artist's hand (23).
The present study, which in accordance with its
definition must "organize graphically," cannot con-cern itself with the pure, spontaneous expression of

movement, although we are well aware that behind
every geometrically based graphic concept thereisa spontaneous impulse in the artist's intuition; or in

FN

other words, the graphic artist puts ideas into practice through the application of geometry.
It isclear that the ideal curved line is drawn" with24

the aid of the compasses. A complete circle and seg-ments of its circumference are dependent on a given

whose presence enables the curved
line to give rise to a feeling of precision and the presinvisible radius,

ence of an invisible center (24).

25

becomes a movable
vector and here, too, there is the feeling of an invisible
In the oval curve, the radiusregularity (25).

27Sign Recognition, Sign Formation

Curves with constant radius,

r

i.e.,

circles or seg-ments of circles, produce only a primary expression,
whereas curves with changeable radius (logarithmic>/

curves) yield unlimited possibilities of expression.
All forms, of whatever nature, from the arabesquetspontaneous freehand sketch, could in theory
be divided up and reduced to geometric elements, evenif minimal (26).

to the
26

I
3.

27

Relations between lines

a The manual movements of drawing lines

Some observations on the anatomy of the hand must
precede the explanations given in this section. It is verysignificant that we speak of "drawing" a line, since themusculature of the hand is such that the movement of"drawing" (i.e., "pulling") a line (27) can be carried out
more easily than a "pushing" movement.
If we check this observation against the rapid drawing of a simple cross on paper, we find that thevertical is naturally drawn from top to bottom andthe horizontal from left to right (assuming righthandedness). No particular effort is required to makea horizontal and a vertical intersect each other at any
point (28) - unless, of course, the point of intersection

28

29

lit

30

has to denote a specific mathematical location. Theease of drawing a cross has the consequence that it is
the most widely used sign of all. It is used for marking, counting, signing and even for oath taking.
Let us consider a second kind of connection: avertical line that touches a horizontal one at its extreme point (29). Here we notice two factors: First, we
see that in principle the drafter does not lift away the
pencil in order to draw the two lines, so that anabrupt halt and change of direction must be carried

28

/.

The Elements of a Signout, taking account of the nature of the angle, which

be sharp or rounded off to a greater or lesser
extent. Second, it can be seen from the next figure (30)that the first two angles are easier to draw than thesecond two, since the former pair are made withlogically sequential movements, while the lattereach require one pulling and one pushing movementof the hand.
The third connection between two lines consists
will

31

of a T-shaped junction or "touching," which we may
call"welding," where the end of one stroke touches

the other line at any desired point (31). Analysis of
the hand movement required shows a completely different approach: the point of connection forming the T
calls for higher "tactile concentration" and a lifting of

the hand in order to set it down again at a given point.

These reflections based on anatomical and physicalconditions provide the necessary objectivity for aconsideration of the three signs with regard to theirmorphology (the study of forms). Although all three
are built from the same basic elements, a vertical anda horizontal, each has its own original power of32

expression.

The analysis of the cross as a prototype sign will
follow later. At this point we may simply note that theappearance of a cross does not call forth any memoryof an "object" (32).
In the angle sign the two basic elements have thetendency to unite in a movement in which one alreadysenses the beginning of the definition of an area. For
this reason the sign has a less absolute character thanthe cross and is rather the beginning of a drawing to becompleted (33).
The T-sign, because of its point of contact, awakens
the memory of "construction," also "balance" (34).

Thus these reflections lead to the conclusion thatthe three forms of connection - cross, angle and "welding" - are completely different from one another andcannot be united.

29

33

34

Sign Recognition, Sign Formationb

Alignment and rhythm

Two parallel lines do not make a sign but rather
express an order of counting, an expression that is35

strengthened further by the addition of a third line
(35).

A larger number of closely set parallel lines

produces the graphic effect of the materialization ofan area (36), a system that is also known as "hatching."
This kind of alignment, repeated at regular intervals,
allows the visualization of a concept of "rhythm" (37).

36

The basic stroke becomes a "signal" for a measurementthat does not necessarily nave equal intervals. By
varying the lengths of the strokes, an alignment of
this kind can be made to evoke an image of musical37

time (38).
38These considerations naturally draw us away fromthe sign as such into the field of applied art, where
linear repetitions are used for the representation offrameworks, friezes, textiles, etc.

c Proximity

um ih n\^/v\j

The expression of grouped signs or sign elements
depends on the intervening space that connects or
separates them. Sign elements standing close to one

39

another are seen together as a whole, in contrast to
those with wide spaces, which are understood as separations. A familiar example is the difference between

letterspacing

and word spacing in print. The word

spaces must be distinctly larger in order to allow thegroups of letters to stand out as self-contained words(39).

Equal intervals in a row of vertical lines allow thespace between the "bars" to be seen as a continuous
background, but as soon as pairs of lines draw closer
to one another the uniformity of the backgrounddisappears. The smaller spaces stand out and are"materialized" by their proximity. In other words, the40viewer sees a lattice of six bars in the first example
and a fence of three posts in the second (40).

30

/.

The Elements of a Sign

A further example shows clearly that distance isseen as something spatial and proximity as therepresentation of something objective. In the first example four straight lines cross at their center withequal intervals, producing the image of a wheel. In thesecond example the lines have been displaced so thatthe intervening spaces are different. The closenessof two lines produces the impression of a wheel, whereas the wider spaces are

more strongly felt as inter-

therefore less of a wheel,Themuch more of a cross (41).

second sign

vals.

4.

is

The morphology of signs

a The "geography" of perception

We takeitthat the viewers of a sign not only take acertain standpoint but also occupy a geographicalposition in relation to the sign itself. In the case of asquare, they will regard themselves as being either
inside (42) or outside it (43). Within the space, con-cepts such as floor, walls, and corners are perceived.

Seen from the outside, an object such as a cube or awindow is perceived.

b

Symmetry and asymmetry

When humans regard any object (in our case a sign)
they first seek to take up a firm position with regard
to their underlying terms of reference. In most cases

be symmetrical: horizontal (level)and vertical (gravitational). This approach is certainly connected with the fact that the human body is out-

this position will

wardly symmetrical. (The passage of time in whichhumans are situated from moment to moment is also perceived as symmetrical: backward = the past, for-31

41Sign Recognition, Sign Formation

wards = the future, with humans in the present, thecenter, the here and now.) We feel soothed and reassured when we see a symmetrical figure or construction,m
44

although we know that its interior is asymmetricallyarranged for functional reasons. A symmetrically built
castle (44) is almost certain to be divided asymmetrically in its interior. The only exceptions are perhaps
churches, theaters and cinemas, which have a central
function.

must be emphasized that the human is constantly faced with the opposition between an external
symmetry and the asymmetrical functioning of the
body's interior (45). The heart does not beat in the
middle of the body, the person works with the righthand, and in modern life the driver must learn tosteer a car on one side of the road with a wheel on
the other side of the car. The question eventuallyarises: Has humankind become centerless?
The sequence of written language in the West is asymmetrical. We read from left to right, in a given
Itcourse of time: beginning to end. Some of the twentysix letters used are designed symmetrically and some

AfrKbtf

asymmetrically (46). When reading or writing capitalletters we are no longer aware that

A andhave sym-

metrical forms while B, C, and D are asymmetrical.

iie dk46

AfcTAE—<47

enough, all the vowels except E aresymmetrical: A I
U Y.)
We know that the Phoenicians and even the early
Greeks wrote in a symmetrical way, with lines reading alternately from left to right and from right to left(the same movement as that of a farmer ploughing afield) (47). The letters therefore had to be "turned around" anew on each line, with the result that asymmetrical letters were written to face both ways. In thecourse of time this procedure became incompatible
with the forms of the letters, which were impressed into
the human mind as archetypes, since two basic forms
had to be "programmed." This circumstance led tothe asymmetrical development of reading and writing, with lines always beginning at the left and being
read from left to right (48). (This break with tradition(Curiously

32

=
/.

The Elements of a Sign

occurred around 650 b.c. in the Greek and Etruscan
cultures.) For this reason we are now strongly influenced, when looking at a sign, by the innate sense of
direction from left to right. (Different conventions
influence Hebrew, read from right to left, and Chinese,

read from top to bottom.)In contrast to this acceptance of asymmetric written
characters it can be seen that isolated signs, proprietary
symbols and coats of arms (49), and above all signals(50) are in the first instance recognized and understood

from

left

>

to

right
48

symmetrically. This does not mean that a signal mustnecessarily be designed symmetrically for clarity andprecision, but that it should be placed on a symmetricalbackground (shield), because a shield is viewed centrally. Written and printed characters, on the other
hand, follow a completely different asymmetrical law.
We will consider the deeper sense of symmetry insymbols in Part 3.

49

50

c

Morphological Table 1

The viewer's attitude toward a figure is very complex.
understand the procedure of taking in
the meaning it is necessary to begin with a diagramwith simple divisions, offering the best chances ofcomprehending the origin of the procedure. For thisreason the first morphological table has been formedof only one square containing a cross, in order to avoid
In order toall"parasitic" or "anecdotal" influences.

The diagram figures are built up from three vertical and three horizontal lines, which, when superimposed, alternately touch, cross, and supplement one
another (51). Mathematically, 49 variants (7 x 7) canbe produced with these six strokes. We call this procedure the completion of a program, seeking out all thepossibilities contained in a given structure.
Looking at Table 1, the reader first recognizes
that the very simple signs begin at the top left withAl, condensing toward the lower right, to end withthe completed sign G7.

33

+

—
51

Sign Recognition, Sign Formation

In the center of the pageisthe cross D4, the un-rffl

This central position provides the crossing point or

ai

g7

point of separation from which the four points of thecompass proceed. The cross is the most abstract signand encloses the smallest area, since it has no interior.
The angles are not seen as the corners of a spaceequivocal meeting of the vertical with the horizontal.

+
D4

because the crossing of the lines does not call forth theimage of a "corner." Crossing means "crossing out"rather than "drawing."

The square, C3, appears_as the exact opposite of thecross. When one looks at the whole page, the square
stands out strongly; its inner area appears whiter; thenenclosed space is of active importance, encapsulated

from the page. Most viewers of a closed square like toidentify with it: the square is the primitive expressionof the object, the property, the dwelling.

From these first two observations we conclude thatsigns with unenclosed areas tend to evoke abstract

perceptions, while enclosed areas awaken memories ofobjects.

As typicalillustrations of this point,a piece offurniture is at once spontaneously recognized in C5, a

R^^
B.
.

C7

U
C6

C3

.

___

symbol for some kind of construction in C7, curtains in
G3, and a window in G7. In figure C6 one recognizes
a container for liquid. In most cases a free line can...

be seen as figurative only when it occurs in connection with an enclosed object. It is then recognized as athin, strokelike object: table legs in C5 or glass panels

.

[—[—I

With a greater stretch of the imagination, E6
could be taken to show a downward-swimming fish, its
body represented by the closed square and its thin
fins by the outward running lines.
Returning to the unenclosed signs with a morein C6.

C7

M
E6

abstract expression, the following observations may

be made: human zones of feeling can be divided into
two concepts by means of this simple experiment

above-below and left-right.
Sign CI arouses the feeling of protection, while C2
is rather felt to be a trap or pitfall. Screening fromabove is of vital importance for people in northern

34

/.

Morphological Table 1

The Elements of a Sign

Sign Recognition, Sign Formation

nuT
C2

Cl

D5

——
i

•

D2

Dl

h
r
d
F

A4

A1

D3

H
j
~

B4

B6

A5

q
B5

climates, protecting them from rain and cold, but forsomeone from a hot climate D5 might mean shade
and wind = coolness. In the same sector of "aboveand below" it can also be found that sign Dl is regarded as an expression of hanging down and D2 as oneof growing and standing up. Sign D3 is perceived asa pillar, a support, a pair of scales, even as a symbolof law.

The feeling of left-right is mainly one of the Western world, where the movement is made customaryby the teaching of writing from left to right. This feelingis rooted in us and strongly influences our way ofseeing. Let us consider, as the clearest example, thesign A4, which undoubtedly means "start" or "begin-ning," while B4 is "destination" or "arrival." In a moredeveloped way, Al could therefore be experienced
as "give" (command) and its opposite, B2, as "expect"

B6 we can very easily imagine a
ship's rudder, and figure A5 is recognizable as a flag,
blown by the wind from left to right. Figure B5 isrecognized more easily as a hand-held banner being
moved from left to right.
The most important point to be recognized in Table(obey).

1is,

In figurehowever, that when a sign image resembles a

letter of the alphabet it is difficult to see it as anythingelse. The most striking example of this effect is figure

E

3

A7

B7

—

"1

A7, which without doubt can only represent an E.
Beside it, figure B7 could perhaps be recognized as aflying swallow. From this we conclude that all signs
with a form approaching that of a letter are moredifficult to register as pictures, because they are already present in the viewer's subconscious as letters and practically exclude any other interpretation.
The last sign in the table, G7, can be accepted in
the intellectual sense as meaning the full, the complete,
but not in its graphic expression. One may well know

G7that a multitude of objects, animals, signs, and letters

are contained init,but can extract them only with

The completely enclosed nature of thesquare and the absolute symmetry of the cross havedifficulty.

covered over the images.

36

/.

FigureG6 could be regarded

The Elements of a Sign

as an anecdotal

illustration of this form of "coding" in such a consoli-

dated sign.

k^Among other objects, it "conceals" theE6 in the water tank of C6. Alchemical,
cabalistic, and many other symbol-laden signs, infish of figure

cluding those of medieval masons, consisted of suchquasi-pictorial symbols,

whose key was known only

L>tfc=WC6

E6

G6

to the initiated.

We will return to the subject of coded symbols inPart 3.

So far as the theoretical expression of this sign isconcerned, there is another interesting aspect thathas not yet been analyzed: the division or subdivisionof an area. An exactly surrounded area is divided into
new interiors by lines drawn in and "welded" to thesides, giving it a completely new effect: the original
strength of impression of the white square is disturbed.
The meaning of the inner lines can no longer be defined figuratively. Their role has become that of "division," since the cross strokes border the right and left,
upper, and lower squares (52). From the graphic pointof view it is of great importance to know whether a52line is given the role of drawing or dividing.

In this analysis, the meaning of "welding"out very strongly.

comes

53

The "unwelded" cross (53) invol-

untarily loses the expression of the dividing stroke.

Even where the lines are drawn out beyond the frame(54),

although the cross still divides the square, thekeeps its autonomous character, because
the visible ends of the lines allow both figures to appear
latterin full.

still

54

Sign Recognition, Sign Formation

Morphological Table 2dIn order to simplify the exposition of the rules as far

as possible, we have kept to the same basic signs inTable 2, only allowing the lines to be broken off in thecenter at their "welding points." By this means thenumber of possible new figures is greatly increased andonly a selection of typical groups is shown in the table.

Row A consists of completely enclosed signs, and it•—\/"-\(
yC)
55

should be noted that each figure recalls somethingof architecture, planning, division, or organization.
The last figure in the row, A7, where the two elements

touch at a crossing point, forms an exception. We findthe same kind of form in the figure 8, in the sign for"infinite" (55) and in the hourglass sign (56).

Rows B, C, and D consist only of open signs, where
the beginnings and ends of the lines are visible. In row
B the figures are made by the meandering of a single
line, while in row C each figure is made of two lines,
which cross over and give an open, radiating expression with the visible stroke endings. In row D, all thesigns consist of "welded" elements. In E there are bothclosed and open elements: the enclosed areas haveno dividing lines and only the last sign, E7, has across. The presence of enclosed areas again gives
these figures strong reminders of objects: conductor'sdesk, rudders, pipe, frog, etc.
In

row F there are no connections between the

strokes, so the figures are not strictly speaking signs,

through measured alignment, they becomerhythmical expressions, particularly the first four. The
last three give more of an indication of movement
but,

instructions in the functional or technical sense.
In the final row, G, the resemblance to letters is sostrong that the lineisinvoluntarily read, aboveall

because the seven signs form the word GESUCHT(SOUGHT), of which the outline is familiar to theGerman reader. No thought is given to the lack ofrounding in the letters G, S, U, and C: it is not evenmissed.

38

The Elements of a Sign

I.

Morphologies l1 Table 2

2

1

4

3

5

6

7

A

111

'l

j

r L? H S

un
^
r

3

Sign Recognition, Sign Formation

5.

Sign topology

There is a mathematical theory for the geometricalcalculation of surfaces and volumes that divides bodies of all kinds and forms into groups.
A body with a surface that could be stretched out toform a continuous surface is classified in group zero.
Seen in this way, all cubes, spheres, and balls or apples
belong to group zero. Even a wine glass, which has acontinuous surface, whether concave or convex, belongs to this group (57a, b).

57a

On the other hand a hoop or a cup with a handle
does not belongtothe continuous surface group,

since it is disrupted by a hole, which makes its math-ematical calculation much more complicated. Bodies

with one disruption of their surface (one hole) areclassified in topological group one (57c, d). Bodies
with two or more surface disruptions are classified ingroups two, three, through n (57e, f).
Our attempt to establish a similar theory for graphic signs, though they are only two-dimensional, classifies signs that do not enclose an interior form in groupzero. The prototype of this class would be the cross,and it includes all the signs in rows B, C, D, F, and G
of our morphological Table 2. Group one includes all
signs with one enclosed area, as in row E. Other, more
complex signs as in row A are classified in groups
two, three, through n.
It is of interest to examine the letters of the alphabet
according to these criteria. We find that most upperand lowercase letters in printing typefaces belong
to group zero, as they have no enclosed forms. Only

40

/.

The Elements of a Sign

and five lowercase letters belong togroup one, and only capital B and the common form
five

upper-

of lowercase g belong to group two.

From this we may draw the conclusion that alphabetical characters have become more and more
opened, from the former figurative

abstracted,

i.e.,

signs

hieroglyphics) in order to connect(e.g.,

moreclosely with the writing stock (parchment, paper, etc.).

MOBILEIn this procedure, not too many white areas are isolated,

but words, lines, and cages are "written" (filled in) withindividual signs' remaining subordinate, so as not toMLEinterrupt the literary flow of thought.

The word MOBILE(58) serves to illustrate thispoint, as it contains examples of each group:

M L E ingroup zero, in group one, and B in group two. The
and B form "islands," and the other letters connect
with the outside area. It would be quite wrong, however, to use this theory in an attempt to open the closedform letters, since the differentiation of expression
serves to enhance legibility. Nevertheless, the lettering artist often finds attractive opportunities of opening "closed forms in certain kinds of work (59).
In the Greek alphabet, which incidentally has far
fewer enclosed forms, we find the very beautiful letter

omega Q.
In modern

O

I

B

58

DPQR
59

typeface production the outlines of

the type drawings are digitized, whichmeans that

their forms are divided up into coordination points. In

the process of typesetting, these quanta are called up

from storage in order to reconstitute the sign concerned.
For this purpose it is absolutely essential, when theletter belongs to group one or n, to tell the computer
whether the outline is of the inner or outer kind (60).
Returning to the general group of signs, it should
be noted that the simplicity or complexity of a figure
does not necessarily depend on the topographicalclassification given here. For example, a very complex maze can be laid out as a specimen of a topological sign of group zero. The basic conditions for thisare the avoidance of crossings and the retention ofvisible beginning and ending to the line (61).

41

61

II.

The Basic Signs

appears from archaeological evidence that humankind has an innate feeling for geometry. Traces ofprimary signs of the same form are found in many
regions of the earth, and it may be assumed that theyexpressed similar meanings for the most varied races at widely different times.
This survey is deliberately restricted to a smallItnumber of characteristic figures: the square, triangle,
and circle among the closed figures; the cross andarrow among the open ones
1.

The square

In studying morphological Table 1 we have alreadyrecognized the primary characteristics of this sign:

a symbolic object, boundaried property, also a dwelling place with the feeling of floor, ceiling, walls, protection, etc. (1).

In the prehistoric sense it meant the earth's surface,at thesame time indicating the four points of thecompass. In the Chinese world of symbols, the four
corners represented the outermost points of the earth.
As soon as the square becomes an oblong it loses its
neutral, symbolic character. The viewer immediately
looks for the intention of the difference between lengthand breadth. An oblong is recognized as such so long as
one dimension is not less than half the other (2), at
which point two squares are formed by a central
dividing line. Oblongs with a greater difference between the sides begin to be felt as beams or pillars (3).
With the square standing on its corner (4) wecome into the field of oblique lines. The view of thissign is disquieting, and its position on its point indicates a certain intention, which is why this form isused as the ideal background for traffic signs, especiallyin the United States.

43

Sign Recognition, Sign Formation

2.

The triangle

Before going into detail concerning the triangle, we
enter the field of Gestalt psychology for a brief expla-

nation of Rubin's experiment, which indicates thathuman attention is primarily attracted by verticaland horizontal movements. The first illustration (5)shows that the area marked with radii is immediately seen as a cross, standing over the disk marked
with circles. On the other hand, the second illustration(6) gives rise to a marked doubt about the relative im-portance of the oblique cross and the circled background. It can therefore be said with absolute certainty
that the human eye first seeks out the vertical and thehorizontal.

If neitherof these dimensions is present,

the viewer will try to imagine them in order to "place"the sign, which will be interpreted in relation to theperson's physiological position, in terms of vertical(force of gravity) and horizontal (standing level).
It is therefore

not surprising that the expression ofa triangle is always first judged in relation to a verticalor a horizontal. In a square standing on its corner, thetriangular form is already present, since the sign isbisected vertically or horizontally in the viewer's

subconscious (7).
If

we place the triangle vertically on its apex, it

obtains a direction-giving character, with movementtransferred from the vertical to the horizontal (8). The

simple triangle is therefore much used as a direction
sign,which succeeds so long as the directions arehorizontal, left or right. Where the required direction
isup, down, or even oblique, this form of direction

sign can cause confusion (see description in Section
4, The arrow).

Triangles with a horizontal side (9, 10) form ideal
backgrounds for signals (road signs, etc.) because of
their symmetry. The triangle with horizontal base(9) conveys an impression of stability and permanence, like a pyramid. It is also the symbol for the
expression "wait," rather like a mountain, whose only
10

active function is to suffer erosion.

44

//.

The Basic Signs

The reversed triangle, on the other hand, standing
on its apex (10), has a much more active character. It
is the symbol of a tool, an action, also of scales. The
positioning is felt as a limitation in the long run (onecannot stand on one foot for long).
The first sign is a friendly symbol; the second rather
tends to produce a reaction of alarm. The upwardpointing triangle also reminds us of the shape of aroof. It would be interesting for an architect to consid-

er why an attic room with sloping ceiling (11) has such

There are certainly some psychological reasons. The right-angled upper line of a
cubic room has something disquieting about it, whereas a broken upper angle gives rise to a feeling of theintimate rounding of security.
an intimate

3.

effect.

The circle

Modern humans probably have a more spontaneous
relationship with the straight line than with the curve.

Daily encounters with level ground and with all kindsof constructions are primarily based on the two principles of horizontal and vertical.

We appreciate rounded

forms with the senses rather than the mind. It should,
however, be noted that there is a tendency to turn tosofter and more humanistic forms in furniture andbuilding - also in the aerodynamic forms of transport
in aircraft, cars, etc. There is an effort to habituate
humans to a new expression of their environment, but
only the future will tell whether it makes them feel more
free and secure or, on the contrary, more restricted.
In the circle, theviewer encounters the line with

eternal recurrence, neither beginning nor ending, andgoing around an invisible but very precise centre. This

compares with the idea of the course of time, whichcomes from nowhere and has no end.
For primitive humans, the circle was certainly ofstrong symbolic importance due to its association withsun, moon, and stars. Today, it is still associated withwheels and gears of every kind. Without the ability to45

11Sign Recognition, Sign Formation

travel,modern life on the ever-widening area of ourdaily world would be hardly imaginable.

We will there-

fore use the circle form to establish some differentiation in the psychological effect on the viewer.

Looking at a circle immediately calls forth the memory of some known object. The order in which theobjects "appear" differs from one person to another.
The sequence of objects that a person names on
regarding a circle would make an interesting test. Hereare some memories of objects seen. First are those inwhich the idea of volume is not necessarily recognized
or looked for: sun, moon, discus (12a). With a greater
effort of the imagination, calling up spherical volume,
one is reminded of a ball or balloon (12b). Only later
does the idea of the invisible center emerge, calling up
a wheel, spinning top, or record (12c). It must beemphasized here that the invention of the wheel wasof such importance tohumankind as to implant its

optical image strongly within us.

12aunderstandable that a sign describes somethingmaterial but it is also possible that the viewer of acircular form may have an opposite reaction and see
It isthe material, not within the circle but outside it, sothat the image of a round hole may appear (12d).
It

may also be the case that the line itself is recog-

nized as the material, giving rise to the image of a hoop(12e) with which we played as children.

13a

The feelings are addressed more strongly by thecircle than by any other sign. Depending on their
46

//.

The Basic Signs

character, the viewers will place themselves either
inside or outside the circle.

The feeling of being inside the circle can perhaps
be interpreted as an impulse toward the center (13a)or a search for a mysterious unity of life. In the opposite

sense, an active

life

radiates from the invisible

center outward, to the circumference (13b). We findthe same process at a given stage of growth, when newlife

develops from the egg. Enclosure becomes dis-quieting and is felt as claustrophobia.

These two feelings can also be experienced at thesame time (13c), in which case one could speak of thepulsation of life within given zones, like the beatingof the heart.

The circle can also be a protection from outside
influences (13d). Here, too, we are reminded of theidea of the life-preserving eggshell. In psychology, thecon-cept of the cover or wrapping is of the greatest

import-ance. The infant leaving its mother'swomb

carries feelings of both protection and the vital breakout

independence. Our ambivalent feelings toward an
opening are well known: feelings of pressure andanxiety mixed with those of security and protection.
The natural circle of life is closed in this way: in the
mysterious leaving of the place of security at birth andin the no less mysterious sexual drive, which urges
humans to plant the seed of new life in the same place.
Standing outside the circle, we are reminded of thesun (13e), the indispensable life giver with its beams
radiating from the circular form, and of the moon,which illuminates the night through reflection.
Since the invention of the wheel, the circle has also
become a symbol of movement throughout humanhistory. The movement is not that of an arrow, whichflies through space, but more indirect, as a wheel bymoving allows itself and the vehicle above it to move.
The eye itself has a muscular reaction in following

tothe circular movement of the wheel (14). The feeling of"traveling,rolling"

that

one hasinviewing

itistriggered by the eye muscles. The fact that the circle

has neither beginning nor end gives this circular

47

14

Sign Recognition, Sign Formation

movement a certain feeling of insecurity (shade ofpanic), associated with the fact of the eternal recur-

The direction of rotation is influenced by the
movement of clock hands (15). Why do the hands ofrence.

our clocks turn in this direction? On a sundial, the signfor midday is at the bottom, because the pointer casts
its shadow downward, the morning hours being indicated on the left and the afternoon hours on the right.
The arrangement of numbers on our clock dials is perhaps influenced by our custom of reading from left toright. This supposition can be supported by the factthat the Jews, who read Hebrew from right to left,
possess some clocks that read "counterclockwise" (16).

4. The arrow
17

When two oblique lines come together to form an
angle, the expression of a movement or direction is

produced in some form. Angles pointing to right orleft (17) have a stronger movement than those pointing up or down, for the obvious reason that human
movement is normally on a level. (Only in elevators
does the vertically placed arrow obtain a clear expression of movement up and down.)
Mathematicians need the angle sign for the
expression of "greater than" and "less than" (18). Thismore

grasp optically, but itshows that the inner area enclosed is subconsciously grasped, while only in second place is the expression
conceptisdifficulttoof the line itself consciously and deliberately "seen.">
The expression of the angle sign as a direction
pointer alters considerably with the degree of theangle. One that is greater than 45° is seen rather as

48

^
//.

a resistance against

The Basic Signs

an oncoming force, such as adam (19a). A 45° angle sign is recognized as a moving sign, but only with slow and difficult movement,
like a snow plough (19b). At about 30° the angle sign

can be compared to an earth plough (19c). Only fromabout 20° downward does the angle sign become anarrow (19d). The inner area is small and less visible; thesharp point produces a reaction of danger, against
which viewers must protect themselves. The angle sign
has become a weapon.
In the formal arrow sign (19e), i.e., an angle with acentral stroke, lengthened out, the inner areas are
exaggerated and doubled by the division.
This sign is certainly one of the earliest to have beenused by humans, being closely associated with the

problem of "survival" (hunting) or "injury" and profrom injury: a matter of life and death. The
arrow sign awakens feelings of aggression and anxiety, both of which are basic to our psychological makeup and to our existence as a whole.
The arrow sign is taken in two stages: as thetectionX

1^|

flying weapon with the arrival of the wounding point

and the barbs holding it into the flesh.
The addition of a vertical line (20) gives even clearer expression to the concepts of firing and striking.
Where the arrow shaft line is not straight but takes
on a curved form (21), the idea of "weapon" is changed
into a signal: turn left or right, go around a traffic

2o

—

f

21

island, etc.

We will consider the symbolic expression of thearrow in more detail in Part 3.

5. The cross

We would like to call the cross the "sign of signs."
The crossing point of the two lines, as already mentioned, has something that is abstract and invisible but
so precise that mathematicians, architects, geogra-

phers, and geologists make constant use of it to indicate the exact position of a point (22).

49

22Sign Recognition, Sign Formation

Curiously enough, mathematics has chosen thissign to mean "plus." One wonders why a vertical stroke

could not be used to indicate plus, as a horizontal strokemeans minus. The reason is probably that the verticalstroke gives the primitive figure 1 (a notch or scratch)and is therefore no longer available for a more complex
expression such as "add."

At

this

point,

an interesting ethnological note

may be made: the Eskimos have a very marked senseof the horizontal but the use of the vertical is almost/<£XJ\
Lfy^23

unknown to them. Perhaps the reason lies in theconstruction of the igloo ^23), for which theplumbneeded. In their script, a vertical strokemeans "ice," perhaps in association with the verticalmovement of breaking or cutting blocks of ice.
The "plus" sign does not awaken any feelings in
the viewer, but as soon as one arm or the other isslightly lengthened, the sign loses its plainness andline is notmakes way for psychological reactions. The most strik-

made by lengthening the vertical
downward (24). In this way the sign of the Christianing alterationisimmediately appears. The presence of thissign has deeply marked the whole Western world

faith
24

for nearly 2000 years.

We will return to the numer-

ous modifications and alterations of the Christiancross in Chapter II (on symbol signs). Here it need
only be pointed out that the proportions of the raised
horizontal correspond to the human body (as the25

whole figure of the crucified Christ), which certainly
accounts for its deep symbolical significance.
To show how irritating and strange a distorted crossappears to us, we need only bring the cross piece below
the center (cross of St Peter, who was crucified head
downward).
The diagonal cross has a basically different meaning. Mathematicians use it as the multiplication
sign. The X-shaped cross can stand for a signature
and also be used for deletion or reference marking.
Not least, it can represent the protective gesture ofcrossed arms over the head.
As soon as the angle of the two strokes is reduced

50

//.

The Basic Signs

from 45°, a new expression comes about: the human figure appears, with arms and legs, in a standing (26a) or lying (26b) position. The sign has agesturing expression particularly
ing "on one leg,"when it is stand-but one also recognizes concepts

such as deletion, signal, and barrier (26c).

X
26a

The sign loses

its

abstract character

still

more

with a displacement of its crossing point. The different
inner spaces arouse ideas such as "open at the top"
for container or glass (26d) or"open at the bottom"

for tent or shelter (26e).

The normal cross or plus sign is the absolute embodiment of symmetry. The four right-angled innerspaces (27) located around a central point fix thesign to the paper so strongly that any idea of movement or rotation is impossible. As a contrast, it can be

JL
ir

7/~

27

28

29

30

seen that when the verticals are made oblique, theinner spaces change to acute and obtuse angles (28),
giving an expression of dynamism. The two conceptsof static and dynamic refer to the vertical stance ofman (29) and the position of the forward (or left to right) walking or running person (30).
The basic differences of these expressions are
particularly familiar to typographers. Normal lettersthe standing

are upright (31), whereas italic is used for emphasism m(32) and often for the citation of a "spoken" text. The

31

32

fact that italics "slope forward" is related to our cus-

tom of reading from left to right, once again in connection with the running person.

An anecdotal example of this theme is a sketch ofa racing car, to which the artist has given oval, oblique wheels to emphasize the idea of speed (33).
33

51

III.

Joining Signs Together

There is not a very large number of basic, elementary
signs. It is also very difficult to establish from which
point a sign is to be regarded as lapidary or fully
formed. In special cases it could be said, for example,
that an arrow consists of three straight lines and asquare of two angle signs or four straight lines. Basically, this consideration is of only secondary importance in the present connection.

Our starting point is rather that a sign is to be
regarded as having an independent existence whenits visual meaning is absolutely unequivocal. This is
the case when a square is seen and understood as asquare and not as four straight lines, and a cross as across, not a horizontal stroke divided by a vertical one.

The

intersection of the

two

lines

shouldmakeit

impossible to miss the totality of the cross.

This preamble serves mainly as a basis for the fol-lowing description of the laws of assembling various
signs.

The combining of signs, apart from its purely graphic

aspects, also creates a mental, philosophical, or"alchemical" impression. If, for example, a cross anda circle are combined, a wide field of symbolic ex-pression is opened up to the mind. We will constantly

come across this aspect of the signs becoming language, through juxtaposition and combination, in
Parts 2 and 3 of this work, but our first concern atpresent is the purely aesthetic effect of the graphic

combination of signs on the viewer.
1. Relations between signs of thesame form

Two adjacent circles are seen as a pair sign when
the area between themisat least as great as theirinner areas (1).

53Sign Recognition, Sign Formation

This question of the space between signs

T)l

is

one ofthe most important aspects of typeface quality.

The

layperson does not realize how finely the spaces between letters (2) must be specified by the manufacturer so that reading can proceed undisturbed in theprinted word or sentence.
Just as letters are formed into a word image by

7

_>

A

being brought together, so complete signs are formed,
from a certain distancing, through the coming together of individual sign elements (3). Complete connection is naturally obtained through touching (4), crossing over or complete overlapping.
As a first example, let us consider two touchingcircles, first in a horizontal alignment (5a). This connection expresses a condition of equality. In its complexity it could be the sign for friendship or brotherhood. Two circles arranged vertically (5b) evoke theidea of a hierarchy, with upper and lower; the effectof the sign is of a rather precarious balance and it islike a statue or monument. In the third, oblique association (5c), some aggression comes into play andthe expression is more of pulling or pushing. (Thegraphic repre-sentation of "gears" or "rotation" seems
an obvious use of this sign.)

5aObservation of the three first examples reminds
us once again of, the three different elementary expressions: horizontal, vertical, and oblique.
It isclear that we are still within the realm of thelinear sign: the thickness of the stroke has no specificvalue of its own, so the lines of the two circles join
together and also form a figure 8, the eye following
the stroke just as well in two circular formations as
in alternating from one circle to the other.

54

We recog-///.

Joining Signs Together

nize here the character of the figure 8

and also, inthe case of the horizontally placed sign, the sign for"infinity." a symbol of eternal recurrence.

The fourth example (5d) is included in this series
only to illustrate the total change of expression when
the two circles overlap (see comments on figure 9).

With the connection of two squares (6), we encounter a similar effect to that of the figure 8 formedby two circles. The two signs meet at one corner,
making a cross form clearly visible. The eye follows
the straight lines and goes around one sign after theother, alternately, in opposite directions. The perpetually crossing lines have a kind of charm of their own.
Two adjacent squares (7) with one common sidemerge very strongly into a new sign, a long rectangle.
The center stroke is no longer seen as two side strokes
but only as a division.

When two squares are staggered against one another (8), the individual elements stand out clearly,

more so than in the first and second examples, because neither a crossing nor a dividing stroke is perceived. Of the three examples, this sign best represents the idea of "assembly."

A further important step in our considerations
is provided by the overlapping of signs (9). We overtwo forms, automatically producing a third inner area common to the two signs. In the mathemati-

lap

cal theory of sets, this operation isdesignated withthe signs and the common area is called the "inter-

The overlapping of figures leads to an infinite number of possibilities, of which only a few cansection."be mentioned here.

The first point to note is that the "luminosity" of thesingle enclosed sign, as already described,
stantially reduced

is

sub-

by overlapping with another sign.

The newly created area formed from the overlap has
its own radiance, which is naturally obtained at theexpense of the two original signs. The geometricalshape of the new area is in most cases different fromthat of the originals: in our circular example, the central shape is that of a lens.

55

6

7

Sign Recognition, Sign Formation

In two further examples of overlapping equal squares(10) or triangles (11) the matter is simplified insofar as

a new square and a new triangle are produced, i.e.,
members of the family of the original signs.
10When two equal geometrical areas are superimposed and one of them is rotated, other new signs appear, in most cases giving the impression of an autonomous sign. Superimposed pentagons (12a), squares(12b), and triangles (12c) produce star signs of all
kinds, with various forms of radiation having deeper
symbolic content, to which we will return in more detail. Two superimposed rhomboids (12d) or ovals(12e) develop very interesting new signs, and, as in thei2acase of the star shapes, the crossovers create new ge-

ometrical forms. The division of the basic figure makes
a sign much richer.
It is

not possible to create any new sign by super-

imposing and turning two circles of equal radius.

Two circles with different radius, placed con-centrically, produce the figure of a hoop in the first example(13a).

If theinner circle is much smaller, the sign re-minds us of a record or a target (13b).

13a

0® ©
If the inner circle has approximately half the radiusof the outer one (13c), the56main impression is of awheel (naturally derived from the idea of a car wheelwith tire). In all three cases the inner circle is seen
rather as a hole than as anything positive.
When the same inner circle is shifted from thecenter (1 3d) there is a sudden change of view. The ideaof the inside of a tube comes to mind, with perceptionof its entry and exit in perspective. It also reminds us ofa cone seen from above.

When the small circle touches the circumference ofthe large one it is no longer recognized as a tube exit.

The sign as a whole loses its three-dimensional
expression and becomes diagrammatic again.

14a

In the lower position (14a), the sign gives theimpression of a point of rest, a standstill. If, on the other
hand, the small circle is placed at the top (14b), theimpression given is of instability, of a falling droplet.
Placed horizontally at the side (14c), the small circle
gives a feeling of balancing and is also associated witha spirit level. In the oblique position (14d) a movement
is recognized, the rolling of a ball, and only in thisposition does the perspective of a cone tend to reappear.

2. Relations between signs of different forms

between different forms immediately stimulate the creative impulse much more.
From thousands of possibilities, we choose the circle
and the triangle (15). The acts of juxtaposing andintersecting the signs lead in most cases to consideraIt is clear that associations

tions similar to those covered in the previous section.

The reader's imagination will identify in these examples associations such as sheltering, balance, loud-speaker, and even a primitive human figure.

57

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

6Qa>o
15

The superimposition of two signs of different forms
produces a new consideration: a small triangle in alarge circle (16a) no longer awakens the impression ofan object seen in perspective. Its appearance remains
purely two-dimensional. Also in the converse case of asmall circle within a large triangle, the effect is purely

graphic and two-dimensional (16b). Depending on the

16arelative sizes of the two signs, holes cut in a geometrical shape are seen. However, if the inner sign touches

the outer (16c, d), even this material notion disappears, to leave a purely graphic expression of the outer
sign divided into parts by the inner one. The overlap-

ping of two different signs (16e), where the lines cross,

58

///.

Joining Signs Together

provides results similar to those of overlapping equal
shapes, as described in figure 12.

3.

The expression of the inner area

seems important at this point to take in a general, lesstechnical account of the meaning of the internal area ofclosed forms. A closed sign, whatever its shape, butItprincipally a square or rectangle, is not only a sign but

above all the enclosure and bordering of a surface. Thisis most readily apparent when a second sign, figure, orobject is placed within it. In such cases we will call theouter border the volume and the sign within it theobject. This automatically produces a geographicalsituation, the area being divided into sections withdifferent meaning and power of expression, producing
concepts such as upper, lower, pushed into a corner,and displayed in the center (see also figures 16a, b).
In Oriental art in particular one often finds a frame
within which pictorial representations are placed. In
the presence of such a close association with the clearlybordered area, a flying bird can be drawn only in theupper part (17). Even when the lower part remains
empty, it still has its expression, for emptiness does notmean "nothing." On the contrary, absence receives amental expression in the very first place. Nonpresence
is just as important as presence. The swimming fish in
the lower part of the picture (18) has the same relation
to the total volume as the bird in the upper part.
It is still customary to regard the borders of an area
as a frame, perhaps rightly, as the borders isolate thearea from its background. The object or figure (19)placed in the middle has the consequent effect of being"on show." The expressive value of the whole area
remains anonymous because of the emptiness surrounding the object.
A similar example of space evaluation is known to us
through the division of the shield in heraldry (20). Theinterior of the shield or coat of arms follows very strict

conventions of division, in which the symbolic value of59

Sign, Symbol. Emblem, Signal

signs and attributes has to take up a certain hierarchicalshowing quite clearly whether the symbol
stands for the lord, the subject, or the whole people.
position,

A further example of this principle is provided by theancient Hebrew representation of the earth (21). The

upper half of the divided circle represents the land, thedot the people of Israel. The horizontal is the sea, andbelow it the remainder of the earth is divided into east©

and west.

21

4. Relations between closed and open signs

As illustrative examples we choose two pairs of signs:
the cross with a circle and the square with a trident.

LU

LU

6
t>
g

©
©

L

J

h

22

So long as the open sign is "welded" to the closed
sign with one end on one line, the association appears
in an ideal way, because this assembly produces a newand easily "readable" combined sign, with a relationshipwhich can be rich in meaning (22a, b). With someoverlapping, the two individual signs become moreeasily recognizable, while their association changes its

meaning through the crossing of the incoming stroke
and a certain feeling of volume is produced (22c, d, e,f). As soon as "welding points" are produced by theconnection of several line endings, the power of
expression of the individual sign suffers, as does that of
the combined sign in most cases

60(22g, h). When the///.

Joining Signs Together

two signs are put together in such a way that the lines
either cover, prolong, or cross over each other, theexpression of the signs changes to such an extent thatthey are usually unrecognizable (22i, j ).

A complete fusion of the two signs

(22k,

1)

once

again produces fully coded signs.

5. Experiment with two fork signs

The best illustration of the theme of "combination ofopen signs" is provided by two open fork signs (as forroad junctions). We will meet part of this series of signs
again in the philosophical sense in the table concernedwith dualism, but here they are considered only in theirpurely formal aspects.

Two opposed forks (23) either attract or repel eachother, depending on the value given to the triangular23

shane. which may be seen either as an arrow or as anangle sign (in mathematics, greater or lesser than).

By coming together, the extremities join up (24)and form a square, which was already present inimagination. In this way the two forks completely
lose their character and the square prevails.
A further inward movement reveals the forks once
again (25), showing clearly the importance of thestroke endings. The reduced square loses much of its
autonomy through the shortening of its sides andthe reemergence of the two fork shapes.
If the two signs are centrally superimposed (26),the original fork shapes disappear completely and canbe recalled to the mind's eye only with a great effort,
since the arms of the signs have been changed into
three newly formed and extended straight lines. The
resulting shape is a much more simply structured,symmetrical star.
Further displacement produces two arrow signs(27), but the fork shapes remain recognizable.
Only through the restoration of the inner space of
the angles (28) do the two signs reappear as such,
although the merging of the common horizontal lines

61

24

25

X

26

28

Sign. Symbol, Emblem, Signal

once again gives a stronger impression of a single sign
than of two signs joined together.

6. The "complete" sign

The Chinese invented a game called "tangram," using

29

30

OX"
+—1—

31

o

squares divided into seven parts each, jigsaw-fashion.
The players must use their imagination to assemble
abstract or figurative pictures with the seven parts(30). The game has no "winners" but is a mental,
contemplative, and perhaps also creative exercise.
We have tried to design a similar game based on ourWestern way of thinking and seeing. For this purpose,
we form one complete sign from the basic signs of thesquare, triangle, circle, and cross already mentioned inour considerations (31). This piling up of the different
elements produces such a complex and opaque expression that it can no longer be called a sign, but rather
a schema with thousands of possibilities. On the basisof this grid pattern, the formation of signs consists ofremoving some elements, so that only those remaining are made visible and recognizable.

We have made a selection from a vast number ofpossible results and show them here assembled into
two tables. Perhaps the reader will be encouraged tocontinue the game by finding further figures to add tothe tables.

aMorphological Table 3: abstract signs

The display makes it clear that the signs have beenclassified as open or closed, simple or assembled. Our
attempt at topological arrangement underlies thisgrouping by rows of signs.
In the first horizontal row, A, we recognize open,
linear signs with welded and crossed connections and,in the last of the row (A7), the indication of a connection

through proximity. The second row, B, consists only ofclosed forms with a single outline (topological group 1).

62

///.

Joining Signs Together

Morphological Table 3.GIJ'e'CD^Q

OQDDdBb
Q

G^z
EDS
E S

l^.

2

F"S
L. -^

S

Sign, Symbol, Emblem. Signal

The third row, C, also contains signs with a single
enclosed area, but with the addition of freestandinglines. Rows D and E contain signs with two enclosed
areas, connected either by dividing lines, crosses, or

extended lines. In the last two rows, F and G, we havesigns of the topological group n, i.e., with many enclosed areas, which are connected by means of all thepossible methods mentioned previously.
Finally, G7 is the completely assembled sign, which,as already mentioned, no longer has any expression of
its own and can be understood only as a schema forconstruction.

bMorphological Table 4: object signs

A number of "figurative" signs, also produced simply
by removing elements from the basic structure, areshown in Table 4.
The first two rows, A and B, show stylized botanicalshapes: leaves, flowers, outlines of trees. In the thirdand fourth rows, C and D, we see stylized fauna: aflatfish with closed and open mouth, a pike, a crab,
butterflies, birds, mice, cats, a hen, etc. From row E
a variety of objects is recognizable: helmets, windwheel, crossbow, radar, head, boot, umbrella, crown,
cradle, etc., until finally, at the lower right, the basic

sign reappears, almost like a schematic concession tosimplicity.

Readers are thus confronted with the question of
why the wealth of possibilities in the basic sign or "grid"were not immediately apparent. This is a fundamental
question concerning all human creative activity after
think of thatcompletion of the work: Why didn't
I

before?

This experiment may also provide a stimulus forovercome the anxiety ofcontemplating a blank sheet of paper it is often helpful
to divide the white area with a grid pattern on which tobuild up a sign. As examples, see also the sections onstonemason's signs (Part 3, Chapter VI) and pictogram
creative

activities.

Tosystems (Part 2, Chapter III).

64

///.

Morphological Table 4

Joining Signs Together

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

Between diagram and figure

7.

The viewer of the two preceding tables may havenoticed the principle by which a sign is consciously
accepted, namely the extent to which it approaches
a figurative form. By limitation to a strict stylization,prescribed by the basic figure, the concept of "seeking" a form which already exists in the subsconscious
is strengthened still further.

o o
32a

This problem can be taken up again by means of alittle experiment.

The combined sign of a circle within

diagram, an
indication of the many possibilities that may be seen
within it.
a square (32a)is

at first sight only a

When a central stroke is added to the circle (32b),
meaning: itapproaches the representation of a round object (nut,beetle, etc.), while the square frame is perceived only as

thelattersuddenly gainsagreatera support, pedestal, plate, etc.

another figure the straight line divides the
background area instead of the circle (32c), making thesquare awaken the viewer's interest much morestrongly. In this drawing one recognizes more easily acircular hole in a two-part square plate, or perhaps a
netball held in a square frame.
In the fourth sign (32d), the two basic elements ofcircle and square reappear, but the vertical strokeIn

divides the whole image into two parts. The crossing of
circular and vertical lines once again gives the sign theappearance of a technical drawing. It has become adiagram again: the figurative possibilities and asso-

66

///.

Joining Signs Together

ciations practically disappear and the sign also loses

some of its attractiveness.
In the last figure (32e), the diagrammatic characterisfurther emphasized by the extension of the central

line, which makes the two stroke endings visible.

8. Puzzle signs

In connection with the appearance of an object in themost simplified form of sign, mention may be madehere, though only marginally to our considerations, ofthe game of puzzle signs. Anything with a double
meaning awakens interest, giving occasion to a visualand mental puzzle. The signs concerned are purely
object signs, only coded by choosing a point of viewwhich conceals the figure's normal outline or perspective. Our small selection shows a Mexican on a bicycle,
seen from above (33); a priest seen from below (34); afried egg seen from the side (35); and a tomato sandwich made by a beginner (36).

O
33

®
34

35

u
36

67

IV.

The Sign in Ornaments

The subject of ornaments is of interest in the present
connection only insofar as the sign, in its capacity as"single statement," forms the basis of the pattern,remaining present and recognizable within it. The
field of ornamentation consisting of pure geometry or
rows of objects, however stylized they may be, should
deliberately be kept separate, since the two conceptsof "decorating" and "dressing with symbols" are subject to completely different conditions and laws.

Theviewer has a different relation to each of these.
The sign assembled to make an ornament hides
itself as a unit and becomes a part of a structure. The

individual sign is often hardly recognizable anymore,

but its mysterious presence encourages the search for
its meaning, its

statement.

To illustrate this theme we have limited ourselves tothree elementary forms: the cross, the swastika, andthe square. Most of the examples shown are inspiredby ornaments

be foundmedieval Ethiopianmonasteries, where some are built into the brickworkof walls and others are painted on.
to

3

3
GD

GD

U

in

C
GU

G

3

I

i

'

|

r—

3
2

69

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

The first ornament (1) is formed from a linear swastikawith four visible turned-back ends. On closer inspection

one can make out another swastika sign in white in the
background, with two-dimensional surface and a rather

shadowy effect.
The second ornament (2) consists of the same linear
elements, except that the stroke endings of the swasti-

kas are not turned back but joined to one another. Thishas theeffect that the linear sign of theswastika

becomes at the same time the outline of a cross with
two-dimensional surface, emerging from the background. Unlike the first ornament, this arrangement
could therefore also be painted in two dimensions.

^fi£

Siif
The third example (3) has a similar basic structure.
All the lines meandering through the surface are at
the same time line signs and separation lines between
the interlocking, two-dimensional swastika signs.

The fourth example(4)

consistsof completely

separated two-dimensional cross shapes.
inspection,Woio

On closer

however, the background between the

crosses emerges as a series of connected swastika

shapes.
In thesame manner, ovals appear as the back-ground in a structure of concave lozenge forms (5). In
most arrangements of simple shapes, the intervening
spaces of the background appear more or less clearly as
the expression of complementary shapes.
A further sequence (6) shows the interplay of two
different sign elements: the two-dimensional cross and
70

I\

.

The Sign in Ornaments

the square. A symmetrical arrangement of the crosses

produces squares as the background form between
four crosses.

The final example (7) consists of a superimpositionof signs, in this case a simple repetition of a single

square form, which is able to call forth a number ofother appearances through the overlapping of thesquares, depending on whether the area enclosed bya line is seen as background or sign.

The reader will have noticed that the choice of
these few examples has been determined by the pres-ence of a simultaneous expression of line sign andbackground, so as to draw attention once again to
the expressive value of interior space and interval,
openness and closure of a sign, and the effects ofcrossed and "welded" lines.
In thebackground there stands one of the main

points of our argument: the symbolic expression of thewhich cannot always be clearly recognized inornamental uses, but runs through the interweaving of
the structure like a mysterious presence, like a keynote
situated between the conscious and the subconscious.
sign,-rfLdWl

uTTUT

V.

Signs of Dualism

Through all of humans' feelings, thoughts and efforts
to understand themselves and their environment
there runs the constant theme of coming to termswith duality. Consciousness of life and death, here
and hereafter, good and evil, mind and matter, and allother concepts born of opposition has led to a great
variety of dogmas, worldviews, religions, and philosophies. It is not our function here to try to explain thesecomplex matters, but we must be quite clear that we
possess feelings of belonging to duality groups, ofwhich the most elementary is certainly that of the
masculine and the feminine principles.
Nor should we forget that the mere fact of ourconscious activity during the day, in contrast with our

subconscious (and unconscious) absence during thenight, represents life's

most important condition ofduality, from which we cannot dissociate ourselves.

As the most striking graphic expression of this unity of reasoning we show here the sign of the wisdom of

Tao-te-ching (1). Within the unity of a circle, two fullycomplementary droplet or vesicle forms are joined.
The two are separated not by a line but by the bordering colors black and white, and within each form a dotof the opposite color establishes their unconditional

equality and completeness. At a later stage in this work

we will go into more detail concerning the deeply
symbolic, dualistic representation of thewisdom of

the I-ching in the context of Asiatic scripts.

For the sake of comparison we have assembled

some typical dualistic signs into a table. On the linesof the medieval concept of duality, the feminine, nurturing, stable elements of duality are placed in the firstvertical row, A; the second vertical row, B, contains the

masculine, active, thrusting signs. In the third row, C,73

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

the same signs are found in a first stage of contact,which we may call "meeting." In the fourth row, D, thesigns are in some cases still more closely linked, but it
is not until the final row, E, that the total interpenetra-tion of the two elements produces new unities.

The top horizontal row consists of the most simplified possible expressions. At the top left (1A) is the ho-

rizontal stroke, which in Christian symbolism denotes

waiting humankind; the vertical stroke next to it (IB)represents God's message (the Gospel). In the third

space (1C) the lines meet at one end. This figure of theright angle serves as the sign of law, of righteousness.
In (IB) we find the vertical meeting the horizontal in
the middle, giving the feeling of a stronger connection
between the two, a welding. This produces the idea ofbalance, of judgment. The sign of completion is finallyfound in (IE), where the horizontal and vertical elements cross in the middle. In the Christian sense thisis the act of God, which "redeems" humankind. The
sign of Christ has endured for centuries in thismonumentally simple form.
At the second level we find a medieval representation of Genesis. The first circle (2A) represents theearth with the horizon, comprising the surface of thewater and the vault of the sky. Next to it, in (2B), thecircle is divided vertically, designating sun and moon,
day and night. In (2E), the combination of the twosigns, with the penetration of earth and light, gives
us the symbol of life.
In the third horizontal row, we first have the upward-

pointing triangle (3A). Resting on its horizontal base,
likea mountain, awaiting erosion,itrepresents the

feminine principle. Next to it, the triangle standing on
its point, active like a tool, in expectation of "penetration"

represents the masculine principle (3B). In (3C) the

two triangles meet

at

their

points.

The

resultingextension of their lines forms a new, high X-cross, avery harmonious sign for meeting, and in the Middle
Ages the sign for time (the hourglass). In (3D) the two
triangles are joined at their base,making a divided

square standing on one corner. This is the sign of unity

74Signs of Dualism

V.

A

B

e o>

C

D

E

e
><

no
and peace. The two triangles overlap in (3E), forminga sign with a deep sense comparable to that of thecross. The Jewish interpretation is of the heavenly
penetrating the earthly, and it forms the Star of David,
symbol of the Jewish faith.
At the fourth level we return to the fork sign, alreadydescribed. In the Middle Ages it was the symbol of the

For Pythagoras it was a schematic representation of the course of life: the straight road, which at a
certain point divides into the "good" and "bad" ways.
Open at the top, it is the symbol of the waiting soul (4A),
while open below (4B) it symbolizes "the coming of the
Trinity.

75

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

Redeemer." In (4C) the two signs, touching at theirextremities, are combined to make a unified new sign.

This junction makes the forks disappear and theyclose up to make a rhomboid sign, as it were an em-

bodiment of the abstract. In (4D) the two crossing
forks become visible again, forming the sign of recognition. The total unification of the two signs at a
central point (4E) produces a completely new starsign. The fork signs have disappeared.
In the fifth row. we add one more expression ofduality, which presents one of the clearest and mostinteresting expressions of extremes purely by means of
its shape, free from any mythical or philosophicalassociations. The signs here are a concave "square"(5A) and, in opposition to it, a circle (5B). It is immediately

apparent to the viewer that the true square does notform the strongest contrast to the circle, as could easily
be assumed, but that it is this four-sided figure withstrongly concave sides, combining four segments of thecircle arranged in the reverse direction to make a very
aggressive sign, with its corners ending in radiatinglines. The superimposition of these two signs (5D, 5E)
produces graphically attractive figures, but theirexpression is less evocative of the idea of duality since
the forms partly cancel each other out by producing
completely new shapes: curved peaks in (5D) and lens

forms in (5E).
Before ending this chapter on dualism, mention
must be made of the Platonic myth of the androgyne,
which suggests that each of us is the complementaryhalf of a being that has been separated into two halves,
like a flatfish (2).

76

VI.

The Solid

1.

From line to solid areaAll

our considerations so far have been based on apurely linear form of expression: the drawn stroke,

whose thickness did not come into consideration in the
production of lines. In the two-dimensional creation ofgraphic forms, the line represents the simplest andpurest means of expression, but at the same time themost mobile and versatile.
The realization that a line is produced by a moving
point can be carried over to the solid, which is produced
by a line moving across the dimension of its width (1).

we take the production of a piece of textile as acomparison: we start with the fiber, which is spun intoa thread, and this thread is lined up to make a twoIf

dimensional cloth (2). The drafter is aware of being able
to produce solid areas by stippling, hatching, etc. in thesame way that a thread produces a cloth by being,

woven, plaited, or knitted.

When the structure of the alignment becomes lost in
the solid area, the latterbecomes condensed, fully

covering the surface of the background, and is therefore

seen as a change of material (3). The printer or painterin this case speaks of a "glossy" or "mat" surface. A
printed solid of good quality is one that closely follows
and reveals the structure of its substrate. Expressions
such as "gappy," "set-off," and "linty" refer to the disagreeable effect when the printed area loses the expression of its structure. The same applies in textile
manufacture to lint and felt, which are not woven but

made of shredded or compressed fibers.
Itwould be appropriate at this point to speak ofscreens and halftones, but this subject leads in anotherdirection.

We will continue to limit our comments to thecontrast between black and white.

77

I

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, SignalaThickness of the lines

In order to provide a useful vocabulary of line thick-ness for the considerations that follow, we propose awhich we deliberately use material
expressions that will make it easier to visualize the caclassification in

tegories.

A simple sign, a cross in a square, is enoughto illustrate this subject, to define the lengths of stroke,

and to achieve a uniform proportion of length andthickness.

fflfflffi
4a

We describe a thin line as a thread (4a). This is astroke of schematic character, where the eye does nottake the thickness into account, although there may berecollections of fine materials such as threads, glass,or rays.

We call the second degree of thickness a bar, rod,or stem (4b). This means that the stroke is no longer

an abstract expression but has taken on a slender body.
The thread has become string. For the first time, a
black-white contrast appears between the black
framework and the white interior. The stroke is seen
not only as a line but as a two-dimensional area.

We call the third degree of stroke thickness a beam(4c). This is the thickness of a mast or a wall, as well as

the normal thickness of our printing characters, towhich the eye has become accustomed

in

their

proportional relation with the intervening white space.
Strokes one degree thicker are described as trunk(4d) or pillar, as an expression of massive, supporting

elements. This corresponds to the thickness of our boldprinting types; the idea of "powerful" comes to mind,

and in the illustration the interior spaces have about
the same value as the surrounding black areas.

The last category of two-dimensional strokes is
described as mass (4e). The concept of "line" disap78

VI.

The Solid

pears and the interior spaces are seen as openings inthe background area.

To summarize, the categories ofline thickness are
thread, bar, beam, trunk, mass.

A line is regarded as such, i.e., as a movement inlength, so long as

its

thickness does not exceed acertain proportion to its length (5). A line that is thicker

than half its length loses the dynamic expression of a
stroke and receives the static expression of a rectangular solid area (6).

As the maximum contrast between these twoconcepts of dynamic and static, we show a thread line(7), as the most dynamic expression of straight move-I
5

ment, next to a massive solid, the square (8), as a static
expression.

Every rectangular solid area could thus be analyzed
on the basis of its development from a simple line. We
must make it clear, however, that we are not concerned
here with a geometrical understanding of form construction but are seeking a "geometry of feeling," inorder to understand the effect that signs have on us.
b

The swelling and shrinking of lines

most cases a thread line is seen as an abstract
concept, used for crossing out, framing, or bordering,
but as soon as the thickness changes within the stroke
this anonymity disappears and the line receives new
Inlqualities (9a, 10a).

A line which begins with thread thickness andends with bar thickness (9b) is certainly still judged
to be a line movement but the resulting cone shape has
its own concrete statement: one thinks of a beam oflight, a needle, or a sharp weapon. From a certain

10a

bed
79

9a

b

c

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

degree of swelling, the line suddenly disappears andthe sign is seen as a triangle (9c).
Starting with a fine line, this can be swollen in the
middle while retaining fine points (10a) to make a lensshaped solid (10b, 10c), which can be further extended
to make a circle (lOf), followed by a horizontal oval(lOg). This series clearly shows that when the full circle
is reached, the upper and lower points disappear andthat they never return in the oval.

11

II

12a

The converse of this development is provided by thestatic square (11), the sides of which progressively
bend inward (12a, b) until the two resulting curves
meet in a line 1 2c) and then cross over the central point(

to make another lens shape (12d).

c
13

((<•

14a

In a third example, a semicircular line (13) fills in up
to the vertical, thereby producing all stages of the sickle

shape (14a, b) up to the semicircle (14c) and beyond it(14d) to the full circle (14e). This form cycle is known to

15

mu*

16a

80

VI.

The Solid

everyone from the appearance of the moon and istherefore one of the most strongly marked of our
subconscious memories.
An asymmetrically swelling or shrinking line (15)leads to endless variations of form (16a to f) that it
would be useless to detail. There are only two that wewould like to mention, both of them being associatedwith the geometry of feeling: the flame shapes (16a tod), which often appear in symbolic representations of
the spirit, and the droplet form (16b), a symbol of wateror tears.

Developed on a curved line, the droplet shape
becomes a vesicle (17), a form that plays an importantrole in Gothic ornamentation.
In the chapter on duality, we have already considered
the laws of concave and convex forms. The preceding
examples are all related to this principle. The following
observation may be added: convex curving (18), i.e.,
the form bending outward, is an expression of an active
movement, pressing forward, and is the beginning of
the drawing of an object. Concave curving (19), on theother hand, is only possible in an object that already

17

18

19

and therefore rather represents a regressive
movement, rather retrospective than prospective.
existsMany psychological considerations of symbolism,
closely linked to one another through their ambivalence,

could be taken up in this section.
c

The tape shape

Considerations of the development of our scripts willdraw attention, in Part 2 of this work, to a writing
instrument whose function is described here, namely
the broad-nibbed pen. On being applied to the paper,

20

this produces a fine line, not a point. Set into motion,
this nib width is an illustration of the "line in move-ment" as already described, producing a solid area(20). A fine and a thick line are both available withthe broad-nibbed pen. Lines can be made thicker or
thinner, according to definite conventions of writing

technique, by varying the position and movement of

81

z/

^

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

the pen. In this fact lie all the secrets of calligraphy,

which has formed most Western scripts through thecenturies (21).

2.

The white sign on a black backgrounda

From outline to negative

In morphological Table1

itwas established that theintensity of the white radiation of the paper is greatest
in the fully enclosed sign of the square. This proposition

can here be taken further, but in connection with the
thickness of the stroke.

As a point of departure we take a cross formed by athread line (22a). The degree of brightness of theinterior form of the sign is still indeterminate in thisfirst example.

On the other hand, in the second example,

drawn with the thickness of a "bar" (22b), the white*#tttfO
22a

interior appears brighter than the whiteness of thepaper outside the sign. In the third example, drawn
with "beam" thickness (22c), this effect is even stronger. In the fourth example, with the "trunk" stroke
thickness, the expression of the sign is reversed: theblack outline is no longer clearly seen as a line but
appears as a solid area, in which the white crossoccupies a smaller area. In the final example (22e)the cross shines forth from the mass of the surroundas an autonomous sign in negative form.

Any form of positive sign set on a white background(23) has a more independent expression than thatwhich appears in negative on a black background (24),
82

VI.

The Solid

because the background itself has a formal outline(unless it is a complete sheet of black paper). It cannot
be denied that the interior negative shape is influenced by that of the black surround, thereby obtaining a new kind of expression. The two shapes have akind of interplay with each other. It is also often thecase that the outer shape makes a different statementfrom the inner one, as shown in our example (24),where a white cross, which has its own statement, isplaced on the background of a shield. The two together make a coat of arms.
Another graphic reality needs to be mentioned inthis connection, namely that two identical signs, one
in black on white and the other in white on black, do
not have the same appearance. The negative sign
always looks larger and thicker than the positive one(compare 23 and 24), the reason being the greaterradiance of white light against a black background.
Where type matter is concerned, the difference needed to correct this optical illusion can amount to 10%

+9
23

24

of the thickness (boldness) of the character.

is

Another way of expressing a sign in negative formshown in the adjacent example (25), where thenegative cross contains a second positive. A linear outline, this time negative, is once again expressed, giving

25

the sign a certain mysterious deepening.

Thismethodof graphic

contrast

providesaninvitation to produce all kinds of other playful versions

by displacing the inner cross. Where the displace-ment is strictly parallel, the horizontal and vertical
thicknesses differ, producing a relief effect (26). Where

26

the displacement is out of parallel (27), two completely

separate crosses become visible.
In this third example, the black and the white crossare seen as two-dimensional at first glance and the ideaof a surrounded shape, as recognized in figure 25, hasvirtually disappeared in figure 27.

27

83Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

b

o
C

28

Varying brightness of an interior shape

A white circular area in the center of a larger black
circular area has a radiance of constant brightness on
its

surface (28), but if the inner circle is moved to theedge of the outer one, there is a feeling that thebrightness has been reduced with the weakening of theblack-white contrast. This produces the feeling of avault, emphasized by the suggestion of a spherical formin the white part of this drawing (29).

29cIndications offormTwo or more solid-area signs placed close to each othersomehow give an independent expression to the space
between them. The simplest example is once again

30

f

^

L.

J

33

31

32

provided by the cross: four small square areas arranged in a rectangle (30) suggest a white cross in theintervening space. The closer the squares come together, the more clearly is the cross expressed. It is bestvisible when its arms are of medium thickness (31).

Where the interval is reduced to white lines, the thickness of the cross is no longer seen as two-dimensional
but as strokes or threads, giving it more the sense of adivision of the black solid area (32).

Similar examples could be made with many othershapes, such as the four triangles with concave curvature (33), which give rise to the appearance of a large
circle between them.

The well-known example of the two facing silhouettes(34) between which a white vase appears certainly
34

belongs in this section. In Gestalt psychology, this is

84

1

7.

The Solid

known as a kippjlgur (oscillating figure). The change
from one representation to the other depends on theviewer's powers of imagination. Both figures are present in the memory with about equal value.

3. The chessboard pattern

White and black squares are lined up alternately tomake the chessboard or checkered pattern (35). Thisand all its graphic derivatives catch the eye verystrongly, and it is for quite definite reasons of visibility
that the judge at a motor race waves a checkered flag.
The chess pieces, black and white, stand opposite
each other on a neutral territory, on whose structure
the procedure of the game is arranged. On viewing thechessboard we feel a certain graphic vibration causedby the fact of taking in the constantly alternating black
and white elements as either figure or background,
without coming to a conclusion.

We also notice that at the crossing points, where
the corners of the black and white squares meet, there
is a practically insoluble graphic problem:in drawing

such a crossing it is impossible, in fact, to make boththe black and the white corners touch each other.
Either the black points meet (36) or a white interval

35\

allows the white points to meet (37). Long observationand contemplation of this impossible double meeting
point can lead to optical fatigue.

The very aggressive effect of this visual phenomenon is often used in present-day graphics and fine art(op art, Albers, Vasarely), and it also occurs in older
forms of ornamentation. Used at the right place andin small amounts it provides a useful stimulus, butwhen used to excess in textiles, mural decoration, etc.,
it

becomes "indigestible."
Our illustration (38) shows schematically the hinge-

like,vibrant effect obtained at the vertical line ofjunction of the two negative-positive signs, through thesimultaneous coming together of black and white pairsof corners.

85

r

i

37

VII.

The Simulation of Volume

Every form of graphic expression is basically tied tothe two-dimensional. Consciousness of this limitation
to the surface has impelled drafters and painters,
through the centuries, to "break" out of the plane ofthe picture, stepping forward from it or penetrating
into its depth. Objects that in earlier times were placednext to each other on the same plane were subsequently moved one behind the other. Small and large wereidentified with far and near; joined together by vanishing lines, they gave rise to the art of perspective. Objects
were modeled by the use of light and dark, and theinclusion of shadows completed the simulation of
three-dimensional space.
In the field of signs, we here make use of someextremely simplified models to analyze the appearanceof volume.

1. Superimposed layers

Two constructed signs, a cross and a square, are consuperimposed. The first experiment is to
examine the same double sign in both an oblique anda horizontal-vertical position. The comparison showsthat in the oblique position (1) the cross and the square
are hard to recognize: one sees rather an assembly ofsmall squares, forming a chessboard type of pattern.
In the upright version (2), on the other hand, boththe vertical-horizontal cross and the square appear
clearly in stratified form. We observed the same fact in
the first chapter, pointing out that, because of theircentricallyphysical constitution, humans obviously react first to
positioning on the horizontal-vertical axis and need to87Sign. Symbol. Emblem. Signal

overcome a certain resistance before taking obliquepositions into account. (See also the example from
Rubin, Part 1, Chapter II).
In a tabulation (3), the simple omission of some ofthe stroke elements produces variations in this double
figure from which the following observations may be

noted. To start with, the basic sign is repeated (3a).

Because of its 12 crossing points, it is seen rather as aground plan or diagram. In (3b), the cross sign appears
much more clearly as an object and the square is seen
as "transparent." Figure (3c) is an intermediary stage
in which no clear appearance of volume can be recognized. This is because of the crossover place of thearms, which produces four stroke crossings in theinterior. In (3d) the sides of the square are interrupted,
but despite this effect it is immediately recognized as asquare and the lines are extended under the crossshape by the imagination. The same stratification effectappears clearly in (3e): the cross is presumed to exist
behind the square shape. These figures are examples ofan optical effect in which, through the indication ofdetails around the edge of an object in the foreground,the mind's eye sees and completes the presumed object
in the background. These two examples should give aclear demon-stration of the psychological phenomenonof "remembering" a sign.
Figures (3f) and (3g) are once again less meaningful
as examples of stratification: a greater effort is required
to see three superimposed panels in (3f), i.e., a square
and a cross divided into two pieces.
In (3g), by contrast, the stronger appearance is of afrontal view of a pile of wooden blocks or a whipping
top or gyroscope: the sign is typically ambiguous andresponds to two different archetypes in the viewer's
mind, either blocks of wood or the rotary movement of
a top, depending on the strength of the memory pictureof one or the other. In (3h, i, j), plaiting effects are recognizable; (3h) looks like a belt buckle with straps

drawn through it; (3i) is a vertical tape plaited withthree horizontal tapes, and in (3j) a cross shape penetrates a buckle from front to back.

88

I II.

The Simulation of 'olume\

Figure (3i) is also reminiscent of an assembly ofbricks (cf. 3g), with a clearly recognizable hole in the

middle.

The figures in the last row are all frontal views ofrather flat cutout objects (3k), having a greater effect ofthickness in the presentation of the substance of amechanical clamping process in (3m) or turning in (3n).
Particular forms of construction appear in (3o) and(3p). The emergence of the Cross of Lorraine in (3o) andthe Cross of Christ in (3p) give the observer some ideaof the multitude of archetypes held in the subconscious.

2. Plaiting

Starting once again from a schematic drawing, thistime of two superimposed rings, the next example gives
the impression of a technical drawing or an abstraction, because of its many crossings-over (4a).

As soon as the crossing lines have been removed, acutout object appears, even if flat and without relief
(4b).

89

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

When the circles of the first ring are complete but
those of the second interrupted where they cross thefirst,

our power of imagination completes the covered

parts tomake a full circle (4c). The effect of two

superimposed objects appears clearly, thus indicating
the third dimension of depth. When the drawing of thetwo rings simulates an interlinking, an almost tangible
impression of relief is produced (4d).

The higher the number of interlinkings is, the more
an impression of an interlaced entanglement is perceived as volume (4e).
This kind of interlacing band is an important basic
element in ornamental painting and sculpture, to befound all over the world. One of the oldest examples is
the Oriental "Gordian knot." This form of expression is
also found in runic inscriptions, on the capitals of
Roman columns, and in Oriental painting.
3. "Suggestive" white

Any two elements - line or solid - can be joined together
in either of two ways: by means of a clear junction or"welding" (already mentioned) or with the aid of a simulated connection, which is only apparent. The latter
I

I

I

type is purely optical and relies on proximity, consistingof a juxtaposition of two elements with a minimum of
white space separating them (6). This arrangement
brings out two facts: first, that a figure assembled with

I

I

I

such a minimal white interval is easily broken down
into its basic elements; second, that the gaps in the
strokes, mainly applied at the crossover points, makeone stroke pass over the other in the viewer's imagination. By extending the same technique to a number ofparallel strokes, alternating with white, the threedimensional effect of the interweaving is strengthened(7) and the eye imagines a textile structure with over-90Th e Sim u lotion of V o In rue

VII.

lapping threads. The effect of volume is even stronger

when the "woven" lines have a certain thickness (8).
4. Perspective

It is thenature of a sign to be two-dimensional, lacking

the concept of "volume." Pictograms are almost always

drawn as silhouettes and the effect of volume is an exception.
In the graphic design of a sign

tempting

make

to

the

figure

it

stand

is

often veryout fromits

background level by trying to give it an apparently
three-dimensional volume. For this purpose there are,of course, many other possibilities than those describedin the last two sections.

In the present context it does not seem appropriate
to enter intoa discussion of perspective drawing as

much more to the point to give a brief
indication of the new possibilities given to a sign by the
such.

It

is

perspective extension of its linear expression.

The most important starting point for our observations is the angle of vision. This must be chosen"naturally."i.e.,deliberately; otherwise

itis difficult

for the viewer to recognize the intention of volume inthe drawing. This fact is clearly shown by the transparent

Kopfermann cube.
The angle of vision of the first drawing (9) can be
regarded as deliberately chosen to make all the corners
and all the sides visible. In the second drawing (10) twoof the vertical edges merge into one another: the angleof vision is strictly symmetrical on the vertical axis andthe cube is already rather less clear. In the third
drawing (11) the cube is hard to identify. The coming
together of the points of intersection now has such an"abstract" character that the drawing is no longer
recognized as an "object" but once again as a pure

10

sign.

When the same rules are applied to a sign as for thecan be seen thatvolume is hard to recognize when the vanishing pointgraphic expression of volume,isitexactly central and symmetrical. In the case of the91liSign. Symbol, Emblem, Signal

first cross (12a), there is no expression of depth in thelower half. In the next two examples, on the other hand,where the angle of vision happens to be slightly lateral,
allparts of the surface are projected toward thevanishing point and the signs appear three-dimensional(12b, c). Comparing these two signs, viewers becomeaware of their own "position of observation," which in(12b) is below the cross and in (12c) above it.

There is a further possibility, in addition to perspective, of giving a sign an "engraved" form of relief,
namely the addition of beveled edges (12d). This kindof representation often causes difficulty for the viewer
in deciding whether the object is in low or high relief,a phenomenon that becomes still more marked in thecase of shadowing, as follows.

5.

The shadowaThe illuminated object

Perspective representation easily leads to the use of theblack-white contrast, in order to emphasize the effect13

of a strong relief, through imaginary illumination, byshading in the receding surfaces (13).

The orientation given to the shadowed parts is very
important as it allows the viewer to imagine the direction from which the rays of an invisible light source
are coming. Most people use the right hand for drawing, so that from their earliest attempts in childhood

they intuitively try to find the best way of illuminatinga picture surface, which is where the light comes fromthe upper left, so that the drawing hand does not castany shadow on the surface of the paper (14). Experi92

I II.

The Simula Hon of 'olume\

ence shows that photographs of engraved inscriptions,reliefs, and other three-dimensional structures cangive the viewer the impression of either low or highrelief, depending on whether the object is illuminatedfrom the "correct" or "incorrect" side.
The examples of white circles in relief, with shadows thrown in different directions (15), show that the
reproduction of an upward-facing cylinder that is felt
to be "correct" is the one with the shadow at lower
right (15f), since the light appears to come from theupper left. The converse example, with the shadow at
the upper left, gives the impression of a circular pit

14

with part of its wall in shadow (15e).

Examples (15a, b, c, d) are of unusual angles ofillumination and are more precise concerning the sourceof the light: the horizontal directions represent evening(15a) and morning (15b) and the vertical direction
midday (15d), with the rays of light coming from thezenith.

O
'

15

O
b

o
'
'

d^^^

On the other hand, illumination coming verticallyfrom below gives a quite unreal, theatrical effect (15c)and is often used in film production for the weird or
fantastic effect.

b

Thrown shadows

Another way of providing a sign with contrast consistsof projecting a thrown shadow onto an imaginary
background. In the first example (16) the black shadow
cross appears to be behind the white cross, giving theeffect of a cutout figure separated from its backgroundand throwing its shadow onto a vertical rear wall.
93

o
f

^^^

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

The thrown shadow may also be projected onto ahorizontal floor, taking on a perspective form (17).

£*^17

18

In the final example (18), the thrown shadow shows

the presence of both a floor and a wall in the background,on which the sign once again appears without
perspective, in shadow and in a somewhat ghostly
manner, standing upright.

6. Unusual volume

It is

not difficult for a drafter to irritate the viewer bymeans of unusual perspectives or the use of tricks.
The next example (19) still shows the same cross butwith two different vanishing points on the same object. The normal view of the object is disturbed: although the white surfaces are recognizable, they
appear twisted and incomprehensible.
In the second example (20), the artist has given freerein to fantasy by first establishing the main feature of
the object, i.e., the three circular ends, and then omitting the connection of one of them. It is also noticeable
that the tubes run out quite unrealistically into flatand cornered ends.
The Kippfigur (oscillating figure) by Josef Albers(21) is even more deceptive. The perspective changes,
while one is looking at it, from one beam to the other,arousing a certain interest but at the same time an
unpleasant feeling of confusion.

94

I '//.

7.

The Simulation of \ blume

Optical illusions

It is

not possible for the human eye to grasp a figure

in a purely "objective," that is, a purely geometrical,

way. This fact is proved by experiments with optical illusions, all of which are based on the principle of an
overlaying or combining of two or more graphic elements, which mix up different levels of recollection in
the viewers, causing confusion between intellectual,geometric exactitude and that which is visually felt.
Most of these optical sign tricks are based on combinations of structures simulating direction or volume,with geometrically exact figures laid over them.
Two typical examples of optical volume effects areshown to conclude the chapter on the simulation of
volume.
A square, laid over a receding perspective structure,appears distorted into a trapezoid (nonparallel) shape(22).

Three human figures drawn to exactly the same

pavement in perspective, are seen asa dwarf in front, an average person in the middle, anda giant at the far end (23).
size, placed on a

III

1

1
1
1 1
'

III

IV
23

22

95

VIII. The Diversity of Appearance

1. Drawing and material

we follow the evolution of signs and scripts we findthat their outward forms have undergone very many
Ifchanges, stylizations, and simplifications in the courseof time. This is mainly due to the means of writing usedover many centuries and differing from one geographical zone toanother. The materials used have deter-

mined the production of suitable tools with which information could be drawn and recorded. Thus, for example, in ancient Egypt hieroglyphics were chiseledinto stone and later written on papyrus; in northernlands runes were engraved on wood, bone, and stone;
in Mesopotamia signs were stamped into clay tablets,
and in southeastern regions, writing was scratched
onto long, dry palm leaves.
a The tools

dawn of human history, the first recorded
statements were made by unskillful scratching or cutting of stone or wood (1). This engraving in depth
In theallowed the signs to be perceived not only opticallybut by touching with the hand. This sense of theanchoring of a statement in a permanent material has
retained its effect, for even today a monument or
gravestone is inscribed with hammer and chisel, notwith painted letters (2).
Drawing on the surface in two dimensions, orpainting onto lighter materials such as boards, skins,or leaves, not only extended but also speeded up the
possibilities of expression. These factors helped todetermine the growth of communications. Ink- bearing
instruments, apart from the primitive, dye-soaked
stalk (3), are chiefly the brush (4) and the quill (5). The

97

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Sign, Symbol. Emblem. Signal

twou

based on the principle of thestorage of ink, allowing a number of signs to be written without raising the hand. This quality has likewise
led to the cursive style of our handwriting.
There are other possibilities of expression, forexample, in textiles, through weaving (6), knitting (7),and also coloring. These techniques have also given
new forms to signs, of which an obvious example isthe symbolic ornamentation of carpets woven in theEast. A strong simplification of the sign forms is madeunavoidable by the texture of the woven thread; thelatter tools aresame applies to knitting.
Techniques of burning (8) on wood, bark, and othermaterials convey their own forms of expression.
The peculiar character of each of these forms ofexpression has built up a wealth of formal characteristics over the millennia, thus providing one aspect of
the concept of "style."

Today we possess tools and materials that allow us
an almost total freedom of form in the technique ofapplication (pencil, brush, ballpoint,

felt-tip,

spraygun) and in foil cutting, photography,<
9etc. This fact
does not necessarily make it any easier for the artist
to choose the right method.
At the same time, the techniques of electronic
recording have developed so far that the graphic artist
can now work out a design directly on the video
screen. Digitally recorded linear drawings can be
distorted as required through mathematical shiftingof their coordination points. A simple outline drawing
can be projected as a volume in all directions, shadowed,
and "painted." Nevertheless, the screen remains an
instrument that, although it may well simplify design

work, cannot in any way replace knowledge of theheritage of tradition.

10b

The stroke endingIt

would be interesting to make a study of the multifari-ous techniques of sign formation, but at this point wemust restrict ourselves to one important detail: the

98

©
\

III.

The Diversity of ippearance.

appearance of the ending of a stroke. A simple drawn
line covers a distance with a beginning and an end.
Where these ends are not thickened or marked off insome way. the stroke being simply cut off, the line
appears to hang in a void, or in mathematical terms to
be lost in infinity (9). This graphic situation makes theviewer rather uncertain as to where the beginning andend are exactly situated. In technical drawings,
diagrams, and plans, freestanding lines are marked off
with small cross strokes (10) to make their expression
unequivocal. Almost all techniques of writing and drawing have produced their own different ways of marking

JM

Thus in the chiseling of Roman capitalletters, the stroke ending was slightly overemphasized(11) in order to strengthen the effect of light and shadeat this point, giving the sign a better hold on the surface.
We find many kinds of entry and exit strokes incalligraphic scripts (1 2), all emphasized to a greater orline endings.

ndepending on the pen, its positioning,
and the character of the scribe. In Western countries,
the broad-nibbed pen has been mainly used. In otherlanguage regions, e.g., in South India and Indonesia,
the use of a pointed stylus on dry palm leaves hasoften led to strengthenings at the beginning and endof the character in the form of a small curlicue (13).
lesser degree

13

Where the symbolic sign is concerned, it is interesting to consider the cross shape as an example fromC\0this point of view. The stroke endings of this sign were,G—

elements that could be altered or
decorated throughout the centuries, and this in thein fact, the only

most varied forms, expressing the spirit of the age, thefaith, or the individual. It is noteworthy that practicallyall handicrafts have come into play for the expressionof such an important sign: for example, the blacksmith

—

e/l9
14

could make artistic flourishes out of these endings (14).
In heraldry and in all fields of ornamentation, these

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Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

strengthenings of stroke endings have been used toenrich the expression of the sign, often bearing asymbolism of their own, as shown in our array ofcross forms (15),where symbols such as anchor,

cloverleaf, and lily are recognizable.

JUL
16

Another thought on the subject of "endings" is thatof a comparison with the human body. The letters of

our alphabet are placed on a baseline, like a floor,
which is why they have been given horizontal endings
at their base,

like

feet,

which wecall

serifs(16).

Curiously enough, the opposite course was taken in
India, where we find scripts of the Sanskrit languagewith their characters hanging from above, as though
17from a line (17).
c

The right tool for the right material

Three important factors have influenced and helped todetermine the pictorial expression of the most varied
epochs: the choice of the righttool,

the available

materials, and, not least, the limitations of time ap-

plying in each case to the act of writing or drawing. It
is very important to follow developments of style with[8

these factors in mind.

2. The value of interior and intermediary space

19

A reputed saying of Lao-tzu: There are sixteen spokes&B

do not make thewheel, which is formed by the skillful arrangementand division of the fifteen spaces in between (19).
Throughout this work we have brought out theimportance of interior space or white space. In addition(18) in the wheel, but they alone

to the quality of the stroke there is that of the spacethat is enclosed. Our valuation of volume should not

be subordinate to our judgment of the strokes used.
Graphic work in two dimensions (20) can be comparedwith the three-dimensional work of an architect (21),where the same rules of the quality of materials andspace apply. The finest building materials can enclose100

VIII.

The Diversity of Appearance

very ugly and unattractive spaces, while a simple brickbuilding,

if wellplanned, can create rooms that areharmoniously arranged and invite occupation.
Correspondingly, it is not only the quality of the typedrawing, the printing, or the refinement of a techniquethat ensures the quality of a sign:itislikewise thewhite space within or between the signs that confirms the power of expression of the work as a whole.
In

most

artistic

activities thiscontrast between

material and space, white and black, removal andone of the most important factors increativity. In the two-dimensional graphic field it isof decisive importance to balance the two opposite
weights in such a way that the black expression ofform harmonizes with the immaterial expression of
the white to produce a statement that achieves perfection and permanence on the paper.
retentionis

Our illustration (22) shows the "sculptural" qualityof the white space that exists between two welldrawn letters.
The beauty of a sign is often the result of a struggle
between the resistance of the material and its conquest
by the instrument: in stonemasonry, wood carving, andironworking, but also in punch cutting and printing.
By contrast, the Oriental way of thought and expression, mainly in China and Japan, puts the creative
act more into the mastery of a gesture with which thebrush lays the sign on the paper.
The answer to the question whether the creativeact comes spontaneously from the painting or writing hand or whether it is built up constructively indrawing, scoring, or cutting depends on the individual's gift and training. It would be misleading to overstate the value of one process or the other, in view ofthe diversity of technical possibilities now available,

including our wealth of iconographical knowledge,

brought by all kinds of modern methods of picturetransmission.

One point of which creative persons must be aware is that they should remain true to their material,in order to produce the right structure with the right101

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

toolfrom the chosen material, as was naturally thecase in earlier times as a result of more restrictive

circumstances.
3. The image

23

The image of a picture comes about through the contrast between drawing and background. Today, thisbringing to view of a sign has become relatively simple,
since a multitude of technical means are available.
The great majority of possible two-dimensional, i.e.,graphic, contrasts could b~e reduced to the following

groups:a Black-white

Black-white is the most impressive of two-dimensional
contrasts:

itisthe symbol of the opposites of dark(night) and light (day), which are anchored in duality.

The dividing line between these two elements produces
an extremely sharp edge, which gives the form its
absolute expression (23). Here it is immediately ap-

parent whether an outline is taut and sharp or whether, in accordance with the nature of freehand drawing,it

has a more ragged appearance.
All the techniques of graphic reproduction are basedon the fundamental contrast between the applied blackand the existing white background.
b Colors

The second aspect of two-dimensional pictures consistsin the contrast of colors. The greatest antithesis between background and sign is achieved through theuse of complementary colors, e.g., a red sign on agreen background. One could find the least degree ofcontrast by using the same color range for sign andbackground with a slight change of tone, e.g., a redsign on an orange background. Between these two
25

extremes there lies the extensive world of the art ofcoloring, with its wealth of possibilities of contrast.

102

I

///.

The Diversity ofAppearancec Halftones

Between black and white there is an infinite progression of gray tones, forming the path that leads the eye

fromlight to dark.

In the graphic

reproduction of

pictures the halftones are produced by screening, inwhich an assembly of many dots makes the eye seean area of gray (24).
This technique makes it possible to reproduce
gray-tone pictures with all the shades of modelingand effects of depth.
Degrees of gray can likewise be achieved with a line
screen (25). Television also works on this principle, thepicture on the screen being resolved into lighter or
darker parts of lines. The sharpness of outlines inevitably
suffers through this technique of reproduction.

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d Structures

A contrast is not necessarily dependent on the use oflight and dark but can also be produced by alterationsin the structure of the surfaces.

A sign drawn with ver-tical hatching on a background of horizontal hatching(26) comes to view quite clearly, even though the grayvalue of the whole picture is uniform. This form ofimage theoretically approaches the contrast of complementary color, in that the gray scale likewise has no
meaningful importance in itself, the contrast being
made visible only by the different color wavelengths.

4.

Picture quality

The level of quality of a graphic product is determinedby the demands that it has to fulfill with regard to thereader or viewer. The product may be a precise,
optically measurable statement or, by contrast, a pieceof documentation for general information. Furthermore, a graphic representation may be aimed to stimulate contemplation and is then almost exclusively directed toward aesthetic criteria. Between a geometrical103

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

drawing and a painted icon there is such a wealth ofdifferent kinds of pictures that we must attempt toreduce them to main categories, such as the following
three.

a Schematic or "dimensional" illustration

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Geometric forms, architectural plans, geographicalmaps, scientific diagrams, and so on, all require a
precision of statement that can leave no doubt in thereader's mind. Thus the map serves for the exact
orientation of a place, so that distances and areas canbe measured on it, to a given scale. This kind of
documentation is an exact description, from which
information can be directly taken with precision, including items that cannot be seen in reality. Thus theground plan of a house also shows the under-floor
heating and underground services. The drawing andreproduction of these graphic statements generally
require great care, since they are a direct means ofcommunication between object and understanding.

To illustrate this category, we show the familiar
candlestick sign in the form of a technical drawing(27) withexact statements about the dimensions,scale, etc., of an object existing or to

be manufac-

tured outside this book.
b

Naturalistic illustration

The greater part of graphically reproduced illustrations
shows objects or happenings, taken (mostly photographically) in approximately the same conditions as
the human eye is able to perceive them. The reproduction loses the third dimension of depth, which is simulated and bridged over by means of perspective andlight effects. In many cases color is also lacking andthe information has to suffice by means of black-white
contrast and halftone gradations.
The photographic picture is basically nothing otherthan a visual "support," with the aid of which theviewer constantly reassembles inner pictorial
28

104

re-

VIII,The Diversity of Appearance

collections in order to find a meaning and a connection in the information given.
In place of the geographical map of the first category,
we could here use an aerial photo of the same territory.

The photographic information is certainly not so precise
as that of the topographical map and cannot serve as areliable indication of scale, but it contains a greater
wealth of interpretable elements such as the nature,
structure, and housing development of the land; allkinds of vegetation; and so on.
In this category, the candlestick sign is reproduced

The picture provides general
information about the material used and method of
as a real object (28).

manufacture, but without a verbal description there
can be no knowledge of its exact dimensions, location,or functionality.

c

Artistic or "contemplative" illustrationb

The same landscape that was shown in the first category as a map and in the second as a photograph could
appear in this third category in the form of an artistic
illustration or painting.

A strip of yellow still says

b

b

mm

nil

"cornfield", but it is principally an ornamental element

purposes of an overall aesthetic effect. The
painter or graphic artist has the gift of so describing
and decorating a thing as to produce a pictorial image
from a purely objective and thematic origin, so thatthe basic information is retained but is ornamentally
clothed in such a way as to awaken a contemplative
reaction in viewers. If a picture moves viewers in any
way, they like to hang it on the wall, framed or simply
with a drawing pin: they want to contemplate it for a
for thelonger period, live in its presence. In addition to its

expression of feeling it is also a matter of ornament,

symbol, and recollection for viewers.

The example of the candlestick sign leads us in thiscase to a contemplative type of illustration in the formof a "graphic" (29).

105

29

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

Attempt at a visual synthesis
The final table in Part 1 shows an assembly of many
possible interpretations of the candlestick, as a summary of what has been said so far. The mental effort
and manual work involved in the two-dimensional
representation of an object sign can be regarded as
basic for all graphic activities.

106

VIII.

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Part 2

Speech-Fixing Signs

mon ame! le poeme n'est point fait de ces lettres
que je plante comme des clous, mais du blanc qui
reste sur le papier.

Oh my soul! The poem is not made of these letters
which

I

set in like nails, but of the white which is left

on the paper.

PAUL CLAUDELPART 2: SPEECH-FIXING SIGNSI.

From Thought to Picture

1.

Prototypes

The origin and development of human intelligence, asa subject of research, now exercise more fascination
than ever before. New discoveries of evidence of prehistoric "thought" are constantly accumulating like thepieces of a jigsaw puzzle, while work goes on all thetime on their logical arrangement. Records in the formof scratched, cut, and painted markings on rock walls
have survived from the Ice Age about 60,000 years before our era, and it is tempting to see these "memorials"
as precursors of our script. In a very broad sense theycertainly are precursors, but in no way could they be regarded as directly connected examples of what is today
called a script, even a pictographic script.
In those early times, humankind was fully occupied
with much more vital undertakings than any attempt
to make a first record of speech. Cave paintings aremuch better evaluated as a means of magical conjuration, produced through fear of the supernatural, purely for reasons of survival and the satisfaction of natural
instincts.

2. Speech and gesture

Before writing there was speech, a kind of speech, asystem of communication developing over millions of
It can be assumed to have consisted partly ofsounds from the beginning but was undoubtedly supported by other forms of expression that did not exclusively address the sense of hearing. All species of animals send and receive information, but it is expressedin the realms of all the senses: sight, hearing, touch,smell, taste. It can therefore be assumed that an orig-

years.

111

Rock drawing

Speech-Fixing Signs

inal "language" did not consist of sounds alone but al-

so of many gestures, contacts, sniffings, etc. This consideration leads to the question of how far "body language" might have been a part of the origin of written

records.

An inner need still leads speakers to support what
they are saying by means of sketches or figurative gestures. If on a beach, for example, we can hardly resist
Written in sanddrawing with the finger on the smooth surface of thesand as a means of clarifying what we are talking about.
In the Neolithic age, much closer to our historicaltimes, humans tried more and more to recognize andgrasp their own limitations of time and space. Becoming conscious of life and death provided a motive for invention, for the drive to self-endorsement.

It

would

seem to be a natural, though later continuation of thisprocess of development to express past experience andfuture plans, hopes, and fears and also to wish to record

such new perceptions.
When one contemplates a prehistoric drawing, theidea also emerges that an accompanying explanatory,
ritual, or narrative speech of sounds and gestures musthave existed in close association with the picture.
The drawings have come down to us, but the speech,
and with it the meaning of the signs, has not been directly handed down.

In our view, the development of the "graphic" re-cording of expressed thought lies within a two-track

development of spoken sounds on the one hand anddescriptive gestures on the other. Gradually this complementary mode of expression led toward the use ofsame signs in association with the same statements. At that moment the pictures became a script,
which fixed what was thought and spoken in such atheProtohistoric "narrative,ca.

10,000 b.c.

way that, without limitations of time, it could ever andagain be represented, that is to say, "read off."112

Speech Fixing

II.

Writing, in the sense of a genuine record of thought andspeech, can be said to have actually existed from thetime at which drawings or signs appear in direct relation with spoken syllables, words, or phrases.

The first "scribes" of early times can be supposed tohave existed in the fifth millenium b.c. in the Middle
East. With the aid of signs known as pictograms, they
made schematic representations of objects, dates andactions. Writing in the proper sense, however, did not
begin until the moment when they started to arrange
the signs horizontally or vertically in rows, corresponding to their own linear train of thought. Thus align-

ments of signs gradually began to appear and, throughconstantly repeated use, were further developed into
continuous script cultures.

Early Hethitic pictograms, ca. 4000 b.c.

1.

Two ways of script developnent

Pictorial signs were certainly at the origin of all scriptsthat have come into existence through a natural courseof development. In the study of the laborious

andwidely differing routes toward the definite graphic fixing of a language, two main categories can be identified.

113

Speech-Fixing Signs

a Scripts "remaining" pictorial

This category includes all scripts which have under-gone no revolutionary change, even over hundreds ofyears, but have kept their signs at the pictorial stage,even though stylized. The living proof of this is the
Chinese script. For example, the sign for a horse isclearly recognizable in its archaic form, and although
this has later been somewhat systematized, the basic
strokes and movements are still present in the modern
sign (four legs, head, tail, etc.).

Development of Chinese characters

Horse (modern)

Horse (archaic)b"Alphabetical" scripts

This category includes all those scripts whose originalchanged over the centuries
to purely phonetic signs, their strokes being reduced
to the most extreme simplification. This is most clearly expressed in the Latin alphabet. Our illustrationshows, in the first panel, an early pictorial sign for a
picture signs have beenbull, "aleph," with all the details such as ears, horns,

and an eye. As the sign develops, the pictorially significant parts of the image are left out bit by bit until
the letter A crystallizes as a pure abstraction.
Development of Latin characters

From the hieroglyph to the modern phonetic character A

114

//.

2.

Speech Fixing

A common origin?

Three archaic
signs for water

Those who study the history of the numerous written
languages of our civilization search in vain for a common origin of sign formation. Many attempts have certainly been made to discover affinities and associations
between the primitive scripts of different regions andcontinents, but it has never been possible to establish
them incontrovertibly and it is improbable that they
will ever be found.

Nevertheless there are some irrefutable analogies

between elementary signs, at least in the pictorial representation of objects which must have been common
to all peoples. We need only think of the representationof human and animal figures and typical weapons suchas arrows. The moon was surely represented all over
the world as a sickle shape, a mountain as a triangle,
and water as a wave line, but these facts do not in any
way indicate the existence of an original script, or urschrift, but rather of keen powers of observation and a
special sense of interpretation possessed by the early

Mesopotamia

Wv
Egypt

China

scribes.

3. Inherited archetypes?

The idea that certain figures are anchored deep in our
subconscious, from birth, as inherited "archetypes"

with a common symbolic interpretation should also bementioned here. Does a kitten have a mental picture of"mouse" before it sees one for the first time, or does achild recognize fire as "danger" before it has been
burned? This gives rise to a fundamental question
which goes far beyond the scope of our inquiry, namely, whether a pictorial notion can be inborn or whether
it must first be experienced in order to enter the(^?^subconscious as a memory.

Inborn archetype?

4.

From pictogram to ideogram

In a combined illustration, we attempt to compare signs

from three major cultures and demonstrate some basic
principles of these pictographic scripts.

115

Speech-Fixing Signs

The top row shows (left to right) archaic forms of Chinese signs, precursors of Mesopotamian cuneiform,and hieroglyphics from Ancient Egypt. Each style shows
Mesopotamian

ChineseEgyptian

Wq V
i

Door

Ear

i

Mountains

Bull

m

Spy

Wild

Cool

two object signs: door and ear in Old Chinese, ox andmountain in early Mesopotamian, jug and water in
Egyptian hieroglyphics. In the lower row, each pair ofsigns is combined to give a new meaning with a more
complex expression. The combination expresses one
quality in accordance with the two signs: an ear behindthe door means "listen" or "eavesdrop," the mountains
in the ox's head mean "wild" (the ox longs for the mountains), and the water in association with the jug means"fresh" or "cool."Three further examples each show two pictogramswith abstract meaning. In Chinese a dot (an arrow) in
the target means "center" and the swastika of the four
Mesopotamian

ChineseCenterMovement

RegionEgyptian

Speed

South

Seek

wind directions stands for "region." The original cuneiform sign for the sun means "movement" and the arrow stands for "speed." In the third panel, two purely
figurative hieroglyphic signs illustrate abstract con-

116

//.

Speech Fixing

cepts: the plant leaning toward the sun means "south"

and the bird with head down stands for the verb "seek."
Our last example shows six signs at the border of thepictorial: a dot placed above or below a line means"above" or "below" in Chinese; an obtuse angle means"sink" and a diagonal cross "protect" in Mesopotamian. In the Egyptian cross sign for "Godhead" a human figure is still recognizable, and in the hieroglyphfor "day" the sun's rays in the morning, evening, andmidday still have an explanatory function.
From this series of examples it can be seen how apictogram is able to be changed into an ideogram in a
first stage of development.

Mesopotamian

ChineseEgyptian

ra
Above

Below

Sink

GodheadProtect

Day

5. Determinatives

would be appropriate to describe here the innumerable main processes in the development of all language
systems and grammars, but this would far exceed thebounds of our purely graphic considerations.
As a striking example we refer at this point to onlyIt

one of the important rules, that of the "determinative,"
which played such an important part in the early rulesof writing.

The Sumerian object sign for "plough" becomes adeterminative sign when it stands next to the rectangle

meaning "piece of ground," thereby stating that it is a"field."The same "plough" sign becomes the determinativefor "farmer" when it stands next to the pictogram for"man" or "person." The additional cross strokes in the"man" sign are indications of hierarchical value or
rank.

Farmer117

Speech-Fixing Signs

6.

From ideogram to phonogram

One of the most important developments in the recording of speech is provided by the use of a pictogram to reBee and leaf
beliefproduce a syllabic sound, not to record a concept.
This makes the pictogram into a phonogram. In
punning, or rebus form, our illustration shows theGerman word ursprung (origin) represented by pictures oiuhr (watch) and sprung (leap).
In English, a phonogram might be composed of pictures of "bee" and "leaf to spell "belief."
In this way, syllable signs were made from picture
and idea signs: not only the meaning of an inscription

but also its pronunciation was permanently fixed in
Uhr-sprung

writing.

118

III.

The Graphic Wealth of
Pictograms

1.

From Sumerian pictograms to cuneiform

Mesopotamia, between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, even before 4000 B.C., there lived a people ofunknown race, the Sumerians, whose fascinating culture is still largely hidden in the mists of history. They
probably immigrated from the northeast as nomadic
tribes, to settle in the land between the two rivers, a fertile plain where they developed their culture under
hard climatic conditions. Such difficulties had no small
influence on their intellectual, economic, and social
character. Like their Semitic successors, the Sumerians had a logical and scientific turn of mind, a factthat is clearly visible from the background of theirInwritings.

The earliest examples of Sumerian script come fromthe fourth millennium b.c. and are generally regarded

Schmandt-Besserat
theoryas the oldest examples of records that can truly be de-scribed as "writing." They are pictograms scratched inclay, in which the straight line is already strongly pre-dominant, indicating a very early use of the techniqueof impressing a spatula into clay. For the Neolithic period, the simplification of forms is quite astonishing,

and the question naturally arises as to whether there
are earlier, still undiscovered versions of these pictoSheepgrams.

The strongly stylized drawings are either representations of complete objects or parts of these shown inmore detail. One of the latest theories associates Sume-

Wool

rian pictograms with the many small clay objects ofwidely varying shapes found at many archaeological

Clay objects as fore-sites in the Middle East. Up to now, little attention has

runners of script?

119Speech-Fixing Signs

Sumerian

Man

Woman

(penis)(vulva)been paid to these figures, which have been accorded
minor importance as toys, ornaments, or amulets. It
has now been discovered that many of these clay figures are amazingly similar to the earliest pictograms.
For example, the pictograms for oil, sheep, wool, etc.,
are exact "drawings" of these objects, which go backthousands of years. They were often enclosed in hollow
clay containers, as though inventoried for trade purposes, so that a given number of items was held in thecontainer as an aid to memory. The numbers of cattle
Egyptianor sacks of grain thus recorded in these containers

were later scratched on the outside in reduced and styliszed form. In this way, a sign is derived from a figurine. This theory probably provides the answer to thesimplification of the images, which had become styl-

ized a very long time before the first pictograms were

Man

Woman

drawn, in the form of molded clay figurines, which may
be seen as the first examples of writing, in three dimensions, dating back to the eighth millennium b.c.
It is astonishing to compare the Sumerian signs forman (penis) and woman (vulva) with the contemporaneous Egyptian hieroglyphics for the same meaning.
The hieroglyphs show the whole body, but their "legibility" is much less precise than that of the Sumeriansigns.

Our table of illustrations shows how strongly the Sumerian style of writing was limited to essentials. Notethe very marked graphic power of the stylization in, forexample, the sign for "hand," in which the anatomicalmechanism of the four outstretched fingers and themoving thumb is clearly schematized. Together withthese signs, whose meaning can be easily read, there
are also geometric signs with a more abstract sense(bottom row), which cannot be decoded without an explanation or learning process.

Of special interest is the combination of several
signs to give new meanings through the use of the determinative system (last row but one).
In the 3rd millennium b.c, the Sumerian style ofwriting changed completely. No other script known to
us underwent such a significant metamorphosis. In

120

///.

The Graphic Wealth of Pictograms

Earliest Sumerian pictographic script, ca. 3500 b.c, already tending toward the abstract (Barton. Unger)

Fish

Ears

Fowl

Heart

m

Door

Fire

Jug

Cutting edge

r

^v
Town

Hand

Tent

Ship

^k

if
Head

^V
Eat

Plug

CZ3
GardenCorn

Textile

Man

Walk

Queen

Bind

Foundation

V
s
Lady

><e
Side

Grow

See

Enclosure

Precision

contrast to the mighty monuments of Egypt, which theviewer had to approach, the Sumerians possessed amore mobile temperament, making the idea of transport and the exchange of information the most important factor in writing. Clay tablets were the main material used. After baking in the sunshine or in fire, they

could be transported and stored in piles.

Cuneiform, or "wedge-shaped" writing, owes its
name to the individual, straight-line units with extend-

121

GodheadSpeech-Fixing Signs

ed triangular form, produced by oblique pressure of thestylus into the clay. This impressing technique gradually came to be preferred to the technique of scratching,because when writing quickly it does not produce any
shavings or ridges at the edge of the stroke, which
would be an obstacle to firing and storing in piles. Cuneiform script provides a typical example of how script
forms have been developed not only by conscious
thought but from the very nature of the material.
Sumerian
3500 B.C.

Babylonian

Assyrian

2000 B.C.

1000 B.C.

Impressing in clay—<M>^ r r
Fish

$

7 y

Bull

—

JL A,

Leg

Through the three millennia before our era, cuneiform signs were further altered, simplified, and also
adapted to the languages of neighboring peoples. The
original pictographic use of the signs became phonetic in time, and their number was gradually reduced.
Around the middle of the first millennium b.c thescript was fully formed and used throughout the Semitic language region as a "means of thought transport," but then gradually replaced by the Aramaic alphabetical script. The failure of cuneiform script to sur-

vive into our times can be ascribed to the fact that, with

1000 or so complex-formed word and syllable signs,
it proved inferior to the Aramaic alphabet with its 22

its

signs.

122

///.

The Graphic Wealth of Pictograms

2. Egyptian hieroglyphics

The Nile Valley and its delta are the arteries of Egyptian
life. In the rhythm of the seasons, the great river floods
wide areas of the land, laying down fertile mud at highwater. The valley was the cradle of a people rich in fantasy, gifted for the observation of nature, and apt to be-come absorbed in the works and words of the gods.
Fascinated by the powers of nature, the Egyptian
people tried to conjure them by means of magical signs.

As the cult of the sun, and its opposite cult of death, became stronger, the richer became the treasury of hieroglyphs (sacred carvings).

Some Egyptian pictograms, ca. 3000 B.C., still immediately recognizable

^o>.

z^a
Plough

Eve

Bread

Walk

Cry

\>
Lands

Angle

Sandal^^*Swallow

Bow-

Mountain

*

i

Flute

G
^\
X
A
^

tf
Beat

Horn

it

D
Reed

Giraffe

©
Towns

Break

Row

u\

Tfr
Light

Plants

Mammal

123

Bind

r^-i
.Abstract (nouns)

Speech-Fixing Signs

During the fourth millennium, huge monuments
were built with materials from the cliffs bordering theNile valley. On a similar scale, great signs intended tooutlast time and death were engraved upon them.

The expression "hieroglyph" applies exclusively to
pictograms. Created by the priests, guardians of religious and political tradition, these signs retain an as-

tonishing stability of form through three millennia.

They mirror the wealth of their environment in brilliant
stylization and proportioning.
Our preceding table shows a small selection of
striking hieroglyphs. In the two first rows we recognize
representations of objects, in the third row activities,
the last row contains signs mainly used as determinatives.

In parallel with the monumental, traditional form of

the hieroglyphs, the more cursive hieratic script wasdeveloped as early as the third millennium. The chiseled figurative signs were "flowingly" imitated on papyrus with a reed pen, which brought a simplification ofform. In the course of the first millennium B.C., the writing style became crystallized to an even simpler form,
known as demotic, in which the connection with theoriginal pictograms is hard to recognize.

Hieroglyphic

Hieratic

Demotic£^> 7^ _£>

£

J&

^=3»

)^ /

3000 B.C.

1500 B.C.

124

fiT

500 B.C.

///.

The Graphic Wealth of Pictograms

The Egyptian script culture is now seen as the mostimportant basis of our Western alphabet. We will return in more detail to the hypothetical derivation of
our written characters in the chapter concerned withalphabetic scripts.

3. Cretan scripts

Between cuneiform and hieroglyphics, the two pillars
that we like to see as supporting the script culture of

the West, there is evidence of numerous parallel cul-developments such as those of the islands ofCrete and Cyprus, or the Syrian and even the Indian
script cultures. It may also be assumed that all thesepeoples came under the influence of the Babylonians
and Egyptians through growing trade and migrations,
thereby also adopting some of their expressions of culture. Nevertheless it must be borne in mind that eachpeople has its own resources of inventiveness.
Because of its insular position, the culture of Creteremained largely separate from any close contact withneighboring peoples. This fact is clearly evident fromthe character of its script. Although there is evidence ofearly influence by Egyptian pictograms, the entire written expression of the island has an independent manner of speech recording, whose graphic originality fascinates the viewer as much as its enigmatic character.
The pictograms of the earliest cultural era of Creteappear around 2000 B.C. They are strongly figurative,
tural

although very substantial intellectual simplifications
are already present in them, for example, in the sign ofwhich bears a complete train ofthought within itself. Comparison with the original hi-

the crossed arms,

eroglyphic signs and the syllabic signs derived fromthese provides a very clear illustration of the difference

between a figurative drawing outlining the object and,next to it, a disembodied, purely linear sign formation(Linear B). This brings back to mind the fact that closed
outline signs tend to resemble objects (see Part 1, mor-

125

More than a picture:a train of thoughtSpeech-Fixing Signs

Ox 2000 B.C.

phological Table 1 square and cross), while open signs,

with visible stroke endings point to a more abstract,less pictorial use of the sign. Five hundred years of attrition changed the drawing of an ox into the syllabic

sign for "ru."In Cretan inscriptions, ideograms and syllabic signs

could both be used in the same line, which explains why
their definitive deciphering has not yet been achieved.

Since our subject is not linguistics, we restrict our illustration to a few examples of striking signs. It is interest-

ing to contrast the representations of man and woman,comparing them further with the signs for robe and armor. Legs hidden by clothing were, from the start, thepictorial expression for the womanly. In the warrior
sign, the robelike shape of the armor is left out in order
to express the masculine form clearly. There is also'ru" 1500 B.C.

much fascination in the various kinds of representationof animal species (pig, calf, sheep) and in the diversityof statements on the chariot panel from Knossos.
Interpretation of signs from the chariot panel at Knossos (Evans)

AO
Man

^
Pig

Armor

A^
Warrior

Robe

Woman

^ C^
Calf

Sheep

Chariot

Cretan writing signs have their mysterious effect on
the viewer because their form implies pictorial state-ments based on objects, while leaving the uninitiated incomplete doubt about the explanatory key. It is probable that the refined pictorial signs assembled here werealready largely used as syllabic characters.
Experts still disagree about the extent of influence ofCretan script culture on the Mediterranean region as awhole.

126

///.

The Graphic Wealth ofPictograms

At all events, the graphic wealth of Cretan script signs
radiates such mental power to the uninitiated as toleave no doubt about the island's cultural value in relation to the mainland.

Pictorial-syllabic script from Crete, 1500 b.c.

n
6J

A
>(

i

The mysterious area between concrete illustration and abstract sign

4. Hethitic pictographic script from Syria

The Hethitic people lived in Syria, on the eastern seaboard of the Mediterranean, in the second millennium
b.c. The examples of writing remaining to us from thisrealm consist of very beautiful, distinguished rows ofcharacters, cut into stone and later scratched into a variety of materials in linear fashion.
It issupposed that the creation of the Hethitic picto-

graphic script was stimulated and influenced both by

Egyptian hieroglyphics and by the Mesopotamian cuneiform script of the neighbors on the opposite bank of
the Euphrates. A relationship with the Cretan picto-

127

AA

Speech-Fixing Signs

graphic script is also assumed, but in studying typicalsigns one can also recognize the effect of an autono-

mous inventiveness.
In most cases no pictorial statement can be clearlyrecognized, since even in the oldest examples the signs
are strongly abstract. Examples of oddly "unreadable"
concept signs are those that have been interpreted asmeaning house, sun, king, land, and God.

Hethitic ideograms, 1000 b.c. (Friedrich)m $ ^4
House

Sun

King

3 C

AN
Land

God

In common with all the scripts so far mentioned, Hethitic pictograms were gradually adapted for the fixing

of syllables and even single letters, but there was nosimplification for ease of writing, which in other scripts

produced alphabetical characters. Inscriptional use of
Hethitic died out around 700 b.c.

Hethitic pictograms interpreted as syllabic signs (Gelb)

ga

ta

ka

du

rpa

hu

ka

la

n

ru

128

///.

The Graphic Wealth of Pictograms

5. Pictographic script from the Indus ValleyNot very long ago discoveries of a "Proto-Indian" culture, which developed in parallel with the Egyptian and
Babylonian civilizations, were made in the Indus Valley in northwest India, now Pakistan. The oldest exam-

ples of script, from the third millennium B.C., have sur-

vived in the form of stone and copper seals or punches.
The pictograms themselves are either carved in relief,

molded, or embossed in metal plates. Here, too, the diversity of materials and techniques used certainly furthered the development of a strikingly stylized design offorms.
Interpretations of Indus Valley pictograms (Meriggi)

\/

W

O

Hoe

Corn

Seed

Scythe

Table

Bed

Carry

Horse

Pestle and mortar

Seal

w

XI

House

TempleArchaeologists have not yet been able to decipher
this script. An important reason for this seems to bethat there are almost no clear points of reference for alanguage used in the region during the period in question. The number of signs in existence, around 250, is

too small for a purely pictographic script, leading to theconclusion that the Indus script comprises a mixture ofword and syllable signs. There is no evidence of any

connection with the various Indian scripts developed

2000 years later.
The great antiquity of the Indus script and the factthat traces of it have been found from time to time inother parts of the Middle East give the archaeologist's

129Speech-Fixing Signs
Unrealistic comparison

by Hevesey

imagination grounds for a great many hypotheticalconclusions, in particular as evidence of the first large-

Indus

EasterValleyIslandmm.

permanent emigrations toother regions and islands, 2000 years before the historical Indo-Germanic migration. For example, there is anamazing similarity between the Indus script and thepictograms of Easter Island (ca. 1000 a.d.), but no hisscale migrations or eventorical or geographical connection is possible since thetwo scripts are separated by more than 3000 years and

XJ\%J

half the circumference of the earth.

From a purely graphic point of view, what we noticeisthe basic difference in sign formation between thetwo: the early Indus script, with its linear form of expression, is already on the way to simplification; themuch later Easter Island script has a rather primitive
2500 b.(..

1400 A.i).

style, still depicting the whole object.

6. Pictographic script of Easter Island

We take the opportunity of this comparison to consider the Easter Island script more closely, above all be-cause of its graphic charm. It does not represent any
important stage in relation to the development of theidea of "writing," because it does not appear until the

middle of the first millennium a.d. It is assumed that thesigns of the "talking wood," which mainly represent allkinds of living creatures (men, penguins, fish) and also
objects (rudders, weapons), were principally used as
memory aids for singing; but no scientifically based decipherment into language has yet been achieved.
It is interesting for us to make the acquaintance ofanother pictographic script in which, once again, theuse of a given material (wood) and technique (carving)has led to a specific type of sign form. With timber,there is less resistance to cutting across the wood fibre
direction than along it. This difference leads the wood

carver to direct strokes almost exclusively across thegrains because line movements can be more freely exSign cutting in timberecuted in this direction than with the grain. This practically excludes horizontal and fully circular forms.

130

///.

The Graphic Wealth of Pictograms

Thus many signs are left open at the doubled stroke
producing human figures with nocropped hands, and generally sloping heads.
endings,feet,

A strongly structured material forces the hand tounify individual figures. The beauty of a written docu-

ment is to be found in, among other things, the evenness of the aligned images, which mysteriously combine, like a woven cloth, to make a unified whole. A
point of particular interest about the Easter Island
script is the harmony between the spacing within thesigns and the spaces between them and between thelines.

"Speaking wood" from Easter Island

This observation can also be taken as an indicationthat the panels had more of a contemplative use, so thatthey did not necessarily have to be readable but simply
beautiful. The peculiar method of writing, in which ev-

ery second line is upside down, making constant turning necessary for reading, also indicates a strong ritualelement in the reading process, with its constantturning of the object.

7. Runic script

Without any real historical or geographical justification, we would like to mention runic scripts at this pointin our observations on pictography, mainly for reasons131Speech-Fixing Signsof writing technique, in connection with that of the Easter Island pictograms. Runic scripts, which were devel-

oped at some unidentifiable time during the first millennium b.c. in the colder regions of forested northern
Europe, were also very substantially formed by thebasic material, wood. The examples that have escaped
decay are inscriptions cut into stone, but the form of thesigns leaves no doubt about the original use of panelsof wood. Runes consist mainly of cross-grain verticaland oblique strokes. In addition to the factor of the lesser resistance of the material to cutting in this direction,

as already mentioned in connection with Easter Island,
there is also the consideration that in a damp climate
the wood may become soaked, causing the fibers toswell and lines cut in the fiber direction to close up andbecome illegible.
Itcannot be established with certainty whether an

original northern pictorial urschrift preceded the laterrunic syllabic and alphabetical script.

Rune stones

prove that a runic script already existed before theadoption of Latin script forms in the first and second
centuries a.d.; but it is assumed that the original signs
at first had no direct speech-recording function but ra-ther were secret signs for prophecy, cult uses, and magic.

This view is supported by the strongly abstract na-

Runes and their pictorial

ture of the signs, indicating that they were deliberately

names (Jensen)

kept obscure.

ur (u)

reid (r)madr (m)dag (d)ar (a)

epel (e)

\|/

A

Ox

Ride, path

Man

Day

Year

Propertysol (s)tyr (t)bjarkan (b)iss (i)lagu (1)ing (ng)

Birch

Ice

Z
Sun

A\
Arrow

132

Water

God

///.

The Graphic Wealth ofPictograms

Etymological comparisons have revealed the names ofsome runic signs, and study of the old Germanic runealphabet shows that these names refer to an original
pictographic style of script, which can still be recog-

nized in certain signs (ox. man, arrow, etc.).

The mysterious branching runes of the far northare encoding systems for secret texts. The runic signs
were ordered into alphabetical rows at an early stage,
and the branching runes showed the position of a letter in its row by the number of branches.
The first sign shown here means fourth letter (right)
in third row of the alphabet (left).
Runic signs, conditioned by the climatic circumstances, have an amazing simplicity and could havebeen invented only by people with a strong sense ofgraphic economy.

Branching runes, a secret script

8.

Chinese scriptsa\ \Isdom of th e I- ch ing

The formal restraint of the runic signs leads us to a comparison with another intellectual reduction of form,

which may appropriately be introduced here as a pointof entry into the realm of Chinese scripts. The subject
is thewisdom of the I-ching, whose origin lies in the dis-tant era of the third millennium B.C. According to tradition, it was the Emperor Fu-hsi

who established a sys-

tem of signs to record the orally transmitted wisdom.
This involves the philosophical concepts of "yang"(masculine principle) and "yin" (feminine principle),

which we have already considered in the chapter on
dualism, as expressed in the very beautiful sign of thecomplementary black and white vesicles (bladdershapes) uniting to form a circle. It is probable that the133

Vang and Yin

Speech-Fixing Signs

Yarrow stalk castingI-ching was based on the casting of yarrow stalks, us-"»ing complete and broken stalks, believed to have been

i\

Yan §

n

used by magicians and priests for purposes of prayer

^

jf.

Yin

i

and oracle. The illustration of the stalks in the I-ching
script was by an unbroken line for "yang" and a broken
line for "yin. " The signs were assembled from these twobasic elements, in the first place into eight trigrams orelementary figures. The eight signs show the basic elements of the world in an almost "figurative" manner,emphasizing the dualistic concepts "yang" and "yin" asfollows:
1

Three yang lines mean heaven; also father, head,hardness.

2

Three yin lines mean earth; also mother, garment,
tenderness.

3

A yang line between two yin lines means water.
The active element, the stream, is represented between the placid banks of the land.

3

4

A yin line between two yang lines means fire. In
this sign,

4

heaven stands above and below earth,lightning returns from heaven to earth.
5

Heaven once over earth twice is an almost graphic
representation of the idea of mountains.

5

6

Heaven twice over earth once means wind, whichis also the voice of heaven. The same sign alsomeans forest, because the wind is audible in it.

7

Earth once over heaven twice means lake. With a6certain exercise of the imagination one can see the7reflection of the sky in the water.

8

Earth once over heaven twice means thunder. The
power relationships are reversed and there is a relief of tension.

The entire wisdom of the I-ching is expressed withthese eight basic trigrams, by pairing them to makehexagrams, or six-line signs. This produces the sixtyfour signs of wisdom (see table), a few of which we will
try to explain in a rather simplified manner.

134

///.

The Graphic Wealth ofPictograms

The (>4 hexagrams of the wisdom of the [-ching (free interpretation after Wilhelm)

1Creative

2

Receptive

3

11. Peace

9 Restrain!

10. Treading

17. FollowingIS.

25. Innocence

26. Taming

33. Refuge

34. Power:i.~.

41. Holding back42 Growth

49. Revolution

50. Cooking vessel

57. Wind

58

Refinement

loyfulDifficult)

19. Meeting

27 Nourishment

4. Youth12

Stagnation

20. Contemplation

5.

Waiting6("iiflici

.

\rm\

B

Unit)

13. Fellowship

14. Wealth

15. Modest)

16. Enthusiasm

21. Biting through

22. Grace

23. Departure

24. Returning

30 Brightness

31. Canvassing

32 Permanence

I nfathomable

28. Domination

29

Progress

36. Darkness

37. Famil)

38. Opposition

39. Obstacle

40 liberation

43. Breakthrough44 Meeting45

tssemblj

46. Growing

47. Exhaustion

4s Water source

Shock

52 Stillness

53

advance

.".4

Bride

55. Overflow<(>

59. Scattering

60. Limitation

61. Truth

62 Deference

63. Completion

64. Nothing">1

TravelerSpeech-Fixing Signs

11

11

The earth is carried by heaven. The creator has
penetrated the earth. The sign means peace.

12 Heaven is completely separated from earth, andthere is no connection between above and below.

12

The sign means distance, stagnation, decay.
34 The thunder trigram over heaven expresses something of creativity, power and size.

34

48 The trigram for water over the one for forest means
spring or well, where the water that falls fromheaven gushes out again.

48

Our table shows all the signs of the wisdom of theA detailed description would take too much

I-ching.

space here, but in our view an intensive contemplationof this fund of thought provides an excellent study not
only of thought itself but of the abstraction of expression.

b Chinese pictographic script

Whether the signs of the I-ching acted as godfather tothe archaic Chinese script can only be a matter of opinion, based on feeling. For example, the prehistoric sign

I-chingArchaic

Free-form

Water

136

Fire

Earth

///.

The Graphic Wealth of Pictograms

for water can be very closely compared with that of the

I-ching. Could not traces of the yin and yang signs also

be found in the pictographs for fire and earth?
In any case, it is quite clear that Chinese script looks

back to very early symbolic expressions and objects.
For example, it was the custom to send a ring to an exile as a sign of reconciliation and return. The old, roundring sign was turned into a square through the use of
the writing brush and the sign still means "return."
This example involves the explanation of why Chinese
brush-stroke writing divided original circular and curved
forms into short, straight parts. Pushing movements
cannot be made with the brush: the brush hairs are
drawn across the paper, and changes of direction cannot easily be made without a break. For the rectangu-©-iai
Ring of reconciliation

lar ring sign, the hand is lifted four or eight times, anditshould be noted that the points of junction are not al-ways precisely closed, giving the word pictures a very
"signlike" effect in every case.

Because of the existence of many dialects, it is certain that gestures played an important role among the

Chinese for better mutual understanding. This fact isclearly apparent in their writing. As examples, weshow three signs in which different positions of thehands are used to explain the statement. In the first example the hands are turned away from each other tomean "reversed"; in the second case they are outstretched and welcoming, to mean "friendship"; and in
the third, the hands over the head in a submissive salutemean "prince." In our introductory chapter wehave already given some examples of typical characteristics of pictographic script from the Chinese system.
The basic rules of Chinese speech recording are fascinatingly exotic and also attractive for people with Western ways of thinking. As we cannot go into more detailat this point, it must suffice to show a few striking examples of the earliest Chinese writing in a table.
Chinese writing today comprises tens of thousandsof signs and the development of new combinations ofsigns is not yet ruled out. The characteristics of the verystrongly monosyllabic language are probably responsi-

137

Reversed*

Friendshipfei
PrinceSpeech-Fixing Signs

Archaic Chinese pictograms

#

viy
Rain

Earth

Field

Tree

^r>

1

Overflow

A

Ky>

Bird

Stone

Feather

Fish

Tortoise

Imprisoned

Suffering

TFfraTW?
/^ m
©U^i
^

vlan

Child

Woman

Pregnant

Something

Boat

Shelter

Cart

Drilling

MeasureEarly

Direction(stream)ble for this enormous number. For example, the syllable "fu" may mean send, rich, father, woman, skin (de-pending on intonation), among other concepts. Each ofthese concepts must be expressed in combination withanother sign in order to be distinguished and understood by the reader. That is one of the reasons why it
has never been possible to reduce Chinese writing to asimple syllabic or alphabetical script. On the other
hand, it has retained the advantage of being readable
beyond provincial and national boundaries - in Korea
and Japan, for example - as an ideographic script of theentire widespread and multilingual population of East
Asia.

138

III.

c

The Graphic Wealth ofPictograms

Chinese writing and architecture

A final observation on the formal connections between
architectural and calligraphic expression may be add-

ed here. The typical bowing of sloping and cross beams
in Oriental buildings is associated with the elasticity of
the relatively heavy-laden bamboo trunks of the rafters

and ridgepoles. The image of the bowed line becomes

Writinga principal feature of the townscape. Chinese writing

has, in a certain sense, endorsed this expression, inthat all laterally sloping strokes, which are present in

the great majority of signs, extending downward, describe a bowed line. The calligraphic brush, invented

around 200 b.c, is probably partly responsible for thistrend, but the directions of the bowings are not always
absolutely "handy." We are therefore inclined to be-

between building styleand calligraphy as an expression of culture in Far East-

lieve in a certain relationshipern scripts, in rather the same way as Gothic script iscompared with medieval cathedral styles.
9. Pre-Columbian American scripts

The examples of the script cultures of the New World so
far discovered are few in comparison with those of "oldEurope" and about 4000 years less ancient.

From the Incas, only the preliminary stages of script
formation are known in the form of knotted strings,

whereas the Aztecs and the Mayas from the region ofpresent-day Mexico have left fascinating examples ofscripts.

The autonomous culture of Central America wassuddenly and cruelly interrupted in the course of its development by the conquests of the Spanish colonists. At
this time the script was halfway between the pictorial
and the phonetic.
A broad span of speech-recording style is to be observed between the European and the American concepts, corresponding to the great distance between thecontinents. For this reason decipherment is greatly
hindered, since there are practically no possibilities of139

Bamboo architectureSpeech-Fixing Signs

comparison. All that can be analyzed with certainty today are the signs for numbers in astrological calendar
manuscripts and in the monumental stone inscriptionsof the mysterious Maya buildings. In comparing the two^c^p3 £^3 /hw

Imaginative
illustrationtyjs.

Aztec signs for month names©©

Tlounded-off

(fih

(o\

ideograms

Maya signs for day names
cultures of the Aztecs and the Mayas, which are relatively close together in time and place, we are particu-

larly struck by the extent of the difference in sign forma-tion in their scripts. Thus the Aztec way of writing thenames of the months features figurative representations of fantastic objects and creatures, while the 18

Maya month signs have a very strong abstraction, easily recognizable from the fact that all the signs are con-tained within a circular border.

a Aztec pictographic script

5£

m
9 c^
n.

*J&

Rebus

The Aztecs used object signs either as simple pictograms or in rebuslike combinations. Such words as"house," "net," and "hawk," are easily recognizablefrom our own culture; however, the unusual signs forwater, stone, and vessel already need an explanation,
as do the ideograms for death, widow, and breath.
The rebus for "temple people," on the other hand,assumes a knowledge of the Aztec language. The word
is "teocaltitlan," and it is assembled from the following
other words: at lower left "te" (lips), then "o" (path, represented by footprints), above these "cal" (house) and"tlan" (teeth).

140

1

The Graphic Wealth ofPictograms///.

Aztec pictograms, 1100 v.d. (Seler)—(%3&2>)

1

£T

1

House

Net

Hawk

V^Q
b

Water

Stone

Vessel

Death

Widow

BreathMaya pictographic script

Speech recording in the Maya culture was probably
built up in the same manner, although the strongly abstract signs have led to differences of opinion between
experts, since a nonfigurative representation gives oc-

casion for more diverse interpretations. A few simple

pictograms should suffice here as examples.
In studying the inscriptions chiseled in relief instone, one is astonished by the power of imaginationand the composition of grouped pictures, the interpretation of which is more than ever a subject of keen concern among experts. Our illustration shows the grouping of a calendar inscription from Copan. In its lower
right part, the sign for a day name already illustrated isrecognizable. Interpretations of the most varied ten-dencies are constantly being made in an attempt to establish connections of meaning between the elements

of individual sign groups. On the one hand there is the141Speech-Fixing Signs

theory of a syllabic script in which the signs havecompletely lost their pictographic sense; on the other
hand, investigations are in progress on the basis of amore complex structuring of this mysterious script
culture,Where is the solution
to the puzzle?

where pictures, ideas, and sounds may bemixed in one group sign.
Whether these mysterious witnesses of an alien culture suppressed by Western invasion will ever surrender their secrets remains to be seen. We conclude thischapter on ancient pictographic scripts with this problem of all that still remains open in their interpretation.

Simple ideograms of the Maya script, 1000 \.n. (Beyer)

®
Fire

142

Death

Night

Maize

Stone

IV.

1.

The World's Alphabets

Invention and spread of letters

At the end of the second millennium B.C., a large number of writing systems were used in the Near East region to record a wide variety of languages and dialects.
The Phoenicians, a small trading nation, lived atthat time on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean,maintaining regular contacts with most parts of theMediterranean world by land and by sea. This trading
activity made it necessary for them to understand many
tongues and scripts, so it is not surprising that it was inthis country, at this time, that a certain unification orsynthesis of scripts was developed. This process in-volved the inspired innovation of fixing consonants (b,d, g, etc.) for the first time,as the minimum phonetic

units instead of combining them into syllabic signs (ba,di,gu, etc.).

Thus the Phoenician consonantal signs,

which are today generally recognized as the prototypesof all alphabetical scripts, came into existence aroundthe turn of the first millennium.

Our table follows this graphic metamorphosis in theform of a family tree, using the first letter of our alphabet as the example. At the center of the table, as in a

melting pot, is the Phoenician sign "aleph," whose origin, as mentioned in the previous chapter, is due to a

Phoenician influence in the Mediterranean /one143

Speech-Fixing Signs

crystallization from Egyptian, Sumerian, Cretan, andVocalized scripts

probably other forms of pictogram and ideogram. It isclear that in the time span of nearly 2000 years (3000
to 1000 b.c.) covered by the upper part of the table,
many intermediary steps have been left out, mainly because certain noteworthy stages of development have
not yet been discovered. Nevertheless, the complete
connection cannot be doubted, since it appears in suchan obvious manner.
Within a relatively short time the Phoenician alphabet attained a certain perfection of formation and a reduction to 22 selected sound signs. It is therefore notsurprising that this system of writing drove out practically all other systems comparatively quickly. In thecourse of the first millennium b.c, the alphabet spread,through Aramaic, to become an international means ofunderstanding throughout the Near East, extending
into North Africa, Asia Minor, and even as far as India.
Such processes of distribution are known from all
kinds of historical developments. Since there were noclose and standardizing communications between countries in those times, new and individual sign forms ofnational character were developed in isolation fromone another. In this way, the main branches, remaining to this day, were developed in the early part of thefirst millennium B.C.: Semitic-Arabic, Indian, and Western scripts, from which the world's alphabets of today
are derived (see lower part of table).
In the fixing of Semitic languages, the Phoenician
principle of consonant signs was retained, so that Hebrew and Arabic are today written only in consonants, sometimes accompanied by accents or pointing
to indicate the vowels (central stem of table).
Indian and Indonesian languages, despite the probable derivation of their writing from the Phoenician,HebrewArabichave retained a complicated syllabic principle thatcannot be explained here because of lack of space.
In the development of Western scripts (left-handstem of table) another important factor comes in. The
Hellenes found it necessary to develop further the imprecise vowel fixing of the Phoenicians, which was adequate for Semitic languages but not for the writing of144

The World's Alphabets

IV.

Graphic summary of the development of the phonetic sign A
Sumerian, 3500 b.<

Egyptian, 4000 B.

Sinai. 2000 B.C.

Hieratic,

3000 b.cBabylonian, 3000 b.c,\\Crete. 1500 b.c.

\

\

!

I

Phoenician, 1200 b.c.

ViInvention of vowelsiT~

Brahmin. 500 b.c.

Old Aramaic, 900 B.C.

Old Greek, 900 b.c.

Old Latin, 500 B.C.

Aramaic, 500 b.c.

Nabataean, 100 B.c,

Development to Indian and Indonesian
scripts"3"

IT
Uncial, 400 a.d.

Carolingian minuscule,

900

Pure vowel\

Hebrew, 100 \.i>.

Sinaitic, 200 a.d.

Hebrew. 900 \.n.

Old Arabic, 600 \.i>.

i)

1

Semivowel'

145

Speech-Fixing Signs

the highly inflected old Greek language. It is assumed
that A and E are derived from the aspirated sounds"ha" and "he," I from the sibilant sound "j,"from thedifficult glottal "ain" sound, and U from the "W" sound.
This invention of vowel signs may be regarded as
one of the most important stages in the development ofspeech fixing and it opened the way to elevating theLatin script to become an internationally unifying meansof communication.
The "family tree" table has deliberately been drawn
with uniformly neutral strokes, the better to express its
basic formal connections, but it should be emphasizedthat the actual styles of the different language signs
were greatly influenced by the writing instruments andmaterials used.
StylusIn Phoenician and the older forms of Greek and Latin scripts one can still see traces of the monumental,

while in later versions the fluency of the writing hand

has more and more influence on form. It is also noticeable that in the earliest signs the use of the stylus is still
evident, while the broad-nibbed pen brings about new
and clear forms in Hebrew and Latin. (Hebrew signs do
not include any circular movements, prompting thequestion as to how far the character of cuneiform lives
on in it through the assembly of signs exclusively fromstraight-line shapes.)

Arabic scripts include an element of closed curvature that can be ascribed to the earlier use of a writing
Brush

brush.
2.

A summary of the world's script groups

Inorder to provide a clear overview of the world's

scripts,

we have indicated in broad outline the main

forms used on a world map. Only the most characteristic version of each script family is shown; otherwise
15 different alphabets still in use would have had to beshown for India alone.
Scripts have always been among the most important

carriers of culture. Religion, even more than trade, law,or science, was the main user of script, and priests haveoften monopolized the art of writing as a sacred activ-

146

IV.

The World's Alphabets

For this reason, a corresponding religion can bebroadly associated with each of the script cultures
shown, as the medium of its expression in the past andstill today to a certain extent.
At the geographical center, the birthplace of alphabets, stands quadratic Hebrew, which has scarcely altered at all during 3000 years of devoted maintenanceof the Jewish tradition.
To the northwest are the Greek and Latin culturesfrom which Christianity proceeded, with branches
into Eastern Orthodoxy (Cyrillic scripts) and, above all,ity.

in the directions of the Catholic and Reformed faiths,

which cover more than half the world and formed
scripts derived from Roman capitals, up to the Renaissance minuscule.
To the south and east it was the Mohammedan faithof Islam that spread the Arabic form of writing over
North Africa and Asia Minor and as far as the foothillsof the Himalayas.
In northern India a completely independent script,
Devanagari, became the sacred expression of the Hindu faith and is today the official national script of India.
Around 500 B.C., in the same region, the Buddhist
faith appeared beside the ancient Hindu system, spreading mainly toward the southeast and bringing into
existence the scripts, derived from Devanagari, of thePali languages of Indonesia.
It can easily be seen from our map that the Westerndevelopment of script (Latin) has clearly recognizable
individual forms, the reason for which is the inclusionof vowel signs, an ever more important aid to recognition and speed in reading.
In southern scripts, vocalization by means of diacritical signs (accents) ensures that writing retains its
flow. A comparison also makes it immediately appar-

Single character settingdmuSWestern style

Oriental style

ent that the clear division of single letters in European
scripts made it possible to use techniques of reproduc-

development of printing types,
whereas in the southeast the use of handwriting is
still fully retained. This presents one of the main difficulties in adapting Oriental scripts to modern methods

tion for the intensiveof typesetting.

147

Joined up

Speech-Fixing Signs

Religions as main carriers of the world's script cultures

4

America

Roitiail

The scripts illustrated show the principal forms of alphabet of the script cultures of today

148

IV.

The World's Alphabets

149Speech-Fixing Signs

With regard to the techniques of writing instruments, it may once again be observed that the use of
the broad-nibbed pen can be traced in practically all
northern scripts, while in the south and east of Asia theuse of pointed instruments to scratch letters in palm
leaves has led, for reasons of legibility, to excessively
florid, garlandlike round forms of script.

The Chinese group of scripts forms a world of its
own, derived from autonomous sources. For thousands of years it has remained separate from theWestern tradition and still keeps to its original pictographic or ideographic system. Any further comment
on Chinese writing is therefore inappropriate to thischapter on alphabetical scripts.
Japanese script, derived from Chinese, has beenable to progress to the fixing of syllables and individual sounds.

150

V. TheABC of the Western World

1. Earlv development

From the first millennium B.C., the most important of all
developments in speech fixing took place in Western
Europe with the formation of the Greek and Latin alphabets.

As shown in the "family tree" table in the preceding
chapter, the origin of these alphabets can be ascribedwith certainty to the Phoenician, which is shown in fullin the next table (large letters enclosed in squares). The
subsequent Greek and Latin letters are shown next tothe corresponding Phoenician characters. A high degree of intelligence in human mental development canbe recognized in the astonishing clarity and simplification of form of the individual characters.
Phoenician writing needed only 22 consonants anda few semiconsonants, forerunners of our vowels. The
Phoenician alphabet was taken over wholesale by theancient Greeks, with the addition of four extra signs forthe fixing of the Greek language. This principle ofadopting, then complementing an alphabet was retained for the speech fixing of all other European countries.

On the subject of further development it can be confidently stated that the Etruscans took over the Greekalphabet for their own use around 500 b.c.
Regrettably the present context does not allow spacefor more details about the linguistic nuances of local
sign formation, although it would be very interesting tobecame L, r became C andsee. For example, how A
I became S; or how two
signs were not needed for
Latin, so that the omega sign Q. was "undeveloped" tomake an extra consonant.
In this connection, interested readers are referred
to two comprehensive linguistic works in German: Die
Schrift in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart by H. Jensen(Berlin, 1958) and Geschichte der Schrift by Johannes

151Speech-Fixing Signs

Origin of the ABC in the Phoenician alphabet (1200 b.c.)
The corresponding Greek and Roman letters are shown next to the Phoenician signs

E3I
alef(ha)

z z

N\hA

za'in

1

F

N N

H H

B

B

mill

bet

r c
samek

gimel

a d
dalet

o

DZ3

3

1

taw

4

Later completion of the

Greek and Roman alphabets

K K

n p

G

pp

J

V

M

A L
lamed

sade

X X
1

The five principal vowel signs

2 From the Corinthian3

From the Corinthian

5 In Old Greekj^tj

4 In Old GreekP

is

6 From the Etruscan

n w

^
\

already written as

< ? /

152

D

\

.

The ABC of the \\ cstcrn

1

\

oriel

Friedrich (Heidelberg, 1966). Nor can we give further
details about the development of individual letters,
since our graphic subject matter would become over-loaded with considerations of social history and linguistics.
2. Capitals and small letters

All over the world and at all times there have been two

basic forms of expression in the usage of script. On the

one hand is the monumental style used on rock walls,
on palaces, and also on traffic signs; on the other thereis the current, handwritten form used in notices, incorrespondence, and in chancellery records, etc.
It was always necessary to produce these two kindsof writing with basically different instruments on different kinds of material, with the result that their forms
have correspondingly remained different. Capital ormonumental writing has kept to its original form because of the permanence of its material, chiefly stone;
current or cursive writing has greatly altered throughthe centuries because of the constant use of more
ephemeral materials such as wax tablets and paper.
a The transition from capitals to small letters

Before embarking on the subject of the various writing
instruments and methods of duplication it seems important to us to show a table of the various stages of de-velopment of typical letters in simplified stroke form, inorder to gain a better idea of the governing movementsof the hand as a basic consideration. In the table, thereader can follow the process of development from capitals to small letters. The main point that this table illus-

trates is the transformation of the monumental straighthand
movements and through more rapid writing. Typicalexamples are the pairs A a, E e, m m, T t. Another important characteristic is the creation of ascenders andlines to curves, with the simplification of thedescenders, indispensable for the clear identification of
simplified small letter forms.

It isonly the ascenders

and descenders that distinguish b d p q, or h and n.

153

MONUMENTSpeech-Fixing Signs
Latin

Transitional Unical

500 B.C.

forms

400 a.d.

Carolingian

900 A.D.

AAA a MKVi rc>m
B
Nwnn
S

6

b

d d
E e e eH h hht

QQ 4^_
R

P

P-

r

Trr t

How small letters were developed from capitals through more fluent writing

From the comparison of the capitals and small letters of the Western alphabet, which today serves as thebasis for most European languages, it can be clearlyseen that the purely Latin letters have generally undergone a major transformation in their developmentfrom one to the other (see A a, B b, D d, E e, etc.). In
other, later stages of speech fixing for English, German,
etc., new signs were taken over directly from theirmonumental forms in the Greek and Latin alphabetsand have therefore not undergone the historical process of reduction to minuscules. Thus the letters K k,w, and Y y have virtually retained their capital-letter

W

ABCDEFGHIJ K LMNOPQRSTUV w |X| Y
abcdef ghij k Imnopq r st uv w jxj y z
L_ J

Not all capitals have produced small letters

154

I

J

I

.

The ABC of the11

estern1\

aridform unaltered. The same applies to X x and Z z, seldom
used in Latin; U and V were practically interchangeable. It follows from these considerations that oblique
movements were transformed into curves and straightlines by the natural tendency to flowing in handwriting(see A a, M m, N n), a process that has not been applied
to the later "added-on" letters.
Another point needs to be emphasized in connection with the subject of large and small letters. Although
Western speech fixing has theoretically taken placewith one alphabet of 26 sound signs, to which specificaccents and ligatures have been added to suit the language concerned, it is noteworthy that the originalform of capital letters has not been driven out by minuscules. On the contrary, they have coexisted since theMiddle Ages. Today writers have, so to speak, two alphabets at their disposal: capitals, which express something elevated with their majestic appearance in architectural inscriptions, headings, or writing out of prop-

er names, and minuscules or small letters, which havebecome the vehicle used for written exchanges of every
kind and in the broadest sense. It seems to us an enrichment of the highest value to be able to call upon capitals and small letters for written expression. Attempts
to reduce the alphabet to the lowercase alone (mainlyin Germany) bring such an impoverishment that we op-

pose the movement most decisively.
b

Toward a theory of reduced hand movements

The appearance of our letters has been transformed, inprinting and in writing, from stiff Roman capitals to a
supple and flowing minuscule. As already mentioned,
thishas been achieved through the simplification ofhand movements in rapid calligraphy or handwriting.

A desire for a clearer understanding of this reduction
has prompted us to attempt to draw up a theory to illuminate this somewhat opaque phenomenon rather
better.

In Part 1, "Sign Recognition, Sign Design," we drew

up a classification of the numbers of hand movements
155

MAJUSKEL+

minuskel
Ceremonial - everyday

Speech-Fixing Signs

required to draw given types of sign. Transferring thisapproach to letterforms, we find the following degrees
of difficulty: 1, simple crossing; 2, right-angle changeof direction; 3, curved change of direction; 4, weldingin middle of stroke; 5, welding of two stroke endings;
6, welding at one end of stroke; 7, meeting of stroke be-ginning and ending.

LCHC
Every sign of an inscriptional capital letter alphabet
is produced by means of a given assembly of a given

number of prescribed hand movements. In writing theletters,

the rule applies that the strokes may only bedrawn, as though with a pen, which does not permit
any pushing movements.
Under each letter in the illustrations we give thenumbers of the movements used. Thus the capital A
consists of two oblique strokes welded together at the

top (5) and a cross stroke to be placed between the two

oblique strokes with degree 4 of difficulty at the left anddegree 6 at the right. By this method, each letter is giv-

ABC'DEF G H
K L AA N
P Q
STU VVZ
5,4,65,3.4+2,7

4 + 2

2

5,7

3

2,4,5

5,4

4, 6

3. 2, 7'k5, 7. 5

5.3,6

5,7

V

3, 3

7, 5, 7156

7, 1

5,3,4+2

5 + 2

2,

U

2

\ :

The ABC of the W estcrn

I

\

arid

en a series of numbers that, when added together, express a level of difficulty in writing.
Returning to the subject of the reduction of hand
movements, the comparison of capitals and small letters shows that the intermediary form of semiminuscules and especially the final form of minuscules havegreatly reduced difficulty levels.
Thus the total of 1 5 for capital A goes down to 5 forthe small handwritten a. Even more striking is the reduction of B from 21 to 5 for small b.
We realize that this attempt at a theory is incomplete, but it is given here only as an indication for a better understanding of a problem that is in any case difficult to express in verbal form.

A2\cx
5,4,6

5,6

b
5,3,4 + 2,7

2,3,3

3, 2

b
2,

3

EG €
2,4, 5

4,6

157

3,4

3, 1

2, 2, 1

h
2,3

VI.

Development of Form throughWriting and Printing Techniques

We have divided the story of the development of Western script into two separate sections. The preceding

chapters have already explained the progress from pictograms to the basic alphabetical signs. We now turn tothe consideration of writing and printing methods. The

use of a wide variety of materials and techniques may
not have brought any fundamental changes to theforms of letters, but it has given them a new appearance

and a new style in every epoch.
The first point to note is that with the progressive

minimumuse of script in larger quantities the individual signs ofa common alphabet have undergone a process of adaptation or equalization, giving a cohesive expression towords, lines, and pages. This coming together of individual letterforms does not necessarily lead to a loss of
legibility, since a practiced reader does not spell out atext letter by letter but takes in word images and evenwhole phrases at a glance. The lining-up of script signs
therefore becomes a kind of textile, in which matter andspace, or thread and mesh, form a legible "fabric." On
the basis of this comparison we have divided this chapter on text script into two parts corresponding to thread
and mesh, i.e., into the black of the stroke formationand the white of the intermediary space.
1. Black stroke formationa Calligraphy

The use of a variety of writing instruments in association with different materials such as papyrus andparchment has determined the aesthetic standards ofeach kind of script.

159

lllllllllllllllEqualization processof small letters:j±i±ti1

I

'

I

I

I

"Fabric" is made fromthread and mesh

Speech-Fixing Signs

One of the favorite writing instruments of all time has
been the hollow pen, which found widespread use because of its attractive qualities for the scribe and has remained the most important tool of calligraphy for morethan two thousand years. It is therefore understandable that such a long-lasting use of an instrument has
strongly marked the development of letterforms with
its own qualities. Hollow pens have been made fromreeds, but as the more usual name of "quill pen" implies, they have more often been cut from the feathers

Hollow pen (quill)

The quill is obliquely cut, the resulting point being split lengthwise and the apex cutof poultry (geese).

across for reasons of stability. This produced an instrument enabling the scribe to write more quickly, since
the hollow tube formed a reservoir that substantiallyreduced the frequency of dipping the pen in the inkpot.
Furthermore, the taut softness of the nib had the attraction of allowing a greater or lesser amount of ink to flow

through its slit onto the paper as a result of stronger or

weaker pressure. This controlled flow of ink made it
possible to thicken and point the upper and lower
stroke endings, thereby emphasizing the alignment ofletters into a line of script.
It is well known that the beauty of a page of calligraphy mainly consists in this repeated "weaving" of thescript.

Another and even more important means of strokeending formation is obtained by the positioning of thepen. Cutting the end of the nib gives the pen the capacity to draw strokes of different thickness, depending on
the extent to which it is turned. Individual handling of
the broad strokes has provided the means for a deliberately contemporary expression in every age.

Variation of stroke
thickness

60°

/

j_
/

20*

^-'

Our illustration of this point clearly shows the variations of script style associated with different angles ofthe pen.

4(The HE monogram used in the examples has been
deliberately chosen in order to establish a comparable
association of form with the candlestick sign used at
the end of Part 1 The monogram only has to be turned
through a quarter-circle to the left to show the candle-.Angles of quill pen

stick.)

.

160

17.

Development of Form through Writing and Priming Techniques

Horizontal pen position
In the times of early Roman calligraphy the positioningof the pen was still rather formal, being held more or
20 oblique

Horizontal

60° strep

Roman capitals

Quadrate

Running capitals

Rustika(100 A.D.)(300 A.D.)(400 A.D.)

From capitals toTlminusculeoe
UncialCarolingian minuscule

Early Gothic(400 A.D.

(900 A.D.)(1400 A.D.)

less horizontally, as shown in the illustration. This position gives the script a broad form of construction inwhich the maximum width of the nib draws the verticals and its minimum edge draws the fine horizontals
and serifs.
The same horizontal positioning of the pen is to befound again in the early uncial scripts, whose rounded
forms, in association with the appearance of ascenders and descenders, already point toward minuscule

forms.

Oblique pen position

A positioning better suited to the writing hand is the angle of about 20°, which also leads to the forms of ordi-

nary handwriting. The middle row of the illustrationshows the semicursive Roman capitals that have thestroke proportions regarded as "normal" by the humaneye. The vertical is thicker than the horizontal, while

161

Typical writing angle

Speech-Fixing Signs

the hairlines or bridging strokes are oblique and occur
only in the rounded forms. The oblique upstrokes arewhereas the oblique downstrokes carry the full
width of the nib. This typical style of expression has
been retained to this day as the norm in all printing
types for letters such as A, K, V, and W.
In the center of the lower row is an example of Carolingian minuscule, which has the same positioning of
the pen and obeys the same rules concerning stroke
thin,

Upstroke light, downstroke

heavy still applies

thickness. A characteristic feature is that the obliquepositioning of the pen tends to give the letters a narrower form.

Steep pen position
Curiously enough, we find a tendency to an unusuallysteep positioning of the pen at the end of two of the mostRustikaimportant cultural epochs of our civilization. In the upper example, capital letters toward the end of the Ro-

man Empire take on the "Rustika" style. The emphasison the expression of the line of script obtained, as already mentioned, by thickened and pointed stroke
endings, has the effect of decorating the letters in the interests of ornamentation rather than maximum legiGothic Textura

bility.

Script underwent a similar change in the develop-

ment of the Gothic minuscule during the Middle Ages,
when the positioning of the pen likewise became steeper and the upper and lower stroke endings were evenmore strongly emphasized. This way of writing gave avery beautiful texture to the written pages, in which one
can recognize the mystical aspect of the use of writing
for religious purposes.

The humanists of the Renaissance returned to thetwo kinds of script shown in the center of our illustration for the production of a Latin style of script witha "natural" positioning of the pen. The styles taken as
Humanistic

models were the Carolingian minuscule, from whichhumanistic minuscule is directly derived, and thesemicursive Roman capital letter forms, which are stillin full use today in their original style.

162

\'l.

b

Development of Form through Writing and Printing Techniques

Pen positioning in other linguistic sectors

In the context of the question of pen positioning it is anatural step to take a look beyond the boundaries of RoPen positioning in different script culture's

/

/

/

\
\m\m\\\\

Latin, from capitals to minuscules

ArabicHebrew

man letterforms to those of other linguistic families.
Our next illustration shows varieties of script using different pen positioning. At the left are the three groupsof Latin calligraphy already mentioned, starting withthe horizontal pen position, then the 20° angle now re-garded as the norm, and finally the somewhat decadent-seeming steep angle of Gothic lettering.
In the middle of the illustration are two charactersfrom the Semitic languages of the Near East: at left an
Arabic character with quite a steep pen position andnext to it a Hebrew letter, where the almost vertical inclination of the fine upstroke accounts for the strongly
horizontal impression of quadratic Hebrew script.
At the right of the illustration is a character from theDevanagari script of India, written with a positioning of
the writing instrument that is almost exactly opposite toour own. Here all the fine transfers of the curves are on
a NW-SE axis. This manner of writing is due to the useof reed and bamboo instruments, the stability of whichallows a pushing as well as a drawing movement, but
no modulation of stroke through change of pressure asis the case with the flexible quill pen. It must be addedthat the Semitic scripts of the central group are writtenfrom right to left, while both the Western and the Indian scripts move from left to right. Arabic scripts are

163

IndianSpeech-Fixing Signs

built up mainly from widely swinging pushing movements, almost invariably rounded at the base. Contrary
to that of Arabic,

Hebrew calligraphy largely uses

drawing movements, even though the characters arealigned from right to left.
This presentation of the writing techniques of various script cultures is only intended to be an indication,
since a more detailed study would go far beyond theboundaries of the present work.
cEngraving and printing

In the course of the 15th and 16th centuries, calligra-

phy yielded a large part of its influence on letter formation to Gutenberg's newly invented technique of printing. (We deliberately pass over the progression from
Gothic to black-letter and chancellery scripts in order toavoid interrupting the story of the development of Roman letters, today's world standard.) Our illustration
enables the results of the various printing processes tobe recognized.
Letterpress is the technique of the raised printing
surface, as invented by Gutenberg. The letterforms are

cut in relief on the polished end of a steel punch. Afterhardening, the punch is struck into a block of copper toform a matrix, from which relief printing types are cast.
This process calls for a resistant design of the letters. In

punch cutting a large amount of material must be
Punch-cutting forletterpress

taken out, in matrix stamping the details of the engraving must be supported by a strong material base, andin printing the use of ink and rough, dampened paper
led to the formation of a powerful image which was unsharp in its details. From this period of early printing
in the 16th century we have inherited the very robust,clearly formed typefaces known as Elseviers or Old
Style, which have been taken as models for the mostwidely used typefaces of today.

Gravure or intaglio printing is shown in the centerof the illustration. In the 18th century the technique ofcopperplate engraving, i.e., printing from characters

Copper engraving

below the surface of the plate, had a determining effecton letterforms. The letters were cut into a highly polished copper plate in depth. The ink was applied to the
164

17.

Development of Form through Writing and Printing Techniques

plate and the surface wiped clean, so that ink remainedin the hollows. Under heavy pressure, dampened paper

picked up the ink from the engraved letters to reproduce their forms.
Those who are familiar with this technique will easily see how it led to a considerable alteration of typeface
style at that time - as can be seen from the typefaces ofBodoni, Walbaum, Diddot, etc. The technique of copper
engraving encouraged the artist to produce very finehairlines and projections. The increased contrast be-

tween very fine bridging strokes and heavy downstrokes gave the letters an appearance which is still in
use today under the name of Didonic or Modern.
Lithography (at right of illustration) is a printing
technique, that was developed at the end of the 18th
century. The polished surface of a slab of limestone
freed artists from the engraving tool and file, allowing
them to use the brush, pen, ruler, and compasses oreven to draw completely freehand. The drawing madeon the stone with fatty ink was chemically fixed, sothat prints could be taken from it in accordance withthe well-known principle of water-repellent printing
ink.

Printing techniques and their influence on type forms

Letterpress

Lithograph)

165

Lithograph)

Speech-Fixing Signs

O D

D

a

easy to see that this revolutionary technique created a completely new situation for type design. LiberIt isation from the engraving tool inevitably brought inno-

vation to the style of lettering. Serifs and bridging

cLbCJZl
Liberation of form throughnew techniques

strokes were thickened at will, producing the "slab-ser-and Clarendon) type styles, the triangular
serifs of typical Roman alphabets, and also sans-serif
typefaces, whose origin lies in the development of liif " (Egyptian

thography.

The influence of 1 9th century lithography on the development of letterpress typefaces is clear. The type libraries of the foundries became much richer as type design experienced a liberation, which in many cases
went so far as a certain degeneration. We will returnto this development in more detail in Chapter VII,section 2, "Deviations from the basic forms."

2.

Interior white spacea Architecture and script
Script forms are often compared with styles of architec-

ture and we agree that the spirit and intellectual cli-

nnnnn

hocmi
Romanesquemate of each age find expression both in the corresponding style of building and in the lettering style ofmanuscripts and subsequently of printed books. The
history of script development is in a certain sense a"graphology" of past cultures, but only when seen froma considerable distance in time, and we must beware ofoversimplifications and superficial comparisons in thisrespect. Nevertheless it is striking to see how, for example, the concept of the rounded arch and its appearancein Romanesque or Norman architecture closely corre-

tumm
Gothicsponds to the tendency toward rounding in practicallyall the letters of the contemporaneous uncial alphabet.
Nor can we ignore the fact that the narrowing down
to the Gothic or Perpendicular style of building, with theintroduction of the pointed arch, shows astonishingsimilarities to the lettering style of the same era, theMiddle Ages. This narrowing tendency in masonry may

166

1
17.

Development of Form through Writing and Printing Techniques

be ascribed to both economic and religious factors. The
pillars became finer, bringing a reduction of the massof stone, so that by the logic of static laws the rounded

and strongly spread arches of the Romanesque gave
way to the narrower and more stable, pointed vaultingof the Gothic style. A spirit of rivalry between cities andcountries stimulated an ambition to build ever higher
church towers, encouraging the master masons to carry out the most daring projects, which have come down

Steep pen position
leads to narrowing

and pointed curves

to us in the cathedrals of the Middle Ages.

Similar motives can be found for the development ofscript styles in Gothic times. It seems probable that cal-ligraphers tried to make the maximum use of the cost-parchment used as the writing material, by narrowing the letters. The easiest way to condense a quillpen script is to turn the pen to a steeper angle of con-

ly

tact,

so that the verticals become thinner, while thebridging lines and starting and finishing strokes inevitably become pointed.
In addition to thesemore technical aspects, there

was the attitude of mind which held both the cathedrals
and the holy writings to be not merely objects of use but,to a certain extent, the expression of a cult, as it were,a connecting link between the here and the hereafter.

From this point of view, considerations of the functionality of the building and the legibility of the script playeda secondary part; the center stage was occupied by anappreciation of space based on spirituality and ceremo-

ny and a highly ornamental style of lettering.
A further and even more significant example of aparallel between architecture and script is shown by
the Renaissance style, in which the rebirth of GrecoRoman styles in architecture may be compared withthe revival of roman capital letters and Carolingian minuscule. During this era, in the 16th century, the humanists broke up the framework of strict religious dogmatism. Script was "deconsecrated" through its use by
the early printers for the dissemination of nonreligious
literature. This led to the establishment of the first ro-

man typefaces, which have survived the centuries toform the basis of our Western style of script.

167

The RenaissanceSpeech-Fixing Signs

Similarities between styles of architecture and let-tering can be followed in periods after the revolution of

/

ODD

haus
The new functionalism

form produced by the Renaissance - if not in the designof basic forms, where A a, B b, etc., have become fixedcommunication codes, at least in their outward appearance, the "clothing" of the letters. The reader may compare, for example, the refined architectural style of the
18th century with the "Modern" typefaces of the period (Didot, Bodoni) or consider the Jugendstil of around
1900, which produced identical effects in building andlettering styles.

During the 20th century, this identity of style has be-come a conscious search for uniformity, as, for example, in the 1930s, when both architectural and lettering

styles were subject to the "new functionalism. " Pure ge-

ometry took precedence over freehand:allstraight

lines were drawn with a ruler and all curves with thecompasses.

The structural comparison of architecture and script
makes it possible to illustrate the mentality of an era
more clearly or, we may say, to experience it more inForest spacetensively in spatial terms.

b

Space

From architecture we learn that graphic expression is
also composed of two main elements: (1) the material

Matter and space(stone, wood, etc.), in our case compared with the black
pen stroke, and (2) the spatial element, which in architecture is that which is actually used, but in the graphic field is usually given less attention.

In this kind of approach to the question of matterand space we are again faced with the dualism of black
and white, form-producing and form-containing. In

connection with consideration of the thickened stroke
endings (serifs) we arrive at comparisons with deeply

implanted images from nature, for example, that of aforest, where the tree trunks, with their swelling bases
like living, slightly concave pillars, create the essential
quality of the forest interior.

168

17.

Development of Form through Writing and Printing Techniques

Interior spacing from three major eras of script

The monumental in Roman capital letters

Vertically stressed equalization in the "mesh" of GothicStandardization of forms for maximum legibility in modern text typefaces

With a greater effort of the imagination we may finda comparison with concave letter strokes, which bringconvex "feminine" forms into appearance between the"masculine" elements.
In a reversal of the normal visual impression, the intermediary and interior spaces of a script appear like

sculptural figures,

whose character determinesitsrhythm and style.
In our illustration, the interior spaces or "counters"of the same letters are shown in the three styles men-

169

Form throughmaterialSpeech-Fixing Signs

tioned as of importance in the development of ourscript. First are the strong geometrical contrasts of Ro-

man capital letters (right angle, triangle, circle); thencome the uniform spaces of Gothic black-letter, whichchange every curved or oblique movement throughout
the alphabet into a straight "mesh." As a logical result,
so to speak, of this historical progression, the series is

mmcompleted by the Renaissance script, developed to astate of mature legibility, with balanced proportions of
spacing that have been polished to create the legibility standard of today.
This illustration may prompt the reader to take thesame point of view in the observation of other artistic

Liberation of form throughcreations, not only script, for the judgment becomesnew materials

keener with experience. Returning to the subject of architecture, it can be said that it is the space between thewalls, windows, and pillars that determines quality.
The noblest marble can hardly bring beauty to carelessly proportioned space, while rough wooden beams
may well enclose outstandingly comfortable arrangements of space. Art does not lie in the materials but inthe spaces in between.
Well-used material is often an aid to finding the correct proportions for the space concerned. That is why
the products of old techniques, such as wood and stone,
quill pen and steel punch, can be beautiful and correct
in form, because they lie within the limits imposed by
the material.

Nowadays materials like concrete, steel, glass, andplastics - or in the graphic sector, phototype and offset

ononn
I

I

II

II

in

Ul IUI IU
Common center parts

printing- offer "unlimited" possibilities of expression.
It isthis universal "liberation" that forms the crux of

all the creative difficulties of our century. Basically,

weare all seeking new "boundaries" within which we canconstruct, in order to avoid living in a vacuum.

3.

On the family likenesses of letters

The beauty of a script or typeface does not consist primarily in its individual forms but in the combination ofsigns.

170

The most beautiful pages of text are those in

VI.

Development of Form through Writing and Printing Techniques

Construction grid of an alphabet

abedefghij

Imnopqrstu

12356890

BCDEFGHIJ LOP

QRSTU
171

Speech-Fixing Signs

^Y^

^

VOEH
Family likeness andlegibility

which all the letters are assembled to form a whole inperfect harmony. Within an established style, the letters are given a quite definite association of form. The
weight of the strokes, the white of the counters andletterspacing, and the shapes of serifs and crossings,
etc., are uniformly designed within a group of 26 letters. This uniformity allows unlimited combination ofsigns to form any word, sentence, or language. (Thisis technicallyknown as "correlation.")As a schematic example to illustrate this law wehave chosen a condensed sans-serif alphabet, de-uom

signed with a maximum of uniformity in the formationof all its characters. (The central portion of almost ev-

ery letter consists of identical vertical parts.) Sizes,

weights, and widths for the entire alphabet are established by means of a common grid, from which 20 of

the 26 lowercase letters can be derived. The capitalletters, in this case small capitals with a small x-height,

are also present in the grid, to the number of 17 out of
26, together with 8 of the 10 figures. The attentive read-er will have observed that the missing signs are thosethat have oblique elements. A black-letter lowercase

alphabet, in which the oblique strokes of k, v, w, etc.
Four steps of formal
relationshiphave been transformed into vertical signs, could intheory be constructed in its entirety from a uniform
basic grid.

vonIn contrast to such an extremely vertically stressedalphabet, the basic grid for a normal alphabet with op-

timum legibility is rather more complicated in its conFor example,

the rounded letters are

Insufficient relation of

struction.

forms

clearly differentiated from the straight ones, and thealloblique strokes must be harmoniously included as athird contrasting form.
In the designing of an alphabet, the degree of rela-tionship between the letter signs must be clearly defined. In a sans-serif typeface, for example, there canbe various stages in the unification of form.
In the examples given here, the top line shows acondensed version with a high degree of vertical stress,
in which even the v has been forced into the grid. This
typeface may well have a harmonious overall appear172

17.

Development of Form through Writing and Printing Techniques

ance, but it can be used only in large sizes as a display
face, being practically unreadable in text sizes becauseof the weak differentiation of its characters.

The second row also shows a condensed face, but
one that includes oblique strokes and has a slightly
oval-shaped o.

The third specimen is a sans-serif with the customary form construction, in which the individual characters are well differentiated but still have a distinct family resemblance.

In the fourth example, it is clear that the great differ-ences between the geometrically triangular v, the com-pass-drawn o, and the vertically stressed m comprise
too much diversity of form, hindering the flow of recognition of word images in text settings because of theaggressiveness of the individual characters.

The secret of a good text face lies in the fine coordination of the letters to form a community that is rich incontrast, while still retaining a family likeness.

173

VII. Manipulated Letterforms

For a wide variety of reasons, whether for practical orornamental purposes, the basic letterform is often deliberately altered and manipulated. We may divide
these deviations into two clearly distinguishable groups.

^

iMDEf

1

Laterally pressed

The first group covers variations or extensions,where the basic form always remains recognizable andonly the dimensions of the character have been alteredABC

in their proportions. For example, limitations of width

w////////^/y^force the lettering into a narrower or condensed form,

Vertically pressed

as in newspaper headlines or on traffic signs, whilehorizontally extensive surfaces such as building fronts

and long walls call for wider or extended characters.
The second kind of deviation is mainly a process of
decoration or transformation of letters into a pictorial
form. As an example we show an initial from an Irish

manuscript, which can only be legible in association
with the subsequent letters of the first word of the chapter.

1. Purely proportional variations

Irish initial

a WidthThe width of the text typefaces generally used today
has acquired quite definite proportions through hundreds of years of use. This "standard outline" is determined by the ratio between the black vertical down-

and the intervening white spaces (countersand letterspacing). This ratio gives a typeface the feastrokes

ture that is also technically known as its width.

To illustrate this standard and the variations derived from it we must restrict ourselves to a single letter, choosing

H because of its simple construction. All

the other letters of an alphabet are proportioned in re-175Speech-Fixing Signs

lation to this H form and coordinated into a whole inaccordance with the law of "family likeness" describedin the preceding chapter.

The outline of a capital H is perceived by the reader as "normal" when its width is about one-fifth lessthan its height. In other words, the basic grid of a normal alphabet is founded on a vertical rectangle drawn
approximately in the proportion of 4 (width) to 5
(height). Turning to the lowercase alphabet, we findthe same proportions in the outline of a normal n. Itshould be noted that the basic outline is governed by the
thick strokes; the serifs must here be considered as a

fT

N^

J__^

k.

K

4

£|

stylistic accompaniment, like "grace notes."

Within a type style or typeface family, variations deviating from the standard width are produced today
more than ever before. In this way, both "condensed"
or "narrow" and "expanded" or "wide" versions are developed. The ratios of height to width are shown in ourillustration combining a variety of stylistic proportions.
From this it can be seen that, for example, a letterform

Width relationships

Weight relationships

E2

a>

TO

TO
rr

o
c

*

*.

^

SsS

o>

O

*S

Oc

©
^

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O
o

-—

o

$s

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t\j

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w-i

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SS

S5

a*
ii

C6
fc
e>*

©
s
a.

II

II

©

a
©
3
2
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a
8-

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H
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a
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a.

176

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2
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5

\

II.

Manipulated Letterforms

only half as wide as it is high is evaluated as "con-densed," and one that is based on a square shape isknown as "expanded."
In connection with the width of a typeface it is important to realize that 99 percent of text faces, i.e.,
those from which the reader obtains large quantities

normal width, while the variations in style are used for short pieces of informationsuch as headlines, captions, and works of referencesuch as telephone directories and address lists.
of information, haveDOb Weight

The vertical stroke width seen as normal by the reader corresponds to the basic stroke that we classify as a"beam" in the detailed account given in Part 1, Chapter
V. A capital I of normal weight has a width approximately 15% of its height. The concept of "normal" isU"nUnlimited variationsof verticals

here felt with great sensitivity by the reader, since thinner strokes are immediately judged to be "thin" orand heavier ones are seen as "semibold" or"bold." These variations are unsuitable for large quan"light"

tities of text.

As the illustrations clearly show, the horizontal
stroke weights do not follow theverticals.

For example,

same logic as thein the lighter versions of aand vertical strokes
have almost equal weight, whereas in the bold versans-serif face, the horizontal

sions the horizontals are usually kept much thinnerc
Limited variationsof horizontals

than the verticals. One of the main reasons for this difference lies in the linear, horizontal layout of our sys-

tem of writing. As a consequence, the width extensionof a bold capital H, for example, is practically unlimited,

whereas the law of absolutely identical heights

for all letters unquestionably limits the stroke weightsof the three horizontal bars of a capital E to a definite

maximum that cannot be exceeded.
That is the reason why the variations of weight inour system of lettering can only be described as one-dimensional, since in theory they can be extended only in

Purely verticalthe width of the verticals.

variations of weight

177

I

Speech-Fixing Signs

This fact

isshown even more clearly when wecompare the weight variations within a "Modern" (Didonic) typeface family with one another. In a serifed

roman typeface of this kind, the alterations are almost
exclusively limited to the verticals; the horizontals,

the serifs as fine transitional lines, remain unchanged
as something static, rather like the visible parts of askeleton.

c

Slope

The static expression of a standard typeface is built
upon the laws of vertical stroke drawing and horizontal, linear assembly of lines (see general comments onvertical, oblique, etc., in Part 1, Chapter II). Ever since

the beginning of printing with roman types in the 16th
century,accompanying cursive, or italic, types havebeen produced, characterized by their oblique strokes.

The German name of kursiv for italic typefaces expresses the "flowing" nature of the style, suggesting theforward-sloping character of handwriting. The English

name Italic derives from the fact that early printers
based these type forms on the script of the Italian chancelleries.

The use of a sloping typeface to mark some difference from the general text has become standard. (Theuse of a boldface for this purpose is not popular because
an alteration of "color" interrupts the flow of readingmuch more strongly than a change of structure fromupright to sloping.)

This means that at least two "registers" are available to authors, in that they can underline words orsentences in the knowledge that they will be typeset
in the alternative style, which in most cases is italic.
The turning arc ol thewrist

The change from upright to sloping is now automatically accepted by the reader as a code for "different"or "emphatic."

The overall gray value of an italic text equates withthat of an upright roman text. The difference in expression consists only in the structural alteration of sloping,

and with178

serifed typefaces in thesomewhat more

'

I

//.

Manipulated Letterforms"cursive" form of the entry and exit points. The normal
degree of slope is around 1 2°. Angles of less than 1 0° do

not show enough difference from the vertical, whilemore than 16° of slope makes the character look asiiiiiiIII////IHIII

inn hithough it is falling over.

in

in

////

Change of structure to
draw attention

9° steep

12° normal

17° fallingd The extended palette of typefaces

The preceding comments on a number of possible
typeface variations in width, weight, and slope clearly
indicate a phenomenon that can be seen as typical of

the age of publicity in the second half of our century.

For hundreds of years, scribes and printers were
content with a single style of lettering for the recording of thoughts and information. The repertoire consisted of capitals and small letters, accented characters, some ligatures, punctuation marks, and figures.
This limitation of the means of expression may well
be an important reason for the beauty that can impress
us so strongly in the pages of old books.
Book typography finds all it needs in the more orless standard "triptych" consisting of the following

abedefghij
klmnopqrst

designs within a given style:1.

Normal roman face for text.

2.

Italic face for emphasis,

3.

U V \Y \ Y 7.

subheadings, etc.
Boldface for various kinds of special distinction,
headings, etc.

B & §

%

ABCDEFGH

KLMNO PQRSTUVWIJ

X YZ

These three styles of typeface form, so to speak, abasic typographic unit, a standardized selection of1234567890.

.

;;-()'«»/-?!

three possible means of expression for literary typog-

The typographicalraphy.

repertoire

179

Speech-Fixing Signs

BaskervilleBaskervilleBaskerville
The typographer's
traditional "triptych"

The technical and economic explosion of the 20th
century brought the age of publicity to typography.

The traditional palette of typefaces is no longer sufficient for the designer of advertisements, brochures,and posters. The verbal slogan requires a graphic
equivalent, for which the traditional palette has no resources. To support the advertising text visually, typographic expression reaches out into all possible variations of style, which may range from extralight con-densed to ultrabold expanded.
This need to manipulate letterforms also involves
completely new considerations for the designer of typefaces. It is no longer simply a question of designing thesparsamindividual forms of the letters. Right from the start, theplans of extension to a multitude of different versions

kraftig

spontanmust be included in the groundwork.
The purely "duplicating" aspect of this new drawing

gedrangt

families into the realm of the computer. The results ob-

schwertained with a computer-controlled drawing machineprocedure practically forces the design of new typeface

are astonishingly good, so long as they are kept underzuverlassig

the direction of an expert typographer's critical eye.

This move into a multitude of typeface variations is
Slogan headline

not least a result of the rapid adoption of phototypeset-

which permit, indeed virtually demand, that the typographic palette should become ev-ting techniques,er larger, since the production costs for a font carrier

bear no comparison with the much higher costs thatwere once necessary for the production of a new set of
matrices for hot-metal setting. Furthermore, most phototype systems provide direct access to 8, 12, 16 or many

more alphabets.
This multitude of type-mixing possibilities puts mod-ern typography in danger of producing a chaotic typeimage through unskilled hands. The richer the material, the more disciplined must be the manner in which
its handling is mastered.

The designer of a new text face nowadays no longBasic plan of sign

er has the sole task of drawing the letterforms of a sin-

extensiongle series of alphabets, in much the same way as an ar-

180

I

11.

Manipulated Letter/onus

rooms of a single-family
house. The conception of a modern typeface consists
chitect designs the living

rather in the extended, almost three-dimensional plan-ning of an entire typeface family, with many divisions,in which the letters are so varied as to include such un-common forms as "ultracondensed," "extraexpanded,"and italic versions from"static" to "delicately sloped" or "rapid oblique." The"ultralight," or "superbold,"underlying plan for a typeface is therefore now rather
similar to landscape or town planning. Modern typog-

raphy is no longer dedicated to the "domestic" book
but reaches out into all fields of human activity, forwhich it needs a greatly extended palette of forms.

U

6/U

Z/U

uu uuuu

UUf/ uuUUf#uComplete plan of a typeface family (Univers)

181

Speech-Fixing Signs

2. Deviations from the basic forms

a Ornamental letters
Deviations of form from the basic letters that have be-come the standard for reading can be driven astonishingly far while still remaining legible, in the sense thatthe reader interprets the meaning of the ornamental
letter from its association with the word or sentence.

Calligraphers in monasteries and chancelleries cultivated the happy art of penmanship so that it blos-

somed into individual forms in which lettering as such
was only remotely recognizable as the basis of the deFor example, Gothic initials were subjected to avery dense style of ornamentation, completely filling inthe surface of the letter. Chancellery scripts of the postRenaissance period also included some very impressive virtuoso manipulations of the pen stroke.
The influence of this art of ornamental lettering
was revived in the workshops of copperplate engravsign.

Virtuoso penmanshipers,

who produced a multitude of decorative scripts.

These designs are still in use today for quite specificpurposes, and the appearance of such scripts has itself become a factor in communication. For example,
the script still known as "English copperplate," regularly used on visiting cards and invitations, conveys

the conscious message of a distinguished status andalso has an air of ceremony, comparable with evening

dress and other formal wear. Its appearance is taken
to be a symbolization of the "traditional" rather than

Ceremonial message

the currently fashionable.
In the 19th century, lithography liberated the creativity of typeface design from the restrictions of engraving techniques. With the aid of pencil, brush, compasses, and chalk, a new art of decorative lettering
was developed, no longer proceeding from the flowing
hand of the calligrapher or the copper engraver's

toolbox but freely invented and executed by the artist.
Slab-serif and sans-serif faces made their first appearance, while letterforms suddenly took on all kinds ofdecorative forms with hatching, outlining, solid, andLithographic freedom

perspective effects and a wealth of ornamentations.

182

VII.

b

Manipulated Letter/onus"Antiques"

In thesecond half of the present century a kind of

nostalgic obsession has developed in the increasingly
acquisitive search for exaggeratedly ornamental "an-Old decorative typefaces are "disinterred," worked over, and prepared for the new techtique" letters.

niques of phototype and dry transfer lettering. The
negative judgment of "old-fashioned" is no longer applicable: on the contrary, it seems that an appreciationof "antiques" has also made its way into the world of

typography.
c"Figurative" alphabets

Nostalgia

Even in the illuminated initials of medieval manuscripts there are many examples of figurative illustra-tions approximating to the form of letters.

This virtuoso play with the unification of an abstract expression (letter) with a figurative representa-tion (plants, animals, humans) has attracted many il-lustrators of the past two centuries to design "figura-

Most of these alphabet sheets havenow been reissued, to the great delight of a wide readership. It is certainly the case that most of these
initials have the humorous effect of a caricature, since
there is something serious about letters in contrast
to figurative designs, which have been bent or distorttive" alphabets.

ed "for the sake of the letter."
There is no lack of contemporary examples of "figurative" alphabets, products of a cross-breeding between letter and object. As an appropriate typeface
event of the 1960s we need only mention the "sausagealphabet," which provides a typical illustration of thispossibly quite healthy "typeface iconoclasm."'Figurative" letterd Letterforms of the future
Environmental "inscription"
In the course of the present century, typefaces have left

the sole realm of printed matter to become part of thegeneral environment in such uses as direction signs

and outdoor advertising.

Fantasy183

Speech-Fixing Signs

Some of these environmental forms of lettering

From stroke to volume

have necessarily freed themselves from the two-dimensional character of writing and printing, to enter
the three-dimensional field of architecture. By becoming sculptural, these letterforms have in certain ways
broken loose from the confines of the strokes of thewriting or engraving instrument, been simplified, andbeen changed. Three-dimensional letters are now
manufactured from a great variety of materials. Characters are formed from straight and curved strip-lighting tubes. Lettering panels of all sizes and in the mostglaring colors now have aTnajor influence on the image of our daily environment, both urban and rural.
Unlike printed matter, which readers can bring into the field of vision just as they please, architecturaland other outdoor lettering is forced on us without restraint as a part of our environment. Depending on thedesign of such lettering it may appear as an enrichmentof the scenery, almost in the sense of an ornament. On"Constructed" letterthe other hand, if badly designed, it is experienced as

aggressive "pictorial noise" and in this way as a pollution of the environment. It will not be possible for our

generation to achieve a realistic evaluation of this problem, since we have hardly yet begun to make critical
judgments of our own typographical stage management of the environment from a very short distance intime.
Neon tube letter

Digital displays

In the field of information lettering a distinction must be

made between permanent notices and movable, changing displays. The latter kind is built up on the principleof signs appearing and disappearing at one and the

o o

o
o
o o
o
o

o

o
o
I

o

o
o

Lamp script

same place. Various answers to this complex task havebeen put forward during recent decades. On largescale sites, for example, the signs can be made to appear in simple dot formation through the lighting up ofprogrammed light-cell or lamp schemes.
For medium-sized displays, a very successful mechanical system, still in use, consists of movable flaps

on which letters and figures appear in a relatively well-drawn form.

184

\

//.

Manipulated Letter/arms

In the field of the small-scale signal, more and more

use is being made of the TV screen for the conveyanceof information. Here the characters appear on the cathode ray tube with its usual line resolution, which once
again imposes new limits of form for optimum legibility of the image.
As a final example of digital displays we show the"seven-bar" type of printout, which is used mainly fornumerical figure signs as the output of electronic calculators. Using a reduced pattern of seven codes, con-

Flap display

sisting of three horizontal and four vertical strokes, it ispossible to display all ten figures by purely electronicmeans, even though in a severely stylized and much
impoverished form, simply by leaving out selected
strokes.

The immense popularity of the electronic pocket calculator has very quickly made this form of numbering
into a second standard for reading off. It is amazing tosee how rapidly the human capacity for adaptation cantake effect when it is driven by necessity (in this caseperhaps more drawn forward by the convenience ofgiving up mental arithmetic) to accept the authority ofa new and stunted form of numerical sign system.
It is also interesting to note, on the other hand, thatthe forecast success of thesame bar-grid figures in

the field of time telling on wrist and pocket watches

has not come about. The invention of chronometry
through quartz vibration has made it possible to manufacture high-precision dial watches at minimum
prices, and there has therefore been no change-over inthis field. People prefer the more lively and pictorial"angle language" of the turning watch hands as a dis-

The seven bars

play of the time.
1

1

i

1

1

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r

The "angle language" of the clock lace remains in use.

1

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1

n n n
_i u
Morning

MiddayNew

Evening

185

sign language

Speech-Fixing Signs

Reduction of form selection to the basic grid of a square

HBED

=

GHU

mi

D
Experiments in extreme simplification

A graphic trend toward extreme simplification of letters, not in the sense of shorthand but in the reductionof the forms used, has lately led to various new attempts

make the alphabetical signs more uniform in one
way or another. By way of explanation, we show two
toexamples of the development of alphabets constructedon purely geometrical principles.
The first example shows an attempt to derive the entire alphabet from a square form. This enables a seriesof stages of recognizability to be ascertained. In the firstplace, all basically rectangular letters (E, F, H, T, etc.)

have unobjectionable forms. In second place are thesemirounded letters (C, G, P, S, U), whose legibility isbased primarily on the direction of opening of the interior space. These can be easily recognized. Letters withtypically oblique basic forms (M, N, Z, etc.) become difficult to recognize, and impossible results are obtainedwith B, D, and R, since these are asymmetrical characters with rounding on one side.
Circular forms in lowercase alphabets

r^

rN

ni.

i

<lrf)

y ni k
186

I

E E
E "
E

//.

Manipulated Letter/onusE
ELL LI

1
1
1l
11

1

LI

In the second row of the upper illustration, the same

made with the lowercase alphabet. The
same comments apply here as for the capital letters,

attemptiswith the additional observation that ease of recognition
is increased by the presence of ascenders and descenders, and by the fact that the lowercase alphabet contains fewer symmetrical forms. The only really illegible
small letters in this example are those that normally
have oblique strokes. The two last rows of the illustration show experiments in further simplification so as toreduce the letters to the stage of complete illegibility,
making them nothing more than purely decorative elements.

As a second example of the reduction of alphabetical forms, the other table shows experiments in building up letters on the basis of the circle. Here the capital letter alphabet has been deliberately left out as it isso difficult to express in rounded forms, whereas thesmall letters include a majority of signs based on
curves. This conclusion provides further evidence for

r^o
UO

E

J

187

Speech-Fixing Signs

the fact that the development of lowercase letters from
capitals took place through the intermediary stage ofhandwriting, since the production of rounded forms
comes much more naturally to the writing hand thanthe drawing of the straight lines required for the majestic forms of capital letters.

Simplified forms like these have a great appeal to thegraphic artist, especially in designing lettering. The
tables are intended to show, in a purely theoreticalmanner, where the boundaries of legibility appear to besituated. We will return to this theme briefly in a later
section of this chapter.

• • •4000 vears of culture?

Before leaving the subject of "script simplification"
there is one more point to be made, concerning a curious aspect of form that becomes apparent if one compares, for example, a binary punched tape or card codewith a fragment of script from a Sumerian cuneiform
clay tablet. At least 4000 years of human civilization lie
between these two systems of script recording, and it
must be added that although cuneiform script was directly understandable to the reader, today's electroniccode needs complex machinery for its decipherment.
This comparison is no more than a marginal comment, of interest from the purely graphic point of view.
So far as the understanding of the binary code is concerned, it represents much more than mere phonograms or sound signs, since it forms the basis of asystem of processing an enormously wide variety of
data, in no way comparable with the patterns ofthought of the ancient world.

Automatic reading

P
Inn

I

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1111111,1.111,

II" M,

Mill

,1

nil

il>'

II

111
,|

II,

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1
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III
II iii II

LEiU
5E,7flStylized computer scripts

The technology of informatics is in the process of taking on giant dimensions as the quantity of text material to be processed grows incessantly. Computer operation being based on the binary system, all input must
be converted into binary code, by means of punchedcards, punched or magnetic tape, etc. In principle, this"translation" work can be undertaken only by humanbeings who are capable of understanding the written or
printed input.

188

Ml.

It

Manipulated Letter/arms

was therefore of the first importance for the tech-

nicians to develop a script that could be read by bothhuman and machine. This need was fulfilled by opticalcharacter recognition (OCR) scripts.

The first machine-readable scripts were extremely
simplified typefaces, stylized to suit the geometricallaws of the early OCR machines. The widespread use of
these scripts must have caused a deeply felt reaction
among the broad mass of the readership. The disfig-

urement of a familiar form like that of our alphabet hasa revolutionary, perhaps even a sinister effect, rather
like that of the cartoon figure of a robot, which has almost become a symbol of "future shock."
The first typefaces popularly known as "computer
script" have long since become technically outdated,since modern reading machines are now able to recognize the complex forms of traditional letters without
significant error. The design of an unstylized machine-(70 (TO
A symbol ofreading typeface (OCR-B) has made the "robot" scripts
obsolete, so that the danger of a distortion of the alphabet in the computer world has already been overcome.
Nevertheless, the brief period of use of these deviant
styles of script led to the manifestation of a style thatwill remain characteristic of the period of the 1960s
and 1970s.

future shock

DE5IENER

uerjijrigf
Boundaries of legibility

PQMJND

Witness to the fact that lettering styles can be seen as
an expression of the spirit of a given period is provided by some of the styles in evidence today in graffiti, onwalls and posters, and also on transfer lettering sheets.
These are signs that, although broadly based on the alphabetical, find their expression at the very boundaries
of legibility. An obvious provocation of traditional
reading habits is latent in contemporary scripts such as

Robot scripts

these.
It is still difficult fornor*?

us to make an exact judgment of

this antireading reaction and its significance. Perhaps

something fundamentally new will emerge in the futurefrom a movement that at present is still considered to
be decadent.

189

j,

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ecmeonJfe
Boundaries of legibility

Speech-Fixing Signs

eType image and type picture

On the theme of deviations from basic forms, the foregoing comments have already revealed a tendency forthe pictorial artist to become recognizable in the workof the scribe. This tendency is probably motivated by

the absolutely abstract nature of alphabetical lettersand their purely mechanical use for the recording ofthought.

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Typographical calligram (Bruno Pfaffli)

In certain

well-known cases, lyric poets have re-peatedly tried to break through the hard, conventional grid of typesetting by means of the pictorial arrange-

ment of verse. The "calligrams" produced by Apollinaire in France and Morgenstern in Germany and the"Mouse's Tail" poem in Alice in Wonderland are ex-

Hidden dreams

amples of this way of turning script back into pictures.
The typographic designer is also sometimes tempted
to break the strong linear rules of typesetting for once
190

\ II.

Manipulated Letterforms

and interpret the content of a text pictorially in two dimensions.

Most of us have tried at one time or another to remove the letter value of a capital 0, perhaps in a newspaper headline, and turn it into a face by childishly
drawing in eyes, nose and mouth. In this way, a capital Y is easily turned into a champagne glass, simply byadding a wavy line and a few small circles.
Games such as these are played in precisely thatborderland where the letter image, which has becomea subconscious "substance" to the reader, is lifted into

the conscious realm of the pictorial.

The word image can be given this kind of double
meaning in a great variety of ways, the simplest andmost meaningful of which consists in the disturbance ofthe normal arrangement of letters within a word. The
unusual positioning of a letter at first alienates readers,but on recognizing the nature of the game they appreciate the way in which the word has been changed into an illustration which illuminates the imaginative
connection between the normal word image and its
meaning.

The most direct way of "pictorializing" script signs
is simply to turn the letter image or word image intoa picture. This produces a very strong conflict between
what is "seen" and what is "read." This double effect ismuch exploited in modern graphics, for example, in order to make a company logotype especially memorable
by arousing the reader's interest in the interplay of theabstract alphabetical form with the pictorial message.

lee

The letter returns to the pictorial

191

Speech-Fixing Signs

3.

Monogramsa Abbreviations become acronyms

A typical typographic phenomenon of today is the use

KLMlof abbreviations consisting of the initial letters of proper names or other word groupings of all kinds. ThisIBM

tendency to reduction in writing by abbreviation, producing acronyms as additions to the language, is a

UNO

clear indication of the ever-increasing host of humangroupings, from commercial organizations to political,
Abbreviations

Complex technical terminology also tends to be more and more reduced to its
initial letters so that it can be more quickly spoken,
written, and read.
This linguistic reduction process has led to completely new units of communication, the comprehension of which is to a greater or lesser extent restricted
to the initiated. The name UNESCO may be understoodsocial, or ethical associations.

all over the world,

but there are many specifically na-

tional associations whose acronyms are familiar only
to people in the trade or profession concerned.

Abbreviations of this kind, when given graphic expression, are known as "logos," "trademarks," or "mo-AAVRecognition effects

nograms." They are mostly limited to a minimum
number of letters, pronounced individually, inviting
the graphic artist to produce combinations of signs
which do not necessarily follow the rules of written language. The artist's aim is to produce a new, uncommon, and meaningful effect which will be easily memorable and recognizable.
b

From ligature to ornament

As a series of examples, our next table once again
shows a number of H-E monograms. The signs havedeliberately been limited to linear forms, since the in-troduction of variations such as bold, outlined, shad-owed, etc., would lead to a table of excessive length.

The top row of the table recapitulates the purely proportional variations of capital and small letters from
192

17/.

Manipulated Letterforms

narrow to wide, as already described. The second row
shows examples of combining one H with one E, andthe remaining examples consist of multiple uses of theletters, leading still further into the realm of the ornamental logotype.

The theme of "logo design" will be taken up in moredetail in Part 3, Chapter VIII, "Trademarks."

h3h9h3 he

H H

m

H^

F m

1

1

=||— IFIII

hR.

Monograms are designed in accordance with definite rules.

193

Speech-Fixing Signs

As avisualsummary of lettersdeviating fromstandard forms, our next table shows some genericexamples of styles that may be commonly seen nowadays. The signs are again composed of the elements H

and E, giving the same outline as the candlestick sign
shown at the end of Part 1, but turned to the rightthrough 45°.
The examples in the first two rows clearly show theinfluence of the images of modern technology. In thethird row, the letters are made to symbolize objects,
and the three drawings in the last row have crossed theboundaries of legibility, the letters themselves being
only hinted at, so that the sign can be evaluated as
more a pure abstraction than a combination of two
letters.

194

\

II.

Manipulated Letterforms

Ornamentation of characters for pictorial statements

)

(1

i ,

J t

r

• ooiitt

OJ• ooiooo*>• ootooo• •«••••• ootooo^

tootooo• oot#t»

I
101

7^
195

VIII. Text Type and its Legibility

1.

T>pe as a worldwide medium of communication

Two thousand years ago, reading and writing were theprivilege of a very small number of people. Today, education is available as a right to whole populations.

This progression to the greater spread of knowledge
has also involved continual alterations to the forms of

our alphabet.
At the beginning of our story,astrong handscratched pictorial signs into stone, perhaps two or
three signs per hour. Today, millions of characters perhour are produced by electronic typesetting machines.
Two facts stand out clearly in the course of this de-Then and Nowvelopment. First, the ever-increasing demand for text

aaaaa••..•••.•

National-international

methods oftypesetting and reproduction. Second, the immensely
widespread distribution of the written word leads to a
stimulates the invention of ever-fasterstandardization of forms in the design of text typefaces.

Whereas some centuries ago there were still countindigenous styles of lettering in every
Western land, today we are witnessing the crystallizaless differenttion of the roman alphabet as an international text face.

This text type has become a "commodity" for whicha certain structure conducive to comfortable reading isever more important, so that it can be taken in by a wide

readership with minimum resistance and at maximum
speed. An additional factor is that any piece of information is meaningful only when it appears within a given

197

Closing the gap between

event and information

Speech-Fixing Signs

period of time. The path from the event to the reader
must be constantly shortened, whether in the newspa-

per press, in publicity, or in book production. In manycases this factor is also associated with price. The information must be made available at a low price, whether in the daily press, advertising brochures, pocket
books, works of technical reference, or any other form.

Those are the reasons why the print production
techniques of our century have been characterized bya constantly rising speed of typesetting output. For five
hundred years the techniques of setting remained conventional in their use of metal, which was entirely sufficient for the needs of publication. It was only around1950 that the new techniques of typesetting began to be
developed, because the conventional processes of composition could no longer handle the ever-increasing
supply of information in the long term. Thus the invention of phototypesetting was no coincidence but a technical necessity in order to keep up with future demand.
In the present context it would take up too much

Resolution on thecathode ray tube

space to describe how characters are now brought onto paper from a digital store by means of cathode ray
tubes and laser beams. It is sufficient to note, with satisfaction, that the clarity of the type image from modern equipment has reached the level of quality to which
readers of the metal-setting generation were accustomed.

abcdefghi
2. Type forms and legibility

jklmnopq
a The reading process
The alphabet is theory

The letters of the alphabet should be evaluated only as
the building blocks of language, with which syllables,abambad baubahn
Syllable and word pictures

words, and sentences are formed. As a small child, atthe beginning of the process of learning to read andwrite, one "spells out" the words. At a later stage, thesubconscious mind is no longer concerned with single
letters but with syllable and word images. Every reader possesses this treasury of images, like a tabularreference plan. The letter associations of the native

198

I

///.

Text Type and its Legibility

on
on
cn
ch

tongue are very strongly impressed in the mind; thoseof acquired languages, less so.
A simple experiment will show how precisely these

Syllable image

syllable and word outlines are anchored in the reader'smind.

The letter pair "on" is perceived by the reader as awhole, being so to speak photographed at a glance. It
is then compared with an existing inner reference planand understood.
The smallest error at a critical point of the o momentarily disturbs the clarity of the statement,c or orn or h?

creating a

doubt between o and c. Furthermore, there is no deeply
imprinted combination of letters en, so it does not help
the reader as a bridge to understanding.

Standard outline

The critical point of the n is the upper left stroke
ending.

The smallest lengthening of the vertical stroke brings
the n into the realm of the letter h, and the idea of h isfurther strengthened by memory of the very common

phonological combination ch.

Coming after these examples of forms that are notdeeply imprinted in our minds, the correct image of ch
in its normal typographical proportions has a relaxing
effect, since doubt has been eliminated and the image

has returned to the realm of known outlines.

t'CA

Cob f)fC^

r CA(*-£*-^<=*

Handwritingb Steps in reading motivation

Letterforms, shaped and refined through hundreds ofyears of use, are today available to us in many different
styles as a means of communication. Numerous groups

can be defined, including handwritings, functional
scripts and typographical text faces.
Readers are certainly capable of understanding acommunication in any of these styles, but the extent of
their effort to decipher the content depends in the firstplace on its degree of importance.

Although a
Squonto wg
during the
Hstr ixdruck.i?
ird

be

l

in

einer

iebis'esnFunctional scripts

La terre de Fra

Where necessary, we will take a great deal of trou-

parlanetteted

ble to decipher the handwriting of an important docu-

ferences de ses

ment, since a single wrongly interpreted letterform cangeneral de cettalter the meaning of the statement.

Typography

199

Speech-Fixing Signs

For business letters, memoranda, short reports,
etc., handwriting is too individualistic and subject tostrongly personal interpretations. Typewriting, even if ofinferior graphic quality, is appropriate in these cases

and is accepted without hesitation by the recipient.
No publishers, however, would take it upon themselves to produce widely read texts, such as novels, periodicals, or newspapers, in a typewriter face. The pub-also knows well that a description of a productmust be issued in the best quality type and printing if it
is to have a chance of being read by the potential cuslicist

tomers, who are not necessarily motivated to study it.
These considerations point to the fact that thestyle of lettering

most desired by the reader, con-sciously or unconsciously, is that of high-quality typog-

raphy. This aesthetic form of word pictures is the onethat has established itself most deeply in readers' sub-conscious, for the simple reason that they have read

A common skeleton

and internally stored the greater part of their knowledge in this form from books, newspapers, etc., and because the balanced appearance of printing type offers
them the greatest degree of reading comfort.
c

Formal synthesis of the alphabet

From the foregoing explanations of readability one
might conclude that there is only one most legible typeface, that a kind of archetype of all text faces might exist, and that the future might bring the danger of a single, uniform prototype as the sole means of communication in print.
"Lettering"

may well be a functional commodity,

like food, clothing, and shelter, but its attraction will al-ways lie in its variety of style. It can be assumed thatreaders remember the outlines of syllables and words
in a kind of skeletal form and that the details determining the type style are taken in as the "resonance," which
does not disturb the reading process so long as the typeface as a whole has been designed in accordance withthe basic rules.

The character itself is modeled around the basic,

200

VIII.

Text Type and its Legibility

skeletal strokes of a letter. The artistic element, or whatiscalled its "style," comes into expression within thezone of resonance.

A successful typeface is read by millions of people
and influences their idea of the skeleton letters. Where
there are excessive innovations of form or designs ofpoor quality, the typeface encounters a certain resistance in the reader and the reading process is hindered.

To demonstrate this thesis we show some characters from the most widely read typefaces in a series ofline screens at different angles.

When the eight differ-ent styles of the same letter are superimposed, the skeletal

form clearly appears in the center of the crosshatching as the darkest part of the drawing.
In the composite diagram of the letter "a," the outline of Garamond appears inside the lower loop. This
"old style" typeface is found exceptionally attractive by
the reader, but becomes tiring to read in large quantities of text. The same occurrence is found in the upper
loop of the "e," where the Garamond form has thehighest-placed horizontal bar.
From these two examples of letters with narrowcounters, it can be seen how interior forms that wereoriginally small have become standardized to larger
openings in modern typefaces, as a consequence of"mass usage." Large counters ensure optimum recognizability and maximum reliability in printing, becauseof the dangers of filling in through ink smearing.

The composite diagram of "n" shows that the thickness of the serifs, even their presence or absence in a
typeface,isnot decisive for the recognizability of acharacter, and that legibility is not substantially affect-

ed by serifs. All that can be said in favor of serifs is that
their presence can help to guide the rapidly reading eye
along the line and that they bring the word image together rather more firmly. The objections that could bemade to serifs are that they do not constitute a formdistinguishing element but a form-assimilating one,since all letters carry the same serifs as an addition to201

Speech-Fixing Signs

A common basic form of typefaces is visible

nrn
1

1

|H'"

1

tin"

i
n"
//"'

i

Left to right from top:

Garamond
Baskerville

Bodoni
Excelsior

Times
Palatino

OptimaHelvetica/Univers

202

1

1

I '///.

Text Type and its Legibility

On studying the diagrams one receives the impression that the pure text face outline corresponds mostclosely to the one to which the reader has become ac-

customed through its use in the daily press (ExcelsiorCaledonia). The second most widely used outline is thatof the sans-serif form of letter (Helvetica, Univers, etc.
which matches the basic form absolutely, deviating
only in its constant stroke thickness and the absence of).

serifs, as already mentioned.

The foundations of legibility are like a crystallization, formed by hundreds of years of use of selected,
distinctive typefaces. The usable forms that have stood
the test of time are perhaps permanently accepted byhumankind as standards conforming to aesthetic laws.

203

IX. Numerical Signs

The recording of numbers can certainly be included
among the earliest examples of writing. In much thesame way as the scores in card games are still recorded
today with pencil and paper, the marking of numericalvalues by scratching or notching was practiced as long
ago as in Paleolithic times. Counting systems of this[u7|Nj\Scratches, notcheskind have come down to us in the form of notches inbone, horn, and stone; burn marks in skin and hide;
and knots in string.
It must be emphasized that records of these kinds
are to be understood in a wider sense than merely thatof numerical values. For example, they could also be

examples of aids to verbal memory, calendrical signs,
etc. Here we inevitably come to an analogy with ourown times in the form of the binary system of computer language, which is also based on the simple, logical,
and rhythmical lining up of a single sign impulse(notch = bit).
1.

Knots

ooo
oo

o

o

ooo
ooo o
Binary impulses

Numbering with letters

In parallel with the evolution of script, every civilization

has developed its own system of recording numericalvalues. In many cases, numbers have been expressedwith the aid of the ordinary writing signs. The writing

systems of classical Greece and Rome provide obvious
examples. In ancient Greek, the signs of the alphabet
were used in their normal sequence to stand for numbers. Only the addition of an apostrophe indicated thatthe sign was no longer a phonetic but a numerical sym-

oC=1

i= 1

=2

V=5

y=3

X=10

(3;

Alphabeticalbol.

Roman numerals also relied on the signs of the alphabet, with the simple phonetic sign I representing
the smallest numerical unit. Perhaps this was due to ananalogy with the outstretched finger, an explanation
which also covers the use of figures II and III. By thissystem, an open hand could have served as the model

205

number signs

Speech-Fixing Signs

for the number V and two hands for the number X. Suchgraphic comparisons should not, however, be taken too
literally as factual accounts of processes of develop-

m

i

i

ment, but rather as indications of the initial pictorial
motives that underlie all sign systems.
2. Origin and evolution of arabic numerals

X

V

Pictorial analogy?

The essential starting point for any consideration ofarabic numerals is to recognize the fact that they were
fully developed quite separately and in a different culture from our own alphabet, even though both groupsof signs, the letters and the figures, have taken on a certain "family likeness" in their modern printed form.

This difference of origin must be the main reason for
the worldwide use of arabic numerals and the fact thathas been possible to integrate them, without influencing their forms, into practically every other kind ofitscript.

a The ingenious idea of the zero

The reader may perhaps not be aware of the funda-

5,5
System of positional
valuesmental importance of the invention of the system of
positional values in the development of the world

economy as a whole. On either side of the central decimal point (or comma in continental usage) there areranged, at the left, the units in tens, hundreds, etc. andat the right, fractions, in a fixed order that allows thecalculator to undertake any arithmetical operation by
exact positioning of the figures. The possibility of sucha system is based on the ingenious invention of a signfor "nothing," the zero, which occupies any position in
the row for which no unitary value is present in the,0,0 01
0,0 1

r
A

1
1

00

000

Zero geometry

number concerned.
In other words, the signs 123456789 could be de-scribed as concrete values, while the zero is an abstract
concept, functioning as a component of a number only
in association with the position that it occupies in therow. It is interesting to note that the circular shape ofZero or holethe zero carries the double meaning of positive andnegative, since it is both object and hole at the sametime (see also Part 1, Chapter II, on "The circle").

206

IX.

Numerical Signsb Origins and development ofform

The numerals known as "arabic" actually had their origin in ancient India. Records dating back as far as the

2nd century B.C. have been discovered, containing concepts of quantity expressed with signs that begin toshow the way to the decimal system.

- = qp b T p oc o y< (H
}Q

20

100

200

The row of multiples of ten was gradually developedin northern India during the course of the 1 st millenium
A.D. The forms of these first numerals were taken, as in

Greek and Roman usage, from the shapes of letters;
but not the sign for zero, which from the start was
written as a small circle, later reduced to a large
dot. Unequivocal individual signs for each of theten values of the decimal system are to be found in Sanskrit documents from the 9th and 10th centuries a.d.

mimm

Persian scholars, who at this stage of development

were familiar with Indian mathematics, took over thesystem, and the typical series of figures of eastern Arabic also first appeared in the 1 0th century, in a version
containing most of the numeral signs that have comedown to us and are still used in Arabic writing.

??/ (lK(V|A9)

1

Arabic numerals began to enter the Western world
at the end of the 10th century. For obvious ethnologi-

reasons they first emerged in Spain, whence the
new numbering system spread throughout Europe. An
early Spanish set of decimal figures already has forms

cal

20;

Speech-Fixing Signs

that, with some exceptions like the 5 and the upside-

down 2, may be regarded as the forerunners of ourpresent-day numeral forms.

I

Zltyislt J o

We hardly need to emphasize the fact that these new
numerals, and above all the associated new method of
calculating, were of decisive importance for the entire
course of development of European culture and econ-omy.
As soon as these numbers were introduced it became necessary to fix their forms definitively, both forthe purposes of exact science and for commercial andcultural exchanges between different countries.

1134?6J890
Calligraphic numerals

The calligraphic styles of the Middle Ages and theprinting techniques of the post-Renaissance period

were evidently not without influence on the outward
appearance, as it were the "dress," of the numerals
but could not fundamentally impair the basic forms.

The calligrapher's quill pen determined the positionsof swelling and thinning of the strokes right from thestart. At later stages, letterpress printers, copperplate

engravers, and lithographers incorporated the figures
into the stylistic presentation of their alphabets. Thus

the figures of the 1 8th century have the typical hairlines

Printing techniquesand droplet endings of the "Modern" or Didonic style,while the subsequent period created slab-serif andsans-serif typefaces in which the figures were assimi-

and numeral forms

lated into the style of lettering.

The 20th century has seen the removal of decorative
elements from the figure signs for the benefit of opti-

mum readability in all fields of reference, from stock ex208

IX.

Numerical Signs

1234567890
The standard

change listings to telephone directories. The width of
all ten figures has been made uniform in order to allow
tabulated setting in columns and, for this reason, thefigure 1 is often equipped with serifs in order to fill insome of the space at the sides. (Figures are never otherwise given serifs.)
3.

Some analytical commentsa Speech and numbers

The written or printed recording of numbers has acompletely different basis from that of words. The figure is an ideogram denoting a quantity, while the letterisa purely phonetic sign representing a phoneme orunit of significant sound. Thus it is possible, for example, to represent a numerical value either with a figure

sign (7) or with letters (seven).
It is interesting to note,in connection with the writ-

ten and the spoken word, that in most western lan-

guages the names of the numbers 1 to 12 are nearly all
monosyllabic, which clearly suggests a century-long
reduction of both the spoken and the written forms.

eins

un

zwei

deux

two

drei

trots

three

This observation leads us almost inevitably to a com-

parison between the words and the movements of theone syllable

writing hand.
b

One number =Number-writing movements

In every act of handwriting, two contradictory require-ments come into play: the speed of writing, as opposedto the legibility of the matter being written. The writerinstinctively seeks the briefest forms of signs so that thewriting hand can to some extent keep up with the much

faster flow of thoughts. If this recording process takes

place with a conscious effort to make the writing legi-

209

one

Speech-Fixing Signs

ble to third parties, the writer enters the borderland ofsign simplification where the signs still remain "deci-pherable."In this connection we find that the writing of numImpossible

bers follows completely different laws from those applying to the writing of text. For example, it would appear to be completely impossible to write numbers
down in a joined-up style. This fact alone suggests that,
unlike words, numbers are not read by groups but deciphered one by one.

writing style

Double movement

Single movement

Lift andreplace

We also find that, as an essential rule, the difficultyof the hand movements made in writing numbers has

been reduced to a minimum, so that the same simplicity is in evidence as in the monosyllabic

names of the

figures, as already noted. Four figures are written witha single continuous movement (1,6,8,0) and four moreO

can be analyzed as requiring a dual movement, divided by a separating or braking change of direction in theform of an angle (7, 2, 3, 9). Only two figures require a
lifting of the writing instrument from the material (4, 5),
and only in the figure 5 is the second starting point
topographically established, namely at the upper left
exit point. (The figure 5 is often written with only one
stroke, but with the danger of being read as capital S oreven figure 8 in some cases.)
Figure writing could therefore be described as"monogestural" in the same sense that the pronuncia-

Between one and zerotion of the names of most figures is "monosyllabic."

210

IX.

Numerical Signs

c Division into basic elements

The most used figures are1

and 0, two signs thathave highly differentiated forms: the straight line andthe circle. Once again we come across the binary principle: 1 = notch, cut, hardness (two visible stroke endings):= emptiness, readiness (no beginning or end-ing).

Between these two extremes the other eight figures
are arranged with the greatest possible contrast offorms. Unlike in the alphabet, there are very few vertical strokes

among the figures, certainly by reason of

the dominance of the figure 1, which must stand out

among all the others. The only approach to another vertical is found, somewhat stunted and crossed, as though

for safety's sake, with a horizontal bar, in the figure 4.

Horizontals, on the other hand, appear more frequently, but for the sake of the clearest possible distinction they are situated at different levels: in 2 at the foot,zfOnly two verticals

in 4 centrally, and in 5 and 7 at the top.

Three figures have marked oblique strokes: 2, 4,
and 7. Note that all these oblique strokes run from upper right to lower left, the reason being that this direc-/;:

Four horizontals

tion is the easiest to follow when writing with the righthand.
strokes, in 4 and 8. Furthermore, these two crosses are

247

clearly distinguishable from each other by being hori-

Three oblique strokes

In the entire set of figures there are only two crosszontal-vertical in one case and diagonal in the other. (Incomparing the forms of figures with letters we find thatin all typefaces, of whatever style, crossings are also

very few in number, being found only in f and t, x andX.)

d The future of numeral forms

From the preceding analytical comments it can be seen
how strongly the formal anatomy of figure signs is directed toward a highly developed process of recognition in the reader. The smallest deviation leads to incorrect information - and in the field of figures, ambigu-

211:x
Two crossings

Speech-Fixing Signs
ities cannot be overcome by any factors of context, asis the case with written text.

r-I

Today it is more important than ever before to beaware of this need for clarity, since the design of nu-

i

u

n
O J L
iii

i"

A second set of forms

meral forms is in a state of upheaval with the present
emergence of electronically controlled digital displays.
For example, the style of figures displayed by pocket
calculators, reduced to seven bars, has become rapidly
accepted as a standard of recognition, establishing itself as a second set of numeral forms in parallel withtraditional figures.

Developments in this field ought to be followed withclose attention, since this is not merely a question oftechnical progress but of fundamental opposition between human sensitivity and technical economy.

212

X. Punctuation Signs

Our alphabet consists of a fixed series of signs for minimum units of significant sound (phonemes), fromwhich the written language can be assembled. The letters of the alphabet could also be described as literary

construction material. However, this material alone is

not sufficient to formulate writing in a comprehensible
form. The separation of words and their arrangement
into sentences are made possible only by a logical useof spaces and punctuation marks. These essential, un-spoken elements could be characterized as boundary
instruments with which the basic material of the alphabet can be handled, i.e., related and separated.
1

.

.2^
reiseneisernriesenserienLetters are word-building materials

Word space

Hand compositors know from the layout of their caseaneinandermalthat the item lying next to their hand in the lowest com-aneinander mal

partment and in large quantities is a "blind" piece oftype metal, namely the word space. Here again, we
come across the elementary importance of an absenceof signs. It is only through the logical interposition ofthese empty spaces that a row of signs becomes comprehensible, legible typesetting.

The historical commencement of a consistent use of
spaces to separate words cannot be given a precise
date. Early Greek and Roman inscriptions and manuscripts in capital letters have no spaces between thewords. In later Roman records, centralized points areused to indicate proper names, then used between
ordinary words and at the end of sentences.

Development of a systematic separation of words
through a deliberately applied system of spacing did
not, however, take place either in monumental inscrip-

213

an ein andermal
an ein an der mal
Spacing governs

comprehension

Speech-Fixing Signs

DASWORTISTEINBILDWELCHESVOMLESERALSGESAMTHEITERFASSTUNDAUFGENOMMENWIRD
Das Wort ist ein Bild.
welches vom Leser als
Gesamtheit erfasst
und aufgenommen wird.

From inscription to
text typetions or in early calligraphic book script. It is rather tobe found in the more ephemeral and rapidly written
forms of handwriting, where a clear new start for eachword had become a necessity for legibility. During thesame era, roughly between the 4th and 9th centuriesa.d., the change from capitals to minuscules took placein book scripts. The actual process of word formation
occurred with these two developments. The early,
widely spaced capital scripts were deciphered letterby letter, whereas the procedure for reading the narrower minuscule made it possible mentally to "photograph" the separate word outline. In this way theword space became a logical component of writing.
2. The punctuation marks

A detailed historical or literary treatment of the origin
and use of punctuation marks would go beyond thepurely graphic field of the present work. Nevertheless
it is appropriate to mention them at this point with regard to their modern design as aids to speech fixing.
Every newly designed typeface includes a given number of signs of punctuation, drawn in the same style,and these can be subdivided into several groups in accordance with their various functions.

a Sentence-structuring signs

End of sentence

The name sentence-structuring signs could be given
to the basic punctuation marks that regulate the construction of a process of thought within the linear flowof text. On "boarding" a page of text, the reader seeks

an orientation concerning the beginnings and ends of

9 9Division of sentence

sentences, therefore looking out for the full-stop or
full-point sign. (The capital letters at the beginnings ofsentences are also very helpful in this respect.)
The comma and semicolon are the signs with which
a sentence is divided, the former having a weaker andthe latter a stronger separation capacity.
These signs are sometimes wrongly seen as "breathing spaces" in reading. Any actor will confirm that logical punctuation cannot coincide with rhetorical rhythm.

214

X.

Punctuation Sinus

This marginal comment is made in order to differentiate between two basically different procedures: spoken

and unspoken reading.
The colon, as its appearance shows, is a stop witha double use, marking the ending of one sentence andthe beginning of another, which is related to the firstone. It is most often used to introduce a quotation, but
may also precede an analysis of the foregoing sentence

Introduction

or a list of examples.

Parentheses or brackets, round or square, and also
the more recently introduced dash are signs used toisolate inserted matter of the most varied kinds (explanatory, additional, affirmative, etc.). The dash also
has other uses depending on house style and language
style, for example, to introduce an important statement
or to show a change of speaker in the setting of dia-Insertion

Mam functions

Hyphen: joiningor breaking

logue.

The hyphen has two opposite uses: to join words together in order to express a new concept and to breaka word into two at the end of a line within a column. The
oblique stroke or shilling stroke has a similar function
in joining two words together, but more in the sense of

expressing one as a function of the other (e.g., feet/min-

Joining sign relating
to functionute).

Looking back at the source of these simple punctuation marks, the date of their definitive establishment
may be given as the end of the Middle Ages, i.e., theperiod of the invention of printing. There must havebeen rules of writing among the medieval calligraphers, but an individual expression and a personal interpretation were given to the signs of punctuation in
every region, in every monastery, and in some cases by
individual scribes.

Medieval scribes used punctuation primarily forthe abbreviation of very long Latin word endings, par-connection with the use of Increasingly
narrow columns, which by this means were able toshow an amazingly well justified right-hand margin.
The full point was the mark mainly used as a sign ofabbreviation, a use to which it is still put today. In thesame way, the apostrophe is still used as a sign of eli-ticularly insion (don't, isn't).

215

Abbreviation

9
Apostrophe, elision>Speech-Fixing Signs

Because of the wealth of conjunctions in the Latin
language joining one part of a sentence to another withunequivocal meaning, there was little need for punctuation marks like the comma and semicolon in mostmedieval manuscripts. Even the use of the full point
was not always essential because of the frequent useof large, often decorated initials at the beginnings ofsentences.
Printing from the office of the Venetian Aldus Manutius, one of the most notable type founders and print-

ers of the Renaissance, can be regarded as authoritative for the elementary use of punctuation. His books

show an astonishing unity and clarity of house style.
They give the full point, comma, and colon their definitive functions and also make use of parentheses andf

the question mark. It is also noteworthy that they do not
Affirmation, exclamation

9

include any abbreviations within the texts.

b Expression signs

The remaining commonly used marks of punctuation

Question, doubt

have, in addition to their purely structuring function,

can give a specific expression to thetexts concerned. Thus the exclamation mark and thequestion mark express, respectively, emphasis and uncertainty concerning the preceding word or sentence.
It is important to note that these two signs consist offull points to which extensions have been added. They
are therefore the only ones that can take the place ofthe full point at the end of a sentence.
Quotation marks or inverted commas are primarily used to enclose those parts of a text that are to bemarked out as verbatim quotations of direct speech.
They also have other uses, for example, the separationof unusual turns of phrase or specialized expressions
from the main body of the author's text. The first uses
qualities thatit99
Spoken, quotedof these "guillemets," as they are called in French, areto be found in manuscripts of the early Middle Ages in
the form of sideways-lying lambda signs from theGreek alphabet: < > The inventor of this practice is.

said to have been called Guillaume. The writer has afurther possible means of expression in the repetition

216

1

X.

Punctuation Signs

or combination of two or more marks of punctuation.

» German «This practice can be used to suggest much that is unwritten. Combinations of signs like !! !? (??) ... (...) arecommon notations that can say a great deal in a little« French »space.

"English"The expressive punctuation marks do not stem fromthe medieval writing of Latin but from the post-Renaisi

sance period, when the printing styles of modern European languages were established. That is the reason
why the form and usage of these signs have developed
somewhat differently from one country to another.
There is a difference, for example, between French andEnglish quotation marks, while in Spanish the exclamation and question marks are placed at the beginningof the sentence (upside-down) as well as at the end.

c

Spanish!

Different usage

by language*t§Reference signs

Outside the field of sentence-building punctuation

marks, the compositor has access to a number of signs
that are used within the text to guide the reader to ex-

planatory texts with which the author does not wish toburden the smooth flow of the main text, preferring torelegate them to footnotes or listed notes at the end of
the book or chapter. As a reference or indication of anote, the most commonly used sign is the star-shaped
asterisk. English-language usage allows the insertionof the dagger sign for the same purpose.
The paragraph sign may also be included in this section, as it also finds use as a reference mark.
3. The ampersand

The ampersand is neither a letter of the alphabet nor apunctuation mark. It is a separate ideogram, derived

from a ligature of the very commonly written Latin conAmpersands are not tied to one language

21

Notes, references

Speech-Fixing Signs

junction et (and) and subsequently used for many
hundreds of years. The sign is no longer linked tospeech but is used, like its mathematical relative +for the idea of addition, most often to indicate an asso-

ciation in a company name. Stylistically, the amper-

Currencies

sand has been matched to the appearance of the alphabets with which it appears, in a suitable form for every
period and every technique of composition. Its independence from direct verbal readability permits thetypeface designer to satisfy a taste for inventing forms.
4. Currency and other signs

The final category of signs that are usually designed
to match a specific type style and therefore belong toan alphabetical font, are currency signs. Many of them
are formed from the initial letter of the name of the currency unit in the country concerned. In order to distinguish them clearly from the alphabetical signs, these
initials are usually crossed through with one stroke or
two.

The illustration of these signs completes the seriesof "style-bearing" characters belonging to a font of

The complete range of technical, economic, and journalistic writings naturally needs moreprinting type.

signs, but these have nothing to do with the questionof speech-fixing script, being pure symbols or ideograms, and form the subject of Part 3 of this work.

# + @ = % x

218

Part 3Sign, Symbol,

Emblem, Signal

"The Creation of the World"

Woodcut from an incunabulum,
printed in Niirnberg, 1493

PART 3: SIGN, SYMBOL,EMBLEM, SIGNAL

Introduction

One of the most important aspects of human life and abasic condition for survival has always been the meansof expression for mutual understanding between
members of a tribal or social group. This need forcommunication and its constant improvement anddevelopment can be seen as a major factor in thegrowth of human civilization.
In the course of mental development, comprehension between individuals and individual has increasingly concentrated on verbal communication. During
the millennia of historical times, the verbal message

has also been visibly fixed by means of scripts, among
which the development of the Roman alphabet can beevaluated as the high point of an abstract, rationalized
method of expression.

Nonalphabetical signs

must be borne in mind, however, that speech madevisible, that is, reading and writing, was reserved as theprivilege of a clerical elite until a few hundred years
Itago, or to be more precise, until Gutenberg's inventionof the mass production of texts.
In the days before printing, the "illiterate" popula-tion not only possessed an important oral tradition but
also had other ways of fixing and communicating thatwhich was thought or spoken, with pictures, symbols,
signs, and signals forming a kind of "tribal handwrit-221

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal^Aing" that was in daily use as an aid to thought, a meansof comprehension, and a method of bearing witness orauthentication. Pictures and signs either were clearly

understandable or, on the contrary, had an occult andencoded meaning. The spread of script through alllevels of society and the growth of a rational approach
to intellectual life as a whole over the past 500 years
have almost entirely wiped out both the use and the understanding of this original fund of pictures and signs.
Examples of representative and encoded signs

Exact statements
without language

New signs for science
Every nation has its language and most languages
have their script. Beyond national and linguistic boundaries there are more and more people who meet in theinterests of science and can understand one another ina general way. It is evident that the speech signs ofnormal language are now too imprecise and quite
inadequate for scientific communication, and it has
become impossible to cope with the precision of scientific work with purely verbal signs. From this perfectly
natural need for an absolutely clear and unequivocal
way of recording exact values, functions, schemata,and so on, new sets of signs have come into existence
and been kept in continuous development.
A mathematical, chemical, or physical formula may
well still be based on the alphanumeric repertoire, butcountless other signs have been added, partly from thetreasury of the past and partly by new invention.
The extent of the gap between the recording of
scientific concepts and the fixing of purely verbal
speech can be appreciated when one considers the factthat mathematical, chemical, and other formulas havedeparted from the linear basis of left-to-right-reading
text records and make free use of all directions of thewriting surface for their expression.

HO
Formulae spread out
freely in two dimensions

The game of chess provides a comparable approachto that of the abbreviated sign language of science. As
in a formula, so on the chessboard, all the values andpositions are present to the imagination without being

written down. All the pieces are positioned on the222

Introduction

checkered grid of the board, and the game proceeds
to its conclusion, in accordance with established rules,in the minds of the players.

Pictorial signs for industry

The economic laws of a constantly growing and evermore insistent supply of goods, stimulating an ever increasing field of demand, have also produced new
pictorial conventions and sign languages. In technicalterms, reference is also made to "brand images" and"corporate identity programs." Publicists have the taskof giving new companies and new products a new image, so that in the field of commercial graphics a multitude of new trademarks and company logotypes havebeen designed in recent decades. Most of these modern
industrial pictograms are based on the principles of thestrongest possible graphic effects and contrasts. It isamazing to see how often similarities now occur in theappearance of these signs, a fact that can in many cases
be attributed to the one-sided orientation of the training provided for designers but

may also be blamedon the loss of knowledge of the wealth of past signcultures, from which new ideas could be derived.

©

The danger ofsimilarity

Directional signs
Streets

and roads

intown and country, and evenpassages within buildings, are now so densely constructed that a natural sense of direction is no longer
sufficient for reaching a required destination

given point of departure.

from aAny such movement has

become almost unthinkable without directional signs
and inscriptions; and since new places and routes areconstantly coming into existence and new means oftransport into use. with a continuous need for modernization and automation, there is a correspondingneed for the invention of new instructional signs conveying the understanding of an unequivocal practical

Direction signs aremessage.

becoming essential223Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

A surfeit of pictures?
Technology has now made it possible to distributerealistic information almost instantaneously over theentire globe, not only in verbal form through telephone
and radio but also by the transmission of pictures onfilm and television.

An important aspect of this development is the clear
tendency among the receiving public to prefer the
pictorialmessage,in its televisual form, to purely

verbal means of communication. It is felt to be lesstrouble to look at a picture than to attend to andunderstand a spoken message.
The massive diffusion of pictures, also in printed
form, is in the process of making a major change to thegeneral psyche of the present generation. The broadcast picture is globally received as it were in glances,not continuously followed, in contrast to speech, which

proceeds through time in linear fashion and, in order
to be understood, must be attended to and taken inwithout interruption. Moreover, the picture shows themessage at once in its entirety and in an encapsulated
form. Viewers no longer have to create their own images, as is the case with readers or listeners. The
picture is a finished product that rules out the act ofimagination and causes a far-reaching impoverishment of the human faculty of the "mind's eye." In
addition to this, pictorial communication brings into effect what might be called a process of demystifica-

everything now happening in the world
can be seen by everybody at the same time. This
abundance of "photographic" information leads to ation, sincecertain pictorial surfeit.

The flood of illustrations that are daily taken in
by humankind on television and in print can neversatisfy human curiosity, and the human capacity for
imagination is not strengthened by this multitude ofpresentations but schematized or organized.
On the other hand, printed text, which also has
its effect on the reader in unlimited quantities, is undergoing certain restrictions, in that the alphabeticalletter has lost some of its power of attraction and has

224

Introduction

become a necessary and almost banal functional object.

The demand for a new "stylization" of pictures, fordrawings and signs that are accessible to understanding bymeans of a detailed process of observation,

search, and meditation, is to be seen, for example, inthe whole development of contemporary art. A newly

awakening, lively interest in the meaning of signs witha symbolic content can be observed everywhere nowadays.

A^oH

L/")

(7^ CP
Freely copied from a painting by Paul Klee

Back to pictograms?
Every blink of the eye brings a picture to the humanmind. Our thoughts and concepts, memories anddreams, our whole experience is played out in pictures.
This is not a reference to photographic reproductions
but to mental pictures, which are not of well-defined
objects but rather of archetypes of things that we haveseen and experienced, once or many times, andthrough the piling up of impressions something in thenature of stylized drawings has remained behind,
without any sharp outlines, for these pictures, as indreams, have become somewhat schematic, something that approaches the nature of a sign.

225

A <

Sign. Symbol, Emblem, Signal

by no means surprising that a need fora renewal of signs and symbols is becoming clearly
apparent. Attempts to satisfy this need and the searchfor profounder possibilities of expression and communication are to be found in the form of graffiti on housewalls, in the works of successful painters of our generation, and even on the printed T-shirts of young people.
The collection of symbols and signs in the present
volume represents an attempt to open up the lost realmof these "pictograms" to the world of the reader's
imagination in an organized manner. The book is not,however, intended to be a complete reference manual
but more an incentive to observation and perhaps alsoa source of new forms of expression.
One might well ask whether we are not thereby on
the way back to the origin of the recording of thought,
to the pictorial scripts of our forebears? How strangely clear it seems that the modern need for symbols
closes a circle that takes us back to the rock paintings
mentioned right at the beginning of this study as the
precursors of speech fixing, the first of all indications ofhuman culture. But we have also shown that this way
back cannot take place without an impoverishment
and a schematization of speech itself, for the precise
It is therefore

function of the pictorial sign in an infinitely complex
world is to provide organized signals in places where
speech would be excessive. So we can provisionallyanswer the question at the head of this paragraph as
follows: pictorial signs are becoming ever more indis-

pensable for human communication, not exclusively
but in the right places.

4^

Logotype of the Montreal World Exhibition, 1967. The medieval sign forfriendship (see Chapter III, section 4a., no. 12) is repeated to represent
a community in the form of a circle (the world).

226

I.

From Illustration to Symbol

1.

The picture

Like all printed books, the present volume is based on

the principle of the two-dimensional printing process.

The use of color and of halftones, i.e., the reproductionof full-color pictures with a three-dimensional effect,has been deliberately excluded. Since this book is atreatise on signs, this limitation should rather be seen
as making a positive contribution to the formation of aunity of expression among all the figures of the book, sothat they stand in a closer relationship with one another and can be more effectively compared.
What is generally meant by the term "picture" is arecord, as true to life as possible, of that which thehuman eye sees or is believed to see. The pictorial artsof the 19th century, for example, strove to capture asfaithfully as possible the perceptions of thehuman eye.

With the invention of photography, the naturalistic
art of "image recording" lost its original meaning andvalue, so that it is no coincidence that the departurefrom realistic representation in painting runs parallelwith the emergence of photographic techniques. Thiskind of pictorial reproduction now makes it possible toaffect humankind with a mass of pictorial material in

ever-increasing quantities, whether in the form of
printing or of television.
In earlier times, a picture was experienced as what
one might call a concentrated medium, a self-enclosed
message, in many ways in the sense of an object ofcontemplation. Today the flood of pictorial informationand moving pictures has developed into a real pictorial
language. For the viewer, or "reader" of the pictures,the accompanying verbal expression now plays only asecondary role in the understanding of the meaning ofa communication. As an earlier typical example of thistrend we may mention the silent movie, the art of which227

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

lay precisely in the communication of the action with-out the use of speech.

Members of the younger generation are growing
intoa practice of real "picture reading," flipping

through comic books without consciously studying thewords in the speech bubbles. The comic and other

7/

FS?

kinds of pictorial strip are forming a new mentality inthe world of visual communication.
In the field of pictorial information it can be seenthat levels of picture quality are clearly divided into twogroups. On the one hand we have the brief and superficial type of information, as, for example, in the dailypress or the filmed news report. In this sector, thequality of reproduction does not play an essential roleand the pictures are regarded only as "sketches,"
where the coarse screen dot of newsprint or the poor
contrast of the TV screen is subordinate to the viewer's powers of imagination. On the other hand, there is
Picture reading

also a demand for a quality of graphic reproduction

approaching ever closer to reality, for example, in thefield of publicity, where the faithfully reproduced col-or of the item being promoted is of the greatest im-

portance.

Two basic media are available in the first instanceto the techniques of communication: verbal language

and pictorial language. In both sectors, the diversity ofthe vocabulary is coming more and more into evidence,with an increasing recognition of lapses such as thehackneyed phrase or empty cliche. In the field of speech
we are now experiencing an extension of the vocabulary into a kind of "polymathy," where the diversity
and multiple meanings of expressions and figures ofspeech call for a constant learning process if they are
to be understood. The picture, for its part, is branchingout into the micro- and macroscopic fields, where it is
no longer to be judged as absolutely true to nature since
it may not be visible or comprehensible to the naked
eye. Consideration of these kinds of picture naturally
leads us into the field of the diagram or schematized illustration, which it is important to examine moreclosely in the present context of the progression frompicture to sign.

228

/.

2.

From Illustration to Symbol

The diagram

The essential purpose of a diagram is to analyze or
break down an object or event into its parts, rather thanmerely describing it verbally or representing it photoThe complete picture is therefore either

graphically.

stylized, cut up, or dissected, so that a construction, amechanism, or a function can be explained. In addition
to the representation of objects, other kinds of diagram

can employ graphics in order to represent tables listing
abstract concepts that illustrate technical or economic
facts.

aStages of schematization

Our examples show four of the main stages of schematization, technically known as degrees of iconization. The first illustration consists of a drawing recog-

nizable to almost everyone as the moon landing craft

LEM. This is an example of extreme simplification: an
outline drawing showing only the most essential outward forms and renouncing any treatment of surfaces
by means of colors, halftones, shadows, or structural
information about the material. In this sense the illustration may be regarded as representing the first levelof schematization, since the departure from reality isalready considerable and the sketch relies to a great

Simplified illustration

extent on the viewer's own memory image of the object.

The second example is of a diagram that makes
greater demands on the viewer's intelligence.
cross section of a motor.

It is

a

The picture has become

divorced from reality as the object will never really beseen in the form illustrated, but the cross-cut represen-+vU

is absolutely necessary for the clarification of
explanations about the functioning principle of the
motor.

tationA third and even more abstract form of schematization

isshown in the form of a wiring diagram. The

outward form of the object has now completely disappeared and only a part of the function of the equipment
is explained, namely the electrical. Within the wiring
diagram there are certain signs whose meaning cannot

229

Cross section

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

Electrical wiring diagram

1

2

3

4 5 6
*

,

s

./.

*
'
i

Graph

'/

be immediately recognized, since they belong to thecategory of scientific signs and as such must be learned
by the technician.
The reader will have noticed that in the progressive
course of schematization, verbal explanation becomes
essential as soon as the second stage has been reached.
The stronger the schematization becomes with increasing distancing from straightforward representation of the object, the more dependent it becomes upon
explanatory language. In the final example this fact
becomes even more clearly apparent. The illustration
is of a table with a basic grid dividing up specific values.
The two-dimensional arrangement of these lines ofvalue with a horizontal and a vertical coordinate allows
given relationships to be visually fixed at all the crossing points. The connecting lines between the individual
points produce the curve, which makes situations andtrends instantly comprehensible to the viewer withspontaneous clarity.
Within the four degrees of schematization shown,
there is a whole range of other possibilities of graphic
representation to support the verbal explanation ofthings that cannot be fully or clearly described inwords alone.
bComputer aids to schematization

The need for representation of third and fourth dimensions gives the technician the occasion to make Use of

new sources of schematization, for example that ofdigital recording on a computer-controlled screen, themain advantage of which is to allow the precise regulation of the timing of a course of action. For example,

the planning of the construction of a motorway is de-pendent upon so many determining factors that consultation on the cathode ray tube has become an indispen-

sable aid. The coordination points of the terrain are

stored in the computer memory, together with specifications of the basic principles of construction of the
Theoretical views"calculated" bycomputertheoretical roadway.

A preset line is fed into thecomputer as impulse (input), and the result appears on
the screen in the form of perspective views of the

230

/.

From Illustration to Symbol

location of the road in the preselected portion of theterrain. The progression from picture to picture makesitpossible to identify and correct faulty decisions that

could not have been foreseen by the human brain.
3. The ground plan
Flan for division of time

The term ground plan in the present context is taken tomean the visibly indicated division of a space or a visualarrangement of a lapse of time. Such divisions andarrangements are the schematic bases on which something is organized or happens. A clock face, for example, can be regarded as a ground plan on which time
becomes measurable through the movement of thehands. The same applies to the checkerboard as theground plan for a game, providing a grid on which thepieces are moved in accordance with the rules and thegame is played out.
The choreographer also draws a ground plan on
the stage to determine the movements of the ballet, andthe general superimposes two ground plans by drawing in a battle plan on the geographical ground plan,i.e., the map.
Without a ground plan of the streets in a street map,
visitors to a town would become lost in the maze ofhouses, and even the native of the town must makefrequent reference to the plan of the transport network.

The orientation plan is a schematic and graphic representation with a greater or lesser degree of realistic
illustration and can no longer be ignored by travelers

Plan of an island village

has symbolic quality

231

Game plan

Sign, Symbol. Emblem. Signal

today, from the points of view of both space and time.

The modern phenomenon of expansion has outstripped thehuman capacity for understanding inpractically all fields, so that the individual now has torely on schematic images of transport networks, busi-

ness results, scientific achievements, and so on.

Indian Tantra image:a plan for meditation

P =1
In contrast to all these movements into the incom-

prehensible, our bird's-eye view of an island settle-

ment in the Pacific Ocean produces a ground plan
which is fascinating in its simplicity. The streets arelaid out like a sign, consisting of cross and circle, witha strong emphasis on the center. The town plan has
here become a symbol sign which all inhabitants carryin their memory and in relation to which they canidentify themselves.

As a final example from the multitude of different
kinds of ground plan, we take an image from Tantric
Buddhism. It is to be seen as a contemplative plan,
before which believers follow their life's course in
meditation.

The path leads from the circumference,around the decreasing concentric circles to the center,
which is Nirvana.
With these examples we have already departed
considerably from scientific or everyday diagrams andground plans into the realm of the symbol, which willbe the subject of the greater part of our observations.

232

/.

From Illustration to Symbol

4. The allegory

The only reason why we have included an account of
the allegory at this point in our considerations is that it
is toooften confused with the symbol.

The allegory consists of a purely figurative representation, usually a personification of an abstract concept, with the objective of providing a naturalistic
illustration of some extraordinary deed, exceptionalsituation, or outstanding quality. Most of the allegoricalfigures of Western culture are derived from the my-thology of Greece and Rome and given attributes in amanner that generally dates back to the Middle Agesor the Renaissance. The combination of the historicalfigure with the symbol-laden object produces an abstract statement that is. in fact, allegorical. Thus, forexample, the winged female form is the generally understood representation of victory and peace, and thehorn filled with fruit is the allegory for wealth andabundance. The figure of justice, a female form withbandaged eyes, holding a sword in one hand and apair of scales in the other, is no longer merely a symbol
or connection between a visible and an invisible world
but an allegorical picture of a real phenomenon.
The figure of justice is a typical representation ofallegorical forms from mythology or religion. Other
examples, too numerous to mention, range from theCentaur to the Sirens and the Statue of Liberty.
In the 20th century, the tendency to use figures from
antiquity to form allegorical images has almost completely died out. Today, new forms are coming into
the foreground. Figures of supermen of all kinds, conquerors of outer space surrounded by robot slaves,etc., will probably form the new models for the allegorical expressions of the future.
5. The images of superstition

Superstition is defined as "misdirected reverence." Itis based as awhole on a primitive fear of the future, ofthe malign. Humankind has always tried to protect
itself from ill fortune. Many superstitious acts have a

233

Figure of Justice, atypical allegorical image

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

thoroughly reasonable core of sense. To walk under aladder increases the risk of being hit by a falling object.
In the days when salt was precious, to spill it could
signify real misfortune.

Amulets are a product of superstition. These objects, usually worn or carried about the person, aresupposed to have a protective influence by providing aguarantee against misfortune. Such amulets are also
known in the form of pictures, and it will be sufficient
to mention only a few typical examples. Apart fromthe number 13, most of them are bringers of good
luck: chimney sweeps on -New Year's Day, the lucky
pig, the ladybug, the money spider, etc.

Closer to the symbolic sign of good luck is, forexample, the four-leafed clover, which as a biological"sport" gave the farmer an important indication of thegood quality of the land, since it is only found on certain
kinds of soil. The horseshoe is another sign of fertility
with a reasonable basis, since its discovery provides
evidence of long cultivation. It is also an object ofrespect, sometimes associated with use by distantancestors.

Good-luck signs

234

II.

1.

The Symbol

What is symbolic?

In looking at pictures, sculptures, architecture, and all

kinds of ornamentation, including ornaments on objects of daily use, from whatever period, ranging from

Stone Age discoveries to modern paintings, we areconstantly faced with the question, What does it mean?

What is hidden in this thing? Pictures and ornamentation are, in fact, seldom unequivocal in their statements

or easily "readable." The viewer infers an underlying

meaning and looks for an interpretation. This often undefinable capacity of a representation to make a state-ment is also denoted by the term "symbolic content."
This symbolic element in picturesisan impliedvalue, a mediator between recognizable reality and themystical, invisible realm of religion, philosophy,

andPainting on an Egyptian coffin

235

Sign. Symbol, Emblem, Signal

magic, extending from the consciously understandable into the field of the unconscious. To this extent one
can say that the artist or craftsman is in reality amediator between two worlds, visible and invisible. In
former times, craftsmanship in itself was regarded as
something "miraculous." The more completely thework brought its content to expression through its
aesthetic perfection, the greater its symbolic value

Yugoslavian icon of
the li!th century

became and the more worthy of worship it was. A
typical example of this effect is the icon, whose beauty, greatly enhanced by a certain stylization, is entirely
concerned with the revelation of the object's symbolic
content and the enlightenment of the viewer.
2.

From symbol picture to symbol sign

In contrast to this elevation of the symbolic picture toperfect beauty, we also find the tendency to simplification,

where the pictorial is reduced to the signlike

through the representation of the object in a basic
form. An example of this is provided by the symbol
picture of the crucified Christ, which cannot be regarded by anybody in the Western world as an anecdotal
illustration but only as an absolute object of worship,i.e., a symbol of the Christian faith.
In contrast to this pictorial absolute one may find, inmountainahut or a nomad's tent, two pieces of woodtied together to represent the same cross and thereby
signifying the same symbolic content for the believer,even in the absence of any figurative representation oreven any aesthetic value. Although the picture has been
reduced to a simple sign, its symbolic content remains
absolutely identical.

Maximum formal
reduction from symbolic
image to symbolic sign

The reduction from picture to sign is a different
process from the development of script, which as wehave seen was the result of a reduction of hand movements by the scribe. The symbol sign arises from theneed to possess a version of the original,
genuine image so that they can participate, as it were,
believers'in its radiation; in just the same way as superstitious

persons wearing amulets want to transfer some kindof higher power to themselves.

236

//.

The Symbol

The stages of symbolic value are therefore not dependent on any perfection of outward form but on thereadiness of the viewers to attach their conviction,
their faith, to an object of meditation, i.e., a symbol.
3. Ambiguous use of the word "symbol"

The term "symbol" is often incorrectly used today, forexample, to describe newly invented signs that are
different from the normal alphabet and numerals. Admittedly, it may well be difficult to alter this practice inthe future. A scientist will always wish to make use of
a new sign unit for a newly discovered formula, byfinding or inventing a so-called new symbol, which
fundamentally belongs to the category of purely scientific signs and in no way justifies the use of the name of"symbol."On the other hand, it is difficult to achieve any
certainty about the symbolic expression content of any
given figure in the class of nonalphabetical graphic
expression in our environment.

A significant example of this difficulty is the sign ofthe crossbones. On the warrior's banner or the pirate

appears as the heraldic signature of afellowship. On the medicine bottle it is the signal for"poisonous," and on the motorcyclist's leather jacket
it is a symbol sign for daring or acceptance of risks.
ship's sail

Emblem (logo)it

SignalSymbol237

III.

The Graphic Wealth of
Figurative Symbols

The selection and arrangement of signs in the tables inthis chapter do not follow any system of geographical,
philosophical or metaphysical interpretation. The basis of selection and juxtaposition is similar
historical,

to that of the tabulations in the previous studies in Parts

and 2. namely, to seek an understanding of the elements of the signs from the point of view of graphic
expression. Our main interest lies in showing how
1

figurative representations are altered or simplified by

the manual techniques applied in association with thematerial used. At the same time, we believe that the juxtaposition of similar kinds of signs from different periods and cultures makes the original intention of aform more clearly recognizable and therefore
more understandable for the reader.
The series of tables follows a logical sequence in thatthe concrete pictorial signs are gradually changed into
sign

abstract signs in amanner that issimilar to thetransition from pictographic to ideographic and alphabetical script.

It

may well be that this arrangement

follows a certain historical sequence of development,
since it can be clearly seen that an increasing tendency
toabstraction has gone side by side withhuman-

kind's growing mental activity from the earliest times.

There is also the consideration that a symbol with
reduced form is more memorable than an ordinary
picture and that the coded secret within a nonfigurative sign is precisely that which offers more incentive to
meditation and also a closer association with the occult.
We have deliberately left out the purely figurative
type of image, that is, the one that is more or less true
to nature, even though the illustrative form as suchoccupies an important position in the symbolic tradition. In this connection we have to follow our particu-

239

Siren: a symbolic pictorial drawing from the15th century. How far

removed from a sign!

Sign, Symbol. Emblem. Signal

lar line, namely the theme of "Sign, Symbol, Emblem,

Signal, " as faithfully as possible, by keeping the em-phasis on

all

that

is

really signlike

among humanrecords.

1.

How pictures become symbol signsaThe process of stylization

The starting point for our examination of the visible
formulation of an image is the physical substrate, theobject that carries the picture, sign, or ornamentation.

The object denoted, or designed, is also of essential
importance for the interpretation of the symbolic drawing. There is no doubt that one and the same sign
shown on different objects, such as a food container, analtar, a piece of clothing, or a tomb, cannot signify asingle, uniform concept.

From the very earliest stages of human development there has been an association between humans
and the objects they use. It was the stick that lengthened the arm to strike more firmly and the stone thatturned the hand into a hard weapon. From the weapon
to the tool, from clothing to housing, the number of suchobjects grew, and through constant use they become

indispensable companions.
Purely practical evaluation with regard to the de-gree of usefulness of an object was followed by a more

emotional scale of values, in that the object became atreasured possession. What could be more appropriate
to this affectionate feeling than to "sign" the object byproviding it with a distinguishing mark? This processof adoption, accompanied by an awakening aesthetic1

to 3: Strongly figurative representations, where the positioning of the limbs is adapted to the circular form of theobject. Celtic coins.

4:

Adaptation of heraldic images to the shape of the shield led to countless varieties ofstylization during the Middle Ages.

5:

Human figure compressed into the circular shape of a spindle disk. Eventhe central hole is included in the composition as a shield. Baked clay. Ancient Mexico.

6: Japanese family device.

The sign acquires a supernatural air through the total integration of the birdfigure into a circle. Embroidery. 7:
Distortion of naturalistic figures to ornament given spaces was mainly practiced in the field of heraldry. This typicalexample is a saddlecloth, on the surface of which the lion figure is distorted to the extreme. Embroidery. England.
8:

Porcelain painting showing an interesting example of adaptation of forms in the well adapted to fill the side ofa stone sarcophagus and strongly stylized. Stone carving. Scandinavia.

and completely integrated with its shape, Dahomey.

240

10: Snake scratched in a piece of timber

///.

The Graphic Wealth of Figurative Symbols

Adaptation of forms to the object decorated

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

sensitivity, led toornamentation. At the same time,

mythical beliefs in superhuman powers led to emblematic drawings that gave the weapon more accuracy, the tools more effective uses, in order to protect thelodging from harm and the owner's body from sick-ness and death.
In the beginning, then, was the object, not the sign!
The sign has been determined by the form and materialof the object. This process of adjustment is nowadays

known as "stylization." The drawing is adapted to thematerial and the form to the object, thereby heightening the signlike nature rjf the expression. This ten-dency toward sign making also draws the image further into the field of symbolic expression.
b Simplification through material and tools

A proper appreciation of the graphic effect of signs
would not be possible without a knowledge of thesubstrate, which determines the structure, and thecharacteristics of the tools employed. Inscriptions canbe scratched or carved into stone, burned or cut into
wood, and woven or embroidered into textiles. The
formal "typification" of sign production of many kinds
developed in this way, from the relationship between
material and tool (see Part 1, Chapter VIII, "The Diversity of Appearance"). For this reason, the captions to
the illustrations in Part 3 give information about thetechniques employed, wherever possible.
In order to illustrate a single field of expression we
have assembled a table of the most typical patternelements of Oriental carpet weaving. The symbolic
meaning of the individual figures can no longer be

1 to 10: Selection of the most widely used carpet-knotting patterns. Most of these signs are centrally symmetrical.
The varied treatment of the endings is a point of interest. In 1 and 2 there is the beginning of a meander; in 4 and5 the curving-in is tendril-like, unlike in 6, where the endings have a very bare effect (unusual). 9: Crosses are foundonly in the northern regions (Caucasus). The zigzag border is called "running dog." In patterns 1 1 to 19, flower andplant motifs are recognizable: 14 shows a cotton-plant blossom, 15 a carnation, 17 a wheat ear and 18 an oak leaf.
20 and 21 are examples of the famous "Botch" signs, the origin of which is still a matter of dispute among experts:
almond, water drop, fig, etc. These are typical of ornamental elements with a symbolic content that can no longer
be interpreted. The remaining signs of the table are figurative and therefore come from northern regions. 22:
Dragon; 23: Camel; 24: Can; 25: Dog with cross on tail; 26: Crab. 27: A rich weaving pattern from a Swedish carpet,
showing the tree of life with fantastic animal figures.

242

///.

The Graphic Wealth of Figurative Symbols

Pattern signs of weaving techniques

DTI

CO

mm

£6
1

12

13

14

15

i>

W

-

16

17

21

22

24

25

18

26

19

20

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

field. The deeper
meaning of the pictures and signs on which the ornaments are based lies far in the past and has been largely
forgotten, because of constantly repeated use and theinterpreted with certainty in thisvery prominent tendency toward the strongest possible ornamental effect.

At the same time it should be borne in mind that thetechniques of carpet weaving and knotting have foundtheir widest use in the lands of the Mohammedan faith,

which actually forbids the representation of humanand animal figures, and even of nonstylized plants, forornamental purposes. Thisls certainly a further reason
why the objects in question have become largely unrecognizable.

The wealth of ornamentation in Oriental carpets canprobably also be attributed to the climatic conditionsof the infertile regions of their use. When nomads inthe desert unroll their prayer rugs in the direction of

Mecca, they surround themselves with an imaginary
magic garden. By contrast, the patterns of carpets
made in northern lands are much more subtle, being
mostly limited to geometrical patterns in the ordinary
surface of the textile, and the decorative elements haveremained recognizable figures (see also table of animaland plant symbols).
c Gigantic symbol signs

Gigantic symbol signs, which in many cases have been

discovered only through aerial photography, haveremained an unexplained mystery to this day. What
were the motives of the people who drew giant signs,
whether figurative or abstract, on the natural ground

244

///.

The Graphic Wealth of Figurative Symbols

surfaces of southern England, the Peruvian pampas,
or the Atacama Desert of Chile'? These figures havesuch colossal dimensions that their entire forms canhardly be taken in at ground level. It can be assumed
that the production ot such signs, the creative act itself,
took place in the course ot a religious ceremony.
hese gigantic proportions also probably bear witness to a certain reaction, or counteraction, to themighty mysteries of gods and demons. The huge extension of the pictures provided a means of encountering
the supernatural dimension.
1

1:

The White Horse of Uffington. Kngland 10 m long), carved into a grass-covered chalk hill. 2: "No/ca." a monkey
1

figure (according to Maria Reich), carved into the Peruvian pampa. 50

m long. 3: "Ni/ca." a gigantic reptile caned

into the stone of the Peruvian pampa plain.

245

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

2. Fauna symbols

aFrom multiplicity to simplicity
Bird figures

The attribute
oi wings

For earth-bound humankind, birds with their ability tocavort in the air must always have seemed giftedcreatures with more than earthly faculties. The factthat birds are associated with the "heavenly" as well as
the earthly, that is to say with something beyond
mortal life from the primitive viewpoint, offers whatmight be called an embodiment of the symbolic. It istherefore not surprising that all flying creatures havebeen very strong objects of attraction for symbolic andmystical beliefs and are to be found represented by all
cultures, including that of the Stone Age. A point ofspecial interest is that the faculty of flight was also

bestowed on other creatures by giving them the attribute of wings. Thus the winged serpent became the all-powerful dragon and the winged human represented
the heavenly angel.
An exception to the association of feathers withflying is provided by the peacock, which still possesses
an equally marked feather symbol, which when fannedout is interpreted in mythology as a symbol of the sun,an image of the firmament of stars, the eye of God, etc.

Byzantine painting

1100 A.I).

1: Stylized but realistic bird figure with unexplained attributes. Pre-Christian fresco painting, Turkestan. 2:
Charlemagne's symbol, woven in silk on his cloak. Note the figure's wealth of symbols: sun, lily, scales, tears, andnot least the halo. 3: Unusual figure of a peacock with closed fan. Mosaic, Ravello. 4: Gothic eagle, strongly stylized.

Metal holder with inset stones. Jeweled ornament, Spain. 5: Double bird on ancient Mexican ceramic seal. 6 and
7:Flying birds, ceramic paintings from Greece and China. 8: Typical bird sign from Easter Island, formed only of

curves. Wood carving. 9: Dream bird, "the bringer of sleep." Burned into bark, Scandinavia. 10: Textile painting,

Ivory Coast. 11, 14, and 15: Highly stylized bird signs of the Hopi Indians, Arizona. 12 and 13: Bird motifs, highly
stylized by weaving techniques, Perusa and Scandinavia. 16: Four birds joined ornamentally and made abstract
to the utmost degree.

North American Indian art on leather.

246

///.

The Graphic Wealth of Figurative SymbolsUI. The Graphic WealthSymbolic forms between heaven and earthfaSign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

Our selection of figures for the tables of illustrations
has been made with the intention of showing a crosssection of the variety of formulations visibly associatedwith the materials and tools employed. The majestic
frontal view (a widely used way of showing the bird
both standing and flying at the same time) of the fineembroidery on Charlemagne's cloak endeavors to
express pictorial perfection, with every detail includedin the finest needlework. The sign is by no means intended to be a realistic representation of the bird but
rather a "superbird," richly decorated with symbolic
motifs.

At the opposite pole there are the extremely simplified bird outlines at the bottom left of the page, pro-

duced with the crisscross lines that are within thescope of traditional country weaving.

more significant in their simplification are thebird motifs of North American Indians. These figures
Still

have, in fact, been simplified not only for purely technical reasons, since painting, scratching and burningin allow for amore complex style of drawing, but

because of an inward-looking tendency to simplification, which they express in a quite remarkable manner- perhaps with the intention of reducing the image to an
absolute sign. These designs bear witness to a spiritual
activity, without any verbal expression, consciouslytransforming the picture into a symbol.
b

Of life and death
The serpent symbol

The snake or serpent is the easiest form of life to draw.

A crooked line alone, perhaps with a thickening at theend for the head, is enough to represent the creature.
This "lack of body" must have been one of the attractions that have caused its extremely simplified form toappear at all times as one of the most mysterious of allgraphic representations.
Naturally there are also many deeper reasons forthe prominence of the serpent symbol than mere mechanical ease of drawing. The serpent figure can beseen as a symbolic archetype, incontrovertibly present

248

///.

The Graphic Wealth of Figurative Symbols

seen as a symbolic archetype, incontrovertibly present
in the human subconscious. The most important association is probably fear of its deadly bite: fear of a beingthat can bring death, hidden in the earth, in grass, in
foliage, and in piles of rocks.

Confronting humankind with this primitive fear,
the serpent has been given a leading place in the symbolization of matters of life and death in many different cultures.

The more figurative association of the serpent withthe phallus, together with the idea of the rootlike, half-

hidden source of life arising from underground, places
the creature in an absolutely ambivalent light: bringing
death and producing life.
A still more subtle significance must have been
provided by the phenomenon of the snake's shedding
its skin, in association with the deep-seated innerconcern of humankind with rebirth and immortality.
The symbol sign of the circular serpent, which by
swallowing its own tail appears to eat itself, that is, tonourish or annihilate itself through its own death, is aclear symbol of an eternal recurrence. The thought ofa re-birth goes together with the representation of thesecret of eternity.

Serpent motif in the form ofa net. Sumeria. 2200 b.<249.

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

In Western usage, the serpent therefore became not

only a symbol but also the mark of a profession, as theemblem of medical science. It winds around the staff of

The moon over the
sun leads to theserpent form

Aesculapius as an attribute of the Greek god of medicine, and we later find it in doubled form around thewinged staff of Mercury. These symbols are still used
today to identify the physician or the apothecary.
An interesting theory concerning the origin of thestaff of Hermes is that the serpent form is derived froman ancient Greek sign consisting of the moon placed
over the sun. This involves the assumption that thesimilarity of form between the crescent moon and theserpent led to associations of thought and interpreta-

Crescent moon andtion, since the moon, too, was a symbol of fruitfulness,

serpent havepregnancy, and eternal disappearance and reappearance, because of its constant growth and decline.
A further association is provided by the serpent andassociated forms

The spiral loops of the serpent's body surrounding the egg symbolize the cosmic embrace of theearth in a dominance of all life.
The form of the drawn-out, tapelike serpent's

the egg.

Knotted serpentsfrom Mesopotamia

body, its surface decorated with rhythmical patterns ofpatches, lines, and colors, provides an ideal theme forornamentation. As will be noted in a later chapter,spirals, loops, knots, etc., are powerfully symbolic

The serpent's body in its linear form
allows the artist to associate the figurative most closelywith the abstract. In both linear and area ornamentaabstractions.

tion, the serpentine line plays an important part.

1: The staff of Aesculapius, wound round by sacred serpent, was the mark of the Greek god of medicine and has
remained the sign of the physician to this day. 2: The double serpent has been used for thousands of years as carrierof deep symbolic concepts, the most common form being the staff of Mercury (Hermes) with two entwined serpents.
3:

The serpent wound around the cosmic egg is the Greek symbol of godlike prescience. 4: Another form of serpent

figure with strongly symbolic content is the "serpent ring," where the creature is consuming its own body, holding
tail in mouth. Already present in ancient Egyptian mythology, this figure is also found in both Oriental and Westerncultures.

The illustration is of an African version modeled in clay, from Dahomey. 5: This swastika sign withserpents' heads at the terminals is from an Indian coin and is probably a sun sign representing the scorching heatof the tropical sunbeams. 6: Serpent as cloud carrier, North American Indian drawing. 7: The patriarch fertilizes

the seven sacred eggs, drawing from Australia. 8: Double serpent motif in carpet weave, Turkestan. 9: The Egyptian

god Turn appears in a serpent's form, typically showing markedly humanoid body.

10:

An impressive double

serpent with unusually thick body and no tail, South African rock drawing. 1 1 Serpentine ornament made by sand:dusting process on a floor, central India. 12, 13, 14: Serpent forms on ancient Mexican ceramic seals.

250

///.

The Graphic Wealth of Figurative Symbols

The tapelike linear serpent form is in itself a sign

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Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signalc

Other fauna symbols
Archetypes of the subconscious

Since the earliest times there have been relations between human and beast, which must be deeply rooted
in thehuman psyche. In the human subconscious,

beasts have always played a role as the essential archetypes of all that is instinctive, as symbols of the principles of material, spiritual, and even cosmic powers.

There is no shortage of examples to illustrate thesefacts. The gods of

The Egyptian god Hathor

The Holy Ghost

many early cultures are embodied inanimal figures: all Egyptian gods had animal heads.
The same applies to the Assyrian god Nisroch with its
eagle's head, and one of the principal gods of the
Hindus is still Ganesha, the elephant. The godhead of
the Aztecs was the green plumed serpent Quetzalcoatl
and the Hebrew god El was embodied in the figure ofa bull, a figure which appears later in the Old Testament as the golden calf.
Nearer to us are the animal symbols of the evangelists; Christ was described as the Lamb of God, andthe Holy Ghost was made visible in the form of a downward-flying dove.

Matthew = AngelJohn = Eagle
1:

Luke = Bull

Mark = Lionthe fish sign was a Hebrew symbol for the Redeemer, later used by the early Christians in Rome, during thepersecutions, as a secret sign and scratched on the walls of the catacombs. 2: Double fish, a Chinese symbol froma painting on porcelain.

3:

Triple fish with common head, clearly showing the symbolism of the Trinity in amanuscript painting from Spain. The same sign is produced in India by the sand-dusting technique. 4: Spider, thearchetype of a fauna symbol, found in many parts of the world, often in connection with a spider's web. 5: Snailshell, relating to the spiral, but also to concepts of housing, protection, caution. An old rustic symbol from northern

Europe. 6: Greek nautilus or mussel sign, symbolizing the secrets of the sea. 7: Wolf-horse, the terrifying ghostly
beast, engraved on an axe from the Caucasus. 8: Double crocodile on a seal. Ghana. 9: Dog, scratched figure from

Ghana. 10: Cuttlefish, a frequently used animal sign, symbolizing the mystery, depth, and perils of the sea. painted
on a Cretan vase. 11: Dragon embroidered on a Chinese coat of arms. 12: Lizard or crocodile (two completely
different basic symbols), ceramic seal from ancient Mexico. 13: Catfish, ivory carving from Nigeria. 14: Bull's headcrowned with double axe. a combination of two symbols for power, victory, and judgment, tomb in Crete. 15:
Horse-spider, a horrific beast, as No 7. Caucasus. 16: African stone weight in the form of a frog, a widespread
symbol of the amphibian principle. 17: Ibex with circular horns enclosing mythical flying sun birds, ceramic
painting from Mesopotamia. 3500 b.c

252

///.

The Graphic Wealth of Figurative Symbols

Examples of the unlimited wealth of fauna symbols

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

Human characteristics are still projected onto animals today, in a manner that finds expression in commonly used similes and metaphors. Thus we speak ofsomeone's being "cunning as a fox," or "strong as ahorse," or describe a person as "a dumb ox" or simply"a snake."

Some psychoanalysts make willing use of this tendency by claiming to find the solution of conflicts andtraumas in the interpretation of dreams, in whichanimals so often occur.
The wealth of graphic representation of fauna
symbols is so immense that it would take up far too
much space to show all the relevant illustrative material. In this field, once again, we wish to emphasize thedevelopment from naturalistic picture to sign as ourprincipal concern. The examples chosen are therefore
close to the limit of the recognizable image. Stylizationfrom picture to sign is, in our view, evidence of the factthat these examples were intended not so much as
ornaments or decoration but much more as drawings
with a symbolic content.

The cowrie shell of Indonesia is atypical example of a symbolic creature.

Analogy with the vulva, which can hide a pearl (good luck sign).

1: Lily sign has a double symbolism, representing purity

and innocence but also regarded as a sign of procreation(phallus in vulva). The sign acquired its great importance in heraldry as a royal symbol, the number of cross strokes

denoting the rank. 2: Tulip, a sign of fertility. 3: Rose. All rose motifs are a symbolic expression of love. 4: Daisy,
also a love symbol. Western folk art. 5: Cloverleaf. The sign of the normal three-leafed clover (as opposed to thefour-leafed variety (No. 10), is an expression of well-being. 6: Tree of life. 7: May tree or tree of life, sign of joy.
8: Tree of Death, an oath-taking sign (6, 7,

and 8 are old runic signs). 9: Lime-tree leaf, symbolizing death, (a) In

the Siegfried saga, a lime-tree leaf fell between the shoulders of the invulnerable, (b) The sign also represents areversed heart, pierced by a weapon, (c) The point of a lance has a similar shape to a lime-tree leaf. 10: The open
four-leaf is drawn by superimposing a left-handed

and a right-handed swastika. The four-leafed clover is an

exception in nature, mostly used as a good-luck sign, but like all unusual appearances it can be interpreted in the
opposite sense. 11: Heliotrope, or "sunflower," which always turns toward the sun throughout the day, used in

Greece as a symbol of constancy in love. 12: Pinecone, an old Semitic symbol of fertility. 13: Wheat ear, a worldwide

symbol of harvest, signifying abundance, gratitude, hope. 14: Maize cob, a fertility symbol of great importance in
pre-Columbian America. 15: Branch of peace, a Western symbol associated with the story of Noah. 16: Tree of

Buddha, also the shape of the heavenly throne. 17: Plant of immortality from the Gilgamesh legend. 18: Lotus
blossom, a branching symbol of the flower that floats on water, deified by the ancient Egyptians. Our illustrationshows the lotus blossom rising from the cosmic egg in an Indian painting. 19: Chinese tree of life, with each double
twig producing a blossom, in accordance with the duality principle of yin and yang. 20: Mushroom, another signwith a double meaning, being both "lucky mushroom" and warning of poison.

254

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The Graphic Wealth of Figurative Symbols

The sense of beauty in the realm of plant lifeto12

Sign, Symbol. Emblem, Signal

3. Plant symbols

Humankind is surrounded by the wealth of the vegetable kingdom, which in earlier times covered most of

the earth's surface. The forest offered shelter. Plants,
fruits, and roots still form an important part of our diet.
It is therefore not surprising that all kinds of plants,

aswell as fauna, have become symbols.

Capital 01 an Egyptiancolumn, repi'

nting ad lotus blossom

All civilizations have made use of plant svmbols as
fundamental expressions of life, growth, fertility, procreation, and so on. A connection between the primitive life of plants and the higher forms of life in fauna
and humankind is often shown. An example is thesacred lotus blossom, which is seen as the embodimentof all life, arising from the depths of the water as thoughfrom the void. All the higher, cosmic powers are seen
as growing in their turn from the flower.
One of humankind's most important symbols is thetree. Its roots grasp deeply into the mysterious earth, its
trunk was often used as the main pillar of primitive
dwellings (and was therefore commonly thought of as
the axis of the world), and its branches sway, like thebirds, in the realm of the air, the sky, the celestial. Thus
the form of the tree is the image of a connection between heaven and earth, and its structure has a marked
symbolic content. The manifold dependence of humankind on the tree for firewood, building materials, tools,

and other products led directly to the concept of the"tree of life." The life span of a tree is much longer thanthat of a human, leading to a feeling of reverence, as
toward an ancestor. There is also the legend of the treeof knowledge. The oak tree was sacred to the Celtic
peoples, if not itself regarded as a god.

Blossoms and leaves were used as materials fordecoration, and a growing sense of beauty brought the
attribution of symbolic content to the world of plants,
with its splendor of color and wealth of form, as isshown by names like edelweiss (noble white) or herb ofgrace, and descriptive phrases like "pure as a lily."Parts of plants such as thorns and buds also have aclear symbolic meaning, and the palm branch is still

known as a sign of peace.

256

///.

The Graphic Wealth of Figurative Symbols

We will return to the subject of the representation ofplants in the section on heraldry (Chapter VII), al-though not so much in the sense of the plant as symbol
but more as identifying mark or emblem.
4. Thehuman form as symbol

The complete figure of the human bodya

A mere naturalistic representation of the naked humanbody with the intention of making a symbolic statement
would be a contradiction, strictly speaking, since there
is nothing about the complete human figure to indicate
a symbolic content. It is therefore axiomatic that theform of the human body, on its own, cannot convey any
symbolic statement whatever. The expression of thesvmbolic onlv comes to it in connection with a given.p.
1
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object or creature, or it it is clothed in a certain kind ofwith some particular attribute.
costume, or equipped
111
Even such representations of the human form withsymbolic attributes are irrelevant to our inquiry into
the question of "signs." On the contrary, what we arehere concerned with in the context ol this work is to
examine those signs in which the human form is
included as a stylized outline, often much altered.
We have already referred to the fact that the formsof the cross, the fork, and the Egyptian life sign havetheir origin in the human form. A very lively example ofthis transformation of the body into a sign is provided
by the series of medieval signs collected by Rudolf Kochand published in Das Leben in der Familie (Life in the
Family). The examples given are probably of stonemasons' signs, which contain some kind of statement innonverbal form.
The history of mythology, of art, and of design in
general shows that artists have always taken the human body to be the most perfect in the hierarchy of
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we find, in India, representations of the human figure
divided into zones of metaphysical powers and actions;ancient Greece, gods and goddesses with humanforms; and in Western culture, pseudoscientific scheinmata for magical, mystical, or philosophical worldviews based on the figure of the human body. Our tableof symbolic human figures includes a drawing of thiskind, showing the figure of a man inside a cosmic circle.
In contrast to this theme it is interesting to note thatin the mythology of Islam there is no figurative illustration. That is the reason whv Arabic script has developed such a rich and decorative diversity, with the holy
words of the Koran in written form constantly serving
as the basis of the kind of ornamentation known asarabesque.
b Parts of the human bodyIt

can be assumed that the earliest illustrations

inhuman history were footprints in clay and the prints ofhands smeared with coloring matter on rock walls.
The ability to produce an illustration without the
movements of drawing may well have fascinated early
human. The technique of making handprints on texHandprint, perhaps

among some African tribes.

tiles is still in use

The footprint of Buddha has great importance in
Buddhist mythology, leading to the production of someastonishingly beautiful symbol signs. In the imagined
scale of the divine, superhuman form it is the soles ofthe feet that come closest to the earth. Foot symbols

have been derived from this idea because they are theonly traces remaining of the godhead's former sojournon earth. The same myth has remained alive in Hinduism, accounting for the frequent occurrence of theoutline of the foot in north Indian painting. As an
example we show a picture of a footprint of the Indiangod Vishnu with a mass of symbols on its sole.
1 to 15: Abstract signs in which a strong association with the outline of thehuman bodj is recognizable.

cross. 2: Egyptian cross (see table of cross signs). 3: Fork-sign (sec Part

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Christianon duality). 4: Double fork or support.

Sign of gathering, firmness, readiness. 5: Light carrier. Sign of worship. (> to 15: Familj life. 6: Man. 7: Woman. 8:

Man and woman joined in the act of love.
Pregnant woman. 10: Birth. 11: Family. 12: Two friends. 13: Conflict.
14: Dead man. 15: Widow with two children. 1(>: Moon goddess (Maya). 17: Goddess\ncienl Punic). IS: figure<):Iof a god (Ancient China).

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Galley oarsmen, ornament on a pot (African). 20: Microcosmic s\ mbol, related to thehuman form.

259

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

The hand may be regarded as the part of the bodythat appears most frequently in the field of humanvision. Its representation is correspondingly frequent,and not only for purposes of direction giving andwarning.
The hand of Fatima

An example of a typical hand symbol is the hand of
Fatima. daughter of Mohammed and born in Mecca. Its
special characteristic is a thumb on each side. There
are many possible ways of explaining this formation of
the hand. The symbol may represent the two hands
overlaid in greeting but has in many cases simply been
formed into a symmetrical sign through constant repetition as a talisman, whether drawn, engraved, or
carved. It is also possible that the comparable flower
shapes such as those of the lily and tulip have played apart in the development of this sign.
In the Christian faith, thewounded hand of the

crucified Christ has become a symbol of major impor-tance.

FootDrint of the Indian god

Vishnu. Painting from NeDal

1:

Handprint from the Stone Age. on a cave wall in Anatolia. 2 and 3: Buddha's footprints. Indian drawings. 4: Ex-voto signs at shrines, India. 5: Mohammedan sign of blessing, combining the hand of Fatima with the crescent moon.
6: Three-legged triskelion. face and circle combined tomake a potent svmbol. meaning uncertain, on a Greek coin.

7. 8. and 9: Representative parts of the body from North American Indian paintings. 10: Vulva as a Tantric symbol,

Indian drawing. 11: Triskelion, or three-legged sign, symbolizing victory and progress (cf. swastika), ceramic
painting on a Greek vase. 12: Utchat, the holy eye, Egyptian hieroglyph carved in stone. 13: Giant eye of Buddha,

painted on the front wall of a stupa temple. Katmandu. An interesting aspect of all images of Buddha's eye is thetwo-thirds covered iris, increasing the expression of meditation. 14: Eye of God. Christian symbol of the Trinity,

painted on many church walls. 15: Hand symbol carved in wood. Congo. 16: Human pair in the sun. rock drawing,
Spain. 17. 18: Hand symbols, ancient Mexican seals. 19: Eye of Cyclops, baked earth. Babylon. 20: World with theface of God, Ethiopian drawing. 21: The rain god Tlaloc, stone carving, ancient Mexico.

260

///.

The Graphic Wealth of Figurative Symbols

Parts of the human body with deep symbolic content

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Mudras, the sacred gesturesof Buddha
1Meditation

2 Reasons
3 Doctrine

4 Protection and request
5 Enlightenment

6 Unification of matter and spirit

Hand signs and foot signs are to be found at all cultcenters and places of pilgrimage as ex-voto tributes ingratitude for favors received.

The sign of the hand raised in blessing is to be foundin the iconography of most religions. In Buddhist theology there is a whole language of gestures in the
different positions of Buddha's hand.
In opposition to the grace-giving hand there are also

gestures of conspiracy and malignity, such as the wellThe devil's hand

known "devil's hand," which symbolizes the horned
figure and is also intended to ward off the evil eye. In
India, the right hand is regarded as good and the left as

the bad hand.

The human face plays an important role in all
cultures in its use for symbolization of the most variedkinds. In most cases the facial features shown havebeen stiffened into masks, an effect that predomi-

The mask, a new face

Heart sign, love

nantly gives a terrifying aspect to the countenance.
Although the graphic reduction of the face to a sign initself is comparatively rare, its individual features appear more often in stylized form, the most commonlyused organ being the eye, most often representing theeye of God.
From the time of the first rock drawings onward, thesexual organs have appeared as the original symbols
for life, power, fertility, etc. In the Christian world, thesuppression of nakedness has led to the complete
disappearance of such symbol signs, while in otherreligions, for example, Hinduism, they have been elevated even into becoming signs of deification.

262

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The Graphic Wealth of Figurative Symbols

In the present context there is not enough space tobodv having asymbolic content, but a final comment on the use of theinterior organs mav be added. Here the formal representation relies on pure imagination rather than observation. The most striking example of this is the heart
shape, an outline that is probablv one of the mostwidely used symbol signs but has no connection withthe actual appearance of the living organ.
Another special theme is the representation of death.
in connection with the immortality of the soul. The
concept of death is closely associated with the image of
cover

all

the different parts of thethe skeleton.
In earlier representations, the ascending soul was

shown as a physical organ, leaving the dead body in theforms of many abstract symbols. In some medieval
pictures the soul even takes on the complete form of thehuman figure, bursting forth through the mouth withthe last breath of the dying body.

5. Objects, landscapes, elements of nature

Everyday objects seldom have an independent symbolic content. Tools, crockery, clothing, and housing
are too close to humans' daily life to be charged withany mythological content, but in association with otherobjects or creatures they can give the whole image a

new symbolic expression, as attributes.
In this way, the ordinary tools of carpentry take onan unusual significance by becoming symbols of mar-tyrdom, when shown in association with the Cross ofChrist.

The only self-sufficient object symbols are provided
by items connected with outstanding events of life suchmarriage, and death. Signs representing
weapons are also symbolic in this way, being connected in one way or another with the act of death. We
as birth,find the basic symbol of the arrow even in prehistoricrock drawings (see Part 1). The axe is found in practically all the world's cultures as a symbol of thunder andlightning. Another symbolic value of the axe is that ofa sacred instrument of sacrifice; as a symbol of pene-263

skeleton,aeam

Sign, Symbol. Emblem. Signal

tration into wood and earth it became a symbol of life-

destroying and life-begetting power in many regions.
The double-headed axe symbolizes this duality evenmore strongly, and when placed on the head of a bullitis elevated into a

divine image.

In an extended sense of the meaning of "objects,"

representations of landscapes and all aspects of nature and the elements may be added. People living on

broad plains or vales are inclined to see the hill or
mountain, rising from the bare horizon, as a central
point of their environment, raising it to the status of acult location. The principle of construction of the domed

Buddhist shrine known as a stupa is fundamental^
none other than that of an artificial hill in the plain,since the building itself has no interior.
The valley through which life-bringing water runs,
having sprung from a hidden source; the clouds, bringing the welcome rain but also thunder and storms; andnot least the warming but also destructive element of
fire: all these phenomena must at first have appeared

1.2,3:

Weapon signs, showing points and barbs to symbolize aggression, injury, death, but also power anddomination. 1: Spear (cf. lime-tree leaf). 2: Sword (cf. sword cross). 3: Trident, weapon of the sea. symbol of the
Indian goddess Shiva, the Greek god Neptune, and the Mexican goddess Chalchiutlicue. A worldwide symbol of
divine superiority. 4, 5, 6: Cutting tools. 4: Axe, a much-used symbol of destruction, also symbolizing thunder andlightning. 5: Double-headed axe. a symbol occurring in almost all cultures, signifying not only destruction but alsoboth life and death in a dualistic sense. The double-headed axe "Labrys." from which the name of the Labvrinth

sanctuary is derived, has been found as a sacred symbol in the palace of Knossos. 6: Scythe, the tool of death. 7:
Thor's hammer, the sign of judgment. The Roman T-cross was the one actually used for executions. In heraldry,
the sign is called the ruler. 8: Shield or scutcheon, sign of protection, also of honor and duty, which became the main

image carrier of heraldry. The expression "a blot on the scutcheon" is still current. 9: The sealed book (word) ofGod. 10: Scales of justice. 1 1: Witch's besom, of runic origin, also used as a sign meaning "to remain fixed in theearth". Note similarity to the tree of death. Also used as an oath-taking sign. 12: Rod, symbol of male procreative
power, originally representing an erect phallus. Often found in heraldry as a sign of knightly power of punishment.
13:

Ring with tassel, an old rural symbol for sexual intercourse, with the ring as vulva and the tassel as the

traditional sign of the male member. 14: Barrel, sign of abundance, wealth, and joy. 15: Dumbbell, sign of contraries

such as life-death, joy-sorrow, summer-winter, much used in alchemy and astrology. 16: Fire. 17: Cloud, water,
wind. 18: Lightning. 19: Primitive representation of mountains. 20: Spring, Spanish rural painting. 21: Key, a deeply
rooted symbol opening up the invisible and mysterious, a sign of power for the owner of the key. Spanish manuscript
painting. 22: Chain, a general symbol for binding, fettering, also mysterious chain effects and propagation. Whenclosed into a circle it becomes a symbol of eternal recurrence and is related to the rosary. 23: Urn, final housing,seclusion, secrecy. An Etruscan example. 24: Cradle sign, expressing duality of birth (left-hand spiral) and life

(right-hand spiral), with curve of life in between. Resembles astrological sign of the Ram (Aries). Example from acoat of arms. 25: Stylized sign of an hourglass, symbolizing the passage of time, later used by alchemists as hoursign. 26: Funeral boat from Viking times, but used in almost all mythologies as sign of passage from life to death.

27: Seven-branched candelabra, symbol of Jewish faith with variety of meanings, e.g.. light, tree of life, six planets,

and the sun. A miniature from Alsace.

264

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The Graphic Wealth of Figurative Symbols

Everyday objects elevated to symbols

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to humankind's awakening intelligence as fateful anddivine powers.

We find graphic records of natural

phenomena and the elements in the early pictographic
scripts, at the stage where the pictograms have alreadybecome signs, whose origin is lost in primitive times butthat most probably came into existence for their earuses as symbolic representations (see Part
Chapter III, "The Graphic Wealth of Pictograms").

liest

On an African
wooden box

2,

6. The symbol of the center

Symmetry throughduplication (Assyrian seal
cylinder)Out of the whole range of abstract symbol signs, there
are only a few that are not symmetrically constructed.
Even concrete image symbols tend to be symmetrical,
whether in the frontal representation of a bird with thecentral point of the heart drawn in or in the techniqueof double ornamentation, where plants or animals are
duplicated to form a harmoniously symmetrical picture.

The more or less hidden principle of the center
seems to have been, in all kinds of signs, the expressionof the desired perfection. This tendency appears re-peatedly in the most important symbol signs such as
the cross and the swastika.

Two kinds of symbol formation, the knot and thelabyrinth or maze, provide the basis of inducement tomeditation and symbolize the hardship of the way toperfection, as well as the medieval Christian impositionof penances. Knot signs are often interweavings of several signs, requiring a certain mental activity for theirdecoding.

1: Gordian knot. Romanesque ornament carved or painted in stone. 2: Knot symbol engraved on a powder horn.
Norway. 3: Labyrinth pattern on an old coin. Crete. 4: Sign of the center drawn on the ground in white sand. India.

5: Labyrinth of white and black stones in the floor of a cathedral, followed to its center by pilgrims on their knees.

6: Tantra diagram of Nirvana (heaven), showing theway from the earthly rectangle to the heavenly circle, withsexuality (triangles) as the universal act of creation. An image for meditation, known as a Mandala. with its main
point in the center. Indian painting. 7: "Jaina" diagram representing the various levels of the universe and thedoctrine of passing through them. Indian painting.

266

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The Graphic Wraith of Figurative Symbols

The center designated as an image for meditation

Sign. Symbol, Emblem. Signal

A significant example is the image of the Gordianknot, believed to represent the "Key to the East." Ac-cording to tradition. Alexander the Great cut throughthe knot with his sword, thus symbolizing the shortening of a difficult route, before entering upon his

campaign in the East.
Knot signs may be compared in certain ways with
the Mandala signs of the Hindu and Buddhist religions,designed for meditations on wisdom and with a deeper
signification of the various earthly and cosmic spaces
or life circles that humans must experience and passthrough in order to reach the center, or Nirvana.
This spiritual movement comes very close to themeaning of Western representations of labyrinths. On
the island of Crete, withits

mvsterious customs, atypical labyrinth sign was stamped on a pre-Christiancoin and supposedly represents the hiding place of the

Minotaur. In a much later period, the Christian Middle
Ages, labyrinths of black and white stone were built
into the floors of cathedrals. Pilgrims at the end of theirjourney went through the labyrinth on their knees as
the culmination of the pilgrimage and a final act ofcontrition, often lasting hours, until they reached thefulfillment of their wish for forgiveness at the center.

The omphalos, or Buddha's
navel, center of all life. Signmodeled in the frontal roof tilesof a Japanese monastery.

268

IV.

1.

Abstract Symbols

Space and its center

How else could humans comprehend the space aroundthem than by perceiving themselves as located in its
center? They endeavored to orientate themselves between the earth's surface and the vault of the sky by
dividing space into parts. The concept of the points ofthe compass arose from observation of the stars andthe daily course of the sun in relation to the horizontal.
In contrast to this circular movement was the feel-ing of the fixed vertical axis, anchored in the Pole Starof the North. This experience and recognition of spaceconscious division, visibly expressed bymeans of the cross sign, which came to provide humankind with an elementary aid to orientation, enabling

led toits

them to distinguish up, down, left, and right. From thisrecognition came their entire understanding of space,which became the basis of all thought processes.
The various adaptations of this elementary crosssign bear witness of this primary diagram, in whichmost subsequent perceptions and ideas are incorporated. Thus, for example, changes of direction in thewind are divided by means of the primary axis crossinto the halfway directions of NW, SE, and so on. The
compass became the instrument for fixing the pointsof reference and the compass rose is still called "windrose" in German.
Mythological and speculative notions about the originof the world came into existence in all the awakening
civilizations. There is therefore no shortage of creation
myths, and every people has developed expressive
symbolic images, often explanatory and instructional
but more often meditative in character, showing its
belief in a source of all life in accordance with its own

particular ideas.

269

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Sign, Symbol, Emblem. Signal

Images of the center of the world

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Abstract Symbols(apt ions to page -70
1:

IndianI

antra sj mbol of the \ ul\ a, center and source of all life. 2: Aztec sign representing the Four quarters of

the world. 3: The lour corners of the world, pressure stamp. Ghana. 4: Symbol ofa central force, embossed in "oldon a belt buckle. Turkmenia 2000 b.i .. 5: Typical symbol of a central concept of life and eternity, as found in many

variations on pre-Christian Nordic rune stones.

6:I

be cosmic egg. fertilized and divided into /ones of energy,

painting on paper. Rajastan, India. 7: Russian embroidery pattern express]) emphasizing the center. X: Rune stone
sign from the Christian era with superimposed center symbols overlaid by a cross. 9: \ncient Chinese symbol ofthe sacred axes of the world. 10: Alchemical symbol of the spirit of the world, with sun and moon standing over
the rectangle" of the world, in which the horizontal of the bodily is crossed bj the vertical of the spiritual. 1 1: Indian

are stylized representations of the Yoni. thesymbol of life, where both the droplet shape and the triangle (cf.
vulva. In the center is the sacred letter "dm." pronounced in all prayers as the all-embracing sound of eternity. A
comparison may be made with the Western use of "Amen. 12: North American Indian representation of thecreation of the world, where the earlhlv rectangle with the ox. the clouds of Heaven, and the four arrows oflightning, pointing to infinity are easy to interpret. 13: The magic circle. Mohammedan diagram of the world with1).

significant Arabic letters, from north India.

Captions to page 272
2: Oblique cross, marking intermediate wind directions.
The two equal oblique strokes do not convey any dualistic
statement and the pictorial expression is closer to the purely ornamental. The Greek letter X (chi) is the initial of
Christ. Cross of life, latin cross. Cross of Christ, already used as a symbol for godhead before the Christian era
1:

Quadratic or Greek cross, cross of execution, plus sign.

cross of protection or closure. St Andrew's cross.

(Greece. Egypt, China). 4: Reversed cross, St Peter's cross. In contrast to the cross of life, this sign suggests

something negative. St Peter is believed to have been crucified head downward. 5: Robber's cross. This sign is thenegation of the cross, the vertical being crossed through with an oblique down stroke. Sign of distress, fate, restless
life. 6: Double cross, cardinal's cross, or Cross of Lorraine. The doubling of the horizontal makes this sign a higherranking cross. The upper stroke is also interpreted as a panel for inscriptions HNRII. Greek origin. 7: Triple cross,
Papal cross, the three horizontals indicating power: the sign also comprises the outline of the Tree of Life. 8: Triple
cross. Orthodox cross. Central repetition of the horizontals is not taken as an indication of power las 7) but anattestation of deeply held faith. 9: Orthodox cross with oblique lower stroke, serving as support for the feet or (cf.
5) indicating the death of Christ. 10: Cross of suffering, broken cross, chevron cross, referring to the stations of thecross and the death of Christ. 1 1 Tau (T) cross, cross of Jerusalem, crutch cross, hammer cross, a sign appearing
as early as the time of the Vikings. Lsed as a sign of authority on coins, coats of arms, trademarks, etc. 12: Germanic:cross, cross of consecration. The fourfold repetition of the cross sign increases its sacral expression. 13: Sign of the
Crusades, from which the term Jerusalem cross is derived. 14: Gamma cross, so called because constructed fromthe Greek letter gamma (D four times rotated. Originally an alchemical sign for the four corners of the earth. .1:
Coptic cross, with nails representing martyrdom of the crucified. 16: Egyptian cross, kej to the Nile. symbol of life1

and of divinity on the forehead of the Pharaohs. 17: Sword cross is \nchor cross, an association producing asymbol of lirmness in faith. 19: Anchor sign. The cross is barely recognizable and it seems improbable that there
is any association with the Egyptian cross, the loop being rather the sign of the first link in a chain. 20: Anchor cross,said to symbolize the birth of Christ (crossl from the body of Mar) (crescent moon) 21: Monogram of Christ.
consisting of the two Greek initials \ (chi and Plrho). 22: Cross with hooked ending, identical with 21 but the hook
could also represent a bishop's crook. 23: Maltese cross, knight's cross, a medieval sign of the orders ofchivalr)of St John. Malta, and the Temple. 24: Celtic cross and sun sign, relating to the centuries of association of
Christianity with the Celtic cult. 25: Aztec cross indicating the four points of the compass 26: Cross and circle, an
Oriental sun symbol, combining the same elementary signs as in the Western version (24): circle for sun. cross forearth. 27: Minor of Venus, clear!) related to 26. 28: Imperial orb. symbol of earth!) dominance. 29. 30 Crosses
over the letters alpha and omega, beginning and ending, a Christian double symbol.
I;

Captions to page 273
1 to 5: Transformation of the basic form of the cross to make patterns for embroider) and weaving, involving theoblique strokes typical of these techniques (northern Europe). 6 to I."): Heraldry also led to the development of

numerous individual variations. (>: Forked cross, dating back to roy. 7: Crutch cross, a bowed Tau cross. 8: Doublehook cross, also rounded off to make an anchor cross. 9: Paw cross, becoming "Iron Cross" when points are
removed. 10: Disk cross. 1: Hall cross, mace cross. 12: Heart cross, apple cross. 13: Cloverleaf cross. 141 cat' cross.
tendril cross. 15: Lil) cross 16 and 17: from Irish book illuminations. Is On Mexican pottery. 19 and 20: On
I

1Scandinavian rune stones. 21 to 2.">: Coptic art of earl) Christian times brought in an astonishingl) rich range ofornamentation, with the cross as the principal basic element. The examples are from stone friezes in Ethiopianmonasteries and churches, 8th to 0th century \.i>. 26: Fire cross, weaving pattern from the Caucasus. 27: Orthodox
cross cut in metal. Russia. 28: Cross ornament carved on an \frican (best. 29: Lmbroiden pattern of double cross.
Russia. 30: Embossed metal ornament. Ireland.
1271

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

The cross as symbol of the Christian faith

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IV.

Abstract Symbols

Symmetry of the cross allows for many styles of ornamentation

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Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

our limited space we can show only a small
selection from the multitude of signs, diagrams andimages expressing concepts of the earth and space, in
association with the idea of a primary act of creation.
In

2. The cross sign and its ornamentation

Following from the representation of the fundamental
concent of space and the cosmos by the horizontalvertical orinciole. as alreadv explained, the cross iscertainly the most commonly used elementary sign
throughout the world, uniting the active and passive
principles in dualistic connection. It has become asymbol in a wide variety of mythologies to indicate acentral point (cf. Part 1 Chapter V). The reason for theworldwide use of the sign is undoubtedly the extreme
simplicity of its formation.
Graphic association with the cross of execution andthe similarity of its outline to the human form have,made it the symbol of the Christian faith.
General observations on the cross sign are given insome detail in Part 1, Chapter II, Section 5.
Because of its symmetrical form and four freestanding stroke endings, the cross sign provides a strong
stimulus to ornamentation. The abruptly broken-offline ending calls for a terminal, a conclusion of thestraight lines reaching out to infinity (cf. Part 1 Chapter,

VIII, 16).

1:

Simple swastika, gamma cross, or hooked rross, a symbol used in the Tar East before the Christian era. 2: Oblique

swastika comprising a pair of crossed runic signs: two strokes of lightning giving light, or two sticks rubbed together
to make fire. 3: In the rounded version of the sign, symbolizalion of the sun

isclearly expressed. 4. 5: Variationsof the swastika on Indian seals. (>. 7: Area design. Irish book illuminations. 8: Swastika and star combined in one
sign, Rhodesian ceramics. 9: Combination of tau cross and swastika. Irish

book illumination.

10:

Viking sign ofHooked cross formed by two double hooks (cf. 2). 12: Swastika formed from four
semicircles. African embroidery. 13: Flame cross, ceramic seal, ancient Mexico. 14: Sign believed to represent a
stylized coiffure meaning strength and unity, pressure stamp from Chana. 15: The "Chimi" sign denotes death,ancient Mexican seal. 16. 7. 24: Typical Mediterranean signs consisting of w ave shapes, embossed in metal. Crete.
18: Completely rounded swastika with maximum elTect of movement. Irish gravestone. 1'): The four feet ofparadise. Indian coin. 20: Symmetrically rolled-up sign in which the turning movement of the swastika disappears,
seal from Ghana. 21: Celtic symbol of life. 22: "Tecpatl" meaning fire stone, also interpreted as a sacrificial knife,
ceramic seal, ancient Mexico. 23: Magical sign painted on the resonance board of a harp. Moorish nomads. 25: Seal.
Ghana. 26: Engraved on an African metal mask. 27. 28: Tightly clustered decorations on ornaments. Crete. 29: The
blessing on a rune stone.

1

1:

1

tendril rolls up into a spiral on a sign of the sun cult found on Scandinavian rune stones.

274

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.

Abstract Symbols

Bending of terminals, from hook to spiral

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Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

The greatest abundance of ornamented crosses is
to be found within the Christian culture of the West.

Since the Middle Ages, the significance of the cross has

been completely taken over and determined by Christianity, making it the basic element in all fields ofapplication such as decoration, heraldry, and identification marking.

The three lower rows of our table show a very
limited selection from the multitude of signs and orna-

ments that may be defined as being based on the cross.
Nevertheless, they are taken from cultures outside theChristian religion, temporally as well as geographicalsince the cross was already in existence in periods
long before Christ.
ly,

3. Signs symbolizing

Good luck

movement

While the straight cross sign is an expression of all thatis static and firmly anchored, the cross with broken
line endings expresses movement in the sense of rotation. In its basic linear form, the swastika may benumbered among humankind's oldest symbols. It has
been discovered in drawings dating back to prehistoric
times. It is easier to substantiate a magical and symbolic content for this sign than for the cross, which has
been used principally as a mark and an aid to memory,
because of the simplicity of the hand movements required to draw it, whereas the swastika sign calls for a

Bad luckdifferentiated mental capacity to visualize and inscribe(cf.

Part 1, Chapter I, Section 3).

The name "swastika" is derived from the Sanskrit
word meaning "well-being." In China it was the sign for"highest perfection" and in Japan, where it was called"manji," it signified both the number 10,000 and theconcept of "infinite."

The positioning of the hooks gives the sign a direcwhich may be to the left or right,
varying from one example to another. An interesting
interpretation from ancient China is that the sign withleftward-pointing terminals means "good luck," while
the opposite direction of rotation means "bad luck."tion of rotation,

276

/I

'.

Abstract Symbols

When the four hooks are curved instead of straight,
the generally recognized interpretation of the swastika
as a sun sign comes even more clearly into evidence.

Examples of the sign from more recent times are
such as to associate the simulation of rotary movementwith a wheel, a millstone, etc.
From a certain degree of curving of the stroke
onward, the aggressiveness of the hooks disappears
and the sign rolls up into a loop, finally appearing as aspiral from the point at which the inner stroke meetsthe outer one to initiate a second, tapering, circularform. To illustrate this point, a comparison may bemade with the bending of animal horns, from thepointed horn of the bull to the curved horn of the mountain goat and the rolled-up horn of the ram.
Bending, curving-in, and rolling-up also produce
three totally different images. In the first, the association with the aggressive point of a straight arrow or
weapon is retained, and there is also a suggestion ofa flame or a tongue. Curving-in eliminates this aggressive character and produces images of tendrils(growth), waves (water), ringlets (beauty), etc. In the
spiral form, the center stands out strongly, like an eye,and the parallel circles produce a certain rotation andagitation.

The spiral is a very ancient sign of the sun and life,
its constant rotation symbolizing the pulsation andperiodicity of all life.

4. Plaiting, interweaving, knotting

All materials used for manufacturing or forming ob-

jects have a greater or lesser degree of elasticity or sup-pleness, depending on their structure. A stone, whichmight be said to stand at the bottom of the supplenessscale, is not bent but trimmed. A piece of timber, on theother hand; a willow twig; and especially a fiber orhair can be changed into a new form, literally transformed, without trimming, cutting, or breaking.
The nature of the spun thread or the turned cord
comprises both the mystery of infinite length and the

277

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Sign, Symbol. Emblem, Signal

possibility of being rolled up in a limited space on thespindle, with overtones of the spiral, perpetual circularmotion, the "unrolling" of life, etc.
The further processing that turns the spun thread
into woven, knotted, or plaited fabric, wherein theinfinite length of thethread is still present, gives all

such materials something peculiarly attractive. (Thisfeeling has largely been lost in modern textiles.)The endlessly long spunand rolled-up thread

The supple, long, drawn-out object invites handand mind to activity and the result is always in somewav beautiful, ornamental, or, on the contrarv, mysteriously knotted and entangled, suggesting a compari-son with the mythological serpent and its symbolism.
Women have the manual skill of braiding their own

dough of a pastry or a string ofonions for the winter, in artistic plaits. The shape of apretzel is a lively example of an everyday elementary
but well-balanced ornament in which a deeper symbol
may be found, namely that of the cradle, of birth, andof the desire for propagation.
The interlaced or interwoven form occupies animportant place in symbolic representation. A numberof simple geometrical signs can be plaited together,always producing a strong effect of binding, which cancertainly be attributed to a symbolic content.
Proceeding from the same delight in fabrication as
the activities of embroidery and lace making, which
create hundreds of patterns from the simple line ofthread, are the graphic "embroideries" that are found
all over the world in all fields of culture, enhanced by
the artist's imagination to the level of the "insoluble,"
where the basic sign may become almost unrecognizahair, as well as thePretzel, cradle

Material world,
spiritual world

Infinite and always

bound together

1:

Romanesque cross with typical plaiting effect of this style. 2,3,1 1,13,15,18: In the early Christian fresco painting

and stone carving of friezes in Ethiopia, the art of ornamentation was taken to the utmost possibilities of interlacing
and plaiting effects, while elementary signs with symbolic content remain recognizable in each ornament. 4,12,16:
Irish and Anglo-Saxon book illumination of the early Middle Ages also shows an almost inexhaustible wealth ofornamentation through plaiting and knotting effects. 6: On an Indian seal. 7: Knot ornament engraved in metal,

Crete. 8: Mosaic pattern, Ravenna. 9: A sign similar to the Oriental Gordian knot, on an ancient Mexican ceramic
seal. 10:

Embossed in metal on an ornament, Crete. 14: Engraved in ivory, Nigeria.

17: Indiansand-dustingdrawing. This is a method of drawing on flat ground for ceremonial purposes. At first a "grid" is marked out, thenthe lines are drawn on white sand, by letting it flow between the fingers. The peculiarity of this kind of ornamentconsists in the absence of any line endings or beginnings, the lines being almost invariably drawn on the principleof the "eternal recurrence."

278

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.

Abstract Symbols

Stroke endings lost in interlacing

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Sign, Symbol. Emblem, Signal

ble.

This possibility of simulating volume (cf. Part 1,

Chapter VII) has probably been most widely exercisedwith cross signs. The two bars meeting in the middle
at right angles, the four "naked" stroke endings, andthe four symmetrically arranged interior angles form
an ideal point of departure for sheer sport with loops,
plaits, and knots. Not all the examples shown in ourtable need necessarily have a symbolic motive for theirproduction.

5. Sun signs

The signs for the stars occupy an intermediate position
between the concrete and the abstract symbols of our
dichotomy. Although the representation of the sun andstars may be judged as figurative, they are neverthelesscloser to abstraction in their symmetrical and basicallv

simnle formal construction.
Without going into deep commentaries and reasonings, one may consider the cult of the sun to be the mostwidespread and ancient of all forms of worship. The
fact that the circle or disk-shape has a prominent
position as an archetype in the subconscious can be
attributed to the image of the sun as a life-giving force.
(An attempt is made to analvze the basic form of thecircle in some depth in Part 1, Chapter II.)
The sun sign almost alwavs comprises two basic
elements: the circular or disk-shaped form of the bodyand the more abstract representation of the rays. These1:

The basic symbol for the sun, the universe, eternal recurrence, found in almost all the world's cultures. 2:

Primitive sun svmbol with the four directions of the compass or Christian wheel cross (the cross in the world). 3:

Sun wheel with internal radiation (warmth), also a Christian sign with the Greek letter X (chi) as the initial of Christ.
The sun (inner circle) shining on the earth (outer circle). 5: The wheel cross opened out to make a circularswastika, basic element of numerous symbols of the sun and life. 6, 7, 8: The curved divisions no longer represent
rays but refer to rotation and movement of the sun in the skv. 6 also denotes the Trinitv. 7: Sun wheel, also windwheel, with movement from the four points of the compass. 9, 10: Rising and setting sun, forming the basis of later4:

pseudoscientific signs. 11: A traditional representation of the sun with rays, also interpreted as life-giving womb.
12: On an Indian coin. 13:

Embossed in metal, Crete. 14: Sun with flaming beams. 15: Indian sign painted onleather. The meaning of the chimney-shaped exit has not been discovered. 16: Sun wheel, rural painting. Alps.
17: On a Roman tomb. 18: Sun in a closed world, Knossos. 19: Ancient Chinese symbol of forces of nature. 20: Indiansand-dusting sign. 21: Typical Celtic symbol of the sun cult. 22: Trojan footed sun. 23,25: On Indian coins, the rays

ending in aggressive weapons. 24: Egyptian hieroglyph for "lucky day." 26: On Hopi pottery, Arizona. 27: Assyria,
scratched in clav.

280

IV.

Abstract Symbols

The day star in symbolic representation from many cultures

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17

22

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

two basic elements are often supported by an indication of rotary movement, probably in connection withthe sun's daily course. Also of importance is the symbolization of the growth and decline of warmth during
the day or the season, finding its best expression in theiorm 01 a spiral.
The sun's rays can be drawn either inside the disk
(figures 1 to 8) or outside it (1 1 to 1 5), and their meetingwith the earth's surface also comes into expression (22to 25). An interesting noint to note in this connection is
the influence of geographical latitude on the appreciation of the nresence of the sun as not onlv beneficial but
also burning or scorching, as, for example, in the two
illustrations from India, where the ravs are tipped withweanons such as arrows or tridents. In Nordic languages the sun is usually a feminine obiect. whereas in the
Romance languages of the south it is given the masculine gender. In Arabic, the moon is masculine, being
seen bv the nomads as the "leader in the night."
Most sun symbols clearly emphasize the concept ofthe "center" as a confirmation of the central significance of the sun for all life, a feeling that goes back to
the very earliest times.
6. The stars

At the end of each day, the blue sky dominated by thesun changes to darkness, from the depths of which thestars appear, giving a sense of the infinity of theuniverse. Until a few hundred vears ago. however, the1,2.3.4,5: Traditional star shapes in outline drawing, with the points of the beams touching an invisible circle andtheir radiation disappearing into the universe. The greater the number of points, the stronger is the impressionof the star's twinkling. 6: Pentagram or five-pointed star. The number five is closely associated with humans (5 lingers, 5 senses). A much used, verv mvsterious sign known in all cultures, including modern graffiti. It may be drawn"in one go" with the right sequence of hand movements. 7: Reversed pentagram, a medieval magic sign for "theblack hand." 8: Compass rose consisting of two superimposed four-pointed stars. 9: Symbol of the Mohammedan
faith. Its basic symbolic meaning is God of the Night. Just as the sun brings the division of days and year, the moon
governs the months and the different course of each year. 10: Passage of time between waxing and waning moon.
medieval symbol of life. 11: The three-pointed star in a circle comes from a medieval symbol of the Trinity. 12:
Closed eight-pointed star, also called flower star, symbol of fertility in folklore. 13: Star of David, also Solomon'sseal, a combination of two three-pointed duality signs. 14: Heptagram. with meaning similar to the pentagram (6).
Applied to houses as a protective sign, seven being the magic number of good fortune. 1 5: Eight-pointed star formedof two squares, mosaic in Ravenna. This symbol was also drawn as a stylized crown of thorns in the Middle Ages.
16: A well-known form of triple star, used as a Nordic symbol of divine omnipotence: also an ancient Japanese family sign. 17: Spider star. Russian symbol. 18,19: Woven stars. Caucasus. 20: Leaf or flower star, folk art. 21 Viking
cross, carved in stone memorials in northern lands. 22: Snow star. 23: Textile motif. Ghana. 24: On Indian coins.
25: Indian sand-dusted drawing. 26: Crystal star. 27: Star pattern of Oriental carpet weaving. 28: Embroidered starpattern. 29: Stone carving. Ethiopia. 30: Flower star or love star (daisv). Spanish book illumination.
:

282

IV.

Abstract Symbols

Star signs, mysterious mediators from distant worlds

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Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

mind of humans could not grasp the idea of the inconceivably vast distances of an empty universe. In earlier
times, humans saw the vault of the heavens as a fixedmaterial dome on which the stars were hung or existed
as openings. That is probably the reason why sun,moon, and stars are shown in bodily form in practicallyall pictorial representations, with the courses of theseheavenly bodies expressed as "paths" or "ways." Onehas only to think of Apollo, god of the sun, passing
across the vault of the heavens every day in his fierychariot. The moon is represented in its main phases ofcrescent, semicircle, and disk. The waxing and waningof the moon and the annual movements of the constellations became fixed points of reference for human-

kind's divisions of time.

We must also be aware of the fact that primitive
humans could not grasp the concept of the universal
course of time but lived from one privileged moment toanother in the constant expectation of a renewal of thecustomary seasons. The course of the year was punctuated by ritual actions, such as the Shrovetide carnival
to drive out the winter. For Nordic peoples, the midsummer night festival is a celebration of well-being on
the longest day, but in earlier times it must also havebeen a celebration of the hope that a new annual cycle
would begin despite the coming shortening of the days.
This hope was expressed through sacrifices and conjurations. Cults of the sun and moon, leading to the existence of a multitude of symbolic representations ofheavenly bodies, are easier to explain when this pointol view is taken into account.

Comparisons of form, like that of the crescent moonwith cattle horns, water waves, roots, the serpent, andthe phallus, have led to the creation of eloquent basic
symbols pertaining to life on earth.
While the circle and disk form the bases of sun
signs, most star signs do not have any pronounced
round form. The expression of radiance is given bysymmetrical arrangements of straight lines, taperingout to a point, which convey the impression of beams
disappearing into the void. These signs therefore almost always consist solely of straight lines, unless a

284

IV.

Abstract Symbols

resemblance to something figurative such as a flower
or a spider is sought.

We find star signs in all fields of sign making, fromthe symbolic Star of David through the trademarks ofindustry to the asterisk in our books, as examples of oneof the basic figures with a very strong graphic identity.

7. The symbol in ornamentation

Prehistoric

artifacts

have

been

found

bearing

scratched or scored rows of signs, whose meaning orstatement cannot be scientificallv determined with anv
certainty. It can be assumed that the earliest ornamentations were in some cases merely playful decorations

and in other cases deliberate markings for identification of ownership or for purposes of magic. The appearance of such ornaments must have been a subject ofadmiration in earlier times when all artistic productions were felt to be supernatural. It is possible that theornamental sign received its symbolic value for thisOrnamentation of asculpture, fertility,

seated figure. Ukraine,end of Ice Age.

reason.

The limitations imposed by the use of primitive tools
and actions such as cutting, pricking, and burning-in
reduced the expression of form to geometrical, mostly
linear motifs, but the meaning of such strip forms has
been handed down to maintain traditions to this dav,
for example, in the fabrics of the Sahara nomads,

where every strip of the pattern carries a recognizable
symbol. As a typical example of symbolic ornamentation we reproduce a decorated magical bamboo polefrom the Malayan peninsula with demonstrable meanings, according to which the successive strips originallv held the following information.

The lowest strip, No. 7, means "river," and a line ofrecognizable in the next, No. 6. Between theidentical strips 5 and 2, whose meaning is uncertain,
we find plant stems, leaves, and branches. The topmost
hills is

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strip has not been identified but could be interpreted as
It is an obvious conclusion that thisapparently decorative strip pattern adds up to a symbolic expression of "life."

clouds or sky.

285

Symbolic ornamentation of a Malayanbamboo pole.

Sign, Symbol. Emblem. Signal

Rows of symbols: ornaments for meditation"^J^J^f^f^j^J^

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IV.

Abstract Symbols

The next illustration shows a highly ornamental
ciMamie bowl from the early period of Sumeria, circa
3000 B.C. The painting certainly has a symbolic, evenperhaps a magical meaning. The pattern around theedge has been interpreted as a rain motif, representing
the sky; the central checkered circle as the sun, andthe wavy areas as the sea. It is possible that mythicalbirds are shown flying around the sun and that thebroad rays represent the magical strength of a supernatural power.

Symbolic ornamentationof a Sumerian bowl

Our table shows a small collection of ornamental
friezes and strips, which certainly include specific signs
and symbols for purposes of ornamentation and meditation.
8. Geometry and symbol

The visible part of a geometrical sign consists of a moreor less complex assembly of straight and curved lines,
whereas the invisible part consists of the mathematical laws under which the lines are oriented, extended,and turned. Among such underlying factors determining the form of a sign are the four identical sides ofthe square, the constant radius and invisible center ofthe circle, and the sum of the angles of a triangle.
The projection of any kind of symbolic meaningcomes from this aspect of the sign, which we might callits metaphysical content. The meaning of each sign
cannot, however, be simply "called up," since manysigns disclose their conventionally accepted meaning

only to the initiated.
1, 2: It is not always relevant to look for symbols in

prehistoric artifacts

the simple grid pattern of crossed lines, but we know that on

and also in association with early pictographic scripts, these hatchings make a specificstatement, usually referring to the tilled Held, that is. to fertility. 3, 4: The chevron motif and the row of triangles
are stylized representations of grain and of the tree of life and can therefore be seen as fertilit} symbols. 5, 6: Thesymmetrically aligned patterns carry a sense of duality or complementarity and maj be interpreted as meaning
fertilization. 7, 8: Fishbone and scale patterns probably appear most often for purely ornamental purposes, but one

may also read into them the meaning of protection from without (scales, tiles, etc.). <). 10, 11: Typical wave friezes
from the Mediterranean region, all found on (ireek vases. 12: Wave pattern based on extension over an area rather
than linear development. Ceramic painting. Crete. 13: The so-called (ireek meander pattern is a straight-line
adaptation of the wave pattern and has main applications 14: Wave pattern without stroke endings, Chinese
embroidery. 15: Wave and leaf pattern on a Scandinavian fresco. 1(>: A peculiar wave ornament with plantlike
1features scratched on a wooden container. Ghana. 17: Swastika meander pattern, a widely used and favorite
ornament with strongly symbolic character, fresco painting. Ravenna. IS: Meander type of textile pattern with
angle and circle signs, undoubtedly based on the serpent motif. On Sumerian clay tablet. 1'): twisted skein pattern
20: Typical

Roman, later Romanesque, plaited pattern. Mosaic at Nimes.

287

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

Geometrical figures often have a coded symbolism

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11

15

17

19

12

13

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IV.

Abstract Symbols

In the final table of this chapter weshow a small

selection of symbol signs from a wide variety of sources. Attempts to interpret the individual figures mustremain subjective, since in most cases no explanations
have been handed down with the surviving examples of

their use.

The table includes some signs taken from the partly
esoteric cryptography of medieval philosophies, bring-ing us into the field of pseudoscientific signs, which

form the subject of the next chapter.

1, 3, 4:

The three elementary, basic signs, known in all parts of the world. The square denotes the four regions,the four seasons, etc., in contrast to the circle, which comprises everything spiritual in the circular course of eternal

recurrence. The triangle, on the other hand, incorporates the creative intellect, the faculties, and the active principle (see explanations in Part 1, Chapter I ). 5: The diagonal is the concept of the irrational, as its mathematicallength has no simple relationship to the sides. The Greeks concluded from this fact that the diagonal belongs to theincomprehensible world of the occult. 6, 7, 8, 9: When signs are joined together, new symbolic meanings are found.

Four different kinds of association are shown in this row. In 6, the squares 1 and 2 are superimposed, producing

an eight-pointed star. In 7, two circles are interlaced, denoting community. In 8, three triangles are put together,
all on the same level without superposition or interlacing. This sign, already to be found in Viking times, denotes
the secret number 9, made of 3 x 3, which certainly had a symbolic meaning. In figure 9 the two superimposed
triangles are separated by color, the solid strokes of the downward-pointing triangle making it dominant. 10 to 14:
The third row contains curved signs with visible stroke endings. 10: The doorway arch, vault, or protective cave.
11: The bowl, reception, sacrifice. 12: The double hook or stork sign from folk art, signifying protection andblessing. 13: The loop or womb, also a variant of the serpent sign, regarded as a sign of fate. 14: A modificationof the omega sign, symbolizing becoming, being, and passing. 15: Between birth and death is life. The ships of lifeand death are joined by the stroke of life. 16: Trinity, a life sign drawn with one continuous stroke, traditional ruralsign. 17: The X-cross with two flags, horses' heads, or keys. Protective sign on farmhouses. 18: Triple foot, another
Trinity sign, very often used for magical purposes and also known as witch's foot when reversed, 19: A typicalnegative sign, characterized by the six stroke endings and three crossings. 20: A Trinity sign with similar meaning
to 8 and drawn with continuous stroke, the star sign being central. 21: Both the Jewish and the Mohammedan
religions forbade any figurative representation of life forms, in order to forestall all risk of idolatry. Both cultures

therefore made much use of abstract symbols for purposes of ornamentation. The sepulcher door of Kefer-Yesef
in Palestine serves as a striking example.

It

dates from the Roman period. Its symbolic ornaments have given rise

to a variety of interpretations. According to M. Hutten. the vertical central strip shows a belt adorned with six circles

and two triangles. (This kind of belt forms part of the costume worn for the Easter fertility festival.) The two circles
at the right form a double symbol, representing the sun (Apollo) above and the moon (Artemis) below.

Betweenthese, there are six magic squares as symbols of the world, i.e., the six days of creation of Genesis. The left-handside of the door shows (above) the nine-branched candelabra, in the center the earthK cycle of the four seasonsin the hexagon, surrounded by the circle of eternity. At lower left is a stylized altar or chest enclosing the book of

the law in the form of a rhombus. Above it floats the mussel shell of fertility with the triangle of creation in the

middle.

289

Signs of Pseudoscience and

V.

Magic

extremely difficult to draw a clear boundary between the concept of a "symbol sign" and that of astraightforward communication sign. As we emphasized at the beginning of the present study, the objects
and creatures that are elevated to the status of symbols
must be regarded essentially as mediators between thefields of the objective, which is comprehensible andvisible, and the mystical, which is supernatural and
It isinvisible.

On the other hand, an illustration or sign that is used
only to designate or describe a quite specific thing,condition, or event can no longer be called a symbol.
It isalso evident that any object or creature, or its

abstraction in the form of a sign, can either be elevatedto a symbol or treated purely as a designation. In orderto clarify this phenomenon of the diverse uses of one

and the same thing, we have assembled a table at theend of this volume to show the various stages ofcharacteristic forms of expression, using two figures
and two signs as examples. The first examples given in
the present chapter illustrate both the ambiguity of theterms "sign" and "symbol" and the nature of theboundary between them. The signs of the zodiac aredesignations of the twelve constellations in which thesun appears - from a terrestrial viewpoint - during thecourse of a year. This annual course was observed long
before our era, in China, Egypt, and Babylon, and divided into twelve sectors, from which today's customary division into months is derived. Hach constellation

was given a mythological character, symbolized either
figuratively, for example, in the image of a maiden forthe constellation of Virgo, or in an abstract way bymeans of the condensed forms of the zodiacal signs.
These signs, when isolated from any interrelationship or association with people's dates of birth, are to291

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

T71
Aries, ram

Taurus, bull

(March)(April)Libra.
scales(September)

Gemini, twins
(May)

T\

Virgo, maiden(August)Cancer, crab

Leo, lion(June)(July)

Aquarius,
water-carrier(January)

Scorpio,

Sagittarius,

Capricorn,

scorpion(October)archergo"at(November)(December)T\

Pisces,fish(February)

be regarded as pure signs for the corresponding solar
position in the constellation for a given date.

On the other hand, when used for magical purposessuch as foretelling the future or choosing a spouse, thesigns of the zodiac are elevated to the status of symbols
through being considered in relation to a theory. As an
example, our second illustration shows the twelve
signs located on the circle of the sun's path, symboliz-

ing the course of the year. In accordance with theirancient astrological relationship, the signs are linked

by four triangles crossing one another to produce thefollowing magical associations: the triad of fire, consisting of Aries (the ram), Sagittarius (the archer), andLeo (the lion); the triad of water, Pisces (fish), Scorpio(scorpion), Cancer (crab); the triad of air, Aquarius(water carrier), Libra (scales), Gemini (twins); and thetriad of earth, Taurus (bull), Capricorn (goat), Virgo(maiden).

This illustration clearly shows how signs are assembled to express a process of thought, thereby making asymbolic statement. In addition to the signs of thezodiac there are other symbol signs in the illustration:
the circle itself as a symbol of the constantly recurringcourse of the year, the star as expression of the complexity of life in all its diversity, and not least the starsurrounded by a circle, a sign that we find again insymbols of the sun cult and also in the meditation
images of Indian Mandalas.

292

I

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Signs of Pseudoscience and Magic

We have chosen the example of the zodiacal signs inorder to illustrate the borderland between sign andsymbol more clearly than can be done with words
alone. At this point we leave the field of the symbol, allsubsequent illustrations being presented as unrelated
individual signs, even though they have been used assymobls in the pseudosciences of astrology and alche-

my and the cryptic drawings of freemasons and cabalists

for mysticaland obscure purposes of magicalformulation.

Cosmic representation of thesigns of the zodiac.

The twelve signs are placedaround the circular path of thesun. They are also divided into

four groups by means of four
triangles. The dual associationof the signs with circle andtriangle gave rise to a large

number of interpretations.

1.

The elements

With the awakening of human intelligence there arosea need to understand the nature of things and of life on
this earth, leading to primitive but realistic recognitionof the qualities of elementary substances: earth, as thatwhich is fixed; water as fluid; fire as heat; and air as
coolness (air being recognizable only in its movement
as wind).

The most ancient examples of wisdom that havecome down to us are based on this division of theworld into its basic elements. In an earlier chapter ofthis work (Part 2, Chapter III) we have already considered an ancient world view of this kind, based on eightelements formed from the signs for yin and yang.

293

Sign. Symbol, Emblem, Signal

Medieval uirisuan sign 01 me
woria, consisting 01 me tour

elements

Most philosophical worldviews, especially those ofancient Greece, are based-on the fourfold or quadratic

nature of the aforementioned elements of earth, water,
fire, and air, in that they trace everything generative,
formative, living, and passing away, back to them: coldand dampness producing water; dampness andwarmth, air; warmth and dryness, fire; dryness andcold, earth. Nature appears to be firmly based on thisquadratic principle, as is also repeatedly shown by thesymbolic interpretations of the square: spring, summer, autumn, winter; morning, noon, evening, night.
We have also encountered the four elements in the firstsection of the present chapter, in the form of the four
astrological triangles of the zodiacal circle.

Fire

Water

Earth

During the Middle Ages, nonalphabetical signs
were increasingly used in the secretive pursuit of obscure sciences. The signs shown here, characterizing
the four elements, are of medieval origin, and there isabsolutely no reason to seek any tendency to figurative

representation in their use. They are to be understoodas purely abstract signs, since an extended interpretation was added to their significance in mystical practice.

The fire sign was also taken to mean "choleric"or prone to anger, the water sign "phlegmatic" or un-emotional, the air sign "sanguine" or cheerfully dis-

294

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Signs of Pseudoscience and Magic

posed, and the earth sign "melancholic." In these
extended meanings, the esoteric nature of occult
science and a close association with astrology and its

use for soothsaying are clearly apparent. A noteworthy feature is the fifth sign, expressing the combination of all four elements. This sign, the Star ofDavid, has already been described in the chapter on
dualism (Part 1, Chapter V).

TO
Fire

Water

Air

Earth (matter)

Earth (world)

We find the same four elements represented incircular signs.

These provide more reason for com-

parison with figures. We recognize the sign for the sunin the one for fire; the surface of the water becomes analmost tangible element in the water sign; the central
point in the air sign can be taken as a nonfigurative

representation of the invisible air in space; and theearth sign once again contains the quadratic characterof the four points of the compass, or the four seasons,

together with the four corners of the earth and thecross sign with its many meanings.
In the signs of alchemy theelements were given

further signs of various forms, of which the ones shown

here are typical. They include the sign for the spiritual,
which completes the series by representing the opposite pole to the material.

Am V
Fire

Water

Earth

cJnLa
Air

295

Spirit, heavenSign, Symbol. Emblem, Signal

2. The signs of astrology

Without exception, the cultures of the past were basedon the acknowledgment of the existence of supernatural powers, entailing beliefs in gods and supernatural
realms such as heaven, hell, and Nirvana. In this connection it should be noted that religious believers
suomit passively to supernatural governance, oenevingin a preordained, fateful determinism. Nonreiigious
oersons. on the otner nand. feel more drawn to thefield of magic, where they believe they can actively
determine their own destiny through spiritual acts ofconjuration, with the aid of certain manipulations andoccult signs ior magic iormuias.
Here asain there is a distinction between sien andsymboi. Believers raised a being, a thing, or its image
to the status of mediator between the almighty beingthat nasses all understanding and their own inadeauacv. bv creating for themselves a symbolic representative as obiect of worshin. Atheistical persons, attracted
by science, attempted to interpret and understandthe cosmos, creating for themselves signs of the macMars, iron,

Tuesday, masculine

rocosm of the universe and of the microcosm of earthly materials, for purposes of manipulation.

The reader should bear in mind that astrology was
not a true science of star lore, nor was alchemy aproper form of chemistry or physics with any exact
scientific foundation. For this reason we have called
them pseudosciences. Astrology and alchemy wereusually a combined study, so it is not surprising that themeaning of a number of signs recurs in different
branches of learning. Thus we find, for example, thatthe astrological sign for Mars is also used as the
1 to 10:

Planet signs (the signs for sun, moon, and Mars, already shown, have the following additional meanings.

sun: alchemy, gold, calendar sign for Sunday, moon: silver, Monday. Mars: iron, Tuesday). 1: Mercury: quicksilver.

Wednesday. In botany, a hybrid. 2: Jupiter: tin. Thursday. 3: Venus: copper, Friday. In botany, female. 4: Saturn:lead, Saturday. 5: Uranus. 6: Neptune. 7: Vesta. 8: Ceres. 9: Pallas: sulfur. 10: Juno. 11: Earth: antimony. 12 to 15:

The four seasons. 12: Spring. 13: Summer. 14: Autumn. 15: Winter. 16 and 17: Signs for nodes, i.e., points ofintersection of planetary orbits and the sun's astronomical path. 16: Ascending. 17: Descending. 18: Designationof a returning constellation. 19 and 20: Positional signs of the planets in relation to one another. 19: Direct
opposition of 180°. 20: Superposed or conjunction 0°. 21 to 24: More positional signs. 21: Quadrature or 90°. 22:
Semi-quadrature or 45°. 23: One-and-a-half quadrature or 135°. 24: Quincunx or 150°. 25: From a 15th century
engraving representing the signs of the zodiac in connection with the human body. One of the purposes of such
figures was to determine the most auspicious dates for the healing of sickness Ln different parts of the body. Knownas "blood-letting figures," these were still in use in the 19th century.

296

V.

Signs ofPseudoscience and Magic

Signs expressing a secret world order

o

u

W 41
ft

4

cr

n

12

16

13

17

.

20

19

LnJ
22

23

14

15

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

alchemical sign for iron and the calendar sign for
Tuesday (in Latin dies Martis or day of Mars); it hasremained in current use in modern science with themeaning of "masculine."
Our next full-page table shows a selection of themost widely used astrological signs, among which thesigns of the zodiac, as already shown, should also be
counted.

The category also includes the signs for the sun andmoon, already shown as symbols. It should be understood that in astrology the sun and moon were considered planets, since the earth was believed to be
the center of the universe. Consequently, the sign forearth was not used in astrology.
3. The signs of alchemy

The art of transmuting materials, making hard substances liquefy by fire or evaporate through the application of liquid acids, seemed like magic to the uninitia-

ted people of the Middle Ages, who were almost entirely ignorant of the natural sciences. They were unable tounderstand such processes because they could not be
observed in the natural course of existence.
For this reason, the privileged group of learned people occasionally produced individuals, such as Cagliostro in the 18th century, whose knowledge enabled

them to turn to the field of metaphysics, cloaking theiractivities in occultism and sorcery so that they appeared to their fellow-people as beings endowed with supernatural powers. The principal activity of the alchemists was the search for the "philospher's stone" and,above all, the mystical production of gold by artificial
means. Gold meant power, even deification and immortality in the case of certain oriental cults such asthat of the golden calf. It would take up too much space
to go through the principles of alchemy in detail, but thefollowing brief account may serve as a guide. Alchemists generally considered their science to be on a levelwith cosmology, making the two phases of their operations, coagulation and solution, analogous with the dualistic, universal rhythm of life, which consists of breath-

298

I

'.

Signs of Pseudoscience and Magicing in and out. A comparison with sexuality was also

namely when gold, known as the
new Adam" or androgynous being, appears to be bornor sublimated from bronze in the crucible, which canbe regarded as the womb, through the admixture ofsulfur and quicksilver. The basic elements of alchemy
are sulfur and quicksilver, fire and water, which may
be compared with the active and passive principles ofheavenly and earthly powers. In the equilibrium of thetwo principles there is salt: not the natural substance of
sodium chloride but a mvsterious substance with allembracine effects, such as is spoken of in the Bible as"the salt of the earth." The epitome of this principle ofavailable to them,"trinity (sulfur-quicksilver-salt) also finds expression ina variety of forms of signs.

oo

7>
Various signs for quicksilver (mercury)

viy

A

N

Various signs for sulfurcFour signs for spiritual salt

In the3 emetaphysical sense, the alchemical view

distinguishes between two essential stages of progress,
that of the white principle, also known as the "lesser

mystery," and that of the red principle, also called the"greater mystery," the former corresponding to thedesire for perfection (good fortune, Paradise) and entry
into the center of the world, the latter basedon thethought of rising beyond the cosmos to reach thesuperhuman, the divine, through the use of the philosopher's stone.
Seen from another viewpoint, alchemy appeared tomake it possible for humans to pass beyond the mate-299

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

rial to the spiritual, just as gold (the spirit) is sublimatedirom raw materials sucn as oase metais (matter).

O ^ © i£^»Four signs for silver (Moon)

Four signs for sold (Sun)o^eFour signs for copper (Venus)

Four signs for iron (Mars)^Y\ % "b5i3^
Four signs for lead (Saturn)

Four signs for tin (JuDiter)

6

loOH R 6

Four signs for antimony (Earth)

Steel

CobaltZinc

Arsenic

This condensed account of the ideas of alchemy issufficient for the purposes of our present study and may

be summarized by pointing out that alchemists wereconcerned with crossing the threshold between purescience and faith so as to find both knowledge andsalvation through their experiments.
In addition to the principal signs for metals, shown

above, a great quantity of other signs for materials
could be listed. We confine ourselves here to a small
selection:

\
Water

Wood

Wax

A 4l#• &Cooking salt

VinegarCinnabar

300

Urine

Sugar

*

XV
OiO
% 6 O

Olive oil

Acid

Borax

Alum

Copper, saffron

Eggshell

Minimum

Glass

\

.

Signs of Pseudoscience and Magic# ^ A® V^ 5£ £>© <2 ¥ ^ &Verdigris

Copper fragment Nitrate blossom

Spirits of wine

TartarIron rust

Welding\sh

CrystalHeated stone

Ammonia

Vitriol

Vrsenic

Chalk

Hartshorn

Dung

The formulae of alchemy also include signs forchemical orocesses and orocedures:^U
Breakingn yPulverizingH^ 3-sAmalgamMixingCleaning

Boiling

Combining

Annealingci°
Dissolving

^ ¥1?

L

<f*

1

I

Sublimating

Heating

Filtering

Distilling

Precipitation

HottingWarming

FixingCleaning

Some signs for utensils and containers arealso of interest:

eCrurible

Mare

Retort

Still

Oven

Water bath

Sand bath

The time spans of particular importance to the chemical processes involved were also given signs:

2 £°°i dP
Hour

Dav

Night

Day and night

j

Week

301

Month

Year

Sign, Symbol. Emblem, Signal

Itremains to be emphasized that it is not possible toascribe a universally unequivocal meaning to the signsof alchemy, since completely different kinds of signs

can be found from one country to another because ofgeographical, linguistic, and individual differences be-

tween groups of practitioners. The signs illustrated
here form only a small selection of the multitude onrecord.

Annealing

4. Cabalistic and magical signs, talismans

Although the signs of magic do not really belong to
the preceding group of pseudoscientific signs, we conclude this chapter with a few indicative comments
about this special category, mainly because it stands ina certain relationship with the pseudoscientific in thegreat diversity of sign records dating from the Middle
Ages.

The term "cabalistic" has now come into generaluse as an adjective describing magical signs of all
kinds, but the true signs of the Cabala relate to a quite
specific occult philosophy of Jewish scholars,

basedupon the ten schemata known as the Sephiroth. Theircondensation into signs leads beyond the verbal scriptures of the Torah (Mosaic law) to allow the recordingof occult spiritual speculations. This graphic expres-sion consists mainly in the use of letters of the Hebrew

alphabet as magical numerical values, assembled into
mystical diagrams. Our illustrations show three typicalcabbalistic signs: (1) the first letter of the alphabet,aleph, spiritual root of all harmony and starting point
for the other schemata of the Sephiroth; (2) a diagramof the world, formed from the initial letters of any given

Sephiroth schema by boxing-in; (3) a series of Sephiroth initials grouped into a representation of the tree of
life.

302

I

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Signs of Pseudoscience and Magic

f
r

f

L

n

.

,

^>

According to legend, the wisdom of the Cabala (aHebrew word for "tradition") was introduced to therealm of the Jews by Moses himself on the basis of
wisdom acquired in Egypt. A scroll discovered near
the Dead Sea, bearing texts of a Jewish sect of the 1st
century a.d., contains diagramlike signs that are very
similar to the signs of medieval magic used some

1400 years later. The example shown here includes aclearly recognizable pentagram, a figure that appears

repeatedly in the Middle Ages as a magical sign andamulet.

On a Jewish scroll,We give here some examples of medieval signs fromfirst centurv a.d.

occult sciences and amulets with magical properties. 1

from the "Occulta Philosophia" of the humanist
scholar Agrippa: 2 is a magical sign from a bookentitled "Arbatel de magia reterum": 3 is a talisman
sign believed to endow the wearer with beauty: 4 isfrom a book of magic entitled "Vincula Salomis" andcontains the initials AG LA, much used in talisman signs
and standing for the Hebrew words meaning "Almightyis

art thou, Lord, in eternity."

As a graphic peculiarity, many magical signs of themost varied origin and from widely separated periodsof time havealltheir stroke endings strengthened

303

PentagramSign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal
<5
<5>

<5^

either by dots or by small circles. The same characteristic isI

present in the secret alphabets of the Cabala.

Strangely enough, a comparison is provided by Asiatic
scripts from Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, etc., in which
the stroke endings are adorned with similar roundt>u

ings-off.

The presence of the terminal circle has the effect ofeliminating not only the stroke endings but also someof the points of crossing and "stroke welding." This
Script currently usedin Cambodia

produces a graphic impression that separates thesefigures from all conventional signs as customarily
written or drawn, leading -to the markedly cryptic andmystical effect of such writings.

VNtMT
Cabalistic script

304

VI. Signature Signs

It isscarcely imaginable today that there were once

people who had no names of their own and could not becharacterized as distinct individuals. (The only suchcases in historical times would be those of groups ofpeople who became "nameless" through forced separation from their origins by enslavement or captivity.)

The giving of names to individuals has its roots inprehistoric times, long before any form of writing had
been developed. The visual representation of the individual - not just the drawing of a human figure but theindividual expression of a specific person, in otherwords the signature - must have come into existence ata very early stage, for example, among nomadic tribes
for the identification of ownership of cattle and objectsof use. Property signs of this kind have been discovered,scratched in cattle horn and pottery, in Stone Age
excavations.

w

u -o

Hh ||T

|o|

o-\

X

Ancient nomadic cattle-branding marks

V

&
V

4

wY

Marks on vessels of the late Stone Age

The much-disputed pebbles from the Mas d'Azil
cave in France, dating from the Paleolithic period,
around 12,000 B.C., are certainly not forerunners of ourscript signs, as is often assumed, but are much more
likely to have been objects denoting a person or tribe.

Development of the written fixing of language did
not in any way drive out the use of individual signature305

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

Painted pebbles from Mas d'Azil. middle Stone Agesigns, house marks, etc., and has not done so even inmodern times despite the widespread use of scripts.
There are various reasons for this survival. The ability
to read and write is still farfrom universal, and it is notlong since it was common for unlettered people to sign
documents with a cross, especially in underdeveloped
countries.
Michelangelo

At the same time, even in educated circles, thesignature sign still possesses the mysterious power of
attraction of something hidden and it can also have a

decorative effect. (On this page we show two typical

Peter

A

'
:

h

r

examples of artists' signs from old masters.)
There is the further consideration that signaturesigns conform to a spatial style in that almost all of them
are reduced to the simple dimensions of approximately
equal height and width, unlike the long-drawn-out
style ot the tuiiy written name.
A characteristic example, and one that speaks foritseli, is provided oy our illustration of a marking
board, dating from the 17th century, which was used
on a tarm in h inland to record the correct payment of
day laborers. Workers carved their personal signature signs in the board, and at the end of the working
day or week a nail hole was made next to the sign. A
similarity between some of the signs is to be noted,
probably indicating relatives of some kind, or possibly
workers of the same craft or trade. The origin of these
forms of sign is hard to explain. There is an obvious
influence from the ancient runic signs (see Part 2,
Chapter III), and of course one cannot rule out resemblances to objects like the sun, a sawhorse, and so on.
The drive toward personal identification by meansof visible signing may be regarded as a basic point of
departure for the history of the sign in its widest sense

306

VI.

Signature Signs

and must be dated back to the time of humankind's
earliest mental awakening.

X
X

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• •
• •
• •
•

• •

•

• •

•

•
•

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•
•

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• • •

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V
^
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• • •
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• • *
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List of workers with entries for day labor. Finnish farm, 17th century

1. Stonemasons' signs

Signs used as a manufacturer's signature, an owner'smark, or confirmation of responsibility for a decision
are to be found in large numbers on all kinds of objects
surviving from the past. Manufacturers' or makers'
signatures, which can be regarded as the earliest formsof trademarks (see Chapter VIII,) are of primary interest to us in the present context.

Stonemasons' signs are the ones that have survived
in the greatest quantities, for the simple reason that asign carved in stone is able to last through the centuries
undamaged. These signs also provide a wealth ofresearch and attribution material for historians of art,
technology, ethnology, sociology, and other branches.
The architect responsible for the upkeep of thecathedral of Strasbourg, Dr. J. Knauth, has assembled
an inventory of all the stonemasons' signs used in thebuilding, amounting to the astonishing total of morethan 1500 different signs. We have taken the libertyof showing a small selection taken from this outstanding study. The first glance at the table will make it
clear to the reader that the development of sign forms
during a building period extending over five centuries(1200-1700) involved some striking changes of style.

307

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

The origin and development of stonemasons' signs
are closely associated with the social circumstances ofthe Middle Ages. In the early times of the Romanesquemasons were mainly ecclesiastical or lay
whose activities weremembers
repaid with the "heavenly reward" of food and shelter.
style,

theof religious orders,Signs from this period are rare, but with the beginningof the Crusades, payment in money, the growingmeans of exchange, developed very rapidly. Payment
in produce corresponding to a day's wages was customary for piecework. Stonemasons freed themselvesfrom direct social dependence on the master builder
and, as a sign of receipt of the correct payment, signed
the cut stones. The first of these signs are very individual, figurative representations of objects from theimmediate surroundings (rows 1 and 2). With time, theever more frequently occurring signs take on abstract
forms, but with an enclosed outline that still retains an
objectlike appearance (rows 3 to 5), with the exceptionof the purely geometrical signs (row 6), which were by
no means alien to the stonemasons since they had theshapes of their stones.
During the period of great expansion of the medievalbuilding industry, the manual workers acquired more
and more solidarity, forming associations that weretrue fellowships with principal locations, among which
the cities of Strasbourg, Cologne, Vienna, and Berne
were some of the most important. Membership of an
association was made apparent by workers' signatures in a deliberate effort to give clear evidence of their
origin, which can be explained by the employment ofthese "journeymen" in many different countries.

% $ # £ $ X &x
Marks of eight stonemasons from the same fellowshipFranz Rziha has put forward a theory that eachassociation of masons had a basic schema rather in thenature of an individual geometric grid, passed on to an

308

VI.

Signature Signs

Stonemasons' signs from Strasbourg Cathedral

Sign, Symbol. Emblem, Signal

journeymen on completion of their apprenticeship sothat they could design their own personal signs in con-formity with the fellowship.

Basic grids of fellowships of masons and formation of signs for indivi-

dual journeymen (Rziha's theory)

This analysis seems very plausible from the viewpoint of modern logical thinking, and it can certainly

be taken that such schemata were developed and usedin post-Renaissance times, but Rziha's theory goes too
far in assuming that the earlier signs were also con-structed on the basis of a standard grid pattern.

Returning to our table of signs, it has to be pointed
out that the sequence does not follow a strict chronological development. Nevertheless it can be quite clearly seen that in the later rows, 7 to 12, the formation of
the signs increasingly departs from the figure withclosed outline. Almost all the signs dating from theseventeenth century are of "open" design and completely nonfigurative, with more and more line crossingsand an ever-increasing number of stroke endings (seethe section "Sign Topology" in Part 1, Chapter I).

310

VII. Signs of Community

1.

House marks

During the course of the Middle Ages, roughly inparallel with the introduction of stonemasons' signs,
the same need for a kind of graphic personification
developed mainly among farming families and prominent citizens of towns, leading to the design of individual signs that were applied to house wails, items ofequipment, ana also to gravestones ana later to important documents. These family signs were developed
over the centuries in association with matters of inheritance and later reappeared in heraldry, on coats ofarms, shields, banners, etc.
Most farmers and tradespersons of the Middle
Ages were, like the stonemasons, unlettered. The thematic bases of sign invention therefore lav at thattime in the more or less stvlized representation of
objects of use (see rows 1 and 2 of the following table).
The cross shape took a prominent part in the more
abstract signs (row 3), as was also the case with thestonemasons. At a verv earlv stage, tradespersons
chose the Hermes/Mercurv sign, which closelv resembles the figure 4, as a basic allegorical form (row 4).

Within the familv, individuals endeavored to express their own personalitv bv adding some element
to the basic form of the familv sign (rows 4 and 5). This
led to the development of groups of signs showing
minor variations but stiJl confirming membershipof the group or familv (row 5).
The Western world was not alone, however, in
introducing personal marks and house marks.
Similar developments have come to pass in all
cultures. As examples from the Far East one mav
mention Chinese seals, generallv consisting of combinations of pictorial images and ideograms and often
made into sealing stamps, but due place must beallowed above all to Japanese familv arms as fascinating examples of applied art.

315

Chinese familv sisms

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

Western medieval house marks

n_n
CD
CD

d

u~u

"»

«

w

3d

D

Comments on these signs are given in the preceding text.

A

17/.

Signs of Community

Japanese family arms

^
N

w
ffixn

Sign, Symbol, Emblem. Signal

2. Japanese family arms

The entire spectrum of traditional Japanese culture
provides an impression of pure and balanced beauty.
The architecture of interiors and the design of all
artifacts, clothing, and so on, have been influenced bya strongly spiritual and almost meditative communionwith nature.
This concept of balance is particularly impressive inJapanese family signs. These armorial bearings were
often embroidered to make wall hangings, which were
the sole form of mural ornament. The first of these"mon." as thev are called in Jananese. originated in the
9th centurv a.d. and thev are still used todav on clothing
designed for ceremonial nurnose.

3.

On heraldry

Heraldrv has todav become a branch of the studv ofhistorv. In addition to the verbal mottos that have been

handed down to us, the arms on coats of mail, banners,
shields and documents provide revealing information,over and above anv written records, concerning historical connections and the reasons for events. There arelarge numbers of scholarlv works on this subject, dealing with everv period and line of importance in cultural
historv. For the present purpose, there is onlv enoughspace to give this subject a general mention and sketch
in a few basic principles.
The word "heraldrv" derives from the herald (Old
French herault). the messenger or proclaimer who inmedieval times often exercised the function of a diplomat. Merelv bv their appearance, their costumes bore
witness to their membership of a group or sovereign
power, so that thev would be unmistakablv recognizable from the enemv camp. With the coming of the Crusades, all Crusaders soon acauired distinctive costumes as an outward and visible sign of their affiliations, since this expression of brotherhood "under one
banner" became a psvchological necessitv when theyleft their native lands for regions of different language
and customs, bestowing on them the courage to lightand the will to endure.

318

I

//.

Signs oj Community

Whereas at first the entire appearance ofthe heraldor knight was taken into account in heraldic design,
which covered such items as the tunic and saddle cloth,
this identification became limited in the course of timeto individual items oi equipment, such as the ornamentation ofthe helmet. Finally it was mainly the shield, as
the largest fiat surface of the knight in armor, thatcame to function as the bearer of the colors of kinshipand the graphics ot group membership.
It is easy to understand that color was used as thetirst and most important sign ot identification, eventhough the number of clearly distinguishable hues islimited to the small number of primary colors. [Translator's note: Since English heraldry still uses Old French

Gules (red)Azure (blue)

Vert (green)

Or (gold)

Argent (silver)

Sable (black)terms for colors and other aspects ofthe shield, these
are used in the present context with explanations inmodern English where necessary.)
The second means of identification consisted in theuse of combinations of colors, such as red and blue, redand yellow, extending the number of distinguishable
groups through several variations. The basic rule applied
was that color always had to stand on metal (i.e., gold,
silver),or metal on color, in order to achieve thenecessary long-distance visual effect. Another essential sign factor added to thismulticolor effect was the

direction of partition, i.e., the positioning ofthe color
fields in relation to

one another: horizontal, vertical,

oblique, etc.

Chevron

Fork

Cross

Sal tire

Double pale

319

Maltese crossSign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

A dr

Stone Age precursors
of coats of arms?

In time, this simple division of the field was refinedin that the secondary color area was no longer merely

a filling-in of space but took on a shape which gave it asignlike expression of its own.

At this point we would like to insert an observationthat lies far outside the field of heraldry but applies inthe broadest sense to the foregoing considerations of
the subject of graphic expression: namely a comparison of early heraldry with the painted pebbles from theStone Age cave of Mas d'Azil, where the surface of agiven form, whether shield or pebble, is divided up in
the same way by means -of a two-dimensional sign
running from one side of the object to another. In bothcases the object and the drawing are fully united,
thereby greatly reinforcing the effect obtained. The
Stone Age pebbles are, as already mentioned, mostprobably markers for the identification of ownership.
As a present-day example one could point to a Red
Cross truck in wartime, where the signal sign is notapplied merely in the form of a mark or vignette but is
extended from edge to edge over the entire vehicle (cf.
Part 1, Chapters 1. 4a and III. 3).

< MM«

Another means of clear differentiation consisted in
the structural division of the surface through the interpenetration of color areas in a more detailed pattern

resembling a grid.

The division of the shield surface into "points" or"quarterings" enabled the various color areas to bejuxtaposed with a straight-line boundary. The constantdemand for enrichment and differentiation led to theextension of these "lines of partition" into a variety ofrhythmically curved and bent variations, a few of

Ornamented linesof partition

which we illustrate.
The rules and regulations concerning the design ofarms became stricter as time went on, so that thedivision of the shield surface, for example, became
subject to precise conventions governing sign forma-

320

17/.

Signs of Community

1

[2

1

Engrailed

3Wavj

4 Nebuly
5 Indented

wmmmK

nAAAAAMiSisisinr
2 Inverted

AOAAAA/i

6 Danrem
7 Embattled
8 Dovetailed
9 Potenty
10 Raguly

11 Urdy

12 Ravonne
13 Fir tree
14 Fir twig

tion, division of the area, and structure of thedesignas a whole. On the field of the shield there were prescribed areas where the bearer's affiliations, rank, andorigins could be clearly shown. Areas 1 to 3 in ourdiagram are known as "chief" and 7 to 9 as "base." Themain emblem was naturally situated in the central area
4, while area 1 had the dominant position. Secondary
characteristics such as relationships and alliances wereindicated on the right and left (dexter and sinister)sides, as seen from the holder's point of view.

2

1

3

These comments cover only those aspects of heraldry that could be described as basic or background

5

4-

6

V

7

7

information. The specific personal sign or sign of feudal
allegiance was incorporated in the basic structure of

the arms and was known as the "charge." The personal
attributes symbolized in these are many and varied,

reaching far beyond the scope of those mentioned in
the preceding section on house signs. In most cases
they do not belong to the category of signs with which
we are concerned and are often purely figurative representations such as those of beasts expressing the ideaof power: lion, eagle, bear, and so on.
Countless images from nature and from the domestic and working environment have been incorporated
into coats of arms, whereas the human figure is relatively seldom to be found used for this purpose.

321Sign, Symbol. Emblem, Signal

4. Community signs of the present day

Political, religious, and also ethnic movements are sup-ported by the assumption that in modern times, and especially in the future, humankind will lose the urge toward kinship and grouping and will strive for an allembracing communitv of "citizens of the world" as a
future ideal, under the impetus of ever-widening meansof communication. The UN is the representative example of this effort, and in this connection heraldrv is also
commonlv regarded as a sign lore of the past.
On the other hand, the-powerlessness of the UN is
obvious and the divisions between groups of people allover the world seem to be deeper than ever. The
colors of the national flags that fly before the UN
building will not be mixed together to make a global
banner. Hvery country will defend its individuality as
expressed in its representative colors.
National flags therefore form the substance of modern
heraldry. In many cases the appearance of these arms
has been simplified to the utmost, so that the entire
design is formed simply by dividing the flag into areasof different colors. It is significant, however, that therecognition of a nation simply by the combination ofitscolors is difficult for the uninitiated.

IX

mAustria

Poland

Italy

Spain

Some aids to memory in this respect are provided
by area boundaries that not only divide the flag into
fields but produce within its rectangle a new, if simple,
self-evident shape, such as a cross, triangle, or obliquestroke.

\inn

Denmarkall
Czechoslovakia

322

Kuwait

n

Congo

\

II.

Signs of Community

In addition to those simple divisions of area, manynational flags

have retained "charges" that makearms far easier to recognize. Two categories of signformation can be distinguished in this connection, thefirst being characterized by abstract and partly symbolic images such as the circle or the cross, among
which the star is by far the most commonly used, either
signifying the federation of a number of states - as in
the flag of the USA, where the 50 federated states are
symbolized by an equal number of stars - or forming apart of the symbol of Islam, composed of crescent moon

and a star. During the 20th century, socialist states
have also adopted the star as an identifying mark.

mn

hnl

TurkeyNorth Vietnam

Japan

Switzerland

The second category of national flag image is characterized by realistic representation, offering the strongest aid to visual memory.

iV
CanadaLebanonUruguay

CyprusThe variety of national colors and images are partsof a total world image, and it would be absurd not torecognize and support this diversity as an aspect of thehuman heritage. The division of peoples into groups
holding common opinions does not necessarily follow
national frontiers but rather the traditions of political,
religious, and ethnic forces. To consider these worldwide problems of the present day would not comewithin the scope of our graphic subject matter, so it will
suffice to show just a few of the most striking supranational signs of community, which may be regarded323

Sign. Symbol. Emblem. Signal

in a certain sense as modern heraldry althoughthev are. in fact, essentially symbol signs.
The towers, spires, and domes of present-day placesof worship are identified by unmistakable religious

symbols, visible from far off".

Catholicism

Protestantism

Islam

Zionism

We conclude our chanter on heraldry and comments on the signs of national and supranational
community with a few more examples of political andethnological signs of identification.

Nuclear disarmament

Communism

Cross of Lorraine(Gaullism)

Olympic Games324

Red Cross

VIII. Trademarks

1. Marking in the past

To call a sign a "mark" gives some indication of its
meaning since such marks are signatures on goods ofall kinds destined for the "market." Thev could therefore also be called ware signs or trade signs.
The origins of marking, however, belong to the category of ownership designation, which was covered indetail in the introduction to

Chanter VI. "SignatureSigns."

a From markina to the mark: cattle brandina as

exampleAs an example to provide a better understanding of
the mark sign, we begin this chapter with an account of
the brand marks used by stockbreeders.
Designation of ownership on tools, household goods,
etc., was an expression of an individual will to markpropertv that was not entirely due to motives of security, since most equipment, furniture, and so on. remained under the owner's roof. Domestic animals,
especially cattle, on the other hand, had no permanent
geographical location within the boundaries of a property. Sheep, goats, and cattle were at all times assembled in herds, to be driven from pasture to oasture insearch of feeding. For this reason, ownership markingof herds was an absolute necessity. The only possible
wav of marking the animal for life was to burn a sign
into the horn and the skin or hide, making a brandmark. This method of distinguishing ownership is stillpracticed all over the world.
The significance of the original mark of ownershipchanges at the time when the animal is taken tomarket for sale, since it then becomes a sign of quality.

325

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

°V

&Zk

c

sJ
7T

M
*&

Cattle branding marks from North America, 16th- 18th centurym

The sign of a good stockbreeder is known to the dealers
and is sought after, becoming a market sign, and theanimal fetches a correspondingly higher price as a"branded product."b Traders' marks

The first trademarks for many products came into
existence in the same way. The import or export trader would mark sacks, cases, and bundles of spices, groceries, fruit, and so on, in order to guard against
possible mistakes during transport. On arrival at themarketplace, these package signs became marks forthe identification of the goods inside the pack, their
origin, and, through the evidence of experience, signsof quality. The simple mark of ownership had become
the trademark.
A whole volume would not suffice for even a partial
record of trademarks. In this connection it should be
noted that, during the past three centuries, these attestations of quality or marks of assurance have taken
on either a pictorial or a purely verbal expression, becoming illustrations and descriptions rather than signs.
Of special interest are the earliest traders' signs from

Traders' signs of the 14th century326

17//.

Trademarks

the 14th and 15th centuries, in which the purely signlike, i.e., a dependence on symbols and abstractions, isan essential element of the design. In the examples
shown, indications of the signs of the compass, thescales, the cross, the ship, the flag, etc., are clearlyrecognizable.

Unverfelfchten

Swcccnt

Tob*k

Figurative and verbal trademarkof the 18th centuryc

Craftsmen's and manufacturers' marks

From Paleolithic times, humankind has lived with objects that are not found in the natural world but havebeen invented and developed by the human mind andmanufactured by the human hand.
Specialization probably came to pass at a very earlystage in the progress of handicrafts, so that individuals
did not work in all fields but limited their activities tothe production of specific kinds of artifacts. It can beassumed, for example, that the maker of weapons did
not also work as a potter and that "vocations" to specificcrafts were established, with the natural consequenceof a general improvement in the quality of the products.

Professional pride

was born, and it was in theinterests of the maker to "sign" work by stamping in amark as confirmation of the origin of the finishedproduct.

327

Sian. Sumbol. Emblem. Sianal

We have already shown some early craftsmen'smarks on pottery found in Egypt and Mesopotamia, in
the introduction to Chapter VI. With the growth of civilization, the differentiation of specialized activities be-came more and more diverse. It can be assumed that in
the times of slavery in the ancient world it was only themasters who had the right to sign the objects producedby their underlings. The signature of the individual
craftsman does not appear until the Middle Ages.

One of the types of craft signature alreadv describedisPottery grid marksthat of the stonemasons' sign (see Chanter VI).

Subseauent signs of the artisan have come down to us
from every century and from a great variety of occupations, ranging from gunsmith to printer, from painterto porcelain maker, from goldsmith to architect, andfrom weaver to papermaker. From this wealth of signs
we have assembled a table showing some tvnical examples from the principal trades.

d Structural signs
Watermarks
Handicraft signs can be divided into two completely
different types: on the one hand those that were engraved, printed, or drawn on the finished article as asignature, and on the other hand structural signs,
which were incorporated in the working tool, the use ofwhich gave the object itself a structural feature. The
oldest known example of the latter method is provided
by the various grid marks on the bottoms of potsfrom the Mediterranean region. The roughening of
the working base, which stamped a typifying pattern
into the base of the vessel, varied in style from one
potter to another. Similar kinds of marking were usedby bakers on loaves of bread, and some metal objects
1, 2, 3: Ancient ornamental bakery marks from the Near East, pressed into the dough before baking. Circa 1500

mark on an ancient Roman oil lamp. 5: Ceramic marking sign, Doccia, Italy. 6: Delftware mark, inwhich the influence of the East Asiatic style is clearly discernible. 7: Meissen mark, to which the same comment
applies. 8: Porcelain mark from Lyon. 9: One of numerous marks of the royal porcelain manufactory of Sevres. 10:
Mark of a medieval swordsmith of Solingen, stamped into the blade. 11: Peter Henkel, swordsmith of Solingen. 12:
Signature stamp of a German pewterer. 13: An Austrian gunsmith. 14: Early printer's colophon. Fust & Schoffer,
Mainz. 15: Isabelle Quatrepomme, copper engravings. 16, 17: Signature signs of two goldsmiths. 18: A wood
carver's sign. 19: An antique dealer. 20, 21: French tapestry weavers, Gobelins. 22: A medieval Dutch copper
b.c. 4: Potter's

engraver. 23: Michelangelo Buonarotti. 24: Frans Hals. 25: Albrecht Diirer. 26: Sign of a Swiss weavers' guild.

328

MIL Trademarks

Craftsmen's marks from manv centuries

WV77

WW
wv
w

Q:

m

11

XI

12

13

^b IftOK

yy?

17

16

15

D
20

qQ2
23

21

22

it^jf
24

25

19

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

from the Bronze Age bear patterns that were produced by the engraving of signs in hammer or anvil.
Watermarks can also be included in this category.
A sign was incorporated in the papermaker's wire bymeans of a raised pattern, with the result that the
thickness of the paper was reduced in that area and thewatermark was visible when the paper was held up to
the light. The technique of sign formation in wire madea strong stylization of the image necessary for thepapermaker, and it was this process of simplificationthat produced the special beauty of this rather naivestyle of sign. A notable characteristic is the complete

absence of stroke endings, which is typical of figurative
signs (see Part 1, Chapter 1.4). The watermarks shownin our table are from the 15th and 16th centuries andwere produced for the chancelleries of the nobility.
Almost all of them are figurative signs. The raised
hand, as shown in the bottom row, was a much-used
motif for watermarks in the paper used by lords, with
the intention of expressing their superiority. The raised

hand is also the sign of oath taking, i.e., of truth.
2. Industrial signs of the present day

Nowadays, everyone is included in the modern economy as a consumer. Our lives are filled with consumer
goods, without which life itself has become unthinkable. Commodities have become basic needs. One might
say that the day really begins with the first glance at thefamiliar trademark printed on the packet of tea or
coffee, and all our daily paths are lined with suchmarks, from this early morning sign to the last sight ofthe quality sign on the alarm clock before turning off
the light.

Supply and demand bring consumer goods into ourfield of vision in such quantities that it is now necessary
to mark them with condensed or abbreviated signs if
they are to have a chance of being noticed and recognized and of finding and keeping a permanent place inthe consumer's memory.
The invention and design of such eye-catchers,
involving the decision about the appropriate sector ofmemory to be aimed at and the working out of the330

VIII.

Trademarks

Watermarks of the 15th and 16th centuries from Central Europe

Siqn. Sumbol. Emblem. Sianal

strongest pictorial impression and most attractive
graphic effect, have become two of the most important activities of members of a new profession: that ofgraphic designer.
The present work is largely dedicated to graphic
designers, since it is from the symbols of the past thatthey can learn about the relationship between humans
and their signs, in order to gain the necessary knowledge and make the right decisions on the basis of long-proven designs.
In an economv characterized bv constantlv increasing comnetition. visual anonvmitv has become a fatal
drawback. The buyer no longer trusts the anonvmous
product or the unpersonilled service. In order to win
and retain a place in today's market, the creation of an"image" has become practicallv indispensable.
It cannot be the intention of the present work togive even an approximate survey of all the marks of industrial identitv circulating throughout the world today. A large number of fully illustrated works of ref-erence are already available on this theme (see Bibliography).

A deliberately condensed presentation of a selectionof typical logotypes of the present day is given in thetables on the following pages. The selection and se-quence of these signs have been worked out on thebasis of an analysis of the derivation of the motifs,
which means that they have not been chosen purely for
their quality.

The first three rows of the first table show logos
having a pictorial content based on purely figurative
representations. What makes these signs into trademarks is their degree of stylization, consciously designed by the artist for its graphic effect. In each par-example, the degree of recognizability of theanimal (ibex, hedgehog, dragon, etc.) is somewhat
different, although there can be no doubt about theidentity of each one.
In contrast, the signs in the lower three rows havealready reached the verge of abstraction, even thoughimages of objects are still in evidence (eye, rail signal,
paperclip, TV aerial, electrical socket, etc.). At the same

ticular

332

Mil.

Trademarks

Some modern logotypes based on concrete and abstract figures

«#«B

He©

*©a*

^tz&^
D#

m

i®0

Sign, Symbol. Emblem, Signal

time, the signs tend to have the appearance of diagrams such as graphs, or schematic representations ofrailway tracks, paper reeling, etc.
The second table and the top parts of the third show
a selection of signs in which the resemblance to letterforms is a prominent feature. In the search for an
identifying image, the use of the initials of the company
or product is in many cases an aid to finding a precise
graphic expression. The possibilities of sign creation
for associations, organizations, and services whose
activities are of a purely abstract nature are much
reduced by the absence of any concrete image. This
category of trademarks might well have been includedin the chapter on monograms, but for purely historicaland aesthetic reasons it falls into the sector of modern
identity signs in the present collection.
The design of monograms follows a variety of styles
of graphic expression. The letters may be in positive or
negative form, outlined or solid. A typical manner ofsign creation is the production of a continuous stroke,as in handwriting (table 3, rows 3 and 4). In the three
middle rows, the recognizability of the letters is alreadysomewhat veiled by a much more strongly marked
style of graphic geometry.
The two last rows of Table 3 and all of Table 4 arealmost entirely composed of abstract images. Theseoccur in the same sequence as was given in Part 1(Chapters VI and VII) in an analysis of the different
forms of expression used in signs.
The "handwritten" style of sign mentioned previously and formed of drawn lines (cf. Part 1 ChapterI.4d) is followed, in the fifth row of Table 3, by a seriesof logos consisting of cutout solids, tending to give apurely two-dimensional effect (cf. Part 1, Chapter VI).
By contrast, the bottom row of the table contains signs
intended to simulate three dimensions (cf. Part 1,
Chapter VII). This category also includes the signs
shown in the bottom row of Table 4, in which graphic
tricks such as false perspectives and unaccustomed
illusions of volume are used in an attempt to grab theviewer's attention.
The top part of Table 4 contains a number of circular logos simulating rotary or spiral movement. For thedesignation of movement in the sense of extension,,334

17//.

Trademarks

Letters are also welcome elements on which to base logotypes

r

1

Vi

'

r—>

*•

1

®

GD«4

Siqn. Sumbol. Emblem. Sianal

Logotype formation with contrasting areas, simulated volume, etc.

S

H

ES£ilss£MAcno§17//.

Trademarks

Pure abstraction can lead to unwanted similarities in logotypes

T.^©

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

meeting, or running around, toward and through, thearrow has become the absolutely unequivocal andgenerally understood sign element, finding an almost
excessive use in modern logo design.
Viewing this selection of graphic identity images
dispassionately, we have to admit that the overall im-pression is of a certain monotony in the character of thesigns used, a certain poverty of really new, far-reaching
images. In the postwar period, graphic design schools
have perhaps all too often been concerned only with apure contrast of black and white, with the facile visualshock of a startling play^-of black and white forms
obtained by crude contrast or ingenious association.
It is possible that we are now standing on thethreshold of a new generation of logotypes. The signs
that came into use with the economic upswing of thesixties and seventies, with their often rather too hardand crude contrasts, seem to have reached the end of
their vogue. More and more signs of a finer, furtherreaching and more original character are now beginning to appear, giving rise to hopes of good prospects

in the sign creation of the future.

Woolmark
Francesco Saroglia

Admiral Corp., USA,
Morton Gordsholl

Polish Tailors Cooperative

Karol Sliwka

The examples shown in the four preceding tables are only a very small selection from a multitude of existing
company logotypes. We have taken the liberty of reproducing them without reference to the designers and owners
but gratefully acknowledge the main sources of the collection: Journal of the American Institute of Graphic Arts,
No 5, 1966, and Logotype, Signal, Symbol by Walter Diethelm (ABC Editions, Zurich) 1974.

338

IX. Technical and Scientific Signs

1.

Technical pictography

Technicians of the traditional sort, whose work consists primarily of the manual manipulation of tools andmaterials, are known as artisans. In earlier times they
were mostly unlettered and untrained in technicaldrawing, carrying out the creative part of their work
during the process of production. The carpenter visualized the positioning of the roof tree; there were nohouse-building plans on paper but only in the mastercarpenter's head. In order to simplify the assembly of
the timber on the building site, after it had been prepared and cut to measure in the workshop, the artisan
made use of certain signs by notching them into thebeams. This was a sign language that could be easily
understood by all the workers.
We illustrate some typical examples of carpentry
signs as still used in chalet building in Alpine regions.
Sets of signs like these were customary not only incarpentry but in almost every trade, especially those
whose work was not completed in the workshop but
was taken elsewhere for a second procedure of assembly. Such was the case, for example, in stonemasonry,
for which the actual building signs, not to be confusedwith the signature signs, have not generally remained
visible, since they were placed on the inner side of thestones.
In the course of the centuries, this"spontaneous"

method of working has been divided into a creative or
Carpentry signs

AA

XI

X

'/,

Cut

Cancel

/X/V xX
CenterFastening

Groove/\ReliefCut out

339

Incision

JointSign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

Q
Centrifugal pump

Automatic stopcock*^

5>

Tube tapering&m$®
Automatic shock absorberplanning stage and a construction stage. It is typicalof modern working techniques that the person who"plans" is no longer the one who puts the plan into
effect. The paper of the technical drawing has been interposed between the hammer and the nail, the axe andthe beam, as the intellectual element in the work. This
major change came about because of the demandsof increasing complexity in buildings, machinery andinstallations. Nowadays it would be unthinkable toerect a modern building without a drawing, diagram orplan. There are still manual workers and artisans tocarry out the work but their function has become more

and more specialized as their work is precisely divided up in accordance with instructions from a prearranged plan.
Engineers, architects and technicians now form
working groups or teams, whose job is to assemble thebuilding materials, installations, and fittings in accordance with a structural plan. In all fields of manufacture, research, and planning it has become a matter ofcourse that whatever has to be made must first beplanned in the office, on the drawing board, or more
recently on computer-controlled display screens.

—7^iment has inevitably led to the creation of new forms of

Electrical amplifier

visual expression for the optical fixing of new formula-This ever-growing division into stages of develop-

tions, discoveries, and conclusions in a practical man-ner.

Creatively thinking people have found themselvescompelled to extend the alphabetical limitations of"speech-fixing signs" by inventing independent signs
to express formulas, connections, processes, and so on.
In the same way, schematic representation has

made detailed verbal explanations superfluous in thevarious fields of technology. The wiring diagram ofeven the simplest electrical apparatus would fill pagesof written explanations, whereas the trained technician, with a knowledge of the new sign language, in-stantly understands the functioning of the item asshown schematically.
The number of these specialized signs is growing all
Logical function

the time with continuing progress in all fields of devel-

340

IX.

Technical and Scientific Signs

opment. Even a limited survey of the multitude of suchtechnical signs would go far beyond the bounds of our
subject. The few examples given in the margins havea purely illustrative value as a glimpse of a world ofsignlike formulations that can be understood only by
specialists and are at their service for working purposes as what might be called graphic tools.
Cathode ray tube

D^QoO©
Programming signs for data processing

2. Signs ofmodern sciences

and formulas must be distinguishedfrom those of technology, even though they meet andoverlap at certain points. The scientist and research
worker are mainly concerned with purely theoreticalmatters, without any advance consideration of practiScientific signs

cal applications of the subject of research, of the theo-ry produced, or of the newly discovered concept. The

invention and adoption of all the technical, economic,

and social achievements that today influence thewhole of life on our planet have been a consequence of
free, theoretical research, which one might call "wild"
research. The work of Albert Einstein may be cited as
an example. In its purely theoretical nature, his intellectual work formed the basis on which technologists
have developed, for example, equipment for all the
known uses of atomic power.
In the realm of the sciences, with their high level ofabstraction, the shorthand of signs has been much
more strongly developed than in the previously mentioned field of technology. It is quite impossible to im-

agine mathematicians or chemists able to manage all341

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

their mental work with the sole aid of alphanumericsigns, without using special signs and formulas.

Starting with an existing range of elementary signs,

research workers see themselves compelled to invent
new signs and formulas all the time, in order to be able
to formulate newly discovered facts, materials, connections, etc. Faced with this constantly growing multitude, it is possible to show only a small selection ofmodern scientific signs as examples of contemporary
graphic expression.
The constantly revived notion of a return to a pictographic script for general purposes, with the idea ofovercoming language boundaries, as proposed, forexample, by the Australian C. K. Bliss in his "Semantography," seems to us to be completely unrealistic, inview of all the existing differences. The language ofEsperanto is the pertinent example of an idea that is
highly impressive in terms of pure theory, but inpractice is unable to overcome the world's deeply
rooted, fundamental ethnic structures.
So far as sciences and techniques are concerned,
however, there is no doubt that in growing fields ofspecialization, signs and pictograms are still underdevelopment and will in future become an absolutenecessity for the fixing and transmission of a worldwide fund of knowledge.

Lines 1 and 2: Astronomy (planetary and zodiacal signs, see Chapter V). Line 3: Botany and biology. Line 4:
Chemistry. Line 5: Nuclear chemistry. Line 6: Crystalline structures. Line 7: Geology. Lines 8 to 11: Mathematics(signs of function and relationship). Lines 12 and 13: Geometry. Lines 14 to 16: Meteorology.

342

IX.

Technical and Scientific Signs

A selection of modern scientific signs

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1. Orientation

In contrast to all other kinds of sign, the signal sign has

a function that departs from the field of merely passive
communication and information. Being in the natureof a direction, an order, a warning, a prohibition, or an
instruction,ithas a purpose not simply to communi-

cate but rather to produce an immediate reaction in theviewer. In its outward form, such as a placard or an inscription, the signal sign puts itself into humans' fieldof vision as it were against their will. An ordinary print-

ed text, on the other hand, may be taken up or put down
by readers, that is to say, included in their field of vision, and therefore of thought, or else dismissed fromit. The materialized signal has become an essential andpractically unavoidable part of our visual environment.
The industrial revolution has brought a basic transformation to the concept of the sign. If the age ofreligious faith was marked by the symbol and that ofenlightening reason by the sign, our present-day worldof universal communication and information exchange
is ruled and structured by the signal.

a Meaning and interpretation of traffic signs

The traffic sign has become an essential part of modern life, since humans now move around at speedsthat are alien to their natural being. The amount oftime needed for human recognition of danger nolonger matches the speed of movement that is usualin present-day circumstances and far exceeds the natural human capacity for reaction.

As new features of our environment, traffic signs
have decisively affected the structure of our percep-345

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

Their characteristics may be divided into acertain hierarchy of strengths of command, which
could be classified into the following steps, given withtypical examples: absolute prohibition: No Entry, Stop,
No Parking; qualified prohibition: Deliveries Only,
Residents Only; explanatory prohibition: No Right Turn,tions.

Go Around Traffic Island; instruction signal: Single
Too much similarity to themodern townscape

Carriageway, Speed Limit; information signal: Crossroads, Sharp Bend; directional signal: parking signs,
indications of places and distances.

b

Shape of the panel

The shapes of signal panels are chosen, consciously or
unconsciously, with regard to the intensity of theirvisual impression. Circular panels, which bear some

Better contrast to thebackgroundresemblance to the raised open hand, are the mostclearly visible against their background.
Square or oblong shapes, on the other hand, tend to
become submerged in the general townscape, which
consists mainly of the same outward forms. The circle

and the oblique line provide a much stronger contrast
to the urban environment. For this reason, most signal
panels with a prohibitory content are given a striking
Aggressive triangular shapefor prohibition signals

shape, which may be in the form of a diamond or, as ismost often the case, a triangle.
It is interesting to note that a triangle standing on its
apex conveys, like the circular panel, a stronger impression of giving an order, whereas a triangle with its
apex at the top more naturally carries a warning
content. In the urban environment it is understandable
that upside-down triangles produce a more aggressive
form of expression than those with their apex at the
top. One reason for this effect is provided by the older

Warning signals with more
resemblance to the older
townscape or village

form of townscape with its sloping roofs, ridged at thetop, a familiar image that has its place in the humansubconscious (see Part 1, Chapter II).
c Color

The primary color red is chosen as the most meaningful of all hues for prohibitions, instructions, and warn-

346

A.

Signal Signs

ings of danger. Quantitatively speaking, red is present
in the landscape only in dots, never in wide areas. The

use of red is therefore derived from the fact that thismost obtrusive of all the colors of nature exists only inthis exceptional way. but always as a primary color,for example, in flowers. Conversely, the color green,

which is always visible in nature in broad areas, isunsuitable for signals; blue is used only for purposesof invitation or direction.

d The driver's reaction to the signal
Inview of the constantly increasing density of roadand the need to regulate it sensibly, it is oftraffic

interest to consider the fact that at least three basicallydifferent kinds of reaction to traffic signs are to beobservedamong theparticipants,

particularly car

drivers. In the first place they react to indications ofOne's own life is in danger

danger with the normal human instinct for self-preservation, closing the sun roof, for example, immediately
upon seeing the sign for "Falling Rocks" and slowing

down when seeing the signal for "Level Crossing" or"Steep Descent." The same applies to the second classof reaction, when it is the driver's pocket rather thanlifethat is immediately threatened, as in the case of"Radar Speed Trap." In the third type of reaction, it ismore difficult to take the foot from the accelerator when
one is faced with admonitions to take care, such as"Road Works" or "Road Narrows."
2. Pictograms

Pictograms are finding increasing use in modern directional and informative signs, for two reasons, thefirstof which consists in the necessary limits to the

Whether it be circular, triangular,
rectangular, or any other shape, the panel must carrysize of the panel.

condensed information. This principle is in opposition
to that of written or printed information, which has
to follow the linear development of word assembly
and therefore needs wide, more or less lengthy panels, presenting an obstacle to the unification of any
system of signalization.

347

The information is notbasically ego-related

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

The second reason for the growing use of pictograms is that of language itself. Road and rail networks,
shipping lines, and airways reach far beyond the frontiers of nations, languages, and peoples. Polyglot inscriptions would call for panels of excessive size andthe information content would lose its clarity. Air traffic
may form an exception here, allowing general compre-

Universally comprehensible pictograms speak

for themselves

Diagrams that needsome working out

<
In

>
Out

Too hard to work out

hension to be reduced to a bilingual system consistingof the national language plus English, which, moreover, has increasingly taken on the character of a soleinternational language of air traffic, with the use ofwords such as Exit, Flight, and Bus.
During the past few decades, information by meansof pictorial signs has led to a general change of reading
habits, and it may be said that today it would no longer
be possible to provide directions without using a certain number of pictograms. In this connection it must
be emphasized that there are at least three different
kinds of pictorial information.
The first comprises those signs that, as naturalistic
pictures, generally in the form of silhouettes, leaveabsolutely no doubt about their meaning in anyone's
mind, regardless of the viewer's native language andway of life. A crossed-out cigarette and the silhouette ofa telephone receiver or a coffee cup have become universally comprehensible directives. No learning process is required to understand these signs, which give
immediate information.
The second kind of pictorial information comprises
diagrams whose meaning is not comprehensible at firstglance, calling for a certain mental effort. This is thecase, for example, with traffic signs indicating suchcontents as priority, two-way traffic and steep slopes.
In this group of schematized pictograms there havebeen numerous instances of signs whose meaning
remains dubious to many people even after many yearsof use. Figures formed from a combination of different
abstract elements, in the case of our examples theopened square for room or door with the directing
arrow, require a "thinking time" that far exceeds the"decision time" available to the pedestrian approaching the door in question. A sign of this kind will neverserve its purpose satisfactorily, since its intellectual
concept is unsuitable both for spontaneous visual rec-348

X. Signal Signs

ognition and for a simple process of learning. In thecase in point we would prefer the verbal information"In" and "Out."The third group comprises indicators derived neither from pictures nor from diagrams but from abstract
signs, thus requiring an outright process of learning.

Once they have been absorbed into the subconscious,
like alphabetical signs, they are understood spontane-

ously. The most striking example of this category is the"One Way Street" or "No Entry" sign, now used even forwalkways and universally known and obeyed. Red,
amber, and green traffic lights belong to the same
category of acquired information. The arrow sign could
also be included in the same group, even though its

outline can recall a weapon, depending on the specificform used (cf. Part 1, Chapter II. 4). The shape of the
shaft provides exact information about the kind of
movement indicated: detour, sharp bend, etc.
Particularly tricky problems of pictographic design
are presented by information concerned with services
rather than specific objects, for example, "customs,""Lost Property Office," "Self Service," "Waiting Room,""Luggage Delivery," "Left Luggage." The problem of indicating the toilets will probably never be solved on aworldwide scale except on a verbal basis, since eventhe division between men and women, typically designated in the West by the outlines of a skirt and trousers,
does not work at all in this form in Arab countries,

among others.
The best-designed

series of travel pictograms
known to the authors a collection worked out by theAmerican Institute of Graphic Arts as the norm for theUnited States - is illustrated here. The reproduction of
the table is, however, subject to all the various reservations already expressed concerning the effective-

ness of different kinds of sign.
3. Signal signs in printed form

In most cases travelers work out an exact timetable
and route plan of their journey in advance, from thepoint of departure to the destination. For this purpose
they use timetables, road maps, and other forms ofprinted schematic information, all containing a quan-

349

Once learned, these are
perfectly comprehensible

Sign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

Standard pictograms for air traffic in the USA

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X. Signal Signs

tity of signs that are tosome extent identical with thoseto be met during the journey.

Travellers' reactions to the printed signs, which we

n

O

=7S

can also regard in a certain way as theoretical signal
signs, are fundamentally different from their reaction
to the signs displayed in public. The gathering of infor-

mation, the planning and preparation for a journey arecarried out in an atmosphere of relaxation, one might
almost say of meditation, whereas the journey itself
subjects travellers to definite conditions of time andplace, such as dependence on traffic regulations and

<

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t

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I

I

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Map signs

punctuality of public transport.
Public systems of signal signs in traffic require
instant recognition, whereas the printed signal sign,
viewed away from the traffic, can have a much more
complex content. In addition to those pictograms whose
meaning is obvious, a timetable or a map can make freeuse of abstract signs, for purposes of direction orreference, with explanations of their meaning in an-other part of the document, rather like footnotes inbooks.
Signs for maps, and especially for timetables, must,however, be simplified into the most strongly stylized
form, since they must remain readable in very small

Holiday resort signs

sizes.

W&
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u?

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2 X ^f &±£»% di m (D © © d mxx^neoA^
Signs for an air timetable

As an example, we show a set of pictographic signs
designed for an air timetable.
The first row contains signs with an immediately
recognizable and understandable meaning due to theirclear pictorial character.

351

a 5 X -rfgg 3^®

y %. a (p o a d m m
Legibility of picto-

grams in reducedsizesSign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

The signs in the second row still have a thoroughly
pictorial character, but their meaning needs an explanation, which in most cases will need to be given only
once. From left to right, their meaning is In-Flight
Cinema, Welcome Service, Change Flight, Single Journey, Return Journey, Telegrams, Local Time, andFlight Time. The signs in the third row also need to be
explained only once. They mean Weekdays Only, Daily,
and the days of the week from 1 to 7. In the last casethere is always an element of doubt as to whether Day
1 means Sunday, Monday, or possibly Saturday (theJewish Sabbath). The final row contains typical reference signs, i.e., clearly distinguishable geometricalfigures needing an explanation in a footnote or table inevery case and, where possible, on each page of the
publication.

4. Emotional aspects of route findinga Orientation in public buildings

One of the most important factors to be taken into
account in the planning of modern directional systems
a kind of anxiety that might be called "doorstep
nerves." The psychological attitude of persons seeking
their way is quite different when inside or outside abuilding. As long as they are in the open air, their independent powers of decision are still fully intact and thevisible environment provides a secure system of reference. Once inside a building for the first time, however,visitors tend to lose confidence in their powers of decision and are obliged to seek help and guidance. In mostcases they will first look for a receptionist of whom they
can ask their way verbally. In buildings lacking such an
information service there is usually a guide plan on
display. This kind of miniaturization or schematizationof the building must be seen as the main element of signalization, because it is there that visitors have to learn
isand get to know the spatial structure of the whole building. The functioning of this process of instruction andof subsequent further guidance is very closely associ-ated with visitors' personal dispositions. In a museum,for example, visitors are likely to be in a relaxed moodand will naturally be inclined to seek their own way.

352

.V.

In contrast, visitors to

Signal Signs

any kind of public building,from a post office to a police station or a hospital, will
partly or even completely lose their sense of direction

and seek verbal guidance.
This emotional factor is of particular importance at
airports and railway stations, generally as a result ofpressure of time or anxiety about taking the wrong
flight or train. In such cases it is not possible to back up

the system of signalization with a personal service, so
the orientation panel must be correspondingly designed to show large quantities of information in alarge size, in order to inform the anxious traveler
quickly and precisely.
b Pictographic systems for events

In the context of the increasingly frequent organizationof meetings of large groups of people at cultural,Tokyo

sporting, or political events, new systems of orientation

are in constant demand. Their design must take equal
account of the specific content, the scope, and thepolyglot character of the event concerned. In such cases
the designer becomes a kind of visual organizer withthe specific job of orienting and guiding visitors.
Since events of this kind are limited in time andplace and the visitors will in most cases be in a relaxedmood, with the intention of enjoying themselves, it isour view that the design of pictographic systems withoriginal sets of signs designed by local graphic artists is
to be welcomed. The opinion is often expressed that an
approved, permanent pictographic system should beworked out once and for all for the Olympic Games. On
the contrary, it seems to us more sensible and better
suited to the occasion that a set of signs appropriate
to the specific character of the current host country be
developed anew every four years. Visitors will come tounderstand the signs quite quickly, and their local color will be thoroughly acceptable as an expression ofgraphic resourcefulness. Even if there are occasional
misinterpretations of the meanings of signs at such
events, the consequences will not be very serious.
One exception to this rule must be observed, namelythat safety signs must have a strict international unity,
for obvious reasons.

353

MexicoMunichGrenobleSign, Symbol, Emblem, Signal

5. Operating signals

The traditional tools of agriculture and handicrafts
owe their forms to centuries of adaptation to the anatomy of the human hand. The combination of muscle
power, dexterity, and the instruments concerned has

made it possible to produce objects of practical use

Handy tools

from raw materials such as stone and wood, leather
and yarn. The invention of the motor initiated a growing tendency for human effort to be replaced by machine power, while the equipment concerned is nolonger designed to be "handy" but to be technicallysuited to its mechanical functions.
The present generation has to deal with tools,
domestic machinery, and means of transport withfashionably designed casings and frames covering
their inner workings, which are now both invisible andincomprehensible to the user. In fact such understanding seems no longer necessary, since such equipment
is not manually "used" but simply "operated." Furthermore, the electronic equipment now coming into
domestic use has its own programmed sequence of
operations, so that the expression "button pushing"

no longer has a facetious connotation but is a genuine
aspect of human activity in a mechanized age.
a daily experience that a completely different,
not to say "alienated," relationship to the instruments
we use has arisen from this development. In the old
It isdays, the washboard, bucket, and soap or the work-

bench, saw, and chisel needed no operating instructions, their uses being intrinsic to their very forms. In

contrast, the workings of a modern washing machineor a stereo set are hidden behind their housings. The

wiring diagrams provided with the equipment are
generally readable only by the specialist and for thatreason are, in any case, often hidden away in theinterior.
It is not our intention to advocate traditional methods as opposed to innovations, but the fact remainsthat modern equipment is becoming more and more

abstract and complex in character and must therefore

be provided with full operating instructions. For every

354

A.

Signal Signs

manufacturer, the design and writing of such instructions for machinery and equipment are delicate anddifficultmatters. A typical example of the contradic-

tions involved is the use of colors. From experience inroad traffic, the public has learned that red means"stop" and green means "go," whereas on electrical apparatus a red light means "contact," i.e., running instead of stopping, while green indicates inactivity.
In the same way, knob-turning instructions stillcause problems to most owners of equipment, since theinstructions "turn left" and "turn right" are not neces-

On a sewing machine^ED O
On an ovenOn a washing machine

sarily absolutely clear and unequivocal for everyone.

In addition, multilingual operating instructions havebecome a matter of routine as a consequence of worldwide trade in equipment of the most varied kinds.
Purely verbal descriptions and explanations therefore

On a camera

often lead to awkwardly expressed and even incompre-

hensible instructions, because of faulty translation,and every manufacturing company tries to develop
pictograms that will explain the entire operation of its
equipment without the need for words.
It must be acknowledged that it will take generations to complete a unified, worldwide solution to thisproblem, especially as far as the learning process isconcerned, as this must be undertaken anew withpractically every kind of equipment. Nevertheless,standardizations of graphic signs are in progress in avariety of fields and it appears that the basic rules of agenerally understandable language of signalization
have already been established.

355

On a tape recorder^
In a car

Drawing

Arrow

Serpent

Star

Cross

y^ ^^

Realistic

1r ^rPicture

Schematicm0\

iirflftmm
Diagram

SymbolSign or object
raised to bea symboli.i^.i- or

attributes
in a symbol

A O 0"^© if*

Convention with

Science sign

recognizable object=

V

Serpent of eternity'eace

Christianity

s^v^

Sin

Islam

Sign

Ground plan-

Solomon's seal

Combinations

Technical draw ng

Cross section¥
Meteorology (frost)

IM

Love

Trinitv£

Hieroglyph (Nahash)High voltage

Equal or parallel

Lucas Cranach

Cattle brand (Texas)

Jermes sign

Pure convention.
loss of object

Asterisk

Signature sign

Mark of ownership, signature.

colophon:#-$

Stonemason

Emblem sign

Sign of group,Mk

family, state

membershipFederation

Trademark,Profession,

logotype

company

Family sign (Japan)

Doctor, apothecary

Signaltn^m

Zodiac sign (Scorpio)^

State (arms)

SSI

British RailA bankDirection

Red Cross

Instruction
for traffic.

operation, etc.

Danger of explosion

Bend in road

Toward a Synthesis

The table of signs on the facing page has been assembled in order to provide a comparative guide to thedifferent kinds of expression that can be obtained bymeans of graphic modifications to four representative
figures: two from nature, the star and the serpent, one

human artifact, the arrow, and one figure from theborderland of abstraction, the cross.
ihe top row contains purely pictorial representations. Although reproduced by the technique of line
drawing, the signs remain in the realm of the pictorial
and their expression is above all illustrative.
In the second row, the same objects take on aschematic form, which means that thev are no longer
illustrations of outward forms but analytical versions,in which the image is arranged as a diagram, crosssection, or ground plan.

One of the most fundamental transformations ocwhere the picture has been

curs in the third row.

elevated to a symbol. This can be seen as a kind of"sublimation" of the purely objective item, in that thething itself has been given a spiritual or imaginative
content. In this context a naturalistic rendering is nolonger required. On the contrary, the illustrative inten-

abandoned in the process of converting thepicture into a sign. The illustration has become a

tion

is

symbol.

As a means of increasing symbolic power, two or
more objects are often associated in one image, as
shown in the fourth row.
In order to provide further clarification of the muchdisputed question of the exact nature of the difference

between a symbol and a sign, the four original objects
appear from the fifth row downward in a variety ofsimplified and graphically polished versions of theirsigns. Of course, pure signs, such as those for lightning

DJt

or Venus, may become symbols, as may also be thecase with armorial devices and even with trademarks.
It is, above all, the underlying meaning of a figure thatcan be taken to draw the boundary line between asymbolic image and a neutral sign denoting a thing.
The division of the signs into groups does not in itself
raise any problem of interpretation. The abbreviatedsign used for a scientific concept, the signature sign orwatermark, the sign of ownership, and the trademark
are all made distinct by their specific applications.
The outward forms of the various classes of sign
therefore give a fairly clear indication of their uses. The
economical line of a scientific sign differs clearly fromthe filled-in, embellished armorial sign, and the functional simplification of a cattle-branding mark distinguishes its appearance totally from that of an advertising sign designed with graphic sophistication for

maximum appeal.
The final row of the table shows the four basic
images as used for purposes of signalization. Both thenaturalistic and the symbolic effects have been eliminated and the signs have become abstract conventions.
The image of the signal sign also includes the shape of
its panel, which can strictly speaking be regarded as abasic geometrical sign in itself, enhancing the meaningof the sign that it bears.

358

Epilogue

The illustration becomes a symbol, the sacred symbolismodified tomake a prosaic mathematical sign,heraldic figures and signatures are transformed into

trademarks and logotypes, and the drawing is simplified to make a sign.

Alphabetical signs alone have long been insufficient
to record and convey

human thoughts and statements.

Orientation and communication would be impossible

today without diagrams, signs and signals. Written or
printed expression is necessarily complemented by
pictorial communication.

The alphabets of verbal languages, having evolvedin specific historical conditions, are fixed once and forbut are abstract in character. The signs of pictorial
language, on the other hand, are subject to constant,concrete adaptation to the ever-changing fields of theirapplication and have a clarifying and standardizingall,effectwherever words are

insufficientor hard tounderstand.
Signs, symbols, emblems, and signals, in all theirdiversity, are penetrating and deeply marking expressions of our times, pointing to the future by comprisingand conserving something of the past.

*.4
Nuclear disarmament

Danger! Radioactivity

Peace

359

Gembloux 1975.

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i

In this standard work,

now published in the English language for thetime, Adrian Frutiger writes about signs and symbols in generaland about the development of writing in particular. Throughout Frutiger
relates the basic principles and components of graphics to a wide rangeof considerations - historical, physical, linguistic and practical.
All of this is achieved by dint of an exceptionally clear text and hundreds
firstof free-hand line drawings by the author, printed in a second color.
Adrian Frutiger is Linotype's master typographer who has, amongst

other work, designed a typeface named after him.

ISBN D-MM2-e3Tlfl-l

90000

I442"239183