ISSN 2436-2204

多言 語 教 育
実践 ジャーナル

4

Vol.

MARCH 2024

JOURNAL OF MULTILINGUAL PEDAGOGYAND PRACTICE

目次・Table of Contents
授業実践報告・Teaching Practice Report

Implementation of Data-Driven Learning (DDL) in a Course
for English Reading and Writing
Aika Miura & Yoshiho Satake1

How Difficult is Debate? Proficiency-Based Lesson Modifications in ESL Debate
Andrew Tyner

18

Aviva Ueno

25

Diane C. Obara

36

Heather Woodward, Joshua Rappeneker, & Keiko Fujino

47

Why Teachers Should Use Journals in Their Reflective Practice Throughout
Their Teaching Career

Rikkyo University’s FLER CLIL Seminars:
History Course-Design Thought Process and Piloting

A Guide to Using a Mobile Application to Track Spoken Fluency

Current News Through English Media:
Teaching Critical Consumption of the News
Jason Clarke

57

Jeremiah Dutch

67

Jon Mahoney76

Kathryn Mabe & Alexander L. Selman

89

Getting Started With Graded Readers in the Classroom:
Five Pre-Reading and Reading Activities

Utilizing Flip to Boost Class Cohesion

Reflections on the “Study Abroad Preparation: IELTS”
Level 1 & 2 Pilot Courses

Improving the Japanese College Students’ Academic Vocabulary Masteryon Synonyms With Kahoot!
Maki Matsuda 100

Product, Process, and Content:
Practical Strategies for Differentiation on a University Debate Course
Russell Minshull 110
レシピを読むスペイン語授業の実践報告
松本
投稿規程・Manuscript Submission Guidelines
執筆者・Authors

旬子 125

Teaching Practice Report

Implementation of Data-Driven Learning (DDL) ina Course for English Reading and Writing
Aika Miura
Yoshiho Satake

Abstract
This research evaluates the effectiveness of data-driven learning (DDL) in Japanese
university-level English classes. DDL, where learners use corpora to discover
linguistic patterns, was applied in two first-year mandatory classes in English
Reading and Writing at Rikkyo University. The paper reports our educational
practices on the development of the DDL tasks, focusing on the target vocabulary
covered in the assigned coursebooks and the inductive instructions to encourage thestudents to engage in DDL. The qualitative analyses focused on DDL tasks involving
vocabulary, collocations, and grammar. The findings suggest that DDL enhances
lexical comprehension, particularly when learners are guided toward specificlinguistic elements. Tasks on collocations and verb-noun combinations were notably
effective. However, challenges such as the time-intensive nature of DDL and its
inconsistent impact on practical language use were observed. These insights highlightthe need for a balanced DDL task design and further research on optimizing DDL
for diverse learning environments. The study underscores the potential of DDL in
English language teaching and its role in fostering independent learning.
Keywords: Data-driven learning (DDL), English language teaching (ELT), Corpus linguistics

Introduction
Data-driven learning (DDL) is an approach in which learners actively consult corpora
to inductively discover linguistic patterns and usages. As originally advocated by Johns (1991),
this approach utilizes rich real-world language data, empowering learners to notice and deduce
rules of grammar, vocabulary, and semantics, autonomously. The efficacy of DDL has been
corroborated through meta-analytical studies by scholars such as Boulton and Cobb (2017) and
Mizumoto and Chujo (2015), highlighting its pedagogical advantages in language teaching.
In response to the rise of DDL in the field of language teaching, this study aims topromote the implementation of DDL in English language teaching (ELT) in Japan. This aim ispursued through an investigation into the effectiveness of various DDL tasks, which are tailored1

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to align with the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) levels,
to promote the development and subsequent prevalence of pedagogical materials designed toaccommodate learners at varying stages of language proficiency.
The 2023 academic year serves as the foundational phase for our research, during which
diverse DDL tasks targeting different grammatical and lexical items will have been put into
practice. As one of the foundation phase practices, this paper reports on the authors’ DDL
practice conducted at Rikkyo University. This initial stage is pivotal, as it sets the groundworkfor subsequent analysis and material creation. We hope the outcomes of this project will be ofsignificant value to English teachers in Japan seeking options for teaching materials, thereby
contributing to a broader understanding of the role of DDL in language teaching.

Literature Review
DDL is a pedagogical approach wherein learners are immersed in vast amounts ofauthentic usage of the target language in corpora, facilitating their independent navigation anddeduction of linguistic patterns. This approach originated from Johns (1991). Since then, DDL
has been an option in second language (L2) instruction, supported by the evolution of computer
technology and the widespread availability of the Internet, drawing considerable scholarly focus
on using corpora in L2 education.
The efficacy of DDL in enhancing language acquisition has been reported by various
meta-analytic studies (e.g., Boulton & Cobb, 2017; Lee et al., 2019; Mizumoto & Chujo, 2015).
An example of previous empirical research in this domain was conducted by Tono et al. (2014).
Their research scrutinized the impact of consulting the British National Corpus (BNC) on
correcting errors in writing in English as a foreign language (EFL). In this study, 93 university
students engaged in an essay-writing exercise without reference materials, and the authors gave
feedback on two identified errors in each student’s paper. Subsequently, after a three-weekinterval, the students revised the essay, consulting either the BNC or dictionaries. The 188
errors identified were categorized into three major types: omission (where lexical items areomitted), addition (which contains a redundant item), and misformation (where a grammaticalform is misplaced). The results demonstrated that corpus usage significantly enhanced thecorrection of omission and addition errors but was less effective in correcting those categorized
as misformation, suggesting that certain errors are more amenable to correction through corpus
resources than others.
Notwithstanding the demonstrated benefits of DDL, its adoption in ELT in Japan remains
underutilized. While meta-analyses have made clear some of the controversial aspects of DDL(Tono, 2015), the longitudinal research on corpus use conducted in Japanese educational
contexts, which has reported the impacts on learning English (e.g., Satake, 2020; Chujo et al.,2015; Hadley & Charles, 2017), is relatively scant. This paucity of evidence may contribute toteachers’ hesitancy in taking a DDL approach in English classrooms in Japan.
2Implementation of Data-Driven Learning (DDL) in a Course for English Reading and Writing

There is a need for further research that shows the specific benefits of corpus use on L2
learning, potentially persuading a greater number of English teachers in Japan of DDL’s value
and encouraging its integration into their teaching. Thus, this study investigates the effects ofvarious DDL tasks within the framework of English courses where instructors are constrainedby university-wide, unified syllabi with semi-mandatory textbook assignments.

Methods
Participants
The participants in this research were first-year students enrolled in two classes of a
14-week mandatory English course focusing on reading and writing, taught by the authorsof this paper in the spring semester of the 2023 academic year. One class of 21 participants
was designated as Level 2, corresponding to CEFR levels B1 to B2, while the other class,comprising 19 participants, was classified as Level 3, aligning with CEFR levels A2 to B1.
Before performing the DDL practices, the participants received a thorough explanation of theresearch, and their written informed consent was obtained. Only data from those who consented
to participate were included in the analysis for this paper.
Development of Tasks and Corpora Used in DDL
In both Levels 2 and 3 classes, the participants engaged with corpora to perform
DDL tasks designed to facilitate learning vocabulary items featured in the semi-mandated
course textbooks. After completing all the DDL tasks, the authors observed and analyzed theworksheets of the participants in their respective classes. This research primarily focused ona qualitative observation of the effects of various DDL tasks. Consequently, it did not involve
any quantitative validation processes, such as pre- and post-testing.
Level 2 Class
The Level 2 class used the coursebook titled Q: Skills for Success: Reading & Writing
4 (Daise & Norloff, 2020). The second author, who also served as the instructor, developed andimplemented a set of six worksheets to help students learn collocations, prefixes, and suffixes.
Each session gave the participants 15–20 minutes to engage with a DDL task. The participants
were given instructions and encouraged to complete the worksheets in English. When theparticipants were unable to complete a given task within an allocated time, they worked on theunfinished parts as homework outside of class time.
In this class, a corpus tool called Sketch Engine for Language Learning (SKELL)
provided by Lexical Computing CZ s.r.o. (2021) was utilized for DDL activities. The data
sources of this tool contain a varied collection of texts including news, academic papers,
Wikipedia articles, open-source books, web pages, discussion forums, and blogs. This data
is selectively compiled to aid learners of English to access examples providing how language3

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is used in various contexts. SKELL allows users to explore authentic language use throughexample sentences in the Examples page, the Word Sketch page showing co-occurring words,
and thesaurus functions in the page of Similar Words. SKELL enables learners to observe
how words and phrases are used in various contexts, which can aid in understanding nuances
and usage patterns in the target language. SKELL was used for this research due to its userfriendly interface, which requires no registration and is freely accessible. Users can swiftly
receive results by simply typing the target word or phrase, making it an ideal tool for exploring
language patterns in our research.
Level 3 Class
The first author taught the Level 3 class, covering Units 1, 2, and 4 from the coursebook
Q: Skills for Success: Reading & Writing 3 (Ward & Gramer, 2020). We collaboratively
developed eight worksheets focusing on the target vocabulary in the units during the course.
The students received the instructions and engaged in the DDL activities in the classroom (withapproximately 20–30 minutes dedicated to each) and were also assigned some of the worksheets
to complete autonomously outside the classroom. Considering their English proficiency level,
the participants’ mother tongue (Japanese) was used in the instructions and in the worksheets
where they were asked to fill in their findings on lexical behaviors from corpora. This is incontrast to Level 2, where the major instruction language was mostly limited to English.
In this class, SKELL was utilized in five worksheets (i.e., Worksheets 1, 2, 3, 5, and8) as classroom activities and homework assignments submitted via the university’s Learning
Management System, while the BNC—a balanced corpus composed of one hundred million
tokens of spoken and written data of British English, representing a wide variety of genres in
the late 20th century—was used for three worksheets (i.e., Worksheets 4, 6, and 7) in class.
The Rikkyo University Library provides registered users with free access to BNC Online in
the Shogakukan Corpus Network (NetAdvance Inc., 2022) via the university’s network. Theinterface allows users to access concordance lines, frequency information, collocations, andinflectional patterns by searching the target lexical word or phrase. Users can also specify
the part-of-speech information of the target words. In the Shogakukan Corpus Network, thefunction tabs in the BNC are given in Japanese. However, as this service will terminate at theend of March 2024, the university library holds an institutional account for students to freely
access the Sketch Engine, which contains 700 corpora in more than 100 languages, including
the BNC and SKELL, with various advanced corpus tools such as Word Sketch (i.e., collocations
and word combinations), Thesaurus, Word Sketch Difference (i.e., comparing collocations of
two words), Concordance, Wordlist, etc. (Lexical Computing CZ s.r.o., n.d.).

Results and Discussion
This section describes the procedures of DDL activities and reports the participants’4Implementation of Data-Driven Learning (DDL) in a Course for English Reading and Writing

observations of lexical behaviors of the target vocabulary in specified corpora in Level 2 and3 classes. First, we describe two worksheets that required participants to find collocations andlexical meanings of the target vocabulary using several corpora, conducted in the last three
weeks of Level 3, where receptive observations were mainly performed. Then, we summarize
the quantitative and qualitative overview of the Level 2 participants, not only their findings on
lexico-grammatical features, such as nouns, verbs, collocations, prefixes, and suffixes, but also
applications of their findings to their own written products.
DDL for CEFR A1–B1 EFL Learners (Level 3 Class)
The target vocabulary in Level 3 were “appreciate,” “confidence,” and “research (noun)”from Unit 1; “at risk,” “arrange,” and words related to food such as “recipe,” “onions,” “flavor,”“limes,” and “restaurants,” from Unit 2; and “accurate” and “relevant” from Unit 4 (Ward &Gramer, 2020). The basic format of the worksheets using SKELL includes activities such as
searching the target vocabulary in Examples (i.e., observing the word in context), Word Sketch(i.e., finding collocations of the word), and Similar Words (i.e., checking synonymous words).
Table 1 describes Worksheets 7 and 8, which focus on the words “accurate” and“relevant,” given in lessons in the 11th–13th weeks. See Appendix A for the worksheets.
Table 1
Description of DDL Activities in Worksheets 7 and 8
LessonLesson 11

Worksheet
Worksheet 7(25 minutes
in class)

Homework Worksheet 8

Lesson 12

Teacher’s
Feedback on
Worksheet 7

CorpusActivities

BNC• Check the contexts of the target vocabulary (“accurate”
and “relevant”) in the coursebook• Find 10 collocations• Find frequent co-occurring prepositions, write down theexample phrases, and summarize the findings

SKELL• Re-check the contexts in the coursebook• Find collocations with Word Sketch and summarize thefindings• Find synonyms with Similar Words and summarize thefindings• Write reflections on the activities and the findings of the
vocabulary using BNC and SKELL

N/A• Teacher shows the entries of the vocabulary from theLongman Dictionary of Contemporary English Online(English-Japanese)• Teacher shows some students’ findings in the worksheet
as model answers

5多言語教育実践ジャーナル

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Teacher’s
Feedback on
Worksheet 8

SketchEngineTeacher shows some students’ findings in the worksheet asmodel answers
Teacher introduces the Sketch Engine and its output of
Word Sketch Difference between “relevant” and “accurate,”
which visually depicts the co-occurring degrees of thetarget word and collocates

Table 2 summarizes the participants’ findings of the co-occurring prepositions of thetarget vocabulary and identification of the meanings in Japanese after observing the concordancelines (i.e., the target word in contexts) in Worksheet 7. The English translations are given inbrackets.
Table 2
Participants’ Findings and Observations of Lexical Behaviors and Meanings in Worksheet 7
Using the BNC“relevant”
Frequent
prepositions
co-occurringwith thevocabulary

Observed
lexicalmeanings“accurate”• The distance is accurate to within 1 cm at a
• ...relevant to the potential
range of 25 metres.
drama student• The mid-year estimates are accurate for natural• ...relevant for the explanation
change…
of the character• The advance has proved highly accurate in• ...relevant in an industrialised
recognizing...
country• It turned out to be accurate in every respect.

•～ に関する、関連のある(related)• ～に適する、適切である(appropriate)• 妥当である (valid)• 正確である (correct) 正確な情報などを見分けるときの程度として使われる(どの程度の精度か)。(It is used
when identifying the degree of accuracy.) データや図のようなものを表すものが多い。
(The words representing data and diagrams
are frequently collocated.) 結果や情報の前につくことが多い。(It isfrequently followed by words describing
outcomes and information.) t oの後には誤差を表す数値が入る。 (A small
difference or error is placed after “to.”) in, toの後にはevery, decimal など数を表す単語がついている。(After “in” and “to,” words
expressing figures and numbers, such as“every” and “decimal,” are given.)

Table 3 shows the participants’ findings of collocations derived from Word Sketch fromthe SKELL with the identification of the meanings of the vocabulary based on the concordancelines in Worksheet 8.

6Implementation of Data-Driven Learning (DDL) in a Course for English Reading and Writing

Table 3
Participants’ Findings and Observations of Lexical Behaviors and Meanings in Worksheet 8
Using SKELL
Frequent
collocatesand observed
meanings
Words withproperty X“relevant”• 情報: information• 証拠: evidence• 話題、問題: issue, topic, matter• 情報、事実: information, fact
Nouns modified • 法令に関する語: provision,by X
registration, statute•権 限: authority

Modifiers of X

• 医療に関する語 (related to medicalcare): clinically, physiologically,
medically•共 同体に関する語 (related tocommunity): culturally, socially• 特に: particularly, especially“accurate”• 情報: information• 報告: report, statement• 予測、見積もり: prediction, estimate•数 字: figure, percent• 情報、報告: information, report• 測定、診断など医療関連のことで現在のことを表す語 (describing what
is current in terms of medical care):measurement, diagnosis, description• これからのことを予測させる語:
prediction, forecast• 学問に関する語 (related to academicareas): historically, scientifically,
medically, technically•程 度を表す語 (describing the degree):reasonably, fairly, entirely, amazingly,
surprisingly

Table 4 shows the participants’ reflections on a series of activities completed in
Worksheet 8 using the BNC and SKELL. The reflections included their observations of thedifferences between “relevant” and “accurate,” which were unexpectedly provided, andcomprehensive feedback on the DDL activities given in the course. All the comments wereoriginally given in Japanese, but the English translations are only provided below.
The case study on Worksheets 7 and 8 shows that the participants autonomously derived
lexical behaviors and meanings from the given concordance lines in the corpora without theteacher’s explicit instructions. Engaging with abundant examples of the target vocabulary driven
from the data in the corpora provided the participants with an opportunity to cultivate a deeper
understanding of the vocabulary, which was enhanced by internalizing the meaning in theirmother tongue, Japanese, and may not have been achieved from exercises given in the coursebook or consulting dictionaries. However, not all participants performed equally; 40% and 50%of the participants did not manage to complete all of the given exercises in Worksheets 7 and
8, respectively.

7

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Table 4
Participants’ Reflections on Activities Using the BNC and SKELL
Observed similarities between “accurate” and Observed differences between “accurate” and“relevant”“relevant”• H aving the same and/or similar meanings,• “Relevant” means the results in the past tense,
prepositions, synonyms, and collocations
while “accurate” means the measurement in•D escribing information
present.
• Not used in everyday speech, such as those used
• “ Relevant” refers to specific things, while
in medical or work settings“accurate” is often used with informational• “ Relevant” meaning “related” is close towords.
“accurate,” since it refers to correct information.
Comprehensive feedback on DDL activities• I found it easy to search the vocabulary in the database but difficult to summarize the findings.
• I was impressed to know that the vocabulary was used in so many different contexts and contained
different meanings.
• When I was a junior and high school student, I only learned the meanings of each word, but I cameto realize that it was important to understand the core meanings of the word.

DDL for CEFR B1–B2 EFL Learners (Level 2 Class)
Nouns
The target nouns were “achievement,” “resolve,” and “version” (see Figure B1 in
Appendix B). The participants were asked to write a sentence for each word provided as aprewriting activity. This initial step assessed their baseline understanding and usage of thewords. The participants were instructed to write observations about each word, fostering
deeper engagement with their meanings and usage. The next phase involved researching theverbs commonly associated with these target nouns as objects, with the participants noting any
patterns or insights they discovered.
The participants were also asked to identify three synonyms for each word and write
their findings. Finally, the task concluded with a post-writing exercise in which the participants
wrote a sentence for each word again. This final step evaluated whether the participants’
understanding and use of the words had improved compared to the prewriting phase, thereby
assessing the efficacy of the learning activities undertaken.
An analysis of the data indicated that while some grammatical insights amounted toapproximately 10% from Word Sketch and 20% from Examples, most discoveries were related
to lexical meanings (see Figure 1). Although prior research has reported the effectiveness of
DDL in facilitating learners’ study of collocations (e.g., Saeedakhtar et al., 2020; Vyatkina,2016), in our research, the participants made very few discoveries related to collocations. Thisoutcome highlighted that when the instructor did not specify the focus of discovery and left itto the learners, their attention tended to focus on lexical information.

8

Implementation of Data-Driven Learning (DDL) in a Course for English Reading and Writing

Figure 1
Types and Number of Discoveries Using SKELL: Noun Search
60
50

0
2
0
2

1
1
2
1

4
3
0
2

40
30

33

41

20
10

39

11

4

0
ExamplesgrammarWord Sketch
lexicalgenre

collocation0
Similar words
other

?

There was no significant enhancement in the use of these collocations in written
output, either before or after the intervention, as the students were unable to produce the target
collocations effectively. According to Satake (2022), DDL promotes the retention of unfamiliar
words and enhances the use of familiar ones, suggesting a discrepancy between acquisition andapplication. This finding raises the question of whether the words were entirely unknown to thelearners or known only to a limited extent, with a vague understanding.
The activities designed to deepen lexical comprehension from multiple perspectives
are valuable. However, they are time consuming and pose challenges in their implementation,
which highlights the need to balance the depth of learning and practical classroom constraints.
Verbs
The target verbs included “personify,” “perceive,” “empower,” “align,” “crave,” and“manipulate.” When the focus shifted to verbs as the learning targets, the learning tasks werelargely similar to those employed for the abovementioned tasks, where nouns were the learning
targets (see the Nouns section), with one notable exception: researching nouns commonly usedwith the target verbs. This task was designed to provide a more comprehensive understanding of
the verbs by exploring their contextual usage with specific nouns, thus enhancing the learners’
grasp of practical verb-noun combinations in language applications.
An analysis of learners’ interactions with Examples showed that approximately 35%of the findings pertained to grammatical insights (see Figure 2). It was observed that the tasks
focusing on verbs resulted in more grammatical discoveries compared to those focusing on
nouns (see Figure 1), which could be attributed to how verbs were researched. The target
verbs were highlighted in red and centrally positioned in the concordance lines, making them9

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more conspicuous. This visual prominence might have facilitated a greater awareness andunderstanding of the grammatical structures surrounding these verbs, leading to more frequentidentification of grammatical patterns. However, similar to when the focus was on nouns, mostfindings were predominantly related to lexical meanings, and the participants made very few
discoveries related to collocations (see Figure 2).
Despite the potential for DDL to enhance usage, there was no significant increase in
the use of these verbs in the participants’ writing outputs. Since a notable proficiency wasobserved in the pre-intervention writing tasks in this group of participants, this outcome begs
the question of whether dictionary use contributed to this initial success.
Figure 2
Types and Number of Discoveries Using SKELL: Verb Search
120
100

6
2
0

6
1
0
2

5
0
1

80
60

58

40
20
0

84

90

7

3
Similar words

34
Examplesgram

Word Sketch
lex

genre

collocation

other

?

Collocations
The first task focused on a series of collocations from Daise and Norloff (2020), which
included phrases such as “offer insight into,” “social media influencers,” “show resistanceto,” “personal brand,” “see trends emerge,” “price-conscious,” “social good,” “good value,”“a person’s best interest,” “grab our attention,” “use an app,” “stream a service,” “browse a
website,” “scroll through a Facebook feed,” and “turn off notifications.” The participants chose
six collocations from the above target collocations. They then conducted a task that involved
researching examples of these collocations, transcribing the examples they consulted, and using
these transcribed examples as a basis for composing written texts. The task was implemented
mainly in class, and the results were promising, with almost all students successfully
incorporating these collocations into their written work. The results confirm the task’s potential
as an effective method for promoting the use of known vocabulary within a short timeframe,10Implementation of Data-Driven Learning (DDL) in a Course for English Reading and Writing

making it suitable for classroom instruction. In addition, unlike the learning processes fornouns and verbs (see the Nouns and Verbs sections), the participants could effectively acquire
collocational knowledge when specifically instructed. This finding suggests that appropriate
guidance is crucial for directing learners toward the desired learning objectives.
The second task centered on the “feel + noun” collocation structure (see Figure B2
in Appendix B). The participants investigated six “feel + noun” collocations, transcribed theexamples they referred to, and created their own sentences using these transcribed examples asa reference. Conducted mainly in the classroom, the findings revealed that even learners at theB1–B2 level sometimes struggled to differentiate between nouns and adjectives and referred
to “feel + adjective” collocations (e.g., feel fine), thus highlighting the benefits of specifying
target collocations for instruction. Although there are instances where explicit instruction is
unnecessary in the implementation of DDL (see DDL for CEFR A1–B1 EFL Learners, or Level
3 Class), situations do arise where such instruction is essential. Therefore, it is necessary toobserve learners’ engagement carefully and respond flexibly. On the other hand, the participants
showed an ability to learn the correct use of articles with nouns. The presence or absence ofarticles in collocations following the word “feel” varies depending on the noun used (e.g., feelan urge, feel sympathy). However, it was observed that by consulting examples, participants
could discern between collocations with and without articles. This understanding enabled themto produce correct outputs frequently in their use of these collocations.
Overall, these findings indicate the value of DDL in collocation learning.
Prefixes and Suffixes
The target prefix was “anti,” and the target suffixes were “-ence,” “-ance,” and “-tion.”
A significant finding was that approximately 80% of the students could correctly use thevocabulary with prefixes and suffixes in their English compositions after writing out example
sentences. Approximately 20% of the responses correctly used the researched words, eventhough the participants did not write example sentences. This finding indicates that writingout example sentences of the referenced target phrases may not always be necessary to use
the target phrases correctly. On the other hand, the DDL task was highly time consuming. To
facilitate continuous implementation during classroom sessions, it is necessary to consider
reducing the volume of the task. Doing so would optimize the balance between task efficacy
and time management, ensuring students a more streamlined and effective learning experience.

Conclusion
The implementation and analysis of DDL tasks in English classes, as described in thisstudy, provided significant insights into the potential of DDL in language acquisition. The
study’s findings underscore the effectiveness of DDL in enhancing the understanding of various
language components, such as collocations, verbs, nouns, prefixes, and suffixes, within the11多言語教育実践ジャーナル

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context of ELT in Japan.
A key takeaway from this research is the importance of targeted guidance in DDL tasks
when learners do not properly understand the target vocabulary. When the participants were
explicitly directed toward specific linguistic elements, such as collocations, their learning wasmore focused and effective. This highlights the need for well-structured DDL tasks that alignwith learners’ language proficiency levels and learning objectives.
However, challenges were also noted regarding the time required to complete the DDL
tasks, suggesting a need for optimization in task design that balances the depth of learningwith practical classroom constraints to maintain learner engagement and facilitate continuous
implementation.
Additionally, the study revealed that while DDL effectively promotes lexical
comprehension and grammatical insights, its impact on the practical application of theselearnings, such as writing, can vary. This finding highlights the necessity for further researchand development of DDL methodologies that foster discovery and translate these discoveries
into tangible language skills.
Overall, the research conducted at Rikkyo University demonstrates the potential of
DDL in fostering autonomous, inductive learning among EFL students. The insights gained
from this study contribute significantly to the broader understanding of DDL’s role in language
teaching and offer valuable guidance for English teachers in Japan seeking to incorporate
corpus-based learning into their classrooms. The findings also lay a foundation for further
research, particularly in optimizing DDL tasks for diverse learning environments and exploring
their long-term impacts on language proficiency.

Acknowledgments
This paper was presented at the 49th Conference of the Japan Association for English Corpus
Studies in September 2023. The research was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number
JP 23K00530.

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affordances of language corpora for data-driven learning (pp. 109–128). John
Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/scl.69.06chu
Daise, D., & Norloff, C. (2020). Q: Skills for Success: Reading and Writing 4 (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press.
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Hadley, G., & Charles, M. (2017). Enhancing extensive reading with data-driven learning.
Language Learning & Technology, 21(3), 131–152. https://doi.org/10125/44624
Johns, T. (1991). Should you be persuaded: Two examples of data-driven learning. In T. Johns& P. King (Eds.), ELR Journal: Vol. 4. Classroom Concordancing (pp. 1–16). Centre
for English Language Studies, the University of Birmingham.
Lee, H., Warschauer, M., & Lee, J. H. (2019). The effects of corpus use on second language
vocabulary learning: A multilevel meta-analysis. Applied Linguistics, 40(5), 721–753.
https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amy012
Lexical Computing CZ s.r.o. (2021). Sketch Engine for language learning (SKELL).
https://skell.sketchengine.eu/#home?lang=en
Lexical Computing CZ s.r.o. (n.d.). Sketch Engine. https://www.sketchengine.eu/
Mizumoto, A., & Chujo, K. (2015). A meta-analysis of data-driven learning approach in theJapanese EFL classroom. English Corpus Studies, 22, 1–18.
NetAdvance Inc. (2022). Shogakukan Corpus Network: BNC Online.
https://scnweb.japanknowledge.com/
Saeedakhtar, A., Bagerin, M., & Abdi, R. (2020). The effect of hands-on and hands-off datadriven learning on low-intermediate learners’ verb-preposition collocations. System, 91,
102268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102268
Satake, Y. (2020). How error types affect the accuracy of L2 error correction with corpus use.
Journal of Second Language Writing, 50, 100757.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2020.100757
Satake, Y. (2022). Eisakubun ni okeru doshi-meishi korokeshon sanshutsu ni taisuru DDL
no koka [The effects of DDL on the production of verb-noun collocations in English
essays]. In the Japan Association for English Corpus Studies (JAECS) (Ed.), Eigo
Kopasu Gakkai Taikai Yokoshu 2022 [Proceedings of the JAECS Conference 2022](pp. 73–78). JAECS.
Tono, Y. (2015). Kopasu no eigo kyoiku eno oyo [Application of corpus to English education].
In Y. Tono (Ed.), Kopasu to Eigo Kyoiku [Corpus and English Education] (pp. 1–16).
Hituzi Syobo.
Tono, Y., Satake, Y., & Miura, A. (2014). The effects of using corpora on revision tasks in L2
writing with coded error feedback. ReCALL, 26(2), 147–162.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S095834401400007X
Vyatkina, N. (2016). Data-driven learning for beginners: The case of German verb-preposition
collocations. ReCALL, 28(2), 207–226. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0958344015000269
Ward, C. S., & Gramer, M. F. (2020). Q: skills for success: Reading and writing 3 (3rd ed.).
Oxford University Press.

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Appendices
Appendix A: Worksheets for CEFR A1–B1 EFL Learners (Level 3 Class)Figure A1
Worksheet 7
Vocabulary and Grammar Worksheet (VGW) 7
1.

教科書 p. 84 と 85 から、relevant と accurate を使っている例文を書き出してみましょう。

relevant
accurate

p. 84
p. 85
p. 84
p. 85

2.

（小学館コーパスネットワーク）にアクセスしま
立教大学図書館のデータベースから BNC Online（
す。（大学のネットワークからでないとアクセスできません。）

3.

「コロケーション」をクリックし、検索窓 に relevant または accurate を入力します。
上部左側の「relevant と accurate と共によく使用される単語の表が出てきます。1（右隣）の列に表示された単語
はどんなものがあるか（単語以外は除く）、以下に 10 単語を書き出してみましょう。

relevant
accurate
4.

「共起語の品詞」をクリックし、新しく現れたウィンドウの「「前置詞」に☑を入
BNC 上部右側の「「検索条件に追加する」をクリックします。（現れたウィンドウが消えます）。
れ、上部右側の「

5.

「検索」をクリックします。relevant と accurate と共によく使用される前置詞の表が出てきます。1（右隣）の列に表示された前置詞のうち高頻度のものを３件クリックして用例（文、節、語句）を観察して引用してみましょう。また気づいたこと書いてみてください。

前置詞（１）
用例
前置詞（２）
用例
前置詞（３）
用例
気づいたこと前置詞（１）
用例
前置詞（２）
用例
前置詞（３）
用例
気づいたこと

14

relevant

accurate

Implementation of Data-Driven Learning (DDL) in a Course for English Reading and Writing

Figure A2
Worksheet 8
Vocabulary and Grammar Worksheet (VGW) 8 (HOMEWORK)
言語学習支援ツール SKELL (https://skell.sketchengine.eu/#home?lang=en)で relevant と accurate について調べ、理解を深めましょう。検索窓に“relevant”または”“accurate”と入力し、Enter を押します。
Finally, the ad must be accurate. (p. 84)
If you plan to study in a financial area such as accounting, you need to make sure that your work is always
accurate. (p. 85)



Wouldn’t you rather receive ads for products or activities that are relevant to who you are? (p. 84)
Jack’s question at the meeting was not relevant to our discussion of low sales; it was completely off topic.

(1) 検索語を入れ、検索窓の下の、“Word sketch”をクリックし、relevant または accurate の主語（words withproperty X）、副詞（modifiers of X）、名詞（nouns modified by X）になる語について、具体例を数個挙げ、また気づいたことを書きましょう。
主語（words with property X）

relevant

副詞（modifiers of X）
名詞（nouns modified by X）

主語（words with property X）

accurate

副詞（modifiers of X）
名詞（nouns modified by X）(2) 検索窓の下の、“Similar words”をクリックし、relevant および accurate の類義語を数個書き、気づいたことを書きましょう。
relevant の類義語について
accurate の類義語について(3) relevant と accurate について、BNC オンラインや SKELL のデータベースを調べてみましたが、全体的な感想や気づいたことについて、以下に書いてください。

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Appendix B: Worksheets for CEFR B1–B2 EFL Learners (Level 2 Class)Figure B1
Example of Participants’ Completed Noun-Learning Worksheets:RUNVKHHWDFKLHYHPHQWUHVROYHYHUVLRQ                                                  1DPH              :ULWHRQHVHQWHQFHIRUHDFKRIWKHIROORZLQJZRUGVDFKLHYHPHQWUHVROYHYHUVLRQ +HSUDFWLFHVHYHU\GD\WRZDUGVWKHDFKLHYHPHQWRIKLVJRDO +HUHVROYHGWRJRWR$PHULFDWRVWXG\ 7KLVLVDQHZYHUVLRQRIWKHVRQJ
3OHDVH DFFHVV 6.(// KWWSVVNHOOVNHWFKHQJLQHHXKRPH"ODQJ HQ  ZKLFK LV D ODQJXDJHOHDUQLQJVXSSRUWWRRO7\SHWKHWDUJHWZRUGVLQWKHVHDUFKZLQGRZ  :ULWHGRZQRQHWKLQJ\RXQRWLFHDERXWHDFKRIWKHZRUGV ,WPHDQVJHWWLQJWKURXJK ,WPHDQVWRVROYHRUUHFRQVLGHUDQGGHFLGH
 ,WUHSUHVHQWVYDULRXVNLQGVRIWKLQJVRUYLVLRQ &OLFN“Word sketch”DQGORRNXSWKHYHUEVWKDWKDYHWKRVHZRUGVDVREMHFWVDQGZULWH
GRZQZKDW\RXQRWLFH
 7KHVHYHUEVKDYHDFRPPRQLPDJHWKDWVRPHWKLQJFDQEHDFFRPSOLVKHGRUUHOHDVHG
 7KHVHYHUEVUHSUHVHQWQHJDWLYHPHDQLQJVRUFRQIOLFWLQJDSSHDUDQFHV 7KHVHUHSUHVHQWDUDQJHRUOLPLWDWLRQ &OLFN“Similar words”DQGZULWHWKUHHV\QRQ\PVDQGZKDW\RXQRWLFH
 VXFFHVVDFFRPSOLVKPHQWSURJUHVV →7KHVHKDYHSRVLWLYHPHDQLQJDQGLVVWHSSLQJXS
 WHQDFLW\SHUVHYHUDQFHIRUWLWXGH →7KH\H[SUHVVDIHHOLQJRISDWLHQFHDQGVWXEERUQQHVV PRGHOVHWIHDWXUH →7KH\H[SUHVVDIHHOLQJRISDWLHQFHDQGVWXEERUQQHVV :ULWHRQHVHQWHQFHXVLQJHDFKRIWKHWDUJHWZRUGV
 +HKDYHRZQDFKLHYHPHQW
 7KHFRPPLWWHHUHVROYHGWKDWWKHVWHSVKRXOGEHDXWKRUL]HG ,ZDWFKHGWKH(QJOLVK9HUVLRQRIWKHPRYLH

16

Implementation of Data-Driven Learning (DDL) in a Course for English Reading and Writing

Figure B2
Example of Participants’ Completed Worksheets for “feel + noun” Collocations:RUNVKHHW                                           1DPHS9RFDEXODU\6NLOO5HYLHZIHHOQRXQ 名詞 のコロケーションを 6.(// で  つ調べ、参照した用例を書き抜き、書き抜いた用例を参考に作文しましょう。
6.(//
KWWSVVNHOOVNHWFKHQJLQHHXKRPH"ODQJ HQ 用例 7KH\PD\IHHOJXLOWZKHQWKLVLQLWLDWLYHGRHVQRWSURGXFHGHVLUHGUHVXOWV
作文 ,IHHODVHQVHRIJXLOWQRZ 
 用例 6XFKSUHVVXUHZDVZLGHO\IHOWE\PDQ\VFKRROV
作文 ,IHHOSUHVVXUHWRGRSUHVHQWDWLRQ 用例 7KHUHDGHUIHHOVV\PSDWK\DQGFRPSDVVLRQIRUKHU
作文 ,IHHOV\PSDWK\IRUKLP
 用例 ,GLGVRPHOLJKWZRUNDQGIHOWILQH
作文 ,felt fine yesterday because I don’t work much.
 用例 ,IHOWDGHHSORYHIRUWKLVEHDXWLIXOSODFH
作文 ,IHHODJUHDWORYH
 用例 .DWHIHOWDQXUJHWRWHOOKLPWRJHWVWXIIHG
作文 +HIHHODQXUJHWRVWXG\PDWK17Teaching Practice Report

How Difficult is Debate?
Proficiency-Based Lesson Modifications in ESL Debate
Andrew Tyner

Abstract
In this paper, I consider modifications to the presentation of vocabulary as well as
to activity structures and timing in the context of ESL Debate lessons. I examine myclassroom practices in relation to the modifications, the underlying rationale for thesepractices, and relevant literature that informs my consideration. I find that a focus on
the meta-language of debate is of less practical value than a focus on the practice of
debate itself, with a focus on vocabulary shifted toward this practice and the effective
communication and receipt of ideas within a debate. I also find that dividing a debate
into smaller, shorter, and more immediately manageable pieces is an effective way tointroduce and get initial practice with the components of a debate. I suggest future
avenues of research including quantitative and qualitative analysis of the results ofthe modifications considered here. Ultimately, I find that my lesson modifications
appear to have been successful and I suggest that they be continued or expanded.
Keywords: Debate, ESL, Vocabulary, Lesson structure, Activity timing

Introduction
How difficult is Debate? It is a question often asked by students to their peers andteachers, particularly if Debate is a required subject. The answer varies, but virtually all would
agree that the acts of preparing and participating in a debate carry significant challenges:
detailed research, synthesis of information, careful listening and note taking, and quick thinking
to construct an effective rebuttal, just to name a few. These are all worthy challenges–skills
which one likely will rely heavily upon throughout their academic career and beyond.
However, as beneficial as a course in debate may be, it is not a challenge all would electto face. If Debate is an elective course, then the matter is more or less settled, and only those
who wish to take on the challenges of debate need do so. If the course is mandatory, the matter
is quite different. Both student and instructor are faced with a potentially difficult task, to havea meaningful, useful, and, moreover, a comprehensible Debate class regardless of English
proficiency.
Here, I shall focus on the task of the instructor. Amongst other courses, I teach Debate
18How Difficult is Debate? Proficiency-Based Lesson Modifications in ESL Debate

at Rikkyo University in Tokyo, Japan. Debate, as taught in this context, has the dual purposeof teaching the fundamental skills of debate while also building English skills. At Rikkyo
University, Debate is a required course. Because Debate is required, students with a broad rangeof English proficiency must, necessarily, take part. Thus, a course which may pose a significant,though meaningful, challenge to many students equally poses a challenge to instructors as they
endeavor to help students of widely varying English proficiency levels get the most out of thecourse.
Through my experience teaching Debate at Rikkyo University, as well as other courses
incorporating debate elements elsewhere, I have developed some lesson modifications andteaching methodologies upon which I would now like to reflect, with an aim toward better
understanding of what methods work best and what might be further refined. Specifically, I shallconsider methods of presentation of vocabulary in relation to the core principles of debate. I
shall also consider lesson structure and activity timing with a focus on in-lesson manifestationsof these modifications and the rationale that informs them. I shall also explore relevant academic
literature to further consider the strengths, or potential weaknesses, of my methodology.

Discussion
Vocabulary
What words must one understand to participate in a debate? In other words, what
vocabulary is essential? I would argue that beyond the necessary vocabulary to explain one’s
ideas and understand the ideas of others, very little is needed. A student must understand how
to structure an argument, how to construct a rebuttal, and so forth, but calling an argument anargument is not what makes it effective. If a student with relatively lower English proficiency
level finishes a Debate course with a strong command of formal vocabulary associated withdebate/debate meta-language, at the cost of their ability to effectively engage in a debate, I
would argue that this scenario would represent a serious failure on the part of the instructor
and their course design.
It is easy to think that a class for students of relatively lower proficiency in English mustbe simplified. However, as has been noted numerous times1, “ESL students, despite their limited
proficiency in the target language, are interactionally competent” (Lee, 2017, p. 673). This is
to say that it is very important to remember that a student’s limited English proficiency in noway represents an inability to understand, form, and express complex ideas in general. Rather,
their challenge lies in elevating their communicative ability in English to meet the level of theirideas. From this viewpoint, the primary challenge posed to the instructor in terms of vocabulary1

In support of the quoted statement, the cited article by Lee (2017) notes “Cheng 2013; Hauser 2013; Hellermann andPekarek Doenier 2010” (p. 673). It should also be noted that while “interactionally competent” (Lee, 2017, p. 673) is meant
in reference, specifically, to discussions, it may be equally applicable and valid in the context of debate, particularly as adebate has much the same interaction as a discussion, albeit far more formalized.

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is one of focus. The focus should be on vocabulary that allows students to accomplish debaterelated tasks, to effectively engage in debate. This is exactly what I have tried to do in my
Debate lessons.
To give a specific instance from my class, take the concept of “an argument” as an
example. One might suggest that the words: argument, proposition, position statement, andacademic sources may be a partial, minimal collection of vocabulary. While I think these words
are important, and I teach them starting in the very first lesson of the semester and use them insubsequent lessons2, when it comes to actually constructing one’s argument, it would be justas effective to think of concepts such as the opinion that your group agrees or disagrees with,your team’s main opinion, your information, and so forth, as opposed to a proposition, position
statement, supporting evidence, and other more formal terminology.
When presenting meta-linguistic vocabulary, I often present it side-by-side with more
standard English equivalents3. I never insist that formal terminology be used when students
are constructing the components of their debates or discussing debates with their classmates.
If a student can effectively engage in a debate, formalized meta-language about the debate isof secondary concern.
Adding further support to the above view of vocabulary in relation to lesson design,prioritizing competency in debate methodology and practice, interestingly though perhaps
counterintuitively, carries with it the potential to strengthen overall vocabulary4 and English
communicative ability. A 2023 study by Yoshihiro Kobayashi found that, amongst students
having studied “the debate speech format” (p. 2), upon listening to a speech in English, they
were “as capable of grasping the contents of the speech as those who read the script…[and in
spite of more grammatical errors, they] less frequently borrow[ed] expressions directly fromthe original text” (p. 2) and, it should be noted, these students did not omit content in theirsummaries in contradiction to “previous research” having indicated such omissions (p. 19).
Having explained my position on the presentation and use of formalized vocabulary in
the Debate classroom, one might say that, from the outset, an instructor must prioritize their
vocabulary goals. If the teaching of set vocabulary is a primary goal, then it should be treatedaccordingly. On the other hand, if it is more vital that students attain competency in the acts of
preparing for and carrying out a debate, then a focus prioritizing methodology and practice overformalized terminology is more sensible. It is this latter goal that I would advocate and which
2

3

4

20

Formal terminology is often presented alongside a more familiar term, for example, “position statement” (your team’s
main opinion). For some classes that have limited vocabulary proficiency in general, formal debate terminology is often
presented with L1, Japanese, translations and/or explanations, particularly in lessons that introduce new vocabulary or
structural/procedural concepts. This supplemental translation is gradually withdrawn as students internalize the new terms
and practices. However, a thorough consideration of L1 use in instruction is outside the scope of this paper.
As noted previously, in some cases this is accompanied by a Japanese translation as a means to first approach the concepts
being dealt with. Moving forward, the translations are gradually removed from slides and other lesson materials as the useof the new vocabulary becomes established.
Meaning communicative vocabulary, not meta-language

How Difficult is Debate? Proficiency-Based Lesson Modifications in ESL Debate

I have pursued in my classes.
Timing and Lesson Structure
As anyone who has engaged in a formalized debate is likely to agree, timing can beone of the most difficult factors. Whether presenting complex ideas within a time limit, findingtime to ask all necessary questions during cross-examination, or constructing a thoroughrebuttal within the allotted time, time, almost as much as the opposing team, may feel like one’s
opponent in a debate. For this reason, it might come as a surprise that reducing allotted time foractivities, rather than increasing it, may serve to make the lesson content more accessible. It is
exactly this sort of reduced time that I have tried in my Debate classes.
More specifically, I have divided the structure of a debate into relatively smaller
segments5. In most lessons6, we focus either on one part of a debate, say for instance, rebuttal,
or a part of a part, so to speak, as in the case of a single reason well supported with evidence
that forms part of a team’s argument. Initially, this must sound like the opposite of the reduced
activity time that I noted previously. In a way, it is. Certainly, the class moves very deliberately
through each stage of the debate process. However, on a more moment-to-moment level,
activity time is often reduced.
I have certainly implemented reduced preparation time for some activities. However,this reduced time for preparation must be coupled with an activity the focus of which isappropriately narrow. Consider the difference between a complete mock debate and practicing
a single debate component. For students new to the practice of debate, to engage, say, in a fullmock debate may be overwhelming, as students may become overly focused on one part oranother of the debate preparation at the cost of the whole, or they may become frustrated by acomponent they have not yet mastered. A student engaged in a full mock debate has more time
to work with, so to speak, when compared with a student focused on a single debate component,
but that time may be at risk of being spent in a less meaningful way. Many of the difficulties
mentioned a moment ago can be avoided if we focus on a single component of a debate at atime. In the end, students get equivalent practice, but in segments.
Dividing a debate into its component parts and focusing on each part in multiple brief
segments has two specific benefits: building mastery of skills and increasing student confidence.
First, the class can focus on mastery of specific skills as each task has a definite, achievablegoal involving the use of particular skills, for instance, constructing a rebuttal for a single
point as opposed to a complete rebuttal as might be presented by a team during debate. This
allows for greater focus on what, specifically, constitutes a successful rebuttal in terms ofcontent and structure. Focusing on a single part of a debate allows more time for self-reflection,
5

6

It should be noted of this approach of breaking a difficult task into more manageable pieces, aside from being, generally, a
popular concept, the textbook used in Rikkyo University’s Debate courses, Up for Debate (Mishima & Sturges, 2023), is
structured along similar lines, particularly in the opening chapters that generally focus on one part of a debate per chapter.
Aside from those centered on full debates.

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student-to-student feedback, teacher-to-student feedback, and for the implementation of that
feedback. The second benefit is that students can build their confidence as they can achieve aclearly defined goal as opposed to completing a more open-ended task, like a complete mockdebate, the outcome of which could be perceived, subjectively, as failure if a given student/
team is the losing party in the debate. Certainly, all students must build toward engaging incomplete debates and toward the understanding that losing in a debate does not constitutefailure. However, to try to engage in a complete debate before understanding how to do so
successfully, is of limited benefit, at best.
Reduced time per activity, in the context of a lesson centered on multiple, brief, skillfocused tasks, allows for quick but significant victories. It builds confidence. It allows fordetailed understanding of each component of a debate. Successfully completing part of a debate,with a thorough understanding of what constitutes that success, is immeasurably more valuable
than a victory in a mock debate if that victory is not accompanied by a thorough, meaningfulunderstanding of how it was achieved.
To step back for a moment, one might suggest that regardless of one’s view of activity
timing, the goal of any debate-related activity is student mastery of the core principles of debate.
What, specifically, might we identify as core principles of debate? Naturally, many of these willvary between iterations of Debate courses designed to meet the various needs of students at
different universities. Hansen identifies the “demands of teaching debate” as “debate structure
and rhetoric, content and background research, and language” (2007, p. 67). I agree with thisassessment.
Language was discussed in the previous section. Debate structure is approached, as
noted above, through a step-by-step segmented approach focused on incremental mastery of
debate components. This leaves research and rhetoric, either topic being worthy of examination
on its own. However, as we come to the end of the present consideration, we might simply notethat like debate structure, the careful crafting of one’s arguments through effective rhetoric
supported by substantial, thorough research is not something that can be accomplished overly
quickly.
Indeed, taking time with each step of the debate preparation process allows foravoidance of student difficulties with content comprehension as may be the case if the focus
on debate methodology is largely structural, focused on getting to a complete debate tooquickly. For instance, Kadomatsu & Oshita note student difficulty with comprehension of somecontent-related aspects of debate, despite apparent student proficiency with debate structuresand methodology7 (2023, p. 35). In other words, while learning debate methodology is ofgreat importance, taking time with each step of the process, including how students gather andinteract with information, allows not only more time for comprehension but also confirmation of
7

22This is not meant as criticism of the case noted by Kadomatsu and Oshita. Rather, it is illustrative of the point that structure
and methodology may be mastered while content-related difficulties persist.

How Difficult is Debate? Proficiency-Based Lesson Modifications in ESL Debatethat understanding, and, as with skill mastery discussed above, to review and reinforce any skills
or points of content understanding that may be lacking. Certainly, it would be possible to review
these points after quickly proceeding through a larger number of debates but, importantly, any
feedback about content would no longer be actionable.

Conclusion
What are the results of the above lesson modifications? A quantitative analysis of theeffect of the noted changes on student performance would require the collection and analysis of
relevant data and would fall outside the scope of the present consideration of teaching practices.
However, as each change has been made to specifically address potential shortcomings of anunmodified lesson and to make the course goals more readily achievable, one might suggestthat the changes are sound and well-reasoned. Further, as the modifications are in line withestablished theory and practice, the basis for the modifications appears sound. Finally, andperhaps most importantly, as all modifications are focused on what might be described as
lesson accessibility (meaning students’ potential ability to effectively engage with the course, its
practices, and materials) there is no concern that the alterations have any negative quantitativeor qualitative effect on course content.
At the outset of this paper I noted a common question, “How difficult is Debate?”
Through the preceding consideration of lesson modifications, we might say that while Debate
carries multiple distinct challenges, the potential for many, if not all, of these challenges tostand as a genuine hindrance to learning may be, at least to some significant degree, mitigated.
Looking forward, one might suggest that future avenues of consideration may include
the expansion or refinement of the noted modifications with the aim, perhaps, of a redesigned
course, or courses, aimed at each proficiency level. This would need to be approached withcaution so that the desire to make the course accessible would not conflict with requisite
academic rigor. This is to say that modifications that make a lesson more accessible for one
proficiency level may make the course less meaningful to students of a higher proficiency level.
An additional future consideration might be the application of some of the notedlesson modifications to other courses. This is a very sensible and actionable consideration,
as the difficulties posed by a Debate course are generally not unique to Debate. Demands
for argumentation, sound research methodology, logic, and rhetoric recur throughout one’s
education and, indeed, life.

References
Hansen, J. (2007). Teaching Debate in Japan: A Review of Resources and Materials to Meet the
Demands of Teaching Japanese English Learners. Journal of Osaka Jogakuin College,
37, 67–78.
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Kadomatsu, N., & Oshita, Y. (2023). A Classroom Practice: Academic Debate on Legal
Argumentation. Debate and Argumentation Education – The Journal of the International
Society for Teaching Debate, 5, 23–35. https://doi.org/10.60264/debate.5.0_23
Kobayashi, Y. (2023). Summary Writing of Constructive Speeches in English: Comparing
summaries written after listening to a speech with those written after reading its script.
Debate and Argumentation Education – The Journal of the International Society for
Teaching Debate, 5, 2–22. https://doi.org/10.60264/debate.5.0_2
Lee, J. (2017). Multimodal turn allocation in ESL peer group discussions. Social Semiotics,
27(5), 671–692. https://doi.org/10.1080/10350330.2016.1207353
Mishima, M., & Sturges, J. G. (2023). Up for Debate. Kinseido.

24

Teaching Practice Report

Why Teachers Should Use Journals in Their Reflective
Practice Throughout Their Teaching Career
Aviva Ueno

Abstract
This paper reports on how a veteran English instructor with decades of teachingexperience at the tertiary level benefits from and develops professionally by keeping
and reflecting on a teaching journal. It describes how the instructor used her teaching
journal to adapt to her new position as an adjunct lecturer for the Center for Foreign
Language Education and Research (FLER) and improved her approaches to teaching
English Reading & Writing 1 and 2 by reflecting on and comparing the first monthof instruction of the English Reading & Writing 1 course in the spring semester tothe first month of instruction in the English Reading & Writing 2 course in the fallsemester. It demonstrates how keeping a teaching journal can be an essential tool
for reflective practice and professional development for teachers at every stage of
their teaching career, and how it can be particularly beneficial for teachers enteringa new teaching context.
Keywords: Reflective practice, Teaching journals, Professional development

My Context
I have taught English in Japan for over 35 years, 18 of which have been at the tertiarylevel. At my previous university, I began as a part-time instructor and eventually became an
assistant professor on a limited contract. In addition to teaching required academic English
courses to first- through third-year students, my administrative duties included coordinating
the English language program for my department, developing materials and updating thecurriculum, hiring and supervising part-time instructors, and other administrative tasks. It wasa challenging position, but one I had become comfortable and confident in, which made the ideaof starting a new job at a different institution extremely daunting. Even with decades of teachingexperience, leaving my comfort zone at this point in my teaching career was both exciting andscary! My peers and colleagues reassured me that with all of my experience, I would have noproblem adapting to my new teaching environment. Still, I had my concerns because it is, inmany ways, harder to adjust and change one’s practices after having spent so many years in thesame job in the same place, and the anxiety that I felt was genuine. I couldn’t help but wonder25

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if this “old dog” could still learn the “new tricks” necessary to succeed in my new position.
I last felt this “fear of the unknown” in the spring semester of 2020, when all university
classes were moved online due to the global COVID-19 pandemic. My inexperience and lackof expertise in teaching online made me feel unsure of my practices–I was very much a fishout of water. During that time, I developed a critical friendship with a colleague at anotheruniversity who was equally unnerved by the challenges of online teaching. As part of ourcritical friendship, we kept teaching journals to record our experiences and to facilitate our
discussions. We met regularly online to support each other, a process that led to numerous
epiphanies and helped both of us adjust to the new normal of online teaching. (Ueno & Yoshida,2023). Because keeping a teaching journal was one of the keys to the success of our criticalfriendship, continuing to keep a teaching journal when I began at FLER made perfect sense.
Bailey et al. (2001) point out that keeping a journal allows teachers to describe ongoing issues,vent frustrations, and clarify thoughts. As I was in a new environment and had yet to establish
relationships where I felt comfortable consulting about my concerns and feelings, my journal
became a vital tool to help me cope, adapt, and reflect on the successes and challenges ofteaching in a new context.

Literature Review
Reflective Practice and Teaching Journals
Reflective Practice is a key component of language (and other) teacher development(see for example, Farrell, 2012). It has been long established that teachers keeping professional
diaries/journals is one of the most meaningful ways of engaging in (language) teacher
professional development (Bailey et al., 2001). However, a curiously recurring theme in theliterature was how useful teacher journals are for novice/new/pre-service teachers. For example,
nearly 50 years ago, Schumann and Schumann (1977) presented “the results of a secondary
analysis of 26 diary studies by novice ESL teachers” in the USA, all of whom “had less thansix months of prior teaching experience” (p. 241). Given the age of that paper, it may be thatdiary studies were not always considered to be good just for novice teachers. However, that does
not seem to have been the case i.e., such an approach to teacher professional development still
seems to be seen as good primarily for “the newbies” but not so for those of us with decades ofclassroom experience, i.e., the “veterans.” For example, Komur and Çepik (2015) analyzed “thepositive and negative reflections of ten pre-service English teachers [in Turkey] who kept diaries
on their own learning and teaching processes and daily lives” (p. 1593), concluding that suchdiaries could “provide an effective tool to gain insight into the pre-service English teachers’
learning and teaching processes” (p. 1593). More recently, but in the same vein, Altalhab etal. (2021) reported on “the reflective diary experiences of 50 “Saudi pre-service teachers whotaught English in intermediate schools” (p. 173). This paper suggests that keeping a teaching
journal can be an essential tool for reflective practice and professional development, even for,26

Why Teachers Should Use Journals in Their Reflective Practice Throughout Their Teaching Careerand perhaps in some cases, especially for, veteran teachers.
My teaching journal follows a focused free-write format recommended by Stevens andCooper (2009), which is “like a brainstorm that can list questions, concerns, insights, resources,interests, roadblocks, strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats, and ideas” (p. 139). Farrell(2019) suggests that writing in a journal regularly enables teachers to “identify and address
issues critical to their practice within their teaching context, and, as a result, provide morelearning opportunities for their students” (p. 86). For this study, I chose to focus on the Reading
and Writing 1 and 2 classes because I would teach them in the spring and fall semesters, albeit
with different students from different faculties. I wanted to see how reflecting on my practices
after the first month of teaching Reading and Writing 1 in the spring semester would impact
my approach to teaching Reading and Writing 2 in the fall semester. I wrote weekly about thesecourses in my teaching journal, responding to the following questions: What was the lesson
plan? What went well and why? What could have gone better and why? What actions do I
need to take in the future? When I reviewed my journal entries, I used the EAR model (Curtis,
2023) to reflect on my expectations, assumptions, and realities of myself, my students, and theReading and Writing 1 and 2 courses as a veteran teacher entering a new teaching context.

Reflections Based on the EAR Model (Curtis, 2023)
Self-Expectations as a Reading and Writing Instructor at FLER
As a teacher with extensive experience at the tertiary level in Japan, I was confident
I could adapt quickly to my new teaching context. However, I expected there would be somechallenges because there were significant differences between the teaching position I was
leaving and the one I was entering at FLER. For example, my previous institution’s reading
and writing courses met twice weekly for two semesters and were taught by the same instructor.
In contrast, the Reading and Writing 1 and 2 courses offered by FLER meet once a week for
one semester, with different instructors for the spring and fall semesters. Even though thesupport materials for the Reading and Writing classes were helpful, I expected that it would bechallenging for me to cover all of the items that were included in the syllabus because I wasused to meeting with students to deliver the same type of course content twice a week rather
than just once a week.
Assumptions and Realities During the First Month of the Reading and Writing 1 Course
It has always been my practice to spend time on community-building activities during
the first few lessons of any new course because community-building in the classroom isessential for high student engagement. The Glossary of Education Reform (n.d.) defines student
engagement as “the degree of attention, curiosity, interest, optimism, and passion that students
show when they are learning or being taught, which extends to the level of motivation they
have to learn and progress in their education.” Research on learning communities suggests
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第 4 巻（JOURNAL OF MULTILINGUAL PEDAGOGY AND PRACTICE, VOL. 4）that students who feel part of a learning community can engage and reflect more actively andbecome more responsible and autonomous learners (See Berry, 2019; Sadera et al., 2009).
Therefore, investing the time for community building has always been one of my top priorities.
However, my concerns about being able to cover the entire syllabus at a much fasterpace than I was accustomed to led me to make certain assumptions about how things would go
in my Reading and Writing 1 classes. These assumptions led me to make some counter-intuitive
moves in how I planned and delivered the lessons. First, looking at the English program’s
curriculum as a whole and knowing that students would be taking the English Discussion
course in addition to the Reading and Writing 1 course for their English requirement led me
to the assumption that the cohorts for the discussion and Reading and Writing classes would
be the same (which is not always necessarily the case). I therefore assumed that the students
would be able to bond with each other quickly since they shared other classes. Based on thatassumption and because I felt so pressed for time, I invested much less time in community
building in my Reading and Writing 1 classes than I used to in my previous teaching context.
The reality was that even though some students shared other classes, they were all first-year
students trying to get used to university life. They needed more time to get to know each otherand feel comfortable speaking in English in public. Because of this, it took longer to teach thecourse materials than I had expected because the students could not engage with each other inEnglish as quickly as they would have had I placed more time and emphasis on communitybuilding from the beginning of the course. Reflecting on the first month of the course helped me
develop plans of action to spend more time on warm-up discussions and make the class more
active and communicative to help the students bond.
Another assumption I made was that students could apply the discussion skills they
were learning in their discussion class to the small group discussions we had in the Reading
and Writing 1 course. Based on that assumption, I spent less time modeling, scaffolding, or
explaining how to have practical small-group discussions in the Reading and Writing 1 classthan I usually would. I made the mistake of simply providing the discussion questions andexpecting the students to discuss without giving them enough scaffolding, which is something
that, as a veteran teacher, I know never ends well! The reality was that the students had only
begun learning discussion skills in their discussion classes, so they were not comfortable using
the expressions even in their discussion classes, much less in other courses. Moreover, thediscussions that the students were having in each discussion class were very structured andfocused on specific content and particular discussion and communication skills, so it was overly
optimistic for me to assume that they could apply those skills in a completely different context,
particularly so early in the semester. Because I had not effectively shown them how to engage
in discussion in the Reading and Writing 1 class successfully, the discussions we attempted
during the first few weeks of the first semester were less successful than I had hoped, as I noted
in my journal for week two:28

Why Teachers Should Use Journals in Their Reflective Practice Throughout Their Teaching Career

While the students are keen and cooperative, the small group discussions could havegone better today. I reminded the students of the communication and discussion
skills they had covered in Week 1 of their discussion classes, but they either couldn’t
remember or couldn’t apply those skills effectively. They seemed hesitant to speak witheach other in English. I shouldn’t be surprised by that since I didn’t give them enoughtime to chat and relax in English at the beginning of class, which I regret. I need torethink my approach—spending the extra time to let students get to know each otherand showing them how to engage in small group discussions would have made all thedifference. I won’t make that mistake again! (April 18, 2023)
Instruction of Reading
During the first class, we discussed the value of improving our reading and writing
skills in English as part of the course introduction. Although most of the students were frank
about their general lack of interest in reading and writing in any language, they seemed
impressed with the benefits of reading and writing that I presented, including improving theirgrammar, vocabulary, and critical thinking skills, and were surprised by the data that showed
the amount of information that is written on the Internet in English (58.8%) as comparedto the amount written in Japanese (3%) (Statista, 2023). In class, I instructed the students
to take the Macmillan online reading assessment test to determine their most suitable reader
level. I asked them to choose a reader (either digital or hard copy from the library) and be
prepared to introduce it in the next class. I gave them some points to prepare (author’s name,publication date, genre, why they selected that book, etc.). Although I assumed that somestudents would not be ready to do this in the following class, I expected that enough students
would be prepared and that we could engage in small group discussions about the books wewere reading. However, the reality was quite different from my expectations, as noted in myjournal for week two:
I was excited to get the students talking about their readers, so I put them into small
groups to introduce and discuss their chosen books. I modeled how to approach thegroup work with the reader I had chosen and listed prompts to help them explain theirreader. I also provided follow-up questions that they should ask each other. The students
did OK while modeling the task with me, but once I put them into groups, things went
differently than planned for several reasons. First, although the students said they wereready with their readers, in reality, some had yet to choose their readers, so they werescrambling to connect to the online library to choose one. Then, even those who had
chosen readers struggled to access them because of connectivity issues (although they
had been instructed to download them before the class). The few students who had goneto the library and borrowed books were able to produce their books, but some had yet
to begin reading and had mainly chosen the books because they “liked the cover.” We29

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spent much more time than I had planned for this activity which threw off the rest of
the lesson plan. As always, I had a plan B and C for this class just in case the discussion
went south, so all was not lost, but I felt deflated and regretted that I had not set up theactivity better to ensure success. (April 18, 2023)
After reflecting on the less-than-successful discussion of the books we were reading,I decided to take a more proactive approach by creating a Google form that students wererequired to fill out weekly to chart their reading progress. Students had to report on the title, theauthor, the number of words, why they chose the reader, how many pages they read, the mainideas, and what they liked/disliked about the book. In this way, I could track their progress, andstudents could use the information they added to the form to discuss their readers with theirclassmates. After introducing the Google form, students were better at charting their reading
progress but needed more scaffolding to engage in small group discussions. As the semester
progressed, I organized the small group discussions by assigning each student specific roles(facilitator, reporter, note-taker, and contributor), which helped keep the discussions moreorganized and focused. I also provided handouts with instructions, useful language, and modelanswers, which kept the students on point and productive.
Instruction of Writing
Teaching writing is something that I have enjoyed doing for many years, and I was
excited about working with the students on their academic writing skills. In our first writingclass, I carefully went through each step of the writing process, including brainstorming andforming clear topic sentences, organizing supporting sentences logically by giving reasons,examples, and explanations, and a clear concluding sentence that sums up the paragraph. We
worked collaboratively as a class to create a paragraph on a familiar topic: Should university
students do part-time jobs? This topic was ideal because all students had opinions, and I knew
they would be comfortable talking and writing about it. My journal entry for week three wasmuch more positive than in the previous two weeks:
Such great classes today! The students are starting to become more relaxed with eachother, and rather than trying to warm up by talking about what they are reading (which
has not gone that well in the previous classes), I decided to have the students warm
up by talking about what they did on the weekend, and what their plans were for theupcoming Golden Week break. It was a relaxing and fun way to start the class and put
students into the right frame of mind for the rest of the lesson. It reminded me that one
should never underestimate the importance of the warm-up! I have been letting the time
constraints of teaching these students just once a week get in the way of following theusual practices that had stood me well thus far in my teaching career. I’m not going to
let that happen again! The whole lesson went as planned, and the students worked really30

Why Teachers Should Use Journals in Their Reflective Practice Throughout Their Teaching Career

well together on their paragraphs! Let’s hope I am on a roll now and have smooth sailingahead! (April 25, 2023)
I was pleased with the first day of writing, but I realized in the following weeks that havingclass once a week rather than twice a week made a huge difference in students’ retention of thematerials, as indicated in my journal from week four:
Although we had a week off for Golden Week, I told the students that we would continue
to work on paragraph writing after the break, so part of their homework was to review
the writing skills we had covered. I created a quick review of the writing process with afun, interactive whole-class quiz, but when I asked the first question: What are the threeparts of a paragraph? and gave students a minute to consult with each other to confirm
their answers, they could not come up with even one answer! From my experience, I
know that students tend to retain only some of the information from previous classes,
and there had been a week off between classes, but still!! (May 9, 2023)
After reflecting on the problem of the students’ retention (or lack thereof) of the lessons,I decided to inform students that we would have short weekly review quizzes on the previous
week’s materials based on the slides that I posted every week to the LMS. I hoped this would
encourage students to review more, which would help them retain the materials. Because oftime constraints and to make the class more communicative, I did the quizzes orally withstudents working in groups. While this was lively and beneficial, I could not track each student’s
retention of the materials, so I needed to consider more strategies to tackle this particular issue.

Actions Taken in the First Month of Reading and Writing 2
Based on My Reflections From Reading and Writing 1
The summer break provided some much-needed time to reflect further on my journal
entries from the Reading and Writing 1 course and develop strategies to deliver more effective
lessons in the Reading and Writing 2 courses I would teach in the fall. I was determined toaddress the areas I should have done better at the beginning of the first semester, starting withbuilding a strong learning community with my new classes and teaching strategies for small
group discussions to maximize group work productivity.
I decided that even though it was likely that the students knew each other better andwere more accustomed to university life than in the spring semester, I wanted to make sure notto cut corners when it came to community building and taking time to get the students warmed
up at the beginning of class. I reminded myself that students may not have spoken English since
the previous week or spoken to each other in any language because they take different courses
and have busy extra-curricular schedules and part-time jobs. Therefore, I designated enough31

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time for warm-up from day one of my Reading and Writing 2 courses. I gave students clear
roles and responsibilities during the warm-up (and other small-group discussions) by assigningthem specific discussion roles using laminated role cards (facilitator, reporter, note-taker, andcontributor). On the first day of the new classes, I assigned the roles by visiting each table (5groups of 4 students per group) and having students close their eyes and randomly pick a rolecard. While this method of assigning roles may not seem innovative, it created a moment of
excitement for the students, and it allowed me to visit each group and briefly interact withthe students directly from the beginning of the lesson. After the warm-up, all group members
took a minute to help the reporter prepare to report to the class with a summary of the warmup discussion. As noted in my journal for week two, spending time on the warm-up this way
significantly impacted the class atmosphere:
I can’t believe how big a difference using the laminated role cards in the warmup makes! At the beginning of today’s class, I gave hints to elicit the four roles fordiscussion that I had introduced in the previous week, and the students actuallyremembered! We had a huge laugh when I asked, “What do we call the leader of the
discussion?” and one student shouted out, “Terminator!” rather than “Facilitator”! WhenI visited each group with the role cards, holding them face down and having the students
randomly pick them, the reactions were hilarious! Students who pulled the contributor
card were pumping their fists with joy, while those who pulled the reporter card shrieked
with dismay! The warm-up set the tone for the rest of the lesson, which went great! The
students were cheerful and engaged, which is an absolute win, especially for a Saturday
morning class! (September 30, 2023)
By week four, I decided to put more responsibility on the students by having themassign each other roles for discussion. I had students do rock/scissors/paper in their groups, andthe winner was responsible for assigning the roles and explaining why they had chosen each
student for a particular role. I provided them with useful language, such as, “I want you to be thefacilitator because you are a good leader!” “You should be the note-taker because you are goodat listening!” I also taught them the expression “with great power comes great responsibility,”
as used in a recent Spiderman movie, which many knew. In this way, I was helping the students
develop into more responsible and autonomous learners.
My approaches for teaching reading and writing skills during the first month of theReading and Writing 2 course were based on my reflections from my journal entries fromthe Reading and Writing 1 course, with positive outcomes. Even within the first month of thecourse, students exhibited more confidence in their writing. They were able to use reading
skills more effectively to gather information for their first essay, which asked them to give theiropinion on why it is so difficult for Japan to achieve one of the UN’s Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) of their choice. As I continue to write in my journal and reflect, I am discovering32Why Teachers Should Use Journals in Their Reflective Practice Throughout Their Teaching Career

more effective ways of instructing and supporting my students.

Takeaways
Using a teaching journal to reflect on the first month of the spring and the fall semester
as a veteran teacher in a new teaching context has improved my teaching practices. It has given
me valuable insight into several areas that can benefit other veteran instructors entering a newteaching context.
First, the notion that veteran teachers can quickly adapt to a new teaching context should
not be assumed. Even experienced teachers are “inexperienced” when their context changes. It
may take some time for them to find their feet after entering a new institution, as every context
is unique (Curtis, 2017). However, exposing one’s vulnerabilities to new colleagues can bechallenging as a veteran teacher. Therefore, keeping a teaching journal can be an excellent way
to record and reflect on one’s classroom experiences and express concerns and insecurities thatare difficult to share with others when first joining a new institution. In my second semester at
FLER, a colleague with more than 25 years of teaching experience in Japan, who had also begun
teaching at FLER at the same time as I did, commented that all of her “good teaching tricks andhabits went out the window” when she first came to FLER. It was something of a relief for bothof us to realize that it is not uncommon, even for veteran teachers, to be overwhelmed and tohave anxiety when entering a new teaching context (Mason, personal communication, October18, 2023). This conversation reinforced the idea that journal writing, reflection, and collegial
discussions are valuable forms of professional development at all stages of a teaching career.
Next, although the literature focuses mainly on the importance of pre-service teachers
keeping a teaching journal, it is undeniable that it can also be an invaluable tool for reflection
and professional development for all teachers, regardless of what point they are at in theircareers. As pre-service teachers, we receive training and acquire fundamental teaching skills, but
the time we spend in teacher training is finite. Lange (1990) states that “Teacher development
is a term used in the literature to describe a process of continual intellectual, experiential,
and attitudinal growth of teachers” (p. 250, emphasis added). Bailey et al. (2001) suggest that
Lange’s definition is helpful because it suggests that development can and should continue
throughout the teacher’s career. R, an expert teacher, stated: “I intend to go on teaching as
long as I feel I can learn from my students and those around me. If I feel too self-confident,
that there is nothing for me to learn, this will be my last moment as a teacher” (Olshtain &Kupferberg, 1998). These words are a core part of my teaching philosophy. Teachers who want
to do their best for their students must be lifelong learners and continue to grow and develop
professionally, regardless of where they are in their teaching careers (Ueno, 2023).
My teaching journal helps me to reflect on my teaching professionally and proactively. It
allows me to celebrate my successes, reflect on what I can improve in my teaching, and develop
a plan of action to ensure that I constantly and continuously develop my practices.
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Acknowledgment
Special thanks to Dr. Andy Curtis, Professor, City University of Macau, SAR, PRC, for his
feedback on earlier drafts of this paper.

References
Altalhab, S., Alsuhaibani, Y., & Gillies, D. (2021). The reflective diary experiences of EFL preservice teachers. Reflective Practice, 22(2), 173–186.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2020.1865903
Bailey, K. M., Curtis, A., & Nunan, D. (2001). Pursuing professional development: The self assource. Heinle and Heinle.
Berry, S. (2019). Teaching to Connect: Community-Building Strategies for the Virtual
Classroom. Online Learning, 23(1), 164–183. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v23i1.1425
Curtis, A. (2017). Methods and Methodologies for Language Teaching: The Centrality ofContext. Bloomsbury Academic.
Curtis, A. (2023, November 10). 300 Years of Leadership. Keynote. 51st Annual TESL Ontario
Conference (Online). https://pheedloop.com/TESL2023/site/Keynotes/
Farrell, T. S. C. (2012). Reflecting on Reflective Practice: (Re)Visiting Dewey and Schön.
TESOL Journal, 3(1), 7–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesj.10
Farrell, T. S. C. (2019). Reflective Practice in ELT. Equinox Publishing.
Komur, S., & Çepik, H. (2015). Diaries as a reflective tool in pre-service language teacher
education. Educational Research and Reviews, 10(12), 1593–1598.
https://doi.org/10.5897/ERR2015.2207
Lange, D. (1990). A blueprint for a teacher development programme. In J. C. Richards andD. Nunan (Eds.), Second Language Teacher Education (pp. 245–268). Cambridge
University Press.
Olshtain, E., & Kupferberg, I. (1998). Reflective-narrative discourse of FL teachers exhibits
professional knowledge. Language Teaching Research, 2(3), 185–202.
https://doi.org/10.1177/136216889800200302
Sadera, W. A., Robertson, J., Song, L., & Midon, M. N. (2009). The role of community in online
learning success. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 5(2), 277–284.
https://jolt.merlot.org/vol5no2/sadera_0609.pdf
Schumann, F. M., & Schumann, J. H. (1977). Diary of a language learner: An introspective
study of second language learning. On TESOL ҆ 77, 241–249.
Statista. (2023). Languages most frequently used for web content as of January 2023.
https://www.statista.com/statistics/262946/most-common-languages-on-the-internet/
Stevens, D. D., & Cooper, J. E. (2009). Journal Keeping: How to use reflective writing foreffective learning, teaching, professional insight, and positive change. Stylus Publishing,34

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LLC.
The Glossary of Education Reform. (n.d.). https://www.edglossary.org/student-engagement/
Ueno, A. (2023). Continuing Professional Development Through Self-Observation Using Zoom
Class Videos. TEIS Newsletter.
Ueno, A., & Yoshida, A. (2023). Epiphanies in Practice: How Good Friends Can Become
Critical Friends. In A. Verla Uchida & J. R. Rothaman (Eds.), Cultivating Professional
Development Through Critical Friendship and Reflective Practice: Cases From Japan(pp. 109–133). Candlin & Mynard Publishing. https://doi.org/10.47908/27

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Teaching Practice Report

Rikkyo University’s FLER CLIL Seminars:
History Course-Design Thought Process and Piloting
Diane C. Obara

Abstract
The creation of centers for language education and research that are affiliated touniversities in Japan, yet administered semi-separately, has continued to increase overthe past ten years. With the establishment of these institutions has come inspiration
for the revision and refreshment of their current English language curricula. One
such methodology that many centers have latched onto for implementation is Content
and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). This paper will provide both backgroundinformation about the development of Rikkyo University’s Center for Foreign
Language Education and Research (FLER), as well as explain the process for thelaunch of its new CLIL curriculum, from planning to piloting, and then its execution.
In particular, it will focus on one teacher’s thought process for the course design of a
CLIL History Seminar and a brief reflection on the reality of how a few componentsof that imagined pedagogy panned out within this specific context.
Keywords: CLIL Seminar, History, Japan, TESOL, Curriculum Design, Rikkyo

Introduction
Background of the FLER Center
Since 2020, Rikkyo University has been in the start-up phase of its new Center
for Foreign Language Education and Research (FLER). With its creation, there has been
simultaneous planning and design for the launch of a new curriculum, which adds a stream ofContent and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) courses for students. CLIL, “a dual-focused
educational approach in which an additional language is used for the learning and teachingof both content and language” (Coyle et al., 2010), is a method popularized in Europe in the
1990s, that has steadily gained momentum in Japan (Japan CLIL Pedagogy Association, 2021)
throughout the past ten years and is being implemented across the country, whilst fine-tuned
to each individual context and student body. With Rikkyo University’s FLER officially up
and running since 2020 (despite the onset of the worldwide health pandemic), the new CLIL
curriculum will be ready to launch in 2024. For universities who may be considering thismethod and adding it to their programs, hearing the experience of fellow teachers who have36

Rikkyo University’s FLER CLIL Seminars: History Course-Design Thought Process and Piloting

recently gone through the process may be of interest to them not only in terms of how it is being
applied within this specific context, but also how they might be able to apply it to their own
environment, should CLIL come their way.

Process
Pre-Launch: Planning Committees
As a part of the duties for the Kyouiku-koshi (Adjunct Lecturer) position within FLER,
teachers are additionally assigned to one or two committees to work on throughout the year.
For the years 2020 and 2021, the author was placed on the CLIL planning committee. The
first year, the team was small, consisting of only a few members. During this time, readingmaterial related to CLIL (Hoffman-Aoki, 2015; Nitta & Yamamoto, 2020; Obara, 2015, 2020;
Ohmori, 2014) was added to a shared Google Drive folder, standards for CLIL that aligned with
CEFR descriptors were considered, a list of textbooks for various content was compiled, andcommittee members shared experiences implementing and teaching CLIL in other programs
and at other Japanese university language centers.
A main point of discussion that was continuously brought up was the debate of acomparison between content-based teaching and utilizing an authentic CLIL approach. Whilecontent-based teaching has traditionally been around for a long time within Teaching English
to Speakers of Other Language (TESOL) contexts, it is the integration of a language threadthroughout the material that is the key component of CLIL and what should be stressed to newteachers. With syllabus design well underway, now in 2023, it is clear that this point is beingemphasized, as can be seen in the guidelines for writing individual syllabi that were sent to
instructors in December of 2022:*Special note for CLIL classes:
Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) classes offer teaching of both content
and language in the classroom. As such, the course objectives and content should reflect
them explicitly. It may help to indicate which are content learning objectives and which
are language learning objectives separately wherever possible (see attached sample
CLIL course with content and language learning objectives). This will set a CLIL
syllabus apart from a non-CLIL course (English Electives Committee Interdepartmental
Communication, December 20, 2022).
The second year, in 2021, the CLIL Planning Committee grew in size, and was reclassified as a “New Electives (starting in 2024) Committee.” It consisted of six Sennin(Professors), two Tokunin (Specially-appointed Associate Professors), and seventeen Kyouikukoshi. It was also divided into four categories: CLIL overall framework, Global Communication,
Global Studies, and Global Career. The main task for committee members in 2021 was to create37

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resources for teachers. Members were each assigned 1–2 new electives to choose from, and thenasked to create materials which included: a PowerPoint slideshow of “Top 10” Resources forthat content area, a sample syllabus (which aligned CEFR descriptors with course objectives),
two lesson plans, and a rubric for one course assessment. For CLIL History, some resources theauthor included in the “Top 10 List” were: Newsela, Facing History and Ourselves, Films for
Action, Short Lessons in World History, and U.S. History Skillbook. One lesson plan focused on
the assessment of a historical debate, and the rubric aligned with that. By the end of the term,
all committee members’ resources were uploaded to a Google Drive folder for future reference.
Pilot Courses
The next phase of this process involved piloting the courses. While some Sennin began
this in 2022, piloting trickled down to the Kyouiku-koshi in 2023 as well. In the fall of 2022,
before the schedules came out in December, a Tokunin reached out to the author to ask about
availability of piloting a course. The author responded with a willingness to teach the CLIL
history course, since this is the content area that was focused on for the author’s two years on
the planning committees, and the one in which materials had already been created and compiled;thus, the instructors on those committees should all seemingly be interested in trialing them withstudents. CLIL History and the historical debate assessment are also threads that the author has
woven throughout previous freshmen Academic Communication classes at another university,and had good success with, so the thought of testing them out as electives in FLER’s context
seemed an interesting comparison.
In addition to this, after the elective courses were assigned to instructors for thefollowing year, an email was also received from the Electives Committee Chief around theend of December, with guidelines for creating syllabi and links to the Google Drive folders
with syllabus templates and samples. Included in these folders were the pilot CLIL courses
from 2021 and 2022. Having a look at the “CLIL (Spring 2022)” folder, we can see that
there are eight sample syllabi: Intro. To Global Studies (Natural Science), CLIL Seminars:
Literature, Current News, Intercultural Studies, Introduction to Global Studies (Humanities),
Introduction to Global Studies (Social Science), Multimodal Communication, and Self-Directed
and Reflective Language Learning. Of these eight syllabus samples, only four of them mention
the minimum requirements:
Minimum requirements: CEFR B2+ level, TOEFL (R&L) 785, TOEFL iBT 87,
TOEFL ITP570, GTEC325, IELTS 6.5 言語自由科目オナーズ・モジュール科目
Only three of them directly mention how the course weaves in CEFR descriptors and how they
will be applied, such as the following example.
Throughout this CLIL course, students will learn how to:38

Rikkyo University’s FLER CLIL Seminars: History Course-Design Thought Process and Piloting

1. understand a clearly structured lecture, and take notes on major points (L)2. understand and use target specialist vocabulary required in 1) academic lectures and2) literary topics (L)3. respond appropriately using questions and responses in discussions and presentations(L)
4. d escribe and analyze features of contemporary literary writing (C)5. s how understanding of language and literary features such as narrative structure andtheme (C)
6. apply knowledge of contemporary literature in society in reflective writing andpresentations (C)*L = Language goal, C = Content goal
None of the courses use a textbook. The authors recalls from time at another universitythat when that Language Center was starting, the difference between content-based teaching
and the CLIL methodology was stressed to new teachers. While it is true that both methods
teach content, the latter clearly weaves and integrates a language thread into the course design.
To prevent new teachers from feeling overwhelmed with material development and attempting
to create their own language corpus thread with their own materials prior to the coursecommencement, the committee often recommended books such as Cambridge’s Academic
Encounters Series (Sociology, Human Behavior, The Natural World), with word lists in theback of their textbooks connected to that content and also the Academic Word List in order tohave a language thread sustained throughout. Alternatively, teachers could choose authentic
textbooks, such as this one used for a Journalism Writing Course (Tate & Taylor, 2013), that is
not technically “CLIL,” but is used in high school courses in the U.S. It has a comprehensive
glossary in the back of the text, and short lessons from chapters can easily be extracted andadapted to EFL/ESL courses. Finally, even though the self-directed and reflective learning
course syllabus sample in the folder uses no textbook, we can clearly see from the instructor’snotes on the syllabus how the CLIL component will be integrated.
Throughout this CLIL course, students will learn how to:
1. create learning goals and reflect on progress applying knowledge of a target academic
field (C)2. d escribe features and stages of learning plans and classify points to develop (C)3. consider aspects of individual learning histories in relation to culture and learning
backgrounds (C)4. i mplement and reflect on individual language learning plans (L)5. show understanding of subject-specific vocabulary of a target academic field andrelated to interests (L)6. respond appropriately using questions/replies in presentations and cooperate in group39

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discussions and presentations (L)*C = content-related goal, L = language-related goal

Thought Process for Creating the Pilot Syllabus
Since FLER’s CLIL courses are listed as electives, syllabi need to be input into theCampusMate system at the beginning of January, so that students are able to review them when
they are choosing their courses for the spring term, which starts in April. In addition to the email
and guidelines from the FLER Electives Committee Chief that was delivered in December of2022, piloting instructors assigned to these courses also received a packet in the mail from theuniversity administration, with the deadline for input included. For 2023, the deadline was
January 17th.
Before planning any course at Rikkyo, teachers might want to consider the following
questions:• Which campus will this course be taught (Ikebukuro or Niiza)?
• W hat are the major colleges on those campuses? (e.g., Tourism, Psychology,
Economics, Intercultural Communication, etc.)• What day of the week and what period is it? (e.g., Monday, 1st or Thursday, 3rd)• I s it once or twice a week?
• How many students will be enrolled? (Although there is no way to know this until after
registration a week before the semester starts)• Should a textbook be required?
• If so, how much will it cost?
• What’s typically worked well and been successful with other electives I’ve taught in
the past?
With these questions in mind, the author started by considering the textbook. Taking
into consideration the sample syllabus in Google Drive, and also looking at the materials
collected during the committee planning process, there were two textbooks that the author began
contemplating. One was a skill book (Henry, 2019) for the practice and application of historicalthinking skills for the Advanced Placement U.S. History course tests in American high schools.
The idea that the skills were clearly isolated, such as: separating facts from opinions, analyzing
documents and establishing their credibility, and how to use maps and graphs effectively seemed
like it might work well. This approach seemed flexible for managing the content. The second
was a textbook that has short lessons in world history (Churchill & Churchill, 2006a). The
lessons are fairly traditional, with short readings and critical thinking discussion questions.
There are also maps connected to the readings and crossword puzzles for review at the end ofeach chapter that integrate vocabulary and comprehension of the readings.
40

Rikkyo University’s FLER CLIL Seminars: History Course-Design Thought Process and Piloting

Taking all of this into account, the author settled on not assigning a textbook to purchase,since that was the direction the samples from the chief seemed to suggest. Instead, samplinga few readings from the world history textbook as the main content for the course and a few
lessons from the skill book as students begin researching and preparing for their first historicaldebate, and then supplementing the rest of the materials with audio-visuals and articles foundonline was decided upon as the approach. One reason for this was that after a more careful
review of the skill book, for the actual practice and application of the skills, it required students
to draw on previous knowledge of U.S. History. Readings to work from were not included in
the chapters. This would be a challenge for local students and require the teacher to supplement
them with more materials. With this text, it is also fairly easy to pick and choose skills in
isolation to apply to lessons, so sampling one or two to try out could be done. In contrast, whenskimming through the readings from the world history textbook and the glossary at the back,based on the author’s sixteen years of teaching in the Japanese context, it was imagined that thisis content that students would have studied in high school in Japanese, and so they will likely
already have prior knowledge in the L1.
Finally, an understanding of TESOL methodology, is that despite a class being designedwith CLIL or not, a basis for all language classes is that they include the four skills of reading,writing, speaking, and listening. For many of the electives the author has taught in the past,something that has always been successful, is to create long listening close exercises as a warmup activity, with the listening audio tracks taken from authentic sources (History.com, National
Geographic, etc.) related to the content. These can add balance with that final fourth skill thatis lacking in readings, writing homework, and discussion.
Launching the Pilot Class
Approximately a week before each semester begins, teachers can see on the Rikwes
system how many students have enrolled in their course. This “CLIL History Seminar” pilot
was scheduled for the fall semester of 2023, on Thursdays during 2nd period, on the Ikebukuro
Campus. Although the instructor had predicted that at least 8–10 students would sign up, only
two ended up enrolling. Including the teacher, all participants are from different first language
backgrounds and fields of study. Five weeks into the course, and despite the fact that there are
only three of us all together, the individual strengths and weaknesses of students seemed tobe nicely balanced. As a result of coming from a variety of specializations, some students are
well-versed and innately knowledgeable of all of the material that is included in our readings,
so there is little need to explain or review. Others are also knowledgeable of the material, having
studied much of it in high school, but also have strong communication skills, and keep the paceof discussions smooth from a communicative standpoint.
At five weeks into the semester, the class has covered three readings related to: Early
Civilizations (Egypt and Sumer), Greeks and Romans, and Other World Civilizations (TheAmericas, Asia, and Africa). For the first reading, we worked through the comprehension
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questions and maps together, so that the students could get an understanding of how to dothem on their own for homework later. For the next two lessons, 1–2 pages of homework was
assigned (comprehension and map questions), and we reviewed it in class together.
For writing, in addition to the homework, we have been taking breaks throughout the
homework review discussions to answer the critical thinking and application questions includedin the textbook. Students take a few minutes to write their answers, and then we discuss.
Finally, for listening, two close exercises related to the content, both taken from National
Geographic’s online sites, were used. The first was about Cleopatra, and the second was related
to the Inca Civilization in South America. It was about the World Heritage Site, Machu Picchu,
in Peru.
From a CLIL perspective, the language is integrated through this historical content,
and recycled in all of the individual activities. At the beginning of the term, we reviewed theglossary in the back of the textbook together, and students confirmed that they both knew atleast eighty percent of the vocabulary. Since many of the words are related to names of people
and places and written as Katakana (foreign words) in Japanese, it is easy to understand how
students would know as much vocabulary related to history as they do.
At week five, we are now also ready to start preparing for our first “debate.” The original
logic behind using a debate as an assessment, was that students would have taken a debate
course during their freshman year, as one of the mandatory skills classes (which are currently:
Reading and Writing, Presentation, Discussion (spring), Debate (fall), and e-Learning. Now
entering and advancing to the “content” elective seminars, ideally, teachers should be able toapply those required skills to these CLIL courses.
However, with only two students, the author is thinking this might pose a slightchallenge, since they do not have a partner to work with on their debate team, as they did
during freshman year, when there were approximately twenty students in their class. Instead,the instructor and the students discussed it as a class and decided to make the debates more
like presentations, with each student presenting their research for one side of the proposition,either for or against it.
In addition, we have also decided as a class what the debate proposition will be.
Everyone agreed that they would like to do something different from their major classes. And
also, even though the debate is about an event from the past, the class also agreed that it should
be relevant presently to our lives somehow, in order to consider how these issues are still
applicable, and what lessons can still be learned from them.
Thus, the class decided what the debate proposition considering an event from 1911:
Hiram Bingham should be able to take a research team from Yale University to Machu Picchu
and receive funding from the university for it. After the in-depth listening about the Inca
Civilization and the World Heritage Site of Machu Picchu, students were intrigued by thehistory and “discovery” of this site in the early 1900s, since they were mostly familiar with
it from a tourism perspective. Since both students belong to seminars and are familiar with42

Rikkyo University’s FLER CLIL Seminars: History Course-Design Thought Process and Piloting

professors taking trips with their students, everyone agreed that this was a topic they could
relate to, even though it is more than a hundred years old.
With that decided, weeks five through seven have been spent preparing and researchingfor the debate presentations. The process began by reviewing one of the listening activities(Historypod) and asking follow-up questions about it. Here are the questions students generated:
1. Why was Machu Picchu hidden/abandoned and remained?
2. Why wasn’t anyone living there?
3. Why was Machu Picchu made with stone?
4. What is the PanAmerican Scientific Congress, and who is meeting there?
5. Why didn’t the Spanish Conquistadors find it? What was their relationship with theIncas? How did they treat them?
6. What is some other important information that Bingham discovered at that time about
the Incas and this site?
7. What are some details about the farm boy who introduced Machu Picchu to him?
8. Who owns Machu Picchu?
9. W hat is some more background information about Bingham? What is his
specialization? Does he speak Spanish? Were there local Peruvians on their researchteam?
10. What were the dangers there in the early 1900s?
For the remainder of class five, students tried to find answers to these questions, throughbasic internet searches. Students each bring their laptop computers to every class, so they use
their own devices.
In class six, the lesson goal was to try to refine research skills by utilizing Rikkyo
University Library’s databases. Through an advanced search, students narrowed down the
databases to historical newspapers, which includes access to historical collections of The New
York Times, The Japan Times, and The Yomiuri Shinbun, to name a few. The remainder ofthis class was spent with each student searching for 1–2 historical newspaper articles from
1900–1930 of reports about information related to Hiram Bingham and/or his “discovery”
of Machu Picchu. After finding and silently reading the articles, each person explained themto the other. One article was a 1908 obituary of Bingham’s father (The New York Times,p. 9), which included biographical information about this family history. Another was a reportfrom December 1924, about Bingham having been elected as a senator to Connecticut (Howe,p. XX6). This article told of his work as a scholar, explorer, and specialist on Latin America.
At the end of this lesson, we also decided which side each student would “present” on forthe debate—either affirmative or negative. Students made outlines with their reasons. On theaffirmative side, the reasons included: Easy Access, Cooperation with Other Organizations, andOwnership/Access to Documents and Data. On the negative team, who is arguing that Bingham43

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should not be able to take a Yale University-funded research team to Machu Picchu, the reasons
were: Cost, Danger, and Work Responsibilities. For homework, students were asked to bring in
one more historical newspaper article. One of these included a review of a book that Bingham’s
son had written about him (Buckley Jr., 1989).
Although the class has slightly deviated from the schedule, the intention for week sevenis for students to start creating their PowerPoint slides for their presentation. At the start of thisclass, we watched the beginning of a video of an advanced debate elective that the instructor
had taught at the Niiza campus in 2019, where two students were debating the proposition“Should foreign companies be required to use solar power in South Africa.” That class was
also small in size, and so students in that course ended up giving persuasive presentations as
well, either for or against the proposition. It seemingly worked well. After that, students agreed
upon more specific guidelines for the presentations. Ultimately, students will need to have aminimum of fifteen slides in their slideshow, and must include historical maps, photos, andnewspaper articles. After giving their “opening speech” presentations in week eight, which
includes background information about Bingham’s discovery and their supporting or opposing
views of the proposition, students will slowly practice cross-examining and rebuttals together
as a class in a semi-controlled style.
Adjustments
As a result of the small class size and individual differences, as mentioned above,
adjustments have had to be made as the class progresses. The main adjustment thus far has
been the adaption from a traditional “team” debate to a “debate presentation,” similar to thepersuasive presentations that are required in the mandatory presentation classes. A second
adjustment has been to hold off on the materials from the skill book for analyzing historical
documents. Depending on how the first round of presentations go, those skills can hopefully be
added to the final debate. One final adjustment regards the learning environment. The class islocated on the fifth floor of building five on the Ikebukuro campus. The morning sun has greatly
affected progress and slowed the class down. The room becomes incredibly hot during this time
period, and since the air conditioning is regulated by the administration and changed to theheating setting after November, attempts to cool down the room have been unsuccessful. Boththe teacher and the students have been having trouble concentrating. Albeit, not related to thecontent itself, but creating a comfortable learning environment holistically in order for learning
to be optimized, should remain on any ESOL teacher’s to-do list since students operating in asecond language often tend to have their other senses heightened at this time, and teachers areaiming to keep the focus on the language.

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Rikkyo University’s FLER CLIL Seminars: History Course-Design Thought Process and Piloting

Conclusion
Future Direction
Up until this point, the biggest change that the author plans to make for a future CLIL
History Seminar course is to eliminate the debate as an assessment. While the author has indeed
had great success with this assessment in past classes, this is attributed to the fact that they
were freshman courses that met twice a week for twenty-eight weeks. There was time for otherlengthy readings and discussions, and it consisted of twenty students who could work together
in dynamic teams.
For a CLIL History Seminar elective within FLER, the author personally thinks that it isenough to use Discussion Tests as a main assessment. Overall, students still generally seem tohave positive feelings about those courses, and many comment that they are some of the only
college classes where they can talk to new people and make new friends. Applying this skill
that they still feel positively about within new content areas might be a great way to practiceand level-up, communicatively—which has historically been a strength of this university! If
students want to debate, they can choose to take that as an isolated elective and/or instructors
can build those previously learnt debate skills more softly into other assessments less directly.
*** Due to the fact that the CLIL curriculum will officially launch in April 2024, the author has
decided to publish this article before this CLIL seminar pilot has officially concluded, in order
to better assist new teachers in their curriculum design within this context.

Bibliography
Academic Encounters Series (2nd ed.). (2017). Cambridge University Press.
Buckley Jr., W. F. (1989, October 8). Much Ado about Machu Picchu. The New York Times.
https://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/08/books/much-ado-about-machu-picchu.html
Churchill, E. R., & Churchill, L. R. (2006a). Short Lessons in World History: Student’s Edition(4th ed.). J. Weston Walch Pub.
Churchill, E. R., & Churchill, L. R. (2006b). Short Lessons in World History: Teacher’s Edition(4th ed.). J. Weston Walch Pub.
Coyle, D., Hood, P., & Marsh, D. (2010). CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning.
Cambridge University Press.
Dalton-Puffer, C. (2011). Content-and-Language Integrated Learning: From Practice toPrinciples? Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 31, 182‒204.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190511000092
DR. HIRAM BINGHAM DEAD: Congregational Missionary Labored Among Savages of theGilbert Islands. (1908, Oct. 27). The New York Times.
https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-new-york-times-hiram-bingham-ii-ha/900851/
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English Electives Committee Interdepartmental Communication. (2022, December 20).
Facing History & Ourselves. (2023). https://www.facinghistory.org/
Films for Action. (2023). https://www.filmsforaction.org/
Henry, M. (2019). U.S. History Skillbook: Practice and Application of Historical Thinking Skills
for A.P. U.S. History (4th ed.). Sherpa Learning.
Hoffman-Aoki, Q. (2015). A Tale of Two Electives: A TESOL Background and a Light CLIL
Approach. Lingua Special Issue on CLIL 2015, 1–9.
Howe, J. O. (1924, December 21). CONNECTICUT'S VERSATILE NEW SENATOR; Hiram
Bingham, Scholar, Explorer and Specialist on Latin America. The New York Times.
https://www.proquest.com/hnpnewyorktimes/docview/103323907
Japan CLIL Pedagogy Association. (2021, July). CLIL-ITE. https://www.j-clil.com/english
Nitta, R., & Yamamoto, Y. (2020). Reconceptualizing CLIL from transformative pedagogy
perspective: Pilot debate study in English language curriculum. Journal of Foreign
Language Education and Research, 1, 47–62.
Newsela. https://newsela.com/
Obara, D. (2015). Teaching Journalism through a CLIL Approach. Lingua Special Issue on
CLIL 2015, 49–58.
Obara, D. C. (2020). One Teacher’s Reflection of Success and Other: Skills and CLIL in a
Required Intermediate-level Academic Communication Course. The Journal of Rikkyo
University Language Center, 43, 45–60.
Ohmori, A. (2014). Exploring the Potential of CLIL in English Language Teaching in Japanese
Universities: An Innovation for the Development of Effective Teaching and Global
Awareness. The Journal of Rikkyo University Language Center, 32, 39–51.
Tate, C. D., & Taylor, S. A. (2013). Scholastic Journalism (12th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.

46

Teaching Practice Report

A Guide to Using a Mobile Application
to Track Spoken Fluency
Heather Woodward
Joshua Rappeneker
Keiko Fujino

Abstract
In previous Journal of Foreign Language Education and Research (JFLER) articles,
we wrote about designing a mobile application to measure students’ monologic
spoken fluency in classroom settings (Woodward & Gupta, 2022; Woodward &Rappeneker, 2023). Currently, instructors of Rikkyo University’s English Discussion
Class (EDC) do not have an objective and quantitative method for monitoring
students’ English spoken fluency development across the semester. Yet, the languagebased goal of EDC is to develop it (Hurling, 2012). The purpose of this article is toprovide an instructional guide on how to use the mobile application. After testing theapp, it has undergone many modifications since 2022. Therefore, in addition to how
to use the application, we discuss the features that have worked, the ones that havenot, and the ones that we plan to add. We provide support for app-based choices withtheory and research into the field of spoken fluency development. With this paper,
we hope that the instructors who wish to incorporate the mobile app will be able to
do so.
Keywords: CALL, MALL, ESL, Speaking, Monologues

Introduction
Assessing spoken fluency in second language (L2) speakers is recognized as achallenging task, acknowledged by many evaluators (Kang et al., 2019). Tavakoli (2016) andTavakoli and Wright (2020) describe spoken fluency as a multifaceted construct influenced
by various factors, including psycholinguistic aspects like anxiety and motivation, linguistic
factors like L2 vocabulary and first language fluency, and sociolinguistic factors such as L2
exposure and group dynamics. Factors such as studying abroad, rehearsal time, task type, andtopic familiarity can also impact spoken fluency (Wright, 2020).
These elements make spoken fluency difficult when assessing to generalize results.
The language-based goal is to enhance L2 spoken fluency in English discussion class (Hurling,47

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第 4 巻（JOURNAL OF MULTILINGUAL PEDAGOGY AND PRACTICE, VOL. 4）2012), yet instructors currently lack a method to track students’ progress in English spoken
fluency throughout the semester. To tackle this challenge, we created a mobile application
specifically tailored to assess students’ monologic spoken fluency on topics familiar to them.
Given the complex nature of spoken fluency, we have not determined the extent to which
students’ spoken fluency results are generalizable to other task types or to unfamiliar topics, so
the results are best interpreted narrowly in regards to students’ monologic speeches on familiar
topics. According to Segalowitz and Freed (2004), spoken fluency can be improved significantly
in non-immersion environments. Thus, despite its limitations, the app might be useful as apedagogical tool for students to track their progress throughout the semester and to acquire
greater metalinguistic knowledge of spoken fluency.

Literature Review
Spoken Fluency
Spoken fluency is narrowly defined as the effortless and continuous quality of speech,characterized by traits like fluidity and smoothness (Segalowitz, 2010; Tavakoli, 2016).
Segalowitz (2010) delineates a multidimensional model of spoken fluency that comprises threeinterrelated components: cognitive, perceived, and utterance fluency. Cognitive fluency pertains
to the mental processes involved in generating L2 speech, encompassing the time elapsed
from conceptualization to articulation. This aspect is operationalized through reaction timemeasurements (Segalowitz & Segalowitz, 1993). Perceived fluency involves assessments offluency made by listeners (Segalowitz, 2010; Segalowitz, 2016). Lastly, according to this model,
utterance fluency entails observable, surface-level features of speed, breakdowns, and repairs.
Speed is the rate of speech production; breakdown denotes a complete or partial interruption
in the flow of speech; and repair occurs when speakers rectify mistakes or omissions in theirintended message, often through repetition or self-correction. Utterance features of spoken
fluency, along with listeners’ perceived fluency judgments, can provide ways to measure
dimensions of spoken fluency. One such utterance feature is untrimmed speech rate, a composite
measure of fluency encompassing speed, breakdowns, and repairs, without the deduction of any
disfluencies from the final calculation. According to Suzuki et al. (2021), composite measures
such as speech rate are highly correlated with listener-based perceived spoken fluency.
Benefits of developing L2 spoken fluency include: a) intelligibility; b) effective
communication in real-life situations; and c) fulfilling future aspirations. To begin with, a)
intelligibility pertains to how easily listeners can understand the meaning of a spoken message.
When speakers talk too slowly, it can hinder the comprehension and intelligibility of theirmessage, as listeners may struggle to maintain attention (Lennon, 2000). In terms of b) effective
communication in real-life scenarios, speakers who converse too slowly might encounterchallenges in saving face (Lennon, 2000). While factors like vocabulary, complexity, and48

A Guide to Using a Mobile Application to Track Spoken Fluency

accuracy contribute only minimally to human ratings of spoken performance, spoken fluency
significantly influences scores on standardized speaking assessments (Ogawa, 2022). With
regards to c) future objectives, standardized tests like IELTS can act as gatekeepers, facilitating
learners in realizing their ambitions of studying or working abroad. While benefits to cultivating
spoken fluency exist, activities crafted to enhance this skill are frequently overlooked in theclassroom (Rossiter et al., 2010; Tavakoli & Hunter, 2018). In instances where educators
do focus on speaking skills, they typically involve students in speaking exercises without
introducing them to the particular metalinguistic aspects related to repair, breakdown, andspeed (Tavakoli & Hunter, 2018).
3/2/1 Activity
According to Nation and Newton (2009), effective spoken fluency activities exhibit threecharacteristics: they (a) provide support to enhance students’ performance, (b) encourage theuse of already known language items, and (c) prioritize the emphasis on meaning over form. To
meet the first requirement, time-constrained activities can be employed, where instructors set
specific time limits for completing a task. For the second requirement, choose familiar topics,
such as friends, family, or school life, and encourage students to incorporate their existing L2
knowledge. Finally, to fulfill the third requirement, students can be paired with a new listening
partner each round to create a knowledge gap. The 4/3/2 activity introduced by Maurice (1983)aligns with all requirements. Speakers discuss a familiar topic for four minutes. After that, thespeakers switch to new listening partners and repeat their monologues within three minutes.
This process is repeated with speakers having only two minutes to repeat their monologues.
The belief is that the decreasing time constraint and repeated practice helps speakers to increase
their spoken fluency (Nation & Newton, 2009). For time-constraints or students with lower
proficiency, the time can be modified to 3/2/1.

Mobile Application
Students can download the mobile application on their phones and use it both in andoutside of the class. During EDC, while they participate in a modified 4/3/2 activity called 3/2/1,
they can use the app. Figure 1 below shows the first few screens.

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Figure 1
Pages of the Mobile Application (From Rappeneker, 2023)

Upon logging into the app (first picture from the left), users see ‘speaker,’ ‘other,’ and‘settings’ (second picture). If users click on ‘speaker,’ the application moves to the weekly
questions page (third picture). After selecting ‘other,’ users can view the screen on the far right(fourth picture) the single speech sections, high scores, and graphs (fourth picture). On the third
picture to the left, students are provided with a list of questions, derived from Sturges et al.’s(2023) “What’s Your Opinion?” When students are using the mobile application, having thesequestions on the screen is convenient. At the bottom of the screen, students press the record
button and respond to the questions. The speedometer represents the speakers’ untrimmed
speech rate (i.e., average syllables per minute). After students press the record button, a timer
appears. The timer displays the seconds remaining before the recording ends. 180 seconds
appears in the first round, 120 in the second round, and 60 in the third round. After the timer
ends, the phone vibrates to alert speakers. Speakers see a page which instructs them to handtheir phones to their listening partners. Once listeners have the speakers’ phones, their partner
rates spoken fluency.
Figure 2 below has screenshots of the listener-based evaluations of their partner’s
spoken fluency.
Figure 2
Listeners̓ Spoken Fluency and Comprehensibility (From Rappeneker, 2023)

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A Guide to Using a Mobile Application to Track Spoken Fluency

In the initial app design, there was only one question for fluency with six carrots (i.e.,with short descriptors). The original question was, “How fluent was the speech?” This design
had shortcomings, stemming from the multidimensional nature of spoken fluency and interrater
reliability issues. One problem encountered was that raters might assign different overall fluency
ratings based on their individual beliefs regarding one dimension’s importance over another.
The listener-based value differentiation was not clear to the speakers when only asked “Howfluent was the speech?” and therefore, we found that from a pedagogical viewpoint, the utilityof the feedback to speakers was limited. To account for this issue, we separated questions for
spoken fluency to represent aspects of its multidimensionality (i.e., perceivable features of
speed, breakdowns, and repairs). We also believe that listeners who evaluate the speeches also
benefit from the experience of evaluating fluency as it might help to increase their awareness.
In the original design, listeners would assign carrots, which corresponded to a level of fluency.
In terms of changes, we removed the assigning of carrots so that listeners would focus primarily
on describing the performance. Additionally, from observation, listeners seemed compelled togive speakers carrots as rewards rather than as a representation of the performance itself.
By observing videos of speakers at different L2 proficiencies, we devised a system forlisteners to describe their speaking partners’ performances. The questions are as follows:• How often were there filled pauses?
 Often / Sometimes / Rarely / Cannot remember• How often were there silent pauses?
 Often / Sometimes / Rarely / Cannot remember• How often were there repeated words or phrases?
 Often / Sometimes / Rarely / Cannot remember• How often did the speaker speak slowly?
 Often / Sometimes / Rarely / Cannot remember
Regarding the first two questions about filled pauses, these types of pauses are voicedwith utterances such as ‘uh’ or ‘um.’ The next two questions about silent, or unfilled, pauses
are unvoiced gaps. To help students identify pauses, the primary author created an instructional
video. In the video, repeated words or phrases and speed of speech are also reviewed. We chosethese aspects of breakdowns and repairs because they are perceivable aspects of performanceand this information might motivate students to focus on the linguistic purpose of the 3/2/1
activity. In addition, the video also defines ‘often,’ ‘sometimes,’ and ‘rarely’ for the “Howoften…?” questions. Listeners who perceive many disfluencies select ‘often’ when they perceive
less disfluencies and they select ‘rarely’ when they perceive fewer disfluencies. There is no‘none’ option because to a certain extent, disfluencies are a natural characteristic of speecheven for first language speakers, so the goal of trying to eliminate all disfluencies seems
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unreasonable. In the video, listeners are instructed to choose ‘rarely’ even if they do not hearany disfluency.
Originally, we had added a comprehensibility question for listening partners. The
reason we included the question was to encourage students to focus on both meaning and form
throughout the speech. The initial question was as follows:• How easy was it to understand the speaker?
 Easy / Often Easy / Sometimes Easy / Rarely Easy
There are two related types of questions regarding understanding: one pertains tocomprehensibility, while the other relates to intelligibility (Munro & Derwing, 1995). According
to Munro and Derwing (1997) comprehensibility is the listener-based judgment regarding theease or difficulty of understanding utterances. On the other hand, intelligibility is a measurementof the extent to which the speaker’s actual intent is understood. We do not have a way totest intelligibility in this situation, so the question we asked was regarding comprehensibility,
regarding the extent to which listeners expended energy understanding the content of the
speech. The problem with this question was that listeners could not focus simultaneously oncomprehending the content of the speech and also spoken fluency. In addition to this problem,the comprehensibility question might be more of a reflection of the listeners’ listening ability
to understand the speech rather than the speakers’ speaking ability. Students had been placed
in classes based on their TOEIC test scores and therefore we believed that if they were roughly
at the same proficiency, then listeners would be capable of making judgments pertaining to
the speakers’ ability rather than their own listening ability. Therefore, one of the future goalsof the app is to train models to monitor different aspects of spoken fluency to mimic listeners’
perceived fluency judgments so that listeners are free to use their attentional resources forcomprehension.
We currently do not have a model that can mimic listeners’ perceived fluency judgments.
However, adding listener-based evaluation might increase students’ metalinguistic awareness of
spoken fluency and its dimensions of breakdowns, repairs, and speed. For example, if students
know that pausing frequently to recall words decreases fluency, and then they receive feedback
from the mobile application and peer feedback that they often pause, then they might feelcompelled to seek out and utilize strategies to improve their performance. For this reason, we
included a page about different strategies for improving spoken fluency that students will bedirected to after reading automated comments about their performance in the feedback section.
Figure 3 below includes representations of the survey, progress, and strategy pages.

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Figure 3
Survey, Progress, and Strategy Pages (From Rappeneker, 2023)

In the first photo from the left, in the future, application users will be able to view
their speech rate for each of the three rounds of 3/2/1 across the semester. At the bottom of thepage, the application will calculate the percentage of change between performances and offer
feedback on strategies to improve their performance. In the second photo from the left, users
will be able to see averages from their listening partners’ spoken fluency evaluations as well as
a summary of their performance generated by the application. In the third photo from the left,
there are three survey questions regarding the last 3/2/1 performance. This information will also
be displayed in the feedback section along with the results of their speech rate and listening
partners’ evaluations. The questions are:
• How easy was the topic?
• How interesting was it?
• How do you feel about your performance?
We included these questions because external factors such as topic familiarity andinterest can affect spoken fluency performance. These questions are given to speakers after thethree rounds. In the last photo from the left, users can view a page regarding different strategies
that they can use to improve their spoken fluency performance. They can click on the buttonand view different activities and ideas under each category.
Concerning the final image, users are presented with an informative page delineatinga spectrum of strategies aimed at enhancing their spoken fluency. They can interact with thecontent by clicking on a designated button, revealing an array of activities and ideas organizedby category:• Brainstorming• Vocabulary building53

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To fortify students’ monologic fluency on familiar topics, the application suggests thatstudents engage in brainstorming activities. Techniques include creating word webs, providing
a structure for ideas and thoughts, and employing the 5WH method (i.e., discussing the what,
why, where, when, who, and how) to expand original ideas. Vocabulary building emerges asa strategy, wherein students can leverage flashcards featuring topic-specific keywords andemployed phrases. Drawing from a repository of vocabulary utilized by previous students on
the given topic facilitates integration during speech. In this section, the discourse on meaningfocused mindset underscores the significance of fluency over rigid adherence to grammaticalperfection. Addressing the prevailing tendency, particularly in contexts such as Japan, wherean undue emphasis on accuracy can impede intelligibility, students are encouraged throughexplanation on prioritizing effective communication over linguistic precision. The rehearsal
section provides insights into the beneficial effects of pre-task rehearsals on spoken fluency.
Directing students towards solo practice sessions and elucidating the positive impact ofrehearsal on fluency development, this facet of the strategy suite empowers learners to refine
their oral proficiency. In sum, this collection of strategies not only serves as a valuable resource
for individuals seeking to enhance their spoken fluency, but also equips instructors with apedagogical framework to guide students through explicit instruction and activities on thevarious ways to develop spoken fluency.

Upcoming Studies
We are currently undertaking two research studies. First, we have collected over 200
recordings of students’ 1-minute monologues to determine the extent to which the three methodsof data analysis can accurately determine students’ untrimmed speech rate within the classroom
context. The three potential methods are: Apple’s speech-to-text, Whisper X’s speech-to-text,
and pitch detection. With this information, we hope to provide instructors and students withmore information on the reliability of results as well as the ability to contextualize and interpretthe results. In the second research study, we created training videos to help listeners evaluate
their speaking partners’ speeches. We are testing the extent to which listeners are able to rate acertain performance reliably. In other words, we would like to know whether we have createdan evaluation system whereby students can trust the results from listener-based feedback as anauthentic reflection of their spoken fluency ability.

Conclusion
In summary, the evaluation of spoken fluency in the context of L2 learning is recognized54

A Guide to Using a Mobile Application to Track Spoken Fluency

as a complex and challenging endeavor, particularly within classroom settings. This complexity
is compounded by factors such as noise, lack of privacy, and time constraints, making thecollection of data for assessment a formidable task. To date, there is an absence of a MALL
application designed to comprehensively track the various facets of L2 spoken fluency forstudents and provide customized feedback in educational environments. The current situation
at Rikkyo University’s EDC underscores the absence of a quantitative method for instructors
to monitor students’ spoken fluency development throughout the semester, despite the course’s
specific goal of enhancing spoken fluency. We address this gap by presenting an instructionalguide for EDC instructors on how to effectively integrate the mobile application into theirclasses. This innovative approach has the potential to significantly enhance the fluency
development of L2 learners within a structured educational context.

References
Hurling, S. (2012). Introduction to EDC. New Directions in Teaching and Learning English
Discussion, 1, 2–10.
Kang, O., Rubin, D., & Kermad, A. (2019). The effect of training and rater differences on oral
proficiency assessment. Language Testing, 36(4), 481–504.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532219849522
Lennon, P. (2000). The lexical element in spoken second language fluency. In H. Riggenbach(Ed.), Perspectives on fluency (pp. 25–42). The University of Michigan Press.
Maurice, K. (1983). The fluency workshop. TESOL Newsletter, 17(4), 29.
Munro, M. J., & Derwing, T. M. (1995). Foreign accent, comprehensibility, and intelligibility
in the speech of second language learners. Language Learning, 45(1), 73–97.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1995.tb00963.x
Munro, M. J., & Derwing, T. M. (1997). Accent, intelligibility, and comprehensibility: Evidence
from four L1s. Studies in second language acquisition, 19(1), 1–16.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263197001010
Nation, I. S. P., & Newton, J. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL Listening and Speaking. Routledge.
Ogawa, C. (2022). CAF indices and human ratings of oral performances in an opinion-basedmonologue task. Language Testing in Asia, 12, 4.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-022-00154-9
Rappeneker, J. (2023). English fluency (Version 1.0) [Mobile app]. TestFlight.
https://testflight.apple.com/join/nJmHTaMh
Rossiter, M., Derwing, T., Manimtim, L., & Thomson, R. (2010). Oral Fluency: The Neglected
Component in the Communicative Language Classroom. The Canadian Moden
Language Review–La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes, 66(4), 583–606.
https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.66.4.583
Segalowitz, N. (2010). Cognitive Bases of Second Language Fluency. Routledge.
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https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203851357
Segalowitz, N. (2016). Second language fluency and its underlying cognitive and social
determinants. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 54(2),79–95. https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2016-9991
Segalowitz, N., & Freed, B. F. (2004). Context, contact, and cognition in oral fluency
acquisition: Learning Spanish in at-home and study abroad contexts. Studies in Second
Language Acquisition, 26(2), 173–199. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263104262027
Segalowitz, N., & Segalowitz, S. J. (1993). Skilled performance, practice, and the differentiationof speed-up from automatization effects: Evidence from second language word
recognition. Applied Psycholinguistics, 14(3), 369–385.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716400010845
Sturges, J., Arthurson, D., Itoi, K., Koike, A., & Reid, S. (2023). What’s your opinion?
Interactive skills for effective discussion – Book II (3rd ed.). Rikkyo University.
Suzuki, S., Kormos, J., & Uchihara, T. (2021). The relationship between utterance and perceived
fluency: A meta-analysis of correlational studies. The Modern Language Journal,
105(2), 435–463. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12706
Tavakoli, P. (2016). Fluency in monologic and dialogic task performance: Challenges in defining
and measuring L2 fluency. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language
Teaching, 54(2), 133–150. https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2016-9994
Tavakoli, P., & Hunter, A. M. (2018). Is fluency being ‘neglected’ in the classroom? Teacher
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56

Teaching Practice Report

Current News Through English Media:
Teaching Critical Consumption of the News

Jason Clarke

Abstract
Rikkyo University’s new CLIL curriculum includes a course called “Current News
Through English Media”. The purpose of this course is to allow students to learn
about world events from English-language news sources. The design of the course
is based around completion of CEFR tasks such as understanding, summarizing,and giving opinions about news texts. In addition to this, when a trial version ofthis course was taught in 2022, it was decided to also introduce critical reading
skills based on concepts from discourse analysis and journalism studies. This
included looking at the structure of news stories, how news reportage is affectedby bias, and the characteristics of various genres of news reporting such as opinion/
editorial articles. It was found that this encouraged more critical, rather than passive,
consumption of news content. Students were able to see how the production of news
content influenced how it was presented to the consumer.
Keywords: Critical thinking, Media, Discourse analysis, CLIL

Introduction
This article will outline the planning and teaching of a trial course called “Current News
Through English Media” in the 2022 academic year. It will begin with a discussion of how thecourse was developed to conform with Rikkyo’s new CLIL curriculum, including considerationof CEFR tasks and a “4C” framework. There was also an added focus on encouraging students
to consume news critically. Following this, several lessons which were taught during the course
will be described. Finally, the article will conclude with a reflection on the course as well asplanned changes for the course in the next academic year.

Course Design
When the framework of CLIL courses was created for Rikkyo’s new curriculum, it was
decided to offer the Current News through English Media class to increase students’ awarenessof current issues (Yamamoto & Nitta, 2021). However, the new curriculum has also been57

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designed from “an action-oriented approach” based on CEFR tasks (Yamamoto & Nitta, 2021).
This means it was also necessary to identify tasks for students to complete aside from simply
increasing their knowledge of news events. The course description for the trial course as givenin the syllabus states:
The aims of this course are for the students to listen to and read English-language news
while learning about a variety of topical issues. The students will be able to read andunderstand short news texts about current topics. They will also learn to understandrecorded news bulletins such as from television or radio. The students will be able toexplain the main points of a news story and give their opinion about it.
It was decided not to use a textbook. This was to allow news stories discussed in class to
be topical and current. Although a textbook may have had advantages, especially for lower-level
students, the news stories included quickly become dated. Not using a textbook also allowed
the topics and stories chosen to be tailored to student interests and needs. Instead, stories weretaken from English language online news sources. These included both written sources such as
newspaper websites and video sources including CNN. This use of authentic materials allows
students to learn about different cultures as well as learn English (Mehisto, 2012). In addition,using authentic news material encourages students to think critically about world issues andhow they are reported (Moglen, 2014).

4C Framework
When designing the course, the 4C framework also used in the pilot debate course (Nitta& Yamamoto, 2020) was helpful. According to Nitta and Yamamoto (2020), “the four core
Cs are designed and organically integrated into the curriculum…the four Cs are not mutually
exclusive but are closely integrated and complement each other” (p. 55). These concepts weretaken into account when designing this course.
Content (Subject Matter)
Because of the need for the course to be topical, it was difficult to select specific topics
in advance. However, because news contains a variety of genres, topics, and media, it isimportant to cover a wide variety in the course. This could include political news, business
news, sports, entertainment, editorials, letters to the editor, and other types of news material.
There was a desire to include a variety of news genres and news sources. Finally, because thecourse was intended to teach listening skills as well as reading skills, it was necessary to include
both print and video news (Merino & Massi, 1998).
When selecting topics, there were a number of considerations, including the need tomatch the CEFR goals set in the syllabus and the skills and strategies outlined in the syllabus
58Current News Through English Media: Teaching Critical Consumption of the Newsschedule. As much as possible, an attempt was made to move from easier lessons to moredifficult lessons. This meant moving from easier and familiar forms of cognition to morechallenging and demanding ones, increasing linguistic and cognitive demand–moving fromfamiliar language and content to new language and content, and moving from lower-order
thinking skills (remembering, evaluating, applying) to higher order (analyzing, evaluating,creating).
In addition, student interest was taken into account. A survey was given to students inthe first class to ask them what areas of news they were interested in studying. These lists werethen used in conjunction with the educational needs of the class to determine the topics to bestudied in the semester. Students were most interested in events which were current news at thetime of the research. For example, 12 students listed Russia’s invasion of Ukraine as one of the
topics they would like to study. The next most common response was the coronavirus pandemic.
However, only five students chose this. Some mentioned that they had been talking about thisin classes for two years and were tired of it. Other topics listed by one to three students eachwere new technology, business, gossip, diplomacy between China and America, international
affairs, animals, good news, Japan, and France. Of course, it was not possible to include all ofthese in the course due to other pedagogical considerations.
Communication (Language Learning and Using)
The skills to be taught during the course were based on the CEFR objectives set in thesyllabus. The course objectives were taken from CEFR B1 and B1+.
• understand the main points of news bulletins (B1)• recognize significant points in straightforward news articles (B1)• make basic inferences or predictions about text content from headings, titles, orheadlines. (B1)
• understand a large part of many TV programs on topics of personal interest such as
interviews, short lectures, and news reports (B1+)• understand short texts on subjects in which people give their points of view (B1+)• summarize and give their opinion about an article, interview or documentary andanswer questions about the topic (B1+)
Some of these skills (i.e., making inferences, summarizing, etc.) were previously studied
by students during their 1st year Reading & Writing courses. To help students read and analyze
stories more critically, it was also decided to introduce a few basic concepts and ideas from
Journalism Studies and Critical Discourse Analysis. Students were introduced to ideas such as
how people and events are represented, the use of quotations to support a point of view, bias
in the news, and the narrative structure of news stories. In this way, as well as learning about
current events, students learn to look critically at any text. This approach accustoms students to59

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thinking about how the news is presented rather than simply looking at the content of the news
itself (Park, 2011). It has also been found that teaching these kinds of skills and techniques tostudents improves their critical language awareness (Dar et al., 2010; Hashemi & Ghanizadeh,2012).
Cognition (Learning and Thinking Processes)
Instead of simply reading articles passively to learn what they say about current events,
students have to use a variety of thinking skills. They first read or listen to a text and must
carefully analyze it to develop their own opinion on an issue. They also have to support theiropinions using reference to the text itself and its context, as well as their own experiences andbackgrounds.
Culture (Developing Intercultural Understanding and Global Citizenship)
Because of the focus of this course, students learn about a wide variety of global issues.
They are also encouraged to think about how perceptions and reporting of these issues can varyfrom culture to culture. It is also hoped that students will learn not to accept the perspectiveof the media they are exposed to uncritically and will instead learn to examine issues from avariety of perspectives.

Course Schedule
In each class a different news topic was covered. Students were given an article toread or a video to watch to prepare for the class. They were generally sent a link to the story aweek before each class. This allowed the content presented in the class to remain as current as
possible while also allowing students to preview what would be studied. In addition, academic
and news reading skills were introduced and practiced. These skills included general academic
skills such as skimming, summarizing, and inferring meaning from context. More specifically,
news-related skills such as identifying the parts of a news story, understanding the main pointsof a news story, identifying bias, and understanding points of view were also included.

Sample Lessons
This article will discuss three examples of lessons given during the course. The lessons
chosen for discussion in this section are ones which focus on skills specific to the genre of news
stories. This includes examining how news stories are structured as compared to a standard
narrative, looking at how bias can influence the reporting of a story, and seeing how opinion/
editorial articles differ from more straightforward news reporting.

60Current News Through English Media: Teaching Critical Consumption of the NewsThe Structure of News Stories
The main focus of this lesson is on making students aware of the structural differences
between a personal narrative and a news article. Labov and Waletzky (1967) and Labov (1972)
have identified six elements of a narrative: the abstract (the main point of the narrative),orientation (who, when, where), complicating action (the main events of the story), evaluation(why the story is important), resolution (the conclusion), and coda (marks the end of the story).
In a narrative, these elements generally appear in this order.
In a news article, many of these elements also appear, albeit with several importantdifferences (Bell, 1991). For example, the abstract and the orientation tend to appear in the firstparagraph of the story. The evaluation also often occurs at the beginning of the article to show
why the story is newsworthy. In contrast to a standard narrative, the resolution does not appear
in its chronological place at the end of the story. If the news story has a resolution, it will also
be described at the beginning of the article. Another difference is that news stories are rarely
told in chronological order. News value dictates the order in which events appear in the article.
Finally, because the function of a coda is to mark the end of the narrative and allow others to
respond, it is not necessary in a news article.
After an explanation of the elements of a narrative and how they are used in news
media, students were given a short article. In pairs, they identified the different elements asthey appeared in the article. They also had to arrange the events of the article into chronologicalorder. The article, with numbers indicating the order of events, appears below:(4) Tama Zoological Park in Hino, Tokyo, said Wednesday that (2) its baby red kangaroo“Hop” escaped from an enclosed area on Tuesday afternoon. (3) The female kangaroo
was rounded up within the park in about 4 minutes and no zookeepers or visitors were
injured.
(1) According to the park, Hop was born at the facility in July. (2) At around 2:15
p.m. on Tuesday, she suddenly escaped when a zookeeper took her to sunbathe at amaintenance passage within an enclosed area of the park that is not accessible to the
public. (3) When Hop ventured out on the parkway, where park visitors walk, thezookeeper caught her.
(5) “We will try to prevent a recurrence by having several people accompany her in the
future,” a park official said.
Students were asked to identify the parts of the narrative and discuss why the story is
told in this order They were also asked “Do you think this is an important news story? Why do
you think it was included in the newspaper?”Bias in the NewsFor this lesson, students were given two articles to read for homework. These were an61

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Asahi Shimbun article (2020) titled “Japan accuses China of pushing territorial claims during
pandemic” and an article called “Japanese conservatives disrupt recovering China-Japan ties byhyping Diaoyu Islands dispute” in the Chinese government-sponsored Global Times (Sheng &Xiaojing, 2020). Each of these articles looked at the same issue from the different perspectivesof both a Japanese and a Chinese news source. However, care must be taken in the selection ofcontroversial issues such as this, including taking into account the make-up of the class.
We began the lesson by looking at the function and structure of headlines. Students
looked at how headlines are written with a specific style of grammar. For example, grammaticalwords such as articles are often omitted. We also studied the purposes of headlines. They
not only give information and summarize the story as briefly as possible; they are also used
to manipulate opinion (Reah, 1998). An example of this is the use of words with strong
connotation, such as “accuses”, “pushing”, “disrupt”, and “hyping” in the above examples.
After reading through the articles and checking understanding, the students were put ingroups for a discussion. This discussion focused on two questions:• Look at the photo captions. Global Times: “Daioyu Island in the East China Sea and its
affiliated islands have always been China’s inherent territory”. Asahi Shimbun: “Thedisputed Senkaku islands in the East China Sea in 2013”. What do you think about
the difference?
• T he Global Times blames “Japanese conservatives” for disrupting Japan-China
relations. The Asahi Shimbun accuses China of pushing territorial claims and spreading
propaganda and disinformation. Do you think the newspapers are biased in reporting
this story?
Following the discussions, students were assigned to write a journal entry on Blackboard
explaining their ideas on the topic. Below are a few extracts from the journal entries:• When I read this article, I thought Chinese writer use very offensive words. They
insisted this island is ours and Japan always make some problems. He didn’t use“discuss” or “dispute” which make the article more neutral. I felt Japan became likea villain. Japan also accused of China’s activities and opinion, but Japanese article ismore neutral than China’s one.
• Firstly, I feel China use little strong word in their news. They said the island is “China’s
inherent territory”. They clearly consist their positions like “This is my island!”.
Secondary, I felt in the Asahi Shin-bun, there are many Japanese identical expressions.
I cannot tell well clearly but Japanese news looks standing neutral position, however
they really want to tell that it is mine.
• At today’s lesson, we read two newspapers and compared Chinese side and Japanside. I think both two papers have biased. Global times convinced that Diaoyu island
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Current News Through English Media: Teaching Critical Consumption of the News

have been always Chinese territory. I think this is a strong bias. At first glance, Asahi
newspaper is objective by using the word, that is “dispute”. However, when I read thisarticle, I feel this paper doesn’t said Japan but only Chinese bad things, for example
Chinese are lying that U.S military brought Covid-19.
As can be seen from these journal entries, students were able to understand how word
choice and how a story is presented can indicate bias in news reporting. Students see that there
is more than one way of looking at a particular issue.
Opinion/Editorial Articles
One objective of this course was to make students aware of the different genres within
the broader category of “news”. Other than advertising, everything in a newspaper can bedivided into three categories: service information (weather forecasts, stock prices, etc.), opinion(editorials, letters to the editor, columns, etc.), and news (Bell, 1991). In this lesson, we examine
the differences between a standard news story and an opinion article or editorial. One maindifference is that an opinion article is not simply reporting news; it is also giving the writer’sideas about an issue or topic.
As with most of the lessons, we begin by reading through a news article on a current
news topic. For this lesson, we used a column with the title “Education politics should consider
reasons to learn English” (Hattori, 2022). Because this is a topic that all students will already befamiliar with, it is possible to focus on how the story is reported rather than on the content itself.
After reading through the article carefully, checking comprehension, and reviewing
difficult vocabulary, the students discussed the following question in pairs: “Look at the article
carefully. What differences can you see between a column and a standard news article?” Somepossible answers for this question could include:• Use of “I” and personal narratives• Ends with the author’s name and photo• Arguing in favor of a particular point• Use of modal verbs like “should” and “may”• More casual, conversational tone (for example, phrases like “As you may know”)
This discussion of the structural and discourse features of the article was followed witha discussion in groups of the issue itself:• Why do you study English?
• Do you think it will be necessary to study English in the future?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of using AI for communicating in a foreign
language? Do you think it is good to use AI?
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Survey Results
In the final week of the course, students were asked to complete a survey through
Google Forms. They were asked six questions:
1. What topics were the most interesting this semester? What topics were the least
interesting?
2. D
 o you think you read or watch news more than you did before starting this course?
Please explain your answer.
3. Do you think you read news more critically than you did before starting this course?
Please explain your answer.
4. Has your opinion about the media changed or stayed the same since starting thiscourse? Why or why not?
5. Will you continue to read or watch the news after finishing this course? Why or why
not?
6. D
 o you have any suggestions for changes to this course?
Four of the students named the story about the Senkaku Islands as the most interestingin the course. One student said “It was interesting to compare the same topic in Japanese andChinese news site. From that, I learned that I should collect several different news articles
when you want to know something and compare them, not try to know from only one article.”
Another said “The topic about the Senkaku island was the most interesting. Because we readJapanese article and Chinese article, and both have some biases and propaganda. So, I thought
it is important for us to read carefully so that prevent misunderstanding of the problem.”
Other popular stories covered during the course were a BBC video called “Sexless inJapan”, which showed how stereotypes were commonly used in media representation of Japan,
and a story about Shohei Ohtani. This was mostly popular with students who were interested
in baseball.
The Ohtani story was also mentioned by three students as the least interesting because
they were not interested in baseball. Stories about global warming and Covid-19 were also
named as the least interesting. The reason for this is that these topics had already been heavily
covered in other classes and students were tired of talking about them.
In response to the question, “Do you think you read news more critically than you did
before starting this course?”, seventeen students replied “Yes”. Some of the reasons for thiswere:
• “learned even news in CNN can be biased and saw how they do it”• “now I do not believe the news easily, but try to check different media to be sure about
the information”
64Current News Through English Media: Teaching Critical Consumption of the News• “I get different perspective that I didn’t have”
Two students replied “No” to this question but said this was because they already readthe news critically before they took the course. One student replied “I don’t know”.
In response to the question “Has your opinion about the media changed or stayed
the same since starting this course? Why or why not?”, fourteen students answered, “Yes, itchanged”. Many of them said that the reason for this was that the course had made them moreaware of bias in the news. For example, one student answered, “Actually my opinion haschanged. I learned that some news article like “column” have bias.”
Finally, all the students answered “Yes” when asked if they will continue to watch orread the news after completing the course.

Conclusion
As mentioned in the introduction, one of the reasons that this course has been added tothe curriculum at Rikkyo was “to increase students’ awareness of current issues”. By choosing
topics based on student interest and on events that were currently happening in the world,
students were given the opportunity to think about and discuss a wide range of national andinternational issues, including the war in the Ukraine, Chinese-Japanese relations, and global
warming.
In addition to this, students learned various skills to use when consuming the news.
Some of these skills, such as skimming, scanning, and listening for the main idea, may havealready been familiar to students from other courses. Others, including identifying bias in anews story, understanding the structure of a narrative in a news story, and distinguishing an
opinion/editorial article from news reportage, were more specific to the activity of consuming
news content.
Finally, students were encouraged to think about how a story was reported rather thansimply accepting the content of the news story. The student responses in the end-of-semester
questionnaire showed that students felt that the skills taught in the course allowed them to lookat news more critically. For example, they were able to see how a news source’s potential bias
can influence how a story is presented. Students were encouraged to interpret news events forthemselves rather than passively accepting what was presented in a newspaper or on TV news.

References
Bell, A. (1991). The Language of News Media. Wiley-Blackwell.
Dar, Z. K., Rahimi, A., & Shams, M. R. (2010). Teaching reading with a critical attitude: using
critical discourse analysis (CDA) to raise EFL university students’ critical language
awareness (CLA). International Journal of Criminology and Sociological Theory, 3(2),65多言語教育実践ジャーナル

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457–476.
Hashemi, M. R., & Ghanizadeh, A. (2012). Critical discourse analysis and critical thinking: An
experimental study in an EFL context. System, 40, 37–47.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2012.01.009
Hattori, M. (2022, June 18). Education politics should consider reasons to learn English. The
Japan News. https://japannews.yomiuri.co.jp/editorial/political-pulse/20220618-38499/
Japan accuses China of pushing territorial claims during pandemic. (2020, July 14). The Asahi
Shimbun. https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/13543451
Labov, W. (1972). The transformation of experience in narrative syntax. Language in the innercity, 354–396.
Labov, W., & Waletzky, J. (1967). Narrative analysis: Oral versions of personal experience. In J.
Helm (Ed.), Essays on the Verbal and Visual Arts (pp. 12–44). University of Washington
Press. Reprinted in the Journal of Narrative and Life History, 7(1–4), 3–38, 1997.
Mehisto, P. (2012). Criteria for producing CLIL learning material. Encuentro, 21, 15–33.
Merino, A., & Massi, M. P. (1998). Using the news in the classroom: A discourse approach.
English Teaching Forum July-September, 16–21.
Moglen, D. (2014). Tuning in: using the news for a content-based ESL Class. The CATESOLJournal, 26(1), 29–36.
Nitta, R., & Yamamoto, Y. (2020). Reconceptualizing CLIL from transformative pedagogy
perspective: pilot debate study in English language curriculum. Journal of Foreign
Language Education and Research, 1, 47–62.
Park. Y. (2011). Using news articles to build a critical literacy classroom in an EFL setting.
TESOL Journal, 2(1), 24–51. https://doi.org/10.5054/tj.2011.244134
Reah, D. (1998) The Language of Newspapers. Routledge.
Sheng, Y., & Xiaojing, X. (2020, June 9). Japanese conservatives disrupt recovering ChinaJapan ties by hyping Diaoyu Islands dispute. Global Times.
https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/1191070.shtml
Yamamoto Y., & Niita R. (2021). Action-oriented approach to curriculum development in CLIL
courses: A theoretical and methodological framework. Journal of Foreign Language
Education and Research, 2, 122–135.

66

Teaching Practice Report

Getting Started With Graded Readers in the Classroom:
Five Pre-Reading and Reading Activities
Jeremiah Dutch

Abstract
In this paper, learner autonomy, self-access, and graded readers (GRs) will be
discussed as integral aspects of extensive reading (ER) and the virtuous cycle ofreading. Five pre-reading and reading activities for English language learners will
be outlined that can be adapted and adopted freely into an English language learning
program at a Japanese university. The goal is to introduce post-secondary-level
Japanese English language learners to GRs with an idea towards fostering ER, learnerautonomy, the virtuous cycle of reading, and self-access, both within, and beyond,the scope and requirements of the course. “The Five-Finger Rule” helps students
choose a GR at an appropriate level. Calculating reading time helps students withtime management and builds confidence, accountability, and motivation. The “Blurbs
and Titles” matching activity introduces students to more GRs as does discussion
with other students. Finally, allowing time for ER in the classroom enables teachers
to monitor the activity. Lastly, this paper will discuss areas for future research.
Keywords: Extensive reading, Graded readers, Learner autonomy, Self-access, Virtuous cycle ofreading

Introduction
Within the principle of the four strands of a well-balanced language learning program as
defined by Nation (1996)–meaning-focused input, meaning-focused output, language-focusedlearning, and fluency development, Extensive Reading (ER) lies in the reading component of
meaning-focused import. At Rikkyo University, ER is introduced as a part of the Reading andWriting (RW) course in the English Language Program (ELP).
ER is in contrast with Intensive Reading (IR) which emphasizes short but challenging
reading focusing on structure and vocabulary, often only single paragraphs, or sentences.
Researchers have pointed out that Japanese English language learners are likely to be morefamiliar with IR than ER. For example, Mizuno (2015) emphasized how little English reading
students actually do in six years of English language classes in Japanese junior and senior highschools. To help familiarize students with ER and its advantages for English language learning67

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this paper will introduce five pre-reading and reading activities for Graded Readers (GRs)which, typical of most programs, make up the bulk of the ER material at Rikkyo.
Although ER has many benefits, significant improvement in students’ learning,knowledge of the world, etc., are likely to occur only after reading several GRs. It should be
noted that students in RW courses are only exposed to ER with the hope of future voluntary
reading in English as a habit, similar to Nutall’s (2005) concept of the virtuous cycle of reading
and opposite to the vicious cycle of reading (See figures 1 & 2).
Figure 1
The Virtuous Cycle of Reading

Enjoyreading

Read More

Read faster

Understandmore

Figure 2
The Vicious Cycle of Reading

68

Doesn'tunderstandReads
slowlyDoesn'tread much

Doesn't
enjoy
readingGetting Started With Graded Readers in the Classroom: Five Pre-Reading and Reading Activities

Literature Review
What is ER?
There are several definitions of ER. As early as 1917, Palmer used the term to describe
reading large amounts of meaning-focused text. In more recent decades, ER has been heavily
researched and defined. Its benefits are well-documented, not just for meaning-focused input,
but also for the other strands, and more.
Davis (1995) characterizes ER as “a supplementary class library scheme, attached to an
English course in which pupils are given time, encouragement and materials to read pleasurably
at their own level, without the pressures of testing or marks” (p. 329).
Day and Bamford (1998) have described ten principles of ER:
1. Students read as much as possible
2. A variety of materials on a wide range of topics is available
3. Students select what they want to read
4. The purposes of reading are usually related to pleasure, information, and general
understanding
5. Reading is its own reward (no major evaluation)
6. Reading materials are well within the linguistic competence of the students
7. Reading is individual and silent			
8. Reading speed is usually faster rather than slower
9. Teachers orient students to the goals of the program
10. The teacher is a role model of a reader for students(pp. 7–8, see also Day & Bamford, 2002)
Departing to some extent from the focus on the intrinsic value of reading, more recently
ER has been described as having four distinct types. According to Extensive Reading Central(n.d.), they are:Purist ER program
Lots of self-selected reading at home with no / little assessment or follow up. Often isa stand-alone class. This version of ER is best presented by Stephen Krashen and his
followers. This type is the one most ER practitioners know from the 10 features of an
ER program in Day and Bamford’s book whereby the read should
Integrated ER programThis type of ER is one that works in tandem with normal classes. Typically students
have a course work and lots of ‘study’ either as with the same teacher or with others.
There tends to be a lot of self-selected reading at home and in class. There are often
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follow up exercises / reports which aim to build the 4 skills.
Class reading – study
In this type of ER, students read the same book at or about the class’ level and workthrough it slowly. This is a very high-control form of ER and the book the class reads
is likely to be the only one they read in the semester. The book is often treated as aserial story with one chapter read every week or fortnight. It often involves a lot ofwork on the vocabulary follow up exercises, tests and so forth. Lots of follow up /comprehension work and exercises.
ER as ‘literature’
This is similar to Class Reading in that the students read the same book but they discuss
it as if it were a work of literature.

Research on ER
There is a large body of empirical research on ER, including studies by Mason,(Mason 2006; Mason & Krashen, 1997 and Williams, 2009). The positive results have been
widely documented for several decades. As early as 1981, Elley and Mangubhai organized aneight-month study of primary school students in Fiji and found significant gains in generallanguage proficiency. Janopoulos (1986) also found ER improved students’ writing proficiency.
Vocabulary gains were reported by Pitts et al. (1989), Lai (1993a, 1993b), and Hafiz & Tudor(1990).
Renandya and Jacobs (2002) summarized the benefits of ER as follows:
1. Enhanced language learning in such areas as spelling, vocabulary, grammar, and text
structure.
2. I ncreased knowledge of the world.
3. I mproved reading and writing skills.
4. G reater enjoyment of reading.
5. M ore positive attitude toward reading.
6. H igher possibility of developing a reading habit (p. 298)
What are GRs?
Concurrent with the rise in interest in and practice of ER there has been an increase in
ER material, namely GRs, particularly with the advent of electronic copies of GRs, especiallyon such platforms as Xreading VL GRs are, according to Extensive Reading Central (n.d.)books written for language learners which have simplified vocabulary and grammar to allow
for easier reading. GRs are usually a part of a series of books ranging from very easy to very70

Getting Started With Graded Readers in the Classroom: Five Pre-Reading and Reading Activities

difficult.
What are Learner Autonomy and Self Access?
Concerning the activities that will be described in the paper, among Bamford and Day’s(2004) principles, three, five, six, and nine come into play the most. Three, five, and six are inline with the concepts of learner autonomy and self-access. Learner autonomy, as defined by
Holec (1981) as, “the ability to take charge of one’s own learning” (p. 3) through deliberate
guidance by instructors. Closely related is the idea of self-access, characterized by Diaz (2012)
as “the organization of learning materials and equipment made available and accessible tostudents without necessarily having a teacher present” (p. 117).

Introducing ER and GRs in the Classroom
Because ER involves reading a lot of text and is likely to be less familiar to students
than IR, it is important to introduce the concept and have students choose GRs early in the term.
If possible, teachers may wish to guide students’ choices of GRs at the library and/or online.
Students should be made aware of what ER is and its potential benefits for them, including,and maybe especially, increased vocabulary knowledge. Indeed Nagashima (2017) foundstudents who read English extensively reported “an overall positive … including vocabularygain, reading fluency and (a) positive attitude towards reading in English” (p. 240). With this inmind, testimonials from students in previous classes can be used to encourage and give advice
to students as well. For example: “Start early” or “pick books that interest you.” They also canbe directed to this testimonial video from the Extensive Reading Foundation (ERF): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=THHJR4s1UB4.
Along with introducing ER and GRs, the underlying principles of the following fiveactivities are self-access and guided learner autonomy. They can be sequenced in any order, andany number can be omitted. Also, they are designed to be freely adapted and adopted to suitand fit the needs, goals, and objectives of the course, as well as the constraints of the learning
environment.
Activity One – “The Five-Finger Rule”
Once students have either a paper or electronic copy of a GR, they should bring it toclass. It is important that learners choose GRs at a highly comprehensible level. According to
Nation and Meara (2002), students should understand 98% of the vocabulary in a graded reader
to allow for implicit learning. ELP’s in-house reading book: Reading for the Future: Developing
Reading Skills in the College Classroom (Garside et al., 2019) echoes this as instructions to thestudents. There are several other ways students can select a GR that is not too difficult, including
a reading level test by the publisher Macmillan also given as instruction in the textbook. It is
one of many online placement tests. Although listed levels vary from publisher to publisher,71

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most GRs are arranged by standardized test scores and headwords. Moreover, in recent years
there has been an effort to create combined scales of GRs (Holster et al., 2017). Another method
to find a suitable GR is Hiebert and Reutzel’s (2010) “Five-Finger Rule” in which students are
asked to find the number of unknown words on a full page of text, excluding proper nouns. If
there are more than they can count on the fingers of one hand, the book is probably too difficult.
Four to five unknown words is a “challenging” text. Three to two unknown words are probably
just right, and zero to one unknown words might be too easy. It should not be forgotten howeverthat students should also pick a GR that interests them.
Activity Two – Reading Time
The second activity again asks students to read another complete page of text, only
this time they are asked to time themselves to find out how long it takes them to read one page
uninterrupted. Students and teachers may also wish to again count the number of unknown
words to confirm reading ease, but the goal of the activity is the estimate how long it will takestudents to read their entire GR, by multiplying the reading time of one page by the number ofpages in the book.
Students may be surprised that it is likely to be not more than a few hours and evenless when they look closer and realize how much of the book is not text. When students take
into account white space, pictures, activities after the reading, front matter, back matter, etc.,
they will realize their estimated reading time is likely to be much less. The aim is to motivate
students and give them a sense of time management for ER, which previous research by
Nagashima (2017) indicates is an issue for Japanese university English language learners.
Activity Three – “Blurbs and Titles”
Bamford and Day’s (2004) “Blurbs and Titles” is a simple matching activity asking
students to connect book descriptions (blurbs) on the back of a GR with the title. This can be
an in-class activity with the blurbs and titles spread around the room and individual pen andpaper assignments, or a digital activity. The aim is to introduce more GRs and to foster morecuriosity about what students may wish to read next.
Activity Four – Discussion
Students may not have completed reading their first GR, but they can discuss theirreading choices with other students in pairs or small groups, i.e.: Who is the author? What is
the genre? What is it about? When is it set (if fiction)? Where is it set (if fiction)? Why did theychoose that particular book? How many pages is it? These questions can be provided by theteacher or generated by the students themselves. Like the blurbs and titles activity, they canhelp students choose their next GR and/or help students understand what they are reading better.

72

Getting Started With Graded Readers in the Classroom: Five Pre-Reading and Reading Activities

Activity Five – In-Class Reading
If time permits, teachers may want to allow for more reading beyond the two pages
mentioned in the previous activities to monitor and give them a “head start.” For example, if
students are frequently looking up the words, the teacher may want to suggest an easier GR.
Teachers may even wish to model the activity by reading themselves.

Conclusion and Areas for Future Research and Discussion
ER is balanced within a course that meets 14 times a term for 100 minutes each time.
This tight schedule allows for little in-class instruction of this component. However, theactivities outlined in this article are designed to foster better self-access and learner autonomy
which are essential to ER. Ideally, this will lead to more ER beyond what the scope of RW
allows for.
There are several research questions that might be asked about ER in the ELP. By
Extensive Reading Central (n.d.) definitions “Integrated” probably comes the closest to
describing ER in RW, but students are only required to read one GR for each of the two terms.
Although the intention is merely exposure to ER and to encourage more voluntary reading in
English, should students be required to read more? This goes against the purist route of ER, butthere is a substantial amount of evidence that suggests a high word count per term results inbetter English proficiency (Beglar & Hunt, 2014; Beglar et al., 2014; Rutson-Griffiths & RutsonGriffiths, 2018). Lastly, this paper has only discussed pre-reading activities for the beginning of
the term in RW. Another area for future research and development in RW curriculum might bepost-reading activities, particularly alternatives to book reports, such as game-inspired character
sheets particularly for fiction GRs (Dutch, 2015).
Current RW course has changed from an existing course in April 2020. Researchcontinues to be conducted into ER. Regardless of whatever direction the RW course goesin with ER, the years to come will provide students and teachers with new challenges andopportunities.

Acknowledgment
The author would like to thank Danny Howard of NEC International College for suggesting
activity two in this paper.

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program. In A. M. Stoke (Ed.), JALT2009 Conference Proceedings (pp. 632–640).
Tokyo: JALT.
Nutall, C. (2005). Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language (3rd ed.). Macmillan.
Palmer, H. E. (1917). The scientific study and teaching of languages. Harrap. (Reissued in 1968
by Oxford University Press).
Pitts, M., White H., & Krashen, S. (1989). Acquiring second language vocabulary throughreading: A replication of the Clockwork Orange Study using second language acquirers.
Reading in a Foreign Language, 5(2), 271–275.
Renandya, W. A., & Jacobs, G. M. (2002). Extensive reading: Why aren’t we all doing it?
In J. C. Richards, & W. A. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in Language Teaching: An
Anthology of Current Practice (pp. 295–302).
Rutson-Griffiths, A., & Rutson-Griffiths, Y. (2018). The relationship between extensive reading
and TOEIC score gains. Hiroshima Bunkyo Women’s University journal of higher
education, 4, 41–50.
Williams, D. (2009). Revisiting the extensive reading effect on TOEFL scores. In A. M. Stoke(Ed.), JALT2008 Conference Proceedings (pp. 1168–1179). Tokyo: JALT.

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Teaching Practice Report

Utilizing Flip to Boost Class Cohesion

Jon Mahoney

Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of using the website andapplication, Flip, in an English discussion class with Japanese university students.
Despite the passing of the COVID-19 pandemic, current research has highlighted
that many Japanese university students are still reliant on wearing masks, which has
a detrimental impact on their ability to communicate effectively in communicativeclasses, with trust, empathy, timing, and recognition all impacted unfavorably
when mouths are obscured (Mahoney, 2023). It was presumed that the tool would
aid students in getting to know their peers more quickly and deeply, build theirconfidence of speaking without wearing a mask, and help boost students’ speaking
fluency in English. The implementation and utilization of the app is detailed, in
addition to actions taken to augment student engagement with the application. The
utilization of the tool and data retrieved from the participants are then considered andreflected upon. Finally, some recommendations are made for its use in future English
as foreign language classes with Japanese university students.
Keywords: Flip, Speaking, Masks, Fluency, Technology

Introduction
It is no small secret that facial expressions are an inherent part of the way humanbeings communicate. Subtle changes can be immediately detected and interpreted in minutiae
by interlocuters (Mahoney, 2023). People gather information from the facial expressionsof others, which helps them to predict events and situations, and prepares them to develop
suitable responses to them (Mheidly et al., 2020). Students have had to quickly adapt to using
their eyes and vocal tones more during the COVID-19 pandemic, with many students feeling
uncomfortable to show their faces and therefore use facial expressions, with these behaviors
having negative consequences on effective communication such as loss of nuance and inability
to form close bonds (Mahoney, 2023). Educators may have been wondering how to get students
to relax and feel confident to show their faces again. Technology provides Japanese university
students with instantaneous access to a vast amount of information and resources, whilst
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Utilizing Flip to Boost Class Cohesion

furnishing the opportunity to share their ideas on topics and to get to know their classmates
more deeply, and the chance to develop their critical thinking skills (Mahoney, 2021, 2022).
Millions of videos are posted on SNS every day. This realization prompted the author to utilize
the application Flip, (formerly known as Flipgrid) which is a platform where students can
primarily post videos, to boost students’ confidence in speaking without a mask, and to furnish
positive relations between them.
A total of 131 students took part in the study at a private University in Tokyo, Japan. All
the students were participating in the discussion module, a 14-week course with the primary
goal of having students discuss pertinent topics using a range of marked language skills. It
is necessary for instructors to encourage utmost verbal output from students and to assist in
constructing balanced and interactive discussions in English with their peers (Hurling, 2012).
Each class consists of 10–11 students, with each member placed into classes with other memberswith a similar English competence. Of the 12 participating classes, 3 were level 1 (TOEIC
scores of over 680), 4 were level 2 (TOEIC scores of 480–679), and 5 were level 3 (TOEIC
scores of 280–479). Ideally, 12- and 16-minute discussions take place in each lesson, and should
be balanced, interactive and co-constructed by all participants, with varying viewpoints.
After taking a weekly reading quiz at the start of each discussion class, students thenparticipate in a weekly 3-2-1 fluency activity. This activity is a modified version of Nation’s(1989) 4-3-2, in which participants speak about a topic three times, with a different interlocutor
each time. Participants are required to repeat the same ideas with each interlocutor. The amountof time given is reduced each time, from initially 3-minutes, down to 1-minute in the final
speaking turn, therefore requiring the speaker to speak faster and faster. Several studies support
this activity as a means of boosting fluency, (see de Jong & Perfetti, 2011; Thai & Boers,2016). However, from the author’s previous experience, students have often gotten stuck or
felt stressed during this activity due to a variety of reasons such as a lack of preparation andconfidence, and a lack of knowledge about the topic. Japanese students also tend to place greatemphasis on speaking with exactness and perfection, which can have a detrimental impact on
their fluency (Watanabe & Long III, 2019). The topics of the fluency questions are directly
related to the topic of the discussion class in that lesson. Students are required to read a passage
about the topic, for example, “Social Media” and then answer comprehension questions about
the passage at the start of each class. The students are given three minutes to complete the quiz,
which then directly leads into the 3-2-1 activity. The three questions are closely related to thereading, with the final question always being: “Share three interesting ideas or facts from thereading.”
The weekly homework set by the author was for the participants to record a 3-minutevideo on Filp to their answers to the three fluency questions that they would discuss in theirnext class. This task was in conjunction with the task of reading the passage in preparation for
the quiz at the start of each class.

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Literature Review
The application used in this study, Flip, is a free platform created for educational
purposes, with the intention of allowing students to post video responses to teacher questions(MacIsaac, 2020). Similarly, to threaded discussion forums, Flip generates threaded comments
and facilitates short video replies between students (Lowenthal & Moore, 2020). There havebeen several recent studies that have advocated Flip’s implementation in EFL classes. Tuyet
and Khang (2020) examined the use of Flip with 60 tenth grade students in Vietnam. Students
reported various advantages of Flip, such as reduced anxiety about speaking in English,
increased engagement, and optimism in learning English. Another study overseen by Keiper
et al. (2020) was conducted with ten undergraduate and graduate business education courses.
Participants reported that Flip was useful and helpful for them, with many highlighting that it
was fun and engaging to see their classmates on video and to interact with them in discussions
about their weekly classes. Others mentioned that they felt shy at first but gained confidence
gradually using the platform, making the class more interesting. Some disadvantages mentioned
included a 2-minute time-limit for videos and that the website was sometimes slow uploading
videos.
Feelings of increased confidence in speaking English were also reported by McLain(2018) due to increased speaking time between classes. Since Flip usage is asynchronous andallows students to participate comfortably at a place and at a time of their choosing, it has beenreported that this has had a positive impact on students’ connectedness in online classes andboosted their cognitive and social presence by using video replies and discussions (Bartlett,2018; Lowenthal & Moore, 2020; Serembus & Murphy, 2020), and has had a positive impact
on students’ engagement, feelings of community and connection (Delmas & Moore, 2019;
Holbeck & Hartman, 2018).
Positive findings about Flip have also been reported in a Japanese university context.
Petersen et al. (2020) detailed very favorable student feedback of their videos being watched bytheir classmates, after previously assuming that students would be hesitant to participate in suchan activity. In addition, Roarty (2023) has advocated its usage with Japanese university students
and argued that it “may be beneficial to Japanese EFL students who have limited opportunities
to use English outside the classroom” (p. 6).
As can be seen from the results of several studies, Flip would appear to be a usefulplatform for online learning. Discussion across language classes can be allocated smoothly byusing Flip, and it has the potential to improve speaking time, pronunciation, and cooperation
between students.

Procedure
The Flip application was introduced to students in the first class of the term. The author
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showed the students a video about how to use the application and helped students’ setup theiraccounts. The author then logged into his own Flip account in class on his smartphone and on
the classroom PC, showing how to record and post videos with either appliance. The students’reaction to the introduction of this application was mostly excitement, with some hesitation
mixed in. It was explained to students that Flip videos would be 10% of their overall grade,and that it would be weekly homework. Students were advised to record the videos in a quiet
place and to take off their masks when recording. The author advised the students that it was
important for them to get used to showing their faces to each other again, as this is an importantpart of communication.

Class Participation
In the 12 classes that participated in this study (n = 131), a total of 1561 videos wereposted, which is an average of 11.9 videos per student. Since there were 14 video assignments
for each student throughout the semester, most students submitted all the video assignments
allocated by the author. Seven students did not complete the course, and most of those had
stopped attending by week nine. Generally, the higher-level students participated more actively
in these assignments. Apart from one Level 1 class which had low attendance and motivation,and in which 4 students failed, with a 58.8% submission rate for weekly video assignments, a
total of 56 weekly assignments were not submitted by all students from the six other classes oflevels 1 and 2, which is a submission rate of 93.75%. However, 143 weekly assignments were
not completed by students in the level 3 classes for which the submission rate was 81.5%. This
would suggest that higher-level students were more likely to complete the weekly homeworktasks. The overall submission rate for 1820 videos throughout the semester was 85.5% (264non-submissions).
In the first week, students were required to record two Flip videos. The first topic was“self-introductions.” The author believed that this was the most important topic since students
were new to university and this class. The author had noticed that in the first class only 14
students (10.6%) were not wearing masks. Mahoney (2023) has noted that masks can have a
detrimental effect on students’ ability to form relationships and communicate with each other.
Therefore, having students submit a self-introduction in which they were required to not awear a mask was an important step for students to be able to bond. The author explained theimportance of not being reliant on masks and the importance of showing facial expressions incommunication. The author submitted an example self-introduction video, which was 1-minute30 seconds in length, and all students were instructed to do the same before the next class. Only
3 students (2.2%) did not complete the self-introduction video task. In these videos, students
comfortably introduced themselves in English within the set timeframe. Most students smiledthroughout their videos, with almost all students smiling at some point.
The author advised students to comment on their classmates’ videos and to ask questions
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to get to know each other better. Roarty (2023) has argued that adding complementary tasks to
the video assignments can lead to elevated self-reflection and self-regulation. The author also
responded to the self-introductions with a simple comment or question for each student to boost
their motivation and to indicate that their videos had been reviewed. In total, 318 comments
were made by students about the self-introduction topic, which was an average of 2.6 comments
per student. It can be noted that when the author failed to initiate and comment on three classes’
videos, the students did not comment either, with a total of just 6 comments from those 3classes, which is an average of 0.2 comments per student. Students were also required to record
a 3-minute video answering the first textbook fluency questions on page 8 of the textbook,which was related to the first textbook lesson topic “The Importance of Communication”, with
the questions revolving around participants talking about their friends. Eight students did notcomplete the first fluency video (6.6%). This could be attributed to the fact that students had
not practiced any fluency activities in-class yet and speaking for 3-minutes may have been adaunting prospect for them. Also, perhaps students were overwhelmed with the prospect ofmaking two videos as the first homework. Upon watching the first fluency question videos
made by students, it was clear that it was difficult for them to keep talking for 3-minutes about
specific questions, as there were some long pauses.
In the following week, nine students (6.8%) did not complete the second textbook
topic “Entering University.” Between weeks 4–10, an average of 10.1% students (n = 71) did
not complete the weekly video assignments, but between weeks 11–14, this had jumped up to
32.2% (n = 129). This pattern would seem to suggest that for several classes the novelty ofmaking videos wore off. The final week’s video topic, in which students were asked to share
their experience of first year at university, had the lowest reply rate, with 32.5% of students(n = 42) not replying. Another possible reason why the submission rate declined in the latterpart of the semester is that the textbook topics became progressively more challenging. In theearly part of the semester topics such as “The Importance of Communication” and “Entering
University” were undemanding for students to talk about, but latter topics such as “Public
Behavior” and “Social Issues” required more thought, lexical knowledge, and backgroundresearch from students before answering.

Findings
Advantages
In the final class of the term, students were asked to complete a Google Form, in which
the final question was open-ended asking students to leave any positive or negative comments
about using Flip. A total of 15 different advantages were identified by the students. The mostcommon advantage given was that seeing their classmates’ faces on Flip had various benefits
such as helping students to remember their classmates’ faces, helping to create a stronger bondin class, feeling more relaxed in class, and gaining confidence in speaking without a mask
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Utilizing Flip to Boost Class Cohesion(17 comments), supporting findings by Keiper et al. (2020) and Petersen et al. (2020). The
second most popular advantage given (15 comments) was that Flip was good preparation for the
discussion class, such as learning about the topic and being ready for the class quiz about thereading. The third most common advantage (12 comments) was that the students felt that theirspeaking and vocabulary skills had improved, giving credence to conclusions made by McLain(2018). Two further prominent advantages given were that it was useful to hear everyone’s
opinions before class (9 comments), and that the platform was easy to use (8 comments). Someof the positive comments made are show below:• I t was good to get to know the faces without masks from the beginning while everyone

else was wearing masks at the beginning of April, which made me feel closer to them.
• I think that because I was able to see them without their masks, I was able to get
to know them faster than in other classes. It was great for me personally to see myfriends’ faces from the very beginning of the class, and it made me feel safe.
•F lipgrid was a very good application. We became good friends. I enjoyed this classthrough Flipgrid.
• I became confident when I could speak alone for three minutes. At first, it was a little
difficult to make a video showing my face.
• Flipgrid helped me to remember classmates’ names, faces, and their profiles, so I could
understand them more and become closer, faster than usual.
• I liked being able to see my classmates’ faces, which made me feel more familiar withthem, and studying for the reading test at the same time.
• I t was easy for us to understand each other and open up to each other by showing ourunmasked faces. It was good to get a chance to use English outside of class.

Disadvantages
A total of seven different disadvantages were indicated on the one Google Form openended question and final class discussion. The most common disadvantage given (17 students)
was that it took time to make and post the videos. The second most common disadvantage
was that it was difficult to find a quiet place to make the videos (8 students). Another notabledisadvantage was that it was difficult to make the videos and make comments. It has also beenreported by Keiper et al. (2020) that students had difficulty finding the time and making thevideos. Below are some of the negative comments made:• It was difficult to do it every week because it took time to take the video.
• Some days I was tired and sometimes I didn’t have the motivation to do it.
• I had to go somewhere quiet.
• It was difficult to find a quiet place during the day, so I had to stay late at night.
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第 4 巻（JOURNAL OF MULTILINGUAL PEDAGOGY AND PRACTICE, VOL. 4）• It was good to have more opportunities to experience English. However, it took a longtime to upload the file, which was frustrating.
A series of statements were presented to students at the end of term to gather theirexperiences of using Flip. Questions were specified to how Flip impacted on their English skills,
and how it affected their ability to get to know their classmates better. The results garneredsuggest that Flip had an overwhelmingly positive impact on class cohesion and students’English-speaking proficiency. A few examples are available here.
As can be seen in the first question below, students strongly indicated that Flip was
useful for them in becoming more fluent and confident in English. 87.7% (n = 100) agreed withthis statement. Only 3.5% (n = 4) displayed disagreement, therefore giving credence to findings
by Roarty (2023), McLain (2018) and Tuyet and Khang (2020).
Figure 1
Flip Was Useful in Helping Me Become More Fluent and Confident in English
80
60
40
20
0

Strongly
agree

Agree

NeutralDisagreeStrongly
disagree

The second question posed to students also produced similar findings. 69.3% (n = 79)
of students agreed with the statement that seeing their classmates’ faces on Flip helped them toget to know them better. These findings correlate with comments from the qualitative questionin which many students mentioned that seeing their classmates’ faces in the early weeks ofthe semester helped them to feel closer to them faster, which has been described by Mahoney(2023).

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Utilizing Flip to Boost Class Cohesion

Figure 2
Seeing My Classmates’ Faces on Flip Helped Me to Get to Know Them Better
50
40
30
20
10
0

Strongly
agree

Agree

NeutralDisagreeStrongly
disagree

Just over half of the participants, 52.6% (n = 60) agreed with the statement that seeing
their classmates’ faces motivated them to participate more in the discussion classes. 34.2% (n= 39) gave a neutral response, with 13.2% (n = 15) disagreeing. These findings suggest that theusage of Flip did have a positive impact on motivation for the majority of students.
Figure 3
Seeing My Classmates’ Faces on Flip Motivated Me to Participate More in Discussion Class

50
40
30
20
10
0

Strongly
agree

Agree

NeutralDisagreeStrongly
disagree

It is clear from the results of the question below that students were able to understandeach other well on Flip. 79.8% (n = 91) agreed that it was easy to understand their classmates’
ideas on the platform, with just 3.5% (n = 4) disagreeing. Since many students reported thatseeing their classmates faces early in the semester had a positive impact, it could be argued
that the self-introduction videos played a pivotal role in that students could easily listen to theirclassmates’ introductions and remember important information and details about them.

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Figure 4
I Could Understand My Classmates’ Ideas Easily on Flip
80
60
40
20
0

Strongly
agree

Agree

NeutralDisagreeStrongly
disagree

There were five identical statements poised to students using Likert scale statements
ranging from 5–1 in agreement at the start and end of term surveys. We can see a comparison of
students’ replies from the start and end of term in table 1 below. The overall results indicate thatstudents’ perceptions of wanting to see their classmates’ faces had altered during the semester.
In the responses given to questions one and two below: “I want to see my classmates’
faces when we are talking” and “Seeing people’s smiles makes me motivated to speak,” wecan see that students have agreed much more strongly with these statements at the end of term.
Many students alluded to the fact that seeing their classmates’ faces on Flip helped them toopen up more quickly, feel familiar with each other and remember each other’s names. Since
all students did not wear masks in their videos, and almost all of them smiled in their selfintroduction videos at some point, the author believes that this was a powerful factor in the
results yielded.
In the responses to questions three and four below: “It is easier to get to know people notwearing a mask” and “I trust people when I can see their whole face,” we can see that students
also tended to agree more strongly with these statements at the end of term. Considering thatstudents had been wearing masks for around three years consecutively prior to this research,
it could be said that their perceptions had changed in the 14 weeks of this class. Seeing as one
student mentioned that seeing their classmates’ faces on Flip made them feel “safe,” it could
be said that using Flip made students feel more comfortable with each other more quickly thanusual.
In the final question below: “Wearing a mask hinders my ability to communicate,” wecan also see that students’ dependency on their masks was starting to diminish. Since the rate ofmask wearing had dropped from 90% at the start of term to around 60% at the end, this could
be argued to be a factor in this divergence.

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Table 1Student Perceptions of Using Flip (1–5 point scale)5
To what degree do you agree:

43[Strongly Agree 

1. I want to see my classmates’ faces ST:
when we are talking
ET:

2

1

Strongly Disagree]Mean(18) 14.3%(43) 34.1%(49) 38.9%(10) 7.9%(6) 4.8%

3.46(31) 27.2%(47) 41.2%(31) 27.2%(5) 4.4%(0) 0.0%

3.91(48) 38.1%(52) 41.3%(19) 15.1%(5) 4.0%(2) 1.6%

4.10(53) 46.5%(48) 42.1%(12) 10.5%(1) 0.9%(0) 0.0%

4.34

ST:

(26) 20.6%(54) 42.9%(30) 23.8%(12) 9.5%(4) 3.2%

3.68

ET:

(30) 26.3%(43) 37.7%(23) 20.2%(14) 12.3%(4) 3.5%

3.70

ST:

(18) 14.3%(59) 46.8%(32) 25.4%(15) 11.9%(2) 1.6%

3.60

ET:

(30) 26.3%(45) 39.5%(27) 23.7%(10) 8.8%(2) 1.8%

3.79

5. Wearing a mask hinders my ability ST:
to communicate
ET:(9) 7.1%(23) 18.3%(47) 37.3%(42) 33.3%(9) 7.1%

2.94(14) 12.3%(34) 29.8%(28) 24.6% (31) 27.2%(7) 6.1%

3.14

2. Seeing people’s smiles and facial ST:
expressions motivates me to speakET:
3. It is easier to get to know people
not wearing a mask
4. I trust people more when I see
their whole faceNote. Twelve fewer students completed the end of term survey
Note 2. (ST= Start of term) (ET=End of term)

Conclusion
The results suggest that students benefitted from using Flip. Allowing students to post
videos early on in the semester so classmates could to get to know each other’s faces appears
to have had a postive impact on class cohesion. The author believes that in the early part of thesemester, students bonded more quickly than in previous semesters. Since Flip is an app andis easily accessible, the author and students could easily log in and check who had posted theweek’s homework assignment. Since the app also shows students’ names on the screen, thishelps students and educators alike in being able to remember students’ names more quickly.
Having the students post their opinions about topics before class, the author believes, led
to deeper understanding of the weekly textbook topics, since students were often ready to give
examples and reasons about topics more quickly than in previous semesters. Similar findings
have been reported by McIntyre et al. (2020) who argued that Flip could be used to increase
students’ depth of knowledge. Another possible benefit of Flip was that students could develop
social learning, which has also been referred to by Stoszkowski et al. (2021). Generally, in eachclass, for every topic each week a more confident student would post a video first, showing agood example for the less confident students to follow. These students usually posted from theirhouse, spoke with enthusiasm, and gave good examples in their answers.
The in-class fluency activities throughout the semester were always active, and students
were always well-prepared for them. This was in contrast to previous semesters where many
students had not done any preparation and often struggled to formulate meaningful answers to
the questions. Nation and Newton (2009) have mentioned that preparation activities in which
students can gain familiarity with fluency topics is advantageous. The author advised thelisteners to listen actively and to ask follow-up questions to the speakers.
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One caveat was that lower-level students often brought their homework video notes
with them to class, and simply wanted to read their answers from them in the fluency activity,
like a speech, thus, leading to a negative impact on their ability to think on the spot and tothem worrying too much about accuracy. Acumen was required by the author in advising thesestudents to only look at their notes sometimes, and to shorten their answers so that the listeners
could ask follow-up questions. The author also stressed that they did not have to be accurate intheir in-class fluency, but just to make themselves comprehensible. Nunan (2015) has asserted
the importance of providing students with opportunities to develop speaking with both accuracy
and fluency. The videos gave them the former, whilst also laying the foundation for fluency
skills improvement in-class with some prior knowledge and practice.
Although it was difficult for students at the outset, having them post weekly videos andgetting them used to speaking without wearing a mask would appear to have been advantageous
for their English speaking skills, overall communication skills and confidence, and their ability
to use facial gestures. One could argue therefore that Flip is a useful tool to complement
English-speaking classes and to boost class cohesion, although more research should be carried
to explore the impact on students’fluency.

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https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v13n5p164
Roarty, A. (2023). Using Flip in an English Presentation Class with Japanese University
Students. Journal of Multilingual Pedagogy and Practice, 3, 1–7.
Serembus, J. F., & Murphy, J. (2020). Creating an engaging learning environment through video
discussions. Nurse Educator, 45(2), 68–70.
https://doi.org/10.1097/NNE.0000000000000701
Stoszkowski, J., Hodgkinson, A., & Collins, D. (2021). Using Flipgrid to improve reflection:
A collaborative online approach to coach development. Physical Education and Sport
Pedagogy, 26(2), 167–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2020.1789575
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on Fluency, Complexity and Accuracy. TESOL Quarterly, 50(2), 369–393.
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Watanabe, H., & Long III, R. W. (2019). Is there an increase in fluency over levels of
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https://doi.org/10.20469/ijhss.5.20001-6

88Teaching Practice Report

Reflections on the “Study Abroad Preparation: IELTS”
Level 1 & 2 Pilot Courses
Kathryn Mabe
Alexander L. Selman

Abstract
In this paper, the authors describe their experiences of piloting two Study Abroad
Preparation (SAP) IELTS courses at a university in Tokyo. These courses are partof a curriculum reform and shift towards implementing Content and Language
Integrated Learning (CLIL) at the institution. The authors detail the lesson contentsof each course and reflect on their experiences of meeting the dual aims of study
abroad content and IELTS focus. The key differences were that the level 1 basic
course was taught using a course book, mostly as self-study, and followed a strictlesson sequence and reflective cycle, whereas the level 2 intermediate course usedmaterials from the internet and had a freer, more adaptable structure. The authors
describe the changes that they made to the courses in the fall semester based on
their experiences in the spring. In the conclusion, the possibility of swapping theseapproaches is considered, along with general considerations for the courses andsuggestions for further development.
Keywords: CLIL, Study abroad, IELTS

Introduction
From 2024, Rikkyo University will offer elective Content and Language Integrated
Learning (CLIL) courses in the following areas: Global Communication, Global Studies andGlobal Career. The Study Abroad Preparation (SAP) IELTS courses are part of the Global
Communication section. The courses are designed for students who want to study abroad in the
future and need to improve their English skills. The course content has a dual focus of study
abroad topics and IELTS test preparation.
The authors of this paper piloted the SAP: IELTS 1 (Basic) and SAP: IELTS 2(Intermediate) courses in preparation for the launch of the new curriculum. The basic level
was taught with a course book used mostly for self-study, and highly-structured class time; theintermediate level had no course book, and a more varied and adaptable use of class time. This
paper will report on the initial Spring 2023 semester classes and adaptations made for the Fall
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semester.

Literature Review
The implementation of CLIL as a pedagogical framework for courses at educational
institutions in Japan has become more widespread in recent years. CLIL is described by Coyle etal. (2010) as “a dual-focused educational approach in which an additional language is used forthe learning and teaching of both content and language” (p. 1). The degree to which the latter isfocused upon is variable. CLIL can be defined as soft, meaning substantial language support isgiven to the learner, or hard, meaning there is little or no language support given (MacGregor,2015). As the SAP: IELTS 1 (Basic) and SAP: IELTS 2 (Intermediate) courses by nature of
their description involved language instruction, from the onset the instructors of these classes
envisaged a soft CLIL approach. In addition, these courses from the Global Communication
section of the curriculum are intended to assist students to transition between mandatory, firstyear English language classes and the more content-focused Global Studies courses (Yamamoto& Nitta, 2021).
Although the degree of language support within a CLIL lesson is left to the discretionof the instructor, what are commonly referred to as the 4C’s are an essential component of theframework (Coyle et al., 2010). Content refers to the subject matter of the course, which wasstudy abroad content in the case of these two courses. Communication is the use of language
as “a conduit for communication and for learning” (Coyle, 2005, p. 5). A key feature of CLIL
lessons is the focus on developing independent thinking and learning skills and this forms
the Cognition component (Coyle, 2005). Finally, Culture is the fostering of interculturalcompetencies and a sense of global citizenship (Coyle et al., 2010). The degree to which thesecomponents could be integrated into teaching a course which also had an exam focus was amatter of uncertainty for the instructors prior to the planning and delivery of the classes.
The reform of the curriculum at Rikkyo University was necessitated in part byplans to both provide domestic students with increased opportunities to attend study abroad
programs and to accept more international students from overseas (Yamamoto & Nitta, 2021).
Undoubtedly, the COVID-19 pandemic and recent economic factors have impacted upon these
proposals. Nevertheless, in 2022, 1061 students attended in-person study abroad programs
provided by Rikkyo University (M. Shrosbree, personal communication, October 14, 2023).
The benefits of study abroad programs, both short-term and of longer duration, havebeen well documented. Positive effects include not only improving English language skills(Suzuki & Hayashi, 2014) but also enhancing cross-cultural sensitivity (Anderson et al., 2006)
and intercultural communication skills (Williams, 2005). However, pre-departure preparationis crucial for students to optimize their study abroad experiences and reduce anxiety (Kato& Landsberry, 2020). Causes of anxiety are many; for example, contrasting educational
approaches between different countries (Neff et al., 2018) and concerns about language
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proficiency and communication skills (Kato & Landsberry, 2020). Therefore, there appears to
be a strong foundation for the establishment of these kinds of courses.

Study Skills and Course Materials
These courses meet once a week for 100 minutes, over a 14-week semester. It is
important for students to understand that the lessons alone are unlikely to be sufficient to makethem fluent and confident in study abroad situations nor to raise their language proficiency
to achieve a test score they are seeking for study abroad applications. An element of thecourses is therefore to help students develop skills and find resources for continuing theirlearning independently. This is done through keeping a record of study and reflecting onlearning. This may also be considered to meet CLIL criteria for the course design. Reflection
on learning requires meta-level consideration and thus develops cognitive skills; and it isimportant preparation for studying abroad in places where students are often expected to study
independently.
This element of the course also raises the question of whether to use a course book or
resources available on the internet. The advantages of the former are that official books will
have correct and up-to-date information about the tests, materials are adapted to be appropriate
to the level of the students (assuming they enter the level matching their proficiency), materials
are connected to IELTS practice tasks and tips for the test, and there will be additional support
in the form of teacher’s books and supplementary materials. The disadvantages include theadditional expense, the need to carry a physical book, and that the books considered for thesecourses appear to be designed for twice-a-week, year-long courses (thus 4 times the material
that could be realistically covered in class). On the other hand, the advantages of using online
resources are that they can be accessed freely, resources can be matched directly to study abroad
topics and can be more up-to-date and relevant to the particular group of students, and students
are provided with a set of resources that they can continue to use for self-study after the course.
Correspondingly, the disadvantages are that the material is not adapted and may be inaccessible
to lower proficiency levels, non-official sites may contain incorrect information about tests, and
it is considerably more time consuming for the teacher who has to find and evaluate materials
for each lesson.

SAP: IELTS 2 Report
The Students
There were 30 students enrolled on the SAP: IELTS 2 program, and all but one
completed the course. The students were mainly sophomores, juniors and seniors with afew freshmen from the Global Liberal Arts Program. The minimum level of ability officiallyrequired for this course is CEFR B1/IELTS 5.5 and the target IELTS score is 6–6.5. In reality,91

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many of the students had a higher level of English language proficiency. Based on information
provided by students at the onset of the course, the majority of them intended to study abroad in
the future and needed to perform well on the IELTS exam in order to do so. Most of them statedthat they chose the course for this reason, although for some it was due to schedule convenienceor a more general desire to improve their English. Around half of the students had no priorexperience of the IELTS test and the majority stated their target score as the same as that of thecourse. Around a third of the class had prior experience of studying abroad. Overall, it appearedthat the needs and expectations of the students correlated with the course content and objectives.
Course/Lesson Design
The majority of the lessons featured both content of a study abroad nature and an
IELTS test focus, with time divided roughly evenly between the two parts. Topics coveredon this course were friendship, accommodation, education, managing money, dealing withstress, staying safe and healthy, adapting to different cultures, and immersing yourself in a newlifestyle. I elected to teach this class without a textbook and chose material from free, online
sources.
The classes would begin with warm-up questions on the day’s topic. These questions
were designed with the IELTS speaking test part one in mind, which consists of relatively
simple questions. If necessary, more challenging vocabulary was pre-taught, followed by video
or reading material related to an aspect of the day’s theme. Comprehension questions were set,and students compared their answers in pairs. Finally, students were given discussion prompts
based on the content and were encouraged to create their own questions in addition to theprompts. It was intended that this part of the lesson was similar to the IELTS speaking test
part three, in which the examiner engages the candidate in a discussion based on the previous
section’s topic.
Due to the time constraints, only speaking and writing elements of the IELTS test werecovered on this course. In lessons designated as IELTS speaking skills days, the second halfof the classes were dedicated to IELTS skills input practicing IELTS speaking part two tasks(the candidate’s long turn on a topic) and part three discussions. Wherever possible, the skills
focus was based upon language from the video or text of that day. Tasks such as gap-fill or
categorizing phrases were used to encourage the students to notice the target language of thatday. The instructor provided IELTS-style question worksheets, based on the day’s topic andthe students worked in groups of three, alternating between playing the roles of examiners andcandidate. The teacher provided frequent feedback, based upon notes taken whilst monitoring
the groups and encouraged learners to utilize the target language/skills of the lesson. In IELTS
writing skills lessons, the second part of the class began with a more teacher-centered input on
a particular task focus, for example, how to write an overview for task one or how to address
all parts of the question in part two. Students were then given examples and practice exercises
from online sources. Finally, a ‘mock’ question was given as homework.
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Lessons 5, 9 and 13 were IELTS speaking test days. The content of the tests were topics
previously covered in the three lessons prior to each test day. The students formed a groupof three, in the same fashion as when practicing speaking tasks in their regular lessons. The
instructor evaluated each class member. This method of testing provided the students with theopportunity to practice the three parts of the IELTS speaking test despite the large class size.
Although the IELTS exam only has one examiner, a group of three students with two examiners
and one candidate allowed for simpler classroom management. While 3 students performed thetest, the remaining students completed reflection tasks on their self-study logs and later, theirperformance in the test.
Observations: Positive
Overall, the students appeared motivated and interested in the study abroad content,
which was often based on online material relevant to their lives. For example, one video
featured students in the U.K. discussing the best ways to manage their finances at university, andin another an American college student gave advice about how to make friends while studying
abroad. From the perspective of implementing the CLIL 4C’s framework described by Coyle etal. (2010), the study abroad lessons provided ample opportunities for three out of the 4C’s. The
content was meaningful and relevant to the students’ lives, with plenty of communication andchances to learn and reflect about various cultures (Coyle et al., 2010). In the above instanceabout making friends, for example, students were given the opportunity to focus upon thecontent of how to foster friendship while studying abroad, develop communication skills
through discussing the content and reflect about cultural similarities and differences towards
friendships in different countries.
The class members were also keen to participate in the IELTS input stages of the lesson,
as almost all of them had a need to perform well in the test. They cooperated well during thecourse, especially on speaking test days when classroom management was difficult due to thelarge class size.
The self-study logs also appeared to be an effective tool on this course. Based on
previous experience of teaching elective courses, one problem can be the mixed-level of ability
within the classes. Using self-study logs allowed students to individually tailor their self-study
to match their levels of ability and the areas of proficiency that they needed to improve. In
addition, as a small percentage of the overall evaluation was assigned to the logs, it enforced
the message that substantial work outside class is necessary to improve IELTS test scores.
Observations: Negative
Before the pilot courses began, both instructors were concerned about the practicalities
of balancing the dual objectives of CLIL-style study abroad content whilst also improving thestudents’ performance in the IELTS test. In this Intermediate course, with no-textbook, it wasdifficult at times to find material that was both a suitable topic and provided suitable language93

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useful for developing IELTS exam skills. In particular, IELTS writing task one requires specificskills, such as describing data or maps, which did not easily align with study abroad material
available online. Time constraints imposed by the nature of the IELTS focus on the course
meant that it was difficult to implement all of the 4C’s which form the components of a CLIL
lesson. For example, there was little time to dedicate to tasks to encourage more advanced
cognitive skills such as analyzing or evaluating ideas or creating their own work. Finally, while
the online content related to study abroad content did appear to motivate the students, there
is always the risk of the planned lesson being rendered obsolete if such free, online material
becomes unavailable.
The large class size also presented a substantial challenge for this course, especiallyon speaking test days. Initially, the intention was that the students would complete all threeparts of the IELTS speaking test on test days in their groups of mock examiners/candidates. It
quickly became apparent that this was unfeasible. In order for each student to be tested in thecandidate role within one class, it was necessary for five groups of students to be simultaneously
performing the test. This resulted in a huge burden on the instructor, who had to monitor fivecandidates, assess them and write down feedback points, then repeat the cycle continuously for
100 minutes. The large class size also impacted upon the amount of individual time that could
be given to each student.
Changes for the Fall Semester 2023 SAP: IELTS 2
The most important change to be made is regarding evaluation. In the fall semester only
two speaking tests will be scheduled. The first test will focus upon IELTS part one and two
and the second on parts two and three. Instead of a final speaking test at the end of the course,
the final assessment will be a problem/solution cognitive research project about a study abroad
topic or a specific problem related to studying IELTS. The intent of changing this part of thecourse is to provide a greater balance between the dual nature of CLIL-style study abroad topics
and the IELTS focus. In particular, it is hoped that the research project will provide a greater
focus upon developing cognitive skills through the creation of a personal project, thus better
implementing the 4C’s CLIL principle.
The second alteration is to provide instruction related to IELTS Writing Part 1 tasks.
As it is difficult to find material of a study abroad nature that is also suitable for teaching thenecessary skills for this section of the IELTS test, material unconnected to study abroad but
appropriate for instruction and practice of IELTS Writing Part 1 will be used.
Finally, I intend to change a few of the topics covered on the course as I found moresuitable material during the course of the spring semester.

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SAP: IELTS 1 Report
The Students
In the Basic course, taught at Niiza campus, there were 19 students from 2nd, 3rd, and4th years, and all completed the course. They mostly met the recommended profile and had alevel of around CEFR B1. There were a few whose level was higher, or who needed to takean examination soon, who may have been better taking the SAP: IELTS level 2 or 3. Most did
not have experience of studying abroad and did not have immediate concrete plans to do so.
However, there were some exceptions who had lived abroad, and who had plans to study abroadin the summer vacation following the course. As is quite common with these courses, there werealso a small number who had no special intention to take the IELTS test or study abroad but
wanted a communication-based English course and this one fit their schedule. The mixture oflevels and intentions did not cause any problems in the running of the course.
Course/Lesson Design
Design decisions for the Basic level course were based around the key points of thecourse description—study abroad content and IELTS style tasks—plus consideration of the
CLIL focus of the new curriculum, and the particular needs of lower level students. It ischaracterized by a strict lesson sequence, reflective cycle, self-study and a focus on productive
skills in class time. The course book Mindset for IELTS 1 (Crosthwaite et al., 2017) was chosen
as it seemed accessible to students and had extra online resources.
One of the concerns with the basic level was that exam courses can end up with a lotof metalanguage that is above the communicative level of the students. Furthermore, since thecourse profile was for students who would study abroad sometime in the future, giving details
about test taking strategies was less appropriate than in higher levels. I therefore decided toadopt a highly structured approach in which students would engage in activities matched to thetasks in the IELTS test, but with a reduced amount of training or explanation.
The standard lesson plan was created to reflect the sequence students experience in theirfirst-year mandatory English Discussion Course, with the addition of writing tasks. Topics werechosen by designating one unit of the course book for each input lesson. Early in the course it
became clear that there were too many steps, and it was revised as shown below.
Basic Level Standard Lesson Plan
Initial lesson steps:
1. Warmer, ex. Question Circle.
2. F luency. Simple discussion questions based on homework listening/reading.
3. Speaking skill input.
4. Interview. Groups of three—two students interview the third about the day’s topic.
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Rotate to give each student a chance to answer.
5. Long turn. One minute preparation time with topics. Each student gives a long turn,followed by a question from each partner.
6. Discussion. 10 minute discussion of the day’s topic.
7. Free writing.
8. Writing skills input.
9. Focused writing.
10. Review/Reflection.
11. Set reading/listening homework.
Revised lesson steps:
1. Fluency. Simple discussion questions based on the homework listening/reading.
2. Speaking skill input/reminders
3. Interview. Groups of three—two students interview the third about the day’s topic.
Rotate to give each student a chance to answer.
4. Long turn. Short preparation time with topics. Each student gives a long turn.
5. Discussion. 10 minute discussion of the day’s topic.
6. Writing skills input/reminders
7. Focused writing.
8. Reflection and plan for self-study.
Topics for the test lessons in 5, 9 and 13 were originally to be decided by the students,
but in the end the second and third were selected by the teacher to increase the study abroad
content of the course. The speaking sections were matched to the IELTS speaking test—each
lesson begins with a fluency-focused question, then students interview each other in small
groups, take turns to respond to a long turn prompt, and finally a discussion. The writing section
focused on the IELTS task 1 for the first 6 weeks, and the essay for the remainder of the course.
At the end of each lesson, students completed a reflection and planning task. First
they wrote answers to a short set of reflection questions focused on whether they felt they had
prepared sufficiently for the class. They then selected the required course book tasks that theywould complete for homework (at least 2 texts, either reading or listening). They also listed
the additional course book tasks they planned to complete, and any personal study they would
complete related to the course. Students were given the choice of doing the reflection andplanning on paper and uploading a photo to Google Classroom or using Google Docs. There
was around a 50–50 split between paper and digital at the start of the course, with some students
switching to digital part way through.
Assessment for the course followed the standard format of electives in the department
with 30% given for participation, 40% for tasks and assignments (the Reflection and Planningtasks, specific homework tasks, Study Abroad Plan), and 30% for the “Final Test”. The final test96

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score was calculated from the 3 test days. These were run in essentially the same way as every
other lesson. Speaking and writing input steps were reviews of previous input. The writing step
was done under exam conditions, whereas in other classes students were encouraged to help
each other and ask questions. Students were also required to submit what they had completed
in the allotted time, while in other classes they could complete their work at home to makefeedback more useful. Assessment was basically for participation. There were too many students
to judge speaking tasks individually. Feedback was given on the writing task, and students were
given a predicted band score, but this was not used for the course grade. The reason is that the
proficiency level on entering the course varied widely, and there is general consensus among
those teaching the courses that the course score should not be an anticipated IELTS score. In
cases where a student missed a test day with an officially accepted reason they were offered
make-up assignments.
Observations: Positive
The course format allowed for a high level of student talking time and minimal use
of Japanese since the tasks were at an appropriate level, the objectives were clear, and therepetition meant that students knew what they were supposed to do. The lessons were dynamic
with little chance for students to be distracted. The sequence of gradually starting with casual
speaking tasks, building to more academic or abstract discussion and then focusing on writing
seemed to work well. It is hoped that the practice of reflection and planning provided skills thatstudents will continue to use. Generally, the students seemed to enjoy the classes, there was a
low rate of absences, and feedback was largely positive.
Observations: Negative
Following a strict lesson structure does have some disadvantages. The teacher’s role
during the class time is mainly that of a manager and time-keeper. During the speaking tasks, I
would monitor and take notes on language use, but there was a relatively low level of teacherstudent interaction. I felt that compared to other communication-based courses, I did not get
to know the students as well. Similarly, during the writing tasks, while students would ask
questions, most were focused on practicing writing within a time limit and there was not space
for the casual interactions that can help teachers understand their students’ needs and adapt
classes accordingly.
The way that the course book was used also had some negative aspects. It is a relatively
expensive book and students commonly complain if made to buy a book which is then not usedsufficiently. In this case, they had the choice to use it as much as they wished as preparation forthe classes, but it was rarely used directly in class. However, since I was asking them to selecttheir preparation tasks at the end of the lesson, they had to carry it with them. Those students
who only completed the required two course book texts ended up using only a small percentageof the book. Furthermore, the fact that students were selecting how much to study probably
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meant on average that they were studying less than if the teacher were selecting and assigningtasks.
The records of reflection and planning that the students completed caused someproblems for both teacher and students. Giving the choice of paper or digital created some ofthe problems. It took a long time to check through the different files. In some lessons, there was
not enough time in class to complete the records, leading to additional homework time. As thiswas a pilot course, the content of the reflection and planning forms had not been trialed andneeded some development during the course.
Changes for the Fall Semester 2023 SAP: IELTS 1
Reflection and planning are important parts of the course design, so the difficulties
with the record format required development. In the fall semester, a new system will be used
in which students have individual Google Forms and a link to a spreadsheet generated fromthe form. The two elements are attached to individual Google Classroom assignments for each
student. Each week, the students write their reflections and plans using the form, and they caneasily review their progress by viewing the spreadsheet. The teacher can also review progresseasily.
The writing feedback in spring was based on the IELTS rubrics. Upon reflection, thiswas not the most useful format for this level. There is a lot of metalanguage in the rubrics, andstudents with lower proficiency will benefit more from general advice on improving their useof language. Most of the writing tasks will be done using Google Docs to allow more efficient
feedback using Suggestion/Comments.
Overall, the input will be more organized. In the first pilot, input was chosen in responseto emergent student needs. It is more efficient to use elements that are in the course book, andneeds are mostly predictable. All test day topics will be related to study abroad; provisionally,
travel and vacations, culture, and education. The Study Abroad Plan was almost entirely donein the final lesson in spring; in fall, it will be spread across the course.

Conclusion
In this paper, two contrasting approaches were taken to piloting the Study Abroadcourses. At the intermediate level, there was no course book, and the classes followed a general
structure but were adapted to the needs of the students and the interests of the instructor. In
contrast, for the basic level a course book was used, but mostly for self-study, and class time
was highly-structured. Overall, the students in both courses appeared to be satisfied with theclasses and motivated by the study abroad content which was to a great extent quite relevant totheir lives. From the perspective of an instructor, issues such as record-keeping and managing
the procedure on test days can be improved relatively easily through adjustments made in thenext semester. As balancing the dual course content study abroad topics and IELTS within
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a CLIL framework presents a challenge for instructors, a ‘soft’ CLIL approach seems to be
the solution. From the experience of teaching these courses, it appears that a no-textbook
option is the better option in terms of the burden of cost on the student and flexibility withmaterial content. A list of suggested websites and other resources will be available. However,
instructors with less experience of the IELTS test could find the prospect of teaching thesecourses somewhat intimidating without a textbook. Furthermore, especially for the basic level,
the structured format with an emphasis of maximizing time spent on productive skills in class,
may be more appropriate. Finally, smaller class sizes would undoubtedly assist with course
management and individual time given to each student.

References
Anderson, P. H., Lawton, L., Rexeisen, R. J., & Hubbard, A. C. (2006). Short-term study
abroad and intercultural sensitivity: A pilot study. International Journal of Intercultural
Relations, 30(4), 457–469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.10.004
Coyle, D. (2005). CLIL: Planning tools for teachers. University of Nottingham.
Coyle, D., Hood, P., & Marsh, D. (2010). CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning.
Cambridge University Press.
Crosthwaite, P., Hutchison, S., Wijayatilake, C., & De Souza, N. (2017). Mindset for IELTS
Level 1 Student's Book: An official Cambridge IELTS course. Cambridge University
Press.
Kato, A., & Landsberry, L. (2020). Students’ linguistic, cross-cultural and lifestyle concernswith reference to studying abroad. JAAL in JACET Proceedings, 3, 16–21.
MacGregor, L. (2015). CLIL in Japan: University teachers’ viewpoints. JALT 2015 Focus on
the Learner, 426–432.
https://jalt-publications.org/sites/default/files/pdf-article/jalt2015-pcp_055.pdf
Neff, P., Brooks, G., & Romney, C. (2018). From EFL to ESL: Preparing students for study
abroad. Doshisha Studies in Global Communication, 7, 1–32.
Suzuki, R., & Hayashi, C. (2014). The effects of short-term study abroad programmes on
students’ English proficiency and affective variables. [In Japanese] KATE Journal, 28,
83–96. https://doi.org/10.20806/katejournal.28.0_83
Williams, T. R. (2005). Exploring the impact of study abroad on students’ interculturalcommunication skills: Adaptability and sensitivity. Journal of Students in International
Education, 9(4), 356–371. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315305277681
Yamamoto, Y., & Nitta, R. (2021). Action- orientated approach to curriculum developmentin CLIL courses: A theoretical and methodological framework. Journal of Foreign
Language Education & Research, 2, 122–135.

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Teaching Practice Report

Improving the Japanese College Students’ Academic
Vocabulary Mastery on Synonyms With Kahoot!


Maki Matsuda

Abstract
Acquiring a strong vocabulary is a crucial skill for college students. However, inthe context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning in Japan, students
often struggle with acquiring new vocabulary due to a lack of exposure to newEnglish words. This case study aimed to explore the impact of Kahoot!, an online
quiz platform, on Japanese college students’ academic vocabulary mastery ofsynonyms and their perceptions of the learning process. Sixty Japanese university
students majoring in Literature, Community and Human Services, and Contemporary
Psychology and learning English as a foreign language participated in the study
during the spring semester of academic year 2023. The quantitative results derived
from pre- and post-tests presented that the students’ mean scores on a 50-point
synonym test increased from 31 to 39 points, representing 26% improvement, fromthe start to the end of the semester. The qualitative analysis of students’ feedback
revealed that they had positive experiences with Kahoot! with the majority reporting
the most significant improvement in reading (45%), followed by writing (33.3%) andeven speaking (21.7%) skills. The author suggests that English teachers incorporate
Kahoot! to improve their students’ mastery of academic vocabulary throughsynonyms and recommends additional academic tasks to maximize their learning.
Keywords: ICT use in Education, Kahoot!, Academic vocabulary learning, Synonyms

Introduction“How can I build my vocabulary efficiently and effectively?” or “I struggle with reading
quickly because I stop reading when I find unfamiliar words.” These are common questions
or concerns that the author has been asked by students in the classroom. The challenges ofmastering a foreign language, particularly in countries like Japan where English is taught as asecond language, are far-reaching. The intricacies of language acquisition with the focus on theessential role of vocabulary, have been extensively explored by scholars like Webb (2007) andNation (2022). In their seminal works, they underscored the indispensable nature of vocabularyacquisition for language learners, with Wilkins (cited from Thornbury, 2002), going so far as100

Improving the Japanese College Students’ Academic Vocabulary Mastery on Synonyms With Kahoot!

to assert that “without grammar, little can be conveyed, and without vocabulary, nothing canbe conveyed.” It is evident that a robust vocabulary lays the foundation for mastering all four
language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
Drawing upon the insights of Sembiring and Ginting (2019), who identified eight
vocabulary teaching techniques, the significance of employing diverse methodologies becomesapparent. These techniques, ranging from contrast and synonyms to enumeration and word
games, offer a comprehensive toolkit for educators. Synonym instruction, a traditional yet
effective approach, emerges as a key strategy to help students grasp nuances in meaning without
relying on translation into their native language. Recent research, exemplified by the workof Chen et al. (2015), demonstrated the positive impact of teaching synonyms on enhancing
students’ writing skills. The study utilized an innovative online system called PREFER,
incorporating various paraphrasing options, including synonyms, and observed improved
writing proficiency in EFL students.
In addition, Webb (2007) conducted research with 84 Japanese EFL students byimplementing ten tests to determine the learning of English words and their synonyms. Theirstudy examined the effects of learning two groups of words. The first group consisted of ten
words including unfamiliar synonyms and the second group included familiar ones. The
results of the study indicated that the participants scored better when learning words that had
known synonyms. Synchronizing this result, Nation (2022) emphasized the importance of theconnection between the acquired knowledge of the target language and the vocabulary yet tobe learned.
Games in Language Learning
It is not uncommon for students to experience a loss of attention or inspiration in theclassroom, which can result in adverse consequences. To counteract this issue, educators must
implement engaging and interactive learning activities to maintain their students’ focus andinvolvement. One approach to enhance student engagement is the use of game-based learning(Wang & Tahir, 2020). Kahoot!, a popular online quiz platform that exemplifies this method.
It employs a multiple-choice format and allows users to use existing quizzes or create theirown to share. The game can be played individually or in a group setting and it is available forfree. Since its launch in 2013, Kahoot! has been adopted by over six million educators globallyand played by 4.4 billion users (Kahoot.it/.com, 2013). During the game, questions appear on
the screen and students can select their answers by pressing the corresponding color on theirpersonal devices (mostly through smartphones). A strict time limit as low as five seconds tothirty seconds can be set to increase the focus of the game as well as excitement from theparticipants. The platform automatically awards the correct answer to the player who answers
the quickest, with higher scores being earned for a quicker response. A leaderboard is displayed
immediately after each question, which excitingly shows the rankings and stimulates students
to compete each time it appears. From the author’s experience, the class always erupts in101

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excitement every time the leaderboard shows up on the screen. Figure 1 presents the example
images from the game.
Figure 1
Screenshots From Kahoot! Question Example and a Leaderboard

In the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning in Japan, students
often struggle with acquiring new vocabulary due to a lack of exposure to new English words.
Furthermore, college students in Japan frequently take standardized English tests such as the
TOEIC Listening & Reading Test and the TOEFL ITP, which ALWAYS include questions on
synonyms. Despite the importance of vocabulary skills, previous research has not explored how
Japanese students view the use of synonyms to enhance their vocabulary, or how an online gameplatform like Kahoot! can help with this. The current case study aims to address this gap byexamining the impact of the online application Kahoot! on Japanese college students’ masteryof synonyms and their perception of the use of Kahoot! for improving their vocabulary skills
and provide additional suggestions for peer teachers.

Background Information
The online game platform Kahoot! was applied in a first-year English Reading &Writing class at a private university in Tokyo, Japan from April to July 2023. The author was the
instructor of three English Reading & Writing courses, and the classes were conducted in a faceto-face format on campus. The classes were 100 minutes in length and were held once a week.
This Reading & Writing course was mandatory for all-first year students and in these three102

Improving the Japanese College Students’ Academic Vocabulary Mastery on Synonyms With Kahoot!

classes student majors include Literature, Community and Human Services, and Contemporary
Psychology. Students’ language levels ranged from 380 to 480 on the TOEIC Listening andReading Test, which equates to levels A2 to B1 according to the Common European Frameworkof Reference for Languages (CEFR). The textbook, Q: Skills for Success: Level 3: Reading andWriting, (3rd edition), (Ward & Gramer, 2019) was used as the main course material.

Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to address the following two research questions:
1. What is the impact of using the online platform Kahoot! on Japanese college students’mastery of synonyms related to their academic vocabulary?
2. How do Japanese college students perceive and respond to the use of Kahoot! forlearning synonyms in English?

Methodology and ProceduresThis study employed a case study approach. The data was collected from 60 students
enrolled in the first semester of three mandatory English Reading & Writing courses for firstyear students majoring in Literature, Community and Human Services, and Contemporary
Psychology during the academic year 2023.
At the start of the semester, in the first of 14 classes, the students were administered a
50-point pre-test to identify synonyms for 50 words using Google Forms uploaded on the LMS
called canvas. At the end of the semester, a post-test was conducted to evaluate their progress.
The target words were selected randomly from the main textbook, Q: Skills for Success: Level
3: Reading and Writing, (3rd edition), (Ward & Gramer, 2019), that includes essential academic
words.
In the meantime, students engaged in a word quiz activity during each meeting using
Kahoot! to identify synonyms from the assigned reading section of the textbook throughout the
spring semester 2023. Depending on the length of the reading passage, students had chances
to review vocabulary over a two-week period. While the game could be played in groups, theauthor chose to conduct the activity individually to ensure equal participation for all students.
Table 1 below shows the assigned reading topics as well as target word examples from the book.

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Table 1
Weekly Assigned Reading Topic and Target Word Examples
Class

Assigned Reading Topic

Target Word Examples

2 Unit 1: Small Talk: A Big Deal

accomplishment, authentic, appreciate, consider,confidence, demonstrate

3 Unit 1: 21st Century Job Interview

effective, expect, impress, maintain, offensive,
professional

4 Unit 1: 21st Century Job Interview

punctual, research, responsible, select, slang,weakness

5 Unit 2: Knowing Your Tastes

arrange, artistic, balanced, identical, identify,
influence

6 Unit 2: Eating with Our Eyes

likely, method, occasion, principle, recognize,
sensitive

7 Unit 2: Eating with Our Eyes

status, system, typically, contrast, brightly, be willingto

8 Unit 3: Cars that Thinkobstacle, obey, benefit, respond, limitations, blame,
polite9 Unit 3: Classrooms without Walls

monitor, digital, revolutionize, discover, interactive,
reliable

10 Unit 3: Classrooms without Walls

dominate, feedback, adapt, global, motivate, app

11 Unit 4: Can Targeted Ads Change You

browse, target, specifically, accurate, acknowledge,
annoying

12 Unit 4: In Defense of Advertisingbroadcasting, impact, relevant, suggest, reflect,annual

13 Unit 4: In Defense of Advertising

donation, memorable, imply, relevant, support,
surrounding

In addition to the quantitative pre- and post-tests, qualitative data was collected froma post-class survey to gauge students’ perceptions for their vocabulary mastery of synonyms
through the use of Kahoot!. The survey included three Likert-scale questions assessing whether
students were actively engaged, found Kahoot! helpful for vocabulary mastery, and whichskill (listening, reading, writing, or speaking) the activity contributed to the most. The survey
also included an open-response item for students to provide reasons, general comments, or
impressions about their learning. Written in Japanese, the survey was distributed online usinga Google Form and completed anonymously. The author translated and analyzed the datausing the thematic analysis procedure outlined by Braun and Clarke (2006), categorizing thestudents’ responses into themes and refining the specifics of each theme. Table 2 below shows
the translated version of questions asked on the Google Form.

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Improving the Japanese College Students’ Academic Vocabulary Mastery on Synonyms With Kahoot!

Table 2
Questions in the Questionnaire
1 Were you able to actively engage with Kahoot!?
2 Did you find the use of Kahoot! helpful for your vocabulary mastery on synonyms?
3 To which skill do you think the use of synonyms contributed the most? Listening/Reading/Writing/Speaking
4 Any reasons for your responses or general comments?
Note: Questions developed by the author

Results & Discussion
Students’ Vocabulary Scores
To answer the first research question, “How does the use of the online application
Kahoot! contribute to college students’ vocabulary mastery on synonyms?” the pre- and posttest scores of 60 students were compared. As shown in Figure 2, using Kahoot! in a classroom
activity related to vocabulary mastery on synonyms led to a significant increase in students’performances in identifying synonyms. As shown in Table 3, the mean score of students at
the end of the semester increased by 26%, from 31 to 39, compared to the beginning of thesemester. Furthermore, almost all students (54 out of 60) showed an increase in their scores,
with one student exhibiting 82% improvement from 22 to 40 after using Kahoot! over the springsemester. These results suggest the effectiveness of using Kahoot! to enhance their vocabulary
mastery of synonyms.
Figure 2
Comparison of Students’ Vocabulary Scores105

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Table 3
Summary of Vocabulary Scores
Mean

SD

Minimum

Maximum

Pre-Test Score

31

6.4

17

44

Post-Test Score

39

5.5

23

48

Note: N=60, Perfect score=50

Post-Class Survey
Regarding the second research question, “How do they respond after learning English
synonyms through the application of Kahoot!?” the post-class survey was conducted to examine
whether the students were able to actively engage with the vocabulary activity on Kahoot!. All
60 students participated in the survey.
According to the results of the post-class survey, as shown in Figure 3, 80% of the 60
students strongly agreed that they were able to engage with the Kahoot! activity, and none of
the students disagreed. In terms of whether they found the use of Kahoot! helpful for their
vocabulary mastery on synonyms, 81.6% of the students strongly agreed and no one opposed
the question. The students perceived that the use of synonyms contributed the most to theirreading skills (45%), followed by writing skills (33.3%), and the least to their speaking skills(21.7%). No student reported an effect on their listening skills, which may be related to the factthat listening is a receptive skill that requires quick processing, leaving little time for thinking
about synonyms.
Figure 3
Students’ Perceptions of the Use of Kahoot! and Their Mastery of Synonyms

106Improving the Japanese College Students’ Academic Vocabulary Mastery on Synonyms With Kahoot!

The qualitative data collected from the last open-ended question “Any reasons foryour responses or general comments?” added a rich layer of nuance to the quantitative results
indicating that the use of Kahoot! for their mastery of synonyms helped students to understandand increase their vocabulary. Table 4 shows a sampling of analysis with descriptions andexamples.
Table 4
Thematic Analysis with Descriptions and Examples
Theme

Description

Example from students’ comments

Improvement Vocabularyincrease

1) It was helpful to improve my vocabulary.
2) I felt the use of synonyms was effective and efficient.
3) I felt memorizing with Japanese definition was easy toforget but using synonyms stuck far better in my memory.

Reading

Improving reading
skills1) I felt I got faster at reading by rephrasing words withsimpler synonyms.
2) I got better at reading without translating to Japanese thanks
to the use of synonyms.
3) I could visualize the content more easily using synonyms.
4) By doing synonym quizzes, I could understand the parts ofspeech better.

Enjoyment/
Motivation

Gaming effect of
Kahoot!

1) We can enjoy competing with classmates.
2) Answering in the form of quizzes like Kahoot! helps meremember more easily.
3) I had trouble memorizing vocabulary, but using games
removed that hardship.
4) Using games made me review the lesson more frequently.
5) Playing games makes me alert and increases focus on thelesson.
6) I was able to communicate with my classmates moresmoothly after playing games.

Practicality

Writing, TOEIC
test1) It was helpful when thinking of paraphrases in writing.
2) I could solve synonym questions on the TOEIC test moreeasily.

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The thematic analysis identified four themes: Improvement, Reading, Enjoyment/
Motivation, and Practicality. Improvement was related to students’ perception that the use of
Kahoot! helped them to increase their vocabulary and memorize words more easily. Reading
was associated with the idea that students were able to read faster and more efficiently by usingsynonyms. Enjoyment/Motivation highlighted the fun class dynamics, ease of memorizing andreviewing vocabulary through games, and even the focus on the class itself. Lastly, Practicalityemphasized the usefulness of the activity for writing and answering synonym questions on the
TOEIC Listening & Reading test.

Conclusion
The objective of this study was to examine the effect of Kahoot!, an online quiz
platform, on Japanese college students’ academic vocabulary mastery of synonyms and theirperceptions of the learning experience. To achieve this, 60 students were tasked with identifying
synonyms in their weekly classes using Kahoot! and their progress was evaluated through preand post-tests. The students also filled out a questionnaire to provide feedback and perception
on their experience with Kahoot! for their synonym vocabulary mastery.
Two conclusions were drawn based on the results of the study:
The use of Kahoot! appears to have a positive influence on students’ academic
vocabulary in mastery of synonyms, as evidenced by the analysis of quantitative data. The
meaningful improvement in scores indicates that integrating this platform in future language
learning could be beneficial.
The qualitative data analysis revealed that the students had a positive attitude towards
using Kahoot! for learning synonyms. All students actively participated in the Kahoot! activities
and perceived that it helped improve their knowledge and mastery of English synonyms.

Recommendations
The current study has some implications that can be drawn from its results. As a whole,
the results are valuable as they provide insight into the effectiveness of learning academic
vocabulary through synonyms using Kahoot!. However, the students might have displayed alimited understanding of vocabulary usage in context or in actual sentences. To address this,teachers could incorporate specific instructions such as highlighting the different uses of aword and how it functions in a sentence. This approach would provide students with a practicalunderstanding of real-world language use, which could improve their productive vocabularyknowledge.
To further enrich student learning, educators could introduce additional pedagogicalactivities. Assigning specific words to students and encouraging them to find synonyms, alongwith sharing how those words are used in authentic sentences through pair or group work, offers
108Improving the Japanese College Students’ Academic Vocabulary Mastery on Synonyms With Kahoot!

a collaborative approach to deepening students’ understanding of vocabulary usage in context.
This multifaceted strategy ensures a holistic approach to vocabulary acquisition, addressing
both receptive and productive aspects of language proficiency.

References
Ayumi, & Chan, A. M. (2021). Improving Students English Vocabulary Using Kahoot!
Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, 506, 150–154.
https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.210202.027
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in
Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Chen, M. H., Huang, S. T., Chang, J. S., & Liou, H. C. (2015). Developing a corpus-based
paraphrase tool to improve EFL learners’ writing skills. Computer Assisted Language
Learning, 28(1), 22–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2013.783873
Nation, I. S. P. (2022). Learning vocabulary in another language (3rd ed.). Cambridge University
Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009093873
Sembiring, N., & Ginting, F. Y. A. (2019). Improving Students’ Vocabulary Achievement byUsing Storytelling. Jurnal Liner, 2(3), 15–29.
Thornbury, S. (2002). How to Teach Vocabulary. Pearson Education.
Wang, A. I., & Tahir, R. (2020). The effect of using Kahoot! for learning – A literature review.
Computers & Education, 149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103818
Ward, C. S., & Gramer, M. F. (2019). Q: Skills for Success: Level 3: Reading and Writing (3rded.). Oxford University Press.
Webb, S. (2007). The effects of synonymy on second-language vocabulary learning. Reading
in a Foreign Language, 19(2), 120–136.
Kahoot!. (2023). https://kahoot.com/company/

109

Teaching Practice Report

Product, Process, and Content:
Practical Strategies for Differentiation on a University
Debate Course
Russell Minshull

Abstract
Since 2020, all first-year students at a Japanese university participate in a mandatory
English CLIL Debate course in order to enhance their language skills, academic
skills, and their general knowledge of a variety of topics. Classes are organised into
four proficiency levels based on TOEIC scores. With 3000–4000 students entering
the university every year, English proficiency ranges from elementary level, up tohighly advanced returnees and international students. However, despite the vastdifferences between proficiency levels, the unified syllabus requires that all levelgroupings utilise a single in-house textbook and syllabus. Therefore, teachers face
the challenge of differentiating this source material according to class proficiency
level. Over the last few years, the author has addressed this challenge by employing
a differentiation model proposed by educator Carol-Ann Tomlinson (2001), whoemphasises differentiation in product, process, and content. In this paper, the debate
course is analysed according to a framework proposed by Tomlinson, before theauthor reveals some of the adaptations made during his years teaching the course.
Finally, the author reflects on the effectiveness of these adaptations.
Keywords: Differentiation, Adaptive teaching, Content, Debate

Introduction
Since 2020, all first-year students at Rikkyo University are required to take a debate
course during the second semester. Whereas other mandatory first-year courses mainly focus
on building language skills, the debate course was introduced to help ease students’ transition
into a program of CLIL elective courses (Nitta & Yamamoto, 2020, p. 54) implemented in
the subsequent years of the university curriculum. Referred to as a CLIL course by faculty,
successful debating requires more than language proficiency, as students need to acquire andrefine various academic and critical thinking skills (Nitta & Yamamoto, 2020).
As 3000–4000 students are entering the university each year, they come from various
educational backgrounds and have mixed levels of English. The students are split into four110

Product, Process, and Content: Practical Strategies for Differentiation on a University Debate Course

proficiency levels.
Table 1
Debate Level Groupings by TOEIC Score
Level

TOEIC Score Range

Level One680 or above

Level Two

480 to 679

Level Three

280 to 479

Level Four

Below 280

As you can see, this table represents a very wide range of English proficiency levels. In
level one classes, the students are often highly advanced. This can include returnee students,
international exchange students, and native English speakers, all of whom are experienced
in studying with English-medium instruction. On the opposite side of the scale are level four
students, who are still getting a grip on the basics of the English language. As mentioned, allstudents are required to take the course, however, teachers are only given one textbook andsyllabus outline. Therefore, this presents a challenge. How can teachers adapt the debate course
to the various proficiency levels?
In my experience of three years teaching the course, the various level classes experience
the course in different ways. Higher proficiency groups can usually meet the demands ofdebating quite quickly, leaving the teacher with the question of how to ensure they remain
sufficiently challenged. In contrast, lower proficiency groups will sometimes struggle to acquire
the basics of a debate and sometimes can become overwhelmed.
With classes at such different stages of proficiency, and with teachers only provided with
one textbook with which to teach the classes, there is a clear need to differentiate the content
of the course to meet the diverse needs of the classes. In this paper, I will discuss some ways I
have differentiated the debate course during my time teaching it and reflect on the effects of thisdifferentiation. Throughout the paper, an advanced level one class and a lower proficiency level
three class are compared in order to provide examples on the oppositie ends of the spectrum.
Differentiation
Broadly speaking, differentiation in education is often described as adjusting curriculum
or lesson content to variations in student needs. It often emphasises that teachers should seek tobuild profiles of students` characteristics as learners and adapt course content accordingly. The
term seems to have come to prominence in line with the rising importance of equal opportunities
for children in Western education, that every student should receive an equal opportunity tolearn, such as with the Every Student Succeeds Act (2015) or the ‘School For All’ policy in
Scandinavian countries (Blossing et al., 2014). Therefore, in Western education this century,111

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there has been a considerable amount of academic discussion focused on differentiation(Eikeland & Ohna, 2022).
Roiha writes that differentiation is a synthesis of various ideas, such as Gardner’s
Multiple Intelligences theory and Vygotsky’s idea of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)(Roiha, 2014, p. 3). By building a profile of each student’s strengths and weaknesses, teachers
can estimate their stage of development and teach according to their ZPD.
One prominent writer on differentiation in education is Carol-Ann Tomlinson, who
has published extensively on the subject. Several of her works feature recurrent models thatexemplify an approach to differentiation (e.g. 2001). These models appear to be influential in
the area: a review of literature on differentiated instruction found 18 academic publications that
employ her frameworks (Bondie et al., 2019, p. 339).
Two of Tomlinson’s main themes can be summarised thus. First, in order to successfully
differentiate course content, you need sufficient knowledge of your students. Second, particularareas of course content should be explored.
Tomlinson refers to the knowledge of your students as student characteristics, andsuggests that these characteristics can analysed through several variables. These variables
include interest, learner profile, and readiness (Tomlinson et al., 2003). Interest covers student
interests and motivations, that is, what kind of subject matter motivates and engages students.
Learner profile relates to how students prefer to learn, for example, some students might preferto learn visually, whereas others might learn better through dialogue. Finally, Tomlinson oftenemphasises awareness of student readiness. This refers to the current knowledge and skills
regarding course content, which Tomlinson relates to Vygotsky’s ZPD (p. 26). If the student
does not have sufficient knowledge and skills to acquire course content, then efforts must be
made to accommodate the student either by adapting the course content or through scaffolding.
Regarding course content, Tomlinson (2001) identifies variables that can bedifferentiated, and these usually include the elements of content, process, and product.
According to Tomlinson, content means the input we provide students, “what we teach orwhat we want students to learn” (p. 72). She also includes access to input in this category andposits that a teacher should consider when to give access to certain content based on student
readiness to acquire it (p. 72). Process means how students make sense of the content, andin turn how the teacher leads students to the content. In other words, we could say it means
what students do in order to process the input. Tomlinson highlights that most teachers wouldrefer to this as ‘activities’ students take part in to learn the content (p. 81). The last element,
product, refers to the major pieces of work students produce. Tomlinson writes that productassignments should be designed to enable students to review, rethink, and extend what they
have learned over a relatively long period of time (p. 85). Furthermore, the product provides
the vechicle for the main demonstrations of student learning on the course (p. 8). Although she
does not mention assessment or testing, my interpretation is that product refers to assignmentsthat contribute significantly to formative and/or summative assessment, as these are the works
112Product, Process, and Content: Practical Strategies for Differentiation on a University Debate Course

in which students typically demonstrate their cumulative learning across a number of lessons.
The Content, Process, and Product of the Debate Course
What constitutes the components of content, process, and product will naturally dependon the particular course.
Debate Course: Content
The debate course could be considered to have various main objectives and subsidiaryobjectives, however, I usually approach the course with three main objectives in mind: students
enhance their knowledge of the topics they study, students develop critical thinking skills
required for argumentation, and students build language skills. Therefore, I would say thatthese three particular areas form the content of my courses.
One of the primary outcomes is that students are learning about various issues.
They investigate a range of themes, for example, textbook topics include vegetarianism, theenvironment, and gender. Students explore topics in class through discussions, texts and videos,and various brainstorming activities, before researching them independently or in groups.
Finally, they put their knowledge to the test in the debates.
The language component of the course could be considered to be complex. The textbook
features a set of phrases that are designed to help students participate in the various parts ofa debate; namely opening statements, cross-examination, rebuttal, and summaries. However,students also need to be able to use topic-specific vocabulary, which is not designated in the
textbook. Also in the language component, we can include various speaking, writing, listening,
and reading skills. For instance, in order to complete a debate students need to be able towrite an academic paragraph, they need negotiation of meaning skills to complete a crossexamination, they need listening skills to be able to take accurate notes during the opposition’s
statement, and so on. There are a broad range of language skills involved in a debate class.
Finally, there are critical thinking skills which mainly revolve around argumentation.
For instance, students need to evaluate the strength of various arguments before selecting thestrongest for their opening statements. They also need to predict the opposition’s arguments,
which gives them practice of thinking from various perspectives. Additionally, they need toevaluate the strength and suitability of evidence along with various other critical thinking skills.
Debate Course: Process
The process aspect of the course involves, first of all, students learning what a debate is,what its purpose is, how it is structured, and how to participate in one. After that, students willgo through a mix of theory and practice on how to be successful at debating. On my courses, wespend between four to six lessons focused more on learning about debate as a genre. After that,students go through a process of preparation, debate, and then feedback and further practicethrough the end of the course.
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Also integral to the this aspect is the process students go through in order to complete
a debate, as this facilitates significant learning on the course. This process generally includes
brainstorming and sharing of ideas, deeper research, selecting and constructing arguments,
participating in the actual debate, and finally reflection and feedback.
Debate Course: ProductAs previously mentioned, the product of a course as described by Tomlinson (2001) iswhat the students are expected to produce, which helps us to evaluate learning. On the debate
course, the most tangible product is the debates themselves. There are the four main sectionsof the debate, opening statements, cross-examination, rebuttals, and summaries. Within these
sections students demonstrate competencies and knowledge on the course. For example, theyshow research skills and logic by integrating sourced evidence into opening statements, they
demonstrate their counter-argument skills in rebuttals, and so on. Students take part in a midterm and final debate, and these both carry significant weight toward assessment on the course.
There are also less quantifiable elements such as teamwork skills, confidence, anddivergent thinking, that are more difficult to assess but could be made visible through activities
such as written reflections.

Methods of Differentiation
Numerous adaptations can be made to the product, process, and content of debate inorder to differentiate the course. In this section, I will discuss some of the changes I have madeover three years of teaching the course, and the theory behind them.
Content Differentiation
The main differentiation I have implemented related to the content of the debate course
has revolved around adapting debate topics and propositions, and in adapting the language focus
according to the various levels.
Content Differentiation: Topics and Propositions
The topics and propositions used for the debate can have a big influence on the difficultyof the classes. Students need to have sufficient amounts of both knowledge and vocabulary inthe subject area. Therefore, if they are lacking in both at the start of the process, then completinga debate will be difficult. Alternatively, if they already have some background knowledge andsome vocabulary, then the debate becomes less demanding as students can focus more onbuilding logical arguments and practising debate skills. Thus, topics, and also propositions, canbe selected accordingly. Some may need an easier topic to complete a debate, whereas others
might thrive on a more challenging, academic topic.
My approach to this is to be flexible in which topics and propositions are debated and114

Product, Process, and Content: Practical Strategies for Differentiation on a University Debate Course

I achieve this through negotiation with students. This negotiation process involves asking forsuggestions, voting, and getting feedback on the topics we use.
This process allows us to nominate topics and propositions that are within students’ areasof interest but also allows me to apply a filter to the suitability of the topics and propositions interms of difficulty. Here are the topics and propositions that were used in a level one and level
three class last year:
Table 2
Topics Used in Two Classes in the Debate Course in 2022
Level One

Level Three

Animal Rights: Zoos are Beneficial for
Animals.

Education: School Students Should Wear a
School Uniform.

Crime and Punishment: The Death Penalty
Should be Abolished.

Urbanisation: Living in the City is Better than
Living in the Country.

Gender: Women Have a More Difficult Life
than Men in Japan.

Social Media: Social Media is Beneficial toSociety.

Free Speech: Insulting Others Online Should
be a Criminal Offence.

Media: Video Games are Bad for Children.

Euthanasia: Euthanasia Should be Legal in
Japan.

Education: Online Education is Superior toFace-to-Face.

The topics and propositions used in the level three class could generally be described asalready familiar to students. In previous research on the university’s discussion course, students
stated that familiar topics were easier to discuss because they already had ideas to talk about(Minshull, 2021), and perhaps the same applies to debate. For example, the debate around
online and face-to-face education has been a much-discussed topic over the last few years due
to COVID-19, so it was safe to assume that students would have background knowledge in the
topic, having recently experienced online education. Moreover, there was a good chance they
had already discussed the topic in another English class in the first semester.
The level one class tended to gravitate toward more abstract topics, such as euthanasia
and animal rights. It seemed as though students had limited knowledge of the discourse
surrounding these topics at first, but were able to research the topics well enough to conduct
impressive debates. Also noteworthy is that this particular class, which was especially strong
in terms of English and academic skills, seemed to be more motivated by divisive topics thanclasses in other levels.

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Content Differentiation: Language Focus
The textbook provides a set of functional phrases as the main language focus of thecourse. In my experience, the challenge of acquiring the set phrases and related skills varies
depending on the group. Moreover, the language requirements of debate extend further thanthese phrases, and what is helpful can vary depending on the class. Therefore, the language
focus is another content area than can be considered for differentiation.
I have usually implemented this differentiation reactively, meaning that I tend to workwith emergent issues rather than predict what would be effective. The following table showssome of the language skills covered in the level one and level three classes last semester.
Table 3
Some Key Language Points Studied by Two Classes in 2022
Level One

Level Three

Understanding Propositions

Acquiring Textbook Phrases

Being Concise

Developing Arguments with Explanation

Cause and EffectFluency Practice

Persuasive Language

Negotiation of Meaning

Volume of Opening Statement Delivery

Issues Related to Delivery (e.g. pronunciation,
volume, intonation)

In the example of the level three class, the major language work went toward acquiring
the textbook phrases and the related skills, which was done gradually and through practice.
They also often needed support in developing a strong written argument. This included sharing
model statements to help them internalise structures, encouraging them to explain arguments
in detail, and encouraging them to include evidence to support arguments. They also struggled
in the cross-examination and rebuttal sections, mainly due to limited spoken fluency anddifficulties with negotiation of meaning. To help with these issues, we practiced negotiation of
meaning skills, such as paraphrasing, and would have pair and group discussions as often as
possible. Finally, sometimes the delivery of statements could be an issue during debates. There
were difficulties related to pronunciation, intonation, and volume, all of which impeded listenerunderstanding. Students were given instruction on delivery, including how to independently
learn the pronunciation of new words, intonation, and delivering arguments with volume andenthusiasm.
Conversely, the level one class were able to use the textbook phrases and skills almost
immediately, or were already proficient in them, so I looked for further language points to help
strengthen their debates. For example, some early opening statements exceeded the five-minute116

Product, Process, and Content: Practical Strategies for Differentiation on a University Debate Course

time limit, so we practiced writing concisely. We also studied cause and effect to help thememphasise the importance of their arguments. A final example is that after a few debates, their
opening statements seemed effective, but somewhat straightforward, so we studied persuasive
writing to increase the impact of their statements and to encourage more creativity.
Product Differentiation
As mentioned, the major product of the debate class is the debates, because this is wherestudents can best demonstrate their learning on the course. The two major debate sections I
have focused on differentiating over the last three years have been the opening statements andthe rebuttals.
Product Differentiation: Opening Statements
Opening statements can be differentiated by length and detail. This can be done byadapting the grading rubric, meaning students need to achieve a different set of standards inorder to attain a high grade. Alternatively, it can also be done through suggestions from theteacher. The following table gives an example of how one might differentiate the rubric.
Table 4
Possible Differentiation of the Assessment Rubric Regarding Opening Statements
Level One - In order to get maximum points, there should be 3 main points, all with sourced
evidence. Sources should be mostly English language.
Level Three - In order to get maximum points, there should be 2 main points, 1 of whichcontains sourced evidence. However, students are encouraged to include a third point, andmore sources, where possible.

For an effective opening statement that lasts around 3–5 minutes, it seems that threemain points are ideal. However, for classes that are finding preparing statements difficult,requirements can be changed so that two main points are sufficient. Having to produce fewer
arguments can give them more time to work on producing arguments of good quality. With
more advanced students, as mentioned previously, they can sometimes produce overly longstatements, and requiring three points can work as a limitation, meaning they need to focus on
arguing more concisely.
Related to this is the level of detail and research that students are required to integrate
into the statement, which can be differentiated by requiring different standards of evidence. For
example, a strong class could be required to include English language sources in all of theirpoints. In contrast, less-ready students can be required to include less sourced evidence, forexample, one or two points, with examples or common knowledge accepted elsewhere. Withinthese criteria there are several possible permutations, depending on what is suitable for the class.

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Product Differentiation: The Demands of Rebuttals
In in-course and post-course surveys conducted over the last few years, students often
say rebuttals are the most challenging aspect of debate. This seems to be because they are
inexperienced in thinking of criticism, they are taken aback by a well-argued point, or they havedifficulty producing counterarguments in English under time pressure. To help with this, whatis expected during rebuttal is another thing that can be differentiated.
Table 5Differentiation of Rebuttals
Level One - Encourage students to rebut all three of the opposition’s main points. Try andinclude sourced evidence in rebuttals if possible, otherwise explain your counter-argument
thoroughly.
Level Three - Students should be encouraged to rebut two of the opposition’s main points, andexplain their counter-arguments in as much detail as possible.

First, as with the opening statements, the length of the rebuttals can be adapted.
Producing three rebuttals is more challenging than producing two or one. With classes that are
struggling, requiring fewer rebuttals can allow them to focus on quality over quantity. Second,
we can also change what is required in terms of rebuttal content. For instance, if the class isready for a challenge, they may be encouraged to include sourced evidence in their rebuttals.
Process Differentiation
Mainly due to COVID-19, the three years of debate I have taught so far have been
conducted either online or under classroom restrictions, and I feel as though I have not madeas many adaptations in the area of process as in content and product. Not being able to leave
the teacher’s desk sometimes made it difficult for me to see how students actually work duringclasses, such as how they write an opening statement. However, the following are some attempts
made at differentiation of process.
Process Differentiation: Preparation TimeThe amount of time students get to prepare for a debate can significantly affect theirperformance, so this can be moderated. For instance, lower-readiness students can get moretime to prepare, while advanced students can be given less. However, this intersects with what
students are expected to produce. If your more advanced students are expected to produce morework, and of a higher standard, then cutting their preparation time might be counterproductive.
Regardless, it is still something that can be considered. Another approach to managing time
during debates involves the allocation of preparation time before cross-examination andrebuttals, with lower-readiness students getting more and advanced students getting less.

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Product, Process, and Content: Practical Strategies for Differentiation on a University Debate Course

Process Differentiation: Debate Personnel
I usually aim for groups of three in a debate, however, I have on occasion used less ormore than this. With one class that seemed low on motivation and confidence, I made groupsof four or five. With more advanced classes, pair debates can provide a challenge. However, as
debates will probably need to be done simultaneously, this is difficult to grade and is best donein practice debates.
Another adaptation regarding debate personnel is grouping students based on theirindividual abilities. Usually, I will do this by grouping stronger students with weaker students.

Reflection on the Effectiveness of Differentiation
First of all, Tomlinson (2001) says that it is somewhat difficult to separate the elements
of product, process, and content, as students do not experience them in isolation (p. 72). Also,in my experience, there is likely to be more than one adaptation in effect at the same time, so it
is challenging to evaluate their individual efficacy. However, I will now offer a series of shortreflections on the various differentiation strategies, and offer some advice for differentiating thedebate course to different ability levels.
Table 6
Effective and Less Effective Differentiation
Effective

Less Effective

Negotiating Topics/Propositions

Differentiating Requirements for the Length ofOpening Statement/Rebuttals

Scaffolding - Language and Knowledge
Flexible Language Focus
Standards Demanded during Debate(e.g. sourced evidence is required or not)Proficiency-Based Debate Groupings

Preparation Time before Debates
Allowing Longer Times to Prepare for
Rebuttals and Cross Examination
Larger Teams in Lower Readiness Classes
Moderating L1 Use

Adapting the Topics and Propositions
To start with, it seems that the topics and propositions tend to be the biggest factor in
determining the level of difficulty of debates. Therefore, this is probably the highest yield factor
in terms of differentiation.
Lower-proficiency classes tend to encounter difficulties with unfamiliar topics. They
need to not only learn a whole new area of background knowledge but also need to learn
related language up to the point where they can debate. This is a huge challenge and can lead119

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to students becoming overwhelmed. In level three classes, I have seen several debates that havemore or less collapsed, or else been very short, and I believe this is sometimes due to the topic
being too difficult or else uninteresting to students. On the contrary, using familiar topics willusually help them to obtain some success. Prior background knowledge and already acquired
English vocabulary in the area seem to allow them to focus on building strong arguments.
In contrast, with stronger groups, I feel that using topics students are already very
familiar with does not motivate them. I have also found that they might be unenthusiastic
about topics that they have already studied during their first year at the university. For example,
the level one class last year did not want to debate the environment as a topic, because they
had already covered it comprehensively in other classes. Also, stronger classes tend tohave confidence in their academic ability, and they often seem to thrive on the challenge of
researching unfamiliar topics. Several students in stronger classes already study in English
as the medium of instruction, or are planning to in the future, and perhaps this approach canprovide a motivating way of practising research skills on academic topics.
With all groups, it is worthwhile discussing the topics of debate with students andpaying attention to how students feel about them, either before selecting a topic or in feedback
after a debate.
Flexible Language Focus
As mentioned, I tend to take a reactive approach to language input on the course.
In lieu of more detailed needs analyses, working with emergent issues allows me to cater tostudents’ ZPD more directly than with prescribed language points. Moreover, trying to prescribe
language points can sometimes be unsuccessful. For example, last year, the level one classstudied persuasive and emotive language and were able to integrate that into their debates,
which seemed to improve the quality of their debates. Previously, I tried this language skill ina prescribed fashion with groups that were in the level two bracket, and while they seemed to
be engaged with the point when studying it, there was little reproduction of it during actual
debates, suggesting they were perhaps not ready to acquire it yet.
Another example is that classes tend to have their idiosyncrasies, which also means
they have their specific challenges. The level three class last year seemed capable of writing
decent opening statements, but would often have issues delivering them. Therefore, a focus was
required on delivering a statement properly.
Without more detail on students coming into the course, I think that a flexible approachto language input, in which the instructor works with emergent issues, can help to differentiate
the course.
Required Standards of Debates
I have found that moderating the standards of argumentation expected can be aneffective way of differentiating debates. For example, around the middle of the course, my120

Product, Process, and Content: Practical Strategies for Differentiation on a University Debate Course

level one students were not only able to include sourced research in each of their opening
statement points but had also started to integrate it into their rebuttals. This looked promising,so I encouraged them to do this as much as possible, highlighting the impact it can have. By the
final debate, they were integrating sources into rebuttals regularly, which was highly impressive
to me.
This progressive elevation of difficulty might also have helped motivate them.
Sometimes advanced classes can become proficient at debating quickly, and later debates canfeel like they are just going through the motions, so this kind of increasing challenge might
have helped invigorate them and maintain engagement.
With struggling classes, lowering expectations of the standard of argumentation seems
to be a useful method of differentiation. By reducing the requirements related to integrating
research into their statements, they can focus on foundational skills and on completing
debates successfully. This is not to say they should not try and include sourced evidence,and I highlight that sourced evidence will usually make their arguments stronger. However, I
will also emphasise that using examples and common knowledge can also be effective, and isacceptable. I believe that this allows students who are lacking in confidence, or readiness, togive a meaningful contribution to debates, whereas other students who feel ready can practise
integrating sources into their arguments.
Required Length of Arguments and Preparation Times
On the other hand, moderating the length of statements and rebuttals has been lesssuccessful. Although it certainly simplifies debates, it can lead to them being so short as tofeel underwhelming. In my classes, students get homework plus around 60–90 minutes toprepare for a debate, and therefore if the resulting debate is a matter of a few sentences, it feels
unsatisfying. Therefore, I tend to adhere to asking for three main points in opening statements
and two or three rebuttals, and seek alternative ways to differentiate the challenge.
Similarly, I have not had great results with manipulating the amount of time required
to prepare for cross-examination and rebuttals. Ideally, students have two or three minutes
before cross-examination in which they can prepare questions for the opposition, and about
five minutes to prepare rebuttals. In the past, I have moderated this to be longer for lowerproficiency groups, on occasion going up to ten minutes for rebuttal preparation. Again, thiscan feel underwhelming if the resulting rebuttals are still quite brief. Moreover, this can makethe debates rather long, which can interfere with lesson time-keeping. Instead, I try to address
the difficulty of rebuttals through tactics such as encouraging students to start preparing them as
early as possible in the debate, and by encouraging them to predict the opposition’s arguments
in advance.
Grouping Depending on Student Proficiency
Regarding process differentiation, I have had good results in grouping stronger students
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with weaker students. This was particularly effective in the level three class last year. In thefirst third of the course, which is more theory than practice, I was concerned about the class’s
overall readiness to successfully complete debates because although they enjoyed talking inclass, they did not seem particularly inclined to the more academic side of debate. However, inthe first practice debate, I noticed several students were, in fact, quite talented when it came toresearching and constructing arguments. Thereafter, I would endeavor to separate these students
into different teams. I believe that this ensured debates maintained quality. This could also be
good for building cooperation skills, as students can realise strengths and weaknesses, and takeon different roles.
Larger Teams in Lower Readiness Classes
In contrast, making larger teams in lower readiness classes has been less successful. In
theory, having more students working together should make the process easier, as there is more
manpower to help out with doing the research and so on. However, I have found that in reality,
this can lead to some students becoming seemingly idle for long periods during preparation
time, making me wonder how much they are contributing. Also, having large groups makes it
difficult for each member to significantly contribute to the debates in real-time, and also perhaps
makes the process confusing as the delegation of work becomes more complicated.
Final Reflection One: The Need for Needs Analyses
As a first concluding thought, something that underpins any effective differentiation is
how much you know about your students. On this course, when we meet the students, we know
only their TOEIC scores from a test taken upon entering the university. In reality, this gives us
little information about their skills, interests, and aptitude for debate. Thus, gathering further
information about students early in the course would allow us to better cater to their needs. I
usually attempt this through surveys, a written assignment, and group discussions, all done very
early in the course. However, it is usually not until we have completed a full practice debate that
I feel confident I have an understanding of the class. Also, my knowledge of student interests
develops as the course progresses, so it can be difficult to prepare certain content, such as debate
topics, in advance. A possible solution to this is to use more thorough needs analysis methods
early on in the course, which I intend to do in the future.
To help with this, I encourage those involved in the debate course to share information.
Around 4000 students are taking the debate course, and this means that a good deal of
information about the classes could be shared, which could help to inform a more detailed,faculty-wide needs analysis. In lieu of this, I would recommend teachers gather as muchinformation about students’ needs, wants, and likes as possible early in the course.
Final Reflection Two: The Need for Differentiation
Working in the university context in Japan, I have found it is not unusual to be tasked
122

Product, Process, and Content: Practical Strategies for Differentiation on a University Debate Coursewith delivering mandatory courses to large numbers of students, who will often have quite
different levels of readiness and varying learner profiles. Preparing, delivering, and grading
the courses can be time-consuming, so it can be tempting to adopt a one-size-fits-all approach.
However, in teaching these courses and reflecting on what I have done, I have increasingly
realised the usefulness of differentiation in such situations. Many of us will have encounteredclasses that seem overwhelmed or unmotivated, and perhaps in many cases adapting course
content to students’ needs would help. Perhaps the course content is too difficult, or just does notseem relevant enough to motivate them. On the other hand, there is not always an easy approachto differentiating courses, particularly if your institution has specific requirements. Some might
demand you use a particular textbook, that you must aim for a particular outcome, or that a
particular assessment must be implemented, and these might not always fit with your students’levels of readiness. This can make differentiating course content difficult or even daunting.
However, a framework such as Tomlinon’s product, process, and content model could help us
to make the implementation of differentiation more manageable.

References
Blossing, U., Imsen, G., & Moos, L. (2014). The Nordic Education Model: ‘A School for All’
Encounters Neo-Liberal Policy. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7125-3
Bondie, R. S., Dahnke, C., & Zusho, A. (2019). How Does Changing “One-Size-Fits-All” toDifferentiated Instruction Affect Teaching? Review of Research in Education, 43(1),336–362. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X18821130
Eikeland, I., & Ohna, S. E. (2022). Differentiation in education: a configurative review. Nordic
Journal of Studies in Educational Policy, 8(3), 157–170.
https://doi.org/10.1080/20020317.2022.2039351
Every Student Succeeds Act, 20 U.S.C. § 6301 (2015).
https://congress.gov/114/plaws/publ95/PLAW-114publ95.pdf
Minshull, R. (2021). To What Extent Do the Topics on a Japanese University Discussion Course
Support Fluency Building? Journal of Foreign Language Education and Research, 2,
105–121.
Nitta, R., & Yamamoto, Y. (2020). Reconceptualizing CLIL from transformative pedagogy
perspective: Pilot debate study in English language curriculum. Journal of Foreign
Language Education and Research, 1, 47–62.
Roiha, A. S. (2014). Teachers’ views on differentiation in content and language integrated
learning (CLIL): Perceptions, practices and challenges. Language and Education, 28(1),1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2012.748061
Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms (2nded.). ASCD (Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development).
Tomlinson, C. A., Brighton, C., Hertberg, H., Callahan, C. M., Moon, T. R., Brimijoin, K.,123

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Conover, L. A., & Reynolds, T. (2003). Differentiating Instruction in Response toStudent Readiness, Interest, and Learning Profile in Academically Diverse Classrooms:
A Review of Literature. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 27(2–3), 119–145.
https://doi.org/10.1177/016235320302700203

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授業実践報告

レシピを読むスペイン語授業の実践報告
松本

旬子

要旨
、2023 年度春学期「本稿

2024 年度

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語

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施

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、

高

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、動画作成

はじめに
2024 年度
始動
言語 B 新、 複言語複文化 視座 学生
会得
目指、必修・自由科目
大
刷新
。必修科目
、
言語共通教育参照枠（Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages、以下 CEFR） 指標 用
独仏西中朝露 6 言語横断 目標 掲。
自由科目 、当該言語能力 伸長 目指 授業、学生
合形 継続学習授業 展開。第 3 言語学習
言語 拡大。
2022 年度、2023 年度
新先行実施 一部科目 行
。現行
枠組
中 内容
変更
、枠組
新
運営
、実施 仕方 各言語各科目 異、先行実施科目担当者
125

多言語教育実践ジャーナル

、手応
本稿
、

第 4 巻（JOURNAL OF MULTILINGUAL PEDAGOGY AND PRACTICE, VOL. 4）

感。
、2023 年度春学期 筆者 現「
語圏
読 授業 実践報告語。

2」 中 行

言語 B 新カリ自由科目と CLIL1
言語 B 新
自由科目 、主 1 年次 言語 B 必修科目 履修 終
学生 継続
学習 促 仕組、
言語 触
機会提供 目標 設計
4。学生 多様 学習目的 対応
領域 分
展開
。
、
留学 向
早
準備 整
意欲
学生 取 込「留学準備」
1 年生
領域
履修可能
、
点 現
大
変更
。各領域 特徴 以下 通。
・
「留学準備」領域：海外留学先 文化 生活
学 科目 、留学 必要
試験
準備用科目 提供。
」領域：様々
楽学科目
・「、必修授業 身言語運用能力活用
提供。
・「」領域：言語 B
総合 F 科目 学部専門科目
科目
CLIL 科目 提供。
・「」領域：卒業後幅広
言語 使用
力 養 科目 他、通訳・翻訳技術 学 科目 提供
。
「
」領域 中
Monolingual CLIL 想定。一方、「、言語 B 現
、新
提供、学生

授業外

Hard &
展開予定 CLIL 科目
内容学習 目的、言語 B 授業 中 最上位
位置Soft & Bilingual CLIL
」領域 展開。
中級科目 1 単位、上級科目 2 単位自由科目 2 単位。当然単位数 見合
授業内容
学習時間 確保 必須。

2023 年度春学期「スペイン語スタンダード 2」の授業
授業
1

126

内容

設計

、笹島（2022）、渡部（2020）、今井（2018） 参考、新CLIL（Contents and Language Integrated Learning） Content, Communication, Cognition, Community “4 Cs”
要素 持 枠組、
枠組
基
教材 教案 作 授業 行
良 教育 実現
基本原理（Bentley, 2010, p. 7）。
実行方法 教育現場 状況 応
様々 種類
得
、言語 授業 一部
扱 Soft CLIL、目標言語 用
授業 半分以上 時間 内容学
Hard CLIL（Bentley, 2010, p. 6）
習 充
授業 目的 応、外国語 母語
使進
Bilingual CLIL、外国語
Monolingual CLIL
使用
使用言語 応他、頻度・回数 比
率別 導入方法 考（池田 , 2020, pp. 9–11）。

レシピを読むスペイン語授業の実践報告

「

」領域

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3
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4
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6
6
7
7
8
8
9
9
10
10
11 作文、発表準備 1
12 作文、発表準備 2
13 発表
14
、

、

1

授業時間外（予習・復習等） 学習
予習：主 食材
復習：必要 応

料理 関
課題 出

語彙

学習（毎週授業冒頭 単語行。課題 関
指示 、適宜履修者 対

）。
行

。

成績評価方法・基準
平常点 100 ％（最終
業参加度（40%））（Final Test）（30%）、作文＆発表（30%）、単語等課題・授

Punto y coma (online)
参考文献

Marisa de Parada, Paloma Puente Ortega y Eugenia Mota（2019) Descubre La gastronomía

127

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第 4 巻（JOURNAL OF MULTILINGUAL PEDAGOGY AND PRACTICE, VOL. 4）

使用テキスト
表 1 内「語履修者 教員」 Punto y coma（online）
、大学
契約
語学習
雑誌 Punto y coma
105 巻（2023 年 10 月現在）
指 。創刊
現在発行
記事
読
、音源
音源 聴
CEFR 基
。各記事
目安
示
。
契約
活用
、今回、雑誌 掲載
授業
使用
。
履修者
接続
機器 毎授業 持参、各
自媒体
形 授業 行
。

実際の授業内容と運営
1）実際の授業内容
履修者 15 名 全員 最後
出席 、半期 学
終
修了
。
授業開始
、
語 自由科目
履修
学生同士 交流 連携
15 名
履修者数 鑑 、授業内
重要
、
行
工夫
必要
考 、提示
学生 相談
上、以下 点 変更
。
・最終
）。

、授業内
発表 行
「作文＆発表」 「発表」 学期終盤 行（3 人× 5
個人

。
・

発表・個人
部分
授業外 行
。
・復習 回 設。
・授業 5 回目
語母語話者

実際
反映

128

授業
内容

読
表2

等
通

準備

、
。

授業内

終了

授業

行

他変更箇所

公開

。

レシピを読むスペイン語授業の実践報告

表 2 授業内容（変更箇所のみ）
授業計画

1
1「Guacamole（A1/A2）」、
2
2「Arroz con leche（A2/B1）」
3
3「Torrijas de Semana Santa（B1/B2）」・
4「Horchata（B1/B2）」
2
4 「Navidad, Navidad, Dulce de Navidad（B1/B2）」
5
授業
6
5）
発表 1「Croquetas de jamón y pollo（B1/B2）」（
7
6）
発表 2「Tarta de queso vasca（B1/B2）」（
8
7）
発表 3「Berenjenas rellenas a la menorquina（B1/B2）」（
9
8）
発表 4「Pisto Manchego（B1/B2）」（
10
9）
発表 5「Conejo con patatas（B1/B2）」（
11 復習 1（語彙）・「Boquerones a la sartén」
10）、作文・発表準備 1（
12 復習 2（複合名詞）・「Boquerones en tempura」
11）、作文・発表準備 2（
13 発表 1
14 発表 2、授業時間外（予習・復習等） 学習
予習：主 食材 料理
発表準備、個人

関

語彙 学習（毎週授業冒頭
用作文・動画準備。

単語

行

）
。

成績評価方法・基準
平常点 100%（
発表（30%）、個人
等課題・授業参加度（40%））（動画作成）（30%）、単語

2）実際の授業運営

1
内 参考文献Descubre La gastronomía 巻末 単語
各回 範囲（資料 1）、毎授業冒頭 単語
行。
特徴 、写真 単語 示
、
語圏
地域
呼
名 知
。写真
、
定冠詞
記
（定冠詞
名詞 性
）、予習 西和・和西辞典 使用 必須
。答
一
限
、例
資料 1 示「果物」「」
出題“el albaricoque”“el damasco”“el chabacano”
答良 。
、定冠詞 共 回答（＝名詞 性 覚
）
課題
。
学生 予習
単語
範囲
語彙
、
日 読
、
場 初見 読 。授業内
辞書使用 推奨 、料理 関
語彙、
特 食品 名前
必
辞書 掲載、
辞書 使用 認。
CEFR A 〜 B
Punto y coma 登場
。
中
、
難
読
、
語圏 文化 知 上 役 立
学期 前半 読
決
。5 読
、
授業
行
。
間、
発表 扱
選
、発表
2

記事。

129

多言語教育実践ジャーナル準備識

第 4 巻（JOURNAL OF MULTILINGUAL PEDAGOGY AND PRACTICE, VOL. 4）

授業外

進
。各
自分
選
予習 、背景知。担当回 、先生役
先導
全体
読 進 、
料理 関
豊
知識 披露
。
学期 前半 授業 予習
読
理由 、未修 動詞 時制
登場。
語 必修科目、24 年度
新
始動 先
22 年度
立 、
新
導入
。現 2 年生 前年度
新
必修科目 学修、当然
新
必修授業 扱
文法事項 未修。
中、未来形 接続法
現 2 年生未修 時制 盛 込
文章 出
。
未知
多 遭遇
、学生 読 意欲 喪失
、翻訳
頼
懸
念
、予習
。授業中 知時制 出、
与 、原形 探 、動詞 意味 推測
作業 繰 返。
結果、履修生 多、時制 未修既修 問、文章 中 動詞 見出、
同 動詞 高 頻度 使
傾向
、意味 把握
1
自分
。
、授業後半
発表
読
。
授業中 筆者 使用言語 、語 日本語 2 言語 主
、履修者
日本語
自由 発言
、英語 知識 頼
促
。発
表 際
可能 限
語 使
推奨
、
背景知識 得下調 等、履修者一人持 言語能力 存分 活用
勧。

授業を終えて

1）学生の反応
学生
別

、学内

実施
大教
学生
授業評価
行 、回答
。本稿
後者 結果 記 。基CLIL 授業 先行実施用
、英語 行
新
。共有
必要 修正 加使用。
15 名 履修者、9 名 回答 得 （資料 2）。学習成果、授業 内容 教材
、
「強
思 」
「
思 」 選択肢 回答 占、学生 授業 対
大
手応
満足度 感
。
、期待 応
授業
設問
高 評価
、新
「
」領域 展開授業 、継続学習 促 得
示唆
言。
自由記述 「大変」点 大方 授業外
活動
注視点。

2）教員の感想と手応え
文章

130

長

、

通

語圏

食、

文化

触

レシピを読むスペイン語授業の実践報告

Soft CLIL 授業
最適 教材
実際 授業 確認。
CEFR A
B
使用
語彙 限定的、大方 履修生 、
日本語 介
語彙 意味 理解
（＝思 出
）推察
、非常 大
手応
感
。授業最終回近、既出 語彙 多 用
初見 辞書 用読可能。
、繰 返 出 来 語彙 同意語 反意語 確認
復習
回 設、履修者自身 料理 関
基本語彙 身
実感
良 機会
思 。
筆者
授業 個人
課
題
動画作成 履修生 課
来 （Matsumoto 2021, 松本 2021）。動画作成 、
原稿 作文
動画内
発音指導
学生
教員
重
課題
、
学修成果 大経験的 承知
。今回
個人
準備 大変
記述
学生 多
、数年前
技術 進 、動画作成 手軽。今回 動画質 高
散見、以前
真剣 他 履修生
見
人
、動画鑑賞
全体 楽
様子 印象的。
今後 積極的 取 入
考。

考察

1) 個人プレゼンテーション（動画作成）
個人（動画作成）
原稿 必要 、
作文
必要。
原稿 読 上
活動 加
。複合
的
大
学修成果
、
加
学
。
授業
、動画作成 第一段階
原稿執筆 、可能 限 授業内 行
、終
場合
宿題
。
、翻訳
使
思
作文
提出
。
授業 読
表現 駆使
、
聞
理解
書 直
要請
、
、
力 養
目的 果
理由
、
説得力
。授業 学
表現
役立 ・役立、CLIL 動画作成
親和性 高。
他、音声 吹 込
動画 撮影・編集
授業外
活動
。
学生
発表日
準備 進 方 異、撮影（録音） 修正人
人。修正 、主 音声 撮 直（原稿 読 間違 、不適切発音等）、教員
指摘 受、2 度目、3 度目 録音 行
、発音
力 大
改善
。
最終的
使
動画 直接成績評価 関、成
績云々
、完成度 高
作成 豊
語力養
131

多言語教育実践ジャーナル

成
必要

、
考

第 4 巻（JOURNAL OF MULTILINGUAL PEDAGOGY AND PRACTICE, VOL. 4）

少 作文 動画撮影。全員 丁寧 準備
必 活
流
確保

教員側
環境 整
欠

厳

管理
全員

、
。

2）今後へ向けて

先述 通 、一人
Plurilingual CLIL

持 言語能力 活用、
授業 結果的。英語 既存 知識
語 理解 助場面
多々。複合名詞 構成
日英西 比較
。
日本語 調理動詞 多知貴重 学。普段 生活使
調理器具 名前 確認 、日本語 語彙 増
学生
意外 誤算
。
語 授業
、言語 B 新根底
複言語複文化 視点、取 込。
Soft CLIL
言 、「
語演習」
通
言語学習 進

想定

、

語力

良

網羅
、可能 限 音声扱
機会 毎授業設
学生同士 交流 連携 生
結果 表
、履修者
発表以外
学生間 十分
、今後 課題
。

磨
対応

、音声
。
期待

活用

重要
、授業
、

発表
不十分
場

。個人
取 扱

実施

、
。

組

込

おわりに
、学生
授業評価
必修授業 結果、学
言語圏 文化 触
機会 学生 学習意欲
。従来
文法
縛
実現
取 組
、言語 B 新Soft CLIL
各言語 実施
考
。
「
語演習」
授業
言語圏 文化 知 場
、
自立
学習者 育
期待 、学生 継続学習。
言語学習 教室 中留。
認識 、学生
教員
、
新
中
当
前
定着
必要
。教員 、
大変
履修
思 学生 期待 裏切
授業 周到 準備 、提供。

参考文献
池田真（2020）「CLIL 基本原理」『CLIL（内容言語統合型学習）上智大学外国語教育
新挑戦 第 1 巻 原理 方法』第 4 刷，上智大学出版，pp. 1–14.
132

レシピを読むスペイン語授業の実践報告

今井康博（2018）「
評価」『CLIL（内容言語統合型学習）上智大学外国語教育
新挑戦 第 3 巻 授業 教材』第 2 刷，上智大学出版，124–130.
!?』第 4 刷，
笹島茂編著（2022）『CLIL 新発想 授業―理科 歴史 外国語 教
三修社 .
松本旬子（2021）「授業内課題」『多言語教育実践
』1，74–81.
渡部良典（2020）
「
作成
評価 設計
分析、効果 測定」
『CLIL（内容言語統合型学習）上智大学外国語教育 新
挑戦 第 2
巻 実践 応用』第 2 刷，上智大学出版，229–264.
Bentley, K. (2010). The TKT course CLIL module. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Matsumoto, J. (2021). Análisis de la interlengua hablada de los estudiantes japoneses deespañol como segunda lengua extranjera. Internalización y enseñanza del español
como lengua extranjera: plurilingüismo y comunicación intercultural, 930–940.

133

多言語教育実践ジャーナル

資料 1

134

第 4 巻（JOURNAL OF MULTILINGUAL PEDAGOGY AND PRACTICE, VOL. 4）

Descubre La gastronomía 巻末の単語リストの 1 ページ（果物）レシピを読むスペイン語授業の実践報告

資料 2 アンケート結果

135

多言語教育実践ジャーナル

第 4 巻（JOURNAL OF MULTILINGUAL PEDAGOGY AND PRACTICE, VOL. 4）

コンテンツ（料理）を通して学ぶ授業でもっとも興味深かった点は何ですか？（自由記述）9 件の回答

arroz con leche
伝統料理 学学使
実際 自分 使
美味
。
。
語 言 回
色々
語圏 料理 、
使
語 単語 学最後 発表
同 単語 何回 出覚
語彙 文法 習得
内容 材料
土地柄 文化 現面白
この授業は、他のスペイン語のクラスと比べて、どんな点が違いましたか？（自由記述： 良い点でも悪い点でも構いません。）9 件の回答
動画

楽

関

用語

勉強勉強
文法中心
自分
文法 学
暗記 重

置

他

語

学

！
詳

学

楽
、意味
、楽

理解
、1 人

、動画作

中心 、楽
、雰囲気
語 使

選択

、

先生

受

代

点
授業

このクラスでもっとも大変だったことは何ですか？（自由記述）9 件の回答
動画編集
単語 量 多担当 範囲 発表
自分
授業 説明
語 料理
日本語訳
動画作
動画作 、単語
命令形 理解
覚

136

作

、料理

大変

苦手

外国語教育研究センター
多言語教育実践ジャーナル投稿規程
施行 2020 年 4 月 14 日
改正 2022 年 9 月 27 日

2023 年 7 月 18 日
（投稿資格）
第1 条

多言語教育実践（以下、本国語教育研究所属教員

別号、特集号
投稿論文

2

場合

場合、筆頭著者

（共著

、

過去

原則

現職
）。

外

、特

。

1本
＆

掲載号・論文枚数等

投稿論文

3

（共著

限

1 教員

投稿論文数
経

） 執筆者

調整

1本

数

）。

委員会（以下、委員会）

受

出版

論文

場合

、
決定

。

、他

現在投稿

。
（使用言語）
第2 条

外国語教育研究
本語及

所属

教員

外国語教育研究

語、

知

教育実践

言語科目群

語、中国語、朝鮮語及

属

広

共有

語

英語、
投稿

、日
語、

認

。

（執筆要項）
第3条

投稿論文

授業実践報告限。

授業実践報告：外国語教育研究
告及

所感。学生
得

2

書式
及

課

体験

的枠組

言語科目全般

授業時

経験

基

関連
以下

内
報告

授業実践
等、科目

行

。可能

実践

報

担当
関連

理論

。

項目全

厳守

別紙

従

別紙

参考
場合

、執筆者

。英語

執筆

場合

、英語版

投稿規程

作成

。英語以外

言語

執筆

場合

、

作成

。

、原稿

書式

以下

項目

則

求

場合

原稿

差

戻

、修正

。

（1） 原稿

A4 版 使用 、上下左右

25mm

本文

MS 明朝、 英語

横書

日本語

。

12
齬
用

当該言語
。行間

1行

学術論文
、本文

左揃

。
他

Times New Roman、

言語

一般的

使用

同一論文内

齟

選択

使

。
137

多言語教育実践ジャーナル

第 4 巻（JOURNAL OF MULTILINGUAL PEDAGOGY AND PRACTICE, VOL. 4）（2） 字数
字数（語数） 以下

言語毎

参考文献、註釈、付録

全

字数（語数） 含

付

。貼

明瞭
用意

当該個所
、挿入個所

貼

明示

定

。全言語

、図表、参考資料、
。

、図表

付

場合

、

、別

。

日本語

6000–8000 字程度

英語

3000–5000 語程度
18000–24000 字程度（9 〜 12語
語

3000–5000 語程度語

3000–5000 語程度

中国語

4000–5000 字程度

朝鮮語

6000–8000 字程度程度）

3000–5000 語程度

語（3） 原稿
左寄

、18

英語

場合

、太字

。

上記書式

従

。執筆言語

。

（4） 氏名
右寄

、

体

。

12

間

1行

。

。要旨

日本語 500 字（5） 要旨
全

原稿

程度

、要旨

3 〜 5 項目英語 150 〜 250 語程度、

MS 明朝（英語
使用

11
日本語

執筆

。書式

、左右 15mm

全行Times New Roman）、

。

、要旨

言語

註記

各

下

執筆言語

関

英語

。

（6） 註釈
本文

註釈

、対応

表記

9

。

（原稿の提出）
第4 条

原稿

提出

、指定

必要事項

Google

電子

、送信

入力

、投稿内容

収

。

（脚注および参考文献の形式）
第5 条

原則

APA

（第 7 版） 用、APA（第 7 版） 形式
一論文
。

138

中

齟齬

可能
確認

限

沿

。英語以外
配慮
。剽窃

行

言語

、執筆者

執筆

責任
十分

場合
同

注意

外国語教育研究センター多言語教育実践ジャーナル投稿規程（投稿開始及び締切日）
第6 条

投稿

受付

毎年 9 月行。

秋学期開始日、提出締切日同年 11 月末日

。
（査読）
第7 条

査読
否

判断

基本的

内容及

体裁

委員会

行

、掲載可

。

（校正及び再提出）
第8 条

内容及

体裁

、

後、本
体裁

依頼

行

受

経

掲載可否

体裁等

頼

判断
執筆者

場合

判断
追加

、原稿

行
修正

内容

場合、投稿者

2 週間以内 再提出 行

最終確認
版社

問題

。校正依頼

起算

執筆要項
校正

著

対

逸脱

校正及

行

、校正依頼

。校正後

原稿

再提出
受

日

委員会

、執筆者

結果

通知

。

出

場合

、再度

校正

執筆者

依

求

。

（出版）
第9 条

本

毎年 3 月出版。

（CiNii 及び立教リポジトリへの登録）
第 10 条掲載

論文、外国語教育研究

掲載、CiNii（国立情報学研究所論文情報
登録

［

］）及

立教大学学術。

（その他の要件）
第 11 条他

要件（1） 原稿料

以下

定

支払

。

（2） 掲載

。

論文

。

著作権

、著者

育研究

著者自身

許可

（3） 出版後、万

一剽窃

削除

。

、原則

立教大学外国語教育研究

研究・教育活動

使用

際

使用

帰属

、立教大学外国語教

。
他

不正

発覚

場合、当該論文

教授会

議

本（規程の改廃）第 12 条

規程

改廃

長

行

、外国語教育研究

経、外国語教育研究。

139多言語教育実践ジャーナル

附

則
規程

附

施行

。

、2022 年 9 月 27 日

適用。

、2023 年 7 月 18 日

適用

。

則
規程

140

、2020 年 4 月 14 日

則
規程

附

第 4 巻（JOURNAL OF MULTILINGUAL PEDAGOGY AND PRACTICE, VOL. 4）

Center for Foreign Language Education and Research
Journal of Multilingual Pedagogy and Practice Manuscript
Submission Guidelines
Established on April 14, 2020
Revised on September 27, 2022
Revised on July 18, 2023
(Eligibility)
Article 1 Contributions to the journal are primarily limited to individuals affiliated with
the Center for Foreign Language Education and Research (hereafter "FLER"). In
the case of co-authored papers, this requirement applies only to the first author.
Exceptions may be made for special editions.
2 A maximum of one contribution per issue is accepted (co-authored papers arealso counted as one contribution). Due to space limitations, your submission may
be considered by the Journal and Research Committee (hereafter "Committee")for publication in a later issue, or you may be asked to reduce the length of thesubmitted article.
3 Work submitted to the journal should not have been previously published and should
not be under consideration for potential publication by other journals.
(Language)
Article 2 In order to effectively share knowledge and research activity amongst FLERaffiliated instructors, we accept manuscripts written in one of the following
languages: Japanese, English, German, French, Spanish, Chinese, Korean andRussian.
(Content and Formatting Guidelines)
Article 3 Submitted papers must be practical teaching reports.
Practical Teaching Reports: Reflective reports on your teaching practice in any
language courses at the Center for Foreign Language Education and Research.
Reports should include a reflection, and detailed descriptions of tasks and/or
activities. Make sure to establish a clear connection between your teaching practiceand theoretical/pedagogical rationale where possible.
2 Please ensure to follow all formatting guidelines listed below. Authors who intend
to write in Japanese should refer to the Japanese version of this document. Whensubmitting an article written in English, be sure to format the article using the
supplied template. For languages other than English, format the article whilstreferring to the template. Submissions that do not follow these formatting guidelines141

多言語教育実践ジャーナル

第 4 巻（JOURNAL OF MULTILINGUAL PEDAGOGY AND PRACTICE, VOL. 4）

may be returned to the author(s) for revision.
(1) Size: Use A4-sized paper, leaving margins of 25mm on all sides. The font usedshould be Times New Roman 12 point and single-spaced. For Japanese, use (MSMincho), for any other languages, use the font type considered standard in theselected language. Use the same font consistently throughout the manuscript unlessotherwise noted. The line spacing should be set at single-line spacing, and the text
should be left-justified.
(2) Length: The number of words (characters) shall be determined for each language
as follows. In all languages, include all graphs, charts, reference list, and any
appendices in the word (character) count. Clearly visible graphs and charts shouldbe embedded in the text. However, if it is difficult to do so, please submit as aseparate file, but leave space and indicate where they should be placed in the text.
Japanese

Approximately 6000–8000 characters

EnglishApproximately 3000–5000 words

GermanApproximately 18000–24000 characters (9–12pages)

FrenchApproximately 3000–5000 words

SpanishApproximately 3000–5000 words

ChineseApproximately 4000–5000 characters

KoreanApproximately 6000–8000 characters

RussianApproximately 3000–5000 words(3) Title: The title should be in 18 point bold, left-justified, with Title-Case. Font asabove.
(4) Author’s name: The name of the author/s should be indented to the right side andwritten in Gothic 12 point. Leave one line between the title and the name of theauthor/s.
(5) Abstract: Abstracts should be approximately 500 characters in Japanese or 150–250
words in English, with 3 to 5 keywords for the article at the bottom. For the abstract,the entire text should be indented 15mm from the left and right and written in Times
New Roman 11 point.
(6) Footnotes: Footnotes should be placed at the bottom of each page, in 9 point.
(Manuscript Submission)
Article 4 To submit a manuscript, fill in the necessary details in the designated Google form,
upload the electronic file containing the article content, and submit.
(Footnotes and Referencing)
Article 5

142

The author is responsible for consistently adhering to APA (7th edition). If themanuscript is written in any language other than English, adopt APA style format

Center for Foreign Language Education and Research Journal of Multilingual Pedagogy and Practice Manuscript Submission Guidelines

as much as possible, and make sure that the style used is consistent throughout themanuscript. Make sure to avoid committing plagiarism.
(Call and Deadline for Submission)
Article 6 Submissions begin at the beginning of every fall semester. The deadline forsubmission is the last day of November.
(Peer Review)
Article 7 Submissions to the journal will not undergo peer review. However, the Committee
will check the basic contents and appearance and determine whether to accept it for
publication.
(Revision and Resubmission)
Article 8 After checking, if the content deviates significantly from the scope of the journalor there is a problem with the format, the author will be requested to revise andresubmit. Authors who have received a revision request must revise the manuscriptand submit it again within two weeks from the date of receiving the request. A final
review will be conducted by the Journal & Research Committee to determine if thework is publishable. The author will be notified of the decision once the final review
is completed. The author may be asked to further revise the manuscript if there is
any stylistic/format issue.
(Journal Publication)
Article 9 The journal is published annually in March.
(Registration on CiNii and Rikkyo Repository)
Article 10 Contributions to the Journal of Multilingual Pedagogy and Practice will be publishedon the FLER webpage and registered on the national CiNii database and the Rikkyo
University Academic Repository.
(Other Conditions)
Article 11 Other terms and conditions are set out below.
(1) No remuneration is offered to the author(s).
(2) The copyright of articles published in the Journal of Multilingual Pedagogy andPractice resides with the Center for Foreign Language Education and Research,
Rikkyo University. However, the author(s) retains the right to use his/her work for
future research and/or educational purposes without permission from the Center for
Foreign Language Education and Research, Rikkyo University.
(3) If any plagiarism or misconduct is discovered after the work is published, the143

多言語教育実践ジャーナル

第 4 巻（JOURNAL OF MULTILINGUAL PEDAGOGY AND PRACTICE, VOL. 4）

published work will be removed from the journal.
(Amendment or Abolishment of Guidelines)
Article 12 Amendment or abolishment of these guidelines will be made by the Dean of theCenter for Foreign Language Education and Research after deliberation at theFaculty Meeting.
These Guidelines shall come into effect as of April 14, 2020.
These Guidelines shall come into effect as of September 27, 2022.
These Guidelines shall come into effect as of July 18, 2023.

144執筆者・Authors
Aika Miura
Aika Miura, Ph.D., is a professor at the Center for Foreign Language Education and Research,
Rikkyo University. Her main research interest includes second language pragmatics and corpus
linguistics. She has conducted studies on the development of pragmatic competence by Japaneselearners of English. She is also interested in Data-Driven Learning (DDL) and co-authored with
Yoshiho Satake a paper titled “The effects of using corpora on revision tasks in L2 writing withcoded error feedback” (2014) in ReCall.
Yoshiho Satake
Yoshiho Satake, Ph.D., is an associate professor at the College of Economics, Aoyama Gakuin
University. Her main research interests include corpus linguistics, particularly Data-Driven
Learning (DDL), and English language teaching. She has conducted studies on the effects ofcorpus consultation on second language (L2) learners’ error correction. She is also interested
in the use of virtual reality (VR) for language learning.
Andrew Tyner
Andrew Tyner is a Lecturer in English Education. Some of his current research interests include
lesson structuring, technology use in the classroom, and ESL teaching methodologies. He hastaught Discussion, Debate, and Presentation at Rikkyo University, as well as other English
courses and related programs at other Japanese and American institutions.
Aviva Ueno
Aviva Ueno is an Adjunct Lecturer in the Center for Foreign Language Education and Researchat Rikkyo University. She has been teaching English in Japan for over 35 years. Her researchinterests include reflective practice, professional development, and maintaining learnermotivation through community building in the classroom. She holds an M.A. in TESOL from
Anaheim University, California.
Diane C. Obara
Diane C. Obara has been teaching English at universities both in Japan and the United States
for more than twenty years. She’s also had brief teaching experiences in South Korea, Vietnam,
and Cambodia; and traveled extensively internationally to many cultural heritage sites. At thestart of her career, her research interests initially centered around American Culture courses
and the use of CALL/CMC, but in the past ten years they have gravitated towards CLIL andcurriculum design.

145

多言語教育実践ジャーナル

第 4 巻（JOURNAL OF MULTILINGUAL PEDAGOGY AND PRACTICE, VOL. 4）

Heather Woodward
Heather is a Lecturer in English Education at the Center for Foreign Language Education andResearch. She has taught higher education courses since 2019 and is currently conducting
research on spoken fluency and mobile application development.
Joshua Rappeneker
Joshua is an Adjunct Lecturer at the Center for Foreign Language Education and Research. He
has developed and taught higher education courses in Japan for over 10 years and is currently
researching spoken fluency development. He is also interested in the use of technology in theclassroom and developing software to assist in classroom management.
Keiko Fujino
Keiko Fujino earned her M.S. ED. in TESOL from Temple University in 2018. Keiko taught
at Kyushu University and other universities before joining Rikkyo University in 2020. Her
academic interests include Pronunciation, Listening, Motivation, and Extensive Reading.
Jason Clarke
Jason Clarke has been an Adjunct Lecturer at Rikkyo University’s Center for Foreign Language
Education and Research since 2020. He also previously worked at Rikkyo from 2010 to2013. He has an M.A. in Applied Linguistics from Birmingham University and an M.A. in
History from the Memorial University of Newfoundland. His research interests include therepresentation of Japan and Japanese in the media, discourse analysis and corpus linguistics,
and Newfoundland history.
Jeremiah Dutch
Jeremiah Dutch is an Adjunct Lecturer in the English Language Program at the Center for
Foreign Language Education and Research at Rikkyo University. His research interests include
extensive reading and writing instruction.
Jon Mahoney
Jon Mahoney is a Lecturer in English Education at the Center for Foreign Language Education
and Research at Rikkyo University, in Tokyo, Japan. He has taught higher education courses
in the Tokyo area for over 5 years. Areas of research he is interested in include CLIL, English
as a lingua franca, and CALL. He is currently conducting research on how to enhance criticalthinking skills in Japanese university students.
Kathryn Mabe
Kathryn (Kate) Mabe has worked as an Adjunct Lecturer at the Center for Foreign Language
Education and Research (FLER) at Rikkyo University since April 2020. Her research interests
146執筆者・Authors

include testing, special needs education in ESL, CLIL and reading circles.
Alexander L. Selman
Alexander L. Selman is an Adjunct Lecturer at the Center for Foreign Language Education
and Research (FLER) at Rikkyo University. His interests include syllabus and course design,phonology, language through drama and improv, and teaching culture.
Maki Matsuda
Maki Matsuda is an Adjunct Lecturer at Center for Foreign Language Education & Researchat Rikkyo University. She has extensive experience in teaching a wide range of students fromyoung to adult learners. Her research interests include language learning anxiety in a Japanese
EFL context as well as ICT use in the classroom.
Russell Minshull
Russell Minshull has been a language teacher for about 15 years, and has been working inJapanese universities for 7 years. He currently teaches a variety of academic English courses at
Rikkyo University in Tokyo. His interests include needs analysis, using screencast technology,
differentiation and running an in-house reflective practice group at Rikkyo.
松本旬子（マツモトジュンコ）
立教大学外国語教育研究准教授。人文学博士（清泉女子大学）、外国語語教育 DEA（Diploma de Estudios Avanzados）（Universidad Antonio de Nebrija）。 専門
語教育、
育、日本語母語話者

語音声学。主
語

研究

二重子音

、

語

母音

発音・知覚

ex ＋子音 発音

教

教育。

147

多言語教育実践ジャーナル

第4巻

JOURNAL OF MULTILINGUAL PEDAGOGY AND PRACTICE, VOL.4
発行日 2024 年 3 月 15 日
発行者

立教大学 外国語教育研究センター
Center for Foreign Language Education and Research, Rikkyo University〒171-8501 東京都豊島区西池袋 3-34-1

制作株式会社 白峰社〒170-0013 東京都豊島区東池袋 5-49-6

ISSN 2436-2204ⓒ 2024 立教大学 外国語教育研究

4

Vol.

MARCH 2024

JOURNAL OF
MULTILINGUALPEDAGOGYAND PRACTICE