Educational Policy and Practice for Universalizing
Primary Education in
Ethiopia: Dilemmas and Consequences
Dawit Mekonnen (PhD)
Center for the Study of International
Cooperation in Education
Hiroshima University
Oct. 13, 2011

Why Universal Primary Education?
• Human/Individual rights: United Nations Human
Rights Declaration (1948) “Everyone has the right toeducation. Education shall be free at least in theelementary and fundamental stages. “• Social justice (gender, minorities, rural areas):females, children of minority groups and rural areas• Economic Development: Poverty reduction andturnover from primary education

Cont’d• Non‐economic benefits such as nutrition, health, birth,culture change, and social engagement• Basic education is not only a requisite for human capital
but also social capital and economic capital (Sen’s
capability theory).
• Foundation for Lifelong learning (LLL): Learning islifelong, life‐wide, non‐formal, formal and informal• Preparation for training in vocational and technicalsubjects

Global Initiatives• Jomtien, Thailand 1990, World Declaration on Education for All(EFA), before the end of the decade. 155 countries.
• Target year for universalization was 2000.
• ARTICLE III ‐ UNIVERSALIZING ACCESS AND PROMOTING EQUITY• 1. Basic education should be provided to all children, youth andadults. To this end, basic education services of quality should be
expanded and consistent measures must be taken to reduce
disparities.

Cont’d• ARTICLE III…..The focus of basic education must, therefore, be on
actual learning acquisition and outcome, rather than
exclusively upon enrolment, continued participation inorganized programs and completion of certification
requirements.
• Concern both for quality and enrollment

Cont’d• Dakar (Senegal) Framework for Action, 2000
Goal 2: That by 2015 all children, particularly girls,
children in difficult circumstances and thosebelonging to ethnic minorities, have access to andcomplete free and compulsory primary education ofgood quality.‖
Goal 6: Improving all aspects of the quality ofeducation, and ensuring excellence of all so thatrecognized and measurable learning outcomes areachieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy andessential life skills

Cont’d• United Nations General Assembly Millennium
Development Goals: Specific to Education to beachieved by 2015.
• Achieve Universal Primary Education• Ensure that all boys and girls complete a fullcourse of primary schooling• Promote gender equality and empower women• Eliminate gender disparity in primary andsecondary education preferably by 2005 andat all levels by 2015

Ethiopia: Background Information• Population about 75 million in 2007 census, projected to
be above 80 million people. Second most populous
country in Africa.
• Multi‐ethnic (above 70), with their own language.
• Muslims (40 %) and Christians (60%).
• Origin of coffee and humanity (Lucy, 1974; Selam, 2007).
• Land‐locked country with the secession of Eritrea in 1992.
• Amharic: a working language at federal level, a local
language in Ethiopia.

Cont’d•

One of the few countries that has never been colonized in Africa.

•

People living below poverty line are about 37 %, one of the poorest countries.

• One of the fastest growing economies in Africa (10 % for the last five years).
• Has its own alphabet, calendar (today is Oct. 3, 2004) , and timing system.
•

13 months of one year.

•

Current government took power in 1991.

•

Federal country with 9 regions and 2 administrative cities•

Federalism based on linguistic boundary/ethnic groups

Education System in Ethiopia• New educational structure and policy introduced in 1991.
• Primary education free. Stated as compulsory very recently
in 2008.
• Universalizing primary enrollment, with quality and equity,is the basic objective of the education policy.
• About 20‐23 % of the total budget is assigned for education.
• 8‐2‐2 –structure of the education system– 8 years of primary education– Grades 1‐4, 1st cycle and Grades 5‐8, 2nd cycle)– 2 years of general secondary education– 2 years of preparatory education for higher education

Cont’d• Technical and Vocational Education• 4+non‐formal education=Level I• 8+1, formal certificate=Level II• 10+3, formal certificate=Level III• 10+3, Teacher training for primary schools• 10 +1 for grades 1‐4 before some years.

• 12+3 or 12+5 for engineering and law, Higher Education• 12+3+1, Secondary school teacher education

Measures Taken by Ethiopia
1. Curriculum and Instructional Measures– Mother‐tongue Instruction: 22 languages of the 70,
increased enrollment but which languages to include
and leave remains very controversial.
– Nations asking for inclusion of their MTLs as MI– New textbooks: Relevance of curricula to local
contexts– Self‐contained classroom instruction: Single teacher
handling students from grades 1‐4– Continuous assessment: Misused and abused– Multi‐grade system in remote areas: Students ofgrades 1‐4 in the same class by the same teacher

School directive changes• Automatic promotion: Students from grades
1‐3 are promoted automatically.
• Difficulty in implementation of large class size:
60‐70 students in a class• Debate on the impact of this policy onteachers and students’ attitude towardlearning.
• Free primary education from grades 1‐10
(except evening classes)

Decentralization of the education system• Primary education is the responsibility of regional
states. Secondary and higher education is the
responsibility of regions and federal government• Districts empowered to decide on the school
financing• Schools empowered to administer their own
finances with the establishment of the school board:parents, teachers, political representatives fromkebele, and principals of schools• Helped to empower localities but accountability on
quality of education too much compromised.

Teacher preparation• 10+1, for first cycle primary schools• 10+3, for second cycle primary school grades(expected to teach three or four subjects)• Training in more than 22 languages.
• Much of the training conducted in the form of
distance education and summer (in‐service) training• Training mainly to satisfy policy requirement of 10+3
for second cycle as most of the teachers were 10+1
• With increment in teacher qualification, students’learning has not improved rather declined.

Alternative Basic Education• Non‐formal education for out of school children
and children in nomadic areas , aged 7‐14
• 3 years of non‐formal education equivalent to 4
years formal education• Teachers are grade 10 complete with little or no
training on teaching• Supported by Non‐governmental organizations
About 1 million students enrolled in 2010.
• Major challenge is that poor transition to formal
schools due to dropout and difficulty to manage
the lesson in grade 5.

Cont’d• 10 % of primary school students are expected
to be enrolled in these program• Three times a week lesson• Attendance very fluctuating• Teachers encouraged to enroll students solong as they come to school any timeOther miscellaneous measures• School feeding programs• Registration date relaxed (open for two months)• Mobile schools for nomadic areas• Quota for schools• Teachers’ campaign in enrolling and recruiting
school age children• School improvement (quality)• Continuous professional development (quality)• School clustering• Best teachers award and sharing experiences

Changes• Enrollment (both Gross and Net Enrollment)• Significant changes in the last ten years• But net enrollment at both first and second cycle
still far below• GER exceeding 130 % and expected to continue
because of backlog• Many of the overage students reluctant to finish
primary education. Looking for jobs as dailylaborers and working as carpenters and others.

Grades 1‐4 Gross Enrollment Rate
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1997 2001 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Net Enrollment Rate
NER Grades 1‐4
100
90
80
70
60
50
NER Grades 1‐4

40
30
20
10
0
1997 2001 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Gross Enrollment Rate Grades 5‐8
80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1997

2001

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Cont’d
Net Enrollment Grades 5‐8
60

50

40

Net Enrollment
Grades 5‐8

30

20

10

0
1997

2001

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Cont’d• Gender disparity narrowing down in primaryeducation: Toilets and accompanying girls toschools useful strategies
60
50
40
Male Students

30

Female Students
20
10
0
2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Cont’d• Dropout: Boys’ dropout higher than girls at
national level.
Grade 1 dropout
35
30
25
20
15

Grade 1
dropout

10
5
0
1997

2000

2003

2004

2005

2010

Cont’dGrades 1‐8 dropout
20
18
16
14
12
10
Grades 1‐8
dropout

8
6
4
2
0
1997

2000

2003

2004

2005

2010

Cont’d• Survival Rates at Grades 5 and 8: More than 40 % of thestudents in the first five years do not reach grade 5. And only
30‐45 % reach grade 8.
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Grade 5 survival
rate
Grade 8 survivalrate

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2010

Students’ Performance in NLA in
Grades 4 and 8• Students’ performance at grade 4 as a function of qualified
teachers and student‐teacher ratio
120
100
Qualified Teachers
Grade 1‐4Student‐teacher ratio

80
60

National Learning
Assessment 4

40
20
0
2000

2004

2007

Cont’d• Grade 8 performance as a function ofqualified teachers and student‐teacher ratio
70
60
50
40

Qualified Teachers Grades
5‐830

National Learning
Assessment 8

20

Student‐teacher ratio

10
0
2000

2004

2007

Cont’d60
50
40
Textbook student
ratio
National Learning
Assessment 4

30
20
10
0
2000

2004

2007

Cont’d• Teachers’ engagement and motivation– Burnout feeling very high– Reported role conflict and role‐ambiguity

Lessons• Global initiatives (UPE) help to expand education for all,including females and children of minorities.
• Increasing enrollment, decreasing gender and rural andurban disparity.
• Mother‐tongue instruction attracting many students inschools.
• Schools expanded very significantly.
• Teachers training given priority.

Cont’d•Yet, serious impact on the quality of education and long lasting impacts
on schooling and teachers. Schooling questioned because of the low
demonstrated competence by children.

•

Dropout remains high and many students who left schools remain
unaccounted for because of the priority to enroll new students.

•

Survival rate remains very low.

•

Despite the Dakar Framework for Action major concern on quality ofeducation, emphasis has been merely on expanding access, resulting ina decline in the quality of education which has already been felt insecondary and higher education.
Concerns on mere enrollment and competition among countries
outshining more important purposes of education: developing learning
skills and preparing students for lifelong learning.

•

Conclusion• Education for All has been based on the universal primaryeducation with the appropriate quality and relevance.
• In Ethiopian context, although EFA has promoted
increment in enrollment, its impact on the quality oflearning has been hugely detrimental. Hence, the basic
rationales for primary education remain partially met.
• Sustainability of EFA is questionable. EFA has been a
revolutionary result rather than a systematized anddevelopmental process.

Suggestions• Universalization shall follow a natural path that considers
economic and social development ofpeople/communities. It cannot be sustained throughdeclarations without considering economic and social
development contexts.
– Mass expansion without the right socio‐economic
development cannot be sustained.
– Poverty and illiterate communities.
– Fast growing population in some developing countries– (I read that Japan took 70 years to universalize primaryeducation).
– Prof. Akio Yonemura has characterized global initiatives as‘non‐historical approach’‐same policy irrespective ofdifferences in circumstances

Cont’d• Some of the reasons mentioned as the rationale forprimary education remain marginalized• Economic merit of primary education is not visible for students
and parents. One major cause of students dropout: What
happens after finishing primary education? This is true inmany developing countries as primary education is theterminal learning point for many students.
• Primary school complete students do not have the required
skill for lifelong learning as demonstrated by NLA.

• Revisit the relevance of the curriculum and create asystem that rewards completion of primary education.
Primary education has to be linked with future merits.

Cont’d• Policy adoption from other countries needs tobe thoroughly examined.
• Social promotion in developing country context• School improvement• CPD have been in place. Copied from experiencesof other countries without contextualization.
• Students’ low engagement in educational activities• Indifference by some teachers on students’ learningand their duties• Unfavorable attitude towards educational innovations
by teachers

Cont’d• Efforts shall be made to contextualize
Universialization of Primary Education andalign it with actual contexts of each country.

Arigato Gozaimasu!

Synopsis

Educational Policy and Practice for Universalizing Primary Education in Ethiopia:
Dilemmas and Consequences

Abstract
Education is the basis for national development and creation of a modern state. Various
global initiatives (World Conference on Education for All (1990), Dakar Framework for
Action (2000), and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and national efforts havebeen put in place to universalize primary education. These initiatives are grounded onchildren’s right for education, economic development and poverty reduction, social
justice for minorities and females, and the preparation of lifelong learners. It is fullyrecognized that these initiatives have served as driving forces in improving access andequity. However, doubts remain on whether such initiatives would result in a sustainable
universal primary education in countries which are following ‘revolutionary’ path ofuniversal primary education-reach the target in enrollment and equity through large
allocation of educational budget and campaigns of enrollment. Critics argue that
universal primary education has to be coupled with socio-economic developments,
cultural changes and empowerment of people. With four years remaining to 2015
(expected year of universal primary education), this paper examines the changes
registered in primary education in Ethiopia and draws some lessons on what should bedone to sustain a universal primary education. The study used data from the Ministry of
Education and other empirical studies conducted on Ethiopian primary education. The
study probes why quality of primary education remains to be overshadowed by accessand equity although it was clearly stated in the MDGs and Dakar Framework for Action.

Study Context
Much effort has been undergoing in expanding education at various levels in Ethiopia.
Coming out from a very long civil war that lasted for more than three decades, Ethiopia
formulated a new education and training policy in 1991. The policy changed thestructure of education from 6-2-4 to 8-2-2. While the previous policy provides six years
of primary education, 2 years of junior secondary education, and 4 years of secondary
education, the new policy extends primary education to 8 years with two cycles. First1

cycle lasts from grades 1-4 and second cycle lasts from grade 5-8. The major reason forthe structuring was the provision of technical and vocational education. The policy
indicates that vocational education would be provided when students complete grades 4,8, and 10. Although vocational training provisions for those who complete grades 4 and
8 are yet to be implemented, a vibrant middle class human power has been created in
Ethiopia through non-formal and formal trainings given in grade 10 (Ethiopia Ministry of
Education, 2010).
On top of changes on the structure of education, curricula and textbooks were changed
across all grades. Medium of instruction in primary schools were changed from Amharic
to 22 mother-tongue languages in different regions. Education up to grade 10 has
become free. As a federal state organized along ethnic/linguistic lines, primaryeducation has become the responsibility of regional states. Decentralization of theeducation system has reached to the lower levels of the school. Schools areadministered by school boards composed of principals, teachers, parents and local
politicians. Teacher training colleges that train teachers in mother-tongue instruction
also mushroomed. The training of teachers for primary schools was also changed.
While in the previous system, primary school teachers were expected to complete grade
12 (secondary education) to be trained as teachers, the new education policy trainsteachers for primary grades from grade 10 for one year (teachers for first cycle primary
grades) and three years (teachers for second cycle primary grades). Number of schools
has been also growing very fast. A three year alternative basic education has been also
designed for students who cannot come to formal schools. Mobile schools in nomadic
areas have been introduced. Schools and teachers campaign at the beginning of theacademic year to enroll as many students as possible. Schools get a target number ofenrollment from local officials in each academic year. Teachers are engaged not only inteaching but also in convincing parents, by going from village to village, to send theirchildren to schools.

Achievements
Significant Increment in Enrollment
Gross
Enrollment

Grades
1997
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Grades 1-4
54%102.7% 117.6% 117.6
122.9 122.9
Grades 5-8
18 %52.5% 58.8%
61.1%
60.2% 63.2%
Net Enrollment Grades 1-4
73.0%
79.9%
90.1% 88.7%
Grades 5-8
21.8
37.6%
39.4%
39.9% 46.0%
Source: Ministry of Education, Education Statistics Abstract, 2010, and ESDP II, 2002
2

The low net enrollment in second cycle primary education shows that many students
drop out before grade 5. The GER in first cycle shows that many students are either
over-aged or under-aged. Between 10-27 % of school age students were not enrolled inschools in the last five years indicated. Yet, seen against the baseline year enrollment,
significant changes have been registered in this direction.
Improved Access to Educational Resources and ‘Qualified’ Teachers
1997
2004
Schools
10394
16,513Pupil-teacher ratio
66
Textbooks to student
5:1
2.5:1
Qualified Teachers
97.1%(Grades 1-4)
Qualified Teachers
55.0%(Grades 5-8)
Source: Ministry of Education, 20102005
19,412
62
2:1
98%

2006
20,66059
98%

2007
23,35457
97%

2008
25,212
54
1.5:1
90

59%

53 %

66%

71 %

The standard teacher pupil ratio in Ethiopia primary education is 1:50. It has now
approached the standard following the training of many teachers. Textbook distribution
has almost reached the standard. The percentage of qualified teachers in first cycle
primary education is also close to 100%. Recently, the government has introduced a
new directive that require these teachers to be upgraded a diploma level training.
Increasing Expenditure on Education% Education of
Total Government
Budget

2004
16.7%

2005
2006
17.8% 24.6%

2007
22.8%

2008
23.6%

Reduced Gender Disparity
The percentage gap between female and male students in primary education was morethan 30 percent in 1997. Gender Parity Index at national level in 2008 was 0.93
(Ministry of Education, 2010).
Reaching Minorities and Marginalized Groups
Many marginalized places and minorities have got access to education. However, theseareas have still high dropout, gender disparity and repetition rate compared to the3national level. People in many of these are pastoralists.
schools are not also well expanded.

In some of these places,

Challenges
Very Low Students’ Achievement in National Assessment
Students’ Average Scores in National Learning Assessment (Out of 100 %)2000/01

2004/05

2007/8Grade 4Composite score*
47.9 %
48.5 %
40.9 %
Grade 8Composite score** 41.1 %39.7 %
35.6 %*Composite score of Math Reading and English ( reading test reported to havechanged considerably since 2004/05 test)** English and Math, but including also Biology, Chemistry and Physics results
Source: Education Sector Development Program IV, Ministry of Education, 2010.
Achievement of students in secondary school general examination is staggeringly very
low. Although the distribution of textbooks, the teacher-pupil ratio and the class size
have nearly reached national standards, students’ learning outcomes remain very low(Ministry of Education, 2010). This suggests that the teaching and learning process has
much deeper problems than the availability of learning materials. The training ofteachers for one year and the hugely compromised academic standards to universalize
primary education are mentioned as reasons (Yalew, Dawit, and Alemayehu, 2010). A
study by USAID also shows that only less than one fifth of the students who complete
grade 3 were proficient in reading.
High Dropout and Very Low Survival Rate
Grades 1-8 Dropout in Ethiopia
Year
Boys
14.9
2004
2005
12.3
2006
12.5
2007
13.1
2008
15.9
Source: Ministry of Education, 2010

Girls

Total

13.6

14.4

11.3
12.1
11.6
13.2

11.8
12.4
12.4
14.6

4

Grade 1 Dropout Rate
1997
2000
2004
2008
29.4
27.9
22.4
22.9
Source: Education Sector Development Programs I, II, and III and Education Statistics
Abstract, 2010

Survival Rates in Grades 5 and 8
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2010
Grades/Year
53
59
56
59
57
69
75
Grade 5
30
34
41
44
45
44
46
Grade 8Source: Ministry of Education, Education Statistics Abstract, 2010 and Growth andTransformation Detailed Matrix Plan, 2011.

The above tables show the high rate of dropout in primary schools and the low survival
rate in grades 5 and 8. About 25 % of the students in the last decade dropped out fromschool before reaching grade 2. These students may have been enrolled in theproceeding academic years. Moreover, more than 40 % of the enrolled students did notcontinue to grade 5 in the years 2003-2007. Those who completed grade 8 are lessthan 50 % in the last ten years. Although gender disparity figure favors males, dropout
and survival figures indicated that girls have lower dropout rate and higher survival rate.
Questions on the Benefit of Primary Education and Child Labor
One of the challenges that face UPE is the merit gained from its enrollment. Parents
and students ask what they would gain after completing primary education. This isbecause many students would not continue to secondary education. At a national level,
it is intended that 80 % of the enrolled students complete grade 8. However, students
and parents question what they gain from 8 years of schooling and resort to otheractivities that are paying in a short-term. Poverty also plays a significant role. Although
education is free, children have to work in household activities and some parents do nothave the capacity to afford instructional materials required for schooling.
Conclusion
5

With four years remaining, Ethiopia could achieve universal primary education up tograde 4. However, students’ learning outcomes have been getting very low. So,
although the students have completed grade 4, they could literally have problem inreading and writing. National learning assessments and various studies testify this. It isalso to be seen whether sustaining the UPE would be possible in Ethiopia given thepositively skewed budget allocated for primary education in the last decade. Parents
and children have also started to question the merit of primary education. And
population is growing by nearly three percent. These all suggest that one-fit global
initiatives and targets do have shorting comings. Lessons from the universalization ofprimary education in developed countries attest a gradual, contextual, anddevelopmental process. Developing countries like Ethiopia need to have their own
integrated, contextualized, and systematized evolutionary process of educating theircitizens (including universal primary education) that match with countries’ socioeconomic, political, and cultural development of rather than compromising educational
quality and value towards education for the sake of achieving UPE dates decided at
global level.

6