p.1

Table 1. List of STOPs for day 1.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

STOP Long
Lat
Note
56.5670 24.1018 Entrance to Hilti Road; Lookout of Batina Olistostrome/V3/V2 extrusive unit
56.5582 24.1078 Overview of the V3 lava flow structure
56.5599 24.1186 Undulating V3 flow base truncating structures of V2 extrusive unit
56.5620 24.1191 Load structure of the V3 flow base56.5638 24.1189 Columnar jointed layers intercalated in the banded crust
56.5651 24.1144 V3 flow top capped with altered metalliferous sediment56.5638 24.1128 Marginal facies of V3 flow field: Pahoehoe lobes interbedded with sheet lava
56.5622 24.1065 V3 main sheet bifurcate into multiple flow lobes with intercalated shale
56.5752 24.0855 V2/Conglomerate/V1 extrusive unit
56.5495 24.1096 V2 lava conduit and tumuli
56.5414 24.1159 V2/>0.5 m thick shale/V1
56.5370 24.1124 Large tumulus of V1 extrusive unit
56.5278 24.1077 V1 pahoehoe lobes underlain by elongate pillows
56.5123 24.1118 Sheeted dike complex
56.5258 24.1011 Chloritite bodyp.2

Stratigraphy and Lithofacies of the Upper Crust

The Cretaceous Oman Ophiolite in the west of Sohar, northern Oman Mountains, preserves the entire
sequence of volcanic rocks which formed the ophiolite. The volcanic sequence is largely divided into threestratigraphic stages based on both field relationships and lava geochemistry [Bishimetal Exploration Co. Ltd.,
1987a; 1987b; Lippard et al., 1986; Umino et al., 1990, 2003]: Stage 1) The lower effusive rocks, “V1 unit”,
formed on and close to the paleospreading axis, which are genetically linked to the layered gabbros and sheeted
dike complex.; Stage 2) The middle effusive rocks, “V2 unit” and related late intrusive rocks formed above an
incipient subduction zone related to the initial detachment of the ophiolite. The second stage lavas and dikes
are tholeiitic and calc-alkalic rocks including high-Ca boninite, and are readily distinguishable from the aphyricstage-1 lavas and sheeted dikes with MORB-like major and trace element characteristics [Einaudi et al., 2003;
Ishikawa et al., 2001; 2002; Umino et al., 1990, 2003]; Stage 3) The uppermost effusive rocks, “V3 unit” lavas[equivalent to “Salahi Unit” of Alabaster et al., 1982], are the latest volcanic product comprising the ophiolite,
and were emplaced onto thick off-axial pelagic shale [Bishimetal Exploration Co. Ltd., 1987b; Ernewein et al.,
1988; Lippard et al., 1986; Umino et al., 1990]. Radiolarian fossils in the sedimentary rocks interbedded withand above V2 volcanic unit give Cenomanian to early Turonian ages (95-90 Ma), whereas the supra-lava
Suhayla formation directly resting on V1 unit in Wadi Jizi yields faunas with Cenomanian to Santonian ages
(97.5-85 Ma) [Lippard et al., 1986; Tippit et al., 1981]. These sedimentary ages suggest that V3 unit was most
likely erupted at ~90-85 Ma, after a quiescent period indicated by the 30-50 m thick pelagic shale resting on theerosional surface of V2 lavas. The OIB-type lava geochemistry of V3 is interpreted to be a product of intraplate
volcanism when obducting ophiolite blocks collided with the Arabian continent [Alabaster et al., 1982; Lippard
et al., 1986].
Detail lithofacies of the initial stage extrusive rocks are presented on Day 3 along the Wadi Fizh section.
Here we focus on the volcanic stratigraphy of the extrusive rocks with special reference to the emplacement
mechanism of V3 extrusive unit, which is a large lava flow exceeding several cubic kilometers in volume,
comparable to the present global annual magma budget.

p.3

STOP-1. Lookout of Batina Olistostrome/V3/V2 extrusive unit

Figure 1. Overview of the upper part of the ophiolite. Stop-1 is on a hill in the Batinah Olistostrome (front).
Behind the olistostrome are thick sheet flows and the feeder dike of V3 unit, which is underlain by V2 unit
flows.

STOP-2. Overview of the V3 lava flow structure

Figure 2. Basic structure of the central facies of V3
large lava flow, showing the upper crust, core andlower crust.
The V3 flow field may be divided into central and marginal facies on the basis of structure. Central
facies comprises thick sheet flows with a thickness more than 150 m, consisting of relatively homogeneous,massive lava sandwiched between columnar jointed lava. The simplest structure of the central facies consistsof thick columnar jointed lava, massive lava and thin columnar jointed lava, from top to bottom, which are
hereafter referred to as upper crust, core and lower crust (Figure 2). Crust may be sparsely vesiculated
especially near the flow top and bottom, while cores are virtually vesicle free. Lower crust is generally muchthinner (~10 m) than upper crust. Upper crust may include zones of domal domains composed of curved, radiallyarranged columnar joint, which at first glance resemble to “entabulature” of subaerial flood basalt flows suchas the Columbia River Basalt and Giant’s Causeway. However, the majority of central facies shows more
complex structures in that they have more than two sets of crust and core within a single sheet of lava.

p.4

STOP-3. Undulating V3 flow base truncating structures of V2 extrusive unit

Figure 3. Undulating base of the V3 sheet flow underlain by pelagic shale, which truncate the structurally
oblique lava flows and umber of V2.
The V3 unit has an aerial extent of 1.5 km east-west by 11 km north-south between Wadi Salahi anda southern branch of Wadi Hilti (Geologic map in the Appendix). The V3 unit thins out between the underlying
V2 pillow lava and the overlying Batinah olistostrome about 1 km to the south of an alkali dolerite dike, whichis considered to be a feeder dike of the V3 flows [Alabaster et al., 1982]. The northern end of the V3 unit iscomposed of a sheet of massive columnar jointed lava underlain by V2 pillow lava and overlain by hydrothermal
deposit or pelagic shale, which disappears below wadi sediment. The overall distribution of V3 flows elongates
NNW-SSE, subparallel to the paleospreading axis as indicated by the general trend of sheeted dikes distributed
to the west. Because the entire ophiolite nappes including the V3 unit dip 20°-30° to the east, the original
western margin of V3 flows is lost by erosion and high cliffs truncating the western end of the flows expose
dissected sequences of thick lava piles (Geol. sections in the Appendix). Gently undulating flow top of V3 flows
is generally preserved under a carapace of ocher and shale and shows a gently curved smooth trace borderingon the overlying Batinah olistostrome. This is in contrast to the rugged traces of the flow base resting on the
pelagic shale, which abruptly change by 60±19° from 109°-158° to 5°-34°. The NE-SW trending segments of theflow base are concordant with the underlying V2 flows and intercalated umber beds. On the contrary, NW-SE
trending segments of the V3 flow base truncate the structure of V2 flows, where the above mentioned volcanic
conglomerate and breccia including V2 clasts are present between the two volcanic units.

STOP-4. Load structure and pipe vesicles of the V3 flow base

Figure 4a. Basal contact of the V3 sheet lava and the underlying pelagic shale.

p.5

Figure 4. Base of the V3 sheet lava in contact with thepelagic shale, showing inclined pipe vesicles.
Where thick sheet lava rests on thick (> several meters) pelagic shale, the contact of lava and shale iswarped downward, forming a basin structure several to a few tens meters in diameter and up to several metersin depth. Underlying red shale turns pale brown in color near the contact and is steeply inclined and tightly
folded between adjacent basin structures. Tightly folded shale deeply intrudes into the basal crust of theoverlying sheet lava and develops cleavages subparallel to or slightly oblique to the contact with the lava. Thesebasin structures are apparently formed by the load of dense lava emplaced on unconsolidated mud, which issqueezed up between the sagged bases of lava.
Where a sheet flow conformably rests on red shale, the bottom surface of lava in contact with the shaleoccasionally has ropy wrinkles as are commonly observed on the flow top surfaces. In Hawaii, ropy wrinkles
formed on slowly advancing pahoehoe lobes are occasionally rolled down beneath the flow front like a caterpillar
as the lava front moves forward [Keszthelyi and Denlinger, 1996]. The common presence of such ropy wrinkles
on the bottom surfaces of thick sheet flows strongly suggests that it was initially emplaced as a slowly advanced,
thin pahoehoe lobe. Semi-circular lava wrinkles developed on both top and bottom of the flows show an overall
flow direction from south to north, away from the feeder dike near the southern end of the flow field (Geol map
in the Appendix).
Pipe vesicles may be present in some pahoehoe lobe crust and specifically develop in the basal crust of
thick massive sheet lava that directly rests on pelagic shale. These pipe vesicles are <5 mm in diameter and 23 cm in length, and are open on the bottom surface of the lava in contact with the underlying shale (Figures 8e,8f). Such occurrences of pipe vesicles suggest entrainment of water through thin lava crust underlain by wet
sediment [Engels et al., 2003].

p.6

STOP-5. Columnar jointed layers intercalated in the banded crust

Figure 5. Columnar jointed layers interbedded with banded crust
Crust of sheet lava develops an apparent banded structure generally perpendicular to columnar joints.
Bands are several decimeters in thickness and composed of soft, dimpled and coarser-grained dolerite lava
lenses embedded in hard, convex and finer-grained dolerite lava. The coarser-grained dolerite lenses are several
decimeters in thickness and less than 2 m in width and are arranged subparallel to one another, giving theappearance of “banded structure”. The banded crust is intercalated with columnar jointed layers 5-10 m inthickness, which may also develop wide and less obvious banding. Columnar jointed layers have narrower joint
spacing toward the top and bottom. Similar banded structures are common to the crust of subaqueous tumuli
and lobate sheet flows in V2 extrusive rocks and are reported from the Eocene submarine volcanic formationsin the Bonin Islands [Umino and Nakano, 2007]. Umino and Nakano [2007] explained that coarse lenses arecores of coalesced pahoehoe flow lobes, surrounded by fine-grained lava which is merged crust of superposed
flow lobes.
A few outcrops provide us three-dimensional morphological information on the very flow top. Where
covered with relatively thick (> several meters) shale, shape of the underlying flow top can be discerned thatshows a hummocky topography made of dome-like uplifts. Columnar cooling joints develop perpendicular to thelobate flow surface of domal uplifts, with joint spacing narrowing toward the lobate surface. Such a hummocky
flow top with domal uplifts is similar to that of an inflated subaerial pahoehoe sheet flow on the coastal plainat the southern foot of Kilauea, Hawaii and those of submarine lobate sheet flows from mid-ocean ridges andsubmarine extensions of rift zones off Hawaii Islands [Gregg et al., 1996; Engels et al., 2003; Fornari et al.,
1978; Francheteau et al., 1979; Umino et al., 2000]. The flow top consists of humps and ridges with occasional
tumuli, which were uplifted by the excess lava pressures in the underlying lava tubes [Hon et al., 1994;
Kauahikaua et al., 1998; Umino et al., 2006; Walker, 1991].
Domal structures are not restricted to the flow top, but occur within the crust of thick flows. Somethree-dimensional exposures of such curved joint bands show that radially arranged columnar joints form adome-like structure ranging from 2 to 200 m in diameter. Relatively small (<10 m across) domal structures may
be aggregated in a subhorizontal zone, where hemispherical domal structures of radially arranged columnar
joints are defined by the outline of denser joint spacing and finer grain size. Adjacent domes may be partiallyoverlapped each other, where a thin lenticular shale bed is present between domal structures.

p.7

STOP-6. V3 flow top capped with altered metalliferous sediment

Figure 6. Metalliferous sediment on top of the V3 flow, which in turn overlain by the Batinah Olistostrome
Flow top of the V3 unit is well preserved under a carapace of metalliferous silicic sediment ofhydrothermal origin, now altered to orange yellow ocher.

STOP-7. Marginal facies of V3 flow field: Pahoehoe lobes interbedded with sheet lava

Figure 7. Gently inclined top of a sheet flow with large lava wrinkles beneath thermally affected shale
Lava wrinkles on the surface of the V3 sheet are well preserved under a cover of shale. Semi-circularp.8
arrangement of folded lava crust spans tens of centimeters to a several meters across, indicating a local flow
direction when the flow lobes were emplaced.

p.9

STOP-8. V3 main sheet bifurcate into multiple flow lobes with intercalated shale

Marginal facies appears in the peripherals of the V3 flow field and is characterized by the absence ofmassive cores. It consists of columnar jointed crust and compound pahoehoe and pillow lobes accompanied byinterstitial mudstone and shale lenses. In the northern and eastern end of the flow, a thick sheet lava of thecentral facies grades laterally into thinner sheets that lack core or branches into compound pahoehoe and pillow
lobes. Thin lenses of red shale may intervene between such compound flow lobes and are thermally affected by
the lava to pale yellow or pale green in color.

Figure 8. Marginal facies of the V3 flow comprising numerous flow lobes intercalated with shale
Emplacement of The V3 Flow Field
The V3 flow field comprises ubiquitous coalescence structures such as domal structures indicated bynarrow columnar joint with fine grain size, banded structure and thin intervening shale between coalesced flow
lobes. Common lava wrinkles on both top and bottom surfaces of thick sheet lava and hummocky topography ofthe flow top are characteristic to inflated lobate sheet flows. In addition to these, no proximal products indicativeof a high discharge rate are present such as agglutinate, spatter, etc., although they might have been lost by
erosion. These observations led us to conclude that the V3 flow field was formed by quiet extrusion of lava at
low to moderate rates onto a subhorizontal seafloor covered with thick pelagic sediment, which buried hightopographic reliefs of abyssal hills and fault grabens (Figure 9). Because thick water-saturated sediment was
unable to sustain dense basalt lava, slowly advancing pahoehoe lobes intruded between the upper
unconsolidated and lower semi-consolidated sediments. Adjacent and superposed pahoehoe lobes coalesced
together to form a larger sheet behind the flow front, which subsequently inflated with baked shale layers above.

p.10
Thermally altered sedimentary covers on the upper surface of the lobes were overlain by later flow lobes andincorporated within thick sheet lava as the flow lobes coalesced and inflated. The upper crust consists of anumber of coalesced flow lobes which were both inflated and uninflated, resulting domal structures and banded
crust. Massive lava cores were inflated by injection of lava into large merged flow lobes, including the remnantsof rapidly cooled crust and coalesced pahoehoe lobes, which ultimately became columnar jointed layers in the
cores.

Figure 9b. Schematic model of emplacement of the V3 flow field. (a) Lava extruded at low to moderate
rates onto a subhorizontal seafloor overlain by thick pelagic sediment. Since water-saturated unconsolidated
sediment could not hold the dense lava, it intruded along the boundary between the lower semi-consolidated
and the upper unconsolidated sediments. (b) Slowly advancing lava front branched into numerous pahoehoe
lobes, which coalesced together to form a vast sheet-like lava and subsequently inflated behind the flow front.
(c) Some sedimentary lenses were uplifted with the inflating sheet and overlain by the following paheohoe
sheets, which then merged into the main sheet of lava. (d) In addition to compound flows of pahoehoe and pillow
lobes, the marginal facies comprises coalesced but unmerged pahoehoe lobes emplaced in the peripherals andabove the inflating main sheet. These lobes cooled at relatively faster rates, which prevented them fromcompletely unifying with the main sheet.

p.11

STOP-9. V2/Conglomerate/V1 extrusive unit

Figure 10. Volcanic conglomerate between the V1 (left of the photo) and V2 unit (right)
V2 extrusive unit shows either structural conformity and unconformity to the lower V1 extrusive unit.
Where the general trend of lava flows and interbedded sediments of the V2 unit is oblique to the structure of
the underlying V1 flows, volcanic conglomerate or tuff breccia comprising clasts derived from the lower V1 lava
is present on the eroded surface of the V1 unit and beneath the V2 unit.

STOP-10. Conduit and tumuli of V2 lava

Figure 11. Conduit (left) and tumulus (right) of the V2 extrusive unit
The conduit stands subvertically with a diameter of 5 X 7 m in the V2 lava flows and has concentricp.12
layers of fine- and coarse-grained lava. Such concentric layering is well know for lava tubes in Hawaii which
form by quiet extrusion of lava for a long (>one week) period [Kauahikaua et al., 1998], and is considered to bean equivalent sturcture of a lava tube. The lava body on the right rests on a thin shale and have lobate uppersurfaces. The upper part of the lobate lava body is composed of embayed, lenses of coarser-grained basalt
embedded in finer-grained lava. These are superposed, coalesced pahoehoe lobes comprising the outer crust of
a tumulus, which were unable to infalate due to rapid cooling. The lower part of the lava body is a completely
merged flow lobes that inflated to form the domal uplift of the upper crust of the tumulus.

STOP-11. Conformable boundary between the V2 and V1 extrusive units

Figure 12. Sheet flow of V2 unit is conformably overlying a thick massive lava of V1 unit
Where structures of the V1 and V2 flows are concordant, conformable relationship can be foundbetween the two extrusive units. V2 sheet flows conformably overlie a V1 massive lava with a 0.5-m thickreddish brown jasper bed between the two units.

STOP-12. Large tumulus of V1 extrusive unit

Figure 13. Partially overlapped large tumuli of V1 extrusive unit
This is a larger variety of submarine tumulus as we have seen at STOP-10. Inflation and coalescenceof flow lobes that form tumuli and lobate sheet flows take place when lava is emplaced on subhorizontal land
at low to moderate extrusion rates. The common presence of tumuli and pahoehoe-lobate sheet flows in thisarea, as well as their stratigraphically higher levels among the V1 unit indicate that these flows were empalced
on subhorizontal seafloor most likely on the paleoridge flanks.

p.13

STOP-13. V1 pahoehoe lobes underlain by elongate pillows

Figure 14. Bun-shaped and ameoboidal lava lobes of V1 unit
Bun-shaped pahoehoe lobes several decimeters to meters across and 0.3-2 m thick are common. Unlike
pillow lobes, pahoehoe lobes have a bun-like or an amoeboidal shape and lacks corrugations on the surfaces
which are characteristic scars formed on the surfaces of pillow lobes as they grow [Ballard and Moore, 1977;
Umino et al., 2000; 2002]. Lava wrinkles are common on the surface of lobes. Some pahoehoe lobes can be traced
upstream to merge into thicker sheet-like lava, or are connected with underlying thick massive lava. As such,compound pahoehoe lobes develop in the peripherals of and paving larger sheet flows, just like those observed
on lobate sheet flows from submarine rift zones off Hawaii Islands and the East Pacific Rise [Tominaga andUmino, 2010; Umino et al., 2000; 2002; 2008a].

STOP-14. Sheeted dike complex

Figure 15. Sheeted dikes along Wadi Suhayli
The sheeted dike complex comprises almost 100% mutually intrusive subparallel dikes with lava andvolcaniclastic screens increasing upward in the sheeted dikes - effusive transition, and gabbroic screensincreasing downward in the transition to the layered gabbros [Umino et al., 2003]. Transition zones are 50–100
m and 30–50 m in thickness respectively, that are generally much thinner than the total thickness (1.1–1.5 km)of the dike complex. Aphyric dikes predominate in the sheeted dikes, of which 99% are simple, while multiple
and composite dikes are few. The thickness of dikes ranges from <1 cm to >13 m, with an average thickness of
71.3 cm. Most dikes have a bulk Mg# of 55–66, which overlaps the majority of MORB.

p.14

STOP-15. Chloritite body

An intense swarm of sills is emanated from a lherzolite-olivine gabbronorite cumulate complex southof Wadi Bidi. 100 % sheeted sills surround the cumulate body. The lherzolite is intruded by olivine gabbronorite
with two different attitudes. NW-striking and SW-dipping gabbronorite dikes cut NNE-striking and ESEdipping dikes. 5—10 m wide chloritite bodies are present in the lower portion of the sill swarm.

Figure 16. Chloritite bodies in the southern branch of Wadi Bidi.

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