James Williams
Visiting Professor, CICE, Hiroshima
University
jhw@gwu.edu, jim@hiroshima-u.ac.jp

1 Title

Staying in School: A Longitudinal Mixed Methods Study ofTransition, Drop out, and Retention—From Primary to Secondary
School in Cambodia
 For many individuals and for the nation, challenge of:

Persistence through lower secondary to upper secondary school HomeRoyal University of Phnom Penh Support

Japan Society for the Promotion of Science Supported by researchers fromSophia University (Tokyo), George Washington University (US),University of Kassel (Germany)2 Longitudinal• From last term of 6th grade (end of primary) to beginning ofgrade 10 (entrance to upper secondary) school, if on time
• Once to twice/year Surveys of• Students & parents• Dropouts• Teachers• School directors
 Narrative interviews with students & parents
 Test Student attendance and grades Analysis of EMIS
 4 IRBS! Researchers in 4 countries!!

3 10 schools in one province, 2-3 hours from Phnom Penh
 Purposively sampled:3 “urban”
4 rural3 remote
Within each category, we sought a mix of high and low dropout schools

 All available, assenting/consenting 6th graders and theirparents, teachers, school directors at each school
1 narrative interview parent-child pair per school Final sample

219 students (+ 219 parents) for surveys – all oral
10 students + 10 parents for narrative interviews – oral
10 teachers – written
10 school directors – written4 1st data collection

June 2011
End of primary school
Baseline Follow up

December 2011, June 2012
Persistence decision: Enrolled in school? Repeating? Dropout?

 First results

Exploratory

 Caveats

An early piece
Mistakes are mine, not co-researchers’ Complete follow-up in December 20125

Educational History
2. School supplies
3. Private Tutoring
4. Private School Experience
5. External Support
6. Activities Outside School
7. Child Resources
8. Social Capital
9. Educational Aspirations
10. Perception of School Quality
1.

6Perception of Transition Process
12. Career Aspirations
13. Current Work Life
14. Self-evaluation
15. Characterization of Current Education

7

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Background information on student’s family
Additional support for student’s education
Parent expectation re change in living standard
Family wealth (including housing and books in home)
Parent’s activities with student
Parental involvement in school
Parent’s social capital8

Community security
9. Student’s health
10.Parent perception of student’s attitude towardschool
11.Parent perception of financial burden
12.School cost
13.Level of education required for parent’s job
14.Parent’s educational aspirations for student
15.Parent’s perception of school quality
16.Parent’s stance of transition decision
17.Parent’s perception of and information on LSS
choice918. Parent’s perception of student probability of successin LSS
19. Reasons for stopping child’s education

10Teacher
1. Student grade average
2. Student absences
3. Teacher expectation of student’s education
potential
Director
4. Basic information on school
5. Director’s perception of student dropout
6. School resources
7. Student tracking
8. School climate I
9. School climate II
10. Director perception of parental participation
11. Director background information
11

 Overall persistence and drop out Gender Caveat: Somewhat descriptive yet12 In June ‘11, most primary students said theywanted to continue their schooling:• Yes• Unsure• No96%
3%
1%

 Most students wanted to finish at least upper

secondary school. % desiring to finish:• Lower secondary school• Upper secondary school• University144343

 But by Jun ’12, 27% had dropped out
13

% among
students whoseparents hadcompleted
lower secondary
certificate ormore

Overall% ofStudents% among
students whoseparents had noeducation

Dropped out
between Jun 11and Dec 11

470

Dropped out
between Dec 11
and Jun 12232630

Still Enrolled inSchool73

67

70

Total

100

10010014

Primary
School ofOrigin:
School No.

% Who
Dropped Out
before LSS(Jun-Dec 11)% WhoDropped Out
in 7th grade(Dec 11-Jun12)% Who are
Still in School

TOTAL

101189100232373

100

3030

70

100

472171

100501388100

672767100702575100

800100

100

9040

60

100

10212653

100

1103466

100

15

Destination
Secondary
School :School Number% Dropped Out
in 7th Grade(Dec 11 – Jun 12)% Still inSchoolTOTAL

20

100

100 2.5

11189

100 4.061684

100 2.1

101080100 2.242179

100 2.2

72377

100 2.1

92575

100 2.5

33466100 2.0

54060

100 1.884060

100 3.816

Grades 1stterm , Gr6(hi=good)
Grades 2ndterm
Absences 1stterm , Gr 6(lo=good)
Absences 2ndterm
Final classrank, Gr6(lo=good)Students Who
Dropped Out
before LSS(Jun-Dec 11)

Students Who
Dropped Out
in 7th grade(Dec 11-Jun12)

Students Who
are Enrolled
in LSS School

TOTAL

6.4

6.5

7.1

6.9**

6.6

6.2

7.0

6.8**

1.0

1.2

0.8

0.9*

2.2

2.5

0.9

1.3***

15.9

19.2

14.9

15.9~17Students Who
Dropped Outbefore LSS(Jun-Dec 11)

Students Who
Dropped Out
in 7th grade(Dec 11-Jun12)

Students Who
are Enrolled
in LSS School

TOTAL

Averagenumber ofbathrooms

0.13

0.09

0.27

0.22~

Averagenumber ofbicycles

1.13

1.11

1.48

1.39*

% withouttelevision

38

46

35

37

% withoutmotorbike

63

47

48

48

18

Students Who
Dropped Out
before LSS(Jun-Dec 11)

Students Who
Dropped Out
in 7th grade(Dec 11-Jun12)

Students Who
are Enrolled
in LSS School

TOTAL

Will notcontinue

050

50

100

Don’t know

331750100

Will continue

32375

100

TOTAL

42374100Continue
with nextgrade (endGr 6)

19

How muched need to
do job want
kid to do at30? (askedparents)

Students Who
Dropped Out
before LSS(Jun-Dec 11)

Students Who
Dropped Out
in 7th grade(Dec 11-Jun12)

Students Who
are Enrolled
in LSS School

TOTAL**

Don’t know

4

2175

100Lower
secondary

54352100

3

1978100

Upper
secondary ormore

20What edexpectationsof family
advisor?

Students Who
Dropped Out
before LSS(Jun-Dec 11)

Students Who
Dropped Out
in 7th grade(Dec 11-Jun12)

Students Who
are Enrolled
in LSS SchoolTOTAL**

Don’t know

51976

100

Lower
secondary

84646100

31879100Uppersecondary ormore21

Level ofeducation(1-4,4 university)
Parent’s
desire forchild
Parentexpects
child toachieve

Students Who
Dropped Out
before LSS(Jun-Dec 11)

Students Who
Dropped Out
in 7th grade(Dec 11-Jun12)

Students Who
are Enrolled
in LSS School

TOTAL

3.62

3.42

3.48

3.48

2.14

2.75

2.94

2.87**

22

 Frequency of parents’ conversations withteachers Frequency of parents’ assistance withhomework Whether study receives private tutoring ornot Whether student has someone to help them
 Time spent on chores, tv, homework, withfriends
 Students who persist are more critical of
their teachers and schools
 etc23 Dropout is worse in LSS 1st yr than between primary & LSS
 Extremely wide variation across schools indropout/persistence of students. Why?
 Parents’ education does not differ significantly acrossprimary schools but it does across LSSs
 Students’ aspirations and parents’ expectations appear
important in predicting persistence What’s difference between students who drop out beforestarting LSS and those who drop out during LSS?
 Little variation in parent desires Parents know where kids will end up
 Policy implications…?
24 1 initial slice, of many possible Allows portrayal of data Explores differences by gender Researchers can then see if these differenceschange over time Descriptive
 Four types of things to notice• Subtle differences that may, or may not, grow• No differences where one might expect them
• Overall levels• Then, how things change25

 Generally modest at this point Little statistical significance to differences There are patterns…

 But• Chance?
• Too small a sample to pick up differences?
• Too soon for differences to appear?
• Gender differences are not salient in Cambodia• Something else, perhaps or not, in combination withgender, e.g., SES• Reading tea leaves?

26

Dropped out

MaleFemale

Overall

Between June
2011 andDecember 2011

1.2

6.0

4.0

BetweenDecember 2011
and June 2012

24.1

22.4

23.1

74.7

71.6

72.9

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

Still in school inJune 2012

TOTAL

27

STUDENTS’ SURVEY28

 School history• No statistical differences or discernible patterns in:

Attendance at preschool; Age of primary entry,Repetition• Girls are less likely boys to have missed school for2+ months (58% girls, never; 42% boys)

 School supplies:• Girls are more likely than boys to: Almost always bring pencil, notebook, text to class (58% vs42%)
 Come to class with homework done (63% vs 37%)
 Come to class with food & drink or money (55% vs 45%)
• But none of these results are statistically significant29

 After school tutoring• Essentially same (39% girls take classes, 41% boys)• Hours (7.2 for girls, 7.9 for boys)
 Similar % enroll in other schools (16% vs14%)
 Use of after-school time
GamesFriends
ChoresHomework

Girls
55
45
142
73

Boys
49 (minutes/day)
45
134
6130

GirlsBoys

Overall

46+39

43% having a place
to study in home(highlighted arestatisticallysignificant)

3953+

45

% having light

7074+

72

% having books2324

23% having
computer

21265

61

63

% Like to readvery much(+ refers to moredesirable value)% having someone
to turn to for help

31GirlsBoys

Overall% whose father
thinks continuing
school is mostimportant after
primary school

99+

95

97% …. mother

9598+

96

% …. grandparent

90+

86

88

% …. teacher

89

94+

92

% who have a few
or no friends who
have dropped out

85+

79

82

47+

53

51

% …. who will
look for job
immediately after
primary32

GirlsBoys

Overall

0+0+0+% …. Lower
secondary

16+11+

14% …. Upper
secondary

43

44

43

% … University

41

45

43

% who feel
aspire only tocomplete
primaryeducation

33

GirlsBoys

Overall% strongly agree“Teachers arecompetent”

55+

53

54

% ….“Happywith teaching atmy school”

47+

40

44

% …. “Satisfied
with thediscipline”

47+

44

46

% …. “Happywith otherstudents”

35

34

35

47

53+

50

% …. “Feel safeat school”

34GirlsBoys

Overall

87.2

92.7+

89.5

Students in classhelp each other:% whocompletely orsomewhat agree

75.4

80.7+

77.6

% of students whoagree teachers are
generally friendly

85.8

81.0

83.7

47.2

29.0

39.6

Like to learn inschool: % who
completely orsomewhat agree% of students who
feel school ischeerful most ofthe time35

PARENTS SURVEY36

GirlsBoys

Overall

2137+

27

1420+

16

1928+

23% …. Parent
volunteers physical

9+68% …. Parent
offers training

8+

15% … Parent meets
teacher916+

12% every day oralmost: Parenttalks to student
about school% …. Parent helps
student with study:% …. Parent talks
to student about
future or job

37

GirlsBoys

Overall% Yes, very much
to: Child likes
going to school

73+

59

67

% Yes, very much
to: Child works
hard7267

70% Yes, very much
to: Child likeslearning88888838

% parents who
say 6th grader’sschool is great
financial burden% …. 7-9thgraders’schooling is/will
be great financial
burdenDaily pocket
money (riels)
School fees for2010/11 schoolyear

GirlsBoys

Overall

27

26

27

46

45

46

980

1,375+

1,087

430+

310

375

39

GirlsBoys

Overall

198

190

195

…. Lessons atother schools

2,677

5,494

3,915

…. For transport

6,882

6,977

6,923

…. Textbooks andsupplies

70,43643,14058,461…. Uniforms

230,204

66,352

159,268…. Remedialsupport

6,140

2,442

4,430

17,297

3,914

11,545

Amount spent on
tutoring since
beginning of year…. Gifts forteachers, director,
to school

40

GirlsBoys

Overall

3.59

3.53

2.99
(uppersecondary=3.0)

2.99

2.99

Minimum ed forjob your childshould have at 30

3.41

3.47

3.44

% very bothered
if child achieves
less than parent

27.0

36.6+

31.0

Ed desired forchild

Ed expect forchild

3.49(between upper
secondary anduniversity)

41

GirlsBoys

Overall

76.0

79.1

77.3

Few
opportunities

18.2

12.8

15.0

Many or some
opportunities

5.8

8.1

6.8

% of parents whosay there are nojob opportunities(or don’t know) in
theircommunities retheir children / %someopportunities42

% who say family
decides if childcontinues
schooling% who say school
decides if childcontinues
schooling% who say they
are aware of costsof continuingchild’s ed% who feel theirchild is likely orvery likely tocomplete grade 9Girls

Boys

Overall

37+

27

33

63

73+

67

53

67+

59

83.2

90.7+

86.4
43

 Given a purposive rather than random sample…
 Relatively few gender differences wereidentified.
 Why?

• There are few/none?
• There are few yet?
• We are looking in the wrong place?

 However, there were patterns, which wehypothesize will deepen over time, as children
age, as opportunity and direct costs increase,and as schooling becomes more difficult
 Will be important to watch if and how thesefactors and perceptions change…
44

1: Overall, surprisingly few differences,consistently few
2: On average, boys claim a greater share ofresources (i.e., get more stuff) than girls
3: Girls seem to have an easier time in school andto like it better
4. Still expectations are higher for boys’
educational futures
5. Girls do drop out more frequently than boys, andtheir odds of dropping out are considerably
higher
6. Children whose parents have not completed
primary school are at greatest risk45
 Questions, Comments, Suggestions,Discussion?

46