MDA: A Formal Approach to Game Design and Game Research
Robin Hunicke, Marc LeBlanc, Robert Zubek
hunicke@cs.northwestern.edu, marc_leblanc@alum.mit.edu, rob@cs.northwestern.edu

Abstract
In this paper we present the MDA framework (standing for
Mechanics, Dynamics, and Aesthetics), developed andtaught as part of the Game Design and Tuning Workshop at
the Game Developers Conference, San Jose 2001-2004.
MDA is a formal approach to understanding games – one
which attempts to bridge the gap between game design anddevelopment, game criticism, and technical game research.
We believe this methodology will clarify and strengthen theiterative processes of developers, scholars and researchers
alike, making it easier for all parties to decompose, study
and design a broad class of game designs and gameartifacts.

Introduction
All artifacts are created within some design methodology.
Whether building a physical prototype, architecting asoftware interface, constructing an argument or
implementing a series of controlled experiments – design
methodologies guide the creative thought process and help
ensure quality work.
Specifically, iterative, qualitative and quantitative analyses
support the designer in two important ways. They help her
analyze the end result to refine implementation, andanalyze the implementation to refine the result. By
approaching the task from both perspectives, she canconsider a wide range of possibilities andinterdependencies.
This is especially important when working with computerand video games, where the interaction between codedsubsystems creates complex, dynamic (and often
unpredictable) behavior. Designers and researchers must
consider interdependencies carefully before implementingchanges, and scholars must recognize them before drawing
conclusions about the nature of the experience generated.
In this paper we present the MDA framework (standing for
Mechanics, Dynamics, and Aesthetics), developed andtaught as part of the Game Design and Tuning Workshop
at the Game Developers Conference, San Jose 2001-2004[LeBlanc, 2004a].
MDA is a formal approach tounderstanding games – one which attempts to bridge thegap between game design and development, gamecriticism, and technical game research. We believe thismethodology will clarify and strengthen the iterative
processes of developers, scholars and researchers alike,making it easier for all parties to decompose, study anddesign a broad class of game designs and game artifacts.

Towards a Comprehensive Framework
Game design and authorship happen at many levels, andthe fields of games research and development involve
people from diverse creative and scholarly backgrounds.
While it’s often necessary to focus on one area, everyone,
regardless of discipline, will at some point need to consider
issues outside that area: base mechanisms of gamesystems, the overarching design goals, or the desired
experiential results of gameplay.
AI coders and researchers are no exception. Seemingly
inconsequential decisions about data, representation,
algorithms, tools, vocabulary and methodology will trickle
upward, shaping the final gameplay. Similarly, all desireduser experience must bottom out, somewhere, in code. As
games continue to generate increasingly complex agent,
object and system behavior, AI and game design merge.
Systematic coherence comes when conflicting constraints
are satisfied, and each of the game’s parts can relate toeach other as a whole. Decomposing, understanding andcreating this coherence requires travel between all levels of
abstraction – fluent motion from systems and code, tocontent and play experience, and back.
We propose the MDA framework as a tool to help
designers, researchers and scholars perform thistranslation.

MDA
Games are created by designers/teams of developers, andconsumed by players. They are purchased, used andeventually cast away like most other consumable goods.
Creates

Consumes

Game
Designer

The production and consumption of game artifacts.

Player

The difference between games and other entertainment
products (such as books, music, movies and plays) is that
their consumption is relatively unpredictable. The string of
events that occur during gameplay and the outcome ofthose events are unknown at the time the product isfinished.
The MDA framework formalizes the consumption ofgames by breaking them into their distinct components:
Rules

System“Fun”…and establishing their design counterparts:

Mechanics

Dynamics

Aesthetics

M

D

A

PlayerDesigner

The designer and player each have a different perspective.

When working with games, it is helpful to consider both
the designer and player perspectives. It helps us observe
how even small changes in one layer can cascade into
others. In addition, thinking about the player encourages
experience-driven (as opposed to feature-driven) design.
As such, we begin our investigation with a discussion of
Aesthetics, and continue on to Dynamics, finishing withthe underlying Mechanics.

Aesthetics
Mechanics describes the particular components of thegame, at the level of data representation and algorithms.
Dynamics describes the run-time behavior of themechanics acting on player inputs and each others’
outputs over time.
Aesthetics describes the desirable emotional responses
evoked in the player, when she interacts with the gamesystem.
Fundamental to this framework is the idea that games are
more like artifacts than media. By this we mean that thecontent of a game is its behavior – not the media thatstreams out of it towards the player.
Thinking about games as designed artifacts helps framethem as systems that build behavior via interaction. It
supports clearer design choices and analysis at all levels ofstudy and development.

MDA in Detail
MDA as Lens
Each component of the MDA framework can be thought ofas a “lens” or a “view” of the game – separate, but causally
linked. [LeBlanc, 2004b].
From the designer’s perspective, the mechanics give rise to
dynamic system behavior, which in turn leads to particularaesthetic experiences. From the player’s perspective,
aesthetics set the tone, which is born out in observable
dynamics and eventually, operable mechanics.

What makes a game “fun”? How do we know a specific
type of fun when we see it? Talking about games and playis hard because the vocabulary we use is relatively limited.
In describing the aesthetics of a game, we want to moveaway from words like “fun” and “gameplay” towards amore directed vocabulary. This includes but is not limited
to the taxonomy listed here:
1. SensationGame as sense-pleasure
2. Fantasy
Game as make-believe
3. Narrative
Game as drama
4. Challenge
Game as obstacle course

5. FellowshipGame as social framework
6. Discovery
Game as uncharted territory
7. Expression
Game as self-discovery
8. Submission
Game as pastime

For example, consider the games Charades, Quake, The
Sims and Final Fantasy. While each are “fun” in their own
right, it is much more informative to consider the aesthetic
components that create their respective player experiences:
Charades: Fellowship, Expression, Challenge.
Quake: Challenge, Sensation, Competition, Fantasy.
The Sims: Discovery, Fantasy, Expression, Narrative.
Final Fantasy: Fantasy, Narrative, Expression,
Discovery, Challenge, Submission.
Here we see that each game pursues multiple aesthetic
goals, in varying degrees. Charades emphasizes Fellowshipover Challenge; Quake provides Challenge as a mainelement of gameplay. And while there is no Grand Unified
Theory of games or formula that details the combinationand proportion of elements that will result in “fun”, thistaxonomy helps us describe games, shedding light on how
and why different games appeal to different players, or to
the same players at different times.

For example, the model of 2 six-sided die will help us
determine the average time it will take a player to progressaround the board in Monopoly, given the probability ofvarious rolls.

Aesthetic Models

Thermometer

Using out aesthetic vocabulary like a compass, we candefine models for gameplay. These models help us
describe gameplay dynamics and mechanics.

Room

For example: Charades and Quake are both competitive.
They succeed when the various teams or players in thesegames are emotionally invested in defeating each other.
This requires that players have adversaries (in Charades,
teams compete, in Quake, the player competes against
computer opponents) and that all parties want to win.
It’s easy to see that supporting adversarial play and clear
feedback about who is winning are essential to competitive
games. If the player doesn’t see a clear winning condition,or feels like they can’t possibly win, the game is suddenly
a lot less interesting.

Dynamic Models
Dynamics work to create aesthetic experiences. For
example, challenge is created by things like time pressureand opponent play. Fellowship can be encouraged bysharing information across certain members of a session (ateam) or supplying winning conditions that are moredifficult to achieve alone (such as capturing an enemybase).
Expression comes from dynamics that encourage
individual users to leave their mark: systems forpurchasing, building or earning game items, for designing,
constructing and changing levels or worlds, and for
creating personalized, unique characters. Dramatic tension
comes from dynamics that encourage a rising tension, a
release, and a denouement.

Chance in 36

As with aesthetics, we want our discussion of dynamics toremain as concrete as possible. By developing models thatpredict and describe gameplay dynamics, we can avoid
some common design pitfalls.

Too Cold!

Too Hot!

Controller

A thermostat, which acts as a feedback system.

Similarly, we can identify feedback systems within
gameplay to determine how particular states or changes
affect the overall state of gameplay. In Monopoly, as theleader or leaders become increasingly wealthy, they can
penalize players with increasing effectiveness. Poorer
players become increasingly poor.

Move
Roll
Losers$$$$$$
Winners$$$$$$

Pay Up!

Cash In!

The feedback system in Monopoly.

As the gap widens, only a few (and sometimes only one) of
the players is really invested. Dramatic tension and agency
are lost.
Using our understanding of aesthetics and dynamics, we
can imagine ways to fix Monopoly – either rewarding
players who are behind to keep them within a reasonabledistance of the leaders, or making progress more difficult
for rich players. Of course – this might impact the game’s
ability to recreate the reality of monopoly practices – but
reality isn’t always “fun”.

Mechanics
22 33 4 55

6

77 8 99 10
10 11
11 12
12

Die Rolls
Probabilistic distribution of the random variable 2 D6.

Mechanics are the various actions, behaviors and control
mechanisms afforded to the player within a game context.
Together with the game’s content (levels, assets and so on)
the mechanics support overall gameplay dynamics.

For example, the mechanics of card games include
shuffling, trick-taking and betting – from which dynamics
like bluffing can emerge. The mechanics of shooters
include weapons, ammunition and spawn points – whichsometimes produce things like camping and sniping. The
mechanics of golf include balls, clubs, sand traps andwater hazards – which sometimes produce broken or
drowned clubs.
Adjusting the mechanics of a game helps us fine-tune thegame’s overall dynamics. Consider our Monopoly
example. Mechanics that would help lagging players could
include bonuses or “subsidies” for poor players, andpenalties or “taxes” for rich players – perhaps calculated
when crossing the Go square, leaving jail, or exercisingmonopolies over a certain threshold in value. By applying
such changes to the fundamental rules of play, we might beable to keep lagging players competitive and interested for
longer periods of time.
Another solution to the lack of tension over long games ofMonopoly would be to add mechanics that encourage timepressure and speed up the game. Perhaps by depleting
resources over time with a constant rate tax (so people
spend quickly), doubling all payouts on monopolies (sothat players are quickly differentiated), or randomly
distributing all properties under a certain value threshold.

TuningClearly, the last step our Monopoly analysis involves playtesting and tuning. By iteratively refining the value ofpenalties, rate of taxation or thresholds for rewards andpunishments, we can refine the Monopoly gameplay until
it is balanced.
When tuning, our aesthetic vocabulary and models help us
articulate design goals, discuss game flaws, and measure
our progress as we tune. If our Monopoly taxes requirecomplex calculations, we may be defeating the player’s
sense of investment by making it harder for them to track
cash values, and therefore, overall progress or competitive
standings.
Similarly, our dynamic models help us pinpoint whereproblems may be coming from. Using the D6 model, we
can evaluate proposed changes to the board size or layout,
determining how alterations will extend or shorten thelength of a game.

MDA at Work
Now, let us consider developing or improving the AI
component of a game. It is often tempting to idealize AI
components as black-box mechanisms that, in theory, canbe injected into a variety of different projects with relative
ease. But as the framework suggests, game components

cannot be evaluated in vacuo, aside from their effects on asystem behavior and player experience.
First Pass
Consider an example Babysitting game [Hunicke, 2004].
Your supervisor has decided that it would be beneficial toprototype a simple game-based AI for tag. Your player will
be a babysitter, who must find and put a single baby tosleep. The demo will be designed to show off simple
emotive characters (like a baby), for games targeted at 3-7
year-old children.
What are the aesthetic goals for this design? Explorationand discovery are probably more important than challenge.
As such the dynamics are optimized here not for“winning” or “competition” but for having the baby
express emotions like surprise, fear, and anticipation.
Hiding places could be tagged manually, paths between
them hard-coded; the majority of game logic would be
devoted to maneuvering the baby into view and creatingbaby-like reactions. Gameplay mechanics would include
talking to the baby (“I see you!” or “boo!”), chasing thebaby (with an avatar or with a mouse), sneaking about,
tagging and so on.

Second Pass
Now, consider a variant of this same design – built to workwith a franchise like Nickelodeon’s “Rugrats” and aimed
at 7-12 year-old-girls. Aesthetically, the game should feel
more challenging – perhaps there is some sort of narrative
involved (requiring several “levels”, each of which
presents a new piece of the story and related tasks).
In terms of dynamics, the player can now track and interact
with several characters at once. We can add time pressure
mechanics (i.e. get them all to bed before 9 pm), include a“mess factor” or monitor character emotions (dirty diapers
cause crying, crying loses you points) and so on.
For this design, static paths will no longer suffice – and it’s
probably a good idea to have them choose their own hiding
places. Will each baby have individual characteristics,
abilities or challenges? If so, how will they expose thesedifferences to the player? How will they track internal
state, reason about the world, other babies, and the player?
What kinds of tasks and actions will the player be asked toperform?

Third Pass
Finally, we can conceive of this same tag game as a fullblown, strategic military simulation – the likes of SplinterCell or Thief. Our target audience is now 14-35 year oldmen.
Aesthetic goals now expand to include a fantasy element(role-playing the spy-hunting military elite or a loot-seeking rogue) and challenge can probably border onsubmission. In addition to an involved plot full of intrigue
and suspense, the player will expect coordinated activity
on the part of opponents – but probably a lot lessemotional expression. If anything, agents should express
fear and loathing at the very hint of his presence.
Dynamics might include the ability to earn or purchasepowerful weapons and spy equipment, and to develop
tactics and techniques for stealthy movement, deceptive
behavior, evasion and escape. Mechanics include
expansive tech and skill trees, a variety of enemy unit
types, and levels or areas with variable ranges of mobility,
visibility and field of view and so on.
Agents in this space, in addition to coordinating movement
and attacks must operate over a wide range of sensory
data. Reasoning about the player’s position and intent
should indicate challenge, but promote their overall
success. Will enemies be able to pass over obstacles andnavigate challenging terrain, or will you “cheat”? Will
sound propagation be “realistic” or will simple metrics
based on distance suffice?

Wrapping Up
Here we see that simple changes in the aesthetic
requirements of a game will introduce mechanical changes
for its AI on many levels – sometimes requiring thedevelopment of entirely new systems for navigation,
reasoning, and strategic problem solving.
Conversely, we see that there are no “AI mechanics” assuch – intelligence or coherence comes from theinteraction of AI logic with gameplay logic. Using the
MDA framework, we can reason explicitly about aesthetic
goals, draw out dynamics that support those goals, andthen scope the range of our mechanics accordingly.

Conclusions
MDA supports a formal, iterative approach to design andtuning. It allows us to reason explicitly about particular
design goals, and to anticipate how changes will impact
each aspect of the framework and the resulting
designs/implementations.
By moving between MDA’s three levels of abstraction, we
can conceptualize the dynamic behavior of game systems.
Understanding games as dynamic systems helps us develop
techniques for iterative design and improvement –allowing us to control for undesired outcomes, and tune fordesired behavior.
In addition, by understanding how formal decisions about
gameplay impact the end user experience, we are able tobetter decompose that experience, and use it to fuel new
designs, research and criticism respectively.

References
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http://www.gdconf.com/archives/2002/hal_barwood.ppt
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Available online at:
http://www.gamasutra.com/features/19990716/design_tool
s_01.htm
Hunicke, R. 2004. “AI Babysitter Elective”. Lecture at
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http://algorithmancy.8kindsoffun.com/GDC2004/AITutori
al5.ppt
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http://algorithmancy.8kindsoffun.com/GDC2004/
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http://algorithmancy.8kindsoffun.com/MDAnwu.ppt