Organized by:
The Institute for Comparative Research in Human and Social Sciences, University ofTsukuba and Linguapax Asia
筑波大学・人文社会国際比較研究機構 & リングアパックス・アジア
Sponsored by:
The Sign Language Research Center, Kwansei Gakuin University (funded by The
Nippon Foundation) 関西学院大学・手話言語研究センター（日本財団の助成により活動）

In cooperation with the Japan Association for Language Teaching, Bilingualism SIG
全国語学教育学会・バイリンガリズム分野別研究部会

LINGUAPAX ASIA 2018 International Symposium
第 10 回リングアパックス・アジア 2018 国際シンポジウム

Bilingualism Now:
the Imperative Issues of Bilingualism andBilingual Education
待ったなしのバイリンガル教育:
バイリンガリズムとバイリンガル教育における喫緊の課題
Current issues involving:
Bilingualism, Multilingualism, Bilingual education, Language policy, Family bilingualism,
Japanese as a second language, Deaf Sign language, Heritage language, Mother tongue,
Migration, Language and identity, Language loss and maintenance本シンポジウムに関わるキーワード：
バイリンガリズム、マルティリンガリズム、バイリンガル教育、言語政策、家族のバイ
リンガリズム、第二言語としての日本語、手話言語、継承語、母語、移住、言語とアイ
デンティティ、言語喪失と言語維持

June 23rd, 2018, Saturday, 9:00-18:30
2018 年 6 月 23 日(土) 9:00-18:30
University of Tsukuba 筑波大学
Conference Room, University Hall, Tsukuba Campus, University of Tsukuba
筑波大学 大学会館 特別会議場（つくばキャンパス）＊Reception 懇親会

18:30-20:30
1

Restaurant PlazaOrganizing Committee for Linguapax 2018
Saburo Aoki (Symposium Chair, Tsukuba University)
Biba Jelisava Sethna (Director, Linguapax Asia)
John C. Maher (International Christian University)
Sachiyo Fujita-Round (International Christian University)
Alexandra Shaitan (Gakushuin University)
Masayo Yamamoto (Kwansei Gakuin University)
Fred Anderson (Kansai University)
Cary Duval (Bunkyo University)

Linguapax Asia is a non-profit, formerly UNESCO-affiliated organization.
リングアパックス・アジアは、初めユネスコと連携し、現在はNGOとなったリングァパ
ックス・インターナショナルの団体組織 （本部はバルセロナ)のアジア支部です。
http://www.linguapax-asia.org/?lang=en

The Institute for Comparative Research in Human and Social Sciences, University ofTsukuba / 筑波大学・人文社会国際比較研究機構
https://icrhs.tsukuba.ac.jp/
The Sign Language Research Center, Kwansei Gakuin University (funded by theJapan Foundation) 関西学院大学・手話言語研究センター（日本財団により助成）
https://www.kwansei.ac.jp/c_shuwa/
In cooperation with the Japan Association for Language Teaching, Bilingualism SIG
協力：全国語学教育学会・バイリンガリズム分野別研究部会
https://jalt.org/bilingualism-sigⒸさどやませいこ編「うんたらの主の話」（宮古島

伝承の旅

http:miyako.ryukyu）

The symposium is open to the general public without registration/admission fee.
このシンポジウムは一般に開かれており、事前の参加申し込み、参加費は不要です。

2

PROGRAM
8.30

Registration 受付開始
(Registration. On site, all day.

受付は終日行っています。)

9:00-9:10 Greetings from the symposium chair 司会挨拶
Saburo Aoki, Tsukuba University, Symposium Chair
青木三郎（シンポジウム運営委員長、筑波大学人文社会国際比較研究機構）

Opening Message 開会宣言
Biba Jelisava Sethna, Director, Linguapax Asia
ビバ

イェリサヤ

セスナ（リングアパックス・アジア理事長）

Welcome speech 挨拶 from the University of Tsukuba

筑波大学――――――Morning Session 午前の部――――――Part 1 Academic Presentations
Chair司会: Biba Jelisava Sethna, Gakushuin University
1. Presentation. 9:10-9:40
Eugen Zaretsky, Marburg University Hospital, Germany
Strategies of the intra- and extralinguistic nation-building in some former Soviet
republics.
2. Presentation. 9:40-10:10
Suwilai Premsrirat, Mahidol University, Thailand
Mirinda Burarungrot, Mahidol University, Thailand
Bilingualism and bilingual education : a pivotal point to the language loss or language
revitalization
3. Linguapax Young Scholars Presentations
a. 10:10-10:25
Asuka Ando, PhD candidate, The University of Tokyo, Japan
Bilingualism of CODA and CODA identity
b. 10:25-10:40
Esther Lovely, PhD candidate, The University of Queensland, Australia, and International
Visiting Fellow, Institute of Women’s Culture, Showa Women’s University, Japan
Young Korean students navigating their bilingualism and biculturalism in Australia
Discussion. 10:40-10:55(5 minutes preparation for the next section) 10:55-11:00
3

11:00-11:30 Morning Break 休憩
Poster Presentations・ポスター発表(University Hall Presentation Space)

Part 2 Plenary Lecture
Chair司会: Saburo Aoki, The University of Tsukuba
Keynote lecture. 11:30-12:10
Andrej Bekeš , Professor emeritus at the University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Bilingual life in action: reminiscences from former Yugoslavia and present Slovenia
Discussion. 12:10-12:25

12:25- 13:20 Lunchtime Break 昼食
Entertainment お楽しみ＊
12:40-13:20 Miyakoan Folklore Reading & Miyakoan Documentary Video
宮古島の民話朗読 ＆ 宮古語についてのドキュメンタリー映像
Seiko Sadoyama (Nkyanjyuku, Miyako Island, Japan),
Katsuyuki Hattori (Kuwasawa Design Research Institute, Japan)
Sachiyo Fujita-Round (International Christian University, Japan)*This will be presented to show gratitude for the funded support of the ‘Miyako Island
Folklore Journey’ website by Linguapax Asia in 2016
*これは2016年のリングアパックス・アジアから助成を受け制作をした「宮古島 伝承の旅」
ウェブサイトの謝辞を兼ねた報告です。

――――――Afternoon Session 午後の部――――――Part 3 Academic Presentations
Chair司会: Yoko Miura, Wright State University
4. Presentation. 13:20-13:50
Joy Taniguchi, Shizuoka Eiwa Gakuin University, Japan
English literacy retention in four pairs of Japanese returnee siblings

5. Presentation. 13:50-14:20
Hideyuki Taura, Ritsumeikan University, Japan
L2 loss and re-acquisition: a neurolinguistic case study
Discussion. 14:20-14:35(5 minutes preparation for the next section) 14:35-14:40
4

14:40-15:10 Afternoon Break 休憩
Poster Presentations・ポスター発表(University Hall Presentation Space)

Part 3 Academic Presentations (continued)
Chair司会: Fred Anderson, Kansai University
6. Presentation. 15:10-15:40
Kane Ord, The University of Newcastle, Australia
The language of poverty: a study of the intersection of multilingual education,
development and poverty reduction in East Timor
7. Presentation. 15:40-16:10
Kazuko MATSUMOTO, The University of Tokyo, Japan
Changing views of bilingualism in the Pacific:
A restudy of postcolonial multilingual Palau after two decades
Discussion. 16:10-16:25(5 minutes preparation for the next section) 16:25-16:30

Part 4: Plenary Panel Discussion:
Deaf Sign Bilingualism in Japan Now
Chair司会: John C. Maher, International Christian University
Panelist 1. 16:30-16:50
Masayo Yamamoto, Kwansei Gakuin University, Japan
Bilingualism in Japan
Panelist 2. 16:50-17:20
Kiyoshi Kawaguchi, Technical Officer, Sign Language Research Center, Kwansei Gakuin
University, JapanThe bilingual experience of Mr. Kawaguchi: I'm Deaf since I was an infant. What is
my mother tongue?
「私は歩けるようになる前からろう者です。私の母語は何ですか？」
Panelist 3. 17:20-17:50
Natsuko Shimotani, Technical Officer, Sign Language Research Center, Kwansei Gakuin
University, JapanThe bilingual experience of Ms. Shimotani: My second languages of two different
modalities「２つの違うモダリティを持つ第二言語たち」
Comments and discussion with audience 17:50 -18:25
5

Discussant. John C. Maher, International Christian University, Japan
18:25-18:30

Closing Remarks 閉会のあいさつ
Saburo Aoki, Tsukuba University, Symposium Chair
青木三郎（シンポジウム運営委員長、筑波大学人文社会国際比較研究機構）

18:30-20:30 Reception on campus 懇親会

Restaurant Plaza

Poster Presentations:
11:00-11:30
14:40-15:10

Morning Break: Poster Presentations
Afternoon Break: Poster Presentations

P1

Mirinda Burarungrot & Suwilai Premsrirat, Mahidol University, Thailand
Language transfer from Patani Malay to Thai in mother tongue-based bilingual
education in southern most provinces of Thailand

P2

Mari Kakuta & Ren Kikukawa, Kansai Gakuin University & Freelance, Japan
Japanese sign language and Japanese glosses: Influence of Japanese in the
Performance of the hearing learners’ usage of the sign “smooth”

P3

Barry Kavanagh, Tohoku University, Japan
Being a bilingual and bicultural child in Japan and the UK: A cross-cultural
examination of societal perceptions, L2 exposure and ethnic identity

P4

Nina E. Levinson, International Christian University, Japan
Language Education Policies in Okinawa: From Past to Present

P5

Owen Minns, Anglia Ruskin University, U.K.
Just starting out: The Japanese language learning of newly-arrived foreign
English teachers in Japan

P6

Satomi Mishina-Mori, Yuki Nagai, and Yuri Jody Yujobo, Rikkyo University,
Rikkyo University &Tamagawa University, Japan
Discursive transfer in connecting events in Japanese/English bilingual children’s
narratives

P7

Yoko Miura, Wright State University, U.S.A.
Predictors of Bilingual Children’s English Language Performance in the UnitedStatesP8

Patrick Ng, The University of Niigata Prefecture, Japan
English-knowing bilingual policy in Singapore: Problems and Challenges

P9

Heesu Oh, Nagoya University, Japan
How they conduct their lives with two or more languages; A life story approach in6

understanding meaning-making of languages in bilinguals’ lives.
P10

Akiko Okumura, The University of Tokyo, Japan
Transfer from Spanish to Japanese in speech of bilingual Japanese Mexicans

P11

Masaki Ono, The University of Tsukuba, JapanThe Flexibility on Japanese: From the Evaluation of native speakers and nonnative speakers

P12

Ruth Vanbaelen and Risako Ide, The University of Tsukuba, Japan
Crossing the invisible divide: The effects of bilingualism in a cross-culturalclassroom on student motivation

P13

Ying Zhan, The Kansai University, Japan
Crosslinguistic Influence in Early Trilingual Acquisition of Prepositional Phrases
in Mandarin Chinese

Invited poster presentation
P14

Sign Language Research Center, Kwansai Gakuin University, Japan

P15Joël Laurier, JALT representative, The University of Tsukuba, Japan
JALT activities: Something for every EFL teacher

7Plenary Lecture
Andrej Bekeš , Professor Emeritus at the University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Andrej Bekeš came to Japan in February 1971 after graduating from the University of
Ljubljana and received his doctorate in literature from the University of Tsukuba in 1986.
He was involved in the establishment of Japanese Studies course in the Department of
Asian and African Studies (currently the Department of Asian Studies) of the University of
Ljubljana in 1995. The course develops active Japanese-language education and Japanesestudies welcoming 200 students annually not only from Slovenia but also neighboring
countries, including Croatia and Belarus. He received the Order of the Rising Sun, Gold
Rays with Rosette (2008) and the Japan Foundation Awards (2017).
Bilingual life in action: reminiscences from former Yugoslavia and present Slovenia
Andrej Bekeš, University of LjubljanaCentral Europe and the Balkans have been a thoroughly multilingual and multiethnic area,with majorities and minorities. After the demise of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman
empires, newly emerged nation states took different paths to accommodate this reality
within their frontiers. Before WWII, the predominant one was assimilation and/or
elimination of ethnic and linguistic minorities. In the following period WWII various
degrees of accommodation of minority communities and their languages were introduced,
often in the form of lip-service.
Yugoslavia emerged as a multiethnic country after WWI, experiencing WWII not only
through harsh occupation and resistance struggle against it, but also through a bloody interethnic strife, with Croat and Serb puppet regimes as the main protagonists.
After WWII, with the victory of resistance forces, the new Socialist federal republic of
Yugoslavia, introduced sweeping policies of ethnic and linguistic minorities protection, toheal the scars of the war and defuse future tension. Yet these policies, introduced at
the federal and each republic level met with different degrees of success. The two extremes
were probably the treatment of the Italian ethnic community in Slovene Istria and the
Albanian ethnic community in Kosovo autonomous region of Serbia and in Macedonia.
In this talk I will focus on experiences from my hometown of Piran of relatively successful
bilingual policies in Slovene Istria, from the mid 1960’ to present. I point out some reasonsfor this success, comparing the situation in Kosovo, which resulted in Kosovo
seceding from Serbia.

8Oral Presentation Abstracts
Strategies of the intra- and extralinguistic nation-building in some former Soviet
republics.
Eugen Zaretsky, Marburg University Hospital, Germany
After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, most former Soviet republics pursued similar
strategies of the nation-building, usually emphasizing their “otherness” from the Russian
culture. These strategies can be summarized as follows: development of the local andminority languages, popularization of the local culture including half-forgotten customs andtraditions, revitalization of previously marginalized Christian and non-Christiandenominations, reinvention of the cultural self in terms of being “non-Russian” or even“anti-Russian”. Linguistically, these processes found their reflection in the transition ofsome languages such as Kazakh to the Latin alphabet or introduction of new letters into the
Cyrillic alphabet (e.g., in Ukrainian), development of the scientific terminology, deRussification of the vocabulary and grammar by means of dialectisms, neologisms, andloanwords from other languages, predominantly anglicisms and internationalisms; creationof mythologems regarding the origin of the local language(s); search for the reflection ofcultural traits such as individualism in the respective language (“ethnolinguistics”); legal
restrictions regarding the range of use of Russian, but also other languages. Whereas both
local languages and Russian were taught in the Soviet primary and secondary education,some former Soviet republics – now independent states under a strong influence of theWestern countries, sometimes also Arab world – substitute Russian by local minority
languages, even though most adults keep on speaking Russian both in the professional
communication and at home. In the current presentation, processes described above are
exemplified predominantly for the Ukrainian language. Some consequences of these policies
are discussed: semibilingualism of millions of young Eastern-Europeans and Asians,
reduced access to the specialized literature (still unavailable in local languages), generation
gap between adults reading in Russian/Cyrillic and children “reading local”, abundance ofpseudo-scientific, nationalistic linguistic theories, ethnic cleansings, discrimination, legal
persecution of pro-Russian activists and movements, hate crimes against those speaking nonlocal languages, and eradication of bilingualism in favor of the respective local language.

9

Bilingualism and Bilingual Education a pivotal point to the language loss or language
revitalization
Suwilai Premsrirat, Mahidol University, Thailand
Mirinda Burarungrot, Mahidol University, Thailand
In today’s multilingual world, indigenous or ethnic minority languages are at risk ofextinction whereas the languages of wider communication (LWC) especially theofficial/national languages are safe and used in education and the mass media.
Language speakers of lower social status are normally became bilingual or trilingual.
The stage of balanced bilingualism between the indigenous language and LWC is apivotal point where language will shift or be maintained. Carefully planned mothertongue-based bi/multilingual education is proposed as a solution.
This paper presents a Patani Malay-Thai mother tongue-based bilingual education isan action-participatory research implemented in three schools in southern Thailand
conflict zone from kindergarten through primary grade six (2007-2016) as a casestudy.
The goal is to enable Patani Malay speaking children to obtain quality education whileat the same time preserving their cultural and linguistic heritage with a view to making
a significant contribution to reconciliation efforts and meeting educational
achievement goals. From the beginning, the Patani Malay-Thai project prioritizedengagement with government and community stakeholders. It is guided by a steeringcommittee that includes respected Thai Muslim people, local linguists and officials
from the Southern Border Province Administrative Center, the Ministry of Education,
the Thailand Research Fund, and project leaders from Mahidol University, Yala
Rajabhat University, and UNICEF. Community members have been deeply involved in
the program, from helping to develop a Thai-based orthography to developing learningmaterials such as big books, small books, cultural posters, songs, and games. The
presentation will reflect on the experiences, results, challenges, and lessons learned.
Topics will include the project overview and future directions, orthography issues, L1
to L2 transfer and evaluation.

10

<Linguapax Young Scholars Presentations a. >Bilingualism of Coda and Coda Identity
Asuka Ando, Doctoral Student, The University of Tokyo, Japan“Coda” is a term that is used to indicate hearing children of deaf adults. While the term
was created merely to describe hearing children of deaf parents, recently it has started to
involve aspects of cultural identity known as “Coda identity.” Since “Coda identity” is arelatively new term, the public understanding of Coda identity has not been developed yet.
Although the term “Coda identity” is still invisible in the society, previous studies haveshown that Coda talk can be a sociolinguistic function of Coda identity (Bishop and Hicks,
2008, p.91), and Coda is often explained using bilingual and bicultural rhetoric (Bishop,
2008; Emmorey et al., 2005; Shibuya, 2009; 2012).
This study aims to examine how sign language skills are related to the definition of “Codaidentity.” In other words, this study investigates whether fluency in sign language is anecessity for one to be identified as Coda. Two methods were employed: a questionnaire of
33 adult Codas and interviews of five Coda participants whose backgrounds were varied.
The result showed that fluency in sign language can be one aspect of Coda identity.
Although the five Coda participants agreed that the definition of Coda does not include
one’s sign language ability, they all displayed unconscious bias of Coda being able to sign
fluently. Additionally, those Coda participants whose have one hearing parent felt that they
are less Coda because they had the image of Coda having two deaf parents. This result
agrees with previous studies that Coda has been described as being bilingual of spoken andsign languages and bicultural of hearing and deaf cultures. In addition, this study showedthat the ways of parent-child communication might affect Coda identity. Those who use
sign language only with deaf parent(s) tend to be confident in their sign language ability,
while those Codas whose use mixed methods of communication tend to have low
confidence. This suggests that how Coda communicate with their deaf parents impact
positively or negatively their confidence in sign language, which affects their “Codaidentity.”11

<Linguapax Young Scholars Presentations b.>
Young Korean students navigating their bilingualism and biculturalism in Australia
Esther Lovely, PhD Candidate,
The University of Queensland, Australia, andVisiting Fellow, Institute of Women’s Culture, Showa Women’s University, Japan
Encouraged by the prevailing perception of overseas-educated students as possessing
marketable traits of intercultural competence and language proficiency (Chung, 2008; Fry,
2007; Koo, 2007; Singer, 1999) sending minors abroad for immersive English language
study has been widely practised in Hong Kong, Taiwan, China, Japan, and South Korea(Chew, 2009; Nukaga, 2008; Parreñas 2005). In South Korea it is a particularly intense
phenomenon, and since 2000, Australia has become a popular destination for thesestudents.
While such overseas study experiences can produce valuable linguistic and interculturalcompetencies (Fry, 2007), literature on biculturalism also reveals that bicultural
individuals such as these students often feel internal conflict, finding it difficult toreconcile different aspects of their cultural identity in everyday life (Boski, 2008; Toomey,
Dorjee & Ting-Toomey, 2013). As shown in studies on cross-cultural adaptation andbiculturalism, these individuals daily negotiate their identities across multiple social
environments situated within their broader cultural context (Norton, 1995; MatsubaraJaret, 2008; Park, 2008; Han, 2008). These negotiations can present challenges to theindividual, and may cause conflict between their developing cultural identity and the
expectations of their surrounding social environment.
In this presentation I examine excerpts of case stories from my PhD research investigating
the communication experiences and cultural identity change among Korean students in
Queensland, Australia. Over a period of seven months, semi-structured interviews wereconducted with 11 participants focusing on their experiences since arriving in Australia,
and accounts of changes experienced during the interview period. I also draw on
preliminary examples from my current research project on the communication experiences
and cultural identity change of Japanese returnees who have lived and studied in the
United States.
The examples discussed in this presentation reveal not only the challenges, but theinnovative ways in which students as bicultural and bilingual individuals utilised the
linguistic and cultural resources accumulated in Australia. In two notable cases, studying
Japanese language assisted two participants in their efforts to find a foothold in Australiansociety. The participants’ communication experiences assuaged and exacerbated theirinternal conflict by turns, supporting a conceptualisation of cultural identity change as a
fluid and unpredicted path.

12

English Literacy Retention in Four Pairs of Japanese Returnee Siblings
Joy Taniguchi, Shizuoka Eiwa Gakuin University, Japan
This study is about Japanese children who have experienced mobility across languages andcultures. Specifically, the research explores English retention in four pairs of siblings who
once lived with their family in a foreign country where they were educated and/or
functioned in English and then returned to their home country, Japan. Upon their returnsome of them continued to become more proficient in interacting with written texts in
English, while others tended to lean toward improving their literacy in Japanese over thatin English. The aim of this study is to explore how these children may retain and further
develop their English literacy skills after a lengthy sojourn abroad.
The ages at which the younger and older siblings returned to Japan separate theparticipants into two groups, one with potential to experience severe attrition and the othershowing resistance to language loss. A set of criterion-referenced and standardized readingassessments for children attending kindergarten through Grade 8 was used for datacollection. The reading sessions were conducted longitudinally at intervals of four to 10
weeks. Other important data sources were audio- and video-recordings of interactions
mainly during literacy events at home, and literacy journals filled out by the children. I
observed the entire family rather than just the participating siblings, in order to understandthe reciprocal effects of factors related to children and parents on the children’s English
literacy retention. Through naturalistic observation of four families, I attempted to capture
how the children and their parents interacted with written texts.
One of the implications of the present study is that the home is an important domain formaintaining English literacy in returnees, especially when more recreational and sociointeractional literacy uses are emphasized. Peer networks also play an important role inretaining L2 literacy from the viewpoint of motivation and of the opportunity to use
English in communicative situations. In addition, supportive parental attitudes andprovision by parents of scaffolding, encouragement, and fostering of the children’s English
literacy practice are crucial.

13

L2 loss and re-acquisition: A neurolinguistic/ linguistic case study
Hideyuki Taura, Ritsumeikan University, Japan
This study explores both how one's L2 undergoes attrition in an L1 community and how it
becomes reactivated back in an L2 dominant milieu from linguistic and neuro-linguistic
perspectives. We collected data from a Japanese-English bilingual girl who was born toJapanese parents in the USA and attended pre-school to Grade 9 in the local American school,
until she came back to Japan where she attended a local Japanese school for the first timefor 3 years without much contact with English. Upon completing high school, she went backto America where she pursued her BA degree. The data collection took place during her
three years back in Japan as a high school student and then the following three years after
her return to the USA –six years in total. Collected data include spontaneous narrative andwriting data, semi-structured interview data, and verbal fluency task (VFT) data. The firsttwo were used to measure her fluency, accuracy, complexity, and any lexical change whereas
the VFT data were used to investigate how her brain activation and connectivity changed
over the six years.
Our linguistic analyses show that her deep-rooted English suffered from little attrition,
despite some skill-selective attrition such as oral fluency decline, which was quickly
recovered when she returned to the USA. Brain activation data (using a functional nearinfrared spectroscopy device - Shimadzu OMM-3000) show gradual attrition in Japan (morebrain activation) and the gradual regaining of the L2 (less brain activation) in the USA. Thesefindings demonstrate the dynamic nature of childhood bilingualism. Possible solutions todeter language attrition are proposed in the presentation.

14

The Language of Poverty: A study of the intersection of multilingual education,
development and poverty reduction in East Timor
Kane Ord, The University of Newcastle, Australia
My research explores the intersection between language and economic development,
particularly within the context of Timor-Leste, by evaluating the role language
attitudes and ideologies have in determining the economic, cultural and social
development of a country.
My research analyses the way in which the use of Portuguese, as a language ofeducation and governmental administration, is truncating the economic and culturaldevelopment of Timor-Leste. In the wake of Timor-Leste’s independence fromIndonesia, the fledgling nation has struggled to rebuild its devastated education
infrastructure whilst developing a language policy that would honour the countries
complicated Portuguese past and respect the widespread use of indigenous Timorese
languages. What has resulted is a succession of language policies that have favoured
Portuguese and Tetun as the primary medium-of-instruction in education.
Through the use of narrative ethnographic interviews with Timorese people, thisresearch mapped the language attitudes that they have toward Portuguese, Tetun andmother tongues, recording the ways in which the resulting language ideologies are
influencing the larger language policies in Timor-Leste. The results of the research
indicate that the dominance of Portuguese, as a language of education andgovernment administration, is negatively impacting on the development of thecountry by socially excluding large swathes of the Timorese community fromaccessing economic and cultural resources. Moreover, by employing a Sustainable
Livelihoods (SL) approach to poverty reduction as a theoretical framework in orderto understand the multiple factors that contribute to poverty, the research confirms
the hypothesis that Mother Tongue-based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) which
utilises a child’s L1 in the earliest stages of formal education has the potential toincrease multilingual literacy among Timor-Leste children by decreasing dropout
rates and class repetition.
Furthermore, the research suggest that MTB-MLE can increase the capacity forparticipation in the formal economy in a more significant and meaningful way, thus
theoretically building financial, physical and social capital in developing communities.

15

Changing views of bilingualism in the Pacific:
A restudy of postcolonial multilingual Palau after two decades
Kazuko Matsumoto, The University of Tokyo, Japan
This paper reports on some of the preliminary findings of an ongoing reinvestigation of
language maintenance and shift in postcolonial multilingual Palau in the Pacific after
twenty years. In 1997-1998, the first-ever ethnographic language survey was conducted inorder to explore the previously undescribed multilingual situation of Palau. The results
highlighted that Palau is an interesting diglossic situation where Japanese replaced English
as the H language, in accordance with historical changes in colonial power, while
indigenous Palauan has remained as the L spoken language (Matsumoto 1999, 2001).
Language abilities in the three languages across different age groups further indicated that
Palau could be seen as merely a temporary multilingual society, which was predicted tomove onto bilingual society in Palauan and English after the older Japanese speaking
generation passed away. However, given that the younger generation consisted of elitemonolingual English speakers and ordinary English learners, who mostly use Palauan indaily life, the direction of change in the more distant future was uncertain, with two
possible scenarios: (a) Palau may remain as a bilingual society with a clear social division
with only minority elite Palauans speaking English and majority ordinary islanders sticking
to Palauan; or (b) there might be a further step towards an English-speaking nation,
abandoning their indigenous language.
This restudy of language maintenance and shift after twenty years attempts to provide realtime evidence, investigating: (a) which path Palau has actually taken; (b) whether there aresimilarities or differences in social factors promoting bilingualism or loss of indigenous
language between 1998 and 2018. The social factors examined include age, generation,
gender, identity, education, mass media, language attitudes, language used at home, school
and work, and social networks both with English speakers in Palau and theirrelatives/friends in the US.
This paper concludes by highlighting the fluid nature of language attitudes which change
depending upon the level of stability of bilingualism; when societal bilingualism seemed tobe the norm, speakers tended to highly value language with overt prestige, feeling
generous about the use of code-mixing, whereas once language endangerment was felt
real, speakers tended to display ambivalent feelings towards the overtly prestigious
language, often being in favour of language purism.
References:
Matsumoto, Kazuko (1999) The politics of language choice amongst Palauan, English andJapanese: Symbolic domination in the Republic of Palau, Micronesia. Proceedings of
the 6th Conference of the International Association for World Englishes. Nagoya:International Association for World Englishes. 91-95.
Matsumoto, Kazuko (2001) Multilingualism in Palau: Language contact with Japanese andEnglish. In Thomas. E. McAuley (ed.). Language Change in East Asia. London:
Curzon Press. 84-142.

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Poster Presentation Abstracts
P1
Language transfer from Patani Malay to Thai in mother tongue-based bilingual
education in southern most provinces of Thailand
Mirinda Burarungrot & Suwilai Premsrirat, Mahidol University, Thailand
Many ethnic children speak a mother tongue (L1) at home that is different from thenational language, a language used for instruction in mainstream schools (L2) - a
situation that has hindered educational development in many places. In southern
Thailand, when most Patani Malay students begin school, they only speak andunderstand Patani Malay only and are unable to comprehend Thai. So, Thai language
illiteracy of Patani Malay students in the Southern part of Thailand has a great negative
impact on their education.
In 2008, a 9-year Patani Malay-Thai mother tongue-based bilingual education project
was initiated in southern part of Thailand. This project implemented in three schools
in southern Thailand from kindergarten through primary grade six as a case study. The
purpose of the project, supported by researchers from Mahidol University, local
educators and regional education officials, was to help Patani Malay children achieve
success in the formal education system, while at the same time preserving theircultural and linguistic heritage with a view to making a significant contribution toreconciliation efforts.
The introduction of Patani Malay-Thai mother tongue-based bilingual education inschools has sought to bridge this linguistic barrier to a better educational experience.
The result data provide clear evidence that literacy skills-including writing – gained in
Patani Malay transfer readily to Thai. Also, initial literacy in Patani Malay facilitates
quicker and more efficient access to literacy skills in Thai despite reduced instructional
attention to the development of Thai literacy skills. This project provides evidence ofthe first literacy in mother tongue not only strong support in Patani Malay but also thestrong bridging to reading and writing skill in Thai.
P2Japanese sign language and Japanese glosses: influence of Japanese in theperformance of the hearing learners’ usage of the sign “smooth”
Mari Kakuta & Ren Kikukawa, Kanto Gakuin University & Freelance, Japan
When Deaf and hearing people interact since there are two languages involved(Japanese and Japanese Sign Language), miscommunication is likely to occur both
linguistically and culturally. This study looks at the signs that have caused
misunderstanding due to the influence of Japanese glosses. Unlike spoken languages,
sign language is a visual language and simultaneity can occur (ie, the signer canmouth the Japanese word while signing). Although the codes differ and there is no
exact equivalence between the two languages, hearing learners tend to be influenced
by the Japanese glosses because it is possible to speak and sign at the same time. Also,17

there is Simultaneous Communication (SimCom) which is not JSL but Japanese Signs
signed according to the Japanese grammar and voicing and signing are done at thesame time. This is not grammatical JSL yet many hearing learners of sign language
tend to use them. A preliminary research was conducted to list the signs that havecaused misunderstanding between the Deaf and the hearing. These signs werecategorized and several signs were selected for further analysis. This research looks
at the sign “smooth” and how it has different meaning to the Japanese “smooth”.
“Smooth” is a loan word from English and in Japanese it has positive meaning, yet thesign “smooth” can be used in negative situations. Hearing learners of JSL were asked
to provide sign language translation for several phrases (in Japanese). We anticipatedthat the sign “smooth” may be used in the sentences. We analyzed how the sign
language learners were able to use or could not use “smooth”. Throughout Japan,
Japanese sign language is becoming accepted yet it is necessary to look in more detailabout the communication that occur between the Deaf and the hearing. More signs
from the previous study needs to be analyzed in the further study. This study only
looked at the performance so in the future study we will focus on competence and theunderstanding of the signs.
P3
Being a bilingual and bicultural child in Japan and the UK: A cross-cultural
examination of societal perceptions, L2 exposure and ethnic identity
Barry Kavanagh, Tohoku University, JapanThe data within this paper comes from a three-year longitudinal study on biculturalbilingual children aged 5-18 who reside in Japan and the UK. A total of 17 families and a
total of 27 children took part in the study.
In an adoption of Cooley’s (1902) Looking-glass self theory the data presented here
examined how societal perceptions, the living environment, L2 exposure and usage shape
the social and ethnic identity of these bicultural bilingual children and how theirexperiences differ in the monolingual countries of Japan and the UK. After participants
completed questionnaires, home visits that included observations and in-depth interviews
with the children and their parents were conducted in both English and Japanese.
Parents within both the UK and Japan all suggested that their child has a strong interest in
their heritage language and culture. To what degree however was determined by L2
language exposure, socializing patterns the child has with the second language and thevalue attached to the language and culture for the child. These factors were heavily
influenced by the home and outside environment that the child is brought up in. Some of
the children in Japan warmed to their identity as being a ‘haafu’ but objected to beinglabeled a gaijin or foreigner.
Within the UK, which is not a homogeneous country like Japan, children of bicultural
backgrounds are not labeled as being different as there are in Japan and the Japanese expat
community of mothers within this study nurture a strong bond with Japan throughvolunteer schools and cultural activities. Both the UK and Japan families adopted the useof the one language one parent approach but to varying degrees of success which was
based on parent roles and their L2 language ability, schooling and home environment.
18

Reference:
Cooley, C. H. (1902). Human Nature and the Social Order. NY: Scribner.
P4
Language education policies in Okinawa: from past to present
Nina E. Levinson, International Christian University, Japan
In this paper, I have explored the history of the Ryukyu islands in order to understand how
the Japanese and American governments have discriminated upon their native languages
through education policies, as well as elaborated on the many efforts Okinawans are
currently making to combat this discrimination in order to ensure a future where no
Ryukyuan language is on the endangered languages list. Okinawa has faced discriminatory
circumstances since it’s joining of Japan in the late 19th Century. It is a collection ofislands with many different cultures and languages that vary exponentially from Japan’s. It
is a prefecture rich with indigenous culture and citizens who face an uncertain future in
regards to the fate of their native languages. This problem exists because of policies
enacted by the Japanese Meiji government in 1879, to replace Ryukyuan languages withstandard Japanese in order to unify all prefectures under Japanese rule. This has only
progressed over time as Ryukyuan languages were expelled from Okinawan schools infavor of standard Japanese, leading to the decline in native speakers, and thus, theendangerment of these indigenous languages. In order to protect these languages fromdying off completely, immediate efforts must be taken starting from the individual
Okinawans, all the way to the national Japanese government, who still refers to theselanguages as “dialects”, as a way to disregard the importance of their preservation. In orderto make the protection of these languages an issue of national government importance,
those in power must recognize the existence of these languages and the dire circumstances
they are facing. Until this happens, Okinawans must begin taking immediate action startingwith the education of their children in their native languages, spreading outward all theway to the mainland of Japan where other Japanese and foreign citizens can be educated on
how these problems are affecting the Ryukyu Islands. It is of the upmost importance for all
peoples to protect and preserve the dignity and uniqueness of their native languages
because if these languages were to be lost, it would mean the loss of an entire culture andcivilization.
P5
Just starting out: The Japanese language learning of newly-arrived foreign
English teachers in Japan
Owen Minns, Anglia Ruskin University, U.K.
In this presentation, I explore how newly-arrived English teachers learn Japanese while
teaching English in Japan. Utilising a diary study, I investigated how 9 foreign English
teachers, who have been in Japan for less than a year, learnt and used Japanese over a sixmonth period. Their experiences were documented using self-reflective diaries and monthly
interviews.
Foreign English teachers in Japan, as university educated migrants, are the type of ‘MiddlingTransmigrants’ that Block (2012) believes have yet to be explored in research into how
migrants learn the language of the country they migrant to. Previous research into theJapanese language learning of English teachers in Japan has tended to focus on self19

reflective studies by teachers working in the university teaching sector (Simon-Maeda, 2011
and Casanave, 2012). Therefore, this diary study focuses on how English teachers working
in two major contexts, as Assistant Language Teachers and at language schools, learn
Japanese and how their experiences illustrate how a previously under-documented group of
employment migrants begin to learn the language of the country they are living and working
in.
Many of the newly arrived teachers struggled for opportunities to learn and use Japanese
while they received varying degrees of institutional support for their Japanese learning.
Often the symbolic and linguistic capital of both their first language and their employmentrole as an English teacher mediated their experiences of learning and using Japanese. The
diary study also revealed pertinent data about the way in which both English teachers
specifically and foreigners generally are positioned by Japanese society as well as attitudes
to multilingualism in Japanese educational contexts. Significantly their accounts reveal thedifficulties that Japanese second language learners face with the disparity between theJapanese they are taught and the Japanese they encounter in their daily lives. These teachers’
struggles to learn Japanese also demonstrated the conflicts that migrants have when they are
managing their own language learning while at the same time working. In the absence ofopportunities for both formal Japanese learning and use, many teachers turned to smartphone
applications and websites to learn and use Japanese.
P6
Discursive transfer in connecting events in Japanese/English bilingual children’s
narratives
Satomi Mishina-Mori, Yuki Nagai, and Yuri Jody Yujobo,
Rikkyo University, Rikkyo University &Tamagawa University, Japan
Studies on narratives have shown that cultural differences may affect the way events areperceived and described in different languages, and that bilingual children tell stories ineach language using the language-specific patterns. Minami’s (2011) study on Japanese/
English bilingual children’s narratives reveals that children used more connectives todenote temporality in Japanese, whereas they used more connectives of causal and adverse
relationship in their English stories, presumably reflecting the difference in the two
cultures in terms of explicitness as opposed to ambiguity in indicating the relationshipamong the events being reported. However, few studies have compared bilinguals’ use ofconnectives with that of their monolingual peers in each language. Findings on bidirectional rhetorical transfer in L2 writing studies (e.g. Kubota, 1998; Kubota & Lehner,2004) suggest that the same type of cross-language interaction may occur in bilingual
children’s narratives. The current study examines if Japanese/English bilingual children
tell stories in each language in culture-specific ways in terms of connecting events, and if
there is any difference between their monolingual counterparts due to cross-language
effects.
Six teenage Japanese-English bilinguals who regularly use the two languages in their daily
lives told stories based on a wordless picture book “Frog, where are you?” (Mayer, 1969)
in Japanese and English separately. We analyzed if connectives denoting causality andadverse (C&A) relationship is found more often in their English narratives compared with
their Japanese stories, and if there is a difference between bilingual and monolingual
children in each language.

20

Our preliminary analyses show that bilingual children use connectives that denote C&A
meaning significantly more in English than in Japanese. Bilingual-monolingualcomparison reveal that the bilingual children’s Japanese narratives have significantly more
expressions of C&A meaning compared with those of monolingual children, suggesting
influence from English. The results indicate that although bilingual children are acquiring
the language-specific pattern of expressing events in each language, interaction between
the two cultural/discursive styles may also take place exhibiting a unique style ofconnecting events.
References:
Mayer, M. (1969). Frog, where are you? Dial Books for Young Readers.
Minami, M. (2011). Telling stories in two languages: Multiple approaches tounderstanding English-Japanese bilingual children’s narratives. Charlotte, NC:
Information Age publishing.
Kubota, R. (1998). An investigation of L1-L2 transfer in writing among Japanese
university students: Implications for contrastive rhetoric. Journal of Second Language
Writing, 7, 69-100.
Kubota, R. & Lehner, A. (2004). Toward critical contrastive rhetoric. Journal of Second
Language Writing, 13, 7-27.
P7
Predictors of Bilingual children’s English language performance in the United States
Yoko Miura, Wright State University, U.S.A.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the predictors of English language performance
among bilingual children, or school-aged English Language Learners (ELL) in the UnitedStates. It is important to note that the fact the term ELL is officially used to describe
bilingual children indicates collective value and attitudes towards bilingualism; the term
clearly emphasizes more “deficits” of less fluency in English language than merits offunctioning in languages other than English. This mentality is problematic. Although (orbecause) the country has hosted nearly half of the total immigrants and more bilingual
people than any other countries in the world (Hakuta, 1986, The United Nations, 2015),
and immigrants consist of approximately 15% of its total population, substantial number ofcitizens share views of a threat caused by linguistic diversity to the national unity(Crawford, 1992; Gonzalez, R.D. & Melis, 2000a, 2000b; Schmidt, 2000). Views to
consider linguistic diversity as a threat to national identity are most visibly manifested in
the forces for young children to use functional English in unrealistic period of time, often
at the cost of individuals’ native language ability, identity associated with the language,
and conflicts among different generations within families. Education is more ideologicallydriven than philosophically driven to center the wellness of children’s development toflourish as a whole person. When erroneously and narrowly understanding “unity” as“sameness” of ethnicity, nationality, and ability including English language performance,
unique assets individuals bring to the country because of diversity also suffer. Giroux(2000) cautioned that “the rise of the English Only movement in the last decade signals a
deepening crisis of historical memory, culture, and democracy in U.S. society” (Foward p.
9). Linguistic diversity is a vital reality in regards to its impact on industries, education,
health care, policy, and many other areas. This study propose to find predictors of English
language performance of bilingual children in the U.S. applying theories associated withschool and individual level variables using mixed methods analysis. It is also envisioned

21

that the findings may be useful to understand what school education can offer to preserve
linguistic diversity.
P8
English-knowing bilingual policy in Singapore: problems and challenges
Patrick Ng, The Univ of Niigata Prefecture, JapanIn 1966, the Singapore government implemented a policy of bilingualism which made it
mandatory for all students in Singapore to study English as a ‘First Language’ and a ‘mothertongue’ language (Malay, Tamil or Chinese) as a ‘Second Language.’ The bilingual
education policy made English the lingua franca of Singapore, giving the policy the name‘English-knowing bilingualism.” Students are required to attain “proficiency in English andone other official mother tongue language” (Pakir 1994, p.159). In schools, English is thelanguage of instructions for nearly all subjects except the mother tongue languages.
Singapore’s bilingual education theoretical framework is essentially additive bilingualism
based on the belief that two languages can be functionally compartmentalized, maintaining
diglossia (Pendley, 1983). However, some forty years after English became the first
language, it has been observed that an increasing number of young Chinese Singaporeans
are unable to speak the Chinese language although Chinese is their ascribed mother tongue
language (Chen, 2011).
A report of the Chinese language curriculum and pedagogy review committed conducted by
the Ministry of Education in Singapore in 2004 showed that an increasing number of Chinese
students from English-speaking home environment have stated that learning the mothertongue subject (Chinese) is difficult and dislike learning the language.
In this paper, I apply Fishman’s 1990 Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (GIDS) to
analyse the endangerment situation of the Chinese language as well as the challenges oflanguage revitalization and maintenance of the Chinese language in Singapore. First, I offer
a language profile of the various languages in Singapore. Second, I discuss the endangerment
situation for the Chinese language in terms of Fishman’s GIDS based on the Singapore
Census 2012 on home language use, the consequences of educational policies that privilege
English education, the language use and language attitudes in Singapore Chinese community
towards the Chinese language (Chew et al, 1995) and the latest census of home language use(Singapore Statistics of Information). In the conclusion, I offer some recommendations torevitalize the Chinese language in Singapore.
Reference:
Fishman, J. A. (1991). Reversing Language Shift. Theoretical and empirical foundationsof assistance to threatened languages. Multilingual Matters, Clevedon.
P9
How they conduct their lives with two or more languages; a life story approach inunderstanding meaning-making of languages in bilinguals’ lives.
Heesu Oh, Nagoya University, Japan
From the perspective of monolinguals, bilinguals who are living in a multilingual
environment are often recognized as a special person. However, bilinguals have been
22

living in multiple language speaking environment being very natural for the person who
speaks in two or more languages. What are the meanings of bilinguals' languages in theirlives and what kind of influence do they have had from the languages? Understanding therelationship between bilinguals and languages is considered to be crucial reference to thelanguage education of bilingual children.
In this research, I investigated the relationship between bilinguals and languages from thesocial context by using the life story interview, which is a survey method (Sakurai 2005) tounderstand people's identity, living world, local culture and society by interviewing theexperience of personal life or past events. For better understanding of the meaning ofbilinguals’ languages and involvement in their lives in the context of the societal culture inwhich they have grown up and now live, life stories are potentially rich and qualitative tool
for the bilingual research.
I tried to explore the role and meaning of multiple languages in bilinguals’ lives andattitudes toward languages they possess in three bilingual university students from UK.
Those foreign students majoring Japanese at their home university and now learning
Japanese in Japan. They have the identity of Spain and UK, Lithuania and UK, and UK
and China respectively and contact two languages on a daily basis.
I met the students twice and conducted life story interviews about 2 hours in total andanalyzed their attitudes towards the two languages from the past experiences including
learning language focusing on individual differences in the process of making the two
languages as my language. In addition, I attempted to analyze attitudes towards Japanesethat is becoming as the third language of them. Attitudes towards bilingual owned
languages vary according to personal characteristics and circumstances.
It is considered that this sort of bilingual research at the individual level can contribute tounderstanding various language phenomena.
P10
Transfer from Spanish to Japanese in speech of bilingual Japanese Mexicans
Akiko Okumura, The University of Tokyo, Japan
This paper presents some of the preliminary findings of an ongoing study of transfer from
Mexican Spanish to Japanese spoken in Japanese-Mexican community in Mexico City,
where the largest Japanese community in Mexico City has been formed. There thecommunity members still maintain Japanese along with their dominant language, Spanish(Matsumoto & Tokumasu 2014 and Tokumasu 2013). One of the characteristics of Japanese
spoken in Mexico is caused by the influence of Spanish. This paper will discuss the influenceof Spanish sounds and insertion of Spanish function words found in Japanese spontaneous
speech data. The variables under study are 1) /h/ before /u/ ([ɸ]/[f]), 2) intervocalic /b/([b]/[β]), 3) /dz/ ([ʤ]/[j]) and 4) long vowel (short/long V). The data was collected in Mexico
City and a nearby town, from 33 Japanese Mexicans (22 from the second and 11 from thethird generation).
As for the analysis of pronunciation, three tokens for each variable per speaker was codedand score was calculated for each speaker so that the number closer to 1 signifies that the
speaker tends to use Spanish pronunciation. The results show a generational difference with23

the third generation use more Spanish pronunciation compared to the second generation(score 0.27 vs. 0.15). This seems to be related to their Japanese proficiency.
The Spanish function words and the numbers of tokens used are shown in the following
table. It is inferred that sí "yes" and no "no" are frequently used because they are used insituations where the speakers have to quickly respond to addressees to avoid
misunderstanding. There is a difference by speakers' sex among the second-generation
speakers; female used 24.2 tokens per speaker by average while male used almost 8.4 tokens
per person by average.
Further analyses that take more social and linguistic variables into account are in progress
to find other relevant factors.
References
Matsumoto, K., & Tokumasu, N. (2014). A comparative sociolinguistic perspective on
heritage language maintenance a: Japanese pre-war migrants and newcomers in
Mexico.
Language, Information, Text, 21, 83-98.
P11
The Flexibility on Japanese: From the Evaluation of native speakers and non-native
speakers
Masaki Ono, The University of Tsukuba, Japan
In this research, we consider the role of Japanese as a communication tool between
Japanese native speakers and non-native speakers in multicultural symbiosis society inJapan. So as to prepare disasters, to reduce disasters, and to communicate in a disasterevacuation area, as well as to make good use of for sightseeing Japanese such as the Tokyo
Olympic Games, the role and necessity of "Easy Japanese" is rising. The Japanese
Language Education Society is working on "Easy Japanese", and a research group was set
up. Currently, local governments use "Easy Japanese" in public relations. The report that
number of accesses to the homepage of the social linguistics laboratory of Hirosaki
University Faculty of Humanities showed how to create "Easy Japanese" during the Great
Kumamoto earthquake that occurred in 2016 increased is the case.
The applicant's research is largely concerned with two directions.The first is a considerate
expression research (Yamaoka, Makihara, Ono 2010 etc.) where descriptions of Japaneselanguage functional expressions have been customized as key concepts. Customization is a
descriptive study of "Japanese likeness" that has been used only for native speakers andadvanced Japanese learners. At present, the transition from negative politeness to positive
politeness is seen in many utterance functions, Japanese likeness is changing. As second
direction, Ono, Moritoki, Tamura, Yamashita (2014, 2015, 2017) made presentation onparaphrasing by Japanese native speakers and Japanese learners about vocabulary andstrategies.
Therefore, in this research we propose a flexibility calculation formula that can beunderstood by Japanese native speakers and non-native speakers, and we will pursue what
Japanese is easy to understand.

24

In this background I assert that in Japanese society, "Japanese likeness" and "easyJapanese" are not conflicting, but should coexist. I insist on the idea of World Japaneses.
This approach helps to organize a society that contains several languages and language
communities.
P12
Crossing the invisible divide: The effects of bilingualism in a cross-cultural classroom
on student motivation
Ruth Vanbaelen and Risako Ide, The University of Tsukuba, Japan
Multilingualism in Japan is an ever developing phenomenon with increased immigrant
population, international marriages, and diversified global networks in the business fields(Maher et al. 2012), making bilingualism an everyday practice within these venues. Added
to this is the government-lead “300000 foreign student plan” campaign targeting 2020,
resulting in rising numbers of international students on Japanese campuses. Yet, due tofactors from physical to psychological (Tsuda 1991), there are invisible divides between
the Japanese and international students on campus, leaving them in their monolingual
communities with little contact.
This paper discusses the results of bilingual cross-cultural joint-classes offered to Japaneseand international students at the University of Tsukuba, which has one of the highest oncampus international student ratios in Japan. We discuss how bilingual classes using both
English and Japanese as lingua franca, increase student motivations in relations to theirmeta-pragmatic awareness about language use.
A total of 52 students with international students from 11 different countries in a beginnerlevel Japanese class and Japanese students in an English class participated in three jointclasses as part of their regular classes. The classes consisted of self-introductions, Q&A
sessions, focused interviews, skit preparations, and games. Students were encouraged touse their second language, i.e. English for Japanese students and Japanese for international
students, yet a lot of activities naturally took place bilingually as one of the aims was tofoster exchange. Furthermore, the authors created an atmosphere where source and target
language function both as aim and as tools, unlike the current ESL approach in Japanesehigher education where the source language is off-limits and the target language serves
both as aim and as tool.
The results of a student survey completed after the final class, together with follow-up
questionnaires and interviews conducted later revealed overall positive evaluation by allparticipants. Students expressed satisfaction as they could improve their language
proficiency and meet people from different cultures. However, more striking was theincreased meta-pragmatic awareness of their own language usages, both in Japanese andEnglish as well as finding bilingual contexts of learning to be necessary to increase theirmotivations for further learning.
References
Maher, J., B. Jelisava, and C. Duval (eds.) 2012. Literacy for Dialogue in MultilingualSocieties, Tokyo: Linguapax Asia/Sun Process.

25

Tsuda, Y. 1991. Eigo Shihai no Kouzou: Nihonjin to Ibunka Komyunikeesyon. [TheStructure of English Domination: Japanese people and cross-cultural communication].
Tokyo: Daisan Syokan.
P13
Crosslinguistic Influence in Early Trilingual Acquisition of Prepositional Phrases
in Mandarin Chinese
Ying Zhan, The Kansai University, Japan
Few studies on crosslinguistic influence so far have investigated simultaneous trilinguals’
language acquisition, and even fewer have looked at the language combination of English,
Mandarin Chinese and Japanese. This paper examines the production of prepositional
phrases (PPs) in Mandarin Chinese by a three-year-old trilingual, who actively uses
Chinese (mother’s tongue) and English (the lingua franc between the parents) in the home,
and Japanese (father’s tongue) in the community. The results reveal that the child was
dominant in the “V PP” (verb PP) word order in Chinese, even when “PP V” was thecorrect Chinese pattern. Actually, the grammatical domain of PPs in Chinese is variablewith two possible analyses (‘PP V’ and ‘V PP’) depending on the verb, and there ispositive evidence for English influence over one of these analyses (‘V PP’). The ill-formed“V PP” in Chinese exhibited the grammar feature of English. This is despite the fact thatthe community language, Japanese, shares the same grammatical domain “PP V”. The nontarget order “V PP” in Chinese thus appeared to be one area where English influence wasapparent. The theory of vulnerable domains (Müller & Hulk, 2001) was proposed toaccount for the cross-linguistic influence of English on Chinese. The structural overlap
between the two languages in the domain of ‘V PP’ and the input ambiguity in Chinese in
the multilingual situation makes the Chinese structure vulnerable to English influence.
Family language policy and children’s agency (Fogle & King, 2013) serve as otherexplanations for the directionality of influence. Parents’ language policy, their beliefs
about languages, and their input strategies set the path for children’s language
development. In this family, English and Chinese were input for home communication
while Japanese was for outside socializing. Using Japanese in conversations at home often
resulted in a request by the parents for a language change. This policy supported thechild’s perceptions that she had a choice of either Chinese or English when conversing
with the mother. The results found in the study of this unique child may provide a newperspective on crosslinguistic influence in early trilingualism.
References:
Müller, N. & Hulk, A. (2001). Crosslinguistic influence in bilingual language acquisition:
Italian and French as recipient languages. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 4, 1–
21.
Fogle, L. & King, K. (2013). Child Agency and Language Policy in Transnational
Families.
Issues in Applied Linguistics 19(0):1-25.

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