Global Leadership Training Programme in Africa 2015
2014
RESEARCH REPORTThe impact of the implementation of peace education in schools
after the 2007/08 Post-Election Violence in Kenya―A case of selected primary schools in Kisii and Uasin Gishu Counties――
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Mihiro Goto
English summary

General national elections were conducted in Kenya in December, 2007. The election results were
disputed which led to an outbreak of violence in many parts of Kenya. In January of 2008, the violence
expanded countrywide (Konaka,2010). The violence ended at the end of February in 2008, and as aresult approximately 1300 people were killed and 500 thousands people were internally displaced(Mitsubishi,2015). This was dubbed as 2007/08 “Post-Election Violence” (PEV). While it is true that theelection caused and triggered the violence. The PEV can be strongly attributed to the history of Kenya,
which had caused problems of ethnic confrontation and distribution of land. Although it was said that
Kenya was a stable country in Africa, some conflicts had been occurred due to ethnicity and distributionof land since 1990s. 2007/08 PEV was unprecedented political crisis in Kenya, far more serious than thepast conflicts. The Peace Education Program (PEP) was initiated as an urgent response to PEV. Thisinitiative was commenced by Ministry of Education Science and Technology (MoEST) with support ofinternational institutions such as UNICEF and UNESCO. This research analyzes peace education inprimary schools of Kenya after the PEV of 2007/2008 by using cases of four primary schools, andadjacent communities in the Kisii and Uasin Gishu Counties.The following findings were revealed fromthe field work. First, peace education in primary schools of Kenya was mainstreamed in the school
curricula in some of the current subjects. Second, the peace education is strongly implemented byreligious institutions. Third, teachers recognize it is better to use children-centered approach when theyteach about peace, but they rather use teacher-centered approach in class. Moreover, it is induced thestudents’ view on peace is highly influenced by adults.

Japanese summary

ケニアでは 2007 年 12 月に大統領選挙が実施され、その後国内各地で紛争が発生した。2008 年 2 月
末まで騒乱が続き、約 2 ヶ月間で死者 1300 人、国内避難民 50 万人が発生し、内戦状況に近い状態に発展した。これは、選挙後暴力（PEV：Post-Election Violence）と呼ばれている。契機となったのは選挙であるが、実質的には単なる暴動ではなく、従来からあったカレンジンとキクユの内なる民族の対立や土地配分の問題に起因しており、ケニアにおける歴史と強く関係している紛争であったとされて
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The author is 2nd master student, graduate school of international cooperation studies, Kobe University, Japan. She belonged
to the Wangari Maathai Institute for Peace and Environmental Studies, Nairobi University from February to March in 2016.
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いる。ケニアは、独立以来アフリカの中でも安定した国というイメージがあったが、1990 年代前半か
ら民族間の衝突、土地問題による対立を原因とした紛争が発生していた。2007 年から 2008 年にかけて発生した PEV は、ケニアにおいて未曾有の政治危機であった。この PEV に対して国際機関からのサポートを受けるという形で、緊急的に平和教育プログラム（PEP：Peace Education Program）が実施された。本研究では、2007/2008 年の PEV 以後ケニアにおける平和教育の実態を、ニャンザ州キシイ県とリフトバレー州ウアシンギシュ県の小学校 4 校を事例に考察している。調査の結果、以下のことが明らかになった。まず、ケニアの小学校における平和教育は、単一のプログラムではなく複数の科目に統合されるという形で実施されているということと、宗教と強く関連しているということ、教員は平和について生徒に教える際に生徒中心型のアプローチをとることが望ましいと理解しつつも、実際には教員中心の教授法を使っているということである。また、生徒の平和に関する考えは大人に教えられたことがそのまま反映されたものなのではないかと推察する。
1. Introduction

1-1.

Research background

General national elections were held in Kenya in December, 2007. However, the presidential election’s
results was highly disputed which led to an outbreak of ethnic violence occurred in many parts of Kenya(Konaka,2010). In January, 2008, the violence had expanded countrywide. This PEV was subsided at
the end of February 2008. Approximately 1300 people were killed and roughly five hundred thousandsof victims were internally displaced. It is true that the election caused and triggered the violence. The
2007/08PEV violence is largely attributed to Kenya’s historic injustices, related to the conventional
ethnic confrontation and distribution of land.
The Peace Education Program (PEP) was started in 2008 as an urgent response to the PEV. This
noble program was initiated by the Ministry of Education Science and Technology (MoEST) which was
supported by UNICEF and UNESCO. The PEP is being implemented with a goal of enhancing knowledge,
skills and values for peace (MoEST,2014). It is aimed at recognizing factors of conflicts, learning how toresolve conflicts peacefully, training “good citizens”, and promoting consideration to diversity(INEE,2012). PEP does not focus on the fundamental factors of violence, but rather on the ways foravoiding conflicts, and teaching peace the values and skills (Lauritzen,2013). Generally, peaceeducation is recognized as a strategy of promoting the high values of living in the world (Chelule,2014).
The contemporary international discussion about peace education argues that nonviolence approach toconflicts, often promotes knowledge, skills and attitudes to peace.

1-2.

Research objective

The objective of this research is to clarify how peace education introduced after the 2007/08 PEV is
implemented in the primary schools. My field trip to Kenya conducted from February to March 2016
explores how the students, their parents, the teachers and the residents recognize peace as well as
peace education.

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1-3.

Research question

The research is aimed at answering the following questions. How is the peace education implemented
in Kenya’s primary schools after the 2007/08 PEV? What are the students’ perceptions about peace?
This research question is set in order to reveal the impact of peace education in terms of students’perspective. Which methods and techniques used by primary school teachers in teaching peaceeducation? Why do teachers use these teaching methods? According to Lauritzen (2013), although thechildren-centered approach is recommended in teachers’ training, the teacher-centered method isimplemented in peace education classes of the primary schools and the students lose the opportunity tovoice their own opinions.

1-4.

Previous studies

There are some previous studies about peace education after the PEV of 2007/2008 in Kenya [eg.
Chelule (2014), Dawo & Ongachi (2011), Lauritzen (2013), Maiyo, Gladys, Mulwa & Mugambi (2012)].
Lauritzen (2013) is most closely relevant to this research. The target is 4 primary schools in Nakuru andEldoret of the former Rift Valley province. In her study, five points are noted. Responses of schools into
PEV, activities of schools which may stimulate conflicts potentially, activities that schools are tackling forpeace building, PEP’s influence into daily life, and factors which made impacts on peace building inschools of Kenya.
These previous investigations illustrate the fact and problems of school management by thegovernment, the local government and head teachers, and problems about textbooks and curriculums.
However, there are few studies that focus on opinions of students and guidance of teachers. This
research involving field work is designed to add the view of thinking about peace of students andopinions and motivation of teachers about guidance of peace education.

2. Study area
The target areas of this research are Wareng, the county of Uasin Gishu, and Gucha, the county of Kisii.
While Wareng, consistings of diverse ethnicities was severely affected by PEV. Gucha is an area
predominately occupied by Kisii community and did not necessarily experience its serious violence.
These two areas were selected to detect the differences between Wareng and Gucha in peace education
programs.
The number of teachers and students in primary schools as targets of this research
Wareng, the county of Uasin Gishu, the province of Rift Valley
A school Teachers (15), Students (286)
B school Teachers (14), Students (525)Gucga, the county of Kisii, the province of Nyanza
C school Teachers (22), Students (828)D school Teachers (10), Students (354)

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3. Methodology
The data was collected in Wareng and Gucha from 8th February to 18th March 2016. Targets were 4
primary schools and adjacent communities. The research exclusively targeted public primary schools.
Four methodologies were employed in this study. Semi-structured interviews were held with the headteachers of each school. Another set of semi-structured interviews were self-administered to 36
teachers and 60 residents in both Wareng and Gucha. Workshops were organized with 81 students
of grade 6 to 8. Workshops were structured in 3 ways; (1) asking questions about images of peace (eg.
colors, smells, tastes and sounds of peace), (2) making 5 groups and choosing 5 words which are
related to peace and which are not related to peace from 41 words through discussion, (3) drawing a
picture about “A peaceful town which you would like to live in” in each group. Moreover, questionnaires
were administered to 132 students of 6 -8 grade in the primary school level of schooling. In addition, I
observed and analyzed social studies and CRE (Christian Religious Education) taught to students ofgrade 6 to 8 since it is expected that these 2 subjects were most likely include components of peace.

4. Research findings―Research finding 1
According to questionnaires, all students surveyed in the field work have been taught about peace atschools. Peace education in primary schools of Kenya is not regarded as an independent subject, but
implemented with being incorporated into the existing classes. The classes dealing with peace issues
are mainly of CRE and social studies. 66 students answered that they have been taught about peace in
CRE, and 64 students answered that they have been taught about peace in social studies class.While,
many teachers said that peace education is integrated into those two subjects. Some illustrated thatthey advocate for peace to students even in classes which are not formally related to peace likemathematics and science. This is because sharing something such as materials and not quarreling has
to be taught in all classes. In addition, some language teachers stated that they teach about peace inEnglish and Kiswahili lessons as topics in textbooks.
Moreover, it is clear that peace education in Wareng in Uasin Gishu and Gucha in Kisii is strongly
related to religion. First, 66 out of 132 students answered that they have been taught about peace in
CRE, and teachers urged students to love their neighbors as themselves and explained meanings ofpeace. Some residents in the communities recognized that primary schools implement peace educationin CRE classes. Second, 86 out of 132 students answered that they have been taught about peace inchurches. They heard about peace from pastors, bishops, sunday school teachers and so on. Many
residents also answered that peace is related to Christianity.
Some differences are observed between Uasin Gishu and Kisii. As previously mentioned, Uasin Gishu
has been affected by PEV and characterized by diverse ethnicities.By contrast, Kisii has not necessarily
been affected by PEV very seriously and has basically a single ethnicity. First, in Kisii, every teacher
insisted that PEV should be taught in primary schools. On the other hand, in Uasin Gishu, while someteachers insisted that PEV should be taught in order not to cause violence such as PEV again, others
insisted that it should not be taught because it can traumatize the students. Second, many teachers andresidents in Uasin Gishu answered that peace education should be implemented in order to prevent
violence like PEV and understand other ethnicities since Kenya is a diverse society. On the other hand, inKisii, few people told about PEV as a reason that peace education should be implemented and somepeople said about changing an international society instead. In addition, in Kisii, some students chose4

“diversity” as a word which is not related to peace. They insisted that different ethnicities will bring a
conflict as a reason of that.

―Research finding 2
Many students answered that peace is loving one another, living harmoniously with other people, noconflict and no violence. Many teachers and residents in the communities also had similar opinion.
Nevertheless, many students could not answer questions about images of peace in workshops.
Therefore, it is considered that students are just expected to memorize things, which has been taught
from teachers and other adults as it is without having their own opinions. It can be said that perceptionof students about peace reflects thinking of adults who usually talks with the students about peace.
Moreover, students’ attitude towards peace is also related to religion. In workshops, 10 out of 20
groups draw churches in pictures that theme is “A peaceful town which you would like to live in”. A
church is an important component of peace for them.

―Research finding 3
Most teachers insisted that discussion and role-playing enable students to participate in learning,
hence they are better than solely depending on teachers’ explanation. The reason is that it will promote
more understanding of students. However, teachers only use explanation (and students have atendency of repeating what teachers said). Question and answer session is the only method the author
observed as a participatory teaching in CRE and social studies class. In addition, the students who
prefer listening to teachers’ explanation participate actively in the classes. It is thought that the students
are not accustomed to the latter teaching method.

5. Discussion
As I indicated above, the teachers recognize it is better to use children-centered approach to peaceeducation; nevertheless, they use teacher-centered approach in class rooms. Three reasons of this canbe inferred. First, even though the teachers recognize interactive methods of teaching including
discussion are better for teaching peace to students, the application of them in class rooms may bedifficult. It is said that many teachers in primary schools in Kenya use teacher-centered approach ingeneral subjects. Second, the status quo in peace education seems to lead to teachers’ misconception
about the meaning of children-centered approach. Students are apparently active in attending therelevant classes, but in practice their contribution is a mere repletion of what are taught. In other words,
it does not entail any ‘subjective’ understanding of peace. Despite the lack of consideration andinterpretation of peace, students’ participation as such is likely to make teachers misleadingly regard it
as children-centered approach. Third, teachers may let students memorize important things in order to
get good scores in Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE). Because KCPE is very important
examination and every primary schools and teachers want students to get high scores in Kenya. In fact,
CRE and Social studies are included in subjects of KCPE.

56. Conclusion
Peace education in primary schools of Kenya is implemented as a form of being integrated into somesubjects (not as a single program) and strongly related to religion. The teachers recognize that it isbetter to use children-centered approach to teach peace, but in practice they use teacher-centeredapproach in class rooms. It is considered that students’ attitude towards peace is a reflection of what
were taught from adults.

7-1. Reflection on the GLTP in Africa
Thanks to Global Leadership Training Program in Africa, I could implement my studying research in
Kenya. Moreover, I could also experience so many things. Through this studying research, I had been
met many people and talked a lot. I could learn new perspective of Kenya and I believe that I will beable to utilize this experience usually for Kenya, Japan and the world in the future.

7-2. Acknowledgement
I appreciate all members who supported my studying research in Kenya. Many teachers, students inprimary schools and residents in the communities cooperated with this research. I would also like toexpress my deepest gratitude to Professor. David Mungai at Nairobi University who supervised me andUnited Nations University which organizes Global Leadership Training Programme in Africa. Especially,
Ms. Natsuko Imai, Ms. Rieko Sato and Mr.Osamu Saito really helped me. Without receiving their support,
I could not implement this research.

8. References―Theses・Adeagbo.OA.(2011). Post-Election Crisis in Kenya and Internally Displaced Persons : A CriticalAppraisal. Journal of Politics and Law.4(2). pp174-179.
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・Chelule.E.(2014).Impediments to Implementation to Peace Education in Public Universities In
Kenya.Journal of humanities and social science.19(3).pp174-185.

・Dawo.JIA.&Ongachi.W.M.(2011).Teaching conflict management skills in schools: Prerequisite forpeace and achievement of millennium development goals in Kenya.Educational Research andReviews.6(17).pp902-905.

・Elhawary.S.(2009).Post-election Kenya:Land,Displacement and the Search for Durable Solutions.
36(119).pp130-137.

・Konaka.S.(2010). Access to relief food and regional safety net：A case of Internally Displaced Persons
in the province of Rift Valley due to the Post-Election Violence of 2007/2008 in Kenya. GLOCOL booklet.

3. pp25-42.

・Lauritzen.S.(2013).Building a Culture of Peace : Peace Education in Kenyan Primary Schools.PhD
thesis,University of York.

・Maiyo.K.J., Gladys.N., Mulwa.D.&Mugambi.P.(2012). Peace Education for Sustainable Peace andDevelopment: A Case of Kenya. Journal of Research in Peace,Gender and Development.2(2).pp28-33.

・Ochieng.J.A.(2010).Outward peace, inward pueces: a case of the effect of the Kenya post-election
violence.British Journal of Gidance＆Counselling,38(3).pp275-286.
・O’Malley.B.(2010). Education under attack 2010. Paris,France: UNESCO.
・Sawamura.N&Sifuna.N.(2008).Universalizing Primary Education in Kenya: Is It Beneficial andSustainable?.Journal of International Cooperation in Education, 11(3). pp103-118.

・Sawamura.S. &Imoto.C.(2009).Realities and meanings of primary schooling in rural Kenya：throughthe interviews with pupils, teachers, and parents.International Educational Cooperation collection of
essays. 12(2). pp119-128.

・Sinclair.M.(2002).Plannning education in and after emergencies,UNESCO.

―Literatures
・Betty.A.R.&Alicia.C.(2005). Learning to abolish war―Teaching toward a culture of peace. Akashi
Books.

・Harris.M.I.(1996). Peace Education in a Postmodern World. Peabody Journal of Education. 71.
・Harris.I.&M.Morrison.(2003).Peace Education(2nd,Ediion).Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland ＆Co.
・Kawabata.M.&Ochiai.M. (2012). Africa and the World. Koyo Books.
・Matsuda.M.&Tsuda.M.(2012). 55 chapter to know about Kenya. Akashi Books.
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・Njogu.K.(2009). Healing the wound.Twawza Commnications Ltd.
・Ronni.A.(2007). Popoki,what color is peace?. Epic.
・Sawamura.N.(2014). Life world and school education. Akashi Books.
・Takeuchi.H.(2011). Inquiring peace education：critical succession to next generation. Law culturecompany.

―Official documents
・Ministry of Education Science and Technology.(2014).Education sector policy on peace education.
・UNESCO.(2011).The hidden crisis : Armed conflict and education. EFA global monitoring report
2011.Paris,France:UNESCO.

・UNICEF.(1999).Peace Education in UNICEF.New York:UNICEF.
・World Bank.(2005).Reshaping the future. Education and postconflict reconstruction. Washington: The
World Bank.

―Others
・Mitsubishi UFJ research and consulting company. (2015). ODA impact of Ministry of Foreign Affairs ofJapan Kenya evaluation report.

・INEE Website.2012.12.20.Interview with Mary Kangethe on the Kenyan Ministry of Education’s workon education and peace.
【http://www.ineesite.org/en/blog/interview-with-mary-kangethe-on-the-kenyan-ministry-of-educatio
ns-work-on-e】(accessed.2016.7.7)

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