名古屋外国語大学論集

第8号

2021年2月

Research Note

Teaching Reading Skills to English Language Learners
Lidija ELLIOTT

Abstract
Reading is considered one of the most important skills that language learners
should obtain, especially as it builds vocabulary and leads to lifelong learningand improvement in first and second language skills. This paper not only gives
practical suggestions for the classroom, but also emphasizes the importance ofboth teachers` and students` understanding of the reading process and reading
comprehension. Developing students` reading comprehension skills is a challenging but crucial task for educators.
Key words: reading skills, comprehension, specific reading tasks, process285

Introduction
Reading is one of the four language skills, and the most important one to master.
It is crucial not just for understanding different texts, but also for improving
writing skills, and for learning more generally and thus education more broadly.
It is also a "requisite for social activities because of email, texting, and numerous
Web applications that people use on an everyday basis” (Kilpatrick, Malatesha& Wagner, 2019, p.83). The future of education is a networked future.
A growing number of English Language Learners (ELL) experience more difficulties in reading comprehension than in any other linguistic skill. According toMontes, Botero and Pechtalt (2009, p.55), learners “struggle during the reading
process with how to decipher a text in English, grasping isolated bits which, inthe end, are not harmonized.”
It is also important to distinguish reading in a native language from reading in aforeign language. Students need good reading skills to achieve personal, occupational and professional goals. Students who speak a target language fluently
but cannot read and write well are much more likely to experience difficulties
in an academic environment than those who speak with a heavy foreign accent
but understand written text and write acceptable papers. A research conductedby Stanford University shown that to achieve “oral proficiency takes 3 to 5 years
to develop, and academic English proficiency can take 4 to 7 years” (Hakuta,
Butler & Witt, 2000). Students learn to read foreign languages for different
reasons, for entertainment, information, research, or for examination. Nunan(1999, p 251) points out Rivers and Temperley (1978, p.187) list of seven main
purposes for reading:
1.  ‌To obtain information for some purpose or because we are curious aboutsome topic;
2.  ‌To obtain instructions on performing some task for work or daily life (e.g.,understanding how an appliance works);
3.   To act in a play, play a game, or complete a puzzle;
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Teaching Reading Skills to English Language Learners ■4.  ‌To keep in touch with friends by correspondence or to understand businesscorrespondence;
5.   To know when or where something will take place or what is available;
6.  ‌To know what is happening or has happened (as reported in newspapers,
or magazines);
7.   For enjoyment or excitement.
Reading for a purpose provides motivation, which is an important aspect of thestudy process as well as a source of enjoyment for readers. Student motivation
is a key factor in successful reading.

What is Reading?
Reading is not a passive process but rather an active one involving the reader inongoing interaction with the text. Mckee suggests “Reading is both a receptive
and active process” (2012, p.45). It is an active process, in which the reader uses
various acquired abilities. Also, it is receptive process, in which reader takes out
meaning from the spoken or written discourse.
According to Goodman (1971, p.135) “Reading is a psycholinguistic guessing
game by which reader or any other language user reconstruct a message which
has been encoded by a writer as a graphic display” others as “an art”. Reading
develops gradually; and the reader does not become fluent suddenly, or immediately”. Goodman’s reader is a fluent and proficient reader who is more suited
to an academic setting than a typical ELL who is learning the language only asa life skill. His reader approaches a text with expectations based upon a reader’sknowledge of the subject. As a reader progresses through the material, the reader
confirms or revises these expectations and builds further. This confirmation of
expectancy is conducted through the extraction of the minimum sampling of
the text. Orthographic, syntactic, and semantic clues in the material are used287

in the reconstruction of the text. If there is an obvious flaw in the reader’sinterpretation, the reader may check for the source of the mistake. Words may
be processed on the basis of syntactic, or semantic expectancy, or broken down
into roots or affixes, or even broken down into speech components. The latteris probably rare for the fluent reader because there will be few unknown words
in their vocabulary. “Knowing the meaning of words is obviously crucial for
reading comprehension, but the link bewteen vocabulary and reading flows inboth directions” (Oakhill, Cain & Carsten, 2015, p.66).
Restructuring is a process in which language learners replace previous strategies
with new ones instead of simply using the same reading process more quickly
as they become more proficient. As language learners become more fluent andbecome more skilled in reading, their errors should be meaning based because
they have automated the components of reading concerned with form. The reader
takes advantage of his/her knowledge of vocabulary, syntax, discourse, andthe “real world”. Fluent readers use a minimum sampling of the text to derive
the meaning by using their real world, language, and reading knowledge as a
substitute for all the redundant features of the text. A less skilled reader would
probably have to sample much more of the text to obtain the same level of meaning. Moreover, “reading is about understanding written texts. It is a complex
activity that involves both perception and thought” (Pang, Muaka, Bernhardt& Kamil, 2003, p.6). Success in reading, depends on coordinating a number ofdifferent skills and strategies.

Reading as an Active Process
Reading is not a passive process, in which the reader takes something out of thetext without effort or merely recognizes what is in the text. It is an active process,in which a reader must make an active contribution by drawing upon and using
various acquired abilities concurrently. There are many different types of reading288

Teaching Reading Skills to English Language Learners ■skills that correspond to the many different reading purposes. Reading is always
purposeful, in the sense that any motivation to read a given text is triggered bysome individual purpose or task, whether imposed internally or externally, suchas test taking. Nunan (1991, p.70) suggests that “reading is a dynamic process
in which the text elements interact with other factors outside the text, mostparticularly with the readers knowledge of the experiential content of the text.”
This highlights the need to relate the language being taught to its context. Both
L1 and L2 readers are involved in an uphill struggle when actively approaching
meaning. On the other hand, decoding different layers of text messages requires
much more effort for L2 side due to the fact that in L2 reading there is nocomplete and absolute understanding.
Critical reading requires teachers to move their students beyond the thoroughcomprehension stage of reading at which the reader is able to paraphrase theauthor’s ideas but has not yet made a critical evaluation of those ideas. It requires
teachers to encourage students to approach to L2 readings with the same critical
judgment they probably exercise when reading in their native language.
Language used to be seen as a system of rules, and the task of language learners
was to internalize and absorb these rules by whatever means at their disposal,
or more usually in a formal context, at the disposal of the teacher. The ultimate
aim of the learner was to approach the target language of the “native language.”
Therefore, it was most important for learners to understand and manage thestructures of the language, and in this process, understanding of meaning wasseen as almost unimportant or secondary.
Nunan suggests that “the realization that language could be analyzed, described,
and taught as a system for expressing meanings had a profound effect on
language teaching” (2012, p.51), or at least at the levels of syllabus design andtextbook writing.
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In a traditional approach, the curriculum designer first decides the purpose of thecourse. The learning texts and tasks are then decided upon, and finally, the means
for assessing learners and evaluating the curriculum are established. Classroom
teachers are usually given curriculum guidelines or sets of syllabi regulations
and. are then required to develop their courses. As their immediate focus is on
the day-to-day schedule of work with learners in the classroom, their conceptionof tasks is somewhat different.
Proponents of the communicative approach advocate a learning environment thatinvolves all individuals, both teachers and students, in the cooperative processof setting and achieving goals. The main goal of this approach is “the teachingof communicative competence” (Richards, 2006). It was developed to provide
language learners with the ability to use the target language in real-life conditions. An independent student not only uses various skills and strategies on cue
but can also determine his/her own purposes for reading, goals and appropriate
reading strategies. “Therefore, the communicative approach promoted the ideathat social and cultural knowledge were necessary prerequisites for understanding and using linguistic forms” (Basta, 2011, p.126). This approach will produce
meaningful and real communication at all levels.

Reading Comprehension
Reading comprehension is defined as “a thinking process by which a reader
selects facts, information, or ideas from printed materials, determines themeanings the author intended to transmit; decides how they relate to previous knowledge; and judges their appropriateness and worth for meeting thelearner’s own objectives” (Veeravagu, et al, 2010, p.206). Comprehension is
like the process of building bridges between what is known and the unknown.
Learners start with a knowledge framework and attempt to fit new information
into it. Reading strategy instruction can help learners to become aware of their290

Teaching Reading Skills to English Language Learners ■effective (and ineffective) use of strategies and can build reading skills. Most
second language learners who are already schooled in a native language, reading comprehension is basically a matter of developing appropriate and efficientcomprehension strategies.
Two common reading methods are known as bottom-up and top-down andthey take contrary approaches to improving students’ reading skills. According
to Rayner, Pollatsek, Ashby and Clifton (2012), “models of reading can becharacterized as bottom-up and top-down...” and these two approaches can beapplied to the analysis of reading comprehension as linguistic and nonlinguistic
responses to the text. They are both used whenever we read; sometimes one
predominates, sometimes the other, but both approaches are needed. Although
the reader may be unaware of which approach is activated, both can be adopted
as conscious strategies by a reader approaching a difficult text. In order to fully
develop students reading skills it is important to give students access to bothtypes of processing.

The Bottom-up Approach
Bottom-up processing happens when readers try to understand language bylooking at individual meaning or grammatical characteristics of the most basic
units of the texts (words for a reading text), and move from these to trying tounderstand the whole text. According to Feng (2010, p. 154), “a bottom-up
reading model is a reading model that emphasizes the written or printed text,
it says that reading is driven by a process that results in meaning (or, in otherwords, reading is driven by text) and that reading proceeds from part to whole.”
This means working from smaller units to larger ones.
To make students better readers, teachers first need to raise learners’ awareness that it is not necessary to understand every single word in the text.
Metaphorically speaking, in seeing only the trees, students may miss the forest
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they form. If students’ basic strategy is to read slowly, then the teacher should
first help students to learn to read quickly. However, no student can be pushed
beyond their real capacity. Many English language students have a reading
mental block, a conviction that every word must be correctly understood andprocessed in to understand the entire text. Furthermore Nuttall (2005, p. 17)
points out that “bottom-up processing can be used as a corrective to tunnel vision(seeing things only from our own limited point of view).”

The Top-down Approach
The main premise of the top-down approach is that the reader rather that the text,
is at the heart of the reading process. In top-down processing, readers use theirbackground information, own intellect and past experience to predict the meaning of language. The expectation that readers have predicted will be confirmedor rejected as they read the text. “This processing is different from bottom-up
processing as it sees the reading texts as the overall purpose of the text or getting a rough idea of the pattern of the writer’s argument” (Nuttall, 2005, p.16).
Therefore, the interaction of the reader and the text is central to this process, andreaders brings various factors to this interaction, such as their knowledge of thesubject, knowledge of and expectations about how language works, motivation,
as well as interest in and attitude toward the text.
The assumptions learners make about the world depend on their experience andhow their minds have organized the knowledge gained from their experiences.
A useful way of thinking about this is provided by schema theory.

Schema Theory
A Schema is organized knowledge structure and it is important for comprehending, learning, and remembering. Djuarsa (2016, p.43) notes that “according
to schema theory, people make sense of new experiences and the world byactivating the mental representations or schemata stored in their memory. New
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Teaching Reading Skills to English Language Learners ■experiences and information are interpreted according to how it fits into theirschemata. Information that does not fit may be misunderstood or miscomprehended.” Therefore, schema theory is based on individual past experience andit guides present understanding or action.
It is important to recognize schemata as a useful concept for understanding howlearners can interpret text as text by itself does not carry meaning. It gives signposts or clues to the reader who understands the meaning or message of a writer.
In the following example, Nuttall (2005, pp.7–8) provides a very good illustration of how learners interpretations depend on schemata activated by the text,
and how learners successful understanding depends on whether their schemata
are sufficiently similar to the writers.
The bus careered along and ended up in the hedge. Several passengers were
hurt. The driver was questioned by the police.
Having a schema about buses, learners assume that the passengers mentioned
were in the bus (and not in a car that happened to be there) and that the driver
was actually the bus driver, not the driver of another vehicle. Yet, these threesentences do not actually tell us these things: readers are usually making assumptions based on their own experience.
Another component of this bus schema is that buses run on roads; thus, readers
assume that the bus was on a road, even though no road is mentioned. The road
schema for some readers will include components such as walls, hedges andfences, which mark the edges of a road. Those readers whose experience (roadschema) does not include hedges alongside roads will perhaps have difficulty
here (the writer assumes that facts and relationships are already in the reader`smind). Shuying (2013, p.130) confirms that “a text only provides directions
for readers as to how they should retrieve or construct meaning from their own
previously acquired knowledge.”
Finally, the driver schema includes the idea that the driver (probably male) is
responsible for the safety of the vehicle driven. Hence, learners would not be293surprised if the next sentence related that the driver was arrested, but then thereader learns the following:
She was later congratulated on her quick thinking and skillful handling of thebus when the brakes failed.
A schema grows and changes through readers` lives, not simply from acquiring
new experiences, but also from those derived from reading. Therefore, extensive
reading is very important. Thus, if readers have the schemata assumed by thewriter of the text, they understand what is written. If they do not, they may distort
the meaning as they attempt to accommodate written propositions to their own
preexisting knowledge structure.
“Reading involves more than utilizing linguistic and decoding skills, the interest,
motivation and background knowledge, subcomponents will actually determine,at least in part, the reader`s success with a given text” (Alderson, 2000, p.47).
The cultural subcomponent includes a good deal of cross-cultural information;
more specifically information about the writer’s conceptual universe such as
what questions, learners have and what values and beliefs they hold. Cultural
misunderstandings may occur because these factors differ from culture to culture.
Different interpretations of a text will eventually impede reading comprehension.
A variety of means are suggested for providing the background informationneeded for mastery of a foreign language, such as movies, literature, and teachers` own experiences and descriptions of the target culture.
According to Maine and Shields (2015, p.8), “research indicates that the comprehension is best developed in reading contexts that contain elements of ambiguity,
engage children and promote dialogue.” Therefore, a teacher needs to devise aset of reading strategies and techniques, to adapt to a wide range of academic
issues, whether linguistic or nonlinguistic.

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Teaching Reading Skills to English Language Learners ■Reading Strategies
Most students develop personal strategies to understand what they read. Reading
strategies are often taught by teachers and utilized by students to improve reading
comprehension. According to Grabe and Stoller (2020, p.10), “reading strategies are most evident and important when readers look for ways to address a
problem or a specific goal while reading (usually with more advanced and morechallenging texts).”
More proficient readers vary their strategies depending on the nature of thetask and the context, while less proficient readers either use fewer strategies toundertake the task or follow ones that are inappropriate for either the task or thecontext. It is important to note that a task involves not only examination, but alsomeaning-focused work involving learners in comprehending, producing and/or interacting in the target language. Therefore, a task entails communicative
language use in which the users attention is focused on meaning rather than on
linguistic structure.
Schunk (2012, p.322) revealed that “students may learn strategies and apply themeffectively yet fail to maintain their use over time or generalize them beyond
the instructional setting.” Many factors impede strategy transfer, including
not understanding that the one particular strategy may not be appropriate for adifferent setting, not knowing how to modify a strategies for a different context,
believing that strategies are not as useful for improving performance as otherfactors (e.g., time available), thinking that the learning strategies takes too much
effort, or having no opportunity to apply a strategy to new material.
Becoming a strategic reader requires learning sets of strategies that work wellin combination to perform tasks or solve common problems. Nunan (1999,
p.265–266), Grabe and Stoller (2002, p.83) list the following common strategies
used by readers:1.   Having a purpose
2.  Previewing
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3.  Skimming
4.  Scanning
5.  Clustering
6.   Avoiding bad habits
7.  Predicting
8.  Reading actively
9.  Inferring
10. Identifying genres
11. Identifying paragraph structure
12. Identifying sentences
13. Noticing cohesive devices
14. Inferring unknown vocabulary
15. Identifying figurative language
16. Using background knowledge
17. Identifying style and its purpose
18. Evaluating
19. Integrating information
20. Reviewing
21. Reading to present
Using these reading strategies does not typically involve conscious decisions.
Strategies are a set of skills that readers have conscious control over but are
partially automatic such as skipping a word reader may not know when reading.
Reading strategies show how readers make sense of what they read and what
they do when they do not understand a text. According to Farrell (2009, p.9)
It is effective to teach reading strategies to ELLs and that students canbenefit from such instruction. Strategy instruction also develops student
knowledge about the reading process, introduces ELLs to specificstrategies, and provides them with opportunities to discuss and practice296

Teaching Reading Skills to English Language Learners ■strategies while reading. That said, the ultimate goal of reading instruction
is not to teach individual reading strategies but rather to develop strategic
readers.
All students are different; hence, there is no single method or combination of
methods that can teach all students to read successfully. It is best if teachers havea knowledge of different methods for teaching reading and that they are aware of
the learning styles and preferences of their learners, so they can create the appropriate balance of methods. As these will allow students to enjoy (or at least feel
comfortable with) reading in a foreign language, and to read unfamiliar, different
texts without help, at appropriate speed, silently and with enough understanding.

Possible Strategies for Reading
Reading strategies are one of the most important elements for comprehensionof the texts, and these strategies are used to help learners focus on reading andto do more than just read the words on a piece of paper. Scrivener (2005, pp.
184–187) suggests a possible top-down route map for a reading lesson, startingwith a broad background and overview tasks and moving toward the smaller
more detail-focused and language-focused issues.
Pretext: Introduction and lead-in, e.g., get the learner interested in the topic,
initial discussion of key themes, make an explicit link between the
topic of the text and students` own lives and experiences, focus on
important language that will occur in the text.
First task (prereading): e.g., predict from some extracts (an illustration,
key words, headlines, etc.), read questions about the text; students
compose their own questions.
Text:

Tasks to focus on fast reading for gist (skimming): e.g., check text
against predictions made beforehand, guess the title from a choiceof three options, put events (or illustrations) in the correct order.
Tasks to focus on fast reading for specific details (scanning); e.g., find297

single items of information in the text.
Tasks to focus on meaning (general points): e.g., answer questions
about meaning, make use of information in the text to do something(make a sketch, fill out a form, find out which picture is being
described, etc.), discuss issues, summarize arguments, and compare
viewpoints.
Tasks to focus on meaning (finer points, more intensive comprehensive understanding).
Tasks to focus on individual language items: e.g., vocabulary or grammar exercises, use of dictionaries, infer meaning of words fromcontext.
Posttext: Follow-on task: e.g., role-play, debate, writing task (e.g., write a letterin response), personalization (e.g., “Have you ever had an experience like this?”).
Closing: e.g., draw the lesson to a conclusion, tie up loose ends, andreview what has been studied and what has been learned.
Possible strategies for the remaining two tasks, i.e., multiple matching andgapped text need to be reflected upon.
Part one of multiple matching includes a one page set of questions either continuous text, a group of short texts or a text divided into sections. In part two,learners have to scan a two-page text: one continuous text or a group of shorter
texts or text sections.
Possible ideas for teaching multiple matching are as follows:• ‌Students write questions on a text for their partner, then swap text and Q&A(question and answer)•

Students provide answers within a time limit in pairs/teams•‌Students skim read the whole text, ignoring the questions, then, summarize
the main points in pairs• ‌Students underline what they consider to be the most important information
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Teaching Reading Skills to English Language Learners ■in the questions•‌Students circle all the words they do not know and ignore them, then see ifthey can do the task without those words• Students see the questions only and have to anticipate what will be in the text
The kinds of texts that are likely to be most suitable for gapped text tasks arethose with a strong development of ideas and/or texts with a sequence of events.
The line of development is always clear in the base text, e.g., key information
always appears first in the base text. It should be possible to skim-read thebase text and gain an overall picture of the text. It is important for the student
to understand the development and organization of the text as this will avoid“careless” mismatches of extracts that focus on events in the text.
Possible ideas for teaching gapped texts are as follow:•‌Cut up texts, put students into groups; each student receives a piece of paperwith a paragraph. Students describe each paragraph and then the grouparrange the paragraphs in order•‌Students predict the missing content of a gapped text without seeing themissing paragraphs• Students read the first paragraph of a text and predict what follows• Students underline reference words and time markers• Students scan text for general points before the task
• Students distinguish between “actions” and “commentary”• Students spot paragraphs that do not fit• Students decide how texts can be gapped
Learners need to learn to recognize and use text structure signaling devices
and discourse organization to improve their text comprehension. Text structure
signaling involves the use of text signals that connect sentences and parts ofsentences together. They “contain structural elements that help guide students299

through their reading” (Akhand, Malayeri & Samad, 2011, p.368). These signals
include pronouns, definite articles, repetition of words and synonyms, words thathighlight informational organization (e.g. first, second, third, however, on theother hand, in contrast), and transition words, phrases, and sentences.
Discourse organization broadly refers to larger units of text, how they areorganized and how they can be recognized. Good readers are able to recognize
the obvious signaling narrative organization (such as story structure) as well
as argumentative for-and-against organization. Boje (2019, p.339) point out“discourse analysis, by contrast, is generally defined as “texts” that are written,
spoken or are multimedia texts television and Internet.” All of these textual
features of discourse contribute to comprehension, particularly with more difficult texts. Reading comprehension is a complex process that involves manydifferent variables and factors.

Conclusion
This paper highlights that reading is an interactive process that involves linguisticknowledge, such as sound or symbol correspondences, grammatical and realworld knowledge.
Reading is primarily about comprehension and it is one of the most importantskills for students to develop and that requires the orchestration of many different skills and abilities. Therefore, the most effective reading program would becomposed of instruction in the critical skills and consistent practice in different
kinds of reading. In developing reading strategies, there is no single method thatsuits all learners and teachers should be wary of the “one size fits all” approachand strategy. Teachers have to effectively and systematically alter various
methods that will benefit their learners the most. As the students become better
readers, they will determine what they read, why they read, and how they read.

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