名古屋外国語大学論集第2号

2018年2月

ArticleThe Creative Nonfiction Genre andSome Connections to ELT Theory
Allan GOODWIN

Introduction
Motivation is one of the main determinants of success in second or foreign
language learning (Dornyei, 1994, p.273) and intrinsic motivation is developed
when students are interested in the subject for personal satisfaction. During thetwo years I was a learning advisor at a university self-access center, I had thechance to see what Japanese university-level English language learners (bothmajors of English and majors of non-language courses) would choose to readwhen they were allowed to make a choice amongst many different kinds ofgraded readers. One of the benefits of working as a language advisor is that therelationship with the students is not as formal as it is with people that students
see as a “teacher”. The English level of these learners varied greatly, but nonfiction stories (not newspaper articles) were far more popular than fiction. Graded
readers of true events written in a narrative style were consistently read by many
students.
This article is situated in the genre approach to language teaching, which“aims to make the language of learning visible and accessible to all students”(Derewianka, 2015, p.6) and it does this in a three-stage process: deconstruction161

of the genre (the teacher draws students’ attention to relevant features), joint
construction (students and teachers collaboratively write a text) and independent
construction (students independently write a text) (Derewianka, 2015, pp.6–7).
This article began by investigating materials that native speakers use to autonomously learn to write a particular genre, with a view of creating pedagogicallyappropriate materials for university English language teachers and learners to use
to better understand the creative nonfiction genre. The reason for this is simple,
students seem to be interested in true stories written in a narrative style and sothey may in turn be interested in how to write these stories, or in attempting
to write in the genre for themselves. All language teachers are to some extent
influenced by their own experiences in language learning, and I was always
most interested in creatively using the target language to create stories and skits.
The term “genre” in applied linguistics is somewhat different than the termin communications, and in applied linguistics, according to Hyland, examplesof “genre” include narratives, recounts, arguments, and expositions. These aresometimes referred to as “elementary genres”. Genres such as “creative nonfiction” in applied linguistics are sometimes referred to as macro genres (Hyland,
2007, p.153). My intent with this article is to introduce a readership made up of
language teachers to the macro genre of creative nonfiction writing. I will try
to show parallels between this genre and ELT as well as its relevance to ELT.
In order to do this, this article is divided into several parts: Creative Nonfiction
Described and Why is it Useful for Language Teaching; Parallels with Creative
Writing and Differences with other Nonfiction Writing; Types of Creative
Nonfiction and Application to ELT; and Structuring Creative Nonfiction.
Creative nonfiction writing has parallels with sociolinguistics, interculturalcommunication, and discourse analysis in varying forms, as well as study abroad.
It can act as a go-between academic essay writing and creative writing in thatmasters degrees in creative writing have students commonly choose a specialization from poetry, fiction writing and creative nonfiction. Creative nonfiction
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The Creative Nonfiction Genre and Some Connections to ELT Theory ■could also be used as a springboard to teaching learners communications areas
such as journalism, public relations (a part of which is speech writing), andadvertising. Doing this would broaden the world of English reading and writing
for the student by making English about more than academic essays and required
readings. The next section will describe the creative nonfiction genre in generalterms.

Creative Nonfiction Described and Why is it Useful for Language
Teaching
One way to approach genre in the writing language classroom is to investigate how a particular genre is learned by native speakers. Researching articles,
blogs, videos and especially books by working professionals in the field is usefulin this, because it allows English Language Teachers to enter the communityof practice of writers of the genre. Teachers with a good grasp of how thematerial is presented to native speakers in the lingua-culture, especially thosewith backgrounds in both communications writing and TESOL, are in a good
position to create pedagogically appropriate materials for their learners, indeed
this seems to have been done for some English Language Teaching textbooks, agood example of which may be the Speaking of Speech series.
Creative Nonfiction is “Real stories, well told” (the slogan for Creative
Nonfiction, a magazine for the genre). The equivalent in television may be a biography, or a documentary, but is just as likely to be like reality-styled Discovery
Channel programs (such as the character-driven show about reinventing oldcars in a hot-rod style, Fast n’ Loud). It could also be any movie that is listed
as “based on a true story”, although some may balk at that, because ‘based on’suggests that there are aspects that were made up.
Describing creative nonfiction, Lee Gutkind, a highly influential English
professor in creative nonfiction who started the magazine, Creative Nonfiction,
writes in You Can’t Make This Stuff Up The Complete Guide to Writing Creative
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Nonfiction From Memoir to Literary Journalism and Everything In Between, that
The words “creative” and “nonfiction” describe the form. The word“creative” refers to the use of literary craft, the techniques fiction writers,
playwrights, and poets employ to present nonfiction- factually accurate
prose about real people and events- in a compelling, vivid, dramatic manner. The goal is to make nonfiction stories read like fiction so that yourreaders are as enthralled by fact as they are by fantasy. But the stories aretrue. (Gutkind, 2012, p.6)
Others view it slightly differently. University of Texas at El Paso creative
writing professor Lex Williford describes creative nonfiction in a series of
youtube videos, Advanced Creative Nonfiction. For him, creative nonfiction
is an “artful blend of what happened and how it felt” (Williford, Advanced
Creative Nonfiction 1). He goes on to describe creative nonfiction as a blend ofwhat happened with how it felt; factual truth with emotional and psychologicaltruth and objective (objective, measurable, verifiable, The Social Sciences) withsubjective (qualitative, intuitive, empathetic, imaginative, The Arts) (Williford,
Advanced Creative Nonfiction 1). He says that creative nonfiction is a blend offactual truth, “real” memory and “invented” memory (quotation marks from apresentation slide in video) and goes on to say that our long-term memory is often
filled with exaggeration, but when we remember things they seem just as vivid
as if they happened a moment ago. He says that our memories change as we try
to make sense of them (Williford, Advanced Creative Nonfiction 1). For him,
the big question is, “where is the line between creating details to make greater
vividness or verisimilitude, inventing, changing or combining characters fordramatic effect and affecting a completely false persona?” (Williford, Advanced
Creative Nonfiction 2).
For language teachers and learners, creative nonfiction can serve as a bridge
between the types of readings students are often exposed to and literature.
Students are often exposed to newspaper stories and short magazine articles
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The Creative Nonfiction Genre and Some Connections to ELT Theory ■as well as readings that were made specifically for the language learner. These
last were usually written in the same style as the funnel shaped essay taught inacademic writing classes. Students are much less likely to read literature (fictional stories and poems) in classes. Like in creative writing classes for English
L1 students, students could learn about narrative arc and how to structure astory. Undergraduate creative writing study helps literature students understandfiction (especially short stories) by making them look at the writer’s point ofview. Students ask themselves what the writer is trying to accomplish, whether
it is successful, and why it is (or is not) successful. This is similar to what
English L2 students do in their academic essay writing class. Creative nonfiction
classes do the same. Students need to think of events as a story, and they needto concentrate on telling that story to a reader who may not be familiar with thelives of Japanese high school or university students. For many of our language
learners, it could be difficult to fabricate stories from scratch. This is possibly
part of why English language classes in Japan through to university level rely
heavily on a kind of student output which is in response to specific questions
and discussing opinions on given topics, usually after some sort of input. That
teaching often takes this approach can be held up as a reason against creative
writing in language classrooms, but creative nonfiction could be a way to bridgefrom student output about their own lives to narrative forms of writing.
Language classes often ask students to discuss their experiences and opinions. In an essay titled The “New” Literature, in a book of essays on Creative
Nonfiction Writing, Writing Creative Nonfiction Instruction and Insights fromthe Teachers of the Associated Writing Programs, Carolyn Forché interviews
Ryszard Kapuściński, a Polish “reporter, journalist, traveler, photographer, poetand writer [who was] widely considered for the Nobel Prize in Literature during
his lifetime” (Wikipedia article Ryszard Kapuściński) who tells Carolyn Forché,The traditional trick of literature is to obscure the writer, to express thestory through a fabricated narrator describing a fabricated reality. But
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for me, what I have to say is validated by the fact that I was there, that I
witnessed the event.
This type of writing may be easier for our students because they are accustomed
to talking about their experiences, and many of them have been repeatedly asked
questions such as what they did the day before or during their spring break,golden week, or summer or winter vacation as part of classroom activities.
Teaching creative nonfiction requires that students think in terms of scene,
and also of characters but of events that are based on real life. The next section
concerns similarities between creative writing and creative nonfiction writing.

Parallels with Creative Writing and Differences with Other Nonfiction
Writing
One aspect of creative nonfiction that separates it from other nonfiction
writing, but parallels other narrative writing, is the scene. Lee Gutkind writes,“The scene is the foundation and the anchoring element of creative nonfiction”(Gutkind, 2012, p.93). Gutkind writes that people have the “propensity to see orinterpret all aspects of life as story” (Gutkind, 2012, p.92) and goes on to show
three conclusions of research by Dan P. McAdams, professor of psychology. The
first of which is that “People remember facts longer and more completely when
they are part of a story” (Gutkind, 2012, p.92). Gutkind goes on to say, “[t]his
is especially significant for the creative nonfiction writer, whose objective is tocommunicate information in the most compelling and memorable way possible”(Gutkind, 2012, p.92). McAdams’ second conclusion is “People are persuaded
more quickly and effectively when information and ideas are presented in story
form. Remember, creative nonfiction is not necessarily balanced and objective; most creative nonfiction writers have an agenda” (Gutkind, 2012, p.92).
McAdams’ third conclusion is “When asked to related their life stories, people
usually isolate and recreate selected events, like ‘the day I failed chemistry inhigh school’ or ‘the year of my cancer scare’ or ‘my parents’ struggle over assets
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The Creative Nonfiction Genre and Some Connections to ELT Theory ■during their divorce,’ and the like” (Gutkind, 2012, p.92). All of this is relevant
not just to creative nonfiction, but also to creative writing in the classroom itself.
As Williford says in Advanced Creative Nonfiction 3, “All good fiction, creative
nonfiction, and drama are ultimately explorations of motive- why human beings
might do the things that they do” (Williford, Advanced Creative Nonfiction 3).
This is relevant to English language learners in that the learning of a language
also requires the learning of a culture. Especially in overseas study abroad trips,
students are often asked to think about why people from the target language
culture may do things that the students see. Studying creative nonfiction stories
can teach students things about the target culture as well as giving them practiceat reading the language itself through realia, while reading a genre designed to
be interesting to native speakers in the target language. The next section deals
with the two main types of creative nonfiction and how they may be useful toan English language program.

Types of Creative Nonfiction and Application to ELT
Gutkind asserts that there are two basic approaches to creative nonfiction:1) the memoir or personal essay (the difference between them being the length)and 2) immersion nonfiction (a writer immerses him/herself in the subjectarea), (Gutkind, 2012, p.xviii). He juxtaposes a memoir and an autobiography
by writing that an autobiography is “about your entire life, more or less fromthe beginning up to the present day”, whereas a memoir is “autobiographicalbut focuses on one aspect of one period or one incident in your life” (Gutkind,
2012, p.58). He goes on to say that a “‘memoir’ usually refers to a book. A
short piece, standing alone, is usually referred to as a personal essay” (Gutkind,
2012, p.59). He writes, “The power of the memoir is in its concentration, thenarrowness of its scope, and the intensity and clarity of its revelations” (Gutkind,
2012, p.59). Gutkind points out that there are risks involved with the personal
essay or memoir. The fact that it is personal could mean that “people will not167take you seriously, will contend that you are just trying to attract attention to
yourself, or that you are lonely and wallowing in self-pity” (Gutkind, 2012,p.59). In opposition to this personal writing is public writing, which is where
immersion technique is involved. Gutkind describes this by saying, “the public
side of creative nonfiction is mostly somebody else’s story; anybody, potentially,owns it, anybody who wants to go to the time and trouble to write about it”(Gutkind, 2012, p.61).
English language learners could be made to make use of both of these kindsof writing in their studies. The shorter, personal essays could be done within aclass or as a unit within a class in which instructors have learners talk about theirpast experiences. They could be very simple assignments such as, “Describe amemorable event from your club activity in high school. Set up the scene, thecharacters, and have a beginning, a middle and an end. Imagine your reader tobe a university student in America / Canada / The UK who knows nothing about
Japan. Try to give that reader information about Japanese school life”. Writing
can be scaffolded by learners first writing about what their club activity was, thenwriting a description of a close friend they had in that club. Following that, they
think about a scene in which the two of them did something, or when something
happened to them. Finally, they think of some the information that unfamiliar
readers would need in order to understand the scene as it would happen in Japan.
The more public type of writing that Gutkind suggests is often done throughimmersion setting could be set up as part of a study-abroad program. Jane
Jackson, a professor at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, has written two
books on study abroad, Language, Identity and Study Abroad in 2008, andIntercultural Journeys From Study to Residence Abroad in 2010. In both of theseworks, study abroad program participants write thick description of their lives
overseas. An example of this thick description isLast night, I made pizza with my host mother. This makes me think ofmother-daughter relation. Really nice experience… I’m getting along
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The Creative Nonfiction Genre and Some Connections to ELT Theory ■with my host family I’d say that we both enjoy to talk to each other. I canconverse with them naturally. I spent most of my evening with them. We
had dinner together, watch TV and talk. I watch my host embroidering
and walk the dog with them. It’s getting easier to communicate with themand I’m less tense so I can joke with them. (diary, beginning of fourthweek) (Jackson, 2008, p.94)
The English level is high. However, if the learner had learned about crafting anarrative rather than reporting occurrences, it is possible that she would have
had a different, possibly richer, experience in her homestay. Certainly, more
could be done with this type of writing after the sojourn, in-class, or students
could use their journals as notes and be taught how to turn them into stories.
Professor Jackson describes the narratives of the participants as “cases” (Jackson,
2008, p.69). She describes one of the purposes of her book by stating, “To better
illustrate the connections between language, culture, identity and context, andnot lose sight of the personal dimension, I decided to focus on the journeys ofseveral participants” (Jackson, 2008, p.69). Case studies are common in qualitative research in language teaching, especially language teaching literature thatemphasizes sociocultural theory. Teaching language learners to look at events as
scenes, and think of how to describe them puts the onus on these learners to think
deeply about occurrences and the people they interact with, rather than putting
the onus on a researcher / instructor to translate what happened for the student.
The technique of immersion has many parallels to study abroad literature.
Gutkind describes immersion as a process in whichwriters can tailor a public story (a larger story) in a way that allows themto own it- to make it their story. A faithful immersion will ultimately
yield intimacy and the deeper the writers immerse themselves, the moretargeted, all encompassing, and intimate the immersion will become.
Immersion takes courage, commitment, and a great deal of time andconcentration. Just like the memoir, the idea of immersion is not new169

writers and storytellers have been immersing themselves in the lives ofother people and in foreign situations for millennia. It’s only relatively
recently that people have been paying attention to the methods writers
use to enhance their work and engage their readers. (Gutkind, 2012, p.71)
Although the tone is different, there is similarity in content with Jane Jackson’swork. In a section she titled, “Living the ethnographic life”,
Sojourners…may investigate a cultural scene of their choice in thehost environment (e.g. engage in participant observation, audiotape
ethnographic conversations/interviews, draw sketches of the scene, takephotographs, keep detailed field notes). By developing a “thick, richdescription” of the cultural scene and facilitating sustained conversation
with “informants” from the host culture, they can become more involvedin their new environment, and, simultaneously, enhance their culturallearning and social skills. (Jackson, 2010, p.208)
She goes on to quote Roberts et al. from the 2001 book Language Learners as
Ethnographers,
Language learners as ethnographers are inevitably engaged with theotherness of their new environment not just as an opportunity to improve
linguistic competence and their ability to produce appropriate utterances, but as a whole social being who are developing, defining, andbeing defined in terms of their interactions with other social beings.
As ethnographers and intercultural speakers, they negotiate a particular
relationship with those around them, a relationship traditionally describedas participant observation, although this fails to capture the complexityof the reflexive effect on the linguist-ethnographer. (Roberts et al. 2001,
p.237 in Jackson, 2010, p.208)
Gutkind’s, “A faithful immersion will ultimately yield intimacy and the deeper
the writers immerse themselves, the more targeted, all encompassing, and intimate the immersion will become” (Gutkind, 2012, p.71) can be looked at as a
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The Creative Nonfiction Genre and Some Connections to ELT Theory ■way of describing the writers in an immersion setting as becoming more a partof the culture in which they have immersed themselves, which the quotationfrom Jackson shows with
By developing a “thick, rich description” of the cultural scene andfacilitating sustained conversation with “informants” from the hostculture, they can become more involved in their new environment, and,simultaneously, enhance their cultural learning and social skills (Jackson,
2010, p.208)
and is suggested in the Roberts et al. quotation with “although this fails to capture
the complexity of the reflexive effect on the linguist-ethnographer” (Roberts etal. 2001, p.237 in Jackson, 2010, p.208). The following section will detail how
creative nonfiction is structured, showing an example from a commerciallyavailable story, and an example of how this writer introduces the topic to alanguage class.

Structuring Creative Nonfiction
Describing how to structure creative nonfiction, Lee Gutkind writes, and also
shows in a youtube video titled The Structure of Creative Nonfiction, that writers
think in terms of two kinds of blocks- scene blocks give little stories that “drawreaders in and get them involved”, and information blocks, in which the writer“can provide any information you want or need to tell them. But you don’t wantto provide too much information all at once because you’ll bore them or they’ll
lose their thread of the story” (Gutkind, 2012, p.138). Further, writers can imbed
information into a scene (Gutkind, 2012, p.139).
There are many examples that can be used to illustrate this technique. In
Warren St. John’s Outcasts United, a book about refugees to a small town inthe southern United States, the soccer team that refugee children play in and thelady who coaches them, the author uses this technique in his writing repeatedly.
This book would be described as an immersion approach by Gutkind, and the171writer frequently uses first person, entering the story. In Chapter Eight, “They’rein America Now- Not Africa”, St. John begins with what Gutkind would referto as a scene block. The first paragraph describes a Nigerian immigrant being
pulled over while driving to a local pharmacy. The second paragraph describes
the police officer who pulled the Nigerian over as having had a checkered past.
This sets tension and draws the reader in. St. John then moves to what Gutkind
would refer to as an information block, and this is visually apparent on the pageby a centimetre of white space followed by a paragraph that is not indented but
the first three words are in all capital letters. For the next five paragraphs, St. John
describes the Nigerian’s background- he is not a refugee but an immigrant who
has been living in the United States for fifteen years, ending with a quotation thatbrings the reader back to the present story scene from the Nigerian, “‘You can’t
have dark skin and a new car in Clarkston without harassment’” (St. John, 2009,p.83). Without repeating the use of the white space on the page and all capitalletters, St. John goes back to a scene block, this time beginning with the police
officer approaching the Nigerian’s car in the dark (St. John, 2009, p.83). The
narrative stance moves into and out of the scene like a zoom lens- using reported
speech in the first and last of seven paragraphs of scene to pull the narrator back.
In the middle five paragraphs, St. John describes in vivid detail and dialogue
the police officer losing his temper and physically attacking the Nigerian (St.
John, 2009, pp.83–84). If learners were taught to analyse the structure of piecesof writing in this way, it could become easier for them to engage with this typeof writing. A similar type of analysis is often used to help learners understandacademic essays.
This type of structuring can be shown to students to introduce the genre tothem. In my own writing and presentation classes, I have introduced the creative
nonfiction genre by writing the heading, “Creative Writing” and putting “stories(fiction)” and “poetry” under it. On the other side of the board I put the heading,“Nonfiction Writing” and putting “journalism” and “biographies” under it. In
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The Creative Nonfiction Genre and Some Connections to ELT Theory ■the middle of the board, I have the heading, “Creative Nonfiction” and students
discuss what it could possibly mean. After eliciting possible examples anddescriptions of what creative nonfiction may be, I show students scene blocks
and information blocks on the board, in different colors. Using a list of aspectsof Japanese culture, the students spend a few minutes over several classes towrite a story about someone they know well that illustrates one of these Japanesecultural traits, which they can share with others in the class. Students write notes
about the story on one side of a page, the scene side. On the other side of thepage, they write notes describing the trait as if to an audience unfamiliar withJapan, the information side. Scaffolding the writing in this way makes it easierfor students to see how to alternate between scene and information blocks whenwriting their final draft. Teachers can have students put transitions between theblocks in later. To support their learning of this genre, students can read creative
nonfiction stories, first with information and scene blocks marked in some way,for example with italics. Following, students can look at a piece of writing anddiscuss amongst themselves where the scene and information blocks fall. This
support is useful because some students seem to have difficulty making the scene
blocks (the story) the most important aspect of their creative nonfiction.

Conclusion
Creative nonfiction has elements which seem to have parallels in ELT. This
article is not arguing that creative nonfiction writing should be taught insteadof traditional academic writing in university language programs in Japan orelsewhere, but that creative nonfiction writing could be taught in addition to
traditional academic writing material, because it can be relevant to things many
students have done in the past (answering questions about daily events), andcould be used to help students to do things they may do in the future (study
abroad). Creative nonfiction writing could also act as a springboard to manyother kinds of writing. It could serve as a bridge from academic to narrative173

writing, and from there it would be a short hop to fictional narrative. Teachers
could spring off from creative nonfiction to journalism, public relations andadvertising.
As foreign language teachers, we help students learn how to communicate
in a different lingua-culture and creative nonfiction has become one of the mostpopular genres. From my own informal survey of Japanese university student
interests in a self-access center, reading nonfictional narratives is also far more
popular than reading fictional narratives. Having learners differentiate between
scene blocks and information blocks within creative nonfiction pieces could
provide them with in-depth analysis of the structure of this kind of writing, which
could be looked at as similar to the types of things that language learners do inacademic essay writing classes. At the same time, they could be reading material
that was designed to draw the reader’s interest through its prose style – this could
be motivating to many students and that could lead to them reading in English
for their own enjoyment.

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