Research Reports of National Institute of Technology, Ichinoseki College, No. 54, pp. 1-7, 2019

How Travel to Egypt Influenced Lady Gregory’s Nationalistic Writing
Rie SHIMOKAWA(Received 31 October, 2019)
By focusing on the travel to Egypt, how it influenced Lady Gregory’s writing endeavors as a Celtic Revival writer. She comparedcircumstances of Egypt with Ireland and realized that as a colonial country, Ireland should gain its national identity to be
independent from England. Her experience comparing Egypt and Ireland has not mentioned in earlier studies, so this paper will
promote further understanding on Lady Gregory.
Introduction

Background of Lady Gregory

Lady Isabella Augusta Gregory (1852–1934) is wellIsabella Augusta Persse was born in 1854 on a large

known as one of first Celtic Revival writers. Here, I

estate in Roxborough, County Galway. She was afocus on how traveling to Egypt in 1882 affected Lady

typical upper-class Anglo-Irish girl educated by aAugusta Gregory’s writing. Her earliest work is Arabi

governess at home. When she was a child, her nurse,and His Household (1882), which resulted from her

Mary Sheridan, who could speak both Irish andexperience in Egypt in the late nineteenth century. At

English, taught her about Irish folktales and thethe beginning of the story, she mentioned thattraditional Irish way of life.※1) Although Sheridan has

Egyptian women are a symbol of the colonized. I

not been mentioned in prior papers, it is clear that she

therefore investigate how she thought of her own

had a strong effect on Lady Gregory’s interest in

position and background as an Anglo-Irish woman.

traditional Irish folklore and language, both of which

I also discuss the political situation in Egypt in the

became integral to the Celtic Revival.

late nineteenth century, where Lady Gregory met Dr.

In 1881, at the age of 27 years, Lady Gregory marriedArabi Pasha and Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, both of whom

the ex-Governor of Ceylon, who at the time was 35

influenced her writing. Furthermore, I examine her

years her senior, Sir William Gregory (1817–1892), thehusband, Sir William Gregory, who suggested that she

owner of Coole Park, a large estate in Galway. They

should consider not only colonized people in Egypt, but

remained married until Sir Gregory’s passing 12 years

also her own tenants in Ireland. As a result, Lady

later. They mainly lived in London, but returned to

Gregory, an Anglo-Irish descendant, found many

Ireland during summer to check on their tenants. In

similarities between the colonial situations in Egypt

addition, they traveled to not only European countries

and Ireland. Then, after Sir Gregory’s death, shesuch as Belgium, Italy, and Spain, but also colonial

traveled throughout the western part of Ireland in

Oriental countries such as Egypt, North Africa, andsearch of Irish traditions. Here, I also examine how

the Mediterranean colonies. Generally, travel abroad

she superimposed the Egyptian nationalisticchanged Lady Gregory’s perspective in regard to her

experience with the situation in Ireland, paving thetenants, and specifically, travel to Egypt represented away for the emergence of the Celtic Revival. This

major turning point in expanding her opinions ofarticle therefore aims to allow a deeper understanding

colonies.

to the works of Lady Gregory’s by taking theperspective that her journey to Egypt represented a

Travel to Egypt

turning point that opened her eyes to the need to

In 1881, the couple traveled to Egypt, a country thatreclaim Irish identity

was attempting to maintain its independence from not
only the European countries, but also the Ottoman※1)

See Hill, pp. 19–21.

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Shimokawa－How Travel to Egypt Influenced Lady Gregory’s Nationalistic Writing

Empire. This situation in Egypt caused Lady Gregory

therefore believed that Egypt needed to compromise into sympathize with the colonized country. It is easy toorder to maintain both political and financial balancefind an idea for her to overwrap the political situation

with not only the Occident, but also the Ottomanof Egypt on Ireland. As Sir Gregory was the governor

Empire. This implies that the West gradually tried toof Ceylon, he had a number of connections among thegain power by constructing a canal that would serve as

British colonizers. By traveling to Egypt, Sir and Ladya major transport hub with the East. In addition,

Gregory had the chance to become acquainted with

Egypt was stuck between two powers: the West andpoliticians in various colonies. One of their Egyptian

the Ottoman Empire. This situation required care toacquaintances who Lady Gregory took an interest in

maintain the balance.

was Dr. Arabi Pasha※2). Her encounter with Dr. Pasha

had a strong impact. She enjoyed talking with him andLady Gregory and Arabi Pasha

loved his character, so she wrote a story that appeared

Lady Gregory described Dr. Pasha as a very gentle

in The Times in 1882, entitled Arabi and His

person, as demonstrated in the following passage:

Household.※3)Lady Gregory was invited to Pasha’s home on several

In appearance, Arabi is a tall, strongly built

occasions. She visited twice with her translator Anneman; his face is grave, almost stern, but his

Blunt, the wife of Wilfrid Scawen Blunt (1840–1922),

smile is very pleasant. …As a matter of fact, I

the British Orientalist. Dr. Pasha was the Minister ofbelieve him to be exceedingly gentle and

War in Egypt. He feared Britain, which had great

humane. (Gregory, Arabi and His Household※6),

power in Egypt and exploited Egypt in various ways,

p. 4)

especially its maritime traffic. He had come to realizethat Egypt had to maintain a good relationship with

Although she belonged to the landlord class in Ireland

powerful countries to ensure its political independence

and had many tenants, it seems that Lady Gregory

and avoid being colonized. From 1881 to the summer toharbored no prejudice toward Dr. Pasha; rather, she

1882, a riot broke out directed at the British Army inheld many discussions and sympathized with him,

Alexandria, a city in northern Egypt; this was calledplacing substantial attention on his “exotic”

the Revolt of Arabi as he was the Minister of War atbackground.※7) In spite of her Occidental position, shethat time.※4) As mentioned above, Egypt was underattempted to understand and treat him as fair as anypressure from two colonizers: European countries such

Westerner.

as Britain and France, and the Ottoman Empire.

As a result, she was very welcomed by his family. In

Although Dr. Pasha was involved this revolt, he was

one story, she sympathized with Dr. Pasha’s wife andnot punished and still held the position as of Ministermother, who were lamenting his misfortunes inof War when he met the Gregorys.

In addition, as

Egyptian politics and insisting that not only his, but

the construction of the Suez Canal was completed inalso his family’s social status had become less stable

1864, he knew Egypt could not ignore the politicalafter the Revolt.

※5)

power of European countries because it had incurredmassive debt from both Britain and France, who had

I said, “Are you not proud now your son is a

paid almost half of the cost of construction. He

Pasha?” “No,” she said, “we were happier in the※2)

See Gregory, Seventy Years, p. 35.

regarding the Arabi Revolt.

※3)

See Kohfeldt, p. 63. Lady Gregory asked Sir Gregory※5)

After the series, he was captured by the British Army

whether she could publish the story under her real name.

and sent to Ceylon in exile from 1882 to 1901.

It is surprising that he had no objection and actually※6)thought that the story would motive people to learn morehereafter abbreviated as Arabi.

about the harsh situation in Egypt. Blunt had been against※7)

her story at first, but eventually agreed to publish it.

from the British Orientalist, Blunt, who is discussed in※4)greater detail later in the article.

See Broadley, pp. 1–55. Broadley documented a series-2-

Quotations from Arabi and His Household are
Lady Gregory’s positive ideas about the East came

Research Reports of National Institute of Technology, Ichinoseki College, No. 54

old days when we had him with us always andinferior and weak compared with the Occident.

feared nothing. ... I can do nothing but pray for

In Egypt, as the story describes, women were in a

him all the time. There are many who wish him

weaker position than men, with the relationshipevil, and they will try to destroy him.” (Gregory,

between the two consisting of subject and ruler. But inArabi, p. 11)

the quote above, the relationship was totally different
from the Occidental point of view, as for the Orientals,

The quotation above shows that both Dr. Pasha andthe West was the “object”. Egyptians are the subjects

the political situation in Egypt were unbalanced. Dr.

and Westerners, as foreigners, are the objects. This

Pasha’s mother was troubled by her son. In his early

idea is related to Edward Said’s Orientalism.

teens, Dr. Pasha enlisted in the army and quickly rosethrough the ranks, becoming lieutenant at the age of

For Orientalism was ultimately a political vision

17 years, major at 18, and lieutenant colonel at 20.

of reality whose structure promoted the

However, after the Revolt, the family received severe

difference between the familiar (Europe, thecriticism.

West, “us”) and the strange (the Orient, theOn the other hand, Dr. Pasha’s wife was afraid ofEast, “them”). This vision in a sense created andEgypt being invaded. Her opinion was particularly

then served the two worlds thus conceived.

Egyptian. She stated the following:

Orientals lived in their world, “we” lived in ours.
(Said, pp. 43–44, emphasis added)

They say the Christian Powers want to dosomething to my husband. I don’t understand it

Said criticizes the relationship between a Western-

at all. We can’t get on without the Christians, orcentered “us” and an Oriental “them”. Egyptians inthey without us. Why can’t we all live in peace

Gregory’s story, however, regard the West as “them”,

together? (Gregory, Arabi, p. 10, emphasis

and worry that they may look for a chance to take over

added)

leadership of the country. Therefore, when Dr. Pasha
resisted the British Army in 1881, he found that it was

She describes the Occidental powers as the “Christian

better to understand and compromise with, than toPowers” (Gregory, Arabi, p. 10). Dr. Pasha’s wife, thedeny and fight against, the Occident.

Egyptian, wanted to live cooperatively with the
Occident. Her idea was related to the words of her...he (Hassan, Dr. Pasha’s son) said he liked mehusband, who suggested the following:(Lady Gregory) but hated other ladies, andwould like to come and see me in England, but

All the slaves will leave as soon as they are

did not know how he could manage it, as his

freed, and European women will take theirpapa wanted the carriage every day. I advised

places, and they will seduce their masters, andhim to learn English, and his mother said she

their children will be stronger than ours, and wewould like to send him to one of the Christianshall be driven out of the country. ...I often thinkschools in Cairo... (Gregory, Arabi, p. 11, myof her, and of the poor wife, puzzled andsupplement)

troubled, “Why should the Christian Powers
want to harm my husband?” (Gregory, Arabi, p.

I showed him a picture of my little boy; he raised

12, emphasis added)

it to his lips and kissed it, hoping he would someday come to Egypt to be the friend of his
The quote above also implies the crisis of a potential

children. Perhaps I have not been a fair judge inWestern invasion. In this quotation, she says, “[a]ll thehis cause since then. (Gregory, Arabi, p. 11,

slaves will leave as soon as they are freed, andemphasis added)

European women will take their places” (Gregory,Arabi, p. 12), describing the Western invaders as

Dr. Pasha realized that Egypt needed to maintain awomen. This was a unique idea; in general, Orientals

good relationship with the West. Knowing a great deal

are often described as women, implying them to beabout foreign countries, he planned to send his son to-3-

Shimokawa－How Travel to Egypt Influenced Lady Gregory’s Nationalistic Writing

Christian school, believing that much could be learned

material interest. …she cannot destroy Islam orfrom Western art. Also, as the latter quote shows, hedissolve her own connection with her. Therefore,

hoped his children would become friends with Lady

in God’s name, let her take Islam by the hand

Gregory’s son, a Westerner. His comments imply thatand encourage her boldly in the path of virtue.

he felt equal to Westerners. He, as the Orient, did notThis is the only worthy course and the only wise

feel inferior to the Occident—this may indeed haveone, wiser and worthier, I venture to assert,

been suggested by Gregory in her story.

than a whole century of crusade. (Blunt, p. 42)

Ireland and Egypt

Blunt also worked as a diplomat for the British

Lady Gregory was upper-class Anglo-Irish woman

colonies; his background was very similar to that of Sirliving in Coole Park, County Galway. The Gregory

Gregory, and they felt sympathy toward each other’sfamily had a large estate with many tenants. Ladycolonies. Blunt was a poet and nationalist who traveled

Gregory is known to have communicated with heraround Eastern countries, whereas Sir Gregory was anurse Mary Sheridan, an Irish Catholic woman, butlandlord in Galway and the Governor of Ceylon. It wasapparently had not been interested in speaking to any

natural that Blunt’s ideas and experiences in the East

local Irish when she wrote Arabi and His Household.

influenced Lady Gregory’s interest in the colonies,

However, after her trip to Egypt, she seemed to pay

where locals are suppressed by the Occident.

much more attention to locals, not only in Egypt, but

Sir Gregory, who was positioned by the colonizer’s side

also in Ireland. Her first work was influenced by her

in Ceylon, was familiar with the locals. He tried tohusband and Blunt.

understand the character of the colony and govern it

Blunt is known as Lady Gregory’s lover.※8) Afterappropriately with compromise and in accordance withretiring from his work as a diplomat for India, helocal customs, as opposed to forcing the Western way oftraveled to the Middle East, North Africa, and Asia

administration. He wrote the following to his friends:

with his wife, Anne, the granddaughter of the poet
Lord Byron. He was passionate about Oriental

September 26, 1876 to Sir A. Henry Layard —countries and was an anti-colonialism activist who…With a companion, a wife, a sister, or even a

supported Dr. Pasha’s nationalistic movement. It wasvery intimate friend, I should prefer thetherefore natural for him to support Dr. Pasha’s revolt

government of Ceylon to anything that could beagainst Britain and the independence of the colonies

offered to me. It is such a comfort when you findfrom the British Empire. When he was in Cairo tothings going wrong to be able to set them rightwork with Dr. Pasha, he met with the Gregorys, whowith the strong hand, and it is such ahe fascinated greatly.

gratification to see great public works begun andfinished according to your own plans, and not

They (the British) did not suspect the immense

marred by vexatious interference. The people,

commercial selfishness which had led us,

moreover, are pleasant to govern; they are quick

collectively as a nation, to so many aggressions

witted and intellectual, and higher classeson the weak races of the world. (Blunt, p. 9, mysingularly well-bred and taking in their

supplement)

deportment. I think, too, there are indications,in a faint way, no doubt, of the quality of※8)

To England especially, as interested so largely ingratitude, in the existence of which, in the East,

the future of Islam through India, I addressed

I had long disbelieved. I am sure much may be

myself, urging that her policy should be a profit

done with them by kindness, courtesy, andby its decay for the extension of her own

respectful treatment. I have known some whom

They wrote many letters and poems (sonnets) to each

203–261). In addition, Sir Gregory took Lady Gregory toother. They also talked a lot about nationalism in colonial

European countries such as Belgium, Germany, and Italy

counties, including Ireland (Gregory, Seventy Years, pp.

to keep her away from Blunt (Kohfeldt, p. 62).

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Research Reports of National Institute of Technology, Ichinoseki College, No. 54

I would trust as implicitly as I wouldcolonialism. He agreed with Blunt and watched theEnglishmen, and I am as confident as one caninvasion of Egypt by the British Empire carefully.

ever be of human conduct, that if future rulers of

Based on Sir Gregory’s attitudes toward his tenants in

Ceylon will endeavor to induce the natives to

Galway and colonized subjects in the East, Ladytrust them and rely on them, much more of theGregory found it interesting that although locals in

administration of the country may be vested inboth Ireland and the British colonies were naïve, inthem. Weakness and moral and physical timidity

addition to having a nostalgic national identity, they

are their main faults, and, as you well know,

also supported both their own and the ruling countries’

cowardice is a difficult defect to cure. The way toeconomies through the provision of products.※9)deal with such a race is to give them confidence
and encouragement, to reward even

From Egyptian Women to the Celtic Revival

ostentatiously good conduct, fidelity, andIn Arabi and His Household, Lady Gregory focused onstrength, but to be down on offenders withwomen with families because these womenrelentless severity. I have pursued this course,

represented the core of the family, which was the core

and without egotism I can say that I believed noof the town, which was the core of the country. She

Governor ever before succeeded in inspiring suchdescribed households (family) in the Arabis. It implies

a universal trust in his motives. (Gregory, Sir

describing a family, especially women in a family

William, p. 264, emphasis added)

described as a small part of the society, but further
understanding of the country itself. In the story, she

Sir Gregory treated the Ceylonese as a naïve people

tried to regard a situation of Egypt, especially as a title

who needed a leader to learn the Western way ofmentioned, she wanted to focus on realities of women

rationality without violence. He knew that exploitingin there. The story appeared in the Times in 1882.

tenants could lead to a struggle between the rulers andBlunt pushed her to publish her writing to informthe ruled. He had held this idea since he was apeople about Egyptian life. Sir Gregory agreed because

member of the British House of Commons, where land

he also had the idea to support the nationalist

law was often discussed, and also in Galway, he where

movement against Western countries. As for Sir

had a huge estate with many tenants. He cared for andGregory, Lady Gregory and Blunt, the story is a goodfrequently held friendly conversations with his

media to show a reality in Egypt.※10)

tenants, with whom he considered to have good

As noted above, Sir Gregory passed away in 1892.

relationships. He often invited them to his house for

From the year before his death, Lady Gregory started

dinner and asked about their troubles not only into learn Gaelic from her gardener. Also as mentioned

business, but also in daily life. Sir Gregory wasabove, Mary Sheridan was one of first Irish friends ofregarded as a conservative because he disagreed with

Lady Gregory, and this situation was the firstthe land law stating that tenants could own their land

opportunity Lady Gregory had to learn about native

as property. However, in fact, as a landlord, he had

Irish culture. Although 10 years had been passed sincetreated his tenants fairly. In addition, when he was a

her trip to Egypt, in 1893, Lady Gregory decided tomember of the House of Commons (1842–1847), helearn Gaelic and travel to Inisheer of the Aran Islands

often reported on the realities of exploited peasants.

in Galway. After that, she frequently visited western

Thus, based on his own experiences in Ireland, he

Ireland to learn the language and folklore.

learned patience and how to compromise, which

Ireland has also been thought of as being more Orient

allowed him to have a good relationship with histhan Occident because it had been a colony of England

Ceylonese subjects.

for centuries. This means that Ireland is the closest

As the former governor of Ceylon, he witnessed thething to the Orient for the Occident. Leerssen points

Revolt of Arabi, which indicated a failure in terms of

how Ireland, owing to its historical marginalization,

※9)

161).

Leerssen mentions that there was a quasi-colonial※10)

relationship between Britain and Ireland (Leerseen, p.

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See Kohfeldt, p. 63.

Shimokawa－How Travel to Egypt Influenced Lady Gregory’s Nationalistic Writing

has a unique nationalism (in terms of the Orient, notAnnie Horniman, William and Frank Fay.※11) In 1899,

the Occident) as demonstrated by the existence of

she wrote A Book of Saints and Wonders and fromingrained reflexes, including the following:1909 to 1910, published the Kiltartanese series. In
these works, she mentioned the Irish way of life to(a) to concentrate mainly on Irish-English

identify with her native country. In this way, shedifferences or tensions and extrapolate fromgained a nationalistic point of view, and her writing

them to describe the Irish historical experience

career as a Celtic Revivalist began.

as “special” tout court, different from all the restof Europe;

Conclusion(b) to privilege as aboriginal and authentic thatIn the present work, how travel to Egypt affected thepart of Irish culture which is Gaelic and “folk”;

writing career of Lady Gregory was examined. In(c) to marginalize and disagreed, for the sake ofconsidering her writing background, Wilfrid Scawen

the clear-cut binary oppositions of political

Blunt and Sir William Gregory were mentioned. These

conflict, he cultural tradition and praxis of theindividuals had an accommodating view of the East

Protestant community in the North; andand were resistant to British colonialism. Lady(d) to invoke a bogeyman image of the “English”

Gregory was influenced by both men: Blunt gave her

presence in Irish history, and to apply

the chance to see the Eastern colonies, and Sir Gregory

straightforwardly and without any necessary

showed her how the colonizer should treat thenuance the name of “colony” to Ireland.

colonized as well as how a good relationship between(Leerssen, pp. 164–165)

the two could be maintained. In combining theseviews, she came to know the traditional local life, in

As Leerssen mentions, Ireland is in a marginal

which women had an essential role not only in theposition because of its historical and political reason tocolonies, but also in Ireland.

be in the Occident; it is the nearest colony (Orient) for

Her travel to Egypt and encounter with Blunt wereEngland and the European countries. Lady Gregory

turning points for Lady Gregory in terms of how sherealized that her homeland was positioned on theviewed her homeland. In addition, learning the Irish

Oriental side. Her idea that superimposing the Irish

language and culture and visiting the western part ofsituation on that of Egypt marked the emergence ofthe country contributed to her knowledge of old Irish

postcolonial thought. After traveling to Egypt (anfolklore. Her tales became a catalyst, evoking a unique

Oriental country) and comparing the situations

Celtic identity among the Irish people. Consequently,

between the Orient and Ireland, she keenly felt thatthe re-realized Irish identity became a catalyst to Irish

her homeland was inhabited by Oriental people who

nationalism. Therefore, her journey to Egypt was

had been marginalized and thrown away by England

indeed a milestone, for not only Lady Gregory herself,(and the Occident); therefore, she thought that she had

but also for the Irish as whole in the struggle to regain

to show Irish people how to regain their Irish identity

an Irish identity.

from the perspective of the Orientalists. She therefore
wrote many poems, plays, and stories with a Celtic

Works Cited

theme; these Celtic works had originally been made in

1) Broadley, A. M., How We Defended Arabi and His

Ireland, before England invaded. Celtic literature wasFriends: A Story of Egypt and the Egyptians,

exactly the same as the unique Irish culture, she

London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1884.
2) Blunt, Wilfrid Scawen, Secret History of the English

thought.

Occupation of Egypt – Being a Personal Narrative ofIn 1901, Lady Gregory founded the Irish Literary

Events, New York: Emereo Publishing, 2013.

Theatre with William Butler Yeats, Edward Martyn,John Millington Synge, George William Russel (AE),3) Gregory, Lady, Arabi and His Household, London:※11)

Theatre) followed in 1904.

The Irish Literary Theatre collapsed in 1901 and the

Irish National Theatre Society (famous for the Abbey-6-

Research Reports of National Institute of Technology, Ichinoseki College, No. 54

Kegan Paul and Trench & Co., 1882.
4) ＿, Seventy Years 1852–1922 Being theAutobiography of Lady Gregory, Colin Smythe (ed.),New York: MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1974.
5) Gregory, William Henry, and Lady Gregory, Sir

William Gregory, K. C. M. G., Formerly Member ofParliament and Sometime Governor of Ceylon: An
Autobiography, London: Mr. Murray’s, 1923.
6) Hill, Judith, Lady Gregory: An Irish Life, Cork: theCollins Press, 2011.
7) Kohfeldt, Mary Lou, Lady Gregory: The Woman

Behind the Irish Renaissance, New York: Atheneum,
1985.
8) Leerssen, Joep, “Irish Studies and Orientalism:
Ireland and the Orient,” C.C. Barfoot and Theo
D’haen (eds.), Oriental Prospects: Western

Literature and the Lure of the East, Amsterdam:
Rodopi, pp. 161–174.
9) Said, Edward, Orientalism, New York: Vintage,
1979.

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